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Public examination – Secondary Education Teachers English as a Foreign Language Theory Unit 1 Table of contents 1.INTRODUCTION 2. EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING 3. PRESENT DAY TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS 4. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 5. CURRICULAR IMPLICATIONS 6. CONCLUSION 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.INTRODUCTION From the first stages of human history the study of languages has been of great importance as language is the distinctive feature to human beings; it is also the means of communication among the people of different cultures and for that reason the study of the different languages has been remarkably significant. In the long search for most suitable methodology in teaching a foreign language, a substantial number of different approaches or methods have been devised, each one with a particular view of language learning and, thus recommending a specific set of techniques and materials. Ambitious claims are often made for a new teaching method, but none has yet been shown to be intrinsically superior. The contemporary attitude is flexible and utilitarian: there are many ways of reaching the goal of foreign language competence, and teachers need to have a wide range of methods, in order to find the most appropriate according to the learner’s needs and circumstances, and to the objectives of the course. The purpose of this theory unit is not only to provide an account of the main methods of foreign language teaching but also to offer a critical assessment of the role played by them in the educational process. After making a brief study of early language learning methods, we will study the evolution from grammar-translation method to the audio-lingual method, the most important modern methodology, communicative language teaching, the humanistic methods, the new moves: the procedural approaches, computer assisted language learning, content-based teaching, the cornerstone of the Junta de Andalucía’s Plurilingual Program, implemented over the last yearsm and the use of the Internet in foreign language teaching. We cannot but highlight at this point the emphasis laid both in LOMCE, the Spanish National Act for the Improvement of Quality in Education, and in the National Decree 1105/ 2014, which regulates the contents for Compulsory Secondary Education, on implementing a proper communicative and pragmatic approach to the teaching and learning of foreign languages, in conjunction to the new classification of curricular elements. But firstly, in describing methods, it is essential to point out the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at a theoretical level and the set of procedures and techniques used in the classroom; for that reason, it seems worthwhile to clarify the concepts of approach, method and techniques. Approach refers to the assumptions dealing with the nature of language and language learning; three are the theories which underline the current approaches: 1.The structural view which considers language a system of structurally related elements and language learning the mastery of elements in terms of phonological and grammatical units, grammatical operations and lexical items. 2.The functional view which considers language a vehicle for the expression of the functional meaning; language learning is organized in categories of meaning and functions. 3.The interactional view which considers language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations, a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. A method is a global plan for the presentation of language material. At this level we consider: 1.The objectives which can be general or specific and refer to oral skills, communication skills, grammar accuracy or pronunciation.

2.The syllabus, that is, the language items we are going to use; though there are methods which lack of syllabus. 3.The learning and teaching activities. 4.The role of the learner , which will determine the types of activities, the type of grouping and so on. 5.The role of the teacher who can be informant, conductor, counsellor, etc. 6.The role of materials. A procedure refers to the techniques used in the real teaching situation. 2. EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING 2.1. First approaches to the teaching of modern languages. The history of second language teaching has undergone many fluctuations and dramatic shifts through the years. The theory about the best method to teach a foreign language has evolved particularly over the last one hundred years. 2.1.1 Grammar-translation method or traditional method: Modern languages entered the curriculum of European schools in the 18th century but the methods to teach them followed the method used to teach Greek and Latin. By the beginning of the 19th century the analytical grammar-translation method had become the method used to teach Greek and Latin and, as a consequence, it was used to teach modern languages as well. a) The most relevant principles and characteristics can be summarized as follows: 1.Translation of the written language is emphasized. 2.Successful learners are those who translate each language into the other. 3.Reading and writing are the main learning skills. 4.Teachers play an authoritarian role. 5.Students must learn grammatical rules overtly and deductively. 6.The basic unit of teaching is the sentence. 7.The student’s mother tongue is used to compared with the target language. b) The main techniques used by this method are the following: 

presentation of a grammatical rule, followed by a list of vocabulary and, finally, translation exercises from the selected text.

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other activities may be: reading comprehension questions, gap fills, finding synonyms and antonyms from words in the text, etc.

c) Disadvantages of the grammar-translation method: 1.No account of present-day language usage is presented. 2.Secondary grammatical points receive a lot of attention 3.It gives a predominant place to morphology but neglects syntax. 4.It gives an exaggerated importance to faults and exceptions. 5.Translations are unsatisfactory as they are done word by word.

6.Students have to learn a large number of grammatical terms. 2.1.2. The natural or direct method: It appeared in the second half of the 19th century as a reaction against the grammar-translation method. a) The principles of the direct method are the following: 1.The spoken language is primary. 2.Phonetics should be applied to teaching. 3.The students should hear the language before seeing it in written form. 4.Words should be presented in sentences and practised in meaningful contexts. 5.Grammar should be taught inductively. 6.Translation should be avoided. b) The main techniques used by this method are the following: 1. presentation of the textbook by the teacher, explaining difficult 2. expressions in the foreign language with the help of paraphrases, 3. synonyms or demonstrations. Other activities can be: reading aloud 4. and dictations, questions and answers in the foreign language, etc. c) Disadvantages of the direct method: 1.It was difficult to implement in state education. 2.It overemphasized the similarity between L1 and L2. 3.It required native teachers or with a native-like fluency in the foreign language. 4.It depended much on the teacher’s skills rather than on a textbook. 5.Sometimes, the teacher had to do a lot of paraphrasing. 6.It lacked a rigorous foundation in linguistics and methodology. 2.1.3. Twentieth century innovations and trends: What has just been said about the direct method caused that at the beginning of the 20th century efforts were made to change language teaching. More current literary texts were given for translation and there was an effort to provide some conversation, which was not always successful as many of the conversational sentences and phrases were artificial and stilted. However, gradually private and non-academic organizations began to be established, which recognized that the student might be more interested in learning to speak than to read or write. 2.1.3.1. The chief of these schools was Berlitz school, which followed the direct method. A new impetus was given to language learning and teaching methods when linguistics turned from comparative historical philology to the description and analysis of modern languages. The study of languages as those of the American Indians and Australian aborigines showed that they presented difficulties; as they did not have a written form, it was only possible to construct the grammar from the spoken language. Thus there was a tendency to accept as standard form the language spoken by uneducated people rather than that considered to be of “good usage”, which was strongly criticized. 2.1.3.2. Basic English was another trend which appeared based on the following discoveries:

a. Every language has a basic grammar as well as a complicated grammar structure. The basic grammar should be taught first. b. Every language has a basic vocabulary, consisting of the most frequent words, which should be taught first. Then this method consisted of teaching basic grammar and vocabulary but it did not consider some basic vocabulary (scientific, medical, and so on) neither the factor that for some learners it was easier to learn words which were not considered as basic (“get in”-basic word, “enter”-easier to learn).Another criticism is that it is inaccurate. 2.1.3.3. In the 1920s and 1930s applied linguistics started to systematize the principles that would give rise to subsequent proposals for foreign language teaching methods. The different methods analyzed in this section share a common conception of how to learn a foreign language as a process of acquiring the structures or patterns of it through habit formation. We will examine the approach as well as the origins and the subsequent development of these methods: the oral or situational approach and the audio-lingual method. The theory of language underlying these methods is structural linguistics, and though there are some differences between British and American structuralism, both movements saw language as “a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types”. One of its main features is the importance given to the oral aspects of language, breaking with the relevance of the written language. In this structuralist direction we can distinguish two approaches: a. Oral or situational approach: It has its origins in the British applied linguistics of the 20s and 30s represented by Palmer and Hornby; it was in the 60s when it was referred to as situational due to the greater emphasis placed on the situational presentation and practice of language. The characteristics of this approach are: - Language teaching started with the spoken language; the material is taught orally before it is presented in written form. - The target language is the language of the classroom. - New language points are introduced and practised situationally. - Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general vocab. is covered. - Items of grammar are graded. - Reading and writing are introduced a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. b. Audio-lingual method: It is the successor to the direct method, with the only difference in emphasis. Audio-lingual theorists preferred drill to the natural use of language in context. This method derives from the intensive training given to the American army during the Second World War, which resulted in a high degree of listening and speaking skills, being achieved in a relative short-time span; language work is first heard, then practised orally, before being seen and used in written form. 2.1.3.4. In the 60s structuralist methods were widespread, but those years also saw the beginning of criticism from different sides: Chomsky is one of the linguists who has shown the deficiencies of

structural grammar. In 1957, his publication of Syntactic Structures offered a different approach based on a theory of transformational generative grammar. He states that structural grammar only deals with the surface structure. It does not take into account ambiguity and intuition; language is essentially creative for him. Other linguists are no longer so enthusiastic about structuralism because the structural drill exercises are purely mechanical and have no connection with actual situations. Another criticism is that this method does not show how to teach the material and did not contribute to advances in language teaching methodology. 2.1.4. The communicative approach This approach is usually called communicative, though other labels-particularly functional or notional at its early stages-have also been used as synonyms. The term communicative, in relation to the language teaching, denotes a marked concern with semantic aspects of language. The origins of communicative language teaching date from the late 1960s. British applied linguistics saw the need to focus language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on a mere mastery of structures. In 1970, new ideas concerning language teaching appeared due to the expansion of university-level courses for teachers and to the appearance of a large number of overseas students. Thus, in 1971, the Council of Europe set up a panel of experts to design a teaching system for the European languages. Wilkins was the first to attempt to demonstrate the functional meaning which underlies the communicative uses of language. He describes two types of meanings: - one referred to notional categories (concepts such as time, quantity, location, frequency, and so on). - the other referred to categories of communicative functions (approval, prediction, and so on). This work of Wilkins and the group of experts culminated in the document called “Threshold Level of the Council of Europe”. This document aimed to create a syllabus for the fundamental “common core” which all the learners would need before moving to their special areas of interest. Nowadays, we have two documents which have received the momentum from that movement: they are the Common European Framework and the European Portfolio of Languages, aimed to describe- rather than prescribe- how foreign languages should be taught and evaluated. a) This approach considers language a social phenomenon, as it is a means of communication and interaction between members of a community. The learning theory underlying this approach is not very highly developed, though some main elements emerge from its practice. Learning improves when these forceful ideas are applied to classroom activities. -relationship of activities to real communication -activities use language for meaningful tasks -language used is meaningful to the learner -language is used communicatively, rather than practising language skills b) Some activities and techniques used by this approach are the following: -The information transfer activities (giving a personal opinion about some pictures, writing sentences from diagrams, etc.)

-The information gap activities (students have different pieces of information and have to exchange them through questions and answers) -The use of authentic material -Reconstructing scrambled sentences. -Language games, role plays, problem solving activities, pair and group work,etc. c) The main role of the learner and teacher is that of negotiator. He must be able to communicate by means of social interaction. The teacher must assume several roles such as: analyst, counsellor, informant, group process manager, and so on. These roles serve two main functions: -to facilitate the communication process in the classroom. -to be a participant within the learning teaching group. d) Because of the wide range of communicative activities and techniques we can use, it is not possible to describe a typical classroom procedure. However, we can use traditional procedures in the first stages of language learning, such as presentation, controlled practice, while communicative activities are only used in the free production stage. It is evident that there are still some unsolved problems with the communicative approach:       

too much emphasis has been placed on speaking and listening, to the detriment of reading and writing. there has been a lack of reflection on language aspects. the criteria for selecting and grading the chosen functions and grammatical exponents are not clear. it is not appropriate to foreign language situations, so advocated a more grammaticallyoriented syllabus. not all the teachers whose mother tongue is not English are confident enough to work with this approach some of the proposals imply a new selection of language through functions, as the structuralist did with the structures. Its advocacy of a meaningful use of the language is not always clear, as the activities or tasks to be undertaken are not always really meaningful.

2.1.5. Humanistic approaches We have analyzed above the main approaches and methods of FLT, as they have been labelled traditionally. Here we want to make a short reference to some other methods that have become less widespread and known but deserve some attention. Some of these innovations in FLT can be considered part of humanistic methods, as they are related to humanistic ideas and centred on the learner and the classroom climate. a) Suggestopedia: It is based on suggestology, the science of suggestion. According to its founder, Georgi Lozanov, in 24 days second language learners can learn 1800 words, speak within the framework of a whole essential grammar and read any text. The method is based on the view that the brain has great unused potential, which can be exploited through the power of suggestion. Teaching involves the presentation of vocabulary and dialogues which the student is offered, then the text is read aloud in a dramatic way against a background of classical music. The emphasis, then, is wholly on informal communication, with no attention being drawn to grammatical errors.

b) The Silent Way: This method aims to provide an environment which keeps the amount of teaching to a minimum and encourages learners to develop their own ways of using the elements of language introduced. It takes its name from the fact that there is more silence than usual in the course of the class, mainly due to the teacher being entirely silent. In the pure application of the method, the teacher never utters a word but points to individual letters which, in combination, indicates the students how a word might be pronounced. The teacher may provide corrective feedback in the form of headshakes or hand movements. As it might be expected, this provides great pressure on the students since the teacher requires them to respond. c) Counselling learning or community language learning: The main aim is to foster strong personal links between the teacher as counsellor and the learners as a way to eliminate any threaten in the foreign language learning situation. d) Natural Approach: The method uses the same name as the established natural method because it emphasizes the role of natural language acquisition and stresses the parallels between L1 and L2. It underscores the importance of emotional rather than cognitive factors in learning and of mastering vocabulary rather than grammatical rules. The aim is to establish an ability to understand the basic content of a communication in an informal setting. e) Total Physical response: The objective of this method is teaching language through physical actions. It has been developed by James Asher, who parallels foreign language teaching to first language acquisition. He argues that young children learn their mother tongue through commands (sit, stop, stand, and so on) and react to them physically before producing verbal responses; so, according to Asher adult learners can learn in the same way. Thus, the verb, and particularly the imperative form, is the central unit of the lessons, which gives this method a structuralist view of language. Lessons are not based on textbooks or materials for beginners but on the teacher’s voice, actions and gestures. This method is particularly useful in the integration of Physical Education and ESL in schools where the Plurilingual project is being implemented. 3. PRESENT DAY TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS Many are the students who, nowadays, have acquired a foreign language through the study of other subjects. This kind of approach to foreign language teaching, based on communication in specific curricular areas is referred to as CLIL: it is the typical approach of bilingual curricula. The popularity of this bilingual education is growing as indicated by the recent Plurilingual Schools Project which started being implemented by the Junta de Andalucía in April 2005, which has now been replaced by the Strategic Plan for the Development of Languages, 2016- 2020. Recognising the benefits of CLIL is not new; we can mention several examples of language immersion education such as Canada to promote French in the English-speaking provinces. CLIL is sometimes considered the strong version of the Communicative Approach (as opposed to the notional/functional teaching, which is considered the weak version). There is no linguistic syllabus in this case as the students learn the language according to the necessities of the subject they study, it reflects the learners´ interests and needs; it exposes the learners to authentic material and tasks; it offers optimal conditions for second language acquisition by exposing the learners to meaningful language, using authentic texts and tasks; and it also provides pedagogical accommodation to the learners’ proficiency levels and skills.

Thus, this approach integrates skills and students are involved in all the phases of the learning process. A typical classroom procedure will include: skill and language focused instructions, brainstorming, pair and group discussion, group problem solving, role plays, debates, etc A similar idea forms the basis of the task-based language teaching, which has become popular from the 1980s onwards. The idea underlying this approach is that students perform tasks in classes and in this way they find themselves in communicative situations, in which language acquisition can take place. A task is a goal directed which involves a primary focus on meaning, and with a clear defined outcome; the students choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task. A typical classroom procedure will have three phases: a pre-task phase, a main task phase and a post task one On the whole, we have noticed how computer rooms have started to replace language labs at schools; however, computers are not new in FLT; first computer programs for language learning were created under the influence of structuralist (audio-lingual) and cognitive approaches though they were not widely available because of the limited capacity of personal computers before 1990s.The earliest CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) programs strictly followed the computer as tutor model, and were designed to provide positive or negative feedback to learners on the formal accuracy of their responses. The next generation of CALL programs tended to shift agency to the learner; in this model, learners construct new knowledge through exploration: the computer provides tools and resources but it is up to the learner to do something with these in a simulated environment. On the other hand, we have to pay attention to the learners´ interaction with other humans via the computer. Network-based language teaching (NBLT) is language teaching which involves the use of computers connected to another in either local or global networks, a different side of CALL, where human to human is the focus. Language learners with access to the Internet can now potentially communicate with native speakers or other language learners which multiplies their opportunities for communicative practice and, bearing in mind, that it occurs in a written form, gives additional opportunities to plan their discourse and to notice and to reflect on language use . Nevertheless, we have to realize that there are hurdles to use computers in academic language teaching such as the limit speed of access to the Internet, the number of computers at school, the materials used which, sometimes can be boring or non-productive. One of the most innovative approaches is the Flipped Classroom. Flipped learning reverses the ‘standard’ model of teaching by delivering instruction to students at home through self-study materials and moving the ‘homework’ element to the classroom. The idea is that class time is therefore focused on the elements of learning that benefit the most from the support and input of the teacher and fellow students. Straightforward knowledge transmission can be covered just as well through online self-study, with students able to work at their own pace until they’ve got the basics covered. So, it’s basically a form of blended learning, more prescriptive in terms of what should best be done at home and what should best be done in class.

4. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 4.1 The notion of communication

The expansion of language learning in the 60s gave rise to the concept of communication in language teaching: overseas students, new educational policies, new materials... It stresses the communicative use of languages. This implied certain changes, and the most important we should mention here is that of the abandoning the tradition of linguistically organized syllabus in favour of a new type: the taskoriented syllabus. 4.2. Cohesion -This concept establishes the relationship btw grammatical structures and their use in the discourse. - It stresses the importance of providing students with opportunities to practise the language. 4.3. The Threshold Level 

It intended to create a common core syllabus.

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It was based on Jespersen's notional categories

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Students were meant to learn a language in order to fulfil several functions.

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It analyses communicative adult learners' needs

3.4. Communicative Language Teaching. The theory behind this method or approach is "language as communication" The Communicative approaches are aimed at developing the 'communicative' as opposed to the purely 'linguistic' competence of learners." It is considered that what should be acquired by the learner is communicative competence. However our point of view is not so radical as to suggest that grammar does not have to be taught at all. Moreover we agree with Maley that this communicative competence is built up of four elements, these being Grammatical, Sociolinguistic, Discourse and Strategic Competence. We can summarize the general characteristics of these approaches by referring to concentration on meaning as well as grammar, emphasis on student initiative and interaction, treatment of diversity, and attention to the variations of language. The techniques used are various: 

Emphasis on the learning and expression of the language rather than the mastery of a language  tendency to favour fluency-focused activities

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Students learn grammar rules through use and deduction.

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Material is presented in contexts relevant to the needs of the students.

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This method tends to be more student-centred.

5. CURRICULAR IMPLICATIONS The National Act for the Improvement of Quality in Education, published in 2013 (LOMCE in Spanish) indicates that, among the general objectives of Secondary Education, is the acquisition of a basic communicative competence in a foreign language, this entailing that students will thus have to be able to understand and convey messages in a variety of daily-life communicative situations (both written and spoken).

This said, one of the innovative aspects of the National Act for the Improvement of Quality in Education is that it defines the curriculum as the regulation of the elements determining the teaching and learning process for each educational stage, being integrated by: (a) Aims: References relating to outcomes that students should achieve at the end of the educational process, as a result of planned teaching/learning experiences to this end. (b) Key Competences: Capacities to apply, in an integrated manner, the contents of each teaching process and educational stage, in order to implement activities properly and resolve complex problems efficiently. (c) Contents: All knowledge, abilities, skills, and attitudes that contribute to the achievement of the aims of the teaching process, educational stage and the development of competences. (d) Teaching methodology: comprising the description of teaching practices strategies and the organization of teachers' work . (e) Measurable learning standards and outcomes: Specifications of evaluation criteria that allow defining learning outcomes and establishing what students should know, understand, and know how in each subject; they must be observable, measurable and assessable and allow grading performance or achievement reached. Course plans should contribute and facilitate the design of standardized and comparable evidence. (f) Evaluation criteria: They are the specific reference to assess the learning of students and describe what students must achieve, both in knowledge and skills. In addition, National Decree 1105/ 2014 establishes the following blocks of contents for the area of foreign language in Secondary Education: - block 1: comprehension of oral texts - block 2: production of oral texts: expression and interaction - block 3: comprehension of written texts - block 4: production of written texts: expression and interaction Taking all this into account, and as the National Directive 65/ 2015 points out, the Regional Curricular Directive of July 14 th, 2016 highlights, and the School Linguistic Project Programme confirms, we should aim at an integrated approach of all curricular elements in order to pursue a holistic approach to the teaching and learning of foreign languages, since it is the epicentre of success in obtaining a proper level of Competence in Linguistic Communication for our students, a viewpoint clearly supported by this theory unit and its pertaining contents. 6. CONCLUSION As a conclusion, it can be stated that there has been a curious tendency in ELT to want to dispense with the old to make way for the new. This should not be our stand on this issue. The modern integrated language teachers are able to use any approach from the past as long as it is appropriate and useful. We use translation when it is quick and efficient to get across meaning; we still teach grammar, even though we no longer assume it to be a starting point, but more a reference point; we use drilling (e.g. listen-repeat) when it is an efficient way for students to get their mouths round the sounds and rhythm of a useful expression; practice exercises (e.g. gap-fills) to raise students' awareness of common lexical expressions; focus on functional expressions when students listen to a tape model of a telephone call; information gaps almost all the time, in accuracy as well as fluency work; personalisation when the students are practising language,

preparing for a role-play, or reading the newspaper; we make use of a task-based approach when students are set a project, asking for language help from the teacher as they go along. Therefore, instead of the term 'eclecticism', we prefer the term 'integration of methods', because 'eclecticism' suggests picking separate things from the selection available, whereas 'integration' forces us to remember that everything has come from what has been before, and that everything that has gone before remains relevant today. It should be also pointed out that the educational authorities in Andalucía have laid great emphasis on the employment of three major approaches: the content- based, task-based approaches and C.A.L.L, by means of the setting-up of ICT-equipped schools as well as great attention paid to in-house teacher training courses, and the new Strategic Plan for the Development of Languages, 2016-2020, to bolster instruction in and out the classroom thanks to the advent of ICT and most relevantly, in L2, which means that schools must devise new ways to support learning in different venues including the workplace and home, and through an integrated curriculum. The teaching role is less didactic and more a coaching function – one that coordinates multiple instructional sources including print, video and computer-based media, delivered over a world-wide network of digital resource servers. 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barrios Espinosa, M.E. y Torres Olalla, D. (2008): “El Programa ‘Centros Bilingües’ en el Plan de Fomento del Plurilingüismo de Andalucía, en Lenguaje y Textos, Núm, 27, Pp. 121-134. Breen, M. P. 2001. ‘Syllabus design’. In Carter, R. and D. Nunan (eds.) The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: C.U.P. Brewster, J. (1992). Teacher education for language across the curriculum in English Language. Vienna. British Council. Casal,

S. (2005). Enseñanza del Inglés. Cooperativo. Badajoz: Abecedario.

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