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• Brian Everett

• Categories
• Psicoanálisis
• Carné de identidad
• Neurosis
• Conciencia de sí mismo
• Sigmund Freud

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

MY

desire to make a critical re-evaluation of

psycho-

analytical theories h a d its o r i g i n i n a dissatisfaction w i t h t h e r a p e u t i c results. I f o u n d t h a t almost every offered p r o b l e m s for w h i c h o u r accepted

patient

psychoanalyt-

i c a l k n o w l e d g e offered n o means o f s o l u t i o n , a n d w h i c h therefore r e m a i n e d unsolved. A s m o s t analysts p r o b a b l y d o , a t f i r s t I a t t r i b u t e d t h e r e s u l t i n g u n c e r t a i n t y to m y o w n lack of

experience,

l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r b l i n d spots. I r e m e m b e r pesteri n g m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d c o l l e a g u e s w i t h q u e s t i o n s s u c h as w h a t F r e u d o r t h e y u n d e r s t o o d b y "ego," w h y sadistic impulses were interrelated w i t h "anal l i b i d o , " and w h y so m a n y d i f f e r e n t t r e n d s w e r e r e g a r d e d as a n e x p r e s s i o n of latent homosexuality—without, however,

obtaining

answers t h a t seemed satisfactory. I h a d m y first a c t i v e d o u b t s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f psychoanalytical theories w h e n I read Freud's concept

of

f e m i n i n e psychology, doubts w h i c h were t h e n strengthe n e d b y h i s p o s t u l a t e o f t h e d e a t h i n s t i n c t . B u t i t was s e v e r a l years b e f o i e I s t a r t e d t o t h i n k t h r o u g h p s y c h o analytical theories i n a c r i t i c a l way. A s w i l l b e seen t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k , t h e system o f t h e o r i e s w h i c h F r e u d has g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d is so c o n s i s t e n t t h a t w h e n o n e is o n c e e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e m i t is d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e observations unbiased b y his way o f

8

INTRODUCTION

t h i n k i n g . I t is o n l y t h r o u g h r e c o g n i z i n g t h e

debatable

p r e m i s e s o n w h i c h t h i s system is b u i l t t h a t o n e

acquires

a c l e a r e r v i s i o n as t o t h e sources o f e r r o r c o n t a i n e d i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h e o r i e s . I n a l l s i n c e r i t y I m a y say t h a t I regard myself qualified to make tained

in

this

book,

because

I

the criticisms conconsistently

Freud's theories for a period of over The

resistance w h i c h m a n y

fifteen

applied

years.

p s y c h i a t r i s t s as w e l l

l a y m e n f e e l t o w a r d o r t h o d o x p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is d u e

as not

o n l y t o e m o t i o n a l sources, as is a s s u m e d , b u t also t o t h e debatable

character

refutation

o f psychoanalysis w h i c h

of many

r e s o r t t o is r e g r e t t a b l e the valid w i t h recognition

theories.

The

the d u b i t a b l e a n d thereby

of what

complete

these c r i t i c s

because i t leads t o

often

discarding prevents

psychoanalysis essentially

has

a to

offer. I f o u n d that the m o r e I took a c r i t i c a l stand tow a r d a series o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l

theories, the m o r e

realized the constructive value of Freud's findings

I

fundamental

a n d the m o r e paths o p e n e d u p f o r the u n d e r -

standing of psychological

problems.

T h u s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s b o o k is n o t t o s h o w is w r o n g w i t h psychoanalysis,

what

but, through eliminating

t h e d e b a t a b l e e l e m e n t s , t o e n a b l e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o dev e l o p to the h e i g h t of its p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . As a result of both

theoretical

considerations

and

practical

experi-

ence, I believe t h a t t h e range of p r o b l e m s w h i c h can be understood

is e n l a r g e d

considerably

i f we

cut

loose

f r o m certain historically determined theoretical premises a n d d i s c a r d t h e t h e o r i e s a r i s i n g o n t h a t basis. M y c o n v i c t i o n , e x p r e s s e d i n a n u t s h e l l , is t h a t psychoanalysis s h o u l d o u t g r o w t h e l i m i t a t i o n s set b y i t s b e i n g an i n s t i n c t i v i s t i c a n d a genetic

psychology.

As to

the

INTRODUCTION

9

l a t t e r , F r e u d t e n d s t o r e g a r d l a t e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s as a l m o s t direct repetitions of i n f a n t i l e drives or reactions; hence he expects later disturbances lying

to vanish

i n f a n t i l e e x p e r i e n c e s are

ognize

i f the

elucidated.

r e l i n q u i s h this one-sided emphasis

under-

When

we

o n genesis, w e

rec-

that the connection between

later

peculiarities

a n d e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n F r e u d assumes: t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as a n i s o l a t e d r e p e t i t i o n of

isolated

experiences; b u t the e n t i r e t y of i n f a n t i l e

experiences combines to f o r m a certain character

struc-

t u r e , a n d i t is t h i s s t r u c t u r e f r o m w h i c h l a t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s e m a n a t e . T h u s t h e analysis o f t h e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e moves i n t o the f o i e g r o u n d of a t t e n t i o n . As to the instinctivistic o r i e n t a t i o n of w h e n character

psychoanalysis:

t r e n d s are n o l o n g e r e x p l a i n e d as t h e

ultimate outcome

of instinctual drives, m o d i f i e d o n l y

by the e n v i r o n m e n t , the e n t i r e emphasis life c o n d i t i o n s m o l d i n g the character search anew for

creating

neurotic

conflicts;

thus

falls o n

the

a n d we have to

f o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors

responsible

disturbances

in

h u m a n relationships become the crucial factor i n the genesis o f n e u r o s e s . A p r e v a i l i n g l y s o c i o l o g i c a l

orienta-

t i o n t h e n takes t h e p l a c e o f a p r e v a i l i n g l y a n a t o m i c a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l one. W h e n the one-sided c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the pleasure

p r i n c i p l e , i m p l i c i t i n t h e l i b i d o t h e o r y , is

r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e s t r i v i n g f o r safety assumes m o r e w e i g h t and the role of anxiety i n engendering strivings t o w a r d safety a p p e a r s i n a n e w l i g h t . T h e r e l e v a n t f a c t o r i n t h e genesis o f n e u r o s e s is t h e n n e i t h e r t h e O e d i p u s

complex

n o r a n y k i n d o f i n f a n t i l e p l e a s u r e s t r i v i n g s b u t a l l those a d v e r s e i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h m a k e a c h i l d l e e l helpless a n d defenseless a n d w h i c h m a k e h i m c o n c e i v e t h e w o r l d as

INTRODUCTION p o t e n t i a l l y m e n a c i n g . Because o f h i s d r e a d o f p o t e n t i a l dangers

the

child

must

develop

certain

t r e n d s " p e r m i t t i n g h i m t o cope w i t h some measure

o f safety.

"neurotic

the w o r l d

with

Narcissistic, masochistic,

per-

f e c t i o n i s t i c t r e n d s seen i n t h i s l i g h t are n o t d e r i v a t i v e s of i n s t i n c t u a l fortes, b u t represent

primarily an

indi-

vidual's a t t e m p t to f i n d paths t h r o u g h a wilderness

full

of u n k n o w n dangeis. T h e manifest anxiety i n neuioses is t h e n n o t t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e " e g o ' s " fear o f b e i n g o v e r w h e l m e d by the onslaught of instinctual drives or of b e i n g p u n i s h e d by a h y p o t h e t i c a l "super ego," is t h e r e s u l t o f t h e specific

safety

devices'

but

failure

to

operate. T h e i n f l u e n c e these basic changes i n v i e w p o i n t h a v e on

individual

psychoanalytical

concepts

will

be

dis-

cussed i n successive c h a p t e i s . I t sufhees h e i e t o p o i n t o u t a few general implicationsSexual

problems, although they may sometimes

pre-

v a i l i n t h e s y m p t o m a t i c p i c t u r e , are n o l o n g e r c o n s i d ered to be i n the d y n a m i c center of neuioses. difficulties aie

t h e effect

Sexual

r a t h e i t h a n t h e cause o f

the

neurotic character structure. M o r a l problems o n the other h a n d gain i n i m p o r t a n c e . T o t a k e at t h e i r face v a l u e those m o r a l p r o b l e m s w i t h w h i c h t h e p a t i e n t is o s t e n s i b l y s t r u g g l i n g ( " s u p e r ego," n e u i o t i c g u i l t feelings) appears to lead to a b l i n d a l l e y . T h e y are p s e u d o m o r a f p r o b l e m s a n d h a v e t o b e u n c o v e r e d as s u c h . B u t i t also b e c o m e s necessary t o h e l p t h e p a t i e n t t o face s q u a r e l y

the t r u e m o r a l

problems

i n v o l v e d i n e v e r y n e u r o s i s a n d t o t a k e a s t a n d t o n arc! them. Finally, w h e n the "ego"

is n o l o n g e r r e g a r d e d as a n

INTRODUCTION organ merely executing or checking instinctual drives, s u c h h u m a n f a c u l t i e s as w i l l p o w e r , j u d g m e n t , d e c i s i o n s are

reinstated i n their dignity. T h e

"ego"

Freud

de-

scribes t h e n appears to be n o t a u n i v e r s a l b u t a n e u r o t i c phenomenon.

The

v i d u a l self m u s t

w a r p i n g of

t h e n be

the spontaneous

recognized

as a

f a c t o r i n t h e genesis a n d m a i n t e n a n c e

paramount

o f neuroses.

Neuroses thus represent a peculiar k i n d of

struggle

for life u n d e r difficult conditions. T h e i r very consists o f

distuibances

i n the

indi-

relations

essence

t o self

and

o t h e r s , a n d c o n f l i c t s a r i s i n g o n these g i o u n d s . T h e s h i f t in

emphasis

as t o t h e

fa'tors

considered

relevant

n e u r o s e s e n l a r g e s c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e tasks o f ical therapy. T h e

the patient to gain masteiy

over

in

psychoanalvt

a i m o f t h e r a p y is t h e n n o t t o

help

his instincts b u t

to

lessen h i s a n x i e t y t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t h e c a n d i s p e n s e w i t h his " n e u r o t i c t r e n d s . " B e y o n d this a i m t h e r e looms a n e n t i r e l y n e w t h e i a p e u t u g o a l , w h i c h is t o r e s t o i e t h e individual

to himself, to help h i m lcgain

his

sponta

n e i t y a n d find h i s c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i n h i m s e l f . I t is^said t h a t t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f p r o f i t s m o s t t h t o u g h w r i t i n g a b o o k . I k n o w that I have benefited t h r o u g h w r i t i n g this one. T h e

necessity t o f o r m u l a t e

thoughts

has g r e a t l y h e l p e d m c t o c l a r i f y t h e m . W h e t h e r

otheis

w i l l p i o f i t , n o one k n o w s i n advance. I suppose t h e n aie

many

analysts

and

psychiatrists w h o

have

cvpcii

e i K e d m y u n c e i t a i n t i e s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f m a n y

thco

i c t i c t l c o n t e n t i o n s . I d o n o t expect t h e m to accept m \ formulations complete

nor

in then final.

entirety, Nor

are

for they

b e g i n n i n g of a new psychoanalytical however,

these a r e meant

to

"school."

neither be I

the hope

t h a t t h e y are s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r l y p r e s e n t e d

to

INTRODUCTION

18

p e r m i t o t h e r s t o test t h e i r v a l i d i t y f o r t h e m s e l v e s . I also h o p e t h a t t h o s e s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a p p l y i n g psychoa n a l y s i s t o e d u c a t i o n , soci al w o r k a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y w i l l receive some h e l p t o w a r d clarification o f the p r o b l e m s with

w h i c h they are c o n f r o n t e d . F i n a l l y

I hope

that

t h o s e l a y m e n as w e l l as p s y c h i a t r i s t s w h o h a v e t e n d e d t o r e p u d i a t e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s t a r t l i n g but

unsubstantiated assumptions

will

gain

from

this

d i s c u s s i o n a p e r s p e c t i v e o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a science o f cause a n d effect a n d as a c o n s t r u c t i v e t o o l o f u n i q u e v a l u e f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o u i selves a n d o t h e r s . During to

the

the time of my d i m l y

validity

of

perceived

psychoanalytical

doubts

theories

as

t w o col-

leagues e n c o u r a g e d a n d s t i m u l a t e d m e , H a r a l d SchultzH e n c k e a n d W i l h e l m R e i c h . Schultz-Hencke questionecj the

curative value of infantile memories a n d

sized

the

necessity

of analyzing primarily

empha-

the

actual

c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n . R e i c h , t h o u g h at t h a t t i m e engrossed i n the contentions of the l i b i d o theory, p o i n t e d o u t the necessity o f a n a l y z i n g i n t h e first i n s t a n c e t h e d e f e n s i v e c h a r a c t e r t r e n d s a n e u r o t i c has b u i l t u p . O t h e r influences o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f m y

critical

a t t i t u d e were m o r e general. A n elucidation of c e u a i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l concepts

brought home

to me

by

Max

H o r k h e i m e r h e l p e d m e to recogni/e the m e n t a l premises o f F r e u d ' s t h i n k i n g . T h e g r e a t e r f r e e d o m f r o m d o g m a t i c beliefs w h i c h I f o u n d i n this c o u n t r y a l l e v i a t e d the

o b l i g a t i o n of t a k i n g psychoanalytical theories for

g r a n t e d , a n d gave m e t h e c o u r a g e t o p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e lines w h i c h I considered right. F u r t h e r m o r e , acquaintance w i t h

a c u l t u r e w h i c h i n m a n y w a y s is

different

»3

INTRODUCTION from

the

European

taught me

t o realize

that

many-

n e u r o t i c c o n f l i c t s are u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y c u l t u r a l conditions.

I n this

widened

by

Fromm,

who

criticized

respect

acquaintance

my

knowledge

with

i n a series o f

the

papers

work and

has of

been Erich

lectures

the lacj; of c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n

has

Freud's

w o r k s . H e also has g i v e n m e a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e o n m a n y p r o l U e m s o f i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g y , s u c h as t h e c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h t h e loss o f self e n t a i l s f o r

neuroses.

I r e g r e t t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g t h i s b o o k h i s systematic p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the r o l e o f social factors i n psycholo g y has n o t y e t b e e n cannot quote

published, and that therefore

h i m i n m a n y instances

where

I

I should

h a v e l i k e d t o d o so. I t a k e t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o express m y t h a n k s t o M i s s Elizabeth

Todd,

who

has

edited

the

book

and

has

h e l p e d m e greatly b o t h by her constructive criticisms a n d b y h e r s u g g e s t i o n s as t o a m o r e l u c i d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l . M y t h a n k s are d u e also t o m y

secretary,

M r s . M a r i e Levy, whose u n t i r i n g labors a n d fine u n d e r s t a n d i n g have been invaluable

A l s o I feel i n d e b t e d t o

M i s s A l i c e S d i u l / , w h o has g i v e n m e a b e t t e r standing of the English

language.

under-

O T H E R

T H E

N E U R O T I C

N E W

WAYS

O U R

I N N E R

IN

BOOKS

B Y

P E R S O N A L I T Y

Dr.

O F

P S Y C H O A N A L Y S I S

C O N F L I C T S

Karen

OUR

Homey

T I M E

Self-Analysis

K A R E N

New York

w-w

H

O

R

- N O R T O N

N

&

E

Y,

M.

C O M P A N Y -

D

I N C .

Copyright, 1 9 4 2 , by W .

W .

NORTON

&

COMPANY, INC.

New York, N . Y .

ritíNTED I N T H E T7KTTED

STATES

OF

ATAVB.ÏCA

FOB T H E PUBLISHERS B 7 T H E HOKWOOD

PRESS

C O N T E N T S

Introduction I II

Feasibility The

III

Stages

IV

The

1 and Desirability

Driving

Forces

of

in

Neuroses

of Psychoanalytic Patient's

Share

Self-Analysts

37

Understanding in the

The

101

Analyst's

Share

in the

Psychoanalytic

Process

123

VI

Occasional

VII

Systematic

Self-Analysis:

VIII

Systematic

Self-Analysis

Self-Analysis

151

Preliminaries of

ft

174

Morbid

Dependency IX X XI

Spirit

190

and Rules

Dealing

73

Psychoanalytic

Process V

*3

with

Limitations

of Systematic

Self-Analysis

Resistances of

247 267

Self-Analysis

286

Index

305

5

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Psychoanalysis first developed as a method of therapy i n the strict medical sense. F r e u d had discovered that certain circumscribed disorders that have no discernible organic basis—such as hysterical convulsions, phobias, depressions, drug addictions, functional stomach upsets —can b e cured by uncovering the unconscious factors that underlie them. I n the course of time disturbances of this kind were summarily called neurotic. A f t e r a w h i l e — w i t h i n t h e last t h i r t y years—psychiatrists realized that neurotic people not only suffer from these manifest symptoms but also are considerably disturbed i n a l l their dealings with life. A n d t h e y also iccog nized the fact that m a n y p e o p l e have personality dis orders without showing any of the definite symptoms that had previously been regarded as characteristic of neuroses. I n other words, i t gradually became more ap parent that i n neuroses symptoms may or may not be present but personality difficulties are never lacking. The conclusion was thus inevitable that these less specific difficulties constitute the essential core of neuroses. The i ecognition of this fact was exceedingly construe tive i n the development of psychoanalytical scieace, not o n l y increasing i t s efficacy b u t also enlarging its scope.

7

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Manifest character disorders, such as a compulsive i n decision, a repeated w r o n g choice of friends or lovers, gross i n h i b i t i o n s toward w o r k , became as m u c h an object of analysis as the gross c l i n i c a l symptoms. Nevertheless the focus of interest was n o t the personality a n d its best possible development; the u l t i m a t e purpose was the understanding a n d eventual removal of the obvious disorders, and analysis of the character was only a means toward this end. I t was almost an accidental by-product i f i n consequence of such w o r k a person's whole developm e n t took a better course. Psychoanalysis is still and w i l l r e m a i n a method of therapy for specific neurotic disorders. B u t the fact that i t can be an a i d to general character development has come to assume a weight of its o w n . T o an increasing degree people t u r n to analysis n o t because they suffer from depressions, phobias, or comparable disorders b u t because they feel they cannot cope w i t h life or feel that Cactors w i t h i n themselves are h o l d i n g t h e m back or i n j u r i n g their relationships w i t h others. As w i l l happen when any new vista is opened u p , the significance of this new o r i e n t a t i o n was at first overrated. I t was frequently declared, and the o p i n i o n is s t i l l wide spread, that analysis is the only means of f u r t h e r i n g personality g r o w t h . Needless to say, that is n o t true. l i f e itself is the most effective help for o u r development. T h e hardships that life forces u p o n us—a necessity to leave one's country, organic illness, periods of solitude—and also its gifts—a good friendship, even a mere contact w i t h a t r u l y good a n d valuable h u m a n being, co-operative 8

Introduction

w o r k i n g r o u p s — a l l such factors can help us reach o u r f u l l potential. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the assistance thus offered has certain disadvantages: the beneficent factors do n o t always come at the t i m e we need t h e m ; the hardships may n o t only be a challenge to o u r activity a n d courage b u t surpass o u r available strength a n d merely crush us; finally,

we may be too entangled i n psychic difficulties

to be able to utilize the h e l p offered by life. Since psychoanalysis has n o t these disadvantages—though i t has others — i t can legitimately take its place as one specific means i n the service of personal development. A n y help of this k i n d is made d o u b l y necessary by the intricate and difficult conditions that we a l l live under i n o u r civilization. B u t professional analytical help, even i f i t c o u l d be made available to more people, can scarcely reach everyone w h o m i t is capable of benefiting. I t is for this reason that the question of self-analysis has i m p o r tance. I t has always been regarded as n o t o n l y valuable b u t also feasible to " k n o w oneself/' b u t i t is possible that the endeavor can be greatly assisted by the discoveries of psychoanalysis. O n the other hand, these very discoveries have revealed more than was ever k n o w n before about the intrinsic difficulties i n v o l v e d i n such an u n d e r t a k i n g . Therefore h u m i l i t y as w e l l as hope is r e q u i r e d i n any discussion of the possibility of psychoanalytic self-examination. I t is the object of this book to raise this question seriously, w i t h a l l due consideration f o r the difficulties i n volved. I have attempted also to present certain basic considerations regarding procedure, b u t since i n this 9

I N T R O D U C T I O N

field there is l i t t l e actual experience to serve as guide my purpose has been p r i m a r i l y to raise the issue and to encourage endeavors toward a constructive self-examination rather than to offer any clear-cut answers. Attempts at constructive self-analysis can be i m p o r t a n t , i n the first place, for the i n d i v i d u a l himself. Such an endeavor gives h i m a chance for self-realization, and by this 1 mean n o t o n l y the development of special gifts that he may have been i n h i b i t e d f r o m u t i l i z i n g but also, even more i m p o r t a n t , the development of his potentialities as a strong and integrated h u m a n being, free f r o m c r i p p l i n g compulsions. B u t there is also a broader issue involved. A n integral part of the democratic ideals for w h i c h we are fighting today is the belief that the i n d i v i d u a l — a n d as many i n d i v i d u a l s as possible—should develop to the f u l l of his potentialities. By h e l p i n g h i m to do this psychoanalysis cannot solve the ills of the w o r l d , b u t i t can at least clarify some of the frictions and misunderstandings, the hates, fears, hurts, and vulnerabilities, of w h i c h those ills are at once cause and effect. I n two earlier books I presented the framework of a theory of neuroses w h i c h I have elaborated i n the present volume. I w o u l d gladly have avoided presenting these new viewpoints and formulations i n this book, b u t i t d i d not appear sensible to w i t h h o l d a n y t h i n g that m i g h t be useful for self-examination. I have t r i e d , however, to present matters as simply as possible w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g the subject matter. T h e h i g h l y intricate nature of psychological p i obi ems is a fact that cannot and must not be disguised, b u t w i t h f u l l mindfulness of that intricacy I JO

Introduction

have t r i e d n o t to increase i t by a l u m b e r i n g terminology. I take this o p p o r t u n i t y to express m y thanks to Miss Elizabeth T o d d for the astute understanding w i t h w h i c h she has helped to organize the material. A n d I should l i k e to thank m y secretary, M r s . M a r i e Levy, for her u n t i r i n g efforts. I wish, too, to express m y gratitude to the patients who have allowed me to p u b l i s h t h e i r experiences i n self-analysis.

II

C H A P T E R

ONE

Feasibility and Desirability of Self-Analysis

Every analyst knows that an analysis proceeds the more quickly and efficiently the more the patient "co-operates." W h e n speaking of co-operation I have not i n mind the patient's polite and obliging acceptance of whatever the analyst suggests. N o r am I referring primarily to the patient's conscious willingness to give information about himself; most patients who come to analysis of their own accord sooner or later recognize and accept the necessity of expressing themselves with utmost sincerity. I am rather referring to a kind of self-expression which is as little at the patient's conscious command as i t is at the composer's command to express his feelings i n music. I f factors within himself bar him from expression, the composer is flatly unable to work; he is unproductive. I

3

S E L F

-

A N A L Y S I S

Similarly, a patient, despite his best intentions to be cooperative, becomes unproductive as soon as his efforts meet some "resistance."

B u t the more frequent the

periods i n w h i c h he is able to express himself freely, the more he can tackle his o w n problems and the more significant is the c o m m o n w o r k of patient and analyst. I have often t o l d ray patients that i t w o u l d be ideal i f the analyst merely played the part of a guide on a difficult m o u n t a i n t o u r , indicating w h i c h way w o u l d be profitable to take or to avoid. T o be accurate one should add that the analyst is a guide w h o is n o t too certain of the way himself, because though experienced i n m o u n t a i n c l i m b i n g he has n o t yet c l i m b e d this particular m o u n t a i n . A n d this fact makes the patient's mental activity and p r o d u c t i v i t y a l l the more desirable. I t is scarcely an overstatement that, apart f r o m the analyst's competence, i t is the patient's constructive activity that determines the length and outcome of an analysis. T h e significance of the patient's mental activity i n analytical therapy is often revealed when an analysis has to be i n t e r r u p t e d or terminated for some reason or other w h i l e the patient is still i n a bad c o n d i t i o n . B o t h patient and analyst are dissatisfied w i t h the progress attained, b u t after some t i m e has elapsed w i t h o u t further analysis, they may

find themselves pleasantly surprised by the

patient's considerable and lasting improvement. I f caref u l examination does n o t show any change i n his circumstances that m i g h t account for the improvement, one may be justified i n regarding i t as a belated effect of analysis. Such an aftereffect, however, is n o t easy to ac-

Feasibility

and

Desirability

count for. Various factors may c o n t r i b u t e to i t . T h e previous w o r k may have enabled the patient to make such accurate self-observations

that he is convinced

more

deeply than before of the existence of certain disturbi n g trends, or is even able to discover new factors w i t h i n himself. O r i t may be that he had regarded any suggestion made by the analyst as a foreign i n t r u s i o n and that he can take h o l d of insights more easily when they re-emerge as his o w n findings. O r , i f his t r o u b l e was a r i g i d need to be superior to others and to defeat them, he may have been incapable of g i v i n g the analyst the satisfaction of d o i n g successful w o r k , and thus be able to recover only w h e n the analyst is o u t of the picture. F i n a l l y , i t must be remembered that delayed reactions occur also i n many other situations: o n l y m u c h later may we grasp the real meaning of a joke or a remark made i n a conveisation. Different as these explanations are they all p o i n t i n one d i r e c t i o n : they suggest that some mental activity must have gone o n i n the patient w i t h o u t his being aware of i t , or at least w i t h o u t consciously determined efforts. T h a t such mental activities, and even meaningful d i rected activities, do occur w i t h o u t awareness we k n o w from the existence of meaningful dreams and from such experiences as b e i n g balked by a task i n the evening and k n o w i n g the solution after awakening f r o m sleep. N o t o n l y is there the famous mathematical p r o b l e m , of which the solution presents itself i n the m o r n i n g , b u t a decision befogged i n the evening may be clarified after having "slept" over i t . A resentment n o t even perceived i n dayt i m e may have w o r k e d itself t h r o u g h to awareness so J

5

S E L F - A N A

L Y S I i

keenly that we awake suddenly at five o'clock i n the m o r n i n g , clearly recognizing provocation and reaction. As a matter of fact, every analyst relies o n the operat i o n of these u n d e r g r o u n d m e n t a l activities. Such reliance is i m p l i c i t i n the doctrine that an analysis w i l l proceed satisfactorily i f the "resistances" are removed. I should l i k e to stress also the positive aspect: the stronger and the less hampered a patient's incentive toward libera t i o n , the more productive activity w i l l he display. B u t whether one emphasize the negative aspect (resistance) or the positive one (incentive), the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e is the same: by r e m o v i n g obstacles or by e l i c i t i n g sufficient incentive the patient's m e n t a l energy w i l l be set to w o r k and he w i l l produce material that w i l l eventually lead to some f u r t h e r insight. T h e question raised i n this book is whether one c o u l d go one step f u r t h e r . I f the analyst relies o n the patient's unconscious m e n t a l activity, i f the patient has the faculty to w o r k alone toward the s o l u t i o n of some p r o b l e m , could this faculty be u t i l i z e d i n a more deliberate fashion? C o u l d the patient scrutinize his self-observations or his associations w i t h his o w n critical

intelligence?

Usually there is a d i v i s i o n of labor between patient and analyst. By a n d large, the patient lets his thoughts, feelings, a n d impulses emerge, a n d the analyst uses his c r i t i cal intelligence to recognize what the patient is d r i v i n g at. H e questions the v a l i d i t y of statements, he puts together seemingly disconnected material, he makes suggestions as to possible meanings. I said " b y and large" because the analyst uses also his i n t u i t i o n and the patient,

16

Feasibility

and

Desirability

too, may tie things together. R u t o n the whole such a division of labor exists, and i t has definite advantages for the analytical session. I t enables the patient to relax and merely express or register whatever emerges. B u t what about the day or the days between the analytical sessions? W h a t about longer i n t e r r u p t i o n s that occur for various reasons? W h y leave i t to accident that some p r o b l e m w i l l inadvertently clarify itself? W o u l d i t not be possible to encourage the patient n o t only to make deliberate and accurate self-observations b u t also to arrive at some insight by using his power of reasoning? Granted i t w o u l d be a h a r d j o b fraught w i t h hazards and l i m i t a t i o n s — w h i c h w i l l be discussed later—these difficulties should n o t prevent us f r o m raising the question: is i t impossible to analyze oneself? I n a broader frame of reference this question is one of venerable age: can one recognize oneself? I t is encouragi n g to find that people have always regarded this task, though difficult, as feasible. T h e encouragement, how ever, does n o t carry us far, because there is a vast distance between the way the ancients looked at this task and the way we look at i t . W e k n o w , particularly since Freud's basic findings, that the task is i n f i n i t e l y more intricate and difficult than the ancients ever imagined—so difficult, indeed, that i t is l i k e an adventure i n t o the u n k n o w n merely to raise the question seriously. I n recent times any n u m b e r of books have appeared w i t h the purpose of h e l p i n g people to cope better w i t h themselves and others. Some of these, l i k e Dale Car

17

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

negie's How to Win Friends

and Influence

People,

have

l i t t l e i f a n y t h i n g to do w i t h recognition of self b u t offer rather more or less good common-sense advice o n how to deal w i t h personal and social problems. B u t some, l i k e D a v i d Seabury's Adventures

in Self-Discovery,

definitely

a i m at self-analysis. I f I feel the need to w r i t e another book o n the subject i t is because I believe that even the best of these authors, such as Seabury, do not make sufficient use of the psychoanalytical technique inaugurated by Freud and hence give insufficient i n s t r u c t i o n . * Furthermore, they do n o t recognize the intricacies involved, as appears cleat ly i n such titles as Self-Analysis

Made

Easy. T h e tendency expressed i n books of this k i n d is i m p l i c i t also i n certain psychiatric attempts at personality studies. A l l these attempts suggest that i t is an easy matter to recognize oneself. T h i s is an i l l u s i o n , a belief b u i l t o n w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g , and a positively h a r m f u l i l l u s i o n at that. People w h o embark o n that promised easy road w i l l either acquire a false smugness, believing they know a l l about themselves, or w i l l become discouraged when they are blocked by the first serious obstacle and w i l l t e n d to r e l i n q u i s h the search for t r u t h as a bad j o b . N e i t h e r result w i l l happen so easily i f one is aware that self-analysis is a strenuous, slow process, b o u n d to be p a i n f u l a n d * Harold Democracy

D . jLassweJI Through

in Chapter

Public

Opinion,

4, " K n o w

1 hyself,"

i n his

p o i n t s o u t the v a l u e o f free

association for self-recognition. B u t since the hook

is d e v o t e d t o

a n o t h e r s u b j e c t h e d o e s n o t d i s c u s s t h e specific issues i n v o l v e d i n the q u e s t i o n of self-analysis.

18

Feasibility

and

Desirability

upsetting at times and r e q u i r i n g a i l available

construc-

tive energies A n experienced analyst w o u l d never succumb to such o p t i m i s m because he is too f a m i l i a r w i t h the h a r d and sometimes desperate fight that a patient may p u t u p before he is capable of facing a p r o b l e m squarely. A n analyst w o u l d rather tend toward the opposite

extreme

of rejecting the possibility of self-analysis altogether, and he w o u l d be so i n c l i n e d n o t only because of his experience b u t also o n theoretical grounds. Fie w o u l d b r i n g f o r t h the argument, for instance, that a patient can free himself f r o m his difficulties only when

re-experiencing

his i n f a n t i l e desires, fears, and attachments i n r e l a t i o n to the analyst; left to his o w n devices the patient c o u l d at best reach ineffective, "merely i n t e l l e c t u a l " insights. I f arguments such as this were scrutinized i n d e t a i l — w h i c h w i l l n o t be done here—they w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y b o i l d o w n to a disbelief that the patient's incentive is strong enough to enable h i m to overcome by himself the obstacles litteri n g the road to self-recognition. I a m stressing this p o i n t for good reasons. T h e

pa-

tient's incentive to arrive at some goal is an i m p o r t a n t factor i n every analysis. One may safely say that an analyst cannot b r i n g the patient any further t h a n the patient himself wants to go. I n an analysis, however, the patient has the advantage of the analyst's help, his encouragement, his guidance, the value of w h i c h we shall discuss i n another chapter. I f the patient is left to his o w n resources the matter of incentive becomes crucial—so crucial, i n *9

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

deed, t h a t the feasibility of self-analysis hinges o n its strength. F r e u d , of course, recognized that manifest gross sufferi n g under n e u r o t i c problems may provide such an i n centive. B u t apparently he felt at a loss to account for an incentive i f gross suffering has never existed or has disappeared

d u r i n g treatment. H e suggested that the

patient's " l o v e " for the analyst m i g h t provide an addit i o n a l incentive, p r o v i d e d this " l o v e " does not a i m at a concrete sexual satisfaction b u t is contented w i t h receivi n g and u t i l i z i n g the analyst's help. T h i s sounds plausible. W e must n o t forget, however, that i n every neurosis the a b i l i t y to love is greatly i m p a i r e d , and that what appears as such is mostly the result of the patient's excessive need for affection a n d approval. I t is t r u e that there are p a t i e n t s — a n d I suppose Freud had them i n m i n d — w h o go to considerable lengths to please the analyst, i n c l u d i n g a willingness to accept interpretations more or less u n c r i t i c a l l y a n d i n c l u d i n g also an attempt to show i m p r o v e m e n t . Efforts of this type, however,

are n o t

p r o m p t e d by " l o v e " for the analyst, b u t represent the patient's means of allaying his l u r k i n g fear of people and i n a broader sense his way of coping w i t h life, for he feels helpless to do i t i n a more self-reliant manner. I n consequence, this m o t i v a t i o n to do good w o r k depends ent i r e l y o n the relationship w i t h the analyst. As soon as the patient feels rejected or criticized—as this type does easily—he w i l l lose sight of his o w n interest, and the psychoanalytical work t h e n becomes the battlefield for the patient's spite a n d vengeance. Almost more impor20

Feasibility

and

Desirability

tant than the u n r e l i a b i l i t y of this incentive: the analyst has to discourage i t . T h e tendency to do things merely because someone else expects i t , regardless of his o w n wishes, is a considerable source of t r o u b l e to the patient; therefore i t has to be analyzed, n o t u t i l i z e d . T h u s the only effective incentive that F r e u d recognized remains the patient's wish to get r i d of manifest gross suffering; and this m o t i v a t i o n , as F r e u d r i g h t l y asserted, does n o t carry far because i t is b o u n d to d i m i n i s h i n exact prop o r t i o n w i t h a decrease of symptoms. S t i l l , this incentive m i g h t suffice i f a r e m o v a l of symptoms were the only goal of analysis. B u t is it? F r e u d never expressed unambiguously his view of these goals. T o say that a patient should become capable of w o r k a n d enj o y m e n t is n o t m e a n i n g f u l w i t h o u t a qualification of b o t h capacities. Capable of r o u t i n e w o r k or of creative work? Capable of enjoying sexuality or l i f e i n general? T o say that analysis should constitute a re-education is likewise vague w i t h o u t an answer to the question, education for what? Probably F r e u d d i d n o t give this quest i o n m u c h t h o u g h t because f r o m his earliest to his latest w r i t i n g s he was p r i m a r i l y interested i n the removal of neurotic symptoms; he cared about a change of personali t y only i n so far as i t w o u l d guarantee a permanent cure of symptoms. Freud's goal is thus essentially to be defined i n a negative manner: g a i n i n g "freedom f r o m . " O t h e r authors, however, i n c l u d i n g myself, w o u l d f o r m u l a t e the goal of analysis i n a positive way: by r e n d e r i n g a person free f r o m i n n e r bondages make h i m free for the development

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

of his best potentialities. T h i s may sound l i k e a mere difference i n emphasis, b u t , even i f i t were n o t h i n g b u ' that, the different emphasis suffices to alter the matter of incentive entirely. T o set the goal i n the positive fashion has a realistic value only i f there is i n the patient an incentive, sufficiently p o w e r f u l to be reckoned w i t h , to develop whatever faculties he has, to realize given potentialities, to come to grips w i t h himself despite a l l the ordeals he may have to go t h r o u g h at times; to p u t i t i n the simplest way possible, i f there is an incentive to grow. W h e n the issue is stated thus p l a i n l y i t is clear that there is more i n v o l v e d here t h a n a difference i n emphasis, because Freud emphatically denied that such a wish exists. H e even scoffed at i t , as i f the positing of such a wish were a sort of h o l l o w idealism. H e p o i n t e d o u t that urges t o w a r d self-development emanate f r o m "narcissistic" desires, that is, they represent a tendency toward self-inflation a n d t o w a r d excelling others. F r e u d rarely made a postulate merely for the love of theoretical con¬ siderations. A t b o t t o m there was almost always some astute observation. I n this instance i t is the observation that tendencies

toward self-aggrandizement

are some-

times a forceful element i n the wish for self-development. W h a t F r e u d refused to recognize is the fact that this "narcissistic" element is a c o n t r i b u t i n g factor only. I f the need for self-aggrandizement

has been analyzed

a n d abandoned, the wish to develop s t i l l remains, yes, i t emerges more clearly a n d p o w e r f u l l y than before. T h e "narcissistic" elements, w h i l e they have k i n d l e d the wish 22

Feasibility

and

Desirability

to grow, have at the same t i m e hampered its realization* T o use the words of a patient: " T h e 'narcissistic' i m pulse is toward the development of a phony self." T h e fostering of this phony self is always at the expense of the real self, the latter b e i n g treated w i t h disdain, at best l i k e a poor relation. M y experience is that the m o r e the phony self evaporates, the more the real self becomes in¬ vested w i t h interest and the more u n b r i d l e d an incentive emerges to u n f o l d by becoming free f r o m i n t e r n a l bondages, to live as f u l l a life as given circumstances p e r m i t . I t seems to me that the wish for developing one's energies belongs among those strivings that defy

further

analysis. Theoretically, Freud's disbelief i n a wish for self development is l i n k e d u p w i t h his postulate that the "ego" is a weak agency tossed about among the claims of instinctual drives, of the outside w o r l d a n d of a forb i d d i n g conscience. U l t i m a t e l y , however, I believe that the two formulations of analytical goals are expressions of different philosophical beliefs as to the nature of man. I n the words of M a x O t t o : " T h e deepest source of a man's philosophy, the one that shapes a n d nourishes i t , is faith or lack of faith i n m a n k i n d . I f he has confidence i n human beings and believes that something fine can be achieved t h r o u g h t h e m , he w i l l acquire ideas about l i f e and about the w o r l d w h i c h are i n harmony w i t h his confidence. Lack of confidence w i l l generate corresponding ideas." I t may be m e n t i o n e d that F r e u d , i n his book on the interpretation of dreams, at least i m p l i c i t l y recog nized that some degree of self-analysis is possible, for here 23

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

he d i d analyze his o w n dreams. T h i s is particularly i n teresting i n view of the fact that his whole philosophy denied the possibility of self-analysis. B u t even i f we grant that there is sufficient incentive for self-analysis there is still the question whether i t can be undertaken by a " l a y m a n " who has n o t the necessary knowledge,

t r a i n i n g , and experience. I t may well be

asked, and w i t h some asperity, whether I am suggesting that three or f o u r chapters of this book can constitute an adequate substitute for the specific skills of an expert. N a t u r a l l y , I do n o t h o l d any substitute to be possible. I do n o t aspire to offer even an approximate substitute. T h u s i t appears that here we are at an impasse. B u t are we really? Usually the application of an all-or-nothing p r i n c i p l e implies some fallacy despite apparent plausib i l i t y . I n regard to this p r o b l e m i t is desirable to remember, w i t h all due respect for the role of specialization i n c u l t u r a l development, that too much awe of specializat i o n can paralyze i n i t i a t i v e . W e are a l l too i n c l i n e d to believe that o n l y a p o l i t i c i a n can understand politics, that only a mechanic can repair o u r car, that only a trained gardener

can p r u n e o u r trees. O f course, a

trained person can p e r f o r m more q u i c k l y and more efficiently than an u n t r a i n e d person, and i n many instances the latter w i l l fail entirely. B u t the gap between a trained and an u n t r a i n e d person is often regarded as w i d e r than i t is. F a i t h i n specialization can easily t u r n i n t o b l i n d awe and stifle any attempt at new activity. General considerations of this k i n d are encouraging. B u t i n order to arrive at a proper evaluation of the tech-

24

Feasibility

and

Desirability

nical possibility of self-analysis we must visualize i n concrete detail what constitutes the e q u i p m e n t of a professional analyst. I n the first place, the analysis of others demands an extensive psychological knowledge of the nature of unconscious forces, the forms of t h e i r m a n i festation, the reasons responsible for t h e i r power, the influence wielded by t h e m , the ways of u n e a r t h i n g t h e m . I n the second place, i t demands definite skills, w h i c h must be developed by t r a i n i n g and experience: the analyst must understand h o w to deal w i t h the patient; he must k n o w w i t h a reasonable degree of certainty w h i c h factors i n the maze of m a t e r i a l presented should be tackled and w h i c h left o u t for the t i m e being; he must have acquired a highly developed a b i l i t y to "feel i n t o " the patient, a sensitivity to psychic undercurrents that is almost a sixth sense. Finally, the analysis of others demands a t h o r o u g h self-knowledge. I n w o r k i n g w i t h a pat i e n t the analyst has to project himself i n t o a strange w o r l d , w i t h its o w n peculiarities a n d its o w n laws. A n d there

is considerable

danger

that he

will

miscon-

strue, mislead, perhaps even inflict positive i n j u r y — n o t through bad w i l l b u t t h r o u g h carelessness, ignorance, or conceit. Therefore n o t only must he have a t h o r o u g h f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h his tools, and skill i n using t h e m , b u t , equally i m p o r t a n t , he must be straightened o u t i n his relations to self a n d others. Since a l l three of these requirements are indispensable, nobody w h o does n o t f u l f i l l them should assume the responsibility i n v o l v e d i n analyzing others. These requirements cannot be automatically attrib%5

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

u t e d to self-analysis as w e l l , because analyzing ourselves is i n certain essential points different f r o m analyzing others. T h e difference most p e r t i n e n t here is the fact that the w o r l d t h a t each of us represents is n o t strange to ourselves; i t is, i n fact, the only one we really k n o w . T r u e enough, a neurotic person has become estranged from large parts of this w o r l d a n d has an i m p e l l i n g interest not to see parts of i t . Also there is always the danger that i n his f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h himself he w i l l take certain significant factors too m u c h for granted. B u t the fact remains that i t is his w o r l d , that a l l the knowledge about i t is there somehow, that he need o n l y observe and make use of his observations i n order to gain access to i t . I f he is interested i n recognizing the sources of his difficulties, i f he can overcome his resistances to recognizing t h e m , he can i n some respects observe himself better than an outsider can. A f t e r a l l , he lives w i t h himself day and n i g h t . I n his chances to make self-observations he m i g h t be compared w i t h an i n t e l l i g e n t nurse w h o is constantly w i t h a patient; an analyst, however, sees the patient at best only for an h o u r each day. T h e analyst has better methods for observation, and clearer viewpoints f r o m w h i c h to observe and to make infeiences, b u t the nuise has opportunities for a w i d e r range of observation. T h i s fact constitutes an i m p o r t a n t asset i n self-analysis. Indeed, i t reduces the first of the requirements demanded of a professional analyst a n d eliminates the seco n d : i n self-analysis less psychological knowledge is demanded than i n the analysis of others, and we do n o t need at a l l the strategical s k i l l that is necessary i n dealing

26

Feasibility

and

Desirability

w i t h any other person. T h e c r u c i a l difficulty i n selfanalysis lies n o t i n these fields b u t i n the e m o t i o n a l factors that b l i n d us t o unconscious forces. T h a t the m a i n difficulty is e m o t i o n a l rather than i n t e l l e c t u a l is confirmed by the fact that w h e n analysts analyze themselves they have n o t such a great advantage over the laym a n as we w o u l d be i n c l i n e d to believe. O n theoretical grounds, then, I see n o stringent reason w h y self-analysis should n o t be feasible. G r a n t e d that many people are too deeply entangled i n their o w n problems to be able to analyze themselves; granted that selfanalysis can never approximate the speed a n d accuracy of analytical treatment by an expert; granted that there are certain resistances that can be s u r m o u n t e d o n l y w i t h outside h e l p — s t i l l , a l l of this is no proof that i n p r i n ciple the j o b cannot be done. I should n o t dare, however, to raise the question of self-analysis o n the basis of theoretical considerations alone. T h e courage to raise the question, a n d t o do i t seriously, has arisen f r o m experiences i n d i c a t i n g that self-analysis is possible. These are experiences that I have had myself, that colleagues have had a n d t o l d me about, that patients have h a d w h o m I have encouraged to w o r k o n themselves d u r i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s of the analytical w o r k w i t h me. These successful attempts d i d n o t concern merely superficial difficulties. I n fact, some o i them dealt w i t h problems that are generally deemed in¬ accessible even w i t h the help of an analyst. T h e y were made, however, u n d e r one favorable c o n d i t i o n : a l l of these people had been analyzed before they v e n t u r e d o n

27

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

self-analysis, w h i c h means that they were familiar w i t h the m e t h o d of approach and knew f r o m experience that i n analysis n o t h i n g short of ruthless honesty w i t h oneself is h e l p f u l . W h e t h e r and to what extent self-analysis is possible w i t h o u t such previous experience must be left an open question. T h e r e is, however, the encouragi n g fact that many people gain an accurate insight i n t o their problems before c o m i n g for treatment. These i n sights are insufficient, to be sure, b u t the fact remains that they wet e acquired w i t h o u t previous analytical experience. T h u s the possibilities of self-analysis are briefly as follows, p r o v i d e d a person is capable at all of analyzing himself, of w h i c h something w i l l be said later. A patient may undertake i t d u r i n g the longer intervals that occur in most analyses: holidays, absences f r o m the city, for professional or personal reasons, various other i n t e r r u p tions. A person w h o lives outside the few cities i n w h i c h there are competent analysts may attempt to carry the m a i n w o r k by himself and see an analyst only for occasional checkups; the same w o u l d h o l d for those who live i n a city i n w h i c h there are analysts b u t for

financial

reasons cannot afford regular treatments. A n d it may be possible for a person whose analysis has been prematurely ended to carry on by himself. F i n a l l y — a n d this w i t h a question mark—self-analysis may be feasible

without

outside analytical help. B u t here is another question. Granted that w i t h i n l i m i t a t i o n s i t is possible to analyze oneself, is i t desirable?

28

Feasibility

and

Desirability

Is n o t analysis too dangerous a tool to use w i t h o u t the guidance of a competent person? D i d n o t F r e u d compare analysis w i t h s u r g e r y — t h o u g h a d d i n g that people do n o t die because of a w r o n g application of analysis as they m i g h t f r o m an operation badly handled? Since i t is never constructive to remain i n the l i m b o of vague apprehensions, let us t r y to examine i n detail what the possible dangers of self-analysis may be. I n the first place, many people w i l l t h i n k that i t m i g h t increase unwholesome introspection. T h e same objection has been raised, a n d is s t i l l being raised, against any type of analysis, b u t I should l i k e to reopen this discussion because I am certain that i t w i l l be waged even m o r e l o u d l y i f analysis is conducted w i t h o u t , o r w i t h l i t t l e , guidance. T h e disapproval expressed i n the apprehension that analysis m i g h t render a person more introspective seems to arise f r o m a philosophy of l i f e — w e l l represented i n The Late

George Apley—which

grants n o place to the

i n d i v i d u a l o r his i n d i v i d u a l feelings and sri ivings. W h a t counts is that he fit i n t o the environment, be of service to the c o m m u n i t y , and f u l f i l l his duties Hence whatever i n d i v i d u a l fears or desires he has should be c o n t r o l l e d . Self-discipline is the uppermost v i r t u e . T o give m u c h thought to himself i n any way is self-indulgence a n d "selfishness." T h e best representatives of psychoanalysis, o n the other hand, w o u l d emphasize n o t o n l y the respons i b i l i t y toward odiers b u t that t o w a r d oneself as w e l l . T her ef or e they w o u l d n o t neglect to stress the inalienable r i g h t of the i n d i v i d u a l to the p u r s u i t of happiness, %9

i n c l u d i n g his r i g h t to take seriously his

development

t o w a r d i n n e r freedom and autonomy. Each i n d i v i d u a l must make his o w n decision as to the value of the t w o philosophies. I f he decides for the former there is n o t m u c h sense i n arguing w i t h h i m about analysis, because he is b o u n d to feel i t n o t r i g h t that anyone should give so m u c h t h o u g h t to himself and his problems. One can merely reassure h i m that as a result of analysis the i n d i v i d u a l usually becomes less egocentric a n d more reliable i n his h u m a n relationships; then at best he m i g h t concede that introspection may be a debatable means to a w o r t h y end. A person whose beliefs c o n f o r m w i t h the other philosophy c o u l d n o t possibly h o l d that introspection i n itself is blameworthy. For h i m the recognition of self is as i m p o r t a n t as the recognition of other factors i n the environment; to search for t r u t h about self is as valuable as to search for t r u t h i n other areas of life. T h e only question that w o u l d concern h i m is whether introspection is constructive or f u t i l e . I w o u l d say that i t is constructive i f i t is used i n the service of a wish to become a better, richer, and stronger h u m a n b e i n g — i f i t is a responsible endeavor of w h i c h the u l t i m a t e goal is self-recognition and change. I f i t is an end i n itself, that is, i f i t is pursued merely o u t of indiscriminate interest i n psychological connections—art for art's sake—then i t can easily degenerate i n t o what H o u s t o n Peterson calls " m a n i a psychological" A n d i t is equally f u t i l e i f i t consists merely of i m m e r s i o n i n self-admiration o r self-pity, dead-end r u m i n a t i o n s about oneself, empty self-recrimination*

Bo

Feasibility

and

Desirability

A n d here we arrive at the p e r t i n e n t p o i n t : w o u l d not self-analysis easily degenerate i n t o just that type of aimless pondering? J u d g i n g f r o m m y experience w i t h patients, I believe that this danger is n o t so general as one m i g h t be i n c l i n e d to t h i n k . I t appears safe t o assume that o n l y those w o u l d succumb to i t w h o t e n d also i n their w o r k w i t h an analyst to move constantly i n b l i n d alleys of this k i n d . W i t h o u t guidance these persons w o u l d become lost i n f u t i l e wanderings. B u t even so, their attempts at self-analysis, w h i l e doomed to failure, c o u l d scarcely be h a r m f u l , because i t is n o t the analysis that causes their r u m i n a t i o n s . T h e y pondered a b o u t their bellyache o r t h e i r appearance, about w r o n g done by them o r to them, or spun o u t elaborate a n d aimless "psychological explanations" before they ever came i n touch w i t h analysis. By t h e m analysis is used—or abused—as justification for c o n t i n u i n g to move i n their o l d circles: i t provides the i l l u s i o n that the circular movements are honest self-scrutiny. W e should therefore reckon these attempts among the l i m i t a t i o n s rather t h a n among the dangers of self-analysis. I n considering the possible dangers of self-analysis the essential p r o b l e m is whether i t involves a risk of definite h a r m to the i n d i v i d u a l . By endeavoring on this adventure singlehanded does he n o t conjure u p h i d d e n forces w i t h which he is unable to cope? I f he recognizes a c r u cial unconscious conflict, w i t h o u t yet seeing a way o u t , are there n o t aroused i n h i m such deep feelings of anxiety and helplessness that he m i g h t succumb to a depression, or even consider suicide?

3*

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

W e must distinguish i n this regard between transitory a n d lasting impairments. T r a n s i t o r y impairments are b o u n d to occur i n every analysis, because any reaching d o w n to repressed material must stir u p anxiety previously allayed by defensive measures. Likewise, i t must b r i n g to the foreground affects of anger and rage otherwise shut off f r o m awareness. T h i s shock effect is so strong n o t because the analysis has led to the l e c o g n i t i o n of some i n t o l e r a b l y bad or vicious t r e n d , b u t because i t has shaken an e q u i l i b r i u m w h i c h , though precarious, had prevented the i n d i v i d u a l f r o m feeling lost i n the chaos of d i v e r g i n g drives. Since we shall discuss later the nature of these transitory disturbances, i t may suffice here to state merely the fact that they occur. W h e n a patient meets such a disturbance d u r i n g the analytical process he may simply feel p r o f o u n d l y pert u r b e d o r he may have recurrences of o l d symptoms. N a t u r a l l y , then, he feels discouraged. These setbacks are usually overcome after a short w h i l e . As soon as the new insight is really integrated they vanish and give way to the well-founded feeling of h a v i n g taken a step ahead. T h e y represent the shocks and pains unavoidably i n volved i n a r e o r i e n t a t i o n of life, and are i m p l i c i t i n any constructive process. I t is at these periods of i n n e r upheaval that the pat i e n t w o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y miss the h e l p i n g hand of an analyst. B u t we are t a k i n g i t for granted that the whole process is easier w i t h competent help. Here we are concerned w i t h the possibility that the i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t n o t be able t o overcome these upsets alone a n d thus be 32

Feasibility

and

Desirability

permanently i m p a i r e d . O r that when he feels his foundations shaken he m i g h t do something desperate, such as d r i v i n g or g a m b l i n g recklessly, jeopardizing his posit i o n , or a t t e m p t i n g suicide. I n the cases of self-analysis w h i c h I have observed such u n t o w a r d consequences have never occurred. B u t these observations are as yet too l i m i t e d to produce any conv i n c i n g statistical evidence; I c o u l d not say, for instance, that this u n f o r t u n a t e outcome has occurred i n o n l y one case o u t of a h u n d r e d . T h e r e are, however, good reasons to believe that the danger is so rare as to be negligible. Observation i n every analysis shows that patients are well able to protect themselves f r o m insights they are n o t yet able to receive. I f they are given an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that represents too great a threat to their security they may consciously reject i t ; o r they may forget i t , or invalidate its relevance for them, o r w a r d i t off w i t h arguments, or simply resent i t as u n f a i r criticism. One may safely assume that these self-protective forces w o u l d operate also i n self-analysis. A person a t t e m p t i n g to analyze himself w o u l d simply fail to make any selfobservations that w o u l d lead to insights as yet intolerable. O r he w o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h e m i n such a way as to miss the essential p o i n t . O r he w o u l d merely t r y to correct q u i c k l y and superficially an a t t i t u d e conceived by h i m as faulty, and thereby close the door to f u r t h e r i n vestigation. T h u s i n self-analysis the actual danger w o u l d be less than i n professional analysis, because the patient i n t u i t i v e l y knows w h a t to avoid w h i l e an analyst, even a sensitive one, may err a n d present to the p a t i e n t a pre-

33

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

mature solution. A g a i n the danger is one of

futility

t h r o u g h too m u c h evasion of problems rather than of positive damage. A n d i f a person does work t h r o u g h to some insight deeply d i s t u r b i n g to h i m , I believe there 3 2 e several considerations that w e can rely u p o n . One is that h i t t i n g r

u p o n some t r u t h is n o t only d i s t u r b i n g but is also, and simultaneously, of a l i b e r a t i n g quality. T h i s liberating force i n h c i e n t i n any t r u t h may supersede the d i s t u r b ing effect f r o m the beginning. I f so, a feeling of relief w i l l ensue immediately. B u t even i f the disturbing effect prevails, the discovery of a t r u t h about oneself still i m plies a d a w n i n g recognition of a way out; even i f this is not seen clearly i t w i l l be felt i n t u i t i v e l y and thus w i l l engender strength to proceed further. A second factor to be considered is that even i f a t r u t h is deeply f r i g h t e n i n g thei e is something l i k e a wholesome f r i g h t . I f a person recognizes, for instance, that he has been secretly d r i v i n g at self-destruction, his clear recogn i t i o n of that drive is m u c h less dangerous than l e t t i n g i t silently operate. T h e recognition is frighrening, b u t i t is b o u n d to mobilize counteracting self-preserving energies, p r o v i d e d there is any w i l l to live. A n d i f there is no sufficient w i l l to live, a person w i l l go to pieces anyhow, analysis or no analysis. T o express a similar thought i n a more positive fashion: if a person has had sufficient courage to discover an unpleasant t r u t h about

himself,

one may safely trust his courage to be strong enough to carry h i m t h r o u g h . T h e mere fact that he has gone that far indicates that his w i l l to come to grips w i t h himself

34

Feasibility

and

Desirability

is strong enough to prevent h i m f r o m becoming crushed. B u t the period between starting to grapple w i t h a probl e m a n d solving and i n t e g r a t i n g i t may be prolonged i n self-analysis. Finally, we must n o t forget that really a l a r m i n g disturbances i n analysis rarely occur only because an interpretation cannot be properly grasped at the t i m e . M o r e frequently the real source of disquieting developments lies i n the fact that the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , or the analytical situation as a whole, stirs u p hatred that is directed against the analyst. T h i s hatred, i f barred f r o m awareness a n d thereby f r o m expression, can enhance existing self-destructive

tendencies. T o let oneself go to pieces

may then become a means of revenge against the analyst. I f a person is confronted w i t h an upsetting insight q u i t e by himself, there is almost n o t h i n g left b u t to fight i t through w i t h himself. Or, to be cautious, the temptat i o n to w a r d off the insight by m a k i n g others responsible is lessened. T h e caution is w a n anted because, i f the tendency to make others responsible for his shortcomings is strong anyhow, i t may flare up also i n self-analysis as soon as he realizes a shortcoming, i f he has n o t yet accepted the necessity of t a k i n g responsibility l o r himself. I w o u l d say, then, that self-analysis is w i t h i n the range of possibility, and that the danger of its resulting i n positive damage is comparatively slight. Certainly i t has vanous drawbacks that are more or less serious i n nature, ranging, briefly, f r o m f a i l u r e to prolongation of the process; i t may take a considerably longer t i m e to get h o l d

35

of a p r o b l e m a n d to solve i t . B u t against these drawbacks there are many factors w h i c h beyond d o u b t make selfanalysis desirable. T h e r e are, to begin w i t h , obvious external factors o f the k i n d m e n t i o n e d before. Self-analysis w o u l d be desirable for those wh o because of money, time, or location cannot undertake regular treatment. A n d even for those w h o are having treatment i t m i g h t shorten the procedure considerably i f i n the intervals between analytical sessions, and also d u r i n g the sessions, they were inspired w i t h the courage to do active and independent w o r k o n themselves. B u t even apart f r o m such blatant reasons, certain gains are beckoning to those w h o are capable of self-analysis w h i c h are m o r e s p i r i t u a l i n character, less tangible b u t n o t less real. These gains can be summarized as an i n crease of i n n e r strength a n d therefore of self-confidence. Every successful analysis increases self-confidence, b u t there is a certain extra gain i n h a v i n g conquered territory e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h one's o w n i n i t i a t i v e , courage, and perseverance. T h i s effect is the same i n analysis as i n other areas of life. T o find a m o u n t a i n path a l l by oneself gives a greater feeling of strength than to take a path that is shown, t h o u g h the w o r k p u t i n is the same and the result is the same. Such achievement gives rise n o t only to a justifiable p r i d e b u t also to a well-founded feeling of confidence i n one's capacity to meet predicaments and n o t to feel lost w i t h o u t guidance.

C H A P T E R

T W O

The Driving Forces in Neuroses

Psychoanalysis, as already discussed, has n o t o n l y a clinical value as a therapy for neuroses b u t also a h u m a n value i n its potentialities for h e l p i n g people t o w a r d t h e i r best possible f u r t h e r development. B o t h objectives can be pursued i n other ways; peculiar to analysis is the att e m p t to reach these goals t h r o u g h h u m a n understandi n g — n o t alone t h r o u g h sympathy, tolerance, and an i n t u i t i v e grasp of interconnections, qualities that are i n dispensable i n any k i n d of h u m a n understanding, b u t , more fundamentally, t h r o u g h an effort to o b t a i n an accurate picture of the total personality. T h i s is undertaken by means of specific techniques for u n e a r t h i n g unconscious factors, for F r e u d has clearly shown that we cannot o b t a i n such a picture w i t h o u t recognizing the role of unconscious forces. T h r o u g h h i m we k n o w that such forces push us i n t o actions and feelings and re-

37

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

sponses that may be different f r o m what we consciously desire a n d may even be destructive of satisfactory relations w i t h the w o r l d a r o u n d us. Certainly these unconscious motivations exist i n everyone, a n d are by no means always productive of disturbances. I t is only when disturbances exist that i t is i m p o r t a n t to uncover and recognize

the unconscious

factors. N o matter what unconscious forces drive us to p a i n t or to w r i t e , we w o u l d scarcely bother to t h i n k about t h e m i f we can express ourselves i n p a i n t i n g or w r i t i n g w i t h reasonable adequacy. N o matter what u n conscious motivations carry us away to love or devotion, wc are n o t interested i n them so l o n g as that love or dev o t i o n gives a constructive content to o u r lives. B u t we do need to consider the unconscious factors i f apparent success i n d o i n g productive w o r k or i n establishing a good h u m a n relationship, a success that we desperately wanted, leaves us o n l y empty and disgruntled, or i f one attempt after another fails and, despite all efforts to the contrary, we feel d i m l y that we cannot p u t the failures altogether o n external circumstances. I n short, we need to examine o u r unconscious motivations i f i t appears that something f r o m w i t h i n is h a m p e r i n g us i n o u r pursuits. Since F r e u d unconscious motivations have been accepted as elemental facts of h u m a n psychology, and the subject need not be elaborated here, especially since everyone can enlarge his knowledge about unconscious motivations i n various ways. T h e r e are, i n the first place, Freud's o w n writings, such as his Introductory

38

Lectures

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

on Psychoanalysis,

Psychopalhology

a n d The Interpretation

of Dreams,

of Everyday

Life,

and the books sum-

marizing his theories, such as Ives H e n d r i c k ' s Facts and Theories

of Psychoanalysis.

Also w o r t h consulting are

those authors w h o t r y to develop Ficud's basic such as H . S. Sullivan i n his Conceptions chiatry, E d w a r d A . Strecker i n Beyond tiers, Erich F r o m m i n Escape i n The Neurotic

Personality

Ways in Psychoanalysis. m a n n i n Principles

findings,

of Modern

the Clinical

from Freedom, of Our Time

PsyFron-

o r myself a n d i n Netv

A . H . Maslow a n d Bela M i t t e l

of Abnormal

Kunkel's books, such as Character

Psychology, Growth

a n d Fiit?

and

Educa-

tion, suggest many valuable leads. Philosophical books, particularly the w r i t i n g s of Emerson, Nietzsche, and Schopenhauer, reveal psychological treasures for those w h o read t h e m w i t h an open m i n d , as do a few of the books o n the art of l i v i n g , such as Charles A l l e n Smart's Wild

Geese

and How

to Chase

Them.

Shakespeaxe,

Balzac, Dostoevski, Ibsen, and others are inexhaustible sources of psychological knowledge. A n d by n o means least, a l o t can be learned f r o m observing the w o r l d around us. A knowledge of the existence and efficacy of such u n conscious motivations is a helpful guide i n any attempt at analysis, particularly i f i t is n o t merely given l i p service b u t is taken seriously, i t may even be a sufficient tool tor sporadically discovering this o r that causal connect i o n . For a more systematic analysis, however, i t is nec essary to have a somewhat more specific understanding of the unconscious factors that d i s t u r b development.

39

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

I n any effort to understand personality i t is essential to discover the u n d e r l y i n g d r i v i n g forces of that personality. I n a t t e m p t i n g to understand a disturbed persona l i t y i t is essential to discover the d r i v i n g forces responsible for the disturbance. H e r e we are o n more controversial ground. Freud believed that the disturbances generate f r o m a conflict between e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors and repressed instinctual impulses. A d l e r , more rationalistic and superficial than F r e u d , believes that they are created by the ways and means that people use to assert their superiority over others. J u n g , more mystical than Freud, believes i n collective unconscious fantasies w h i c h , though replete w i t h creative possibilities, may w o r k havoc because the unconscious strivings fed by t h e m are the exact opposite of those i n the conscious m i n d . M y o w n answer is that i n the center of psychic disturbances are unconscious strivings developed i n order to cope w i t h life despite fears, helplessness, and isolation. I have called them "neurotic trends." M y answer is as far f r o m final as that of Freud or J u n g . B u t every explorer i n t o the u n k n o w n has some vision of what he expects to f i n d , and he can have no guarantee of the correctness of his vision. Discoveries have been made even though the vision was incorrect. T h i s fact may serve as a consolation for the uncertainty of o u r present psychological

knowledge.

W h a t t h e n are neurotic trends? W h a t are their characteristics, t h e i r f u n c t i o n , their genesis, their effect on o n e s life? I t should be emphasized again that their essen 4

o

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

tial elements are unconscious. A person may be aware of their effects, though i n that case he w i l l probably merely credit himself w i t h laudable character traits: i f he has, for example, a neurotic need for affection he w i l l t h i n k that his is a good and l o v i n g disposition; or i f he is i n the g r i p of a neurotic perfectionism he w i l l t h i n k that he is by nature more orderly and accurate than others. H e may even glimpse something of the drives p r o d u c i n g such effects, or recognize t h e m when they are b r o u g h t to his a t t e n t i o n : he may become aware, for example, that he has a need for affection or a need to be perfect. B u t he is never aware to what extent he is i n the g r i p of these strivings, to what extent they determine his life. Still less is he aware of the reasons why they have such power over him. T h e outstanding characteristic of neurotic trends is their compulsive nature, a q u a l i t y that shows itself i n t w o m a i n ways. First, t h e i r objectives are pursued indiscriminately. I f i t is affection a person must have, he must receive i t f r o m f r i e n d and enemy, f r o m employer and bootblack. A person obsessed by a need for perfection largely loses his sense of p r o p o r t i o n . T o have his desk i n faultless order becomes as imperative for h i m as to prepare an i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t i n perfect fashion. Moreover, the objectives are pursued w i t h supreme disregard for reality and real self-interest. A w o m a n h a n g i n g o n to a m a n to w h o m she relegates a l l responsibility for her l i f e may be u t t e r l y oblivious t o such questions as whether that particular m a n is an e n t i r e l y appropriate person to hang o n to, whether she is actually happy w i t h him>

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whether she likes and respects h i m . I I a person must be independent and self-sufficient he w i l l icfuse to tie h i m self to anyone or anything, no matter how m u c h he spoils his life thereby; he must n o t ask or accept help, no matter how m u c h he needs i t . T h i s absence of discriminat i o n is often obvious to others, b u t the person himself may n o t be aware of i t . As a r u l e , however, i t w i l l strike the oufsidei only i f the particular trends are inconveni e n t to h i m or i f they do not coincide w i t h recognized patterns, l i e w i l l notice, for instance, a compulsive negat i v i s m b u t may n o t become aware of a compulsive compliance. T h e second i n d i c a t i o n of the compulsive nature of neurotic trends is the reaction of anxiety that ensues f r o m t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n . T h i s characteristic is highly significant, because i t demonstrates the safety value of the trends. A person feels vitally threatened i l for any teason, i n t e r n a l or external, the compulsive pursuits are ineffective. A perfectionistic person feels panicky i f he makes any mistake. A person w i t h a compulsive need for u n l i m i t e d freedom becomes frightened at the prospect of any tie, whether i t be an engagement to marry or the lease of an apartment. A good i l l u s t r a t i o n of fear reactions of this k i n d is contained i n Balzac's Leather.

Chagrin

T h e hero i n the novel is convinced that his

span of life is shortened whenever he expresses a wish, ifiid therefore he anxiously refrains from d o i n g so. B u t once, w h e n off his guard, he does express a wish, and even though the w i s h itself is u n i m p o r t a n t he becomes panicky. T h e example illustrates the terror that seizes a neu-

42

Driving

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rotic person i f his security is threatened: he feels that everything is lost i f he lapses f r o m perfection, complete independence, or whatever standard i t is that represents his d r i v i n g need. I t is this security value that is p r i m a r i l y responsible for the compulsive character of the neurotic trends. T h e f u n c t i o n of these trends can be better understood i f we take a look at t h e i r genesis. T h e y develop early i n life t h r o u g h the c o m b i n e d effect of given temperamental and e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences. W h e t h e r a c h i l d becomes submissive or rebellious under die pressure of parental coercion depends n o t only o n the nature of the coercion b u t also on given qualities, such as the degree of his v i tality, the relative softness or hardness of his nature. Since we k n o w less of the constitutional factors t h a n of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l ones, a n d since the latter are the only ones susceptible of change, 1 shall comment only o n these. U n d e r a l l conditions a c h i l d w i l l be influenced by his environment. W h a t counts is whether this influence stunts or furthers g r o w t h . A n d w h i c h development w i l l occur depends largely o n the k i n d of relationship established between the c h i l d a n d his parents o r others around h i m , i n c l u d i n g other c h i l d r e n i n the f a m i l y . I f the spirit at home is one of w a r m t h , of m u t u a l respect a n d consideration, the c h i l d can grow u n i m p e d e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n there are many env i r o n m e n t a l factors adverse to a child's development. Parents, w i t h the best of intentions, may exert so m u c h pressure o n the c h i l d that his i n i t i a t i v e becomes para-

43

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

lyzett T h e r e may be a c o m b i n a t i o n of smothering love and i n t i m i d a t i o n , of tyranny and glorification. Parents may impress the c h i l d w i t h the dangers awaiting h i m outside the walls of his home. One parent may force the c h i l d to side w i t h h i m against the other. Parents may be unpredictable a n d sway f r o m a j o l l y comradeship to a strict a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . Particularly i m p o r t a n t , a c h i l d may be led to feel that his r i g h t to existence lies solely i n his l i v i n g u p to the parents'

expectations—measuring

u p to t h e i r standards or ambitions for h i m , enhancing their prestige, g i v i n g t h e m b l i n d devotion; i n other words, he may be prevented f r o m realizing that he is an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h his o w n rights and his o w n responsibilities. T h e effectiveness of such influences is n o t d i minished by the fact that they are often subtle and veiled. Moreover, there is usually n o t just one adverse factor b u t several i n c o m b i n a t i o n . As a consequence of such an environment the c h i l d does n o t develop a proper self-respect. H e becomes insecure, apprehensive, isolated, and resentful. A t the beg i n n i n g he is helpless toward these forces a r o u n d h i m , b u t gradually, by i n t u i t i o n and experience, he develops means of c o p i n g w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t and of saving his o w n skin. H e develops a wary sensitivity as to h o w t o m a n i p u l a t e others. T h e p a r t i c u l a r techniques t h a t he develops depend o n the whole constellation of circumstances. One c h i l d realizes t h a t by s t u b b o r n negativism and occasional temper tantrums he can w a r d off i n t r u s i o n . H e shuts others

44

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o u t of his life, l i v i n g o n a private island of w h i c h he is master and resenting every demand made u p o n h i m , every suggestion or expectation, as a dangerous i n r o a d o n his privacy. For another c h i l d n o other way is open than to eradicate himself and his feelings a n d s u b m i t b l i n d l y , e k i n g o u t merely a l i t t l e spot here a n d there where he is free to be himself. These unoccupied t e r r i tories may be p r i m i t i v e or sublime. T h e y range f r o m secret masturbation i n the seclusion of the b a t h r o o m to the r e a l m of nature, books, fantasies. I n contrast to this way, a t h i r d c h i l d does n o t freeze his emotions b u t clings to the most p o w e r f u l of the parents i n a k i n d of desperate devotion. H e b l i n d l y adopts that parent's likes a n d dislikes, his way of l i v i n g , his philosophy of life. H e may suffer under this tendency, however, and develop simultaneously a passionate desire for self-sufficiency. T h u s the foundations are l a i d for the neurotic trends. T h e y represent a way of life enforced by unfavorable conditions. T h e c h i l d must develop t h e m i n order t o survive his insecurity, his fears, his loneliness. B u t they give h i m an unconscious feeling that he must stick to the established path at a l l odds, lest he succumb to the dangers threatening h i m . I believe that w i t h sufficient detailed knowledge of relevant factors i n c h i l d h o o d , one can understand why a c h i l d develops a p a r t i c u l a r set of trends. I t is n o t possible here to substantiate this assertion, because to do so w o u l d necessitate recording a n u m b e r of c h i l d his tories i n great detail. B u t i t is n o t necessary to substan-

45

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tiate i t , because everyone sufficiently experienced w i t h c h i l d r e n or w i t h reconstructing their early development can test i t o u t for himself. W h e n this i n i t i a l development has once occurred is i t necessarily lasting? I f given circumstances have made a c h i l d c o m p l i a n t , defiant, diffident, must he necessarily r e m a i n so? T h e answer is that although he w i l l not i n evitably r e t a i n his defensive techniques there is grave danger that he w i l l . T h e y can be eradicated by an early radical change of environment, or they can be modified, even after a considerable

lapse of t i m e , through any

n u m b e r of f o r t u i t o u s happenings, such as f i n d i n g an understanding teacher, a f r i e n d , lover, mate, an engrossi n g task suited to his personality and abilities. B u t i n the absence of strong counteracting factors there is considerable danger that the trends acquired not only w i l l persist b u t i n t i m e w i l l o b t a i n a stronger h o l d o n the personality. T o understand this persistence one must f u l l y realize that these trends are more than a mere strategy evolved as an effective defense against a difficult parent. T h e y are, i n view of a l l the factors developing w i t h i n , the only possible way for the c h i l d to deal w i t h life i n general. T o r u n away f r o m attacks is the hare's strategy i n the face of dangers, and i t is the only strategy he has; he c o u l d not possibly decide to fight instead, because he simply has n o t the means to do so. Similarly, a c h i l d g r o w i n g u p under difficult conditions develops a set of attitudes t o w a r d life w h i c h are fundamentally neurotic trends, 4

6

Driving

Forces

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and these he cannot change by free w i l l b u t has to adhere to by necessity. T h e analogy w i t h the hare is not entirely valid, however, because the hare, by c o n s t i t u t i o n , has no other ways of coping w i t h danger w h i l e the h u m a n bei n g , i f n o t mentally or physically defective by nature, has other potentialities. H i s necessity to c l i n g to his special attitudes lies n o t i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s b u t i n the fact that the sum total of his fears, i n h i b i t i o n s , vulnerabilities, false goals, and illusory beliefs about the w o r l d confines h i m to certain ways and excludes others; i n other words, i t makes h i m r i g i d and does n o t p e r m i t of basic alterations. One way of i l l u s t r a t i n g this p o i n t is to compare how a c h i l d and a m a t u r e a d u l t may cope w i t h persons pre sen t i n g comparable difficulties. I t must be borne i n m i n d that the f o l l o w i n g comparison has merely an illustrative value and is not i n t e n d e d to deal w i t h a l l the factors i n volved i n the two situations. T h e c h i l d , C l a r e — a n d here I am t h i n k i n g of an actual patient to whose analysis I shall r e t u r n later on—has a self-righteous mother w h o expects the child's a d m i r a t i o n and exclusive devotion. T h e a d u l t is an employee,

psychologically w e l l inte-

grated, who has a boss w i t h qualities s i m i l a r to those of the mother. Both mother and boss are complacently selfa d m i r i n g , are arbitrary, favor others u n f a i r l y and tend to become hostile i f what they regard as due homage is not p a i d them or i f they sense a critical a t t i t u d e . Under these conditions the employee, i f he has stringent reasons for h o l d i n g o n to his j o b , w i l l more or less consciously evolve a technique for h a n d l i n g the boss.

47

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H e w i l l p r o b a b l y r e f r a i n f r o m expressing criticism; make i t a p o i n t to appreciate e x p l i c i t l y whatever good q u a l i ties there are; w i t h h o l d praise of the boss's competitors; agree w i t h the boss's plans, regardless of his o w n opinions; let suggestions of his o w n appear as i f the boss had i n i t i a t e d t h e m . A n d what influence w i l l this strategy have o n his personality? H e w i l l resent the discriminat i o n and dislike the deceit i t necessitates. B u t since he is a self-respecting person he w i l l feel that the situation reflects o n the boss rather t h a n o n himself, and the behavior he adopts w i l l n o t make h i m a compliant, bootl i c k i n g person. H i s strategy w i l l exist only for that patticular boss. T o w a r d the next employer, i f a change should take place, he w o u l d behave differently. For an understanding of neurotic trends m u c h depends o n recognizing their difference f r o m such ad hoc strategy. Otherwise one c o u l d n o t appreciate their force and pervasiveness and w o u l d succumb to a mistake similar to Adler's oversimplification and rationality. As a result one w o u l d also take too l i g h t l y the therapeutic w o r k to be done. Clare's s i t u a t i o n is comparable to that of the employee, for the mother and the boss are similar i n character, b u t for Clare i t is w o r t h w h i l e to go i n t o more detail. She was an unwanted c h i l d . T h e marriage was unhappy. A f t e r h a v i n g one c h i l d , a boy, the mother d i d not w a n t any more c h i l d r e n . G a t e was b o r n after several unsuccessful attempts at an a b o r t i o n . She was n o t badly treated or neglected i n any coarse sense: she was sent to schools as good as those the brother attended, she re-

8

4

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ceived as many gifts as he d i d , she had music lessons w i t h the same teacher, a n d i n a l l material ways was treated as w e l l . B u t i n less tangible matters she received less than the brother, less tenderness, less interest i n school marks and i n the thousand l i t t l e daily experiences of a c h i l d , less concern w h e n she w as i l l , less solicitude to have her r

around, less willingness to treat her as a confidante, less a d m i r a t i o n for looks and accomplishments. T h e r e

was

a strong, t h o u g h for a c h i l d intangible, c o m m u n i t y between the mother and brother f r o m w h i c h she was excluded. T h e father was no help, l i e was absent most of the t i m e , being a c o u n t r y doctor. Clare made some pathetic attempts to get close to h i m b u t he was not interested i n either of the c h i l d r e n . H i s affection was entirely focused o n the mother i n a k i n d of helpless a d m i r a t i o n . Finally, he was no help because he was openly despised by the mother, w h o was sophisticated and attractive and beyond d o u b t the d o m i n a t i n g spirit i n the family. T h e undisguised hatred and contempt the m o t h e r felt for the father, i n c l u d i n g open death wishes against h i m , cont r i b u t e d m u c h to Clare's feeling that i t was m u c h safer to be on the p o w e r f u l side. As a consequence of this situation Clare never had a good chance to develop self-confidence. T h e r e was not enough of open injustice to provoke sustained r e b e l l i o n , b u t she became discontented and cross and c o m p l a i n i n g . As a result she was teased for always feeling hctself a martyr. I t never remotely occurred to cither mother or brother that she m i g h t be r i g h t i n feeling u n f a i r l y treated. T h e y took i t for granted that her a t t i t u d e was a

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sign of an ugly disposition. A n d Clare, never having felt secure, easily yielded to the m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n about her self and began to feel that everything was her fault. Compared w i t h the mother, w h o m everyone admired for her beauty and charm, and w i t h the brother, who was cheerf u l and i n t e l l i g e n t , she was an ugly d u c k l i n g . She became deeply convinced that she was u n l i k a b l e . T h i s shift f r o m essentially true and warranted accusations of others to essentially u n t r u e and unwarranted self-accusations had far-reaching consequences, as we shall sec presently. A n d the shift entailed more than an acceptance of the m a j o r i t y estimate of herself, i t meant also that she repressed a l l grievances against the mother. I f everything was her o w n f a u l t the grounds for bearing a grudge against the mother were p u l l e d away f r o m under her. F r o m such repression of hostility i t was merely a short step to j o i n the group of those who a d m i r e d the mother. I n this further y i e l d i n g to majority o p i n i o n she had a strong incentive i n the mother's

antagonism

toward everything short of complete a d m i r a t i o n : i t was m u c h safer to find shortcomings w i t h i n herself than i n the mother. I f she, too, a d m i r e d the mother she need no longer feel isolated and excluded b u t could hope to leceive some affection, or at least be accepted. T h e hope tor affection d i d not materialize, b u t she obtained i n stead a gift of d o u b t f u l value. T h e mother, l i k e all those who t h r i v e o n the a d m i r a t i o n of others, was generous i n g i v i n g a d m i r a t i o n i n t u r n to those who adored her. Clare was no longer the disregarded ugly d u c k l i n g , b u t became the w o n d e r f u l daughter of a wonderful mother. 5°

Driving

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T h u s , i n place of a badly shattered self-confidence, she b u i l t u p the spurious p r i d e that is founded o n outside admiration. T h r o u g h this shift f r o m true rebellion to u n t r u e adm i r a t i o n Clare lost the feeble vestiges of self-confidence she had. T o use a somewhat vague term, she lost herself. By a d m i r i n g what i n reality she resented, she became alienated f r o m her o w n feelings. She n o longer knew what she herself l i k e d or wished or feared or resented. She lost all capacity to assert her wishes for love, or even any wishes. Despite a superficial p r i d e her conviction of being unlovable was actually deepened. Hence later o n , when one or another person was f o n d of her, she could not take the affection at its face value b u t discarded i t i n various ways. Sometimes she w o u l d t h i n k that such a person misjudged her for something she was n o t ; sometimes she w o u l d a t t r i b u t e the affection to gratitude for having been useful or to expectations of her f u t u r e usefulness. T h i s distrust deeply disturbed every h u m a n relationship she entered i n t o . She lost, too, her capacity foi critical j u d g m e n t , acting o n the unconscious m a x i m that i t is safer to admire others than to be critical. T h i s attitude shackled her intelligence, w h i c h was actually ol a high order, and greatly c o n t r i b u t e d to her feeling stupid. I n consequence of a l l these factors three neurotic trends developed. One was a compulsive modesty as to her o w n wishes and demands. T h i s entailed a c o m p u l sive tendency to p u t herself i n t o second place, to t h i n k less of herself t h a n of others, to t h i n k that others were

5

1

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right and she was w r o n g . B u t even i n this restricted scope she c o u l d n o t feel safe unless there was someone o n w h o m she c o u l d depend, someone w h o w o u l d protect and defend her, advise her, stimulate her, approve of her, be responsible for her, give her everything she needed. She needed a l l this because she had lost the capacity to take her life i n t o her o w n hands. T h u s she developed the need for a " p a r t n e r " — f r i e n d , lover, husb a n d — o n w h o m she c o u l d depend. She w o u l d subordinate herself to h i m as she had t o w a r d the mother. But at the same time, by his u n d i v i d e d devotion to her, he w o u l d restore her crushed d i g n i t y . A t h i r d neurotic t r e n d — a compulsive need to excel others and to t r i u m p h over t h e m — l i k e w i s e aimed at restoration of self-regard, b u t i n a d d i t i o n absorbed all the vindictiveness accumu la ted t h r o u g h hurts and h u m i l i a t i o n s . T o resume o u r comparison and summarize what i t was meant to illustrate: b o t h the employee and the c h i l d develop strategies for dealing w i t h the situation; for b o t h the technique is to p u t the self i n t o the background and adopt an a d m i r i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d the one i n a u t h o r i t y . T h u s their reactions may appear roughly comparable, b u t i n i c a l i t y they are entirely different. T h e employee does n o t lose his self-regard, does n o t relinquish his c r i t i cal j u d g m e n t , does not repress his resentment. T h e c h i l d , however, loses her self-regard, represses her hostility, abandons her critical faculties and becomes self-effacing Briefly, the a d u l t merely adjusts his behavior w h i l e the c h i l d changes her personality. T h e inflexible, all-pervasive nature of the neurotic

5

2

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trends has a significant i m p l i c a t i o n for therapy. Patients often expect that as soon as they have detected their compulsive needs they w i l l be able to r e l i n q u i s h t h e m . T h e y are disappointed, then, i f the h o l d these trends have over t h e m persists i n scarcely d i m i n i s h e d intensity. I t is t r u e that these hopes are n o t entirely fantastic: i n m i l d neuroses the neurotic t r e n d may indeed disappear w h e n i t is recognized, as w i l l be discussed i n one of the examples cited i n the chapter o n occasional self-analysis. B u t i n a l l more intricate neuroses such expectations are as f u t i l e as i t w o u l d be to expect that a social calamity such as u n employment w o u l d cease to exist merely because i t is recognized as a p r o b l e m . I n each instance, social or personal, i t is necessary to study and i f possible to influence those forces w h i c h have created the d i s r u p t i v e t r e n d a n d w h i c h account for its persistence. I have emphasized the security offered by the neurotic trends. As m e n t i o n e d before, this a t t r i b u t e accounts for their compulsive character. B u t the part played by the feeling of satisfaction that they engender, o r the hope for satisfaction, should n o t be underrated. T h i s feeling or hope is never missing, t h o u g h its intensity varies. I n some neurotic trends, such as the need for perfection or the compulsion t o w a r d modesty, the defensive aspect is predominant. I n others the satisfaction a t t a i n e d o r hoped for t h r o u g h the success of the s t r i v i n g can be so strong that the latter takes o n the character of a d e v o u r i n g passion. T h e n e u r o t i c need for dependency, f o r example, usually entails a v i v i d expectation of happiness w i t h that person w h o w i l l take one's l i f e i n t o his hands. A

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strong tinge of attained or anticipated satisfaction renders a t r e n d less accessible to therapy. N e u r o t i c trends may be classified i n various ways. Those e n t a i l i n g strivings for closeness w i t h others m i g h t be contrasted w i t h those a i m i n g at aloofness and distance. Those i m p e l l i n g t o w a r d one or another k i n d of dependency m i g h t be b u n d l e d together i n contrast w i t h those stressing independence. T r e n d s toward expansiveness stand against those w o r k i n g toward a constriction of life. T r e n d s t o w a r d an accentuation of personal peculiarities c o u l d be contrasted w i t h those a i m i n g at adaptat i o n o r at an eradication of the i n d i v i d u a l self, those toward self-aggrandizement w i t h those that entail selfb e l i t t l i n g . B u t to carry t h r o u g h such classifications w o u l d not make the p i c t u r e clearer, because the categories are overlapping. I shall therelore merely enumerate those trends w h i c h at the present time stand o u t as describable entities. I a m positive that the list is neither complete nor clear cut. O t h e r trends w i l l have to be added, and a t r e n d presented as an autonomous entity may t u r n o u t to be a mere variety of some other. I t w o u l d surpass the scope oi this chapter to give detailed descriptions of the various trends, even though such knowledge is desirable. Some of t h e m are described i n greater detail i n previous publications. I t must suffice here to list them a n d to give a cursory enumeration of their m a i n characteristics. 1. T h e n e u r o t i c need t o r affection a n d approval (see The Neurotic

Personality

the need for affection):

54

of Our Time,

Chapter 6, o n

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indiscriminate need to please others and to be l i k e d and approved of by others; Automatic l i v i n g u p to the expectations of others; Center of gravity i n others and n o t i n self, w i t h their wishes and opinions the only t h i n g that counts; Dread of self-assertion; Dread of hostility o n the p a r t of others 0 1 of hostile feelings w i t h i n self. 2. T h e neurotic need for a " p a r t n e r " w h o w i l l take over one's life (see New

Ways in Psychoanalysis,

ter 1 5 , on masochism, and Fromm's Escape from

ChapFree-

dom, Chapter 5, o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ; also the example given below i n Chapter 8): Centei of gravity entirely i n the " p a r t n e r , " who is to f u l f i l l a l l expectations of life and take responsibility for good and e v i l , his successful m a n i p u l a t i o n becom i n g the p r e d o m i n a n t task; O v e r v a l u a t i o n of " l o v e " because " l o v e " is supposed to solve a l l problems; Dread of desertion; Dread of being alone. 3. T h e neurotic need to restiict one's life w i t h i n nai row borders: Necessity to be undemanding and contented w i t h l i t t l e , and to restrict ambitions and wishes for material things; Necessity to r e m a i n inconspicuous and to take second place;

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B e l i t t l i n g of existing faculties and potentialities, w i t h modesty the supreme value; Urge to save rather than to spend; Dread of m a k i n g any demands; Dread of having or asserting expansive wishes. These three trends are often f o u n d together, as m m b t be expected,

because they all entail an admission of

weakness and constitute attempts to arrange life o n that basis. T h e y are the opposite of trends toward r e l y i n g on one's own strength or t a k i n g responsibility upon oneself. T h e three of them do not, however, constitute a syndrome. T h e t h i r d may exist w i t h o u t the other two p l a y i n g any noteworthy role.

4. T h e neurotic need for power (sec The Personality

0} Our Time,

Neurotic

Chapter J O , on the need for

power, prestige, and possession): D o m i n a t i o n over others craved for its o w n sake; D e v o t i o n to a cause, d u t y , responsibility, though playi n g some part, n o t the d r i v i n g force; Essential disrespect for others, their i n d i v i d u a l i t y , their d i g n i t y , t h e i r feelings, the only concern being their subordination; Great differences as to degree of destructive elements i n volved; I n d i s c r i m i n a t e adoration of strength and contempt for weakness; Dread of uncontrollable situations; Dread of helplessness. 5

6

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4a. T h e neurotic need to c o n t r o l self a n d others t h r o u g h reason and foresight (a variety of 4 i n people who are too i n h i b i t e d to exert power directly and openly): Belief i n the omnipotence of intelligence and reason; Denial of the power of e m o t i o n a l forces and contempt for t h e m ; Extreme value placed o n foresight a n d p r e d i c t i o n ; Feelings of superiority over others related to the faculty of foresight; Contempt for everything w i t h i n self that lags b e h i n d the image of intellectual superiority; Dread of recognizing objective l i m i t a t i o n s of the power of reason; Dread of "stupidity* and bad j u d g m e n t . 5

4b. T h e neurotic need to believe i n the omnipotence of w i l l (to use a somewhat ambiguous t e r m , an i n t r o v e r t variety of 4 i n h i g h l y detached people to w h o m a direct exertion of power means too m u c h contact w i t h others): Feeling of fortitude gained f r o m the belief i n the magic power of w i l l (like possession of a w i s h i n g r i n g ) ; Reaction of desolation to any frustration of wishes; Tendency to r e l i n q u i s h or restrict wishes a n d to w i t h draw interest because of a dread of " f a i l u r e " ; Dread of recognizing any l i m i t a t i o n s of sheer w i l l . 5. T h e neurotic need to e x p l o i t others a n d by hook or crook get the better of t h e m : Others evaluated p r i m a r i l y according to whether or not they can be exploited or made use of;

57

S F L F - A N

Various

foci

of

exploitation—money

A I Y S I S

(bargaining

amounts to a passion), ideas, sexuality, feelings; Pride i n exploitative s k i l l ; Dread of b e i n g e x p l o i t e d and thus of being " s t u p i d . " 6. T h e n e u r o t i c need for social recognition or prestige (may 0 1 may n o t be c o m b i n e d w i t h a craving for power): All

t h i n g s — i n a n i m a t e objects, money, persons, one's

o w n qualities, activities, a n d feelings—evaluated only according to their prestige value; Self-evaluation entirely dependent on nature of p u b l i c acceptance; Differences as to use of t r a d i t i o n a l or rebellious ways of i n c i t i n g envy or a d m i r a t i o n ; Dread of losing caste ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) , whether t h r o u g h external circumstances or t h r o u g h factors from w i t h i n . 7. T h e neurotic need for personal a d m i r a t i o n : Inflated image of self (narcissism); Need to be a d m i r e d not for what one possesses or presents i n the p u b l i c eye b u t for the imagined self; Self-evaluation dependent on l i v i n g u p to this image and on a d m i r a t i o n of i t by others; Dread of losing a d m i r a t i o n ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) . 8. T h e neurotic a m b i t i o n for personal achievement: Need to surpass others n o t t h r o u g h what one presents 01 is b u t t h r o u g h ones activities; Self-evaluation dependent o n being the very best—lover,

58

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sportsman, w r i t e r , w o r k e r — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n one's o w n m i n d , recognition by others being v i t a l too, however, a n d its absence resented; A d m i x t u r e of destructive tendencies (toward the defeat of others) never lacking b u t v a r y i n g i n intensity; Relentless d r i v i n g of self to greater achievements, though w i t h pervasive anxiety; Dread of failure ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) . Trends 6, 7, and 8 have i n c o m m o n a more or less open competitive drive t o w a r d an absolute superiority over others. B u t t h o u g h these trends overlap and may be combined, they may lead a separate existence. T h e need for personal a d m i r a t i o n , for instance, may go w i t h a disregard of social prestige. 9. T h e neurotic need for self-sufficiency

and inde-

pendence: Necessity never to need anybody, or to yield to any i n fluence, or to be t i e d d o w n to anything, any closeness i n v o l v i n g the danger of enslavement; Distance and separateness the only source of security; Dread of needing others, of ties, of closeness, of love. 1 0 . T h e neurotic need for perfection and unassailab i l i t y (see New Ways in Psychoanalysis, the super-ego, and Escape from Freedom,

Chapter 1 3 , o n Chapter 5, on

automaton c o n f o r m i t y ) : Relentless d r i v i n g for perfection; R u m i n a t i o n s and self-recriminations regarding possible flaws;

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Feelings of superiority over others because of being perfect; Dread of f i n d i n g flaws w i t h i n self or of m a k i n g mistakes; D r e a d of c r i t i c i s m or reproaches. A s t r i k i n g consideration i n r e v i e w i n g these trends is that none of the strivings and attitudes they i m p l y is i n itself " a b n o r m a l " or devoid of h u m a n value. Most of us want and appreciate affection, self-control, modesty, consideration of others. T o expect f u l f i l l m e n t of one's life f r o m another person is regarded, at least for a w o m a n , as " n o r m a l " o r even virtuous. A m o n g the strivings are some that we w o u l d n o t hesitate to estimate highly. Selfsufficiency, independence, and guidance t h r o u g h reason are generally regarded as valuable goals. I n view of these facts the question is b o u n d to arise over a n d over again: why call these trends neurotic? W h a t is really w r o n g w i t h them? Granted that w i t h some people certain trends are p r e d o m i n a n t , even have a measure of r i g i d i t y , w h i l e q u i t e different trends determ i n e the behavior of others, are n o t these varieties of pursuits merely

the expression

of given

differences

among people of different sets of values, different ways of coping w i t h life? Is i t n o t natural, for instance, that a tenderhearted person w i l l p u t stock i n affection and a stronger person i n independence and leadership? T o raise these questions is useful because i t is n o t only of theoretical b u t of e m i n e n t ly practical importance to recognize the differences between such basic h u m a n strivings a n d evaluations and their neurotic counter-

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parts. T h e objectives of the t w o types of strivings are similar, b u t their basis and meaning are entirely different. T h e difference is almost as great as between + 7 a n d —7: i n b o t h cases we have the n u m b e r 7, just as we use the same words, affection, reason, perfection, b u t the prefix changes character and value. T h e contrasts underl y i n g the apparent similarities have already been touched on i n the comparison of the employee and the c h i l d Clare, b u t a few more generalized comparisons may i l l u m i n a t e f u r t h e r the difference between n o r m a l a n d neurotic trends. A wish for affection f r o m others is m e a n i n g f u l only i f there is affection for t h e m , a feeling of having something i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e m . T h e emphasis then w i l l be n o t only o n the friendliness received b u t also o n the positive feelings one is capable of h a v i n g for others a n d of showi n g to them. B u t the neurotic need for affection is devoid of the value of reciprocity. For the n e u r o t i c person his o w n feelings of affection count as l i t t l e as they w o u l d i f he were surrounded by strange a n d dangerous animals. T o be accurate, he does n o t even really w a n t the others' affection, b u t is merely concerned, keenly a n d strenuously, that they make n o aggressive move against h i m . T h e singular value l y i n g i n m u t u a l understanding, tolerance, concern, sympathy has n o place i n the relationship. Similarly, the s t r i v i n g to perfect o u r gifts a n d o u r h u man faculties is certainly w o r t h o u r best efforts, so m u c h so that no d o u b t the w o r l d w o u l d be a better place to l i v e i n i f this s t r i v i n g were strong a n d alive i n a l l of us.

6l

S E L F

-

A N A L Y S I S

B u t the n e u r o t i c need for perfection, w h i l e i t may be expressed i n identical terms, has lost this special value, because i t represents an attempt to be or appear perfect w i t h o u t change. T h e r e is n o possibility of improvement, because finding areas w i t h i n the self that w o u l d need change is f r i g h t e n i n g a n d therefore avoided. T h e only real concern is to juggle away any deficiency lest one be exposed to attacks, and to preserve the secret feeling of superiority over others. As i n the neurotic need for affection, the person's o w n active p a r t i c i p a t i o n is lacking or i m p a i r e d . Instead of being an active striving, this t r e n d is a static insistence u p o n an illusory status

quo.

A last comparison: all of us have a h i g h regard for w i l l power, regarding i t as a m e a n i n g f u l force i f p u t i n t o the service of pursuits that are themselves i m p o r t a n t . B u t the neurotic f a i t h i n the omnipotence of w i l l is illusory, because i t completely disregards the l i m i t a t i o n s that may defy even the most d e t e r m i n e d efforts. N o a m o u n t of w i l l power gets us o u t of a Sunday-afternoon traffic j a m . F u r t h e r m o r e , the v i r t u e of w i l l power is n u l l i f i e d i f the p r o v i n g of its effectiveness becomes an a i m i n itself. A n y obstacle standing i n the way of momentary impulses w i l l drive the person i n the g r i p of this neurotic t r e n d i n t o b l i n d a n d frantic action, regardless of whether he really wants the p a r t i c u l a r object. T h e tables are actually reversed: i t is n o t that he has w i l l power, b u t that i t has h i m . These examples may suffice to show that the neurotic pursuits are almost a caricature of the h u m a n values they resemble. T h e y lack freedom, spontaneity, and meaning. A l l too often they involve i l l u s o r y elements. T h e i r value

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is only subjective, and lies i n the fact that they h o l d the more or less desperate promise of safety and of a solution for a l l problems. A n d one f u r t h e r p o i n t should be emphasized: n o t only are the neurotic trends devoid of the h u m a n values that they m i m i c , b u t they do n o t even repiesent w h a t the person wants. I f he puts a l l his energies i n t o the p u r s u i t of social prestige or power, for example, he may believe that he really wants these goals; actually, as we have seen, he is merely d r i v e n to w a n t t h e m . I t is as i f he were flying i n an ait plane w h i c h he believes he is p i l o t i n g , w h i l e actually the plane is directed by remote c o n t r o l . I t remains to understand approximately how and to what extent the neurotic trends may determine the person's character and influence his life. I n the fust place, these pursuits render i t necessary for h i m to develop certain subsidiary attitudes, feelings, and types of be havior. I f his t r e n d is t o w a r d u n l i m i t e d

independence,

he w i l l desire secrecy a n d seclusion, be wary of a n y t h i n g resembling an i n t r u s i o n i n t o his privacy, develop techniques for keeping others at a distance. I f his trend is toward a constriction of life, he w i l t be modest, undc manding, and ready to y i e l d to anyone who is more aggressive than he. Also, the neurotic trends largely determine the image a person has of what he is or should be. A l l neurotic persons are markedly unstable i n their self-evaluation, wave r i n g between an inflated and a deflated image of themselves. W h e n a neurotic t r e n d is recognized i t becomes

63

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possible to understand specifically the reasons w h y a particular person is aware of certain evaluations of h i m self and represses others, why he is consciously or u n consciously exceedingly p r o u d of certain attitudes or qualities and despises others for no discernible objective reason. For example, i f A has b u i l t u p a protective belief i n reason a n d foresight he w i l l n o t o n l y overrate what can be accomplished by reason i n general, but also take a special p r i d e i n his power of reasoning, his j u d g m e n t , his predictions. H i s notions of his superiority o\er others w i l l then derive p r i m a r i l y f r o m a conviction that his is a superior intelligence. A n d i f B feels he cannot possibly stand o n his o w n , b u t must have a " p a r t n e r " who gives content and d i r e c t i o n to his life, he is b o u n d to overrate not only the power of love b u t also his o w n a b i l i t y to love. H e w i l l mistake his need to hang o n to another person for a p a r t i c u l a r l y great a b i l i t y to love, and w i l l take a special p r i d e i n this illusory capacity. Finally, i f C s neurotic trend is to master any situation by his own effoits, to be self-sufficient at any price, he w i l l take an excessive p r i d e i n being capable a n d self-reliant and i n never needing anybody. T h e maintenance of these beliefs—A's belief i n his superior power of reasoning, B's i n his l o v i n g nature, C's i n his competence to handle his affairs q u i t e by h i m self—becomes as compulsive as the neurotic trends that produced t h e m . B u t the p r i d e taken i n these qualities is sensitive and vulnerable, and for good reasons. Its foundation is none too solid. I t is b u i l t o n too narrow a basis

6

4

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Neuroses

a n d contains too many illusory elements. I t is actually a p r i d e i n the qualities that are r e q u i r e d i n the service of the neurotic trends rather than i n qualities actually existi n g . I n actual fact B has very l i t t l e ability to love, b u t his belief i n this q u a l i t y is indispensable lest he recognize the falseness of his pursuits. I f he harbored any d o u b t as to his l o v i n g nature he w o u l d have to recognize that i n reality he searches n o t for someone to love b u t for someone who w i l l devote his life exclusively to h i m , w i t h o u t his being able to give m u c h i n r e t u r n . T h i s w o u l d mean such a v i t a l threat to his security that he w o u l d be b o u n d to react to a criticism o n this score w i t h a m i x t u r e of panic a n d hostility, one or the other prev a i l i n g . Similarly, A w i l l react w i t h extreme i r r i t a t i o n to any d o u b t cast o n his good j u d g m e n t . C, o n the other hand, whose p r i d e lies i n n o t needing anybody, must feci i r r i t a t e d at any suggestion that he cannot succeed w i t h o u t help or advice. T h e anxiety and hostility generated by such trespasses o n the treasured image of self f u r t h e r i m p a i r a person's relations to others, a n d thereby force h i m to adhere a l l the more strongly to his protective devices. N o t only the evaluation of self is incisively influenced by the neurotic trends, b u t also the evaluation of others. T h e person craving for prestige w i l l judge others exclusively according to the prestige they enjoy: one w h o enjoys greater prestige he w i l l p u t above himself, and one w i t h lesser prestige he w i l l look d o w n u p o n , iegardless of the real values involved. T h e compulsively comp l i a n t person is l i k e l y to feel indiscriminate adoration

S E T

r -

A

N A

L \

S I S

of what appears to h i m as strength, even i f this "strength" consists merely i n erratic or unscrupulous behavior. T h e person w h o must e x p l o i t others may take a certain l i k i n g to one w h o lends himself to e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t also despises h i m ; he w i l l t h i n k of a compulsively modest per son as either s t u p i d or hypocritical. T h e compulsively dependent person may look enviously at the compulsively self-sufficient person, t h i n k i n g h i m free and u n i n h i b i t e d , t h o u g h actually the latter is merely i n the g r i p of a different neurotic trend. A last consequence to be discussed here is the i n h i b i tions r e s u l t i n g from the neurotic trends. I n h i b i t i o n s may be circumscribed, that is, concern a concrete action, sen sation. or e m o t i o n , taking the f o r m , for example, of i m potence o r an i n h i b i t i o n toward telephoning. O r they may be diffuse and concern whole areas of life, such as self-assertion, spontaneity, m a k i n g demands, c o m i n g close to people. As a r u l e specific i n h i b i t i o n s are at the level of awareness. Diffuse i n h i b i t i o n s , though m o i e i m p o r t a n t , arc less tangible.* I f they become very strong the person may be generally aware of being i n h i b i t e d , w i t h o u t , how ever, recognizing in what specific direction. T h e y may be so subtle and h i d d e n , o n the other hand, that the person is n o t aware of their existence and efficacy. Awareness of i n h i b i t i o n s may be befogged i n various ways, oi w h i c h one of the commonest is rationalization: a person w h o has i n h i b i t i o n s about speaking to others i n social gatherings may be aware of being i n h i b i t e d on this score, b u t also he may simply believe that he dislikes parties * Sec H . Schultz-Hencke, Der gehemmle

66

Mensch.

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and considers t h e m b o r i n g , a n d find many good reasons for refusing invitations. T h e i n h i b i t i o n s produced by neurotic trends are p r i m a r i l y of the diffuse k i n d . L e t us for the sake of clarity compare the person obsessed by a neurotic t r e n d w i t h a rope dancer. T h e latter, i n order to reach the other end of the rope w i t h o u t f a l l i n g d o w n , must avoid any glance to r i g h t or left a n d m u s t keep his a t t e n t i o n fixed o n the rope. H e r e we w o u l d n o t speak of an i n h i b i t i o n to glanci n g aside, because the rope dancer has a clear recognit i o n of the danger i n v o l v e d and consciously avoids that danger. A person i n the clutches of a n e u r o t i c t r e n d must equally anxiously avoid any deviation f r o m the prescribed course, b u t i n his case there is an i m p o r t a n t difference, for w i t h h i m the process is unconscious: strong i n h i b i t i o n s prevent h i m f r o m wavering i n the course l a i d d o w n for h i m . T h u s a person w h o makes himself dependent o n a partner w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g

independent

moves of his o w n ; a person t e n d i n g toward a constriction of l i f e w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m having, and s t i l l more f r o m asserting, any expansive wishes; a person w i t h a neurotic need to control self and others by reason w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m feeling any strong e m o t i o n ; and a person w i t h a compulsive craving for prestige w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m dancing o r speaking i n p u b l i c or f r o m any other activity that m i g h t jeopardize his prestige, and i n fact his whole l e a r n i n g faculty may be paralyzed because i t is intolerable for h i m to appear awkward d u r i n g the beg i n n i n g period. Different as they are, a l l these i n h i b i t i o n s

¿7

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

have an a t t r i b u t e i n c o m m o n : a l l of them represent a check o n any spontaneity of feeling, thought, and action. One can have no more than a studied spontaneity w h e n dancing o n a rope. A n d the panic that seizes a neurotic person i f something leads h i m to trespass his determined boundaries is no less acute than that experienced by the rope dancer w h o loses his footing. T h u s each neurotic t r e n d generates n o t only a specific anxiety b u t also specific types of behavior, a specific image of self and others, a specific p r i d e , a specific k i n d of v u l n e r a b i l i t y and specific i n h i b i t i o n s . So far we have simplified matters by assuming that any one person has o n l y one neurotic trend or a comb i n a t i o n of k i n d r e d trends. I t has been pointed o u t that a t r e n d t o w a r d relegating one's life to a partner is often c o m b i n e d w i t h a general need for affection and w i t h a t r e n d toward constricting one's life w i t h i n narrow l i m i t s ; that a craving for power so frequently goes w i t h a cravi n g for prestige that the two may appear as t w o aspects of the same t r e n d ; that an insistence on absolute independence a n d self-sufficiency is often i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h a belief that l i f e can be mastered t h r o u g h reason and fore sight. I n these instances the coexistence of various trends does n o t essentially complicate the picture, because w h i l e the different trends may collide at times—the need to be a d m i r e d , for instance, may collide w i t h a need to d o m i n a t e — t h e i r objectives are nevertheless n o t too far apart. T h i s does n o t mean that there are n o conflicts: each neur o t i c t r e n d carries w i t h i n itself the germ of conflicts. B u t w h e n the trends are k i n d r e d the conflicts are manageable

68

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by way of repressions, avoidances, and the l i k e , t h o u g h at great expense to the i n d i v i d u a l . T h e situation changes essentially when a person has developed several neurotic trends that are i n c o m p a t i b l e i n nature. H i s position then is comparable to that of a servant who is dependent o n t w o masters w h o give contradictory commands, b o t h expecting b l i n d obedience. I f compliance is just as compulsive for h i m as absolute independence he feels caught i n a conflict w h i c h does n o t p e r m i t of any permanent solution. H e w i l l grope for compromise solutions, b u t clashes w i l l be inevitable; one p u r s u i t is b o u n d to interfere constantly w i t h its opposite. T h e same impasse occurs when a compulsive need to dominate others i n a dictatorial fashion is comb i n e d w i t h a s t r i v i n g to lean on another person, or when a need to e x p l o i t others, w h i c h precludes the person's p r o d u c t i v i t y , is of equal intensity w i t h a need to be a d m i r e d as the superior, protective genius. I t occurs, i n fact, whenever contradictory trends exist together. T h e neurotic "symptoms," such as phobias,

depres-

sions, alcoholism, u l t i m a t e l y result f r o m these conflicts. T h e more thoroughly we recognize this fact the less w i l l we be tempted to i n t e r p r e t the symptoms directly. I f they are a result of conflicting trends i t is as good as useless to t r y to understand t h e m w i t h o u t having previously gained an understanding of the u n d e r l y i n g structure. I t should now be clear that the essence of a "neurosis" is the neurotic character structure, the focal points of w h i c h are the n e u r o t i c trends. Each of t h e m is the nucleus of a structure w i t h i n the personality, and each

69

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of these substructures is interrelated i n many ways w i t h other substructures. I t is n o t o n l y of theoretical interest b u t of e m i n e n t practical importance to realize the nature and c o m p l e x i t y of this character structure. Even psychiatrists, n o t to speak of laymen, t e n d to underrate the intricacies of the nature of m o d e r n man. T h e n e u r o t i c character structure is more or less r i g i d , b u t i t is also precarious and vulnerable because of its many weak spots—its pretenses, self-deceptions, and i l lusions. A t i n n u m e r a b l e points, the nature of w h i c h varies i n each i n d i v i d u a l , its failure to f u n c t i o n is noticeable. T h e person himself senses deeply that something is f u n d a m e n t a l l y w r o n g , t h o u g h he does not k n o w what i t is. H e may vigorously assert that everything is a l l r i g h t , apart f r o m his headaches or his eating sprees, b u t he registers deep d o w n that something is wrong. N o t o n l y is he ignorant of the source of trouble, b u t he has considerable interest i n r e m a i n i n g ignorant, because, as emphasized above, his neurotic trends have a definite subjective value for h i m . I n this situation there are two courses he may take: he may, despite the subjective value of his n e u r o t i c trends, examine the nature and causes of the deficiencies they produce; or he may deny that anyt h i n g is w r o n g or can be changed. I n analysis b o t h courses are followed, one or the othei p r e v a i l i n g at different times. T h e more indispensable the neurotic trends are for a person, and the more questionable t h e i r actual value, the more vigorously and r i g i d l y must he defend and justify t h e m . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is comparable to the need of a government to defend and

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in

Neuroses

justify its activities. T h e more debatable the government, the less can i t tolerate criticism and the more must i t assert its rights. These self-justifications constitute what I should l i k e to call secondary defenses. T h e i r purpose is not only to defend one or another questionable factor b u t to safeguard the maintenance of the whole neurotic structure. T h e y are l i k e a m i n e f i e l d laid o u t a r o u n d the neurosis for its protection. Different t h o u g h they appear i n detail, their common denominator is a persuasion that i n essence everything is r i g h t , good, or unalterable. I t is i n accord w i t h the comprehensive f u n c t i o n of the secondary defenses that the attitudes they e n t a i l tend to be generalized i n order n o t to leave open any loophole. T h u s , for example, a person who has surrounded h i m self w i t h an a r m o r of self-righteousness w i l l not only defend his power drive as r i g h t , r a t i o n a l , and warranted, b u t w i l l be unable to a d m i t that a n y t h i n g he does, t r i v i a l t h o u g h i t may be, is w r o n g or questionable. T h e secondary defenses may be so h i d d e n that they can be detected only d u r i n g analytical w o r k , or they may constitute a p r o m i n e n t feature of the observable picture of the personality; they are easily recognized, for instance, i n the person who must always be r i g h t . T h e y must not necessarily appear as a character t r a i t b u t may take the f o r m of moral or scientific convictions; thus an overemphasis o n constitutional factors often represents a person's conviction that he is as he is " b y nature," a n d that hence everything is unalterable. Also the intensity and r i g i d i t y of these defenses vary considerably. I n Clare, for i n -

71

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

stance, whose analysis we f o l l o w t h r o u g h o u t the book, they played h a r d l y any role. I n others they may be so strong as to render any attempt at analysis impossible. T h e more a person is i n t e n t u p o n m a i n t a i n i n g the status quo the more impenetrable are his defenses. B u t w h i l e there are variations i n transparency, intensity, and m a n i testations, the secondary defenses, i n contrast to the m a n i f o l d shades a n d variations of the neurotic character structure itself, show a monotonous r e p e t i t i o n of the themes "good," " r i g h t , " "unalterable," i n one or another combination. I should l i k e now to r e t u r n to my i n i t i a l assertion that neurotic trends are i n the center of psychic disturbances. T h i s statement does n o t mean, of course, that the neur o t i c trends are what the i n d i v i d u a l feels most keenly as disturbances: as mentioned before, he is usually unaware that they are the d r i v i n g forces i n his life. N o r does i t mean that the neurotic trends are the ultimate source of a l l psychic troubles: the trends themselves are a product of previous disturbances,

conflicts that have oc-

curred i n h u m a n relationships. M y contention is rather that the focal p o i n t i n the whole neurotic structure is what I have called the neurotic trends. T h e y provide a way o u t of the i n i t i a l calamities, offering a promise that life can be coped w i t h despite disturbed relationships to self and others. B u t also they produce a great variety of new disturbances: illusions about the w o r l d and about the self, vulnerabilities, i n h i b i t i o n s , conflicts. T h e y are at the same t i m e a solution of i n i t i a l difficulties and a source of f u r t h e r ones.

72

C H A P T E R

Stages of Psychoanalytic

T H R E E

Understanding

A knowledge of the neurotic trends and their implications gives a rough conception of what has to be w o r k e d t h r o u g h i n analysis. I t is also desirable, however, to k n o w something about the sequence i n w h i c h the w o r k must be done. A r e problems tackled i n a helter-skelter fashion? Does one o b t a i n a piecemeal insight here and there u n t i l at last the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle are p u t together i n t o an understandable picture? O r are there principles that may serve as a guide i n the maze of material offering itself? Freud's answer to this question seems easy enough. Freud declared that a person w i l l first present i n the analysis the same f r o n t that he presents to the w o r l d i n general, a n d that t h e n his repressed strivings w i l l gradually appear, i n succession f r o m the less repressed to the more repressed. I f we were to take a bird's-eye view of the

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

analytical procedure this answer w o u l d s t i l l h o l d true A n d even as a guide for action the general p r i n c i p l e i n volved w o u l d be good enough i f the findings to be made lay a r o u n d a single vertical l i n e along which we w o u l d have to w i n d o u r way i n t o the depths. B u t i f we should assume that this is the case, i f we should assume that i f we only continue to analyze whatever material shows u p we shall penetrate step by step i n t o the repressed area, we may easily find ourselves i n a state of c o n f u s i o n — which indeed happens n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y . T h e theory of neuroses developed

i n the previous

chapter gives us more specific leads. I t holds that there are several focal points i n the neurotic personality given by the neurotic trends and the structure b u i l t around each of t h e m . T h e inference to be d r a w n for the thera peutic procedure is, briefly, that wc must discover each trend and each t i m e descend i n t o the denths. M o r e con¬ cretely, the implications of each neurotic t r e n d are repressed i n various degrees. Those that are less deeply repressed are the first to become accessible; those that are more deeply repressed w i l l emerge later. T h e extensive example of self-analysis presented i n Chapter Eight w i l l illustrate this p o i n t . T h e same p r i n c i p l e applies to the order i n which the neurotic trends themselves can be tackled. One patient w i l l start by presenting the implications of his need for absolute independence and superiority, and only m u c h later can one discover and tackle indications of his compliance or of his need for affection. T h e next patient w i l l start w i t h an open display of his need to be loved and

74

Stages

of

Understanding

approved of, and his tendencies to control others, i f he has any, could n o t possibly be approached at the beginn i n g ; b u t a t h i r d one w i l l f r o m the b e g i n n i n g display a h i g h l y developed power drive. T h e fact that a t r e n d appears at the b e g i n n i n g indicates n o t h i n g about its comparative importance or unimportance: the neurotic trend that appears first is h o t necessarily the strongest one i n the sense of having the greatest influence o n the personality. W e c o u l d rather say that that t r e n d is the first to crystallize w h i c h jibes best w i t h the person's conscious or semiconscious image of himself. I f secondary defenses—the means of self-justification—are h i g h l y developed they may entirely dominate the p i c t u r e at the beginning. I n that case the neurotic trends become visible and accessible o n l y later o n . I should l i k e to illustrate the stages of understanding w i t h the example of the patient Clare whose c h i l d h o o d history was briefly o u t l i n e d i n the previous

chapter.

W h e n the analysis is reported for this purpose i t must, of course, be grossly simplified and schematized. I must leave o u t n o t only many details and ramifications b u t also a l l the difficulties encountered d u r i n g the analytical w o r k . Moreover, the various phases appear, i n summary, more clear cut than they actually were: factors that appear i n the r e p o r t as belonging to the first phase, for i n stance, actually emerged then only d i m l y and became clearer t h r o u g h o u t the analysis. I believe, however, that these inaccuracies do n o t essentially detract f r o m the v a l i d i t y of the principles presented.

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Clare came for analytic treatment at the age of t h i r t y , for various reasons. She was easily overcome by a paralyzing fatigue that interfered w i t h her w o r k and hei social life. Also, she complained about having remarkably l i t t l e self-confidence. She was the editor of a magazine, a n d t h o u g h her professional career and her present position were satisfactory her a m b i t i o n to w r i t e plays and stories was checked by insurmountable i n h i b i t i o n s . She c o u l d do her l o u t i n e w o r k b u t was unable to do p r o d u c t i v e w o r k , though she was i n c l i n e d to account for this latter i n a b i l i t y by p o i n t i n g o u t her probable lack of talent. She had been m a r r i e d at the age of twenty-three, b u t the husband had d i e d after three years. After the marriage she had had a relationship w i t h another m a n w h i c h c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g the analysis. According to her i n i t i a l presentation b o t h relationships were satisfactory sexually as w e l l as otherwise. T h e analysis stretched over a p e r i o d of four and a half years. She was analyzed for one year and a half. T h i s t i m e was followed by an i n t e r r u p t i o n of two years, i n which she d i d a good deal of self-analysis, afterward r e t u r n i n g to analysis for another year at i r r e g u l a r intervals. Clare's analysis could be roughly d i v i d e d i n t o three phases, the discovery of her compulsive modesty; the discovery o f her compulsive dependence on a partner; and finally, the discovery of her compulsive need to force others to recognize her superiority. None of these trends was apparent to herself or to others. I n the first p e r i o d the data that suggested compulsive elements were as follows. She tended to m i n i m i z e her

6

7

Stages

of

Understanding

o w n value and capacities: n o t only was she insecure about her assets b u t she tenaciously denied t h e i r existence, i n sisting that she was n o t i n t e l l i g e n t , attractive, or gifted a n d tending to discard evidence to the contrary. Also, she tended to regard others as superior to herself. I f there was a dissension of o p i n i o n she automatically believed that the others were right. She recalled that when her husband had started an affair w i t h another w o m a n she d i d n o t h i n g to remonstrate against i t , though the experience was extremely p a i n f u l to her; she managed to consider h i m justified i n p r e f e r r i n g the other o n the grounds that the latter was more attractive and more l o v i n g . Moreover, i t was almost impossible for her to spend money o n herself: when she traveled w i t h others she c o u l d enjoy l i v i n g i n expensive places, even though she c o n t r i b u t e d her share i n the expenses, b u t as soon as she was o n her o w n she c o u l d not b r i n g herself to spend money o n such things as trips, dresses, plays, books. Finally, though she was i n an executive position, i t was impossible for her to give orders: she w o u l d do so i n an apologetic way i f orders were unavoidable. T h e conclusion reached f r o m such data was that she had developed a compulsive modesty, that she felt compelled to constrict her life w i t h i n n a r r o w boundaries and to take always a second or t h i r d place. W h e n this trend was once recognized, and its o r i g i n i n c h i l d h o o d discussed, we began to search systematically for its manifestations and its consequences. W h a t role d i d this t r e n d actually play i n her life? She c o u l d n o t assert herself i n any way. I n discussions

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

she was easily swayed by the opinions of others. Despite a good faculty for j u d g i n g people she was incapable of t a k i n g any c r i t i c a l stand t o w a r d anyone or anything, except i n e d i t i n g , w h e n a critical stand was expected of her. She had encountered serious difficulties, for instance, by f a i l i n g to realize that a fellow w o r k e r was t r y i n g to underm i n e her position; when this situation was f u l l y apparent t o others she still regarded the other as her friend. H e r compulsion to take second place appeared clearly i n games: i n tennis, for instance, she was usually too i n h i b i t e d to play w e l l , b u t occasionally she was able to play a good game and then, as soon as she became aware that she m i g h t w i n , she w o u l d begin to play badly. T h e wishes of others were more i m p o r t a n t than her o w n : she w o u l d be contented to take her holidays d u r i n g the t i m e that was least wanted by others, and she w o u l d do more w o r k than she needed to i f the others were dissatisfied w i t h the a m o u n t of w o r k to be done. Most i m p o r t a n t was a general suppression of her feel¬ ings and wishes. H e r i n h i b i t i o n s concerning expansive plans she regarded as p a r t i c u l a r l y "realistic"—evidence that she never wanted things that were beyond reach. A c t u a l l y she was as l i t t l e "realistic" as someone

with

excessive expectations of life; she merely kept her wishes beneath the level of the attainable. She was unrealistic i n l i v i n g i n every way beneath her means—socially, economically, professionally, s p i r i t u a l l y . I t was attainable for her, as her later life showed, to be liked by many people, to look attractive, to w r i t e something that was valuable and o r i g i n a l .

8

7

Stages

of

Understanding

T h e most general consequences of this t r e n d were a progressive l o w e r i n g of self-confidence and a diffuse discontentment w i t h life. O f the latter she had n o t been i n the least aware, and could n o t be aware as l o n g as everyt h i n g was "good enough" for her and she was n o t clearly conscious of having wishes or of their n o t being fulfilled. T h e only way this general discontentment w i t h life had shown itself was i n t r i v i a l matters and i n sudden spells of crying w h i c h had occurred f r o m t i m e to t i m e and which had been q u i t e beyond her understanding. For q u i t e a w h i l e she recognized only fragmentarily the t r u t h of these findings; i n i m p o r t a n t matters she made the silent reservation that I either overrated her or i e l t i t to be good therapy to encourage her. Finally, however, she recognized i n a rather dramatic fashion that real, intense anxiety l u r k e d b e h i n d this facade of m o d esty. I t was at a t i m e when she was about to suggest an improvement i n the magazine. She knew that her plan was good, that i t w o u l d n o t meet w i t h too m u c h oppo sition, that everyone w o u l d be appreciative i n the end. Before suggesting i t , however, she had an intense panic w h i c h could n o t be rationalized i n any way. A t the be g i n n i n g of the discussion she still felt panicky and had to leave the r o o m because of a sudden diarrhea. B u t as the discussion t u r n e d increasingly i n her favor the panic subsided. T h e p l a n was finally accepted and she received considerable recognition. She went home w i t h a feeling of elation and was still i n good spirits when she came to the next analytical hour. I dropped a casual remark to the effect that this was

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- A N A L

Y S I S

q u i t e a t r i u m p h for her, w h i c h she rejected w i t h a slight annoyance. N a t u r a l l y she had enjoyed the recognition, b u t her p r e v a i l i n g feeling was one of having escaped f r o m a great danger. I t was o n l y after more than two years had elapsed that she could tackle the other elements i n v o l v e d i n this experience, which were along the lines of a m b i t i o n , dread of failure, t r i u m p h . A t that t i m e her feelings, as expressed i n hei associations, w ere T

all concentrated on the p r o b l e m of modesty. She felt that she had been presumptuous to p r o p o u n d a new p l a n . W h o was she to k n o w better! B u t gradually she realized that this a t t i t u d e was based o n the fact that for her the suggesting of a different course of action meant a v e n t u r i n g o u t of the narrow artificial precincts that she had anxiously preserved. O n l y when she recognized the t r u t h of this observation d i d she become f u l l y convinced that her modesty was a façade to be m a i n t a i n e d for the sake of safety. T h e result of this first phase of work was a b e g i n n i n g of faith i n herself and a beginning of courage to feel and assert her wishes and opinions. T h e second period was dedicated prevailingly to w o r k o n her dependency o n a " p a r t n e r . " T h e majority of the problems involved she w o r k e d t h r o u g h by herself, as w i l l be reported later on i n greater detail. T h i s dependency, despite its ovei w h e l m i n g strength, was still more deeply repressed than the previous trend. I t had never occurred to her that a n y t h i n g was w r o n g i n her relation ships w i t h m e n . O n the contrary, she had believed them to be p a r t i c u l a r l y good. T h e analysis gradually changed this p i c t u r e .

80

Stages

of

Understanding

T h e r e were three m a i n factors that suggested compulsive dependence. T h e first was that she felt completely lost, l i k e a small c h i l d i n a strange wood, when a relationship ended or w h e n she was temporarily separated f r o m a person w h o was i m p o r t a n t t o her.

The

first experience of this k i n d occurred after she left home at the age of twenty. She then felt l i k e a feather b l o w n around i n the universe, and she wrote desperate letters to her mother, declaring that she c o u l d n o t live w i t h o u t her. T h i s homesickness stopped w h e n she developed a k i n d of crush on an older m a n , a successful w r i t e r who was interested i n her w o r k and furthered her i n a pat r o n i z i n g way. O f course, this first experience of feeling lost when alone c o u l d be understood o n the basis of her youth and the sheltered l i f e she had l i v e d . B u t later reactions were intrinsically the same, and f o r m e d a strange contrast to the rather successful professional career that she was achieving despite the difficulties m e n t i o n e d before. T h e second s t r i k i n g fact was that i n any of these relationships

the

whole

world around

her

became

submerged and only the beloved had any importance. T h o u g h t s and feelings centered a r o u n d a call or a letter or a visit f r o m h i m ; hours that she spent w i t h o u t h i m were empty, filled only w i t h w a i t i n g for h i m , w i t h a pondering about his a t t i t u d e to her, a n d above all w i t h feeling utterly miserable about incidents w h i c h she felt as utter neglect or h u m i l i a t i n g rejection. A t these times other h u m a n relationships, her w o r k , and other interests lost almost every value for her.

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

T h e t h i r d factor was a fantasy of a great and masterf u l m a n whose w i l l i n g slave she was and who i n t u r n gave her everything she wanted, f r o m an abundance of material things to an abundance of mental stimulation, and made her a famous w r i t e r . As the implications of these factors were gradually recognized the compulsive need to lean o n a " p a r t n e r " appeared a n d was w o r k e d t h r o u g h i n its characteristics and its consequences.

Its m a i n featuie was an entirely

repressed parasitic attitude, an unconscious wish to feed o n the partner, to expect h i m to supply the content of her life, to take responsibility for h e i , to solve a l l her difficulties and to make her a great person w i t h o u t her having to make efforts of her o w n . T h i s trend had alienated her n o t o n l y f r o m other people b u t also f r o m the partner himself, because the unavoidable disappointments she felt w h e n her secret expectations of h i m rem a i n e d u n f u l f i l l e d gave rise to a deep i n n e r i r r i t a t i o n ; most of this i r r i t a t i o n was repressed for fear of losing the partner, b u t some of i t emerged i n occasional explosions. A n o t h e r consequence was that she could not enjoy anyt h i n g except w h e n she shared i t w i t h the partner. T h e most general consequence of this trend was that her relationships served o n l y to make her m o i e insecure and more passive and to breed self-con tempt. T h e interrelations of this t r e n d w i t h the previous one were t w o f o l d . O n the one hand, her compulsive modesty was one of the reasons that accounted for her need for a partner. Since she c o u l d n o t take care of her o w n

82

Stages

of

Understanding

wishes she had to have someone else w h o took care of them. Since she c o u l d n o t defend herself she

needed

someone else to defend her. Since she c o u l d n o t see her o w n values she needed someone else to affirm her w o r t h . O n the o t h e i hand, there was a sharp conflict between the compulsive modesty and the excessive expectations of the partner. Because of this unconscious conflict she had to distort the s i t u a t i o n every t i m e she was disapp o i n t e d over u n f u l f i l l e d expectations. I n such situations she felt herself the v i c t i m of intolerably harsh and abusive treatment, and therefore i e l t miserable and hostile. Most of the hostility had to be repressed because of fear of desertion, b u t its existence u n d e r m i n e d the relationship and t u r n e d her expectations i n t o v i n d i c t i v e demands. T h e resulting upsets proved to have a great bearing o n her fatigue a n d her i n h i b i t i o n toward productive w o r k . T h e result of this period of analytical w o r k was t h a t she overcame her parasitic helplessness a n d became capable of greater activity of her o w n . T h e fatigue was n o longer c o n t i n u a l b u t appeared only occasionally.

She

became capable of w r i t i n g , though she still had to face strong resistances. H e r relationships w i t h people became more friendly, though they were still far f r o m being spontaneous;

she impressed others as being haughty

w h i l e she herself s t i l l felt q u i t e t i m i d A n expression o l the general change i n her was contained i n a dream i n w h i c h she drove w i t h her friend i n a strange country and i t occurred to her that she, too, m i g h t apply for a

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

driver's license. Actually, she had a license and could d r i v e as w e l l as the f r i e n d . T h e dream symbolized a d a w n i n g insight that she had rights of her o w n and need n o t feel l i k e a helpless appendage. T h e t h i r d and last p e r i o d of analytical w o r k dealt w i t h repressed ambitious strivings. T h e r e had been a p e r i o d i n her life when she had been obsessed by frantic a m b i t i o n . T h i s had lasted f r o m her later years i n grammar school u p to her second year i n college, and had then seemed to disappear. One c o u l d conclude only by inference that i t still operated underground. T h i s was suggested by the fact that she was elated and overjoyed at any recognition, by her dread of failure, and by the anxiety involved i n any attempt at independent work. T h i s t r e n d was more complicated i n its structure than the t w o others, i n contrast to the others, i t constituted an attempt to master life actively, to take u p a fight against adverse forces. T h i s fact was one element i n its c o n t i n u e d existence: she felt herself that there had been a positive force i n her a m b i t i o n and wished repeatedly to be able to retrieve i t . A second element feeding the a m b i t i o n was the necessity to re-establish her lost self esteem. T h e t h i r d element was vindictiveness: success meant a t r i u m p h over all those who had h u m i l i a t e d her, while f a i l u r e meant disgraceful defeat. T o understand the characteristics of this a m b i t i o n wc must go back i n her history a n d discover the successive changes i t underwent. The

fighting

8

4

s p i r i t i n v o l v e d i n this trend appeared

Stages

of

Understanding

q u i t e early i n life. Indeed, i t preceded the development of the other two trends. A t this p e r i o d of the analysis early memories occurred to her of opposition, r e b e l l i o n , belligerent demands, a l l sorts of mischief. As we know, she lost this light for her place i n the sun because the odds against her were too great. T h e n , after a series of unhappy experiences, this s p i r i t re-emerged w h e n she was about eleven, i n the f o r m of a fierce a m b i t i o n at school. N o w , however, i t was loaded w i t h repressed host i l i t y : i t had absorbed the piled-up vindictiveness for the u n f a i r deal she had received and for her d o w n t r o d den d i g n i t y . I t had now acquired two of the elements mentioned above: t h r o u g h being o n top she w o u l d reestablish her sunken self-confidence, and by defeating the others she w o u l d avenge her injuries. T h i s grammarschool a m b i t i o n , w i t h a i l its compulsive a n d destructive elements, was nevertheless realistic i n comparison w i t h later developments,

for i t entailed efforts to surpass

others t h r o u g h greater

actual achievements.

During

h i g h school she was s t i l l successful i n being unquestionably the first. B u t i n college, where she met greater competition, she rather suddenly dropped her a m b i t i o n altogether, instead of m a k i n g the gi eater efforts that the situation w o u l d have r e q u i r e d i f she s t i l l wanted to be first. T h e r e were three m a i n reasons why she could n o t muster the courage to make these gi eater efforts. One was that because of her compulsive modesty she had to fight against constant doubts as to her i n t e l l i gence. A n o t h e r was the actual i m p a i r m e n t i n the tree use of her intelligence t h r o u g h the repression of her

8

5

S E L F - A N A L T S I S

c r i t i c a l faculties. Finally, she c o u l d n o t take the risk of f a i l u r e because the need to excel the others was too compulsive. T h e abandonment of her manifest a m b i t i o n d i d n o t , however, d i m i n i s h the impulse to t r i u m p h over others. She had to find a compromise s o l u t i o n , and this, i n contrast to the frank a m b i t i o n at school, was devious i n character. I n substance i t was that she w o u l d t r i u m p h over the others w i t h o u t d o i n g a n y t h i n g to b r i n g about that t r i u m p h . She t r i e d to achieve this impossible feat i n three ways, a l l of w h i c h were deeply unconscious. One was to register whatever good l u c k she had i n life as a t r i u m p h over others. T h i s ranged f r o m a conscious t r i u m p h at good weather o n an excursion to an unconscious t r i u m p h over some "enemy" f a l l i n g i l l or d y i n g . Conversely, she felt bad l u c k n o t simply as bad l u c k b u t as a disgraceful defeat. T h i s a t t i t u d e served to enhance her dread of life because i t meant a reliance o n factors that are beyond control. T h e second way was to shift the need for t r i u m p h to love relationships. T o have a husband or lover was a t r i u m p h ; to be alone was a shameful defeat. A n d the t h i r d way of achieving t r i u m p h w i t h o u t effort was the demand that husband or lover, l i k e the masterful m a n i n the fantasy, should make her great w i t h o u t her d o i n g a n y t h i n g , possibly by merely g i v i n g her the chance to i n d u l g e vicariously i n his success. These attitudes created insoluble conflicts i n her personal relationships and considerably reinforced the need for a " p a r t n e r , " since he was to take over these a l l i m p o r t a n t functions.

86

Stages

of

Understanding

T h e consequences o£ this trend were w o r k e d through by recognizing the influence they had o n her a t t i t u d e toward life i n general, t o w a r d w o r k , t o w a r d others, and toward herself. T h e outstanding result of this examination was a d i m i n u t i o n of her i n h i b i t i o n s t o w a r d w o r k . W e then tackled the interrelations of this t r e n d w i t h the two others. T h e r e were, on the one h a n d , irreconcilable conflicts and, o n the other hand, m u t u a l reinforcements, evidence of how inextricably she was caught i n her neurotic structure. Conflicts existed between the compulsion to assume a h u m b l e place and to t r i u m p h over others, between a m b i t i o n to excel and parasitic de pendency, the two drives necessarily clashing and either arousing anxiety or paralyzing each other. T h i s para lyzing effect proved to be one of the deepest sources ol the fatigue as w e l l as of the i n h i b i t i o n s t o w a r d w o r k . N o less i m p o r t a n t , however, were the ways i n w h i c h the trends reinforced one another. T o be modest a n d to p u t herself i n t o a h u m b l e place became a l l the more necessary as i t served also as a cloak for the need for t r i u m p h . T h e partner, as already mentioned, became an all the more v i t a l necessity as he had also to satisfy i n a devious way the need for t r i u m p h . Moreover, the feelings of h u m i l i a t i o n generated by the need to live beneath her emotional and mental capacities and by her dependency on the partner kept evoking new feelings of vindictiveness, and thus perpetuated a n d reinforced the need for t r i umph. T h e analytical w o r k consisted i n d i s r u p t i n g step by step the vicious circles operating. T h e fact that her com-

87

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

pulsive modesty had already given way to some measure of self-assertion was of great h e l p because this progress automatically lessened also the need for t r i u m p h . Simi l a r l y , the p a r t i a l solution of the dependency p r o b l e m , having made her stronger and h a v i n g removed many feelings of h u m i l i a t i o n , made the need for t r i u m p h less stringent. T h u s when she finally approached the issue of vindictiveness, w h i c h was deeply shocking to her, she c o u l d tackle w i t h increased i n n e r strength an already d i m i n i s h e d p r o b l e m . T o have tackled i t at the beginn i n g w o u l d n o t have been feasible. I n the first place we w o u l d n o t have understood i t , a n d i n the second place she c o u l d n o t have stood i t . T h e result of this last p e r i o d was a general liberation of energies. Clare retrieved her lost a m b i t i o n o n a m u c h sounder basis. I t was n o w less compulsive and less destructive; its emphasis shifted f r o m an interest i n success to an interest i n the subject matter. H e r relationships w i t h people, already i m p r o v e d after the second period, now lost the tenseness created by the former m i x t u r e o f a false h u m i l i t y a n d a defensive haughtiness. W i t h a l l due reservation f o r the oversimplifications m e n t i o n e d above, I believe, f r o m experience, that this r e p o r t illustrates the typical course of an analysis, or, to p u t i t more cautiously, the ideal course of an analysis. T h e fact that there were three m a i n divisions i n Clare's analysis is o n l y incidental; there may just as well be two or five. I t is characteristic, however, that i n each d i v i sion the analysis passed t h r o u g h three steps: recognition

88

Stages

of

Understanding

of a neurotic t r e n d ; discovery of its causes, manifestations, a n d consequences; and discovery o f its interrelations w i t h other parts of the personality, especially w i t h other neurotic trends. These steps must be taken for each neurotic t r e n d involved. Each t i m e a step is w o r k e d t h r o u g h part of the structure becomes clearer u n t i l f i nally the whole emerges transparent. T h e steps are n o t always taken i n the order named; more precisely, some understanding of a trend's manifestations is necessary before the t r e n d itself can be recognized as such. T h i s is w e l l illustrated i n Clare's self-analysis, to be reported i n Chapter Eight. Clare recognized many i m p o r t a n t i m plications of her m o r b i d dependency before she recognized the fact of being dependent a n d the p o w e r f u l urge d r i v i n g her i n t o a dependent relationship. Each of the steps has a particular therapeutic value. T h e first step, the recognition of a neurotic t r e n d , means the recognition of a d r i v i n g force i n the disturbance of the personality, and this knowledge i n itself has a certain value for therapy. F o r m e r l y the person felt powerless, at the mercy of i n t a n g i b l e forces. T h e recognition of even one of these forces n o t only means a general gain i n i n sight b u t also dispels some of the bewildered helplessness. Knowledge of the concrete reason for a disturbance provides a realization that there is a chance to do somet h i n g about i t . T h i s change may be illustrated w i t h a simple example. A farmer wants to grow f r u i t trees, b u t his trees do n o t t h r i v e , though he puts great efforts i n t o t h e i r care a n d tiics a l l the remedies he knows. A f t e r some t i m e he becomes discouraged. B u t finally he dis-

8

9

S E L F -

A N A L Y S I S

covers that the trees have a special disease or need a special i n g r e d i e n t i n the soil, a n d there is an immediate change i n his o u t l o o k o n the matter and his m o o d regarding i t , t h o u g h n o t h i n g has changed as yet i n the trees themselves. T h e only difference i n the external situat i o n is that there is now a possibility of goal-directed ac tion. Sometimes the mete uncovering of a neurotic trend is sufficient to cure a n e u r o t i c upset. A capable executive, for instance, was deeply disturbed because the att i t u d e of his employees, w h i c h had always been one of devotion, changed for reasons outside his control. I n stead of settling differences i n an amicable way, they started to make belligerent and unreasonable demands. A l t h o u g h he was a h i g h l y resourceful person i n most matters he felt u t t e r l y incapable of coping w i t h this new situation, a n d reached such a measure of resentment and despair that he considered w i t h d r a w i n g f r o m the business. I n this instance the mere uncovering of his deep need for the devotion of people dependent o n h i m sufficed to remedy the situation. Usually, however, the mere recognition of a neurotic trend does n o t engender any radical change. I n the first place, the willingness to change w h i c h is elicited by the discovery of such a trend is equivocal and hence lacks forcefulness, and, i n the second place, a willingness to change, even i f i t amounts to an unambiguous wish, is not yet an a b i l i t y to change. T h i s a b i l i t y develops o n l y later. T h e reason w h y the i n i t i a l willingness to overcome a

Stages

of

Understanding

neurotic t r e n d does n o t usually constitute a reliable force, despite the enthusiasm that often goes w i t h i t , is that the t r e n d has also a subjective value w h i c h the person does n o t want to r e l i n q u i s h . W h e n the prospect arises of overcoming a particular compulsive need, those forces are m o b i l i z e d w h i c h w a n t to m a i n t a i n i t . I n other words, soon after the first l i b e r a t i n g effect of the discovery the person is confronted w i t h a conflict: he wants to change and he does n o t w a n t to change. T h i s conflict usually remains unconscious because he does n o t l i k e to a d m i t that he wants to adhere to something w h i c h is against reason and self-interest. I f for any reason the d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t to change prevails, the l i b e r a t i n g effect of the discovery w i l l be only a fleeting relief followed by a deeper d iscouragement. T o r e t u r n to the analogy of the farmer, his change i n s p i r i t w i l l n o t last l o n g i f he knows or believes that the r e q u i r e d remedy is n o t available to h i m . Fortunately these negative reactions are n o t too frequent. M o r e often the willingness and the u n w i l l i n g ness to change t e n d to compromise. T h e patient then sticks to his resolution t o change, b u t wants to get away w i t h as l i t t l e as possible. H e may hope that i t w i l l be enough i f he uncovers the o r i g i n of die t r e n d i n c h i l d hood, or i f he merely makes resolutions to change, or he may fall back on the delusion that a mere r e c o g n i t i o n of the t r e n d w i l l change everything overnight. I n the second step, however, as he works t h r o u g h the implications of the t r e n d , he realizes more and more deeply its unfortunate consequences, the degree to w h i c h pi

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

i t cramps his life i n a l l respects. Suppose, for example, that he has a neurotic need f o r absolute independence. A f t e r recognizing the trend a n d l e a r n i n g something of its origins he w o u l d have to spend q u i t e a w h i l e understanding w h y o n l y this way is open for reassuxance, and h o w i t manifests itself i n his daily l i v i n g . H e w o u l d have to see i n detail how this need expresses itself i n his attitude t o w a r d physical surroundings, how i t takes the f o r m , perhaps, of an aversion to obstructed views, or an anxiety that arises when he sits i n the m i d d l e of a r o w . H e w o u l d have to k n o w how i t influences his attitude t o w a r d dress, as evidenced by such signs as sensitivity t o w a r d girdles, shoes, neckties, o r anything that may be felt as a constriction. H e w o u l d have to recognize the influence of the t r e n d on w o r k , shown perhaps i n a reb e l l i o n against r o u t i n e , obligations, expectations, sug gestions, a r e b e l l i o n against t i m e a n d against superiors. H e w o u l d have to understand its influence on love life, observing such factors as an incapacity to accept any ties or a tendency to feel that any interest i n another person means enslavement. T h u s an estimate w o u l d gradually crystallize as to the various factors which i n greater or less degree serve to touch off the feeling of coercion and to force h i m to be o n his guard. T h e mere k n o w l edge that he has a great wish for independence is not nearly enough. I t is only w h e n he recognizes its allinclusive c o m p e l l i n g force and its negativistic character that he can muster a serious incentive to change. T h u s the therapeutic value of the second step is, first, that i t strengthens a person's willingness to conquer the 9

2

Stages

of

Understanding

d i s t u r b i n g drive. Fie begins to appreciate the f u l l necessity for change, and his rather equivocal willingness to overcome the disturbance turns i n t o an unambiguous determination to grapple w i t h i t seriously. T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n certainly constitutes a powerful and valuable

force,

indispensable

for effecting

any

change. B u t even the most vigorous d e t e r m i n a t i o n is of l i t t l e avail w i t h o u t the a b i l i t y to carry i t t h r o u g h . A n d this a b i l i t y is gradually increased as one manifestat i o n after another is clearly seen. W h i l e a person is w o r k i n g at the implications of the neurotic t r e n d his illusions, fears, vulnerabilities, a n d i n h i b i t i o n s are gradually loosened f r o m t h e i r entrenchments. As a result he becomes less insecure, less isolated, less hostile, and d i e resultant i m p r o v e m e n t i n his relationships w i t h others, and w i t h himself, i n t u r n makes the neurotic t r e n d less necessary and increases his capacity to deal w i t h i t . T h i s part of the w o r k has the added value of k i n d l i n g an incentive to discover those factors that impede a more p r o f o u n d change. T h e forces thus far m o b i l i z e d have helped to dissolve the power of the particular trend and thereby to b r i n g about certain improvements. B u t the t r e n d itself and many of its implications are almost sure to be closely b o u n d u p w i t h other, possibly contradictory, drives. Therefore the person cannot f u l l y overcome his difficulties by w o r k i n g only at the substructure developed a r o u n d a particular t r e n d . Clare, for instance, lost some of her compulsive modesty t h r o u g h the analysis of that t r e n d , b u t certain of its implications were o u t of reach at that t i m e because they were i n t e r t w i n e d

93

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

w i t h the m o r b i d dependency and c o u l d be tackled only i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h that f u r t h e r p r o b l e m . T h i s t h i r d step, the recognition a n d understanding of the interrelations of different neurotic trends, leads to a grasp on the deepest conflicts. I t means an understanding of the attempts at solutions and of h o w these attempts have meant o n l y a deeper and deeper entanglement. Before this p a r t of the w o r k is reached the person may have gained a deep insight i n t o the component parts of a conflict, b u t still have adhered secretly to a belief that they could be reconciled. H e may have realized deeply, for instance, the nature of his drive to be despotic and also the nature of his need to be applauded for superior wisdom. B u t he has t r i e d to reconcile these trends by s i m p l y a d m i t t i n g occasionally

the despotic

d r i v e w i t h o u t h a v i n g the least i n t e n t i o n t o change i t . H e has expected secretly that the admission of the despotic t r e n d w o u l d allow h i m to c o n t i n u e i t and at the same t i m e w i n h i m recognition for the amount of insight shown. A n o t h e r person who strove for

superhuman

serenity, b u t also was d r i v e n by v i n d i c t i v e impulses, has i m a g i n e d that he c o u l d be serene for the larger part of the year b u t spare o u t a sort of leave of absence when he c o u l d i n d u l g e i n his vindictiveness. I t is obvious that n o fundamental change can take place as long as such solu tions are secretly adhered to. As the t h i r d step is worked t h r o u g h i t becomes possible to understand the makeshift nature of these solutions. T h e therapeutic value of this step lies also i n the fact that i t makes i t possible to disentangle the vicious circles

94

Stages

of Hinders ta nding

operating among the various neurotic trends, the ways i n w h i c h they reinforce one another as w e l l as the ways i n w h i c h they conflict w i t h one another. T h u s i t means an understanding at last of the so-called symptoms, that is, the gross pathological manifestations, such as attacks of anxiety, phobias, depressions, gross compulsions. One often hears statements to the effect that what is really i m p o r t a n t i n psychotherapy is to see the conflicts. Such statements are of the same value as a c o n t e n t i o n that what is really i m p o r t a n t is the neurotic v u l n e r a b i l i t y or r i g i d i t y or s t r i v i n g for superiority. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is to see the whole structure, not more and n o t less. Existing conflicts may sometimes

be

recognized

q u i t e early i n the analysis. Such recognition, however, is of no avail u n t i l the components of the conflicts are thoroughly understood and diminished i n their intensity. O n l y after this w o r k has been accomplished do the conflicts themselves become accessible. L e t us finish this discussion by asking foi the practical value of the i n f o r m a t i o n presented i n this and the preceding chapter. Does i t give definite and detailed directions as to the road to be taken i n analysis? T h e answer is that no a m o u n t of knowledge can f u l f i l l such expectations. One reason for this is that the differences among people are too great to allow the p u r s u i t of any prescribed path. Even i f we should assume that there is b u t a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of discernible neurotic ti ends existing i n o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n , say fifteen, die possible combinations of such trends w o u l d be practically i n f i n i t e . A n o t h e i

95

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

reason is that i n analysis we see not one trend neatly separated f r o m another, b u t the sum total of entanglements; a flexible i n g e n u i t y is therefore necessary i n order to isolate the components o f the p i c t u r e . A t h i r d complicat i o n is that often the consequences of the various trends are n o t apparent as such b u t are themselves repressed, thus m a k i n g recognition of the t r e n d considerably difficult. A n d , finally, analysis represents

a h u m a n rela-

tionship as w e l l as a common research. I t w o u l d be a one-sided comparison to t h i n k of an analysis as an exploratory t r i p i n which two colleagues or friends are engaged, b o t h as m u c h interested i n observing and understanding as i n i n t e g r a t i n g the observations and drawi n g the inferences. I n analysis the patient's peculiarities and disturbances—not to speak of the analyst's—are v i tally i m p o r t a n t . H i s need for affection, his p r i d e , his v u l n e r a b i l i t y , are just as present and as effective i n this as i n other situations, and i n a d d i t i o n the analysis itself inevitably elicits anxieties and hostilities and defenses against insights that threaten his safety system or the p r i d e he has developed. W h i l e a l l these reactions are h e l p f u l , p r o v i d e d one understands them, they nevertheless render the process more complex and less susceptible of generalization. T h e assertion that to a large extent each analysis must produce its o w n sequence for tackling problems may be i n t i m i d a t i n g to apprehensive souls, particularly to those who need a guarantee that they are always d o i n g the r i g h t t h i n g . T h e y should keep i n m i n d , however, for their o w n reassurance, that this sequence is n o t artifi-

96

Stages

of

Understanding

d a i l y created by the analyst's clever m a n i p u l a t i o n b u t occurs spontaneously because i t lies i n the n a t u r e of the problems that one becomes accessible aftex another one is solved. I n other words, w h e n anyone analyzes himself he w i l l usually take the steps described above by merely f o l l o w i n g the material that presents itself. I t w i l l sometimes happen, of course, that he touches upon questions that at the time b e i n g are n o t answerable. A t such points an experienced analyst w i l l probably be able to see that the particular subject is beyond the reach of the patient's understanding a n d is therefore better left alone. L e t us assume, for instance, that a patient who is s t i l l deeply immersed i n convictions of his absolute s u p e r i o r i t y over others brings u p m a t e r i a l suggesting that he has a fear of n o t b e i n g acceptable to others. T h e analyst w i l l k n o w that i t w o u l d be premature to tackle as yet the patient's fear of rejection, because the latter w o u l d regard i t as i n conceivable that such a superior being as he believes himself to be c o u l d possibly have such a fear. M a n y other times the analyst w i l l recognize o n l y i n retrospect that, and why, a p r o b l e m was n o t accessible at a certain p o i n t . I n other words, he, too, can proceed only by t r i a l and error. I n self-analysis i t may even be that there is less temptat i o n to tackle a factor prematurely, because the person w i l l i n t u i t i v e l y shirk a p r o b l e m that he is n o t yet able to face. B u t i f he does notice, after g r a p p l i n g w i t h a problem for some time, that he is n o t getting any nearer to a solution, he should remember that he may n o t yet be ready to w o r k at i t a n d that perhaps he h a d better leave

97

S 7. L $

A

K A

f. Y S 1 S

i t alone for the t i m e being. A n d be need n o t be discouraged at this t u r n of events, for very often even a premature attack provides a significant lead for further w o r k . I t need h a r d l y be emphasized, however, that there may be other reasons w h y a solution that pieserits itself is n o t accepted, and he should n o t resort too q u i c k l y to the assumption that i t is merely p i e mature, A n d i n f o i m a t i o n of the k i n d I have presented is helpful n o t o n l y i n forestalling unnecessary discouragement b u t also i n more positive ways, for i t helps one to i n tegrate a n d understand peculiarities which otherwise w o u l d r e m a i n disconnected observations. A person may realize, for example, that he finds difficulties i n asking for a n y t h i n g , f r o m i n q u i r i n g the r i g h t way on a m o t o r t r i p to consulting a doctor for an illness, that he conceals his g o i n g to analysis as i f i t were a disgrace, a despicable easy road, because he feels he should be able to deal w i t h his pioblems a l l by himself, that he becomes i r r i t a t e d if anyone shows h i m sympathy or oilers advice a n d ieeis h u m i l i a t e d i f he must accept help; and i f he has some knowledge of neurotic trends the possibility w i l l occur to h i m thpt all these reactions emanate f r o m an underlyi n g trend t o w a r d compulsive self-sufficiency. N a t u r a l l y , there is n o guarantee that the surmise is r i g h t . T h e ass u m p t i o n that he is generally weary of people m i g h t exp l a i n some of his reactions, though i t w o u l d not account for the feeling of h u r t pride that arises o n some occasions. A n y surmise must be made tentatively and kept i n abeyance u n t i l he has plenty of evidence for its validi t y . Even t h e n he must ascertain over and over again

$8

Stages

of

Understanding

whether the assumption really covers the g r o u n d or is only partially v a l i d . N a t u r a l l y , he can never expect that one t i e n d w i l l e x p l a i n everything: he must remember that there w i l l be countercurrents. A l l he can reasonably expect is that the t r e n d surmised represents one of the c o m p e l l i n g forces i n his life and therefore must reveal itself i n a consistent pattern of reactions. H i s knowledge w i l l be of positive help also alter he has recognized a neurotic t r e n d . A n understanding of ih 5 9

N e e d for power,

Nietzsche,

56

Need

for social recognition,

Need

to b e l i e v e

i n the

o t e n c e o f w i l l , 57,

62

39,

290

58

omnip-

Occasional John's

self-analysis, case,

155

ff.;

307

152 f L ; Harry's

I N D E X

O c c a s i o n a l self-analysis case,

159

tween ff.;

John

Bill's

parison Bill, ff.; as

ff.;

(Cont.)

Rank,

m

comparison

be-

Rationalization,

and

161

Repetitive

case,

Harry, 163

between

ff.;

com-

John

and

1 6 6 ff.; T o m ' s potentialities

therapeutic

case, of,

Resentment,

Resistance,

14,

coming

own,

17a

with,

267

Freud,

Otto, Max,

Peterson, H o u s t o n ,

117,

139;

147;

ff.;

self-analysis, processes

sources

of,

268; in,

271;

secondary provocation

for i n self-analysis, 273;

Piz Palii,

expressed,

Principles

of

chology,

Abnormal

Psy-

in

neurotic

of

ther-

disorders,

a i d to character

7

develop-

Psychoanalytic

tient's t i e n t's

process,

share

association

274;

open

fight,

in,

101

in,

insight, change,

maneuvers,

277; how

to

cope

nique

with, of

279

pa-

ff.;

free

Psychoanalytic

102

ff.;

pa-

1n

ff.;

pa-

117

ff.;

inter-

understanding, 73

ff.;

in

Clare's

tion

compared

to,

308

ff.;

286

Rousseau,

188, 2 9 4 ff.

Schopenhauer,

39

Secondary

3

66

18

defenses,

71 ff.,

of

Everyday

271,

292 * Self-analysis, feasibility

c a s e , 7 5 ff.

39

tech-

281

R e v e n g e , 36

Seabury, David,

Life,

ff.;

tackling,

a n a l y s t ' s s h a r e , 123 ff.

Psychopathology

reactions,

i n free association, 278;

Schultz-Hencke, H .

in,

de-

inhibitions

r e l a t i o n o f t h r e e t a s k s , 1 2 0 ff.;

stages

of,

275;

emotional defensive

evasive

ways

types

spirit of tackling, 284; l i m i t a -

m e n t , 8 ff.

tient's

275; and

237, 242, 245 Psychoanalysis, method apy

ff.;

fensive

39

" P r i v a t e r e l i g i o n , " Clare's, 205,

ff.;

275

de270;

P h o b i a , 7, 8 , 6 9 , 9 5 133

by

argument

defenses i n , 271;

30

used

as

fensive

over-

dealing

as

267;

against

23

analyst,

136

ff.;

ff.

134

toward

169

171

method,

66

themes,

sirability

of,

131!.,

and 147;

depos-

s i b i l i t y of, 2 5 , 2 8 , 3 5 ; c r u c i a l

Í N D E X

difficulty

of,

attempts,

2 7 ; successful dangers

27;

of,

2 9 fr.; limitations of, 3 1 , 2 8 6 fL;

self-protective

forces i n ,

83 ff'J gains of, 3 6 ; occasional, 151 if.;

goal

of

occasional,

2 9 3 ff.; frustration

of, 2 9 7

ff.;

in,298;

discouragement

pseudo solutions i n , 2 9 8 ff. Self-Analysis

Made

Easy,

toward, 2 9 5

152 if.; preliminaries, 174 if.;

Shakespeare, 3 9

definition of systematic, 1 7 4 ,

Situational neuroses, 171

use of dreams i n , 176 fE.; r a w

Smart, C h a r l e s A l l e n , 3 9

materials

differ-

Strange

ences between analysis a n d ,

188

of,

183 if.;

regularity

of One Man,

183 if.;

Strecker, E d w a r d A . , 3 9 Suicide, 3 1 , 3 3 , 2 3 1 , 2 8 9

od

S u l l i v a n , H . S., 3 9

of,

1 8 6 ; of

dependency,

in,

Lives

spontaneity i n , 184 if.; meth-

183;

a

morbid

190 if.;

spirit

18

Sexuality, 2 9 5 ; F r e u d ' s attitude

The,

Switzerland, 1 3 3

a n d rules of, 2 4 7 if.; use of reason i n , 2 5 2 ; use of emotional insight, 2 5 2 ; guidance through interest, 2 5 3 ff.; con-

Unconscious

forces,

role

of,

37 &

tinuity i n , 2 5 7 ; development of

structural

pattern

in,

2 5 8 JOE.; outside influences i n , 2 6 5 ; effect of limitations o n ,

Wild

Geese

Them,

and

How

to

Chase

39

Wishful thinking, 178, 180

3°9