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IACPL Medial Discarded

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DPT

the

FUTURE isW]l_D

dougal dixon Firefly

•

john adams

Books

A

Firefly

Book

Published by Firefly Books

Ltd.,

2003

Published Firefly

Copyright

© 2003 The © 2003

Future

The Future

of The Future

is

Wild

name and logo

Wild

is

is

Wild

Firefly

No

in a retrieval

in

2003 by

M2H

3K1

are registered trademarks

Published

reproduced, stored

in

Ltd.

Toronto, Ontario

Ltd.

All rights reserved.

Canada

3680 Victoria Park Avenue

Dougal Dixon

Text copyright

in

Books

part of this publication

may be

P.O.

system or transmitted

in

the United States

Books

Box 1338,

New

Buffalo,

in

2003 by

(U.S.) Inc.

Ellicott Station

York 14205

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior

Reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore

written permission of the Publisher.

Printed

First Printing

This

in

Spain

book and the associated

conceived by The Future National Library of Canada Cataloguing

in

Publication Data

is

television series

Wild

Ltd,

Bournes Green, Stroud GL6 8LY

book was created by OCt-tWO, 346 Old London EC1V 9RB. www.act-two.com

Dixon, Dougal

This

The future

wild

is

Dougal Dixon, John Adams.

/

were

Solomon's Court,

Street,

Includes index.

Text consultants

ISBN 1-55297-724-2 (bound).— ISBN 1-55297-723^(pbk.)

Professor R McNeill Alexander, University of Leeds,

1.

Evolution (Biology)

(Biology)

— History.

— Forecasting.

Adams, John

I.

QH371.3.F8D59 2003

II.

Professor Bruce Tiffney, University of California, 2.

Evolution

Researchers John Capener; Belinda Biggam

Title.

Managing

C2002-903545-7

576.8

Editorial

Publisher Cataloging-in Publication Data (U.S.)

The future :

col.

is

Mel Pickering; Image retouching Itchy Animation; Digital wild

ill.

:

/

Dougal Dixon, and John Adams. photos.

col.

—

1st ed.

Belinda Webster; Production

cm.

;

Companion book to the Discovery Channel series. Summary: How life on Earth may evolve over the next 200 million years. Written with a team of international scientists, based on Note:

and evolutionary

ISBN 1-55297-723-4

Wilde; Index

Ann

Barrett

The television series was created by The Future is Wild Ltd Series producer Paul Reddish; Series director Steve Nicholls;

Producers Jeremy Cadle, Clare Dornan; Production manager

Wolfgang Knopfler;

(pbk.)

Evolution (Biology).

576.7 21

Adam

Series writer Victoria Coules; Animation director Peter Bailey;

principles.

ISBN 1-55297-724-2

1.

Virr;

artwork 422; Editorial director Jane Wilsher; Art director

Includes index.

biological

editor Claire Pye; Senior designer Abigail Hicks;

support Mark Blacklock, Brian Muir, Paul

Picture research Ellen Root; Illustrations Peter Bull Art Studio,

Dixon, Dougal.

[160] p.

UK USA

2. Life.

I.

QH367.1.D59 2003

Adams, John.

II.

Title.

Lawrence Breen; Composers Nick Hooper,

Picture researcher

Editors Liz Thoyts, Martin Elsbury;

Paul Pritchard; Production coordinator Kensa

Duncan

mi

The Future

is

Wild would not have been possible

without the support of the following consultants: Professor R McNeill Alexander Professor Emeritus of Zoology, University of Leeds,

Dr

UK

Letitia Aviles

Associate Professor, Department of Ecology and

Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona,

USA

Dr Phillip Currie Head of Dinosaur Research Program and Curator of Dinosaurs and Royal Tyrell Museum of Paleontology, Canada

Birds,

Professor Richard Fortey Department of Paleontology, The Natural History Museum, UK Professor William Gilly Professor of Cell and Developmental Biology and Marine Biology, Stanford University, USA Professor Stephen Harris

Mammal

Research Unit, University of

Bristol,

UK

Mike Linley Herpetologist, Hairy Frog Productions,

Dr Roy Livermore British Antarctic Survey,

UK

Professor Karl Niklas Liberty

Hyde

Bailey Professor of Plant Biology,

Cornell University,

USA

Professor Stephen Palumbi Professor of Biology, Stanford University,

USA

Professor Jeremy Rayner Alexander Professor of Zoology, University of Leeds, UK

Professor Bruce Tiffney Professor of Geological Sciences, University of California,

USA

Professor Paul Valdes

Department of Meteorology, Reading

University,

UK

UK

CONTENTS FOREWORD by Professor Stephen Palumbi

IMAGINING THE FUTURE by Professor R McNeill Alexander

Evolving Earth To imagine

the future,

tracing the history of

we must

life

first

look to the past. By

on Earth, we can begin

to sec

the recurring patterns of evolution that will help us

predict

what the future may

hold.

DYNAMIC EARTH

12

CYCLES OF

LIFE

16

LIFE LINES

(Geological timeline)

20

5 Million Years Earth

is

now

well before

at the

human

peak of an Ice age that began times.

America are covered by

Northern Europe and North

ice sheets.

The world

is

a

cold

dry place where only the hardiest, most adaptable species are able to survive.

ICE

24

AGE

NORTH EUROPEAN

ICE

THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN

27 35

AMAZON GRASSLAND

45

THE NORTH AMERICAN DESERT

53

END OF AN ERA

60

THE

100 Million Years Earth has enjoyed

a

long period or stable conditions

and

since the last Ice age,

have melted, sea

and humid.

It is

levels

life

The

has bounced back.

have risen and the world

a global hothouse,

is

brimming with

icecaps

warm life.

HOTHOUSE EARTH

64

THE SHALLOW SEAS

67

THE BENGAL

SWAMP

79

THE ANTARCTIC FOREST

89

THE GREAT PLATEAU

97

MASS EXTINCTION

106

700 Million Years The

planet has changed.

shares Earth with a vast, years since the

species

A

single,

warm

huge supercontinent

ocean.

It is

100 million

mass extinction that destroyed 95 percent of

on Earth. But evolution

inventive after a

mass

is

probably

at its

most

extinction.

A NEW PANGAEA

110

THE CENTRAL DESERT

113

THE GLOBAL OCEAN

123

THE RAINSHADOW DESERT

135

THE NORTHERN FOREST

145

GLOSSARY

154

INDEX

157

PICTURE CREDITS

160

FOREWORD Take

a

walk

in a forest

anywhere

world today and

in the

same basic types of animals and vegetation —

birds,

you'll see the

mammals and

flowering plants. But a forest two hundred million years ago was a

very different place. There were no birds. plants

had only

just

begun

graced our planet, so

Who would

to evolve.

200 million years —

in the last

a

Mammals and

mere

flowering

have thought

fraction of the time that

that,

life

has

many completely new organisms would have

evolved and thrived?

So what does evolution have

200 million years? What creatures oceans?

who in

The Future

bring to

life

is

will

in this

is

the land or

swim

in the

world of amazing organisms, setting them loose

a

book

are based

evolutionary principles.

The time

roam

the next

Wild draws on an international team of experts

our imaginations. But the rules are

encounter

on Earth over

in store for life

They

strict.

The organisms

on fundamental

could, and

right to consider the future.

computer animations, The Future

is

may

biological

you'll

and

yet, exist.

Using state-of-the-art

Wild has been able

to transform

imagination into images, creating a living world of strange creatures

and extraordinary

habitats.

The

future

you

are

about to see

indeed, and the creatures that populate the pages of this a

few of the

is

very wild

book

are just

possibilities...

left >pert

Palitmbi

is

The eight-ton megasquid, evolved from

a

marine squid,

is

just

one of

the creatures to roam the amazing

world of The Future

is

Wild.

ssor of Riol'K iwrsity.

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

IMAGINING THE FUTURE

a the animals

Professor R.

McNeill Alexander

Professor

is

UK. He

the study of

animal movement, lie has provided

and

invaluable help

and

a specialist in biomechanics,

is

advice on

many

habitats featured in The Future

television series. Here, he talks

and methods which underpin

about the

aspects of

is

Wild

a great

known

while others are

many

Some

biologists.

fields

for their breadth

scientific processes

of knowledge

even with

this

fund of knowledge,

contain

some

is

Wild

land in a world where a single,

of eight-ton squids roaming the

tells

huge landmass.

kangaroos, fish that

merged

the continents have

all

It tells

of

snails that

hop

through

fly like butterflies

into

to accept that

in science, will necessarily

and

species interacting with each other

The

it is

firmly

grounded

theory of chaos

in the future is

no easy

five,

task. In

and creatures of tomorrow to

Despite the

forests,

Future

is

team of is

order to bring the habitats the producers of

The

Wild have worked closely with an international scientific advisers to

presented

is

scientist.

ensure that everything that

how

terrestrial

years

Our team of

possibilities,

in the future.

For

this,

we

By studying rock magnetism,

years, the continents

biologists has suggested

many

such as the megasquid, a giant

from now. This animal

is

the result of detailed advice in scjuids

and

a specialist

biomechanics.

called

on an

)ur suggestions are

earth

earth scientists have

will

be

will

be as strong

rates

plants, will

be no

movements,

and our consultant expects them to continue more or our future world maps show (see page

13).

The

less

position

landmasses and mountains also determine the climates

size.

in

a large

of the tut ure. By studying the world maps, a climatologist

to support

own

was able

carry

habitats.

enough

wood and

wood and bone, and

same

force as present-day

have also assumed that the

taster than at present.

have been applied

its

We

that

of animal growth or photosynthesis

example, that

deduce the climates of our future

as present-day

that muscles will exert about the

maximum

these

We

similar materials to present-day plants

been no sudden changes of direction

in

based on certain assumptions.

and animals. For example, we have assumed

bone

have slowly moved, regrouped and

made of

muscles of equal

to

in the

squid living in the Northern Forest 200 million

crushed together to form mountain ranges. There have

ot

best

and animals of our future worlds

and calculations from an expert in

we have done our

have assumed that the plants and animals of the future

Earth's continents might

discovered how, over the past several hundred million

as

reliable

possible.

began by imagining

be distributed

make

and could evolve from existing species

remarkable

(

We

impossible to

it is

difficulties involved,

to ensure that the plants

are viable,

in science.

100 and 200 million years

life,

us that

long-term predictions for highly complex systems.

time available.

Imagining the planet Earth

tells

like

and birds with four wings. This future world may seem incredible, but

in

conjecture. In our rich, diverse world, there are

many

simply too

we have

with their environments in subde, complicated ways.

The Future

are

such as ecology, biomechanics and physiology. But

our predictions, though rooted

of the future.

this vision

have had advice from

acknowledged experts on particular groups of organisms,

Emeritus of Zoology at the University of is,

We

tat

numerous

These assumptions

calculations, to check, for

land animal would be strong

weight or that

to fuel

its

in

a flying

journeys.

enough

animal could

THE FUTURE

A few

simple rules, based on observations of present-day

animals, have helped us to future animals

would be

work out what the

One

like.

of

lives

insects

general rule states that

an animal sixteen times heavier than

a close relative will

need about eight times more food each day and take about twice as long to

grow

to maturity

The

large animals that

we imagine might

inhabit the world in the future have

been created with

this in

groups of animals and

all

and pterosaurs have

ability to

fly.

For example, birds,

all,

separately,

Amphibians, lungfishes, land

In the course of evolutionary history, several amazing patterns of change have occurred repeatedly.

We

expect to see similar patterns

other

water. Ostriches

become

characteristics

- with

its

fluffy feathers

and rudimentary

in the future, in

can

fleas

and

rotifers

all

reproduce by parthenogenesis,

or virgin birth. In creating the plants and animals of

tomorrow, we have used our knowledge of the past help us imagine the future.

meg asq uid

may one day

not

it is

live

on

difficult to

land, since

all

imagine that squids land-living animals

are descended from marine organisms. possibility

was

calculated

how

how

big the

would support

it

t

established, our

'....:

'*»'

.•ii-'

.


I

ILLION YEARS

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

AGE

ICE

FIVE MILLION YEARS HAVE PASSED

The

a relatively short period of time in geological terms. "'Ice

ages are huge perturbations

to the natural system. As Earth

becomes life

is

is

by

ice,

compressed towards the

equator, area

covered

and

immensely,

extinction

simply

so

that

because

it

gets too cold and there's no place

they can retreat

to.

on Earth,

continents have drifted

but not by much. Plants and animals have evolved and adapted, but they

have a

between

common with their Human-era relatives. The big difference time and the Human era is the climate. Earth is currently at

lot in

this

the peak of an Ice age that has been ongoing for around seven million years.

When The climate

organisms find themselves driven to

still

lived

habitable

Earth's

vastly reduced.

changes

slightly,

humans

since

An

Ice

age

global temperatures drop, ice sheets advance outwards from the poles and

down from

the mountains.

order of 100,000 years.

The

Of

glacial cycle

this period,

The Human

era took place during

when

the ice sheets had retreated.

Now,

five million years after the

warm

will consist

known

spell,

one of these warm

somewhere

lasts

perhaps 90,000 years

10,000 years will consist of a

spell, whilst

of an Ice age

as

an

in the

of

a cold

interglacial.

interglacial periods, a

time

is

a major transition in the history

Human

era, icecaps

Much of North America

the northern hemisphere.

much of

have crept across

is

under

Where

ice.

the ice

of life."

sheet ends,

midway down

the continent,

lies

the arid, freezing expanse of the

Professor Bruce Tiffney

Paleobotanist University of California

North American Desert. Ice

domes cover

In

what was once Europe, the story

the whole of Scandinavia, and

Europe has become

a

much of

is

much

the rest

the same.

of Northern

broad tundra habitat of permanendy frozen subsoil and

sparse vegetation.

Between the two polar is

icecaps, in the

every bit as harsh. There

is

dense, lush rainforests of the grasslands.

about 500

So much water feet

(1

so

little

era

moisture

Amazon

50 meters) lower than

ended with

in the

life

atmosphere that even the

have been reduced to

dry,

windswept

locked into icecaps that the global sea level

is

the Mediterranean Basin and turning

The Human

more temperate zones of Earth,

a period

it

it

was during the

into a region

Human

of parched

is

era, isolating salt flats.

of mass extinction resulting from

a

combination of human influence and natural phenomena. Humankind's energy

consumption had far-reaching and devastating and habitats destroyed. Then, with the

The spreading

ice sheets

and

effects.

last glacial

advance, the situation worsened.

falling sea levels eliminated

leading to the demise of thousands of species.

24

Ecosystems were fragmented

whole ecosystems,

-

The only

animals to survive such a

boom and

were the generalists - animals able to different environments.

have succeeded

Now,

exist

-

200 MILLION YEARS

bust cycle of glacials and interglacials

under

virtually

five million years after the

in colonizing the

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

5

any conditions and in

Human

era, these creatures

most inhospitable reaches of the

planet.

Fre ezing p lanet Human

Five million years after the

era,

much

of

North America and Northern Europe are covered by

ice.

The only

ice-free regions are the arid

North

Farth today The Human era corresponds to a

American Desert and the broad tundra of Northern Europe. Africa, Europe and Asia are slowly moving together. This convergence, and falling sea levels,

Ice

warm

spell in a

long

age. Ice sheets cover

both poles, but the

rest

of the planet enjoys a

range of climates and a

have caused the Mediterranean Sea to dry up. South America, the

Amazon

In

great deal of biodiversity

rainforest has

disappeared, leaving a region of dry grasslands.

million years

in 5

Earth Ice

is

peak of an

at the

sheets cover

much

Ice

age.

of the

northern hemisphere, leading to the destruction of

many

land and ocean habitats.

Those species able to survive the cold must adapt to

extreme changes

in

their environment.

key land areas grassland yj^j mountains

desert salt flats

icecaps

ocean

25

5

100 MILLION

MILLION YEARS

the

NORTH EUROPEAN THE WORLD

DEEP

IS

humankind, the planet

IN A

PERIOD OF GLACIATION.

Five million years after

once again dominated by icecaps,

is

Pleistocene epoch, two million years before humans. So in the icecaps that global sea levels are nearly

than they were during the

Human

500

era. Ice sheets

ICE

as

it

much

feet (about

was

water

in the is

locked up

150 meters) lower

'in

Earth

cover most of North America

million

five

be experiencing one

will

of the

biggest

history.

Worst

and the whole of Scandinavia, reaching down into Northern Europe.

years time the

ages

Ice

affected

be North America and

Where once plants

the craggy coastiine of southwest

which flourished

blizzard-swept tundra. Isles

and France

from the

is

glaciers

in

The

coves

warmed by

the Gulf Stream, there

continental shelf which spreads out

frozen

soil.

-76°F (-60°C) and wind-chill makes

On a winter's feel

it

is

from the

where there

now

to

British

night, temperatures

fall

below

even colder.

two

the brief

summer, conditions improve

sparkling to the north, flat

its

a

little.

USA,

the

rolled

them together

in

curving

The edge of

bitter,

sites

of

of

the

Canada

the icecap

lies

into Northern Europe."

Professor Paul Valdes Paleoclimatologist

Reading

lie

University,

UK

in polygonal

successive freeze-thaw cycles and called pingos, rise

a core of ice, a pingo occurs

has sprung through the permafrost or in

kilometers)

boulder-cracking frosts

Dome-shaped mounds,

lines.

from the tundra. Formed around

soil in

Europe,

and Scandinavia, and stretching

through the permanently-frozen subsoil, or permafrost. Rocks

of winter have heaved them up from the

will

domes up

ice

much

whole

meltwater running in gravel-choked streams across the

broad expanses of land. The

be

miles (three

covering

tundra. Water collects everywhere in lakes and ponds, unable to drain away

patterns, covering

will

high

down

Come

its

England boasted semi-tropical

an exposed, frozen plain of sand and gravel deposits - outwash

— and

in

where

up

where deeper water

lakes have progressively

frozen from the sides towards the center.

Despite the harsh cycle of fierce winters and brief summers, there

The permafrost does not enough

lakes,

here.

favor deep roots, but certain forms of flora are tough

to eke out an existence

border the

is life

undulating

from the frozen

meadows of

soil.

Clusters of cotton grass

small, hardy lichens

and grasses cover

the raised land between the gravel deposits and stream beds. Tight clumps of

heather form a rooting

site for

many

varieties

of small flowers. The only plants left

which might be considered

trees are closer to

Human-era shrubs, and even

these In

hug the ground. Species of willow send spread their branches across Earth, as the bitter winds that will inevitably

if

their gnarled trunks horizontally

and

unwilling to raise their heads into

come with

winter.

Northern Europe, what

has survived the

Ice

little life

age must eke out

a living on the frozen tundra.

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

left

Shagrats are the largest animals

in

the North European region. Their layered coats protect

them from the

cold climate of the northern tundra.

Spring has arrived melting

runs

ice

in

in

Northern Europe. Water from

narrow,

muddy

banks of shingle that choke the softens the surface

soil

torrents between the

river bed.

and turns

rocks.

The thaw

large areas

A

long, gentle slope of land runs

growth

well

is

underway.

of the tundra

above the pools. Because of the climate conditions, the

of'

is

accelerated: they

mate and reproduce

in

flv

an

Migrant birds wheel

Unlike

best of the bonanza. Migrant birds fare particularly well here.

They weather out

the winters in less extreme regions

making

although, with their ragged

oxen

and out of the swarm, making the

is

its

way across the network

streams and rocky debris. They are the size of sheep,

incredibly short period of rime during the brief thaw. in

wide

where the sunlight catches the water. The spring

A group of animals

cycle

to a

river bed,

into marsh, dotted with pools. (Clouds of Hies congregate

life

down

fur,

they resemble the

that grazed the tundra regions of the

musk

luman

era.

oxen, these beasts have no horns. In place

of hooves, they have broad, clawed the largest

I

musk

mammals of

feet.

They

are shagrats,

the northern tundra.

further south and travel to these bleak lands in the Meeting

summer months

to take

advantage of the quick and

intense growth cycle of the

Despite their

size,

shagrats are rodents.

They

from marmots, small burrowing rodents

(lies.

are

descended

common

in

Europe, Asia and North America during human times. Of

A

watery sun slants through the clouds of insects,

illuminating the red firewced, the yellow,

powdery male

flowers of the low willows and the white heather these plants

grow

in

shallow pockets of

soil, in

bells. All

contrast to

the orange and yellow lichens that coat the frost shattered

28

all

mammals, rodents were

the I

mass extinctions

luman

their

era.

in the best

that occurred towards the

Small and versatile, they were

changing environment. Indeed,

that led to

position to survive

it

was

end ot the

able' to

adapt to

this adaptability

rodents being thought of as pests

in

the past.

MILLION YEARS

5

With the destruction of

many

extinction of so

and ecosystems and the

habitats

and animals, rodents were

plants

able to step in and

till

million years after

humankind, shagrats have developed

shaggy coat

the ecological niches

left

a brief

immersion does them no harm - they shake off

the water before

vacant. Five a

response to the harsh conditions. They

as a

100 MIL

Shagrat fur

it

soaks into the skin and

layered as well as thick.

is

An

chills

them.

outside coat of

coarse hair provides external protection, and a tightly-

packed inner

layer acts as an excellent insulator.

are also herd animals, often huddling together for warmth.

Otherwise,

the)'

The herd scrambles up

resemble their smaller rodent ancestors,

and the shagrats begin

with large teeth and rounded cheek pouches. Such

be expected:

similarities are to

million years

is

in

terms of evolution,

bank

at the far side

of the stream

to root about for food,

pushing

rocks over with their strong forelegs to reveal the

five

of time.

a very short period

the

beneath.

The

big claws

on

soil

their forefeet dig into the soil to

reach underground grass stems and the roots of heather

The

shagrat herd has spent the winter at the northern edge

of the birch and conifer forest away to the south, where Paris

was during the

to their

summer

Human

Now they are

era.

grazing grounds.

The

females give birth

in early spring, following a gestation period

throughout the winter.

and about

a third

It is

now

returning

which

and willow. Their marmot ancestors were burrowing animals and so their front feet were already well adapted for this kind

meadow. Claws scrape the ground, and

barks a warning and the whole herd leaps to attention.

the middle of spring,

of the herd consists of youngsters.

splash through the

muddy

torrents, their

preventing them from sinking

Surviving Mammals have

one. This

is

A

in.

in

Their fur

so thick that

is

large

body holds heat better than

particularly large

many

broad and

flat.

Danger can be seen coming

There are few dangerous animals here, but

far away.

He

senses a presence.

the cold

because large bodies have

out. For this reason,

is

the big male shagrat, the leader of the herd, barks again.

feet

evolved several strategies to survive

surface area for the mass, so

climates.

broad

from

and

shagrats crunch through the banks of shingle

cold climate.

plants are uprooted

with broad chisel teeth. Suddenly, one of the shagrats

lasts

The tundra The

of foraging. The shagrats spread out across the

less

in

a

a small

a relatively small

body heat

is

radiated

cold climate animals are

compared with

relatives in

warmer

The nose, ears and eyes of cold climate animals

are usually smaller, making

them

less

prone to

frostbite.

Thick hair provides insulation. As a rule, dark colors are

good

for absorbing

warmth when the sun

is

In

out.

the

Human

era,

the largest

member

of the

deer family was the moose, which reached

However, there can be a trade-off provide better camouflage

in

in this, as light

snowy

colors

maximum

size in

its

the cold climate of Alaska.

habitats.

1*2

THE FUTURE

The herd

is

IS

WILD

unsettled.

The

shagrats assemble in an open

space and, instinctively, the youngsters huddle into the middle.

The

formation, that

all

facing outwards. This behavior

movement

stream.

A

is

very

like

identical strategy

on the opposite

of white from

side

its

of the

is

no

different

ancestors in this respect, and remains a lone hunter.

It is territorial,

but as the tundra on which

very few large plant-eaters, there regular prey here.-

is

The snowstalker

The

territory

is little

of

it

lives

in the

supports

way of

a single snowstalker

covers several square miles.

a sleek coat betrays the

a stealthy predator. It

enemy of

from

from wolves. Sure enough, there

in the heather

flash

approach of chief

threat

in packs or family groups.

in a defensive

of musk oxen, which employed an

when under a

them

adults surround

Mustelids have always been solitary animals, never hunting

is

a snowstalker, the

Because of the large distances between the

territories

of

neighbors and potential partners, snowstalkers mate

the shagrat.

infrequently Thin populations such as this are prone to

The

snowstalker

is

a mustelid, a

member of

the group of

carnivores that once included wolverines, weasels and stoats.

The

snowstalker

Human

era,

but

is

is

much

larger than any mustelid

otherwise similar

big difference, however,

is its

in

most

method of

of the

respects.

killing prey.

(

)ne

The

snowstalker's canine teeth have developed into long slashing

weapons, designed for prev.

inflicting

deep wounds on large

Evolution has witnessed such developments before.

The snowstalker

is

essentially a saber-toothed wolverine.

inbreeding and the genetic weaknesses

it

brings, so the

snowstalker has evolved a way to overcome the

female snowstalker enters estrus, her 21 days. in a

Each time she mates, the

kind ot suspension.

implanted

in the

ends and the

womb

fertilized

The embryos and the

summer thaw

young come from many

fertile

The

risk.

period, every

embryo

is

held

are eventually

litter is

begins. This

born

as the

means

winter

that the

different paternal lines. Delaying

implantation in this way aids the spread of diverse genes.

left

A at

snowstalker patrols the rocky regions

the edge of the tundra.

pelt provides excellent in

30

the snowy uplands.

Its

white

camouflage

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MIL.

!00

M

left

Young snowstalkers

play tug-of-war

with a scrap of meat brought by their mother.

The

litter

is

born at the

end of winter. This gives the pups

a

greater chance of survival as they

grow up

Large prey

is

hard to find on the tundra, so when

snowstalker spots a herd of shagrats

it

will follow

for

days. Finding

food

summer thaw

since, like the shagrats, the snowstalker has

young lair

to feed.

where her

territory

is

particularly important during the

Each day litter is

takes her further

the brief summer thaw.

She emerges from the low cover and faces the herd. They

a it

in

away from the

waiting, bringing her deeper into the

bunch up even more

closely,

narrowing

their eyes

baring their teeth, hissing in threat. She circles the mass

of shaggy fur and threatening

teeth,

looking for a weak

point in the protective formation, but there slinks

snowstalker

is

at a

disadvantage in the boggy

of the tundra. Her chances of

would have been

better if she

herd was further up

among

the rocks, and

a successful

had waited

would make her move

hunt

until the shagrat

the granite crags. There

the snowstalker's white pelt

have blended perfectly with the background. in a

snowy

terrain,

now

of another of her kind, strategy

her energy and

would

come when

she

let

the male will

picking out a

down

will

conceal herself in the heather on the other shagrats are

now well

side.

Too

aware of the snowstalker's

movements. The element of surprise

is lost.

late.

do the

territory

and her hunting

killing.

will

conserve

The time

will

ambush the herd, probably individual.

He will

dispatch the prey with his saber-teeth and monopolize

approaches.

to

deep into the

weak or inexperienced

She muse act quickly before the herd disperses. She creeps

bank and across the stream, attempting

a big male,

the male

the carcass, defending

the

is

The snowstalker

must be adjusted accordingly She

is still

Normally she

but

has lost interest in the attack. She

needs to cross an open stream in order to reach the herd.

The

none. She

of other snowstalkers.

The female

snow on

is

back behind cover.

After a while the shagrat herd moves on.

plains

and

it

against any other male that

A wandering female,

be allowed to eat her

fill

on

the other hand,

in return for

mating

rights.

Afterwards, the newly-inseminated female will return to

her

lair

and regurgitate most of what she has eaten for

her cubs.

31

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

MILLION YEARS

5

Along the western coast of what was once France, the bleak tundra turns into an even bleaker shoreline. With

damp

broad grey beaches of

mush of

waters slicked with a icebergs,

Human

it is

choppy

shingle,

ice crystals,

its

slate-colored

and huge

an inhospitable place to make a

living.

and sealions would have been

era, seals

in water.

insulated

is

which

also serve to streamline

means

that

it

ingests a lot

through glands above the

its

of

body.

salt,

many marine

have a tighdy-knit family structure.

since died out.

one egg ecological niche has been left vacant by

insulates the

extinction,

something soon evolves to

years after

humankind, the place of aquatic mammals has birds.

Gannetwhales are

Five million

similar in size

and

shape to a male walrus but are descended from gannets, large sea birds

of the

Human

era.

at a

Gannetwhales roost on

time and tends

egg from the

underside of her benefit

birds of the

Human

mammals have long

been taken by

which

is

of

bird's diet

excreted

virtually

Like

fill it.

The

eves.

the only inhabitants of such an environment, but sea

Where an

from the intense

cold by a dense coat of feathers and a layer of blubber,

fish

In the

The gannetwhale

tail

most from

incubation period

it

the

gannetwhales

The female

with great care.

bitter cold

with her

era,

feet,

lavs

The mother

by clutching

holding

it

only

to the

it

where

it

warmth of her body. During

— once

the

the chick has hatched and

being tended by the female

—

the male

is

will

is

away fishing to

bring back food for the whole family.

land and hunt fish underwater. Because of their large size they have given up paddles, ideal for

flight, their

wings evolving into stubby

moving through water

speeds of up

at

to 18 miles (30 kilometers) per hour.

While the gannetwhale enjoys complete freedom from predators in the sea, the females and their young are risk

on

land.

To

at

protect themselves from marauding

snovvstalkers, the birds nest

on

islands.

But

if a

winter

Further physical developments allow the gannetwhale to

is

hunt even more effectively underwater. As

the colonies. Such conditions invariably give rise to the

freezing ocean,

nostrils close

its

up

it

dives into the

to prevent

it

breathing

cold enough, ice bridges will allow predators access to

decimation of gannetwhale populations.

Return to the sea In

the

sea

Human

cliffs in

birds,

era,

gannets

lived in large colonies

the northern hemisphere. Like most sea

they spent

much

of their time chasing

However, gannets were unusual

swim underwater with 800 times denser than both environments

compromise as

good

on

in

is

in

that they could

their wings. Since air,

moving

difficult,

fish.

water

is

effectively in

and gannets had to

order to be good swimmers as well

flyers. Five million

years after humankind,

A Human-era gannet plunges gannetwhales have adapted to an aquatic by gradually losing their ability to

fly.

lifestyle

spectacularly into the sea pursuit of fish.

in

right Female gannetwhales guard

from

32

a

hungry snowstalker.

their

eggs

* J* nrif

^^H ^srap

^H

-

MILLION YEARS

5

-

100 MILLION YEARS

the

MEDITERRANEAN BASIN MOVING SOUTH, AWAY FROM THE EDGE the tundra stretches about halfway

bleak landscape

down

to

of the European

what used

to be France. There, the

gradually replaced by clusters of trees such as

is

ice sheet,

rowan and

birch.

Further south, trees become more abundant and conifers appear. Isolated clusters

become unbroken

of conifers. Where the Alps

forests

— towering mountains of

glaciation occurs

Beyond these Alpine

glaciers, stretching

rise,

another band of

creeping slowly

ice

southwards,

lies

down

five

In

the narrow

the valleys.

(2,000 meters) flats,

below sea

surrounded by

and parched. This

is

dry, ridged

is

now

human

civilizations

a region

once

The

of Gibraltar,

Straits

The

sea,

the

world's

closed

off,

oceans,

and

will

so

the

feet

of brine lakes and

limestone landforms, called karst.

hospitable climates of the former Mediterranean.

Africa

which are the only connection

be

some 6,500

air is

salt

dusty

what remains of the gentle beaches, warm waters and

is

as

the Mediterranean Basin.

a vast depression in Earth's crust,

level in places. It

years,

continues to jostle with Europe,

with

The Mediterranean Basin

million

Mediterranean Sea isolated.

As a

result,

the Mediterranean

around which great

thrived, has dried up.

will

we

evaporate and

become

the water

will

in

gradually

will

be

left

with dry land." Professor Paul Valdes

During the

Human

water through the

era, the

Straits

Mediterranean Sea was fed by a constant influx of

of Gibraltar. As global temperatures dropped, the

icecaps expanded, and sea levels

fell.

The

threshold of the Mediterranean

exposed and the flow of water stopped. This, coupled with the slow

European

the African and

Paleoclimatologist

Reading

plates, has left the

University,

UK

became

collision

of

Mediterranean landlocked.

Despite influxes from rivers flowing from Europe and Africa, the sea gradually evaporated.

As

the sea level dropped, the concentration of minerals in the

remaining water rose, and vast limestone deposits began to form on the floor

of the shrinking

sea.

As

the water evaporated further, stretches of limestone

pavement became exposed. to evaporate

and now,

It

took about one million years for most of the sea

five million years after

humankind, any water

left

has

collected in hypersaline lagoons in the low basins.

Out of

the brine lakes and fissured limestone karsts of the Mediterranean Basin

rise majestic

mountains. These are the former holiday islands of Majorca, Crete

left Five million years after the

and Cyprus, among others, that

now

stand

tall

and exposed on the harsh, dry

era,

Global temperatures are era,

and nowhere

is

five

or six degrees lower than they were in the

this difference felt

This once warm, sun-drenched region

more than is

now an

in the

arid,

Human

Mediterranean Basin.

cold and rocky land.

Human

plains. up.

the Mediterranean Sea has dried

The warm waters and hot sandy

beaches are gone, leaving a region of salt flats and brine lakes.

THE FUTURE

The

IS

of the Mediterranean Basin shimmer

salt flats

cold sunlight. basins,

WILD

What

water there

little

forming scattered, shallow

more

these lakes are ten times

contain no

fish.

The

only

is lies

lakes.

saltv

in the

The

in the

deeper

waters in

than seawater.

They

that can survive in such a

life

hvpersaline environment are simple algae and bacteria that

feed

on

lakes, large flies

At the edges of

the rich chemical soup.

clouds of brine

gather.

flies

These

the salt

Now the lizard itself

on

to

its

cryptile's

sticky

frill

The

mucous

surface of the salt

is

whiteness

once again

is

produced by the

salt-loving bacteria.

something moving on the dazzling lizard, a

member of

a net

As

flattened.

the

The

smudge of red

But there

flies,

flies

have adhered to

the lizard folds

it

its frill,

bunches. In rapid jerks

The

cryptile

is

covered in

on

open weave of headlong into

lizard setdes,

is

that

frill

now

A Human-era

frilled lizard

as the thorny devil

camouflage themselves

in

neck

frill

pluck

36

them

flies stick

off at

its

flies

cryptile runs

to

its frill

leisure.

The

brine

gathering the trapped insects into it

extends

its

long tongue and picks

salt

the moisture

it

is

which

frills

the frill.

and the

for a

are their

through

a cloud

lizard

can

to frighten off predators.

spreads

if

ingested.

needs from the

as a defense

adapted their neck

further function: to net the brine

of insects, the

its

as if to flypaper. Settling in the salt,

against predators, as a mating display or even as a heat

main food source. As the

The cloud

black and laden.

their

distant cousin of the cryptile

regulator. Cryptiles have

a thick

was pale-colored

and the

which also had an expandable neck

frilled lizard activated its

it.

its frill

exhausted after

used their serrated skin and amazing

A

of

a film

the individual strands.

they contain would prove fatal all

natural habitat.

But unlike

never drinks water from the lakes - the amount

lizard gains

lizard,

an agamid

salt flat. It is a cryptile

times.

displays of color to

era.

its

flies.

human

The

which

The

brief bout of activity.

of

frilled lizard,

Human

running straight through

has populated the dry regions of Earth since well before

agama

around

frill

frilled lizard,

air resistance. It careers

and parts and the

off the

is

the agamid family of lizards which

Human-era agamids, such

a

raises

unbroken membrane, the

secreted by pores

before the crypdle's run,

rains here, the top

only alleviated by the odd

is

completely

is

dissolved into a saline mush.

water evaporates, the surface

opens up

cryptile runs across the salt, the

swirls

it

it

resembles the

it

forms

cloud of brine

the rare occasions that

Then

the frilled lizard, which had an

in the shallows.

On

legs.

scampers along and

It

that lived in Australia during the

causing litde

flat.

hind

neck. Superficially,

continue to do so now, feasting on the algae and bacteria

surface of the Mediterranean salt plain

hunting.

tiny black

have always flourished under such conditions, and

The

is

its

neck

frill

The

flies it eats.

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION YEARS

200

MK

left

A

headlong into a

cryptile runs

cloud of brine

flies,

with

spread wide. Brine

frill

the cryptile with

moisture

it

all

its

flies

neck provide

the protein and

needs.

overleaf

A

pair of cryptiles dash across the

salt plain in ritual.

an energetic mating

The male has attracted

with an impressive display of

After hunting, the cryptile's pale coloring allows fade back into the white of the ribs

and

flattens

its

body

salt flats. It

the crystalline salt structures of

cryptile

of

its

is

a true

is

its

its

is

scaly skin

its

Cartilaginous ribs allow the

word

or an umbrella. Pigment

its

male

front legs and expands to

frill

cells in

The more

across the structure.

mate

cryptile adopts yet another

a prelude to mating, the

mimics

well-deserving

derived from the Greek

As

colorful appearance.

cryptile raises itself with

practically invisible. Indeed, the is

During the mating season, the

The

surroundings. So

master of disguise and

name, which

spreads

against the salty surface.

rough, three-dimensional pattern of

positioned, the animal

to

it

its

color.

open

the

frill

its frill.

rigidly like a fan

flash vivid colors

impressive the display, the

greater the chance of attracting a potential mate. This skin coloration also serves as a warning signal to rival

kruptos, meaning hidden or concealed.

males.

At such times the

cryptile stands

on top of

salt

pinnacles or other promontories and allows itself to be

There are times when the camouflage and changes attention to

itself.

When

cryptile lizard

its

its frill,

an enemy approaches, the lizard

bigger and

usually

much more

enough

lizard to

make

It

puffs itself

up and

turning black in color. Against the white

background, the cryptile a

its

now

stands out, appearing to be

threatening creature. This

to frighten off an attacker, its

escape.

seen from

afar.

color to deliberately draw

quickly adopts a threatening pose.

spreads

abandons

is

and allows the

Female males,

cryptiles also

do not use

it

have an expandable

frill

but, unlike

for mating displays. Instead, the

frill is

only used for feeding and in self-defense. As soon as she spots a displaying male, the female can cover great distances across the salt plains to

meet her mate. Once mating

is

over,

the female leaves the salt lagoon and heads into the rocky

limestone karst in search of a safe place to lay her eggs.

37

THE FUTURE

Around

IS

WILD

the edge of the salt lagoon, the landscape gradually

changes from white to

grey.

This

is

the karst

—

a region

of

rocky limestone blocks and pinnacles, separated by deep

Grykes

fissures called grykes.

action of rainwater

Over

on

are

formed by the gradual

natural cracks

and

faults in the rock.

time, the water has a weathering effect

on the

there

is

become

grykes, enabling

some

many ways

and more

them

to their ancestors, although they are smaller

lighdv-built. Delicate

to prance along the

known

era, scrofas are similar

hooves and

agile

limbs allow

wide slabs of limestone pavement,

over the grykes as they go.

as clints, leaping

What

The

generalized,

omnivorous

diet has

not changed

much

soil

either.

Scrofas will eat almost anything. Plant material

bottom of the

forms

a large part

grykes.

in this dry landscape gathers at the

in

Human

rock,

dissolving the limestone and deepening the fault lines into larger fissures until, finally, they

Five million years after the

of their

slow-moving animals and

vegetation to take root.

but they

diet,

will also

prey on

carrion. Their cylindrical nose,

used for searching out food from the bottom of grykes, It is in

eggs.

the shelter of the grykes that the cryptile hides her

They

will

be safer here than on the open

salt plains,

is

longer than that of their wild boar ancestors, and

is

now

a short, flexible trunk.

but there are dangers nonetheless. Snuffling about in the

broad passageway of

a

gryke comes a scrofa, a descendant

The long nose of

a snuffling, foraging scrofa finds the

of the wild boars that once ranged across Europe and Asia.

newly-laid cryptile eggs in the shallow

Human-era wild boars were hardy

the eggs

creatures, adaptable to

changing conditions and generalized habits.

They

would

kill

fed largely

and

on

in their feeding

grain and roots, but occasionally

eat small animals.

them

from

up, then

scrofa had

their hiding place it

moves

and

soil. Its

its

long

on. This was one

no intention

tusks loosen

lips

snap

little

treasure the

of sharing with other

members of

the herd grazing nearby.

left

A

herd of scrofas forages

in

the

grykes for vegetation and even small animals. '

,

40

,V'f.''

S.

H

it

The

scrota's long

snout allows

to reach into the deepest crevices.

5

MILLION YEARS

left

A

gryken pokes

gryke.

and

The

scrofas spread out across the karst.

dominant females - the herd

and

is

joint leaders

There are two

of the herd.

essentially a family group, consisting

The only males

their offspring.

juveniles.

Once

in the

A

scrofa

of the leaders

group are

the males reach maturity, they leave the

hundreds of

feet to

it is

This

young, as there

is

is

the best time of year for raising

more food

environment. Wherever

available in the bleak

scrofas

go

the best feeding

also the

Down

in a

ground is

relatively

domain of the

narrow gryke,

a gryken,

and

it is

an eye on the scrofa herd.

prey circle in the skies above the karst, but other dangers

and

lurk in the grykes themselves.

separates the clints. to

Down by the

edge of the

relatively safe

— but

On

slightly

there

salt flats, is little

higher ground,

the scrofa herd

food to be found

soil particles

blown

it

This

scrofas' greatest enemy.

a slim, agile creature

its

always two or three on the lookout for danger. Birds of

exists here.

abundant. Unfortunately,

tracking scrofas.

gryken stops and pokes

down

for scrofa herds at this time of

side to side, following the tortuous route is

foraging, there are

bunches along

in

whatever water table

other lone males for mating privileges.

six.

grow

flat

the grykes, stunted and gnarled, their roots reaching

year, since vegetation

three and

a

their young, called scroflets.

surfaces of the clints. Hazel trees

with the dominant sows of other herds and fighting with

of between

head out of

its

tracking a herd of scrofas

grow. Patches of wispy grass sprout up from the

is

litters

is

grykes from the continental interior allow vegetation to

herd to begin hunting and foraging on their own, mating

In the late spring, scroflets are born in

It

winds from

of the chasm.

Now

It

and again the

head out of the gryke, keeping

Then

its

head

is

down

again

continues to negotiate the labyrinth of fissures that

one another,

The chasms tend

a legacy

to

run

at right angles

of Earth-moving forces that In places, the gryken's path

is

cracked the rocks

there.

interrupted by a gaping hole, an entrance to the network

into the

originally.

of subterranean caverns that

lies

below the

is

karst.

41

THE FUTURE

The

WILD

IS

slinky predator senses that

herd.

on

stands

a thick black

eyes.

The

sleek

trees. Silently,

Its triangular

band which helps

body

A

of four

litter

it

its

is

to camouflage

scroflets

is

is

tail

for balancing

is

beady

its

up the

—

The

stealthy gryken's jaws are full

of

its

kill. Its

canines are

ancestors, reaching

is

from the the

a

almost saber-toothed.

just a little

poised to leap from the gryke and streak

member of

tree-living

punctured and

The

the mustelid family.

martens of the

Human

Descended

and

a

ran along branches.

long

The

tail

its

era,

it

scroflet has

sinks

of sharp

much

over

Its

teeth,

now

longer than those

its

lower

Like the

jaw.

is

long teeth are needed to tear

swiftly disabled,

is

main

scroflets, the gryken's its

throat

windpipe ripped out.

its

not seen the danger and the swift attacker

sharp canines into the baby's throat.

scrorlet lets out a plaintive squeal. Its

has

Too

late,

the

mother looks up and,

with an enraged scream, leaps over the grykes, displaying

triangular head. Its

her deadly tusks in attack. Her attempted rescue

ancestors had powerful hind legs which they used to leap trees,

cracks.

a fast, streamlined predator.

same long fur-coated body and

through

narrow

snowstalker of the North European tundra, the gryken

Like the snowstalker of the cold northern plains, the

gryken

down

through the tough hides of

It is

long and

legs are

its

better suited to squeezing through

bared for the

mother.

towards the hapless infant.

and

slim

food source. The victim

The hunter

no longer

crossed

rooting around in

one

MILLION YEARS

to adapt to a habitat of rocky crevices. It

needs a long

it

to blend in with the

the straggly grass of the surface, and

too far from

face

also striped, breaking

is

gryken's contours and helping vegetation.

had

hind legs between the stubby trunks and

its

peers out through the leaves.

by

!00

close to the scrofa

it is

pauses near a stand of hazel

It

MILLION YEARS

5

The gryken has thrown

to maintain balance as they

gryken, on the other hand, has

In a Hash,

it is

its

prev

down

is

in vain.

into the cave

mouth.

gone.

Mustelids Mustelids are a family of

solitary,

carnivorous

mammals. Human-era mustelids included species, such as badgers, weasels

and

land-living

stoats; aquatic

species, such as otters; as well as tree-dwelling species,

such as martens. The pine marten, from which the

gryken has evolved, was widely exploited for

brown

fur during

human

its

thick

times. Pine martens lived

in

the hollows of trees and hunted rodents, birds and

eggs high

in

the tree-tops, leaping from branch to

branch with their strong limbs and using their

tails

for balance. As global temperatures dropped, forests

Pine martens

declined and the pine marten's habitat began to

the

wooded

were found

in

regions of Europe

and Asia during the Human disappear.

It

was

in

response to these changing

conditions that the land-dwelling gryken evolved.

era.

right

A female

scrota's

She

will

in vain.

not be able to catch the

predator as

42

attempts to rescue

her baby from the gryken are

it

leaps into the gryke.

5

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

200 MILLIO,

the

AMAZON GRASSLAND ICECAPS MAY DOMINATE THE GLOBE five million years after Human era but, between the equator and the poles, there is still a diverse of

habitats.

There

the

range

are equatorial rainforests, tropical grasslands, tropical deserts,

temperate woodlands, coniferous forests and tundra. Over time, these habitats

'During the global

have been compressed into narrower and narrower bands by the cooler climate.

fall

age,

the

mean temperature

will

by

next

only

a

Ice

few degrees.

However, the effect of

Human

During the

era, the actions

temperature

in

rainforest. Five million vears after

humankind,

by the Ice

natural changes brought about

it

vears that

and the mighty

once made

it

the

Amazon

age. In the

Amazon

pronounced Basin, the forest

is

lower

now

than

river has dwindled.

most voluminous

mean

conditions

it

has been for millions of

The

river in the

that the savannah

These can be triggered by lightning fires

vast

network of

world have

all

tributaries

but dried up.

frequently swept by bushfires.

fire in

surprising ways.

The

Amazon

Amazon

on

life

will

be

very

trees. If left to

areas such as the

where the climate

become much

tropical rainforests will

drier.

we

The

see today

be reduced to a few small

and replaced by large

areas of dry savannah grassland."

ignited, the

Dr Roy Livermore Paleogeographer British Antarctic Survey,

has adapted to drought

the fires to clear the

in

Basin

destroying

at great speeds,

Grassland,

grasses rely

other competing plant species, such as

Once

or a glint of sunlight.

can sweep across hundreds of square miles

everything in their path. In the

and

strikes

is

will

is

clusters

The dry

drop

has been further depleted by

reduced to scattered pockets, surrounded by broad stretches of savannah which reach out to the horizon. Rainfall

this

of humans threatened to destroy the equatorial

UK

ground of

grow unchecked,

trees

can

dominate the land, cutting out the sun with their thick canopies and monopolizing

on

the soil with their roots. Grasses, easily replace their

burnt leaves with

disperse their seeds

The

forests that

when

the

fire

once occupied

the other hand, are fast growing plants and

new growth from underground

stems.

has passed, and thrive in the dry habitat.

this

region were far

more productive than

Amazon

Grasslands. But as the forests declined, so too did the

diversity

of animal species. Because South America

is

broken by changing sea

developed in the savannah in virtual

levels

and volcanic

connected to the

isolation.

activity,

Cut off from the

the

number and rest

the world only by the narrow strip of Central America, a connection which periodically

They

animal rest

of

is

life

has

of the world left

and faced with

drastic

environmental changes, those species which survived

extinction have evolved

new

adaptations for

life

in this ecosystem.

The

animals

now exposed to wind and fire. Where must now cover great distances to find

here have lost the shelter of trees and are

once food was

plentiful, animals

it.

The all

rainforests of the

Amazon have

but disappeared, leaving a dry

savannah. The region

ravaged by

is

frequently

swift, intense bushfires.

45

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

left

Babookaris are well adapted to

life

on the ground and can cover large distances

in

search of food. They

communicate with other members of the troupe by waving their long tails

Out on

the grassy expanse, a

grass heads

is

waving

bunch of unusually

in the breeze.

Indeed,

it

seems

the grass heads are not just waving, but actually

through the grass. These are the

about

tails

thirty strong. Occasionally,

of

a

group of animals,

one stops and

lion-like

skin naked

its

and

that

moving

raises

head above the tops of the grass stems. The face

and almost human,

thick

tall,

red,

round

is

framed

its

in a

(

)ne species not only survived, but flourished.

monkeys.

It

rainforest that

number of monkey that lived ill'

nit

in

on the

such

of

t

mom 46

large

monkeys

and

fruits to leaves,

was

at

home

seeds and even small vertebrates.

in the trees,

but

just as

ground. Such generalism

left

it

the retreat of the rainforest. their arboreal

comfortable on the

well positioned to adapt to

The

way of

tiny,

acrobatic

to tree-top.

The

fertile habitat

mging

stretch

that

swung that leapt

could sustain

the rainforest has gone, replaced by an

of grassland. As

finally, to

it

shrank to islands

isolated stands, those species

ch could not adapt

became

extinct.

It

uakaris were able to

life

and take to

living

on the

Amazon.

to a

monkeys

monkeys

and

Now

and,

There were

forest floor, agile

variety.

5

species.

the branches

from tree-top

once grew here was home

uakari

was an omnivore, eating anything from insects

grasslands which were spreading across the

The deep

The

was one of the most adaptable of Human-era Amazonian

abandon

mane. These animals are monkeys.

above the grass-tops.

of

This

is

not the

first

time that rainforest has been replaced

by grassland. Several million years before the a similar

drop

in

phenomenon occurred

atmospheric humidity

of baboons

left

in Africa,

levels.

luman

era,

brought on by

a

Then, the ancestors

the trees and took to dwelling

ground, becoming more quadrupedal in

I

in

on the

the process.

Now,

South America, the descendants of the uakaris have

done

exactly the same.

They have evolved

into babookaris.

MILLION YEARS

5

Like that

all is,

monkeys, the hands of

a

babookari are prehensile,

they are adapted for grasping or gripping.

Now,

though, they are more often used for walking than for

swinging through larger version

red face. uakari

of

trees.

The babookari

uakari ancestor,

its

One major

difference

down

to

tail,

but

this

is

swinging about in

the babookari's

tail is

Its

hairless tail.

The

that did not

descendant has evolved a

not a muscular, extra limb used for

trees.

with a plume of hair grass, this

tail.

its

Instead

at the

it is

a

tall,

inflexible

rod

end. Longer than the deep

used for signaling across the

Since a

it

a social animal, the

devices such as a

monkey can

of

a troupe.

A

its

live

long

on

in

its

large

It

monkey

has gained

has retained enough dexterity

hands to be able to weave complex structures from

to work.

One of

the structures

is

a fish trap, a

hollow spherical basket which the babookari deploys the shallow seasonal rivers that plain. Fish is

omnivorous monkeys. stays together.

others are

on

wind

their

way

in

across the

an excellent protein supplement for these

Some

When on

individuals

fishing trips, the troupe

work

certainly,

come

however,

in

it

the traps, while the

On

the lookout for danger.

grassland, danger can

plains.

builds

it

the

open

many shapes and

will

come on long

sizes. legs.

babookari needs signaling

tail

the

the trees, this

great deal of intelligence.

Almost Being

came clown from

grass stems, and has the knowledge to put these structures

essentially a

was the only South American monkey

possess a long, prehensile

long

is

is

100 MIL!

and colored

face.

open grassland

group of

is

The only way

a grassy plain,

even

if

the grass

cover. Large animals cannot

as part

thirty or so individuals

On

can

is

hunt by

they must hunt by speed. Back

long, there

is little

stealth, so instead

in the

Human

era, the

most

quickly scour a wide area of savannah for food and can

famous of the grassland predators was the cheetah — the

co-operate in defense against a predator.

fastest

animal on Earth

at that time.

left

Babookaris are dexterous enough to

weave

grasses. rivers

fish traps

from the long

They place the traps

in

the

which wind across the savannah

during the wet season.

47

THE FUTURE

The

WILD

IS

swiftest hunter

MILLION YEARS

5

Amazon

of the

Grasslands

is

bird called the carakiller. Flightless birds are not

Flying

but

a useful skill,

is

escape from, and

when

if

there

uncommon.

there are few predators to

birds

flight. Flightless

have long been successful on grasslands, particularly those

enough

birds large

saw ostriches America, all

in Africa,

and

related,

may be

it

flightless ancestors. is full

of

stories

of

The dodo

species.

emus

and rheas

in Australia

in grassland habitats.

all

The Human

to defy other predators.

in

carakiller

South

from the same

when

most

birds

Its

is

just

one example of

common

and

flying pigeon.

Amazon

The

claw

at the tip.

The

carakiller's

body

is

shaggy on the back and

Basin

life

on

is

eating

-

feathers

legs,

-

that

was

to turn

a

on

fine

the chest.

smooth

surface

neck

Its

when

the

sticky with

movements of

in loose

groups, stalking across

open formation, looking

a

troupe of babookari. At about seven feet

(over two meters)

tall,

the carakiller can easily see

When

a

troupe of babookari

spotted, the carakillers signal silently to raising

for the telltale

and lowering

its

prey

is

one another,

colorful, peacock-like

plumes on

the backs of their heads.

the carakiller.

Marabou

and

would soon become

and hunt

over long distances.

descendants became large ground-dwelling

flightless

it

covered in feathers for insulation,

and wings are bare, presenting

Carakillers live

caracara was

adapted to

easily

and helping

a flightless bird

falcons of the

bird,

tilt,

corners quickly. In addition, each wing has a long curved

the flesh and blood of prey.

and eventually evolved into a bird

completely

at full

flying birds that evolved into flightless

omnivorous

the plains.

act as stabilizers, balancing the

bird

during the Fluman era was the caracara. a versatile,

runs

it

large flying

muscular and aerodynamic. The

now

wings

the grassland in the

still

However, the history of bird evolution

which evolved from an ancient species of

One of

no longer have

the carakiller

feathers, but they are

200 MILLION YEAR

era

These ancient birds were

that they evolved

The wings of

bird's flightless

enough food on the ground,

is

powers of

birds often discard their

a flightless

YEARS

100 MILLION

stork

The Human-era marabou stork stood around five feet (1.5 meters) tall

up to

wingspan of

a

9.4 feet (2.9 meters). Like the carakiller, the

marabou from

and had

stork ate virtually any animal matter,

game

insects to large

carrion. As

an

marabou

inhabitant of the African savannah, the stork

was witness to frequent

to

its

advantage.

of

fire,

The

It

fires

and used them

would hunt ahead of the

line

picking out animals as they fled the flames

carakiller also uses

unlike the

Marabou

bush

stork,

it

fires to

hunt but,

cannot

fly

away from

Human-era marabou

storks

were scavengers, finding food rpd hot flames. 'ift

It

relies

aait to carry

it

purely on

its

away from the

long legs fire.

everywhere from

garbage heaps.

lion kills to

right

A female

carakiller

Carakillers

communicate by

and lowering

48

guards her eggs.

colorful

raising

head feathers.

* .

v

',r

WL^

^ *L

%

**P'v

THE FUTURE

The

IS

carakillers

WILD

begin to close in on the monkeys. Suddenly,

one of the babookari lookouts spots them and shrieks out a warning.

They

whooping and screaming,

scatter,

confuse their attackers.

The

carakillers single

the babookaris and swiftly run

it

trying to

out one of

down. The other monkeys

reform some distance away and carry on with

their lives.

The ratdeback

times, carakillers

employ

a different

hunting strategy,

using the frequent bushfires to their advantage.

As

the

fire

about the

size

of a Human-era

otter. It

is

covered by an armor of thick protective plates which give it

Human-era

the appearance of another

armadillo.

The

scales

which form the

great mats of hollow hairs.

The

rows of

is

quills

of insulating

a layer

along

rattleback's first line

its

flanks.

creature

— an

plates are actually

trapped inside the

air

hairs provides insulation against heat. scales, there

At

is

Beneath the roof of

pelt,

The

and the animal has

hairy plates are the

of defense against bushfires.

races across the savannah, the animals of the grasslands

run for their

lives.

Carakillers can

animals are not so swift.

The

do

this easily,

but other

birds run ahead of the flames,

snapping up small mammals, snakes and

lizards as they are

In most cases hair its

is

soft

and

fluffy,

trapping

strands and acting as an insulator, to keep a

warm

in cold climates

and cool

in

can also be highly specialized. Porcupine

the line of

individual hairs,

picking at the charred corpses

left there.

grown

stiff,

is

one animal

with the periodic

that

fires

is

supremely adapted to dealing

of the grasslands.

It is

a

descendant

of the the paca, a rodent indigenous to South America during the

Human

era,

and

it is

called the rattleback.

hair.

not

The

made

basic protein in hair cells

just hair cells

feathers, beaks,

mammal

quills

were

strong and pointed, while

the horn of a rhinoceros was

There

between

hot climates. But hair

flushed from their hiding places. Other birds walk behind fire,

air

which contain

entirely is

of compacted

keratin. In fact,

it is

keratin: skin, nails,

horns and hooves are also based on

this

one substance.

left Carakillers use the frequent grassland fires

to their advantage, hunting

along the fireline and snatching prey

from the advancing flames.

50

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION YEARS

left

Armored

make

plates of thick,

stiff

hair

rattlebacks durable creatures,

able to withstand bushfires and defend

themselves from angry

In the case of the rattleback, the keratin in mineralized

-

minerals from the animal's diet have combined

make

with the keratin to flattens soil

its

harder. In a

it

flameproof back

around

plates has

its

its

as

them

plates, digging

body. Hunkered

weather out the firestorm

down

the ratdeback

fire,

in this way,

into the it

rattleback die

is

on hand

eyes were not also protected, but

has

all

of hardened

ratdeback opens will

easily

it

its

skin.

if

When

it

shields

the

fire

this

its

rodent

eyes with

has passed, the

eyes and surveys the damage.

At worst,

have suffered a scorched plate or two, and these are regrown.

Of much

animal corpses which

greater interest are the charred

litter

tasty protein

when as

fires are less

is

scarce

rattleback

is

on

the

eats

it

on

Amazon

Grasslands and so the

an opportunistic feeder.

large front feet

on the ground during the wet season, frequent. It

The

ratdeback shows no fear

simply breaks open an egg and

the spot. Should the enraged

mother return

the nest, the ratdeback flattens itself to the itself into

beak

is

the

shape of

in the

ground with

useless against this

its

sharp

quills.

soil,

The

to

wedging

carakiller's

armor and no amount of

scratching and clawing will pry the ratdeback loose.

the burnt ground.

Its diet

of grass stems and buried tubers, which its

the flames

barbecue of burnt

supplement comes

approaches the nest.

it

Ratdebacks are

Food

itself to a

As

carrion.

Another

the ratdeback's

seems that

bases covered. In a firestorm,

a thick layer

it

use

litde

path, the

to pick over the spoils.

down, the rodent helps

carakiller eggs, laid

Fireproof plating would be of

its

can

sweeps overhead.

it

passes overhead, killing everything in

carakillers.

and strong

claws.

it

consists mainly

digs out using

However, when

a fire

solitary animals,

coming together only

mate. Competition for food makes

and they defend back

plates.

The

them highly

their foraging areas

potential intruders. It

is this rattle

territorial

by clattering

distinctive, aggressive noise

to

their

warns off

that gives the ratdeback

tern*

MILLION YEARS

5

the

NORTH AMERICAN DESERT THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT that ends just south

is

so low that the

once the most productive vast,

by an

ice sheet

of the border between what were once the United States and

Canada. The central region of North America temperature

COVERED

IS

air

has

is

cold and dry.

The atmospheric

capacity for holding moisture.

little

agricultural land

on

the planet

is

now

little

'Five

What was

more than

a

million

Human America

barren dust bowl.

of the

a

Atlantic

Ocean has

broad coastal plain topped by the Appalachian Mountains. Inland, there

as bitterly cold as the

Gobi once was

1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) until

formed by the

glacier-ridden

All year long, piercing

it

in central Asia. It stretches for

an

is

Rocky Mountains away

barrier

to the west.

winds sweep southwards from the

the interior.

What

infrequendy

in

from the

ice, stirring

precipitation there

Any snow

coastal regions, but very

cover on higher ground

is

thin

ice.

South

ice

the

sheet,

continent

rest

subject to

extraordinary winds,

desiccation

and absence of moisture.

very

little

It

difficult

to

grow

because

is

it

in

this

of

the

cold,

the lack of moisture and

also

the

up vicious

sand-blasting

effect

soil.

winds,

which constantly

rain reaches shift loose

tends to be snow, but even this

is

North

is

of the

howl

of

under

environment

sandstorms and scouring away any potentially productive pockets of Occasionally, winds

much

a cold, dry desert. Plants find

about

up against the rocky

finally fetches

after

receded, leaving

unending expanse of cold sand and cracked rock. The North American Desert is

is

the

of

Along the eastern edge of the continent, the

era,

the

years

sediment around."

falls

and patchy. There

Professor Bruce Tiffney is

a

Paleobotanist significant difference in temperature

icecap,

producing

a steep

between the equator and the edge of the

temperature gradient from north to south. This leads to

unstable conditions with screaming tornadoes ripping across the interior far frequently than they did during the

Vegetation

is

Human

but in small numbers. Indeed, very live in this

little life

specific

are

supreme

plants exist,

can survive above ground. Those

The animal

specialists, brilliandy

demands of an uncompromising

physically, whilst others

Only the hardiest of

bleak desert must withstand freezing temperatures and

protect themselves from the violent storms.

American Desert

more

era.

sparse in this harsh, arid landscape.

animals able to

University of California

habitat.

inhabitants of the

North

adapted to cope with the

Some

species have adapted

have altered their living environment. Animals that

left live

The

here need to

last

out times

when food

is

in short supply. In order to

do

so,

have developed remarkable strategies for storing energy and conserving food.

Some

animals have even developed altruistic feeding habits, sharing food with

other colony

members

to ensure the survival

of the species

as a whole.

fertile agricultural belt of

North

they America has been frozen out of existence by the advancing rolling fields

ice.

The

have been replaced

by a freezing, featureless desert.

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

left

A

desert rattleback trudges across

the rocky earth.

Its

tough, hairy scales

provide excellent insulation against

the bitter desert winds.

Centra] America

-

the narrow strip of land, or isthmus, that

North and South America — has not always been

links

land bridge. For

many

millions of years before

its

formation,

the two continents were quite separate and distinct. the connection

mammals spread

Human

American mammals

era

a

few

dawned, one of the few South

to have flourished in

There, the rattleback evolved into yet another species,

one adapted for the cold desert environment.

The

opposite direction into North America. By

in the

northwards into the North American desert.

When

became permanent, land-dwelling

first

migrated from north to south, while only

the time the

a true

to migrate

North America

was the opossum.

desert rattleback

cousin.

It

is

a larger

animal than

Now,

climate. Big animals have less surface area relative to their

body mass, making them more heat.

efficient at

However, despite the desert

size, its

five million years after

The

mammal

has

rattleback evolved

rodent found

Human

era.

made

the

Human

the

journey -

from the paca,

in the forests

era,

another

the rattleback.

a large

nose, ears and lips are

54

Amazon

of South America during the

South American rattlebacks were highly

basin.

So much

keeping

rattleback's larger

much

in the

body

smaller than those a

cold climate, the

smaller an animal's extremities, the less susceptible they are to frostbite.

burrowing

successful in the dry grasslands thai were spreading across the

grassland

has evolved a large body in response to the cold

of the grassland rattleback. In such

southern

its

so, in fact, that they

were able

The

hairs

on

the backs of both species of rattleback have

evolved into hard, interlocking

scales,

although the desert

rattleback's scales are smaller than those of the grassland

rattleback.

Because there are fewer predators

in the desert,

MILLION YEARS

5

the scales need not be as strong as those of their grassland

Heat insulation, on the other hand,

relatives.

cold desert, and large

pockets within the scales provide

air

excellent protection against the elements.

ratdeback's face

and

nostrils

is

covered

from the

the

vital in

is

The

piercing,

eves

its

burrowing below the desert surface, creature.

wind-borne sand.

however, a

when

so

a

is

not immediately used

their

the

same way

will

gluts

itself.

cannot afford to waste water, so

all.

It

fact,

its

fat in

are also very efficient.

urine

is

all its

moisture from the food

partially

One

does not dig tunnels and

works

Then

burying

its

omnivorous southern cousin,

a plant-eater, subsisting

turnips. Its acute sense

surface and

it

this

it

eats.

ratdeback

is

mostly on the tubers of desert

of smell can detect plants from the

uses broad, clawed feet to dig

them

out.

way

it

a

subterranean

more

pits as other,

During

a violent

sandstorm,

into the soft sand and dust with

action, shuffling

lets

not

down

the displaced sand

with

spill

its

back,

itself.

animal that avoids the grim surface conditions by living is

the spink, a species of burrowing bird

descended from the quail flying. Instead, its

family. It has

long since given up

wings have become adapted to digging.

the underside of each wing, the feathers have

horny

scales,

become

forming an abrasive surface. The articulation

ot the spink's forelimbs has also changed radically. Instead

of flapping Unlike

its

swimming

below the desert

On

highly

the ratdeback hardly needs to drink

obtains nearly

feet.

it is

time

its

What

be stored away as

Human-era camels stored

that

humps. The ratdeback's kidneys

concentrated. In at

it

reserves to see the animal through times of famine, in

much

It

North American Desert,

ratdeback comes across food,

nourishment fat

are scarce in the

it

kind of a

broad

Food and water

It

specialized, desert animals do.

desert

in thick hair to shield

Although the desert ratdeback spends much of

in time as birds

normally do, the limbs

move

The spink

crawls

independently, shoveling away at Earth. in

much

with

its

the

same way

elbows,

its

as

it

digs, levering itself

forward

weight supported by hornv pads

at the

joints.

right This strange

burrowing bird

a distant cousin of the quail.

The

spink's

is

a spink,

Human-era

wings have evolved

into strong forelimbs for digging

tunnels deep below the desert.

55

THE FUTURE

The

rest

WILD

IS

of the spink's body

is

white feathers, not unlike the

penguins in the

Human

era.

covered

downy

in fine black

feathers of

However, with

and

baby

their elongated

bodies, spade-like forelimbs and strange, crawling gait,

spinks bear litde resemblance to

Human-era

Nearly

live in large

individuals are biologically juvenile, having never

reached the reproductive stage. Only one female

of the colony, to deposit

underground colonies, deep below the

mate and

a queen, will

hormones within

of the baby and whether

birds.

the

Spinks

all

work of the colony

it

lay eggs.

member

She

is

able

the egg that determine the sex

will

be able to breed or not. All

revolves around keeping the queen

alive

and nurturing the brood.

The

spink's diet consists

inhospitable desert surface. Digging such a vast network of

tunnels requires a degree of organization, and the spinks

work

together.

loosen the

soil

Thev form chain

gangs.

The

birds

first

with their beaks and then scoop the

behind them with

their wings, passing

it

to

soil

one another

along the tunnel. In their dark subterranean habitat, spinks

do not need

to see. Their eyes have

pinpricks, like the eyes of

Human-era moles. They

communicate by sound or touch, in the tunnels.

been reduced to mere

twittering

and squeaking

of the same desert turnip favored

by the rattleback. Spink colonies are established where turnips are

most abundant. Due

to the limited

food supply,

the few fertile males and females pair up to establish

new

colonies, traveling across the desert in search of turnip plants.

Spinks are in great danger on the desert surface,

and so they emerge from night.

During the

hungry predators

early circle

their tunnels only

mornings and

late

under cover of

afternoons,

overhead.

left

A group

of spinks gathers at an

intersection

between

communicate with squeaking song.

56

tunnels. Spinks

a twittering,

MILLION YEARS

5

left

On

the ground, the deathgleaner

supports its

its

body by

elbows. The helpless spinks

be easy pickings for

High above the shifting sands of the desert, black,

Now the desert rattleback is among the

winged creatures hang

fronds of

in

the

resting

air,

on updrafts

of wind blown off the sandy ridges below. They

Human-era

Now and

vultures, seeking an easy

again,

others that

it

meal on the ground.

one wheels and banks, signaling

to the

has found something. Soon, a large group

has gathered and

The

circle like

is

preparing to

flying creatures are

not vultures, but deathgleaners:

predatory, scavenging bats with wingspans of four feet (1.3 meters). In this instance,

spotted, but something

may not be noted the

far away.

a shuffling in

A

that suggests

food

deathgleaners penetrating eye has

the sand.

It is a

desert rattleback

move, looking for nourishment of

its

own.

on

On

occasion, deathgleaners will take a young rattleback, but this

is

not

common -

the rodent's

armor

is

unpalatable. Instead, the bat will follow the a rattleback in the

hope

that

abundant source of food.

it

thick, succulent

digging

is

the patch of turnips, there

is

a spink

will

this predator.

down

tubers. Soaring deathgleaners circle in, waiting.

to the

Beneath

colony — a network

of tunnels and chambers surrounding

a substantial

growth

of tubers. The colony has been there since the turnips

The unsupported forming

from

not food they have

on the ground

desert turnips, and

took root, and the ground

feast.

it is

some

on

resting

a crater

sight

is

unstable.

earth beneath the rattleback gives way,

around the

plants.

and then surfaces again,

The

rattleback sinks

spitting sand

and

scrambling to firmer ground. Immediately, the loose sand

around the ratdeback

is

alive

floundering intruder in a

with spinks, which attack the

futile display

of defense. Most of

the spinks are quick to flee the ruined nest, but those in the collapsed tunnels closest to the surface

cannot

tough and

penetrate to the deeper, secure regions of the colony.

movements of

In a state of panic, they crawl clumsily across the desert

leads to an easier

and more

surface looking for shelter, but their efforts are hindered

by their

virtual blindness.

57

X

//

5

Down come

the deathgleaners,

swooping

Long

in.

talons,

shadow

more

search of food. Unlike most

shadow

after

bird-like than bat-like, pin

the spinks into the sand. Strong jaws and

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

enormous

crush into their backbones, delivering death

teeth

The

swiftly.

200 MIL

Human-era

They must

are only active in the daytime.

has

warmed

the

ground

bats, deathgleaners

sufficiently to

wait until the sun

make use of warm

or thermals, and soar over great distances.

air currents,

shattered spink colony will provide plenty of food.

When

A

deathgleaner's

It

consists of a

wing

is

typical

membrane of

of the wing of any

skin stretched out

the elongated fingers of the hand. This

is

this

is

through the

lost

problem because

feathers.

their

between

not the ideal

arrangement for a cold-climate animal, since of body heat

skin. Birds

a great deal

do not have

wings are covered

in insulating

it is

pumped through

the veins of the

membrane. The heat taken from the blood going is

state

used to

warm

the cooled blood

them, bv the same principle

Deathgleaners

live in

ravines of the distant

wing

into the

coming back from

as industrial heat exchangers.

communal

roosts, in the caves

Rocky Mountains. They

and preserving enough energy to

left

Deathgleaners leave their roosts the daytime,

when

they can soar

over great distances on

warm

air

currents rising up from the desert.

right

Human-era vampire bats fed on the blood of animals such as cows and

They shared food with other

bats within the colony, forming tight

blood-sharing bonds.

travel

and

sleep during

the freezing desert night, huddling together to keep

horses.

particularly scarce, deathgleaners

of torpor, saving energy by slowing down

go

into a

their

metabolism. This strategy for conserving energy ensured their survival

extinction.

when

so

As the cold

the bats were able to

many

other animals and birds faced

deserts spread over

fill

North America,

the scavenging niche that had

been vacated by buzzards and

Once

warm,

long distances in

the attack

on

vultures.

the spink colony

deathgleaners have eaten their

up and where This

in

is

Deathgleaners avoid excessive heat loss by cooling

the blood before

wings

bat.

food

is

carried off.

it

will

not a

The meat

fill,

will

is

over and the

the leftovers are gathered

be taken back to the roost

be shared with related members of the colony.

new phenomenon. Human-era vampire

also shared food, filling special reserves with the prey,

blood of

which could then be passed on to other bats

not eaten. By sharing food in

this

bats

that

had

way, the deathgleaners aid

the survival not only of individuals but of the entire species.

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLIOf

,RS

END OF AN ERA THE ICE AGE

IS

COMING TO AN END. An increase in volcanic activity

has released large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to a

gradual

warming of Earth. Even such

a slight increase in global

temperatures can

cause the icecaps to melt and set off a far-reaching chain reaction. As the

white ice sheets the planet is

retreat, revealing the

becomes

less reflective.

absorbed by Earth and

less

is

brilliant-

dark earth and rock beneath, the surface of

This means that more solar energy

reflected

back into space. Thus,

little

period

'This

increase

Volcanoes release a the

into

lot

with

an

activity.

of carbon

atmosphere,

little,

warming temperatures continue to

volcanic

in

dioxide

by

coincides

Earth and melting the

rise. ice.

The

final glacial retreat

The

icecaps contract, revealing the carved, scoured landscape beneath and leaving

happens

relatively swiftly,

over a period of 2,000 years.

This

which, Earth

sets

the

as

Consequently,

The extremes of

reflected

icecaps melt back until there

is little

permanent

ice left. It will

be a long time

Earth

before Earth sees another Ice age as severe as this one.

back

Ice

cycle

in

disappears,

less

reflective.

less

energy

into

space and

gradually

bringing the

a

ice

becomes

deep scars and heaps of displaced rubble over much of the northern hemisphere. Earth's climate gradually soften, the blizzards cease and the polar

off

warms

is

up,

age to an end." Dr Roy Livermore

As Earth warms

up,

atmosphere can

now

are getting

more and more water becomes

available to

hold more moisture, so humidity levels

warmer, and

as the sea

water heats up,

it

life.

rise.

The

Paleogeographer British Antarctic

The oceans

Survey

expands, contributing to the

already rising sea levels. Water spreads across continental shelves, bringing shallow seas to the edges of landmasses and, in

winds bring

rain to

arid regions,

and

Many of

warming

some

areas, reaching inland. Prevailing

continents. Plant growth returns to

tropical forests begin to flourish

the animals that

had adapted to the

what were once

once more.

bitterly cold conditions

of the

Ice

age are unable to keep up with these rapid changes to their habitat and climate.

The

least

adaptable of them die out: the large furry predators of the tundra and

the highly specialized creatures of the arid deserts are particularly vulnerable. (

)nly the

most

versatile species survive

Gradually the world's climate will last for

many

and evolve with the changing conditions.

stabilizes,

millions of years.

It

heralding a benign period for Earth that

will take

time for

life

to recover

from the

right

The end of the beginning for

climatic upheaval

and mass extinctions of the past

five million years,

whole new

flora

and fauna

will

populate

a

green and

fertile land.

life

age marks

a

new

on Earth. As the

but eventually ice

a

Ice

sheets retreat and climates begin

to stabilize, the surviving animal and plant species will spread out and

colonize newly-revealed habitats.

60

Hi

100 ILLION YEARS

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

HOTHOUSE EARTH THE WORLD MOVES ON. that

"For millions of years since the Ice age,

Earth has enjoyed a

stable climate.

last

warm,

Under such benign

conditions, organisms can start to diversify

and spread

out,

is

Along the

vast underwater

the mid-ocean ridge system, molten lava rises

form new ocean

solidifies to

crust.

Older crust

is

up out of Earth's mantle and

carried to either side of the

and the continental

ridge, causing the seafloor to spread

mountain chain

plates to drift.

continuous process of plate tectonics, the continents slowly

move

across Earth

until the}' eventually collide with other continental plates.

As the continents meet and fuse together, volcanic mountain ranges well

particular

niches

fit

in

'just

so'.

where

to

they

With no sudden

environmental or climatic changes to

spur

sudden

change, the world

this

becoming

adapted

extremely

Bv

evolutionary

becomes

full

are

formed. The volcanoes spew carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, causing global temperatures to era.

Now, 95

rise.

The

last

Ice age

ended

million years later, the world

temperatures are four or

is

five million years after the

a moist,

warm

Average

degrees higher than they were during

five

and considerably higher than they were during the Ice

permanent

place.

age.

There

Human

is

human very

times,

little

ice.

of highly specialized organisms."

Professor Bruce Tiffney

Paleobotanist University of California

The melting

icecaps have released large volumes of water into the oceans,

producing sea

Human Seas

—

era

now

levels

more than 330

higher than

feet (100 meters) higher than

almost any time in the planet's history.

at

during the

The Shallow

cover any low-King land. Only the highest uplands and mountain

chains remain dry.

As Australia was carried north, Asia, throwing

Human habitat

and

era.

up

High up

where the

relic

a chain

eventually collided with the eastern coast of

of mountains even

in these

air is

it

thin

mountains

more temperate

this uninviting land

What was

have

the Bay of Bengal

Ocean and fused

to the

/.ones.

The

is

plentiful

now

64

its

climate changing as

it

frozen wastes that once characterized

a vast,

brackish swamp, cut ott from the

chunk of Africa which has

southernmost

and vegetation abundant.

acjuatic predators.

north,

replaced by the warm, lush Antarctic forest.

thousands of square miles, the Bengal is

the Great Plateau, a high-altitude

moved

also

now been

sea to the south by a large

Himalayas of the

and the rocky slopes are populated by giant spiders

mammals. Antarctica has

drifted into

lies

larger than the

It

tip

of Asia. Covering hundreds of

Swamp is

traveled across the Indian

a

is

a hot,

humid

place where water

land of giant herbivores ami strange

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

Millions of years have passed since the last Ice age.

During

has luxuriated in a climate perfect for the development of

Ml.

this time, the planet

life.

The warm, moist

conditions have spawned a great diversity of flora and fauna, leading to increasingly specialized behavior and adaptations.

It is a

hothouse world, brimming with

life.

Changing globe 100 million years after the

have melted, causing sea

Human

era,

levels to rise

the icecaps

and covering

Earth today Earth

much

is

in a

of the planet in shallow seas. Australia has

collided with Asia, forcing

up a huge mountain range

between the two continents. Antarctica has moved north,

its

climate becoming

warmer

spell

of an ongoing

age.

A

large

sea water

is

',t~

North

warm

Europe

Amefnja' Ice

amount

of

qua

JL

frozen into

the icecaps that cover the as

it

drifted into

North and South Poles.

more temperate zones.

Part of Africa has split

from

the rest of the continent and traveled eastwards across the ocean, eventually

becoming fused to

the southernmost tip of Asia.

in

100 million years

The icecaps have melted, sea levels

have

risen

and global

temperatures are severa degrees higher than they

were

in

Earth

is

and

the

Human

warm,

era.

moist,

luxurious, with a

great diversity of species.

key land areas

'£& mountains i upland

| forest I

swamp ocean shallow seas

Bay of Bengal

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLIOr

the

SHALLOW SEAS 100

MILLION YEARS AFTER THE HUMAN ERA,

a

warm

global

climate has caused the polar icecaps to melt and sea levels to rise by around

330

feet (100 meters).

Lower-lying parts of the continents are flooded and the

oceans have spread southwards from the Arctic and eastwards from the Atlantic. Vast tracts of Russia are

now

The Shallow

almost entirely underwater.

Seas,

which stretch across northern Europe and Asia, are punctuated by rocky islands

—

'100 million years

warmer

in

the future, will

have

melted the icecaps. Sea

levels

will

conditions

have

risen

by up to 330 feet

the peaks of mountains not yet covered by water. (100 meters) and low-lying land will

The

sun-filled, nutrient-rich waters

of the Shallow Seas provide

for the formation of reefs. Reefs are essentially calcium deposits, built

it

to lay

down

protective shells.

Over

successive

generations, the shells and skeletons of the reef-building organisms accumulate to create a great edifice

-

upon which

a solid foundation

photosynfhesize. This edifice

is

will

be

huge expanses of shallow sea

up by

generations of reef-building marine organisms. These organisms extract calcium dissolved in seawater and use

be flooded. There

ideal conditions

reef builders live and

where right

sunlight

down

will

penetrate

to the bottom.

It

will

be a very vigorous and dynamic ecosystem."

a reef.

Professor Paul Valdes Paleoclimatologist

The dominant

reef-building organisms of the

lived symbiotically with the coral, supplying

production of calcium. With the

Human era, came

The

needed for

survival.

millions of years later, there are large areas of

coral,

Red

were not always so

fertilization

corals.

seas filled with

Algae

University,

UK

cells

in the

prolific.

mud, depriving

Without the algae and the

became

extinct.

Now,

tens of

warm, shallow water and conditions

once more. This time, the

but from a prolific species of red

algae

were

last glacial period, five million years after the

essential nutrients they provided, the corals also

are right for reefs to develop

era

oxygen and carbohydrates used

massive climatic disruption.

the algae of the sunlight they

Human

Reading

reefs are

formed not from

algae.

Their spores can't swim, so the

algae's

technique was a matter of releasing millions of spores into the sea

and relying on favorable currents 100 million years after the

to carry

Human era,

them

to another plant.

Now,

the red algae have evolved a sophisticated,

symbiotic fertilization process by teaming up with a reef-dwelling animal.

The left

algae offers

feeding

on

up this

a protein

meal,

it

meal and,

as the animal

moves from

plant to plant

transports the algae's sticky spores. This

algae produces fewer spores

and

yet enjoys a

much

new

species of

better fertilization rate.

With

such reproductive efficiency, the red algae have built up a successful reef system.

A young among

reef glider darts

the jagged peaks of

the algal reef, feeding from the flower-like protuberances.

67

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

left

An

adult reef glider,

flowing behind

in

its gills

a colorful display,

paddles gently through the greenish, sun-infused waters of the algal reef.

Shafts of sunlight slant through the clear water of the

silky fibers, like the tail

Shallow Seas, penetrating as

glider's

far as the

jagged spikes of the

which form the sea bed. Here and

algal reefs

shapes sprout from the red surface of the animals dart

among

there, cup-like

reef.

Swimming

the reefs and algal flowers.

head sports

of

a bird

of paradise. The reef

of bumpy, scent-detecting

a pattern

chemical receptors, called rhinophores, and groups of eyes

mounted on its

stalks. It

has a horny, beak-like mouth. Unlike

ancestors, the reef glider

no longer

relies

on simply

crawling across the reef by expanding and contracting

Through

the water sweeps a large form, silhouetted

against the bright surface

the reef.

From

of paddles.

This

is

that

were ugly

shadow

A

long bunch of streamers

a reef glider,

were

its

across

bulbous, teardrop shape protrude three

its

pairs

and throwing

common

trails

Human-era

seas.

At

that time, they

unflatteringly referred to as sea slugs but, despite their

name, they were very dainty creatures, colorful and

elegant, their

gills

forming

100 million years after the

fern-like arrays

Human

era,

on

their backs.

nudibranchs have

evolved into substantial animals - adult reef gliders grow to the size

of

colored, their

68

seals. gills

It

of

invertebrate body.

Each

pair beats in turn, propelling

the animal slowly through the water.

behind.

descended from small nudibranchs

in

has developed paddles, which are fleshy extensions

body. its

its

Like their ancestors, they are brightly

flowing behind them in a long train of

To swim

efficiently

and to save energy,

a large,

slow-moving

marine animal needs to be neutrally buoyant - able to effortlessly in the water. gas-filled

swim

Bony

fish

means of low-density

reef glider's

method

is

more

the heavy sodium ions in

using their

its

it.

oils in their tissues.

sophisticated.

The

By replacing

bodily fluids with lighter

ions, the reef glider

water around

this

bladder. Sharks kept their bodies lighter than

sea water by

ammonium

achieved

float

becomes

lighter than the

Staying buoyant requires large quantities

of ammonium-rich

fluid,

hence the

glider's

bloated shape.

100 MILLION YEARS

Adult reef gliders spend most of their

coming

and

to the reef to breed

most of

juveniles are smaller, faster

the reef, extending their long structures

gliders,

algae.

water,

flit

formed by the reef

mouths reach

The

soon able

into the cup-shaped

reef gliders' beaked

As they emerge,

into the cups to gather food.

they are coated with sticky strands of reproductive are carried across to another

as the

young animal

cells.

cup and scraped off

Human-era

feeds. Like

to breed

sticky-sperm

trait

did not have

it

the

more

bees, the

baby

reef gliders are acting as fertilizing agents for the algae.

life

to help out in

the reproductive process has evolved over millions of years.

As evolution took

of the Shallow Seas, algae

Those

algae

course in the

its

most straightforward

The reef-forming

which released sperm

cells into the

open

sea

were

algae that

route, but it

it

always rewards

has in the case of red algae.

species of red algae

went through

a

long period of evolutionary experimentation to perfect its

reproductive strategy. Different kinds of

animals were used as fertilizing carriers,

swimming

known

as vectors,

and the algae developed different forms of marine 'nectar' to act as bait for

them.

Finally, the flower-like

structures were developed to tempt and feed the vector

these.

The female

cells

trom

became

types.

cells

died out. Evolution does not always follow

cells

were produced within

part of the 'flower'

sophisticated too, evolving parts to

fertile habitat

two broad

split into

on unwitting feeding

became predominant, and

animals, and reproductive

This strategy of recruiting other marine

rely

fate.

efficiently. Eventually, the

reproductive efficiency, as

The baby

mercy of the currents and

animals to distribute their sticky reproductive

algae.

These

the

which

In the base of the cups, the algae produce deposits of

protein and carbohydrate.

at

Meanwhile, algae that began to

about the surface of

mouths

placed their survival

algal

and more brightly colored

They

versions of their parents.

baby reef

from red

their nutrition

The

to give birth.

reefs are a secure nursery for the

derive

open

lives in

a visiting animal.

Over

became more

remove the

fertilizing

time, juvenile reef gliders

the ultimate vector animal, and have been for

millions of years.

Sea slugs Reef gliders are descended from nudibranchs, as sea slugs,

which were

common

Nudibranch means 'naked carried their

gills

as

gills'

exposed

in

the

known

Human

era.

because sea slugs

tufts outside their body.

Sea slugs were small, colorful mollusks, no more than

an inch long. They were related to protective shell. a

The bright

snails

but lacked a

colors of sea slugs served as

warning to potential predators that they were

poisonous. They were able to isolate stinging

cells

from

the sea anemones and sponges they fed on, and transfer the poison to their

own

skin. Thus, sea slugs

transformed themselves into an unpalatable meal.

A

tiny,

exquisitely-colored sea slug crawls across

the sea bed,

its gills

forming a tuft on

its

back.

69

THE FUTURE

Monumental

IS

WILD

The looming shape above

reef structures, graced with pretty algal

fronds and flower-like appendages,

harmony with

live in

the elegant reef gliders, their vivid colors glinting through the green shallows.

an

At

times, the Shallow Seas resemble

underwater garden. But

idyllic

the wild there

is

always danger. As in

ecosystems, plants provide the

manufactured

this is the wild,

their

own food

most

and

food supply, having

initial

and

—

plants.

using the energy of the sun

brush across the surface of the

food

one,

more curious than

the tentacle tip opens like an umbrella, then snaps shut

The baby

body of

are themselves

young reef

gliders cruise

reef glider

is

gone, sucked up into the

a giant predator.

waters of the

This floating menace

and gyrate among the

jellyfish, delicate

red algae, something large and sinister glides slowly

overhead.

It

casts a long

irregular surface

of the

shadow which creeps across

reef.

This

adult reef glider, but something

is

is

an ocean phantom.

the

slower,

much

bigger

and much more dangerous.

A

-

and transparent

predatory in behavior.

not the shadow of an

much

a type in

Human

era.

It

was

warm

in

collection of individuals

- one provided

chamber while others adapted

tropical

a floating colony of

reproducing - while remaining dependent on one

crest of

A

fourth type of polyp formed the

the man-of-war, which acted as a

sail,

changing

shape to catch the prevailing wind and allowing the colony to navigate. Prey was captured

in

long, poisonous

tentacles which could be regenerated by asexual budding,

whereby the polyp would sprout extension of

itself.

a genetically identical

The man-of-war

fish

fed off the

The tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war

poisonous tentacles but was return for food,

70

it

immune

to their toxins.

acted as a lure to other

fish.

In

these was

contained one of the most powerful poisons

known

in

Human-era marine animals.

a flotation

as feeding organs, stinging

out a separate function - feeding, stinging and

survival.

of communal

the Portuguese man-of-war. P,ach organism consisted or a

individual organisms, called polyps, which each carried

another for

Human-era

The most well-known of

organs or reproductive organs.

The Portuguese man-of-war was found

Its

appearance but

floating colony

seas during the

Then

the others, ventures too close to

ancestors were siphonophores the

The creeping

the bell-shaped end of one of the tentacles. In an instant,

However, plant-eating animals

Shallow Seas, they represent a tempting food supply.

As

probing into crevices,

darkness overhead throws the young reef gliders into

again.

warm

reef,

questing around the red cups of the algae.

often to the mutual advantage of both animals

part of the food chain, and in the

of streamers and tentacles that

confusion, but none seems aware of the real danger.

stable

to photosynthesize. Plant-eating animals exploit this

resource

in

quality. It trails a forest

has a peculiar translucent

MILLION YEARS

5

100 MILLION YEARS

MIL

left

The suction

bell at

the end of an

ocean phantom's hunting tentacle closes

around

a juvenile reef glider.

overleaf

An ocean phantom

in full sail

menacingly over the

reef,

its

glides

grasping

tentacles seeking out unfortunate victims

Now, 100

phantom

is

individuals.

size.

A typical ocean

The

largest part

On its

of

it is

made up of an assemblage of

surface are a

number of

can be

with water to control their shape.

different tubes, the

sails

sails

are

ocean phantom can turn the

By

It

When

the water

is

withdrawn, the

It

can

sail

When

collapsed and

its

phantom simply

Only when

not feeding or

drifts

along with

its

underwater appendages retracted.

traverses the seas like an

flotsam.

it

it is

enormous piece of

hungry, or

when

lifeless

it drifts

towards

the reefs, does the whole colony spring into action.

filling

to face

any direction, catching the wind from whichever quarter comes.

avoiding hazards, the

small

but their walls contain a network of tubes which

filled

quest for food supplies.

its

might become trapped or damaged.

turning and

catching the wind to drive the animal along. These

on

dangerous shallows, beaches and exposed rocks where

the float. This looks

sails,

to another

sense wind direction and bottom depth, and so avoids

wide and consists of many thousands of

like a giant mattress,

gas-filled,

one reef

over 30 feet (10 meters) long, 13 feet

(four meters)

air sacs.

This sophisticated set-up carries the ocean phantom from

million years on, the Portuguese man-of-war's

descendants have grown to a huge

from the sea bed.

it

A

complex sensory

array

also used to detect feeding

is

grounds and potential danger. This system can analyze

sails collapse.

wind strength and the position of the sun, information

The ocean phantom does not can tack

necessary

it

the wind.

The

just drift

like a yacht,

force of the

wind

downwind.

moving is

driving the

'keels'.

colony that produce water

phantom along when winds and

insufficient to

do

so.

bulk against

counterbalanced by the

pressure of the water against submerged also individuals in the

its

When

Other individuals

There

are

jets,

currents are

act as rudders.

which allows the animal

to navigate.

siphonophores possessed

Human-era

simple neural network,

a

connecting individuals of the colony to one another.

The

sheer size of the ocean

communication required function in

phantom and

for so

harmony mean

manv

that, in

of living matter resembles a

the degree of

individuals to

many

ways, this mass

giant, floating brain.

71

THE FUTURE

Above

IS

WILD

the water line, the ocean phantom's

surface

covered by

is

exposed

algae. Like the reef algae, these

organisms build structures from calcium, forming small trunks

wind.

upon which

The

the algal strands cling, streaming in the

algae are a kind of farm, providing

much of

The ocean phantom

uses suction bells to hunt. At the

end of each hunting

tentacle there

is

a spherical structure

with a downward-pointing mouth. In the tentacles above, muscle fibers operate

like

and contracting to open the

bells.

bellows, expanding

Small water

jets are

the nutrition for the siphonophore colony. Carbohydrates

used for more accurate, localized movement. Around the

generated by the algae through photosynthesis are carried

mouth of each

throughout the colony by a vascular system which takes

feathery sensors. Such a structure allows each tentacle to

food to every individual member. In return, the algae are

function and hunt independently.

provided with water.

When

a safe

rainfall

pump

it

to the

does not provide

phantom can

This apparatus

this, specialist

desalinate seawater

until

and

upper surface.

it

is

Algae-generated sugars and starches do not provide the nutrition the colony needs. For protein

animals in the waters beneath. This

When

a ring

of stalked eyes and

dragged across the surface of the reef

detects prey of the right size.

closes,

its

is

why

it

all

must hunt

the ocean

presents such a threat to the reef-living creatures.

the dark shape drifts overhead,

all

except the

drawn

into the bell

ocean phantom's then

bell

then opens

pumped up

colony through

a

sudden

dilation, the

prey

and trapped, to be digested

leisure.

The

is

at the

nutrients extracted are

whole

the tentacle and distributed to the

its

vascular system. Nitrates from the prey

are also delivered to the algal

youngest and most inexperienced of the Shallow Sea

surface of the ocean

swimmers make themselves

nutrition for the plants.

scarce.

The

pulsing action driving the whole unit into

an attack position. With

phantom

is

base and even a supply of fresh

individuals in the ocean

and

there

bell,

meadow on

the exposed

phantom, providing additional

left

The ocean phantom conceals

weapon

inside specially

tentacles. In return for shelter,

a secret

adapted

food and

an army of vicious sea spiders,

called spindletroopers,

is

on hand to

defend the phantom from predators.

74

100 MILLION YEARS

left

Spindletroopers defend an ocean

phantom from reef gliders.

a

marauding gang of

The sea

spiders' sharp

fangs and slashing claws swiftly repel the hungry predators.

—

Underpinning the ocean phantom's sophistication and the

and the

astounding specialization of

beneath the water

inherent

modular.

flexibility. It

its

The whole

constituent parts

an

structure of the creature

can exist as a huge mass or as smaller

provided each unit has the

is

full

units,

range of individuals

needs to survive. After a heavy storm,

a large

ocean

phantom may have broken into many smaller

parts,

of which is

will eventually regenerate.

is

it

each

The ocean phantom

not invulnerable, though. Drifting along in the open

water, even this

huge creature

is

open

keels

ocean phantom, are

now

chief predator.

its

into adulthood, reef gliders

must

of a larger source of protein. The ocean phantom

sharks, the reef gliders

horny beaks

home

in

on

like

a potential meal.

evolved a

Some of

brilliant

Chunks

are the adult gliders'

bitten

main food

phantom has

symbiotic defense mechanism.

the suction bells have ceased to function as

hunters. Instead, they are troop carriers. Shotild a reef glider

be unlucky enough to brush against one of these bells, a

come

horde of spindly

emerges.

to the rescue of

It is its

legs, slashing

claws and

an army of spindletroopers,

host.

As they move

leave the reef in search

top of the menu. Circling their victim

is

of the ocean phantom

supply. In the face of such an assault, the

slicing fangs

Adult reef gliders which, as juveniles, were prey to the

line

from the ocean phantom

modified

to attack.

in fact, every part

is

at the

slow-moving

the floating mass. Their

tear into the air sacs, the tentacles, the rudders

The

spindletrooper

known

is

as a sea spider.

a species

of pycnogonid, commonly

During the

Human

era,

shallow-water

sea spiders were small, rarely exceeding a few inches.

With

a leg

span of 12 inches (30 centimeters), the

spindletrooper

is

far larger

than most of

its

ancestors.

75

THE FUTURE

100 MILLION YEARS

WILD

IS

Before forming their symbiotic partnership with the

ocean phantom, spindletroopers

lived

on the

algal reefs,

occasionally raiding an ocean phantom's suction bells for

food.

Soon they began

to remain safely inside the bells for

longer periods of time. Eventually, they adapted to fold up

and

neatly inside a suction bell,

fit

which

in turn

modified

time, certain evolutionary trends have

apparent.

One

such trend has occurred again and again

gains the advantage over the other by evolving to

of

its

hungry, a spindletrooper scratches at the walls of

home

rest

stimulating

bell,

it

to regurgitate

food from the

of the colony. In return, the spindletrooper provides

defense,

coming out

to fight

when

the colony

threatened. Spindletroopers have large jaws

their prey. In turn, prey also

becomes

fangs, capable

attacks their

their

long claws, they slash

at

anything that

Seas and their colorful, complex reefs have

sea slugs, siphonophores and sea spiders, have evolved

More

fascinating

provides secure

flourish

on

Below

have persisted for so many millions of years that effective

lives inside the

in the history

of the

As

methods and

a result, creatures'

body shapes, feeding

relationships have modified only slightly

over time. However, these thing to change a

lot,

and

warm that

is

The ocean phantom has

seas have allowed a creature's size.

real estate for the algal

water, a defending

meadows which a

constant food

army of spindletroopers

bell-shaped tips of

for the provision of

level,

its

tentacles. In return

nourishment and housing, the

spindletroopers protect their host from the potentially

have been able to survive without serious

challenges.

the development of symbiotic

back, and in return receives

its

supply.

habitat,

still is

associations between species.

presented a stable environment for a long time. They

on

of huge animals.

Creatures that were small 100 million years ago, such as

it

living systems, established early

era, are full

why

to the

developed two such relationships. Above the water

ocean phantom home.

The Shallow

many ways

it

of sharp

of delivering an injection of painful poison.

With these and

Human

making

This explains

difficult for predators to attack.

coral reefs of the

larger,

into giants.

is

full

become

Bigger predators evolve to overcome the defenses

larger.

the Shallow Seas, though similar in

When

become

response to attack-and-defense situations: each party

in

more

house and feed the spindletrooper.

itself to

Over

one

devastating attacks of adult reef gliders. These unlikely pairings have proved to be highly effective partnerships:

not only are they borne out of mutual need, but they are equally beneficial to both parties.

right In

the aftermath of a storm that has

pounded the Shallow Seas and

their

rocky coasts, the broken remains of

an ocean phantom float away

in

the

sunset Each section will regenerate

and begin

76

its

own

quest for survival.

-

T

•

-

•

**3

U**

'>s*i5*-

*jp*

100 MILLION

YEARS

the

BENGAL SWAMP THE CONTINENTS HAVE TRAVELED VAST DISTANCES the

Human

Great

A

era.

massive

of land which broke away from Africa along the

raft

moved

Rift Valley has

since

across what was the Indian

Ocean and

collided

with the southernmost corner of South East Asia. As the two landmasses came together, a vast inland sea

the

was created between them

in the area that

Bay of Bengal. The massive forces created bv the

buckled the landmass, giving

rise to a volcanic

was once

colliding tectonic plates

mountain range along the

MOO

million years in the future,

one of the environments we're looking at

is

a huge, near coastal

swamp.

is

partially brackish as

It

line

influence from the ocean, but a

of fusion.

Over

time, the inland sea

became almost

entirely cut off

from the huge amount of

oceans to the south.

flows into

Water run-off from the mountains formed into the landlocked sea.

carried

downwards,

rivers

which washed

fertile

sediment

Eroded material from the newly-exposed rocks was

filling

making

the basin and

it

shallower and rich in nutrients.

like a vast

swamp very rich

is

salt

water, and a vast, brackish

Earth at this time

greenhouse, and so high

in

is

this

moisture and

in life."

Gradually, the inland sea diminished, fresh water from the mountains mixed

with the residual

it.

fresh water also

Professor Bruce Tiffney

swamp was formed.

Paleobotanist University of California

100 million years

after

humankind, the Bengal

Swamp

covers hundreds of

thousands of square miles. Sediment carried by slow-moving channels and

meandering

rivers

deposits have islands

and

makes the water

formed

flats.

a series

thick

and impenetrable to

light.

Sedimentary

of ox-bow lakes and backwaters separated by muddy

The Bengal Swamp

comparable

is

in

appearance to the great

lowland coal swamps of the Carboniferous period, 300 million years before humans.

The

climate of the Bengal

shelter provided

Swamp

all

an

intricate

network of

rivers.

The muds and

year round.

hot. Its proximity to the equator 7

and the

by the surrounding mountains mean that average temperatures are

about over 100°F (40°C). Water in

is

is

plentiful,

Humidity

is

running

down from

the mountains

extremely high, averaging 99 per cent

constantly replenished by nutrient-rich

soils are

volcanic ash.

A greenhouse

environment

like this is

an ideal place for vegetation to grow. left

Plant

life

chokes the waterways and spreads across the

lakes.

Thickets of tropical Humid, hot and

plants clothe the sandbanks is

solid

enough

and

deltas.

Tighdy-spaced trees stand where any land

to hold them, spreading

overhead and stabilizing the

mud

deep canopies of branches and leaves

with their network of roots.

rich in nutrients,

environment of the Bengal

the

Swamp

supports an abundance of plant and

animal

life.

79

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

left

A

lurkfish lies in wait,

camouflage making invisible.

When

it

A

host of dangerous creatures dwell in the murky

backwaters and shallows of the Bengal Swamp, beneath the tangle of thick, choking vegetation. Perhaps the

dangerous of these

At

first

is

its

fins

glance, the scaly surface of the lurkfish could be a

decaying tree trunk,

and spines for broken fronds and branches. At

13 feet (4 meters) long log.

most

the lurkfish.

mistaken for the lumpy bark of

However,

this is

it

face. Tall

its

huge

its

amazing

almost

finally

the lurkfish subdues a

it

its

pounces,

prey with

electrical charge.

and branched, they mimic the thick tangle of

water weeds covering the swamp. But the barbels are not just a

means of camouflage. Like the

electric catfish

Human

populated the

Congo and

the lurkfish

able to generate a powerful electric

The

barbels

is

form an

Nile rivers during the

electrical

detecting even the smallest

which era,

field.

sensory net, capable of

movement of

potential prey

water nearby.

in the

certainly resembles a large

no piece of wood, but

a

After days of pretending to be a tree trunk, the lurkfish

very

sophisticated and powerful hunter.

is

preparing to attack.

It

holds back, waiting until an

unsuspecting victim moves to within striking distance.

For days the lurksfish

lies in

the water, not feeding, not

moving. Being cold-blooded, occasionally. It

mouth of and from to any

80

is

it

only needs to eat

an ambush predator, lying

the lurkfish splits the whole of its

thick lips

movement

hang short barbels

in the water.

More

its

in wait.

At the

sides

of

its

body, the lurkfish's pectoral fins carry

muscular spines that dig into the underlying

The

broad snout

that are sensitive

barbels sprout from

slowly raise the massive front end from the

Then fin

its tail

and anal

paddle, fin,

composed of

a

caudal

mud and swamp bed.

fin,

rear dorsal

sweeps suddenly and powerfully and

thrusts the creature's

hungry bulk forwards.

There

a

is

spray of

opens, engulfing

mud and

its

descends into the

The

lurkfish's

helpless victim.

The

lurkfish then

muddy water of

Waxes caused by the sudden

as

it

attack

swamp

trunks of surrounding

opaque water and

across the

mouth

water.

thick,

the

wash

trees.

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

5

hundreds

to

swamp

not escape,

hardly

monster. Other means must be

subdue larger prey capable of putting up

strenuous and sustained

While

fight.

a larger victim

lurkfish before

succumbing. Like

Human-era

a

might

crocodile,

the lurkfish has a mail of thick, protective plates covering its

body beneath

its

internal orsrans, but

skin.

This armor shields the

external fins, barbels

its

are vulnerable in a fight.

The

at its disposal. Its electrical

device but large

is

is

A

also used in hunting.

not

shock to

its

weapon

sensory

lurkfish can a

fish's

13-foot (four meter)

size

of

that

a

of the prey,

Human-era it

will

be paralyzed by an

shock of such power. Great jaws

will close

overcome

powerful

flesh,

and the

Once

the lurkfish has struck, the surrounding area of

lurkfish will disappear to dine at

generate voltage

which

in

lie in

swamp seems

to

come

to

life.

The

disturbance in the

water, the splashing noises and electrical signals,

The

hunted successfully and

will rest

while

digests

The Bengal Swamp

become

so dangerous, so

it

of large predators

has

like lurkfish, that

some

a cumulative charge.

and the longer the

this

hot

swamp

is

so

humid

that

many

small muscle blocks,

rows along the length

The larger the animal,

A Human-era

electric eel

measuring over three feet (one meter) generate up to 600

volts of electricity.

in

length could

At 13 feet (four

meters), the lurkfish can easily double that, delivering

Human-era

an

electric

paralyze

charge of over 1,000

its

prey.

lurkfish has its

prey.

full

creatures have

aquatic animals

series of electrocytes, the greater

the electrical potential.

send

taken refuge out of the water. Indeed, the atmosphere of

potential. Like batteries in a series, the muscle blocks

up

all

out the message that danger has passed.

of the body. Each electrocyte generates a small electrical

build

volts,

its

its leisure.

can spend time on land and not suffer any discomfort.

victim.

called electrocytes,

around

the motionless victim, rows of fine teeth will sink into

Electric fish Electric fish

electric fish.

and sensors

just a

and combative prey by administering

electric

lurkfish's

lurkfish has another

system

electrical

a

could certainly do severe damage to the

it

along the

— double

Whatever the electric

employed

in series

1,000 volts

is

was once more.

a challenge for this

ARS

i

long body can generate a huge cumulative charge of over

Ripples spread

is

L

electrocytes are able to generate only a small charge. But

against the

This was a simple hunt for the lurkfish. Small prey

of the lurkfish are stacks ot

side

I

muscle blocks called electrocytes. Separately, these

swamp.

die away. Everything

Along each

M

2

which

it

uses to

electric eels

used low-intensity

electrical

impulses for navigation and hunting. High-intensity impulses were used to stun or

kill

prey.

THE FUTURE

(

WILD

IS

In most respects, the

)ne creature to have taken advantage of the relative

safety

of land

is

the swampus.

cephalopod, a distant

It is a

cousin of the marine octopuses that were so prevalent in the

Human

The swampus

era.

has evolved to survive

of time.

land, but onlv for limited periods

breathe properly out of water and

of oxygen

in

its

swamp

it

on

unable to

finite stores

and blood. Once these reserves

tissues

have been depleted,

relies

It is

on

must resubmerge

water to replenish

its

itself in

octopus from which

to have four

of

original

its

which

emerges from the ferns and tangled creepers

of

and

From over

and

safe for a while

Swampuses

its

The

inhabitants are returning.

stored in their tissues and blood gradually

uses to

move

used

The long arms

in

movement, but

alive

from the

must return

murkv water

The swampus has

successfully

out of the water.

When

predators or tend to

oxygen stored within

it

its

at

the front of the

it

is

on land

for

electrical attacks

up

and

life

survives by

to the water to replenish vital

found

through

on

both

no place

in

other

from water stored shut,

keeping their

in

fish.

On

enlarged

gill

era,

and

return

were

swamps

also able

mudskippers breathed land, they derived

gill

oxygen

chambers which locked

filaments moist and oxygenated.

Human-era mudskippers were able to several days out of the water.

to four days at a

its

I

lowever,

oxygen supply

to rear a family, though.

means of

the mangrove

Human

land. Underwater,

gills like

in

44 pound

functions, such as mating.

Once these oxygen

swampus must

tropical shorelines of the

to survive

82

fish

are also

clumsy

of lurkhsh.

to the water to breathe properly once again.

Mudskippers, a type of

swampus

It is a

goes ashore to escape

body.

reserves are depleted, the

suckers of the arms have

on land

adapted to

young,

its

The

survive

and carry out other

waters of the

life

the

(20 kilogram) weight through the thick vegetation of the

it

Bengal Swamp.

Adapting to

Like

become more

numbers of swampuses come still

over land. Thev function

sufficient to carry the animal's

time, safe

out of hiding and plunge into the

because four

locomotion, reaching out to grip logs and trunks,

For a few moments, the banks and shorelines are as large

is

foot of a snail, carrying the animal along by a rippling

The swampus can

movement

This

eight.

arms have evolved into weight-bearing pads

and more desperate to submerge and breathe properly.

with

is

humid swamp.

up the reserves of oxygen

that have used

difference

glance this creature appears

and then pulling the creature along.

the

moss-slicked surface of a fallen tree comes another. is

Human-era

developed into horny ridges that grip the ground beneath

A swampus

water

it

at first

the

like

One

has evolved.

arms instead of

action of the muscles.

the

oxygen supply.

slithers into the water.

it

immediately apparent:

them.

a thicket

swampus looks

survive for

The

Once

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION

YEARS

200 MILLION YEARS

left

The swampus uses

its

forearms to

grab items of vegetation and itself

she has mated, the mother

swampus clambers out of

the

pull

along through the swamp.

she urinates in the water in order to recreate the salty

water and into the surrounding vegetation to find a safe

environment of the swamp. Then, by splashing about

place in which to deposit her fertilized eggs.

in the

water with her arms, she oxygenates

it

and her

offspring are able to breathe.

The mother heads as a nest in

for a spray

large,

plants

creating freshwater pools.

A pregnant female

fills

The

newly unfurled

leaves,

leafy pools act as protective

and young of the swampus.

cradles for the eggs

swampus

returns to the

them while they

hatch, protecting both flower and brood.

evolutionary history, cephalopods

—

- have been unable

to

cuttlefish

and the young swampuses are no

Throughout

octopuses, squids

cope with fresh water,

different.

To

solve this

problem, the female has evolved a means of changing the chemical composition of the pool.

The mother must

also breathe and, to

leave her offspring and return to the are not

who

abandoned, but

left in

do

so,

she must

swamp. Her young

the charge of other females

have deposited their eggs in nearby plants. They

continue to monitor the chemistry and oxygen content

of her nursery

as well as their

On her return,

the

own.

same patch

plants year after year. She deposits her eggs in the

rainwater pool and stands guard over

and

which serve

vase-shaped leaves close to the

ground. Rainwater partially

lily

lily

which the eggs can hatch. This nursery plant

produces a flush of

of

of

From

time to time,

means of

a

mother recognizes her

by

complex communication system. Her arms

are sensitive to touch is

baby-sitter

and chemical

signals,

able to recognize the particular taste

and so she

and texture of

other individuals. This system works well because related females bring up their families at the same time in other lily

plants of the

same patch. Swampuses

are highly

social creatures.

83

THE FUTURE

Like

its

WILD

IS

ancestors

swampus pigment

in

chromatophores,

skin, called

its

color to blend in with

its

its

surroundings.

surface and serrated edges of

its

Of

invisible. is

swamp

the

not

just

floor.

In this way,

course, this ability to

accomplished predator and uses

arms to catch

large insects

bite

has one

and

and the story of

The

lily

is

its

nursery,

an

and small vertebrates which

more weapon

in its considerable

to

subdue

prey.

how

it

a

venomous

100 million years a similar strategy,

obtains the toxins for

the baby

its

noxious

growth of

swampus grows up

gradually ingests the bacteria.

the bacteria

form the

own venom.

their nursery

basis for the

from

large herbivores

swampus provides grazing near the

home

in

in

swampus

lily is

ingested,

to generate

venom

to

defend

which feed on the which to grow

protection for the plant.

swamp

organic

its

Once

Babies and adults use the

plant. In return for a safe

injection

is

one of remarkable co-evolution.

As it

surroundings

flexible, prehensile

plant's vase-like basin contains a

bacteria.

its

mimic

its

can

it

can become almost

it

humankind, the swampus employs

weapon

that

detritus that

Many Human-era octopuses had

which they used

after

the

undergrowth of the Bengal Swamp.

The swampus arsenal.

-

The knobbly

used for self-defense. The swampus

inhabit the

era

can change

it

arms mean

lose itself in the tangle of vegetation litters

Human

the octopuses of the

master of camouflage. By stimulating sacs of

a

is

-

up, the

Any animal

swiftly repelled

by

a nasty

of poison.

right

A

family of

a

lily

plant.

and nurse

swampuses gathers around The females

their

young

basin of the plant.

84

in

lay their

eggs

the vase-like

5

200 MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

U.:, :

l>

~*^

•

•

'

.

.

03

0)

right

\\

ji

k

J

male human

bu

1

elephant

Toratons walk toraton

in a

slow and

lumbering fashion, eating vegetation wherever

86

it

grows.

-

V «*t^

til

lU

'

v

^



~& i

•

*r7i

Mgjgp*

m .

rv> .*.?

v

r k^K

"%4V 1

«w*^

;

v

•

MILLION YEARS

5

100 MILLION YEARS

200 MILLION

the

ANTARCTIC FOREST ANTARCTICA NO LONGER LIES OVER THE SOUTH POLE. The tectonic plate

on which

it sits

has been moving northwards for 100 million years,

gradually creeping towards the southern edge of Asia. This plate has carried the

continent out of the polar zone, through the temperate zone and across the southern

Hard

desert belt.

as

now

to imagine, Antarctica

it is

lies partially in

the tropics.

'100

years

million

Human very

era, Antarctica

much

is

Antarctic icecap melted as soon as the landmass began to

move

into

The

now

continent's northern portion

lies

well within the tropical

of Earth's climate, where the converging trade winds bring

round and the sun shines plant growth, and this

As

is

where the

a frozen continent, Antarctica

Human

era,

entirely

of

it

was home

lichens,

These

directly overhead.

forests

mosses and

of

rain

year

for

species. Plant life consisted

In the

life.

most successful

Antarctica

became

Plants were the

South America

animals.

a

first

much

As

it

conditions

very wet,

ideal

for

rainforest.

You

can

Antarctica as the

almost

into

more temperate

better prospect as a

warm be

will

tropical

a

think

of

new Amazon."

Professor Paul Valdes Paleoclimatologist

There were no land-living vertebrates and

moved

what we think

now. Surrounded by

Reading

the few species of sea birds which inhabited the coastlines of the continent were the

to

oceans,

are the ideal conditions for

was an inhospitable environment

algae.

all

hugely

zone

of the new Antarctica are located.

few indigenous

to

warm

It's

warmer different

latitudes.

sitting

the tropics.

in

obviously going to be

The

the

after

University,

UK

regions, however,

home.

of the newcomers: winds brought seeds and spores from

in the east.

Those seeds which survived the journey gave

rise to

adaptive radiation, where a variety of species evolved from a single ancestral species,

each specifically adapted to the conditions they found on the Antarctic continent.

Spiders and insects were the next to discover the

new

habitat.

they were carried on the winds, just as the plant seeds were.

among

the newly evolving plant

powers of

And

flight

life.

The

first

Being lightweight

They

settled easily

vertebrate settlers were birds, their

enabling them to cross the oceans to reach the isolated continent.

they brought with

them

yet

more

seeds and insects.

These new species of birds joined the descendants of the sea birds which had populated frozen Antarctica since the

Human

era.

Having inhabited the old

, left

ice

The northern part of Antarctica

continent, the sea birds were ideally positioned to exploit the changes in their

covered

in

environment. This new, temperate land was a paradise by comparison and

which

home

offered

numerous and

diverse possibilities.

is

is

lush tropical rainforest,

to

many new

of plants, insects and birds.

species

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

left

The roachcutter uses to spot prey.

Its

broad, giving in

(

)ne

group of Antarctic sea birds

new conditions were

in the

petrels,

fulmars, and albatrosses. In the

mostly on islands

in the

also

such as shearwaters,

Human

era, petrels

bred

southern hemisphere, although

some breeding grounds were They

that fared particularly well

wandered widely

as tar

at

sea during the non-breeding

petrels

remained and diversified

moved

north, evolving to suit the changing conditions. the

most

as Antarctica gradually

varied and widespread

the Antarctic continent, radiating to

rill

new

group on

evolutionary

niches and becoming increasingly difficult to dislodge.

million years after

continent boasts

90

many

great maneuverability

the dense forest.

with long, narrow wings that soar over the land, small birds with short, broad wings that can

confined forests, and even

The

flightless,

maneuver

easily in

ground-living birds.

majority of these are descended from petrels.

The most widespread group of flutterbirds.

tropical rainforest

roachcutter

of

Human-era sparrow,

high aspect perfect for

humankind, the Antarctic

Species of bird.

There

are birds

ratio,

is

of

typical

in the

that they are short

tight turns.

Feather

-

the size

make

they are

and broad,

tips are

manipulate the passage of

flutterbirds

About

the roachcutter's wings have a

meaning

making

flutterbirds.

maneuverability. 'Hie bird's eyes

from other

descendants are

of the northern part of the continent.

The a

petrel

These small forest-dwellers abound

like fingers to

Now, 100

keen eyesight

north as the Caribbean.

season. Already capable of adapting to different climates,

They became

it

its

wings are short and

it

air

splayed out

and increase

easy to distinguish

mounted on

turrets.

5

With hover with

small size and short wings, the roachcutter can

its

turreted eves.

its

Its

beak

is

extremely tough, able to

crush the hard outer cuticles of the insects on which feeds.

Even though

it is

speeds. At the

capable of reaching high

is

sound of an approaching predator,

adjusts the angle of

its

was not feeding from the it.

Like

the spitfire bird actually feeds

male and female of

was

this type

on

cousin the roachcutter,

its

insects.

tree

compartment of

throat,

its

known

chamber

from

a

impressive defensive strategy.

which react violently with each other

defense, but

gland in

corrosive acid.

A

bird slightly bigger than a roachcutter, with bright orange

flashes its

on

its

wings, hovers in front of a forest

head repeatedly into the flower from which

to be feeding. Suddenly, there residents

of the forest canopy

But rather than darting away danger.

As

is

a

flee

hum

and

tree. It it

appears

an approaching predator.

to safety, this bird faces the

head. Then, at the last possible

moment,

corrosive acid from

This

nostrils.

is

it

as the crop.

When

spitfire bird's

in

its skull.

The

nasal cavity

its

The enzyme unbinds to

the chemicals,

produce the

spitfire tree also benefits

plundering of

between the male and female

its

resources.

trees,

As

dipping

its

from the it

hovers

beak into

their flowers, the bird aids pollination.

flutter as the

the predator draws near, the bird lowers

its

dips

The

and adding an enzyme

another species of flutterbird has developed a truly

agility are

was

it

faced with danger, the bird releases the chemicals, mixing in a

Speed and

flower

produce different

them

trees.

The

that of the spitfire tree.

of

but

tree flower,

chemicals. Both are harvested by the spitfire bird and stored in a

it

wings and darts away between the

good methods of

spitfire bird

particularly interested in

it

adapted for slow navigation of

tight spaces, the roachcutter

The

YEARS

gathering a chemical from

scanning the tree trunks for insects

like a bluetit,

100 MILLION

MILLION YEARS

its

sprays a hot,

the spitfire bird.

Another member of the spitfire

bird, uses

effective

flutterbird family, the false

an altogether more passive but no

form of defense. In appearance,

it is

identical to the spitfire bird. Unlike the spitfire,

less

almost

however,

harmless.

the false spitfire bird

is

A Human-era bombardier

beetle sprays a hot

Chemical defense The

spitfire bird

weapons era,

as a

is

not the only animal to use chemical

defense from predators.

bombardier beetles employed

In

the

Human

a similar strategy,

spraying hot, toxic chemicals at attackers with deadly accuracy. Chemicals secreted by the beetle collected in

a reservoir within

its

abdomen. The

reservoir

opened

through a muscle-controlled valve to a reaction chamber,

where

a series of reactions activated the chemicals,

bringing the mixture to boiling point. The build up of

gases released by the vaporized fluids forced the valve closed, sending the boiling-hot fluid out of the beetle

through openings

popping sound.

at the tip of

its

abdomen with

a loud

corrosive liquid at attackers.

91

THE FUTURE

The

WILD

IS

appearance of perfecting

its

wings. This

its

more dangerous

disguise

where one species benefit

from

attributes

down

phenomenon

its

itself.

is

cousin, the spitfire bird,

to the orange flashes

known

on

its

as Batesian mimicry,

imitates the appearance

attributes

The atmosphere of

danger by mimicking the

false spitfire bird avoids

era.

is

richer in

oxygen than

This higher concentration of oxygen makes a larger

insect

body

possible.

flutterbirds fear?

During the Carboniferous period, 300 million years before humans, the atmosphere was

similarly rich in

giant land arthropods flourished.

Imagine

a large, streamlined

Compound make

eyes give

it

legs at the front

and

form

this

a

thing

A

of the insect are equipped with

at the end.

as big as a kestrel! It

dreaded enemy of

the size of

is

Now imagine

a falconfly

-

that

the

of muscle needed to support

two

factors: the

mass

a solid outer cuticle, or

exoskeleton, and the ability of the creature to get oxygen tissues

rats,

and millipedes

big as birds of prey

The

as

long as vipers. In the

make

light

work of

killing flutterbirds.

without lungs.

falconfly cruises through the forest. It sees an

flutterbird

unwary

hovering and feeding, and dives to the attack.

The hooked

flutterbirds.

Insects are limited in their size by

its

coal

Antarctic Forest, 100 million years after humans, wasps as

its

into

The Carboniferous

middle pair of legs come together

harpoon, barbed is

oxygen and

forests boasted dragonflies as big as magpies, scorpions

180 degree vision and vicious jaws

rear

strong gripping claws. to

and voracious wasp.

capable of devouring the toughest prey. Pairs of

it

Human

was during the

it

of another to

without actually possessing the

But what predator do the

humans

the world 100 million years after

feathers,

legs seize the bird, grasping

and the second

internal organs.

With

a

pair

of

body through

its

legs lance

squawk and

a flurry

the two tumble through the branches and

and crash to the ground. There, the

deep into

of

its

feathers,

undergrowth

falconfly rips the

flutterbird to pieces.

left

The falconfly size of a

is

a type of

Human-era

wasp the

kestrel.

Its

grasping claws and barbed lance

make

92

it

a

formidable hunter.

5

MILLION YEARS

100 MILLION YEARS

200 MILLION YEARS

left

A

spitfire bird

spitfire tree,

hovers about a

unaware of the

approaching danger. Behind falconfly,

The

giant insect has a family to feed.

The

falconfly has three

or four burrows, each one containing a single developing larva.

In the

Human

reproduction:

some

era, insects laid vast

had several

numbers of

strategies for

eggs,

of which

The

spitfire beetle is

Apart from

in

beetles resemble a typical

and yellow coloring,

Human-era

beetle, with

diaphanous underwings and

elytra (hard

front wings). Individually, they are unremarkable.

took special measures to ensure a high rate of survival. The

Collectively, they are capable

each of

its

larvae

shares out the

is

hidden.

It

knows

exactly

where

ambush

falconfly

lumps of meat among

flutterbirds.

is

its

of

The high oxygen concentration of

others, large

time

at the

and deadly,

who

land-living animals. are

There are

making the most of

top of the food chain.

groups of

spitfire beetles

four.

a spitfire tree,

They

spend most of

position themselves

their lives

on the trunk

standing head to head in a cross

formation. Spreading their wings, they are suddenly

the

atmosphere has meant that insects are taking over from

dominant

hunting.

The carnivorous

family.

not the only insect enemy of

vertebrates as the

of an ingenious form of

butchers the flutterbird and

in

The

a

spitfire

only a few survived; while others laid very few eggs but

falconfly pursues the latter course. It

it is

for an attack.

one such insect inheritor of Earth.

their bright red

a head, thorax,

zooming

their

almost indistinguishable from the flowers of the tree In this formation, the heads and thoraxes look flower's center, the

like

itself.

the

antennae resemble the stamens, and

the brightly-colored elytra the petals.

THE FUTURE

IS

100 MILLION YEARS

WILD

Motionless, the spitfire beetles wait, mimicking the flowers

of the

which

spitfire tree.

Their intended prey

is

a spitfire bird,

is

hovering about the tree and collecting

chemicals.

As

it

moves

seizing the bird before

in,

it

its

defenses into

play.

Grasshopper-like hind legs propel the attack and strong jaws and grappling-hooked claws into the bird's body. is

then eaten by

all

The

on

there

is

spitfire tree's

flowering season,

nothing more to tempt the

spitfire birds,

the colonies of beetles disband and disperse, looking for

the beetles leap into action,

can bring

At the end of the

when

the forelegs crunch

carcass of the dead spitfire bird

female

flies

around among the

spitfire trees, laying

clutches of four eggs beneath their bark. Having laid

her eggs, she too

dies.

The

following spring,

when

all

the

eggs hatch into the four individuals that form the flower imitators, the spitfire beedes will

four spitfire beetles.

The pregnant

mates. After mating, the male beetle dies.

once again

lie

in

ambush

for a roving spitfire bird.

While such co-operative mimicry was not the

Human

era,

it

common

was known. The larvae of the

in

tortoise

In the Antarctic Forest, the insects' time has come.

beede exhibited similar behavior. These disc-shaped grubs

Insects rival vertebrates in size and

would remain

surpass them.

in clusters after

hatching and react

Whole new

sometimes even

living strategies

synchronously to anything which approached them by

reversal have evolved. Insects are brash

moving

hunters, while birds have

the tips of their

tails

upwards and mimicking the

shape of a large spider. As the

were

spiders, this

larvae's only predators

proved an extremely effective form of

defense and became an evolutionary success.

Flutterbirds

canopy

may

is full

still

become

based on

this

and arrogant

small and furtive.

prey on insects, but the forest

of powerful, predatory insects evolved to

prey on them.

Collective mimicry Nature

is

full

of imitation, but highly intricate

and co-operative mimicry such

as that practised

by the

come about when

spitfire beetles

can only

conditions have remained stable for a long

period of time.

The carnivorous larvae of the Human-era

blister

beetle employed a strategy of co-operative mimicry.

A

large

number

of larvae

would form

themselves into the shape of a female bee. Male bees, confusing the larvae for a female, then

attempted to mate. The larvae would

cling to the

Larvae of the blister beetle

male bee's chest and be carried to a

where they could feed on her eggs.

real female,

mimic the appearance of female bee.

a

right

A

unit of four spitfire beetles mimic

the flower of the spitfire tree to attract

94

unwary

spitfire birds.

>

I

5

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

200 MILLION YEARS

the

GREAT PLATEAU SINCE THE LATE EOCENE EPOCH, Human era, Australia became separated from Pacific

Ocean towards

Where

Asia.

pushed below the other, creating landmass.

down

As

amounts of volcanic

Antarctica slowly north across the

one was

the two continental plates met,

'100 million years

subduction zone to the southeast of the Asian

a

the ocean lithosphere

into the mantle

about 45 million years before the

—

— was drawn

the rigid outer layer of Earth

magma was

and melted, new

in

the future,

high mountain

the climate of

this

plateau

be extreme.

will

because the future Earth

Now, 100

million years after the

continent

is

and

it

Human

short

era, Australia's

higher than life

up

into a massive

mountain

chain. This

new

chain exceeds the proportions of the Himalayas, the highest mountain range of

Human

era,

conditions won't be anything like

has finally fused with the southeastern edge of Asia.

sheared, ground together and thrust

levels

Human

the

in

as a single

Scafloor sediments and rock between the two landmasses have been compressed,

the

be

will

activity.

warmer, and carbon dioxide

over,

But,

produced, resulting in large

era.

as harsh as, say, the high Tibetan

plateaus of the Himalayas.

be more possible for in

life

It

will

to exist

these high mountain ranges." Professor Paul Valdes

Like the Himalayas in their time, these tectonic plates crush against

downwards

continue to

rise.

As

the

Paleoclimatologist

Reading

one another, they simultaneously compress the rock

into Earth's mantle and

raised a large block

new mountains

upwards into the

sky.

University,

UK

Further compression has

of South East Asia to form the Great Plateau, the broadest

tract

of uplands on the surface of the planet. This immense plateau, surrounded by mountains, towers over the shallow shelf seas which cover

Newly-formed mountains assault

of

rain,

are sharp

and jagged.

It

much of

the landmass.

takes time for the constant

wind, frost and running water to erode them into rounded shapes.

100 million years after humankind, the Himalayas are mere the center of the continent.

The Great

Plateau,

on

hills

- undulations

in

the other hand, consists of

ranges of pointed pinnacles and knife-edged crests dropping away into slopes of

fragmented rock and

The

scree.

valleys

and basins between the ridges have

filled

with newly-eroded debris and formed upland plains, surrounded by peaks reaching

up

to 33,000 feet (10,000 meters)

—

higher than any mountains of the

Human

era.

left

The Great Plateau

How will life survive at this altitude? The climate of Great Plateau

warm and

will certainly

sea,

atmosphere, making survival

thrown

easier.

large

There

are

towering 33,000 feet (10,000

the weather-beaten peaks of the

be harsh, but Earth 100 million years

volcanic activity has

up out of the

rises

meters) above sea

after

humans

is

inhospitable slopes,

amounts of carbon dioxide into the

rocky debris, are

ample resources for

of species.

life

to flourish.

level. full

home

These of unstable

to a

number

THE FUTURE

The Great

hemmed

WILD

IS

Plateau, this system of high plains

by the highest mountains

in

dry, cold desert

high-altitude

home

to

little

more than hardy

Not

small rodents.

in the world,

one might expect. Back

mountain systems such

and

in the

as the

basins,

is

not the

Human

era,

Himalayas were

desert herbs, shrubs and

so the valleys and plains of the Great

These

Plateau, 100 million years on.

are rolling grasslands.

Back

in the

Human

era,

which could generate

many stems.

a

bamboo was woody

stem.

the only type of grass

On

the Great Plateau,

species of grass have the ability to produce resilient

The lower

slopes are clad with forests of grass trees.

Stems grow out over rocky outcrops and form woody creepers, gnarled

and tangled, reaching

the next pocket of

soil.

towards

like fingers

The photosynthetic

part reaches

upwards, sending out sprays of leaves from the central

At the outer edges of the Great Plateau, the

trunk.

steep,

debris-covered slopes are swept by winds bringing seasonal rains soil

up from the Shallow

make

rock

for an unstable surface,

falls.

by plant

The heavy

Seas.

However,

life

in

many

prone to mudslides and is

of conifers growing from

stabilized

evolved to cope with just such conditions.

The oceanward

is

the age of grass trees. Grasses are hardy plants which

reproduce sexually by dispersing their seeds, and asexually (


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200 MILLION YEARS

The sunburnt

turn eaten by carnivorous predators. In the darkness o!

surface of the Central Desert belies the

the caverns, this does not apply. Instead, the

labyrinth of limestone caves and water-filled fissures

beneath.

look

in

To explore

more

detail at

of the

are a relic

once existed

this its

As the continents

shelh debris of marine

initially resLilt.

in the

necessary to

life

and

groundwater.

is

limestone deposits that

and compressing the muds

easily

is

The

is

made up of

eroded and dissolved

one group of animals has segmented worms

in the rocks

sulfur

and grow on the energy released,

forming an encrustation on the cave

walls.

The green

bacterial

meadows

by the gloomworm,

are grazed

above the water

level

where

it

lives

can avoid larger predators.

action of these, acids

Despite the acidity of the water and the

a family of

compounds

down

one of the surviving polychaetes. The gloomworm

the

creates small pores but, over time, large caves can

sunlight,

derived from chemicals. Bacteria break

energy

collided, the land rose

Limestone

reefs into solid stone.

by acids

The

formation.

up, displacing the shallow seas

and

it is

and muds of the shallow seas

reefs

here.

hidden world,

initial

total lack

of

flourished: polychaetes,

known

also

as bristleworms.

The subterranean

reservoirs

of the Central Desert are the

hunting ground of one such predator. another

member of

feet (a meter)

The

the polychaete family.

slickribbon It is

is

about three

long and swims by means of paddles, one

pair to each segment, beating in a wave-like action like a

Several species of

they are

all

worm

live

descended from

below the Central Desert and

a single ancestor, a

polychaete that thrived in this region

by shallow

When

seas.

when

it

was covered

sea levels dropped, the

worms

were trapped, but they survived and adapted to environment, slowly evolving to

fill

cave system offered. This process

is

marine

their

kind of aquatic millipede. are

mounted

all life

derives indirecdy

close to the surface

it

Gloomworms

of the water are

that

staple-food source.

its

hunted by the slickribbon when

called adaptive radiation.

they retire to the caverns al/night.

are also

They

than gloomworms but more

dodging the hunters with

their agile

are

more

difficult to catch,

swimming

action.

convert carbon dioxide and water to food using the energy

struggle for survival beneath the Central Desert

of the sun; plant-eating animals eat

constant as that above

left

The slickribbon predator.

Its

is

a

fearsome

jaws are mounted

on an extendible trunk that snaps out at passing prey.

right

A

slickribbon catches a

in its

gloomworm

powerful jaws. Gloomworms

lingering near the surface of

the water are a tasty food source for the slickribbon.

this

food and are .in

come too

'

Garden worms

sunlight: plants

parts

can shoot

new

the different niches the

from

mouth

slickribbon's,

an extendible trunk, which

out in a fraction of a second.

nutritious

Normally

oa^

The

it.

_

is

as

The

*J*i

»jn

5

MILLIO

200 MILLION YEARS

.

the

GLOBAL OCEAN THE MASS EXTINCTION OF on

didn't just ravage

life

Active volcanoes

rilled

months on end. Acid volcanoes,

The

fell

land,

100

life in

MILLION YEARS

after

humankind

the oceans was profoundly affected too.

the sky with ash and dust, cutting out the sunlight for

formed by

rain,

sulfur

compounds belched out by

and the increase

their

in acidity killed off the

—

the

teemed with

all

Where once

kinds of other creatures.

the oceans had

they became almost barren. But nature does not leave ecological

life,

niches vacant for long.

The animals

that survived the

sunlight

is

then

generation

a

mass extinction did so

plants

live

the

If

shut off for a day,

off

for

30

If

of

these shut

it's

that

days,

generations.

is

30

generations

30

without sunlight could collapse the

reducing

conditions had stabilized, fish and their relatives were replaced by

lost.

is

Once

new forms of

that

very quickly.

lives

because they took shelter in the deepest, most remote refuges of the ocean.

completely

plants

tiny

of

Bony

dominant marine animals for hundreds of millions of years - suddenly

died away, along with

soup

a

is

plankton in the

surface waters and led to a catastrophic collapse in the oceanic food chain. fish

sea

single-celled

continually into the sea.

lack of sunlight

'The

biosphere all

the oceans,

in

the

planktonic

life.

productivity to nothing."

Professor Stephen Palumbi It is

by

now 200

million years since

landmass called Pangaea

a single, giant

the Global Ocean, a kilometers)

humans

body of water so

from the nearest

coast.

lived

on Earth. The planet

One

II.

vast that

is

dominated

Biologist,

Harvard University

continent means one ocean,

its

center

lies

10,000 miles (16,000

This uninterrupted expanse of water helps to

determine the extreme weather conditions of the planet. The intense heating

of the atmosphere

at the

equator draws in trade winds from the north and south.

These converge and blow westwards along the equator, driving permanent ocean currents before them.

The

result

is

a constant equatorial gyre

circulatory current that involves the

current makes

it

easy for sea

life

whole ocean

to migrate,

(see

— an immense

map, page

111).

The

and so the Global Ocean

global

is

populated by very cosmopolitan groups of animals.

As

the predominant ocean currents run east to west, there

is little

water

movement

between north and south. The cold waters of the South Pole do not mix with the

warm

waters of the equator.

high and low

latitudes.

The

result

is

a steep

temperature gradient between

However, worldwide temperatures

left

are

still

too high for Pangaea

there to be a polar icecap. This single ocean intricate

from the

is

a

complex environment supporting

food chains and highly-evolved species, quite unlike anything known

Human

era.

II

is

surrounded by

an ocean so vast that

its

center

is

10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers)

from the nearest

coast.

123

-

THE FUTURE

IS

WILD

5

Consider the marine arthropods of the lobsters

and shrimps. They were

a particular

food source and

all

Human

era

-

crabs,

specialized, preferring

habitat.

-

M ^llio N YEARS

However,

their larval

100 MILLION YEARS

left

by the

now

extinct

200 MILLION YEARS

bony

fish.

Soon

the oceans were

repopulated with a whole family of newly evolved animals.

These arthropod descendants

are called silverswimmers.

forms tended to be generalized, subsisting on diverse food

There are almost

sources and under almost any conditions. Arthropods

were incredibly world and

in

prolific

some

naked human

invisible to the

predators. Versatile

eye,

be

as these

ideally positioned to adapt and diversify in a time of

in the

Human

were

crisis.

Immediately after the mass extinction, 100 million years

humans, arthropods developed

biological ability. in a juvenile,

or

They became larval,

form -

a

new and

crucial

able to reproduce while a

phenomenon known

them with an evolutionary boost.

them, to evolve in diverse ways,

filling

many of

It

They

all

have

a similar

fish

body plan -

a

still

as

allowed

the niches

tail

that drives

the animal through the water with an up-and-down fish,

they have branched out to take

advantage of every habitat and opportunity. There are flat,

neoteny Sidestepping the need to develop into cumbersome adults provided

era.

protruding from beneath, and a segmented

motion. Like

after

different species of

lightweight armored head with bristly legs and antennae

were effective

and hardy creatures such

many

silverswimmers in the Global Ocean as there were

throughout the oceans of the

cases, despite being so small as to

as

bottom-dwelling silverswimmers;

fierce,

hunting

silverswimmers; large plankton-feeding silverswimmers;

and even silverswimmers silverswimmers.

that live as parasites

They range from

on other

the microscopic to

those the size of a small whale. They are the success story

of the Global Ocean that surrounds Pangaea

II.

left

Silverswimmers are the most species in the Global Ocean.

prolific

They are

descended from crustaceans, such

as

crabs and lobsters.

right This species of silverswimmer

the ocean

in shoals.

roams

A complex

array

of antennae and bristles at the front of the animal enables

it

to

fine particles of plankton

water and sweep them into

124

filter

out

from the its

mouth.

THE FUTURE

WILD

IS

left

Ocean left

flish

have

filled

the niches

by the extinction of birds and

have taken to the

air in

true flight.

They have sharp teeth on powerful protusile jaws

which snap out to

pluck prey from the waves.

A tew

species of fish did survive the

of 100 million years

group of animals

is

The

When

above the surface of the water,

humankind.

after

almost wiped out,

free to evolve in the

bear

mass extinction

its

most unexpected ways and often

surviving fish have mostly abandoned sea to take

descendants are

resemblance to their ancestors. In

little

up another

are called ocean

an important

lifestyle

-

that

of

birds.

this case

life

the

altogether

flish

breathes

air.

As

swim bladder evolved

to

spent

it

more and more time increasingly redundant

its

answer

a

more immediate

requirement and developed into lungs. Like the flish

means

is

cold-blooded, so

it

ancestors,

its

conserves body heat by

of hollow scales which insulate

its

wing muscles.

These creatures

The

flish.

flish that

fill

Ocean

the skies above the Global

have evolved into myriad species and exploit

The

of the

flying fish

the surface of water.

developed true typical flish

is

flight.

Human The

si2e

have evolved into wings.

wing surface full flight,

and then

126

flish

gills,

glide,

glide over

of the Global Ocean have

of

family, a

a seagull. Its pectoral fins

A muscular fin base, in

that can flap

ocean

jump and

Descended from the cod

about the

once occupied by the

era could

the space-

gaps that were once occupied by sea flish

Duck-sized

Albatross-sized

flish

migrate for vast distances to follow

main silverswimmer

shoals. Skua-sized flish attack

them of

other

up

jaws which can be pointed to the

flish flap their

looking for prey

wings for in

a

few seconds

the waves below.

birds. Tern-sized

skim plankton from the waves.

flish

supports a broad aerodynamic to eight times a second. In

the

dive for silverswimmers shoaling below the

surface.

the

all

flish

to rob

increases the ability of the

surface of the water.

their catch. All

flish

left

have protusile

or right. This

to pluck prey

from the

100 MILLION YE

MILLION YE

When

floating like

do so on

they

flish rest

Human-era

sea birds,

around

in their lungs, fat stores

Larger species of

the surface of the ocean,

buoyed up by the

wind

air

and watertight

their chest

ocean.

insulating scales. Their flying tins are stretched sail-like

over their backs and their muscular pelvic

fins

reach

as

it

flish

200 MILLION YEARS

can also launch themselves into the

blasts across the crests

The

lateral

spread of the caudal

control surface, allowing the

down

while in

of the waves of the open fin

flish to steer

provides a

and maneuver

flight.

into the sea like a ship's keel, steadying the animals as

they

At dusk,

float.

flocks of flish return to the rocky outcrops

coastal cliff faces to roost.

To

achieve take-off

have developed

flish

Their ancestors, bony

fish,

flish's tail,

however,

moves up and down,

fin

the

tail

end of

powerful downward thrust with the flish clear

fins

from

of the surface, and the

first

lift

Flish

A

its

fly,

made

nesting

a floating

sweep of

could not

fish

among

and so they

the rocks.

the final transition

from swimming, water-bound

creatures to high-flying land-dwellers

on

to breathe

flying

can have the creature airborne immediately.

Although Human-era

for predators

side to side.

a whale.

can

tail

Bobbing on the surface of the

flish a tasty target

have found a safe haven

rotated by 90 degrees and

is

like

water makes

tail.

used to propel themselves

forward by beating a vertical caudal

The

modified

a

of the

heritage.

land. air,

They have evolved

when

they began

true flight

and the

ability

casting off the last vestiges of their aquatic

They return

ocean only to hunt.

to the

several

species could glide over the surface of the

water. With the necessary musculature to

power the easy,

and

forelimb, taking to the air

perhaps did

fish

this to

was

escape caudal

larger predators.

they flapped their thus discovered

fin

Once out of the water fins

new

to travel further and Flish

habitats.

In a flish,

To

fly,

can

aerodynamic

human

problem of

force. Birds

and bats

arm. The ocean flight by using

fly

flish its

has solved the

pectoral in a

fin,

bird or a

Bird

The pectoral

fins

have developed into

powerful articulated wings.

forelimb and fingers

forelimb

using the

bone structure to

the equivalent of the forelimb bat.

fin (forelimb)

control in order to generate

forelimb, which has a similar

the

the pectoral

has evolved into a powerful wing.

animals need a large surface which they

move and

pelvic fin

wing

In

wing

a bird wing, the forelimb serves

as a support for the feathers.

Bat wing

A

bat's

across

wing

all

is

a

membrane spread out

five fingers of the forelimb.

127

THE FUTURE

Above

IS

WILD

the waves, flocks of ocean flish wheel and circle,

following the silverswimmer shoals as they skim through the rich green plankton. the sun as a flish folds

Now and

its

upwards with its

a

moment and

to change color at will.

sudden dramatic display

then splashing

or to attract a mate.

which

it

snaps from the water surface, seizes a

and disappears.

manacles of

place appears

span of

flish

shoal then vanishes as well, and in

drifting just

below the

the back of an

its

enormous animal

pattern a

on

is

a shoal at all,

the skin of this beast.

body more than 60

similar length, this

is

It is a

class

its

ancestors to achieve this

flish

its

this live-fast-die-young cycle,

brains,

in

now has

would dare

live for

come

Once it

up

to take

to a century.

on such With

a giant

in

this

a highly evolved intelligence

extended lifespan

and sophistication.

color

their use of

capable of causing color changes

the skin by expanding and contracting.

expanded the color spot not. Each

is

chromatophore

visible,

when

When

a

cell

contracted

is

it is

consists of a sac containing

filaments of pigment attached to nerve fibers, which can express a wide range of colors. Cephalopods control each

chromatophore

separately, producing

amazing

displays

of color which they use as camouflage, as a mating display or as a sign of aggression.

128

the squid

— and can

chromatophores to communicate. Chromatophores are cells

years,

no predators — few

but perhaps the most remarkable is

life

was able to

the phylum Mollusca, includes

evidence of their advanced intelligence

pigment-bearing

on

While the

octopuses, squids, cuttlefish and nautiluses. Cephalopods

have large

a

evolutionary potential. In the Global Ocean,

creatures

and arms of

feat.

Human-era squid was only two

rainbow squid. With

the biggest animal in the ocean.

in

ocean

bait for the

the rainbow squid has virtually

feet (20 meters) long,

Cephalopoda,

-

but the changing

Communicating The

can even produce a flowing pattern

squid has shaken off the evolutionary

a typical

had escaped

surface.

not

a

away would-be predators

other, simpler mollusks lived for decades.

unlock Part of the shoal

up

Several flish are

The rainbow

broad, dark shape —

to scare

sight; or flash

feeds.

gathering above one whirling shoal. Suddenly, a tentacle

a

It

shoal of silverswimmers

Then something unexpected happens.

can merge with the ubiquitous

of colored patches to mimic the swirling motion of

captured silverswimmer squirming in

extended jaws.

The

It

green of the ocean and hide from

again, scales flash in

wings and swoops into the

waves, disappearing for a

Like other cephalopods, the rainbow squid has the ability

Human-era squid produced stunning expanding or contracting

cells

displays of color by

on the surface of

their skin.

100 MILLION YEARS

MILLION YEARS

5

200 MILLION YEARS

left

A

giant rainbow squid descends into

the unfathomable depths of the Global Ocean.

overleaf The autumn equinox marks the start of

the mating season for

rainbow squid. They

set the sea

ablaze with their vivid displays of color

The

sophistication of the rainbow squid

in the

way

it

is

Once

evident

controls changes of color, through

pigmented muscular sacs on the surface of

its

of the

skin called

chromatophores. These can be expanded or contracted will,

at

producing color changes or flowing patterns over the

surface of the

controlled by

whole animal. Each chromatophore

its

own

a year, this skill full

moon on

is

the

nerve, part of a complex nervous

put to dazzling use.

autumn equinox,

rainbow squids are

flashes, pulses

display across is

to control the

and rippling patterns that make up the its

so sensitive to

back. its

Its

senses are acute. Indeed,

surrounding environment that

warning or

are present in each

bait for prey.

it is

Three color pigments

chromatophore, and combinations of

across

the Global Ocean, but at this one time of year they

of Pangaea

more

II,

all

setting the sea ablaze with their vivid

and

light.

—

Females choose males the better the display, the

successful the individual

and the more

likely to

is

likely to

be

in hunting,

produce equally successful offspring.

Further evidence of the advanced intelligence of rainbow squids can be found in their family relationships.

displays

squids

which they produce by sending unique messages

from the

Some even

social

contain symbiotic, luminous bacteria, enabling

The

recognize relatives through family specific chromatophore

these can produce an almost infinite variety of patterns.

the squid to produce displays of light.

all

it

able to choose the appropriate display for any situation: attraction,

the night

the entire

solitary creatures, ranging

according to their display it

On

population of rainbow squids gathers to mate. Normally

displays of color

squid's large brain enables

light.

converge on a particular area off the southwestern cape

is

system connected to the brain.

The rainbow

and

brain.

Each

individual has the ability to learn this

behavior and communicate with other

the group.

members of

7*?
rs 69,

snowstalker 30-31,

11,

10,

tectonic plate

33

'

volcanoes

10,

1

113, 123, 135

145

specialist species 53, 611, 104, 113, 124,

102-105, 102, 103, 105, 106

spindletrooper 74, 75-76, 75

56

55,

95

spitfire beetle 9-3-94,

spitfire bird 91-92, 93, 94

95

spitfire tree 91, 93, 94,

14, 14-15, 19, 6(1, 64, 79, 97,

termites IS, 103, 113, 114, 116

w

Tertiary period 21

warfare

tool use 151

warthog

toraton 86, 86, 87, 106

w asp 92

1

5

16

9

tornadoes 53

water

tortoise 86

weasel 30, 42

wind deserts

10', 123

vulture 57, 59

terasquid 149-153

sea 74, 75-76, 75

56

HP,

106,

terabyte 7/2, 114-118, 114, 115, 116, II 7

spiders'), 102

1

period 20

\ etulian

vertebrates 149, 156

temperature 17, 27, 35, 60, 64, 79, 106,

114-118, 151

spink 55-59,

and plate tectonics

plates

temperate zones 24, 89, 64

social organization is, 56, 103-105,

silver

see

flea

weathering 40

squibbon 151,151, 152-153, 153

trade

squid 8,2, 83-84, 128, /2#, 149

trade winds 89, 123, 156

willow 27, 28, I

trees 27-29, 45, 79, 145

wolverine 30

megasquid

8, 9, ?, /4#,

rainbow 128-129,

/.??,

149-150, 149

/M-/>/, 132,

/

stork,

42

Marabou

48

48,

13

1

)

worm

beech burner 91, 93,94, 95

fj

terasqfaid M-9 153

stoat 30,

1

conifers 29, 35, 45, 145

convoluta US, 118

grass 98, 102

garden 118, 119, 121

lichen 145-146, 150

subduction and subduction /ones

Triassic period 20,86,

14, 15, 97,

196, 156

1

Hi, 145

tropics 89 96

sucker-fish 18, 18

Sun, luminosity 135

Ardea: Thomas Dressier, 48

Thomas

Eisner, 91 •

Kevin

Corbis: David

•

Flay, 46, 47, 49, 51 •

Images: FPG/Richard H Johnston, 122

Bank/Richard

A

Brookes, 19

Stone/David C Tomlinson, 18

Angeles County Mackie, 34

•

Blackwell, 16

160

Museum

•

VCL, 19

•

•

NHPA:

•

Coster, 32

•

John Hafernik, 94

of Natural History, 132

Juan Manuel Borrero, 88

D

Getty

Image

Michael Melford, 134

•

Naturepl.com: Ingo Arnat, 106

Liverani, 82 • Steven Bill

Muench, 52

Miller,

78

•

•

•

52

•

•

B Jones

&

M

T Kitchin & V Hurst, 29

Shimlock, 69 •

•

Tom

Atkinson, 70

Daniel

•

Waina Cheng,

Rudi Kuiter, 128

118 •

Rich Kirchner, •

Steve

backgrounds

11, 28, 43, 46, 47, 49, 51, 72-3, 77, 84-5, 87, 93, 95, 99,

100-1, 115, 140, 148, 150, 151

Peter

•

Norbert Wu, 18

Nicholls, 8-9, 20-2, 26, 33, 35, 44, 96, 144;

Los

Fabio

•

Heuclin, 112

•

Peter Oxford, 17

Stephen Dalton, 59

•

•

•

•

•

OSF

141

•

Films: Kathie

Judd Cooney, 42

•

Zig Leszczynski, 81 • Richard Manuel,

Colin Monteath, 14

Belinda Wright, 36

•

•

Scott Winer, 108-111

Steve Weston, 83.

•

Imagine the world

in

the far distant future— a world without humans, a world

so different from ours that until now,

Based on the

been impossible to imagine.

latest scientific thinking in all disciplines

of international experts, the Future of years from now. land and

it's

swim

What new in

is l/IZ/Vc/fast

habitats exist?

the oceans? the Future

and working with a team

forwards to planet Earth millions

What is

strange creatures roam the

Wild

is

a revolutionary

and

fascinating approach to evolution.

-

J:

MILLION YEARS from now., it cannot fly, but the carakiller is the. Amazon's swiftest predator. 5

\

\

100 MILLION YEARS from now...

200 MILLION YEARS from now...

toratons are the biggest animals

warrior terabytes disable victims

ever to walk the Earth.

by spraying chemicals at them.

'

A Firefly Book ^

Printed in Sp^in tar