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1 History of World Architecture

Mario Bussagli

Oriental Architecture/

".V""'

7 1.;.. J

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E\ecXa/ fozzoLi NEW YORK J

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Mario Bussagli

Oriental Architecture/ India, Indonesia, Indochina

Translated by John Shepley

Contribution by

Arcangela Santoro

Electa/^z/OA Sausalito Public Library Sausalito, California

94965

Photographs: Federico Borromeo

Drawings: Studio Enzo Layout: Arturo

di

Grazia

Anzani

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Bussagli, Mario.

Oriental architecture.

(History of world architecture) Translation of: Architettura orientale. Bibliography: p. Includes index. Contents: 1. India, Indonesia, Indochina

—

China, Korea, Japan. II. Series: I. Title. 1. Architecture, Oriental. History of world architecture (Electa/Rizzoli) 2.

88-43458 NA1460.B8713 1989 722 ISBN 0-8478-1056-9 (v. 1) (pbk.) ISBN 0-8478-1055-0 (v. 2) (pbk.) Copyright

©1981

Electa, S.p.a.,

by Milan

Paperback edition first published in the United States of America in 1989 by Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 10017 597 Fifth Avenue, New York,

NY

All rights reserved

No

part of this publication

may be reproduced

manner whatsoever without permission

in

Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.

This volume is the redesigned paperback of the original Italian edition published in 1973 by Electa, S.p.a., Milan, and the English edition published by Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York Printed

in Italy

in

any

writing by

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD

Mario Bussagli

6

INTRODUCTION

Mario Bussagli

7

Chapter

One

INDIA

AND CEYLON

Mario Bussagli

Chapter

Two

INDONESIA

16

AND INDOCHINA

Arcangela Santoro

144

NOTES

219

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

220

INDEX

222

LIST

OF PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS

227

FOREWORD

The

publication of a

work devoted

eastern Asia clearly reflects the

great Asian civilizations that also

solely to the architecture of central

new

and

interest in the artistic culture of those

— by a possibly controversial definition— may

easily separated

regions

—

all

one work the

developments of seven large

architectural

of them marked by complex historical vicissitudes, by equally

context of the other

historical

art

throughout Asia, architecture

from sculpture and,

of Asian (especially Indian)

new, and previously unpublished material.

to compile a separate

volume

for each cultural area,

or at least to devote one volume to each of the major cultures of these regions.

There

are,

however,

in

addition to certain contingent and absolute

requirements that preclude these alternatives, theoretical and reasons, which are set forth

more

fully in the Introduction, that justify a

unified treatment of the architectural works here examined. exist

undeniable

ties

scientific

and relationships

Above all,

there

that link together these highly diverse

artistic cultures.

The

attentive reader will

of these relationships technique, or

in

soon discern the nature of the more obvious

— which do not reside merely

often of a religious and spiritual character

but widely radiating currents of latter,

in

matters of type or

the predominant use of particular materials, since these are

taste,

—

as well as the existence

of minor

and of influences and pressures. The

while sometimes involving countries very remote from one another,

have nevertheless served to produce a dense network of lesser evidence what

The

we might

work

(all

backgrounds

are Italian scholars with varying history

— whose

teachers at the University of

—

linguistics,

Rome)

history,

interest in the study of the figurative arts in Asia has

inspired by their specialties.

They

all

bring to their respective discussions

the enrichment of the particular studies in which they have participated. result

is

The

fields

of the contributors,

emphasize rhythms of development, values, or technical

data,

at

other times historical conditions,

according to their

preferences, and even their basic training. Moreover, to confront the

who will sometimes

problems of Asian architecture and

to

sensibilities, it

their

was no easy task

remove them from

as Central Asia

monuments; what

little

it

there

was no easy matter

to collect suitable,

specific

in

some

the other hand, in

significant

no way be compared with the wealth such countries as

political conditions in

photographic projects, and consequently

a considerable disproportion

is

On

— there has been scant survival of

remains can

Vietnam have hindered

between the

visual

documentation for

more accessible ones. Despite these handicaps, this work represents a necessary preparatory move toward wider and deeper investigations that, among other things, will some regions and other

richer and

inevitably have to confront the

world.

On

problem of figurative space problem

the formulation of this

and with

scientific

civilizations

common

by

one

and capable of bringing research

phenomena of Europe and Asia

specialists in diverse regions )

it

European continent,

possibility of a single basic critical standard,

to such highly different worlds

to the

time for the history of art to become a single history

identical

Asian

and philosophical conceptions elaborated by individual

—depends the

artistic

in the

— by no means easy because

collides with the entire history of art of the adjoining

of the world

same

level. It

is

now

—even though cultivated

— with similar

(if

not necessarily

problems, views, and methods, differentiated only by the diversity

of documentary evidence and by the methods employed

in

approaching

aesthetic values.

a kind of concordia discors that in part corresponds to the objective

requirements of the individual

spatial

art

been

— such

art,

of other areas. The well-known

on the

the "differentiated unity" of Asia.

call

contributors to this

that

ties

regions

work

this

not merely technical but also that of an enthusiastic lover

skill that is

complicated social phenomena, and by an extraordinary richness of thought. is

choice of illustrations.

Except for Federico Borromeo's photographs, taken especially for with a

arts;

not always

is

from painting.

to a lesser degree,

difficulties in the

The customary

rule

figurative

considered a minor art and

is

There have even been serious

be called "Far Eastern." Oriental Architecture brings together and

synthesizes in

accompanying

the

Final

be

judgment on

specialists or not,

us, as authors,

a

it

is

this

work

is

naturally

and the books'

fate

is

up

to

its

readers, whether they

primarily entrusted to them. For

already a satisfaction to be able to offer and reveal to

wider public the architectural treasures of civilizations that have developed

parallel to

and

its

our own, and which represent not

its

antithesis but

its

completion

reciprocal parameter of measure.

Mario Bussagli

INTRODUCTION

The

forms of Asian architecture are

characteristic

and familiar aspects of the

striking

increased knowledge and

The

eliminate.

be

said to

facility in

artificial

one of the most

still

"Oriental" world that our

mass communication cannot successfully

and exotic, however slight today, may human spirit, and for historical reasons is by Western man. The Great Wall of China, any of the

taste for the fantastic

be ingrained

particularly felt

pagodas of the Far

in the

and the Indianized world, the

East, the stupas of India

great temples of China, Japan, and Southeast Asia

—

all

evoke an indefinable

sense of wonder, a mysterious and diverse presence that shapes primarily emotional way, even though

and

in

is

which

world

fruit

that

and an

reality, these

social,

we might

any case the

to the very

effect

upon

itself in a

us has been given lucid

by a number of our best writers. But an evaluation of

literary expression this kind,

its

call

produced the monuments of which we speak. In

infinite

economic, and

sentimental-exotic, remains a superficial one,

of a European-centered view, or at least extraneous

number of other

subject to transformations that are

no

The sum of the Asian experiments,

architectural

works

reflect the

an immense and varied world,

historical structure of

less felt for

being slow and conflicting.

the series of critical problems faced, and

the variety of technical results obtained thereby are not inferior to those that

have ripened over the centuries

in the

West, even though there

general tendency to contrast Asian architecture with what

is

is

a

vaguely and

generically defined as Western. In

no Asian

major

arts.

civilization has architecture

The

ever been considered one of the

heaviness of the materials employed, and the quantity of

technical data necessary for planning and construction, have led to the

conclusion that

hardly spontaneous, not easily appreciated, and therefore

it is

the product of the craftsman rather than a texts

of India

—

work of

the most complete

the technical training necessary for the architect.

latter

from

artistic

late

is

one of

body of learning Western

that

classical

modern or contemporary

These include geology,

techniques, and even psychology (the

workers). Indeed, the whole implies a

to assist in dealing with

that of

Thus, the technical

—enumerate with great precision the various aspects of

geometry, magic, religion,

specialized

art.

begin with, the Mdnasdra, which though

to

is

certainly

uncommon and

quite different

or Renaissance architects, not to mention any

ones.

where wood

deliberately

employed and

architectural forms are placed within the sphere of nature

—one thinks of

In the Far Eastern world,

gardens and of the Sino-Japanese of a building hierarchy of stand

been

at

ability to exploit the natural

— the architectural work takes

artistic

is

its

place

on

a

surroundings

lower scale

in a

values wherein painting, calligraphy, poetry, and music

the top. In recent decades, Far Eastern concepts and techniques have

translated,

with

considerable

freedom, into new and strikingly

contemporary architectural terms, even calling for materials absolutely different

from the ancient and

traditional

wooden

structures.

Through

a

combination of varying circumstances, the traditions of Japan and the

—

renewed creative

capacities of her great

produced vast echoes interest

due

is

the

to

contemporary architects have

Europe and America.

in

A

great part of this sincere

of Japanese architects to reconcile the

efforts

significance and continuity of their tradition with the inevitable

updating of their culture, which

and new

common

new symbols

driven by an urge to create

is

change and

values acceptable to a spiritually, economically, and

efforts are perfectly justified

and valid

is

an undeniable

fact;

consequently, the entire span of Asian architecture cannot be judged merely as

we

an historical and archaeological phenomenon, nor should

works

as a

study

its

simple heritage of the past. With the fluctuations and continual

variations in the scales of values adopted by still

all

human

civilizations,

it

can

be a source of suggestions and of possible inspiration (likewise for

experiments unknown to the Western world), and of future developments. In any case

amalgamations of East and West

—

it

may

well be capable

documented

setting aside historically

— there can be no doubt whatsoever that

the Asian experience remains a parameter of comparison for the architecture

of other continents. aesthetic vision,

To

recognize

it

as such will enrich

and among other things

will

our

historical

and

help us to confront the question

of the allegedly irreconcilable opposition between Asia and Europe

in the

architectural sphere.

But

is it

speak of an Asian architecture?

of Asia display enormous differences

and the response of Asian man

As

is

among

The

various

themselves,

likewise different in varying climatic and

environmental

situations.

phenomena and

their related reflections in architecture as manifested

a

the vast series of socio-cultural

result,

centuries and millennia

would seem

of a unified treatment.

To

during

deny the methodological correctness

to

judge by appearances, an approach of

this sort

can be justified only by a tenuous and debatable geographical bond. In reality,

phenomena

is

in

its

broad areas on

partially

homogeneous

turn are strengthened and extended by mutual influences,

and exchanges. Moreover, the economic and organizational

common

structure of the Asian world,

however

choices and preferences;

architectural works, expressing as they

its

fractured, obeys a series of

highly different aspirations and intentions, remain above

all

part,

of those that follow

since even

if

on which the

— depends

aesthetic,

to perceive their

common

—and,

in

in the affirmative,

it is

not difficult

foundation and the extensive interplay of mutual

it

is

necessary ro rely on available

sociological data, and to consider also the philological and psychological

s

stretches of the Asian continent, corresponding to the area

were almost completely unacquainted with architecture

Only underground tombs of various types (such

times.

as

until

very recent

chambers or

pits),

some other manner, demonstrate the existence of a desire to build, obviously prompted by the impulse of sacred and funerary values. Much rarer in occurrence and more indicated on rhe surface by rings of stones, tumuli, or in

recent in date are certain subterranean dwellings that respond to climatic

requirements

— protection

from the cold,

for

example

—and

to functional

values that can be understood only in terms of a particular religious culture.

The marks that,

of shamanism so overload such structures with symbolic values

once they are divorced from the culture

that

produced them, the

solutions adopted for accessibility, livability, and the very

life in

as to

common They

of the hierarchical group served by them are rendered absurd.

are

examples of a symbolic and magical functionalism so exaggerated

be an extreme case even for Asia.

Chinese

literary sources

mention the small

stone built by certain nomadic groups as

fortified "cities" in

wood and

became progressively

they

sedentary under the influence of Chinese culture.

No

examples have

survived, just as almost nothing, except for fragments, remains of the

fourteenth-century Catholic churches

in

Mongolia

(in the

Gothic

style but

with ample concessions to Chinese techniques and materials) built by di

Montecorvino. These scant remains comprise almost the entire

architectural heritage of the

must remember, however,

nomadic peoples and hunters of the north.

that the felt tent of the

reproduced the shamanistic symbolism

itself

of underground

which thus appears

dwellings,

We

nomads, a true masterpiece

of practicality and rationality,

an

as

indispensable

requirement.

actual

immense area

urban agglomerates; we can say that the urbanization of is

connected with the history of the

last

this

two centuries and

has developed primarily along Russian lines, with considerable intensification in the last It

is

including

tural

few decades.

thus the great sedentary, agricultural civilizations of the south all

the territories of China and Korea, as well as the Japanese

—

as this,

the architectural field) and

of tundras and forests and to part of the central strip of deserts and steppes,

archipelago

book such

in

Apparently, an enormous portion of the Asian continent was for a long

influences.

Naturally, in a

involved (particularly

time devoid of important architectural forms. Until quite recent times, there

functional, or technical

differences that separate these works, tastes, and tendencies,

artists

may

validity of this essay

can be answered

one takes note of the

political

by the relatively sparse nature of the philological evidence.

were no prejudicial question

and

in its historical

unmistakably

Asian.

The

anonymity of the

Giovanni

overlaid by an imposing complex of cultural

that tends to unify

grounds, which contacts,

of Asia

all

and religious) plane and

context, despite the obvious limitations imposed by the almost complete

typical

really legitimate to

artistic civilizations

(especially symbolic

The northern

socially reinvigorated world.

That these

The true protagonist of our research is, however, the artistic phenomenon in itself, evaluated and considered both on the sociological

approaches.

that

have expressed themselves

in valid

and coherent architec-

forms capable of broad development. These forms, when placed

according to type and purpose

in

urban contexts and

in

very diverse

What was

groupings, can be better understood by an examination of the essential

therefore planned for the Chinese populace was a general

system by which they would be distributed throughout

outlines of the Asian city.

and

cities

lesser

centers according to the needs foreseen and imposed by an absolute

power

The Asian City

Throughout Asia the possesses in the less

still

West

had a very different meaning from that

city has

(first, Classical

important than the village

fundamental agglomerate

in all

Mediterranean,

as a

human

habitat,

which

is

It is

in fact the

sedentary Asian societies. Apart from the

modern megalopolises such

existence of

European).

later

it

as

Tokyo,

for

example, the

—one

activities

being abstract and remote,

that, despite

and had no

not accidental that inside the

autonomous house and

in its relations

street

the highest functionaries.

— whose

unknown

in the

gigantic forces are manifested in Asia with a

West

— have not been devoid of consequences

in

to shatter any sense of civic unity account for the imposition of a particular

physical aspect

on the Chinese

city that

construction remained for centuries the Vedic altar, a structure rigidly

a grid plan (confirmed in a later period

employed, and with and rationality

ritual function.

in the

to the

Concepts of durability, aesthetic value,

modern sense have not been taken

however. This psychological attitude has of religious architecture.

Certain

number of bricks

its

into consideration,

repercussions on other aspects

works, intended to serve as votive

offerings, are built without any interest either in durability or Vitruvian jirmitas,

and thus assume a meaning that

Buddhist stupa, solid

in

is

inconceivable to the West.

construction and lacking interior space,

been erected for the sole purpose of "acquiring merit"

—

in

A

may have

were

crumble or be demolished immediately

to

completed,

would have no importance,

this

its

centuries,

of Asia lacked

bourgeois

class (artisans

strength that hostility

would

the

necessary prerequisites whereby the

and merchants) might have acquired an economic

resolutely reflect the

life

and functions of the

cities.

of the central powers toward the mercantile and craft guilds

shown both by Indian the

being perfectly

construction had already been carried out. For tens of

presided over all

after

since the act of faith that

s'rent

texts

on

political

theory

1

—and by the Confucian contempt

As a result, there existed no

juridical

that

danger

foundation permitting the formation

ones city

—

as

independent

occurred, for example, in

Italy.

distinct

from the surrounding

In China, the building of a

was one of a number of works carried out by the

urban centers served fact,

civilization,

as

state,

new

and the planned

an instrument of central power. Their purpose,

in

its

still

remained abstract and remote, circumscribed

Mongol

nomadic origins of the new

imperial vision with

Something

its

similar

happened

in

the ruling

have been otherwise, since

all

Chinese imperial governments

in

The

and their

characteristically

India too, its

where the

political division

inhabitants to continual fluctuations

collapse of various state

only agency to remain firm and operative was the

on which the

office,

tax yield

depended

—especially

in

such an

agricultural society par excellence as that of India.

There can thus be no doubt unity

is

precisely this

importance of the

that

one of the

basic characteristics of Asian

complex socio-economic structure to a

city

minimum, while

that reduces the

absolutely excluding the

when

formation of any autonomous powers of an urban kind. Even

and when

coastal

world led to the emergence of great Muslim

centers appeared

commercial expansion, the Asian short, in its

own

no instance did core. Islam

it

succeed

itself,

city in

were

that

was never

to

possibility of

autonomy.

In

expressing any bourgeois strength from

which granted

European examples, was unable

the

cities,

be Europeanized by

to achieve

a

wider

cultural, religious,

administrative importance to the urban nucleus and

moved

it

and

closer to

to impart a juridical appearance or an

and military bases, especially on the

it

was

enough, throughout the centuries and despite complex

historical vicissitudes, the

land

rulers

power because of the expansion and

structures. Curiously

Nor

considered the entire territory under their rule as a unified whole.

it

overtones of universalism.

of the immense subcontinent exposed in

as

invasion was to reduce the importance of the city once more, as

a result of the

operative autonomy to civic centers.

could

an

essentially

end of the tenth

decisions and administrative activity by the sphere of the court.

was to ensure the transportation, storage, and distribution of principal

goods, not to mention their military and internal security functions.

at the

century, did this significance begin to diminish, even though the central

government

collision with the Islamic

for trade.

of civic autonomy and the recognition of the urban community within the outlines of an

instrument of oppression. Only under the Sung,

The

amply

— these embrace the idea

(guilds), because of their wealth, constitute the principal

to the sovereign

is

other

in

by Marco Polo's description of

Cambaluc, present-day Peking), the urban nucleus was

other words,

to better the fate of the patron and builder in his future lives. If the stupa

would be unacceptable

Distinguished by the presence of city walls and constructed on

civilizations.

down

The connection between the more ancient from the second century BC to

in precise rules that, in

the field of architecture. In Indian villages, for example, the principal

connected with symbolic requirements, even

was

It

AD), granted free and direct access to the street only to The necessity for police control and the desire

the ninth century

with nature

village.

themselves each quarter was isolated and

periods of the empire (roughly speaking,

the conservatism characteristic of the village, and the continual rapport of

man

theory excluded free

with the local authority.

was bound up

distribution of the population into hamlets, the tendency toward isolation,

violence

cities

in

over the

interest in favoring the city

The colonialist drive created coasts, but

mercantile

had neither the aim nor the

reproducing European-style urban structures

in

Asia for the

benefit of the Asians. For the colonial rulers, the city was likewise an

of the semifeudal type or, more precisely, alliances

instrument of power, though naturally, from their contact with various

duced

economic systems, the natives of the surrounding areas were able

of small semiautonomous potentates under a theoretical authority.

some advantage. Thus there arises once Asian

which,

among

again, in relation to the value and function of the

mode

other things,

is

said to constitute

of production,"

one of the undivided and

unifying components of Asian society. Actually, this expression, coined by

more

Karl Marx, becomes

economy, "* since activity

it

when defined

precise

of village communities and the economic intervention of a state

authority that exploits and at the

however,

same time

There

directs them.

no doubt,

is

Asian societies there has been

that at the root of all sedentary

maintained, for extremely long periods and in

as a "despotic village

characterized by a combination of the production

is

in different

forms, an interest

These

public works that the state (or sovereign) provides for and executes.

works are controlled and administered

many mining and activities,

same manner

in the

as

commerce,

refining industries, transportation, and various other

with the state (or sovereign) theoretically limiting

only in relation to the capacity of This centralization,

this

its

its

own power

subjects for endurance and survival.

when

despotic authoritarianism, was preserved even

the political acts of the sovereign

were based on a humanitarian ideology

and formulated according to concepts of universal brotherhood, respect for life,

and "nonviolence." Such was the case of Asoka

third

who

Buddhist

ethics,

and though

first

B.C.),

the

Indian empire.

own political vision from works— streets, hospitals, reser-

undertook great public

commemorative and symbolic

breaking the truly tyrannical patterns of In addition to this

His was an Asian

pillars.

and only mildly oppressive, was

paternalistic

all

the bureaucratic apparatus of the state,

legislative

making

it

when

come

they

totally different social structures

—and

and

means.

fiscal

very obvious

property did not confer any real political power.

It is

why

private

for this reason that

into violent contact with other,

with colonialist capital-

in particular

—appear almost incapable of rapid development. This does not mean

that they are

immobile or

identical

among

themselves. Inversely,

it is

correct to say, as does Chesneaux, that "the theory of Asian society rather than a useful scientific hypothesis,"

theory applies primarily to the

it

is

hardly

a myth,

being understood that

more productive

agricultural areas.

this

The

Central Asian area, in the centuries from the beginning of the Christian era to

its

total

conquest by the Turks (ninth to tenth centuries

AD)

does not

enter into Chesneaux's description because the economic basis of the entire

region

was

agricultural

10

essentially

mercantile.

The western

development was possible through

corresponding to the present Sinkiang region

emergence of caravan founded on

oases.

in

city-states

(each with a different cultural structure) habitation, limited by the hostility of the

desert and other obstacles, agricultural villages.

Very

could not be dispersed

close in

its

network of

a

in

outlook to the medieval European

make

world, Central Asia was the only area to

the city the synthesis of a

refined civilization and to develop a kind of bourgeois class. factor

The other

China, saw the

Here human

A

tangible

was the decentralization of the monastic complexes, which tended

detach them from the restless

life

Despite

this

in the entire

range of Asian

remains an extraordinary and fundamental exception.

militarized

its

to

of the urban nucleus, thus confirming the

importance of religious thought. Nevertheless, civilizations,

and strongly bureaucratic

state organizations, this

region was the only one capable of developing a very profitable socio-

economic structure and of ensuring extended over an enormous

that

its

Unfortunately, for various reasons,

in the

form of large

castles

commercial and cultural

activity

territory.

we cannot

genesis of this urban structure, which in the

and

trace with precision the

West took shape predominantly

in the East in actual cities. In the latter area,

archaeologists have primarily unearthed monastic agglomerates and

gious constructions

hewn out of rock, which

reli-

better survived the vicissitudes

of the centuries. With the advance of Islam into the area, even though the

economy

mercantile civilization

had created

that

emerged. They would have

much

different

from

the strange destiny of

simply for

that

its

in

a physical character of their

of Iranian

cities

— the sole great

becoming the

embellishment.

of production" theory

found

splendor of Central Asian

the

was not wholly destroyed, new urban centers of the Muslim type

world. Only Samarkand

centralization, private

between the masses of subjects and

existed a basic antagonism

Asian societies, except

state,

incapable of

still

his ancestors.

pronounced tendency toward

property and initiative were hindered by

Thus there

269-232

derived the foundations for his

voirs, cisterns,

ism

(c.

and greatest sovereign of the Maurya dynasty, the

Asoka,

state structures

districts,

the much-discussed problem of the "Asian

city,

to derive

love of Tamerlane

capital of

We might add,

— was to have

an ephemeral empire created

in evaluating the

in relation to architecture, that

the theocracy of Tibet,

own, generally not

or other regions of the Muslim

where the economic

"Asian

mode

another exception

is

structure of the plateau

took the form of a mixture of livestock breeding and laborious agriculture within the very framework of a state that, after a phase of kingship, was clearly based

Asian

mode

on religion and entrusted

to

monastic hierarchies. Here the

of production does not take the

classical

Marxist form (actually

derived from the India and China of the nineteenth century); nor does

adhere to the more precise definition stated by Chesneaux, which

it

we have

followed while yet proposing certain general characteristics.

We

still

find the state in Tibet

promoting large works (though by means

of religious communities), but the development of private property and

even the yield from the scarce amount of arable land are hindered by magic and superstition, elements

area,

where greater

Deep plowing,

artificial

irrigation, pro-

spirits

that

for example,

of the earth

were backed up by the

was prohibited so

—corresponding

spiritual authorities.

as not to offend the klu, the

to the naga, or deified serpents of

India

—who might

revenge themselves on the entire country.

in turn

This fragment of medieval civilization, with

produced highly

setting that has lasted until recent years, has also

architectural forms that are without

doubt Asian. They are

Tibetan as well, and have been erected

It is

mystical and magical

its

in relation to a

valid

specifically

number of

diverse

certain that the

such concepts as those

underdevelopment of Asian

all

life

of

Central Asian city-state, this

from other Asian

the English

in space, since

vast,

does not appear to be limited

it

something similar can be found

most certainly varies

phenomenon

however

that,

offers

cannot be denied

in time.

Nevertheless,

two constant

— the

characteristics

state's interest in

of private property and

other areas, and that

in

this

whose unifying importance

public works, and the relative lack

For these reasons

initiative.

it

much-discussed economic

also, the architecture

of Asia appears predominantly religious. Great monumental works could

word and concept of the

hand,

it

is

much

as

some

scholars

may

try to

civis

or

deny

common

their

acceptance of

an

less

the other

component

by the values derived from paranormal experience, and by a remote

is

and intense

stratification

of the analysis carried out in the depths of the

unconscious since earliest times. In conclusion, there historical materialism

is

one key by which

to grasp

much

phenomena of broad

less

one

that can

throw

significance in which a

the collective unconscious

is

no doubt

It is,

light for us

however, not

on

predominant part

—what the Indians

that

forms and phenomena

the only one,

was limited to the sphere of

mass

day, accentuated as

this

of a history as complex and tumultuous as that of Asia.

possibility

On

the religious

it,

Asian thought remains the determining one to

terms of particular cultural structures, in a world

a single possibility for a dialogue with subject groups; this

and even

Greek polites.

and the practice of government conferred on the

power

to the great

"citizen," while chonin ("city dweller")

in

holders of

not met

a simple translation for

certainly not the French citoyen of Republican fame,

expression interchangeable with the Latin

in

common

political theories

be realized primarily

where

is

the characteristic

is

if

With the exception of the

all.

of Asian populations; thus, the Japanese shimin

of production shows

the sense

is

and committed to responding collectively to challenges which,

and overcome, would threaten the

elements that take their place within the framework of the lamaistic social

civilizations.

lacking

is

of the fraternal group, exposed to external pressures equally dangerous to

order, a strongly hierarchical one albeit along lines that differ considerably

We can conclude therefore that a critical examination of the Asian mode

exclude

cities acts to

What

or commune.

ofpolis. ciritas,

architectural is

played by

or "nature."

call prakrti,

metaphysical values, whether magical or religious. In other words, religious

and

were the only common ground

and

subjects.

The

Characteristics of Asian Architecture

This implies the existence of patterns of thought that tend, independent of

We

are dealing here with a unique

the reality of economic drives, to accentuate religious speculation to degrees

in the

faith

unknown

religiosity

in the

West

—

this

on the

for rulers

between

basis of a total lack of opposition

the sacred and the profane (since the sacred in itself pervades even the slightest act of daily life)

and on the conviction

that there exists

no

definite

orthodoxy, every form of religious thought being capable of approaching the truth and leading to salvation.

Whether

this last

one or another of the

into the energy of the universe, or his survival in

Rather, what counts

is

its

no importance.

that the reality of religion has, for the

Asian world,

and importance greatly superior to what we might find outside

that continent. Possibilities for meditation

of

inhabitants in the

were offered by the dispersion

immense network of

villages.

That unique

factor,

or the separation of religious souls in monastic agglomerates far from the structures of cities,

may

—

in

the immobility of a

facilitated spiritual attitudes that in

Furthermore,

in this case the

is

in this

often contradictory

if

devoid of shocks

underdevelopment of cities would be

— have

indirectly

—

mode of thought one that certainly varies we compare the predominant lines of thinking

or that civilization, but that

is

of the continent to the other and that speculation.

life

other worlds would be inconceivable.

responsible for a particular Asian

and

that excludes

any speculation

of specialized or semispecialized autonomous groups in building construction.

The

architecture of Asia assumes a special significance

when one

considers that the curves of economic profit and semiprofit react on partially. External intervention

such as the state

initiates

—which may

it

only

reflect

the faith or pride of a sovereign, the religious devotion of high personages,

circumstance means the reabsorption of the individual

paradises or "pure" lands imagined by the mystics, has

a consistency

economy

building industry, reduces private initiative, and favors the formation

nevertheless diffused from one end is

essentially

devoted to metaphysical

or the interest of the nobles or high bureaucracy, depending on time and place

—or

the kind produced by religious communities

situations similar to those that

and Renaissance West.

pervaded by deep

It is

came

obvious

do not allow

for

to fruition in the Classical, medieval,

that, in a

world sincerely and profoundly

religiosity, the desire for art

is

concentrated on religious

works of major importance. Nevertheless, aesthetic considerations a part in constructions of purely practical utility,

also play

and to a greater extent

in

expensive dwellings. In medieval Japan, one actually notes an interchange

between

villas

and sacred buildings,

containing the Hoodo (phoenix Fujiwara,

it

as

hall):

shown, for example, by the monastery originally a villa belonging to the

was transformed into a sacred building by the regent Yorimichi

of the same family. Traditionally set into their natural surroundings or embellished with artificial

references to nature

itself

— ponds, miniature gardens, "dry" rock

gardens using gravel to symbolize water dwellings of the Far East, especially those

— the

villas

in Japan, are

and large isolated

enlivened by a highly

11

refined taste. anticipation

It

here

is

modern

of

in

these buildings that For,

architecture.

as

one

finds the clearest

we have

noted,

already

conceptions, models, and construction elements from the Japanese tradition

have been taken up and translated into other materials by great modern architects

—from Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, and

Lloyd Wright to the present Japanese masters (not excluding, phases,

Kenzo Tange

Frank

some

in

the religious

component

with a complicated system of symbolic allusions.

invests Asian architecture Its

historical

iconological method, even though this

would reveal only a

single (albeit

more complex reality. One must, religious component is not homogeneous.

important) aspect of a broader and

In

its

enormous

mind

in

vitality,

variations within the

that the it

same current or

especially evident in the

collided with areas

We

ments. (

is

an immense sector of

activity,

can attribute

this to the

nature of the documents themselves

based as they are on patterns of thought, and with intentions foreign to

everything that might interest modern specialists in these

fields),

the

division into a myriad of tongues and not easily legible scripts.

Thus

sect,

depending on time and

place.

the systematic lack of a rigid orthodoxy,

wide expansion of ecumenical religions

dominated by very different

that

have

happened

civilizations; this

Buddhism and Hinduism, Persian Manichaeanism, and other known religious currents. In this light, the presumed immobility of

remains an arduous

it

task,

even with the help of

all

auxiliary

documentation, whether archaeological or not, to establish precise relationships

between the figurative and

sociological, economic,

and whatever

arts (particularly architecture)

be recovered by the widest

political data can

and most patient research.

The inadequacy of

follows divergent lines and even offers substantial

The phenomenon, encouraged by is

Thus, there

thought, and organization that barely emerges from the available docu-

development

might be traced almost completely on the iconological level and by the

however, keep

AD

century

until the first

chronological uncertainty of the huge mass of available texts, and their

himself).

The importance of

contrast to the bimetallic intercontinental circulation of coins that prevailed

obvious, and Indian all

religion alone as a key to interpretation

for this reason that

is

it

one can

justify

is

thus

the fact that an

— whether Hindu, Jain, or even Muslim— and always remains above Christian, Shintoist, or Buddhist— ajapanese — is

an Indian,

atheist,

just as

is

and remains always a Japanese. Bonds

develop from a wider

exist that

and manifesting

to Indian

cultural fabric transcending religion

lesser

diverse ways: from structures of logic to ways of expression and communica-

Asia can hardly be said to exist because of the polemical vigor of innovators and commentators,

experience

its

teeming

—a heritage transmitted

to

sects,

groups very much vaster and more

prepared than their Western counterparts to receive

But

this religious interest,

the summation of

its

its

and the wealth of its mystical

sense

in a certain

various cultures, does not bar Asia from other interests

and areas of speculation. In the so-called humanistic sciences, a number of ideas and theories systematized by the

West

in

modern times were

strikingly

anticipated in Asia. In psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory, in the

many fields of technology, Asia West has been slow in realizing,

search for paranormal possibilities, even in has arrived at astonishing results that the

and

in

culture

some is

spheres,

we have only begun

to

acknowledge

our

that

own

we

and

social organization

described earlier

— taking into

—one can discern behavior

or lines of systematic organization that do not always have a secure ideological basis, that respond from time to time to changing practical needs as well.

With no revolutionary impulse, but rather by a slow evolutionary

process, these patterns have a profound influence

of

human

society.

which they give in

The

rise

is

effort to single out

on the most intimate

fabric

and define the phenomena to

always a difficult one; only rarely does

it

succeed

providing exhaustive data for modern methodological research. But

has been possible to glimpse ancient

economic and ecological

crises

overproduction, problems of minting, monetary circulation,

1

due

it

to

inflation,

devaluation, stockjobbing, the planned hoarding of gold or silver coins in

12

offering,

of Asian thought but

from one

in reality

civilization to another,

mode

Obviously, the

clear.

and

infinitely

easily defined

various and elusive, even though

common

essential lines that are

of thought also varies in time both fields,

without abrupt turns or

vitality,

except during the phase of

benumbed immobility immediately following

the decisive impact of the

in

the

religious

revolutions, but

colonialist

even

in

sector still

West. Architecture reflects these variations to some extent, since

Asia

is

it

the principal interpreter of a

however, fixed and more or

The

other

in

with considerable

complex

between man and nature, resolved

relation

disadvantage of man,

who

is

reality in

which,

undivided points stand out.

less

in

various forms to the

seen as a fragile creature incapable of opposing

the violence of natural forces, almost always takes the form of an artificial

capable of such awareness.

In the fields of economics, politics,

account the circumstances

examples of coherent and tangible collective thought,

mode

remarkably

it.

however predominant and

tion, to

as the

itself in

symbolism

that alludes to the extinction of the

essence of the

universe.

A

multiplicity of magical centers

location of sacred

geocentric

human being

within the very

theories

concerning a

vision,

(which also have an effect on the form and

monuments), an indifference toward the individual and

the resulting supremacy of the universal and absolute over the individual

ego, the greater importance attached to the concept of space as compared to that of time

—

all

these are

considerable repercussions

common

in the

Asian elements that have had

sphere of the figurative

arts,

including

architecture. Clear-cut and linear in the Far East, hyperplastic in India and in

Indianized areas (where

it

is

always connected with sculpture), Asian

architecture elaborates an infinity of types different from those of the West,

and which

at

times correspond to exclusively Asian needs.

We

might

mention "umbrella and sunshade" architecture, to use Le Corbusier's expression for his planning

at

Chandigarh, extending

beyond India

it

to a

can also speak of

life as

countries (particularly Japan)

by the Eastern manner of

household

for

living.

it

sitting,

many

lived at ground-level, since in

is

human

existence in the house

is

conditioned

low. Elsewhere

temple

—

in the

Muslim

in

memory

is

not only a surface to be walked on,

of

form of

example

Asia, for

life in tents.

— we

its

a chariot that

at

led to a frequent recourse to

and rugs

chitectural types

The huge

The

relatively illogical

with devotional significance and

example

the

is

with sexual

Temple of

the

Sun

and

its

ar-

emerges from other examples. referred

to

As

enormous thickness of

the walls

(some eighty

feet),

while the

inner rectangle remained free to shelter herds and flocks. Functional in their

way, these structures had a combined significance

—

as

From

a socio-economic crisis that involved restricted populations and from the

between two

emerged

nomadic and the

hostile worlds (the

shortly before the middle of the

first

millennium

settled), there B.C.

a complex,

organic, architectural structure that cannot be matched elsewhere. Similarly, the Potala at Lhasa and the "castle" at Leh, both in Tibet, are constructions

of multiple significance.

The nine stories

refer to cosmological fantasies,

and

aside from their symbolism, they represent a combination of palace, fortress,

and holy place (they contained, among other things, numerous temples and chapels). Fruits of a society that

one might

be said to admit the concept of

God

as

theocratic

call

conceived

Tibetan complexes combine the sum of religious,

and

ecclesiastical values.

We

refer,

—

in the

Buddhism can West the two

if

—

political, military, magical,

of course, to the organizational and

The

architectural

phenomenology of Asia

of the

arts,

before

considered by

all

full

that of

any other

contact with the

Asian civilizations to be

thus cannot be compared,

civilization. In the hierarchy

West occurred, at

be executed immediately and individually. materials,

architecture was

an inferior level, since Its

it

could

use of heavy construction

even when the material was wood, required the solution of

and therefore technical problems,

is

its

work came

symbolism.

to

be

Among

all

undoubtedly the greatest, not

only because she elaborates different forms of symbolism, but also because

sources of symbolic inspiration can be singled out archaic cultures

as well as the

employment of

static

a great

—

in the Iranian

— besides

and Central Asian area and

The predominant motif among them

all is

those from

in the

Far East.

the representation of the totality

of space and thus of the cosmos.

Such a representation may be unified, divided, as in the

Temple of Heaven

as in certain

in

is

symbols from

completed by a pavilion

Buddhist stupas, or

Peking, where the three-tiered

area (with nine steps leading up to

of Heaven)

it

to represent the nine levels

to the divinity,

The square

Chinese cosmography.

along with other

of the other

plan

before the temple and of certain architectural

constructions standing

elements, taken together or as details, allude to the shape of the earth (in

Chinese cosmology, the earth

The

is

square and the sky round).

motifs of the world axis and the center of the universe frequently

recur in Asian architecture, modulated in various forms according to the

period and to particular religious trends. is,

in its turn,

made up of distinct

The symbolic

parts but unified

of external influences) remains dominant

While always primarily inspired by displays

two

problem, stone,

modes of

different is

it

wood,

in

every case.

construction.

With

We

can by

"cut" into the rock, of the rock

itself.

this

is

which

in

means distinguish

built to resolve static

—

The term "open-air that

is

to

say,

works created by other

from architecture

that

is

architecture"

is

not exact, since works

way analogous

to those that are

provided with outer and inner space.

Nevertheless, rock-cut architecture is

it

in

and

problems are resolved by the cohesion

all static

cut into the rock exist that are in every

cases

relation to the Asian

customary to use the word "constructed" for any work

technical problems similar to those revealed in civilizations.

Indian source (which

by a profound reworking

India, Asian architecture in general

brick, or other material that

"constructed"

hierarchical values of a religious elite.

under certain aspects, with

terms of

in

the sources of symbolic inspiration, India

an enclosure for

animals, as a village, and as a fortified dwelling place for the group.

conflict

a consequence of this approach, the architectural

sacrificial

with inhabited walls"

"villages

as

process of becoming settled. Their dwellings and storerooms were

built into the

could easily be understood and

her religious thought has set up wide-ranging currents that impinge on

characteristic social structures of Asia

fortresses

that

various local impulses, which thus meet and adapt to one another. Other

correspond to the nomadic shepherds' need for security while they were in the

was not held to be capable

it

merges the choreography of large

as a lesson in life (the classic

between the

symbolism

evaluated and understood primarily

Konarak, which represents the chariot of the sun god Surya). But the

relation

architecture interpreted the needs of a

if

the ralba, the Indian

design freezes in stone the slow motion of the carts

themselves, filling them

symbolism

find cushions

We may also recall

processional carts with the values of architecture. principle of

Even

appreciated by broad levels of the population.

and does not observe the Western system

Thus, the floor

but a welcoming support, neat and polished, while the furnishings are kept

as a distant

skilled workers.

fixed society and satisfied the taste of that group,

of the same immediate expression as painting and sculpture. This attitude

vast Far Eastern area.

We

number of

is

found primarily

in caves,

and

in

such

devoid of outside space. Furthermore, the facades (with or without

verandas) have the single purpose of marking and framing in a pleasing

manner the openings

(for entrance and illumination) necessary for the

utilization of these constructions,

whose inner space tends

to connect the

sacred with the essence of the earth. All cut architecture, however,

is

a

form of pseudo-architecture. While

13

lacking static problems,

it

uses pillars, ribs, posts, moldings, and spires

presence of which allude to similar elements

in

— the

constructed architecture,

though they lack any functional purpose beyond the symbolic one. Agreeable to Asian

taste

and techniques,

this

and painter

is

all

too evident, to the extent that

sculptor modeling the divine images in stucco or in plaster

becomes indispensable and predominant. As reveal

where whole palaces

built

of

on rocky outcrops

for the paintings that

adorn

above all the unconscious desire to dispel the heaviness of the massive,

illumination. This wish to

itself in

so by scant

open windows onto an edifying world

something of the fabulous can be seen by exhausting

made even more

is

as constant.

It

that has

was destined

the "tapestry" wall paintings of

which prevailed

architecture,

Asia,

the interiors of the cave temples, whether in India or Central Asia, they

gloomy, encumbering material, which

Wooden

to

Tunhwang

end

(at the

wood and

— Pjanzikent

unmistakable derivation from display

structures

metal

nails.

Usually

we

internal space,

forms.

It

may

even though

its

characteristic

symbolism suggests different

stand for a representation of the whole universe (seen, so to

speak, from the outside);

it

is

then formed by a supporting body and a

—were

prototypes.

Not only do

its

stone

from wooden ones, but sculptured

which are interesting

compositional and perspectival problems It

has been thought that the use of

somewhat

different,

if

for their solutions of

in fully exploiting a circular space.

wooden

architecture in India and Iran

was derived from the Indo-European building

under Iranian influence (the

Buddhist or Jainist stupa often has no

Sogdiana, for example

in

find floral rosette motifs, or, less often, narrative

bas-reliefs enclosed in circles,

for

to giant sculptures. In particular, the

wooden

derived

joints

the walls and the surface of the rock.

and which are therefore similar

became remarka-

ornamental motifs take the place of fastening quoins or of (clearly enlarged)

together with the ceiling decorations, have the clear purpose of concealing

there exist architectural works devoid of external space, there are also

Far East,

destroyed them, the entire early phase of Indian architecture reveals

stone would have taken place

If

in the

survive only as charred remains from the fires that

Central Asian border where the properly Chinese area begins), which,

typical constructions that lack interior space,

and

from the western regions of Central

bly widespread in other areas. Apart

caves of

crumbling, sliding) prevents careful work, the assistance of the painter or

their proportions

importance.

(flaking,

in the

where the petrographic structure of the rock

Central Asia,

same symbols and modifying only

thus resuming the

type of architecture was

extended even to the interior of China. The collaboration between architect, sculptor,

stupa into an architectural structure provided with organic interior space,

tradition.

The

transition to

times in the two countries and

at different

similar, reasons. In India

it

occurred

isolated pillars of Asoka),

and

late, in part

in part as the

manifestation of a liking for cut architecture. Constructed architecture

emerged on materials.

the basis of the experience accumulated in the use of perishable

Its

decoration

is

sometimes created by techniques characteristic

of the working of materials other than stone

—for example, the collaboration

offered by the guild of ivory workers in erecting one of the stupas at

Sanchi

—and with the purpose of

fixing sacred

and edifying values

on the other hand, stone architecture had

in lasting

a ceremonial

hemispherical or bell-shaped cupola that simply alludes to the celestial

structures. In Iran,

hemisphere hanging over the earth, which

and choreographic significance, gave ample development to interior space

cosmology

discoidal; or

is

it

may

Buddhist and

in

Indian

allude to the cosmic mountain, the axis

of the universe, sometimes being completed by other symbolic elements that refer to the

upward surge of the heavens.

Stone,

from the Mesopotamian ziggurat

In this second case, the derivation

is

obvious, especially in the stupa with superimposed terraces that imitate a similar

meaning

in a different

gigantic dimensions, like the

form. Sometimes stupas of this type reach

Borobudur

in Java,

which

is

an entire

hill

transformed into a Buddhist symbol. In India, the form of the stupa tends

be modified by a vertical thrust that depends on

to

taste,

and perhaps on

the social environment of the particular area. Thus, the so-called stupa of

Kanishka

—of which only the foundation remains— bore witness

and devotion of the sovereign. of almost 640

feet,

Its

according to

the magical center of an

in all

later

to the pride

superstructure reached a height

accounts by Chinese pilgrims.

immense empire

undoubtedly played a significant

tower

wooden

part,

in

It

was

which paranormal powers

and was thought to be the highest

1

»

its

tower was nothing but the transformation of the

wooden

worked and employed

acquired throughout the ancient

Greeks

in

horizontal beams, and exalted the

power

ruler.

accordance with

in

Near

all

the experience

East (including the territory of the

Asia Minor), tended to give solidity and permanence to the center

of an ecumenical empire that was the religious and magical point of reference as well as a political and administrative stone constructions,

sections remained chiefly in

took

its

wood. Here the old Indo-European

re-elaborated by a different world, to

whose

the large

tradition

physical aspect contributions

had been made by Indo-European groups arriving in

Around

without disappearing entirely, beside the experiments

place,

by the empire

seat.

conceived for ceremonial purposes, the dwelling

previous periods.

It is

architecture persisted tenaciously for a

in the

area conquered

obvious that the tradition of wooden

number of different

reasons, and that

the economic factor was not the most important. In the Indian world, on

the other hand, the superimposition of Indo-Europeans on Indus civilization

of India.

This verticality had conspicuous echoes primarily in China, where the

pagoda with

by exploiting the use of

and regal functions of the

vertical

produced

a social

change and a

halt in activity that, in the field of technique,

brought about a decided regression

in the

use of brickwork.

But the

the Indo-European tradition

if

wooden

The

architecture of Asia

linked to

is

Central Asia, China, and Japan,

as

constructions,

ecological structure of the continent suggests the use of

primary construction material. In certain

Iran,

wooden

obviously not entirely Indo-European.

is

it

recedes

in the face

shown by mixed

civilizations,

preserves

it

its

wood

as the

preeminence;

in India

and

structures

(wooden planking

and by such examples of coexistence

stupa of Kanishka)

in the

dynamic by economic, In these areas,

it is

political,

in the

broad outlines of

complex of highly evolved

social structure, manifests itself

its

civilizations in

which

political

power

is

and tends to become oppressive, selfpreserving, and thus

unlimited

traditionalist,

independent of the aspirations and sentiments of the ruler or power. With the exception of those areas where the nomadic

rulers holding

(more or in the

manifest themselves with extreme frequency

less justified) that

sphere of religious thought, but the contacts and borrowings

is

never a philosopher or

by the

artist's

forms and examples that of religious thought.

in their

The

latter

scientist, his creations

which are considered

illusory

the individual

of religious thought unfolds

an agricultural one; the

city plays a

secondary role, while private

wealth, mercantile or otherwise, does not confer political power.

subjected masses, whatever their

have no

class,

overthrow the system under which they changing their

live,

own

truth are infinite

is,

one.

religious

or superstitious

ties;

valid.

From

however, accompanied by This

what counts

convictions and conscience.

and equally

The

paths that lead to the

and universal

of them, therefore,

Asian thought, open to every kind of research and speculation, never

— which

own

political

in

competition

prompts

it

to attempt a total reality

system into something

though

rare, but the

fact that

we might

life.

realities

Asia also stands

life.

reality transcends

exists

uphold individual freedom trends

as,

for example,

develop a law, an

ius,

formulated to

— welcomes such great mystical and meditative

Taoism and Chan Buddhism, which expand human

consciousness to dimensions beyond the normal ones. There exist thus

we have

between the sacred

and pervades the

existential

one, to form a unity with components that only the most recent criticism has

begun

to analyze with

any precision.

These are the undivided foundations is

the treatment in a single

produced by very different in styles

a

that justify the

volume of the

civilizations,

assumption of architectural

that

we can only

styles

and forms,

common background

to

this

works

capable of expressing themselves

and forms quite remote from each other, but always united against define as Asian. As for the sequence

be the

task of the individual

authors to present their phenomenology and development.

to

in this conflict

This does not detract, as

between^

and neglecting

define

— the mystical one of divine experi-

and variation of such

nefas

development

based on symbolism), and which

no opposition whatever

and profane; the religious

life,

the various trends. Each

religiously intangible, reducing the defense of the system to a conflict et

usually

it

detachment of the metaphysical and religious

of daily social

between two equally pressing from the

is

among

obliged to undertake activity that

is

as suggestive edification (occult persuasion

book, which

denies mystical, paranormal, or meditative experiences. Even China

grasped fixed in

influence the further development

virtually free, for persecution

said,

this arises the prestige

is

becoming

and thus negligible. In the religious sphere,

ence and the sensory one of everyday

of a proclaimed truth.

its

may

almost always

essence

also a vision of the world,

in the final analysis

—

transforms the essential lines of

turn

is

does not exclude

work in particular of the architectural work, sum of esoteric and exoteric wisdom and the precise testimony

value of the religious art the

capable only of

is

world from the

freedom on the

traditionalist, habitual,

simply one's

at best

rulers.

This lack of choice on the political level considerable

being

The

choice and cannot

political

its

in the

the Asian

ignores certain particular aspects and problems of individual and social

economy

is

Though

less active.

creative inspiration and aesthetic sense,

cultures and mercantile civilizations of Central Asia developed, the Asian

is

and cultural phenomena.

easy to trace the speed of transmission and the extent

mirror some religious and philosophical speculation;

The Asian world,

which

— being shared —allow us

coherent ensemble, made

of expansion of religious ideas, as well as the influences and superimpositions

architect

is

that

as a unit, a

other fields are proportionately rarer and

as the capital cities of Iran.

Conclusion

as a

whole continent

to consider the

such as those of

of brick and stone, despite intermediate phases,

man

certain fundamental attitudes of Asian

have sketched,

Asian civilization

if

only

in

it

will

I

hope merely

broad outlines, the unifying characteristics of

as they relate to architecture.

Mario

Bttssaeli

15

— Chapter

One

INDIA

AND CEYLON

At the beginning,

millennium

in the third

the most important aspect

B.C.,

of Indian architecture was centered on urban planning.

It is

apparent that

were faced and resolved by avant-garde solutions

the problems that arose

unique for so remote a period. In a context of rigidly planned, standardized

two great metropolises, Mohenjo-Daro and the

structures and works,

known to unknown

What

architects.

counts

is

lacking,

Monuments works

made uniform according

—

in taste

simple

and conception of individual dwelling units

its

to the social class of the inhabitants, constructed

most ancient city

India's

its

whether sacred or profane, are

of baked bricks but with an ample use of

Mohenjo-Daro

in its entirety, in its

rationalism, in

Planned, functional, with

slight.

is

itself

modern

in the true sense,

and the search for variations

architectural'

—

the city

perfect correspondence to an incredibly

presence.

city

us as Harappa, reveal the prevalent city-planning interests of their

non of urbanization extending At the same time, large

in isolated spots

cities

wood

— takes

were emerging

for superelevations,

place in a vast

its

phenome-

over an enormous in

territory.

Turkmenistan (Namazza-

tepe and other centers on the Tedzent River), and in Afghanistan (Mundigak

and Shahr-i-Sokhta on the Hilmand River), but the economies sustaining

them were very

It

in

less

complex than the system

the Indus basin.

was remarkable, so much so

civilizations cities

from and

different

produced urbanization

The

activity

that

of these proto-

that the influence of the

Afghan

of the Hilmand reached the eastern shores of the Arabian peninsula.

cannot be compared, however, to that of Indus

in level

is

shown by

sometimes grandiose), by more the absence of writing.

whose

physical aspect

recent discoveries

civilization.

The difference

the lesser rationality of the urban structure (which was

—

restricted

economic

specialization,

and by

However, the Turkmeno-Afghan phenomenon

we now know

with

also sheds light

some

precision as a result of very

on the genesis of the proto-Indian

civilization of the Indus.

After a preparatory phase (improperly called pre-urban) characteristic

of the archaic center of Kot Diji and other lesser ones, the Indus basin saw the almost sudden

emergence

a splendid civilization,

—

whose

in the first half

territory

vastest

among

—of

ancient

City planning reached extraordinary levels of activity and

civilizations.

The metropolises were

rationality.

of the third millennium

was the

laid

out on a grid plan (the sign of precise

and rigorously maintained planning) and there

every indication of a

is

division into neighborhoods in accordance with the productive specialization of the inhabitants, along with a highly

distance

modern

hierarchical social structure,

which seems

to

be confirmed by the presence

of fortified citadels with huge walls, erected on an

The /

Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan), plan of the

new

city

(from Volwabsen,

2.

Mohenjo-Daro,

3.

Mohenjo-Daro, remains of constructions and drainage

16

of the Great Bath.

1969),

citadel,

oligarchical

in

fact,

may have been

artificial

elevated base.

the seat of a strongly oppressive

power, besides being a secure refuge during invasions (which

were unlikely and are

una/

interpretation of the

between home and place of work. The project bespeaks a

in

floods. Strict rationalism

any case undocumented) and during the frequent is

shown by

the installation of public utilities

Rajgir (Rajagriha), walls of the

4.

ancient

caravan resting places

at the large street crossings,

the top, public baths that

at

and sewage systems.

was

in

city.

Lothal, drainage canal.

5.

may have had

grain silos with openings

a sacred character, drainage canals

possible that the physical orientation of the city

It is

accordance with the prevailing winds, so as to ensure occasional

cleaning of the streets by natural means.

The

Indus Valley declined because of a profound

civilization of the

ecological change produced by

demand

its

own

expansion and

activity.

The

colossal

baked bricks and construction lumber brought about extensive

for

deforestation in the entire basin. This in turn led to

more frequent and

destructive floods, a threat that increased with subsequent changes in the incline of the river bed, altered as well by slow coastal earth tremors.

energy and

of the bearers of

activity

civilization,

this

The

predominantly

proto-Dravidians, are evident in their capacity to reconstruct immediately those cities destroyed by the river. Mohenjo-Daro, for example, was rebuilt at least

seven times. Nevertheless, these ancient builders were caught

vicious circle of which they

were unaware, and by

in a

their very capacity to

respond promptly to the violence of nature, ended by increasing

this

violence themselves. With their energies exhausted, the civilization they had created declined and ultimately disappeared (the Aryan invasion about the

middle of the second millennium

The economic tion of flax

area

no

structure

was also

B.C.

a contributing factor).

— based on intensive agriculture, on the

cultiva-

and cotton, on exports and trade (by land and sea) over a wide

—permitted the accumulation of great wealth. Nevertheless, there are

traces of temples, nor of the

The complex

religiosity of the

pomp

that usually

accompanies royal courts.

peoples of the Indus excluded the use of large

sacred images, and must very likely have caused psychically

evocative

forms

and

to

orgiastic

them

rites

to turn

than

more

to

concrete

to

representations.

The concept of so-called feet

the city, with the exception of

Mohenjo-Daro (which

palace of

— was one of

its

its

public bath and the

— approximately

large, functional, but not rich buildings),

240 by 82

was formulated

according to a collectivist utilitarianism and a planned functionalism. In likelihood, these

two

the prevailing requirements of the urban system. All the houses,

which had more than one

story,

some of

had central courtyards on which the doors

and windows opened. Entrance doors were placed on the lesser side

As

a result, the principal streets, which

that

all

factors subordinated any aesthetic considerations to

streets.

were not wide, were lined by walls

were uninterrupted except by cross

streets; there

were no recesses or

openings of any other kind. Thus the architectural work was the

city itself,

not the temple, which did not exist or was replaced by the public baths.

Neither was

it

the palace, which was of such remarkable size but nevertheless

does not exhibit the magnificence of

Of the

this

vanished world.

proto-Indian phase, also characterizing the now-buried dry docks

of the port of Lothal, not civilization,

much

survives.

The

which violently superimposed

collision with itself

on

that

Indo-European of the Indus,

17

6.

Patna (Pataliputra),

Capital with lions from column of

Asoka (Sarnatb, Museum).

7. Lauriya Nandangarh, commemorative column of Asoka with

column of Asoka (stamba).

inscription

and

seated lion.

8. Fortress of Allahabad,

commemorative column of Asoka (originally jrom Kausambi).

18

9.

the palace of Asoka.

10.

New

Delhi. Kotila-i-Firuz

19

Barabar, cbaitya of Lamas Rishi,

//.

exterior.

12. Bharhut, balustrade of the stupa,

13. Bharhut. balustrade of the stupa,

detail of bas-reliefs with architectural

detail of bas-reliefs (Calcutta, Indian

elements (Calcutta, Indian

probably gave at the level

rise to

intermediate and restricted forms of culture, but only

of the village or small town. Such forms, however, are dubious

and had no

results, since the

founded on construction

in

Indo-European architectural tradition was

wood. The

walls of Rajagriha

(modern

Rajgir),

an ancient semilegendary capital, are the only architectural vestiges that

remain of a long period extending into northern India

the

Maurya

until the invasion

and the founding of the

first

of Alexander the Great

national Indian Empire,

dynasty. Creative effort at that time was directed only to poetry

and religious thought, which explains why the period generically called Vedic.

The

large collections of sacred

Vedas, together with a respectable

body of

in

question

hymns

is

called the

of another kind, formed

texts

the basis of this Brahmanic culture.

Construction was in subcontinent, favorable to

The

wood

its

wood

could not

and, given the characteristic climate of the last for

long, not even in such areas

more

preservation as those of the mountainous arc in the north.

preservation of

Nepal, and Bhutan

wooden

architecture in

some regions

—does, however, arouse one's interest

and forms employed. Elsewhere, the

difficulty of

quantity of suitable lumber, the further threat to

—

in

in the

Kashmir,

techniques

providing for a sufficient

its

preservation caused by

various animal species (especially insects), and the wish to create durable

works worthy of religious prestige

—

all reduced wooden architecture we have no way of determining how the total disappearance of possible, and even imposing, wooden constructions may have altered the evidence now available to us. Suffice it to recall, in this

drastically.

20

Naturally,

Museum).

Museum

).

14.

Buddb Gaya,

stone balustrade of

the stupa.

wooden

connection, that the

Kanishka

at

more than doubling

feet,

superstructure of the so-called stupa of

Shah-jiki-Dheri (near Peshawar) carried

rectangular foundations remain today. for various reasons,

tower" of

its

and

Chinese

we

of India,

in all

if

to a height of

it

638

the height of the masonry structure; only the If

the stupa had not been celebrated

had not spoken of

texts

it

as the

'highest

'

surely could not have imagined the importance

integration of materials.

The

wood

prevalent use of

has caused a considerable gap in the history

of architecture, extending over a period of time that greatly exceeds half

The only available evidence we have that is worthy of to come to light in the Maurya period, when the

a millennium.

begins

attention

subcontinent was practically unified from the political standpoint and was strongly pervaded by Buddhist thought, which

Maurya

rulers

— tended

Asoka

— the

last

to transform into a political ideology.

of the great

Open

to

wide

contacts with different worlds as a result of Alexander's expedition and the influx of refugees loyal to the defeated Persian Empire, in contact conflict with the

Greek world created by Alexander's

and

successors, India

reached a truly significant turning point. In the area of construction

we

materials, that

find the

was derived

first

in part

documented use of stone by means of a technique

from foreign influences, and

in part

by imitating

techniques used for other materials or discovering them anew. As for brick,

whether raw or baked, there existed important ancient traditions

been only First

that

had

partially lost.

of

in the

all,

isolated pillars

Maurya phase, we

topped by a

figures; their function

is

symbols of the "center,"

hence of irradiation

capital

find the appearance of stambas,

supporting symbolic animal or inanimate are, in fact,

they indicate the point of convergence

—of paranormal forces

a particular religious persuasion.

It is

that,

more

— and

spreading outward, uphold

likely that they

by Asoka and not, as some scholars believe, by Bindusara.

They

primarily magical and religious. in that

his father

were erected

and predecessor,

They were, in practice, Persian construction elements used in By losing their static function as supports, they became true

a different way.

symbols yet preserved their entire original appearance, including the characteristic bell-shaped capital (called Persepolitan),

however,

in

the final esoteric sign.

very widespread even

in plastic

From

this capital, the

which culminates,

use of which became

decoration and edifying narrative sculpture,

the round amalaka (or cushion-shaped) capital characteristic of later Indian architecture was eventually derived.

The form would

also

be used

as the

outer termination of the cupolas of temples, likewise designated as amalaka.

Rock-Cut Architecture

The

first

dated evidence of rock-cut architecture goes back to the Maurya

period. In the Indian world,

it is

necessary to distinguish, over a long period

of time, between truly constructed architecture (improperly called open-air architecture, as

22

mentioned

in the

Introduction) and the kind that

is

cut into

.;4J$*

— 15. Besnagar.

column of Heltodorus

17. Sanchi. complex of temples: plan

16. Sanchi, reconstruction of the holy \ite;

of the site; plan and elevation of the Great Stupa (from Volwahsen.

Great

in the foreground, the

Stupa (from Volwahsen, 1969).

1969).

homogeneous rocky embankments

the rock, frequently inside caves in

where there

is

a sheer

This type of construction

cliff.

is

of India.

typical

Rock-cut architecture emerged as a result of the rapport that Indians almost

between the sacred sphere and the bowels of the

instinctively feel to exist

earth.

It

later

spread over a considerable part of Asia, following the extension

home

of Buddhism outside India (the sacred

of Buddhism), though with

and interpretation.

certain variations in technique

We

may

consider

traditional religious element, linked to the diffusion of Indian taste a particular persistence of

its

symbolic values, which

at

it

a

and to

times undergo the

environments highly different from their

effects of adaptation to cultural

original one.'

Rock-cut architecture

is

always of a particular kind, one in which

problems are automatically resolved by the cohesion of the rock

all static

Since

itself.

endowed exclusively with interior space and only facade that may or may not have a veranda, it is easy

constructions in caves are a bare suggestion of a to

observe

in

them elements

that

— though devoid of any

static

importance

tend to preserve the appearance of the interiors of constructed works. Their

presence reveals the concern of the builders to respect a

symbolism)

that

by that time had become traditional.

not exist in works of

this kind,

1

sizes

on the use of chisels and iron

and on the creation of parallel excavation

galleries)

and shadow produced by the scant penetration of

to the effects of light

from the outside.

(and a

taste

problems do

there obviously exist others, deriving from

the technique for excavating the rock (based

wedges of various

If static

On

light

the other hand, the technique of cut architecture was

extended with the passage of time to virtually monolithic constructions

endowed with both

interior

and exterior space.

It is

a sort of sculptured

architecture, suggested in part by the hyperplastic character of Indian architectural taste,

and evidenced by such famous works

temple of Kailasanath

at

as the celebrated

Ellora erected by the Rashtrakuta dynasty

the middle of the seventh and the middle of the eighth century

between

ad

or the

stupendous chapel near Kalugumalai, dedicated to Siva by the Pandya rulers of southern India.

Outside Indian territory proper

we

find a rather ancient

to the fourth or fifth century

of Haibak,

known

cut inside a cave,

—

AD

This

to the ancients as is

in the

Khulm

Valley in Afghanistan

example of cut architecture, one is

that dates

back

the stupa and adjoining monastery

Samangan or Simingan. The monastery, whose function is

characterized by an unusual plan

exceptional and symbolic, with small half-columns topped by Ionic halfcapitals.

These represent the

translation

into

rock of particular

static

solutions that pertain to Sassanian Iran, adopted to support the cupolas

overhanging square rooms. But the most interesting monument of the

Haibak complex

is

construction with a

the stupa. full

This

is

cupola and rich

Buddhists and Jains. Here

at

the term for a certain in

Haibak the cupola, or rather pseudo-cupola,

representing the celestial vault as observed from the outside,

24

kind of

symbolic values, used both by

is

monolithic

25

20. Sanchi. view of the Great Stupa.

18. Sanchi, Great Sti/pa. detail of the

21. Sanchi. Great Stupa. detail of the northern gate.

eastern gate. 19.

Sam hi.

view of the Great Stupa.

and

usual.

as

full

accommodate

in

Unlike constructed cupolas, however,

what

interior

its

it

could not

called the foundation deposit, the

is

and consecrating element of every Buddhist stupa, always

necessary

connected with the "body" and word of Buddha.

The Haibak

construction,

technical efforts, as well as an

orthodox. Moreover,

if it is

which required strenuous economic and

enormous amount of

form of the cupola was supposed have represented the

seem

to

its

to

terrestrial disk

even symbolically, the stupa traditional, since

labor,

true that the trench that was

at

be

was not perfectly

dug

to isolate the

with water, 2 the stupa would

filled

surrounded by the ocean. In

this case,

Haibak would not have been

entirely

significance, rather than being cosmological,

would

have been connected with the earth and ocean. The harmikd (the

balcony over the cupola, which here has a

cell)

represented the point of

between the human and the divine, thus making concrete a

intersection

concept widely developed

in

of water and partially visible

Mesopotamian

ziggurats.

in the reflection, the

Surrounded by a ring

stupa at Haibak must have

represented a true unicum. Symbolism aside, the exceptional character of the

work

is

important to us

in that

it

shows

that

both methods of rock-cutting

had reached beyond the territory of India between the fourth and centuries. effects

It

— the symbolic and ornamental association with water almost a kind the creation of forms deliberately — and an is

of liquid architecture

interest in

devoid of interior space. There in

fifth

reveals, too, that there existed a desire to create unusual

order

to

place

is

no need, therefore,

to wait for later periods

by side with

cave architecture side

the

rock-cut

constructions that have both interior and exterior space.

As

BMHfe 26

for

works extracted from caves, the

mentioned

earlier, to the

Maurya

first

period.

It

that is

we know goes

back, as

dated by the inscription

I

**"

.

-

v

"

!

s

^.

-

*f

*''^JP

'

~3m

S^^r-

'

>?* lift

:••

;pjfe sSfc t*»*» 'S

:'' *

«aK-S!HS9£

..»

f£;*aKf/^

BE»r.

and view of

22. Sanchi, Great Stupa

24. Magadha,

city gate of Kusinagara; reconstruction from a

the eastern gate.

relief on the southern gate of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (from Volwabsen,

23. Bhaja, Chaitya No. 12. section (from Volwabsen. 1969).

1969). 25. Sanchi, Stupa No. 2. 26. Sanchi, Stupa No. 3.

recording

origin in the twelfth year of Asoka's reign

its

of Sudama,

it is

situated in the Barabar Hills

structure remarkable for

entrance on one of

its

singularity.

its

long sides,

the perpendicular face of the

however,

in a circular apse

cliff

is

that

256

B.C.,

as the

cave

is,

proto-Hindu temple

a

Rectangular

plan,

in

with an

displays a false vault, curved so as to

it

assume the form of a half-cylinder

and

—

Known

according to the most generally accepted chronology.

laid

into

on the which

sectional plane, parallel to it

constructed.

is

It

ends,

connected to the principal area by a narrow

opening. Seen from inside the principal area, the apse

is

convex rather than

concave. In the view from the interior of the nave,

it

imitates in stone a

circular hut (or rather semihut) with a projecting ogival roof. This choice

of form for the apse, almost separated from the body of the temple,

is

probably connected with the significance that round huts covered with leafy branches assume in the coronation other cases,

is

The

ritual (rdjasuya).

hut, in this

and

likened to the matrix of the earth. Related to the god, placed

inside the rock,

and realized

in

stone to defy the ravages of time, the false

Sudama alluded

hut of the cave of

to the rule of the

god over

the entire

universe, perhaps with reference to the possibility of evoking the divinity itself

on the

part of meditating priests.

Wood and Stone The most important aspect of

Architecture in

over those

Sudama is its wooden constructions

the false hut in the cave of

demonstration of the profound influence exercised by

Here symbolic reasons prompted the imitation in stone wooden hut. Elsewhere, the interdependence of wooden and

in stone.

of a circular

29

27. Bhaja, Cbaitya No. 12,

interior,

nave; in the background, the stupa.

30

/.

Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan), view of

the

Great Bath.

//.

Sanchi, view from behind the east

torana,

III.

Deogarh, temple of Vishnu,

detail.

IV. Sarnath,

Dbamek

stupa.

--**''

in

carrying

it

out.

The work, seen

a donation of invested wealth

completion,

sacrifice in

and labor. Therefore, even

nevertheless had already fulfilled

it

economic and

standpoint,

technical

this

money and

as a votive offering, if it

labor a gift,

upon From the

collapsed

function.

its

was

concept had curious

results.

Construction frequently brought about only a limited circulation of wealth

from the patron was not

(who were also motivated in part by a desire work created was an end in itself and in theory

to the builders

to acquire merit), since the

From

built to last.

the technical point of view, this mental concept

ensured that the builders preferred inexpensive, makeshift techniques, quickly applied, and paid only cursory attention to problems of

The widespread always with

use of stucco

in the

this desire to build hastily

stability.

northwest can be connected almost without an excessive concern for a

structure's durability.

Naturally,

,>

l.

t

mrn&ym*!™. *£

-

+,

.

±

.--i

when

there was a question of glorifying a

religious importance, or ---.-

*./•**

when

work he commissioned,

the

maintenance,

restoration,

or

site

of extreme

the patron attributed a particular value to the incentive toward

indeed

lasting construction,

reconstruction

became the

rule.

Furthermore, durability contributed to the fame of a particular temple or sanctuary. Tradition, reasserting

itself,

imparted a particular

vitality to the

architectural complex, resulting in a constant influx of pilgrims visitors

—a

virtual reflex activity

cannot be denied. In other words, a derivative economic offerings,

3S

souvenirs,

temporary

and casual

whose importance (economic facilities

for

food and

well)

as

traffic (in

votive

lodging,

etc.)

flourished around the holy centers, involving not only the clergy, but

—and primarily— the groups and individuals attached

also

economy. Thus

it

happened

that there

to this marginal

emerged around every stupa or

temple of some importance temporary dwellings designed to be inhabited by those

who

lived off the

fame of the temple,

suitable for sheltering this traffic.

medieval temples

as well as other constructions

Moreover, the very structure of the huge

—frequently formed by

a

group of different constructions

contained within a single consecrated rectangular enclosure with such services as the temple this

—was connected

required, and with the presence of

marginal but by no means negligible economy that had installed

outside the enclosure.

40

itself

itself

47. Tax/la, Dharmarajika stupa.

50. Stupa from Taxila (Taxila,

48. Taxi la, tempk of Kunal.

Museum).

49. Taxila, remains of a monastery near the temple of Kunal.

-V,

1

51.

Kabul

(outskirts), stupa

of

Guldara.

'

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-

^

;* Sjrj

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J --»***. •.-as***. .V-**^-^,..

W*F*?mm 41

2

53. Deogarh, temple of Vishnu, detail of sculptured decoration of the door.

52. Deogarh, temple of Vishnu

..

£

1

_ v

-^^^WW"

V



V M

k

;

54. Nalanda, temple in Area 3,

56. Sancbi. Temple No.

1

7.

detail.

55. Nalanda, temple in Area 3.

For other reasons, not the in

Hindu

least

being the limited need for interior space

temples, the solution of problems of stability was based on an

exploitation of gravity that featured building structure diminishing

upward

like a

enormous

walls, with the entire

pyramid. Form and decoration were

often obtained by subsequent cutting and carving.

Still,

even though a

remarkable number of Indian works have survived the ravages of time, the characteristic relativism of Indian thought with respect to the

given to architectural works (and not only to these, but to reality) constitutes a this

degree of appreciation

that

is

all

importance of sensory

undeniable. However,

appreciation must be viewed beside the characteristic coexistence of

constructed and cut architecture, along with the relative implications of

works "cut only)

in the

negative sense"

—and those "cut

— that

in the positive

is

to say, in caves (with interior space

sense" (with exterior space, either with

or without interior space). These observations, implying as they do a highly special flexibility in the evaluation of the architectural media, are sufficient to

underscore the originality and autonomy of the architectural phenome-

non

in India. 5

Aesthetic Value

In the traditional hierarchy of artistic activity, India bestows the highest value

on poetry, the

theater, dance, painting,

and music. Architecture, along with

sculpture and the minor arts, was considered almost a craft, even though it

required of the architect exceptionally vast knowledge touching on the

most diverse

It

fields,

including empirical knowledge of a geological sort and

57. Nalanda. retire stupas in Area 12.

58. Sarnath,

Dhamek

stupa.

5 9. Nalanda. monastery of the

Pa la

period.

other related subjects that can be called geomantic. Indian aesthetic thought excludes architecture from the major arts

— while

yet demonstrating in a

thousand ways an awareness of the undeniable rapport that links

and to the

tastes

of the immense world of which

it is

it

to society

— because

an expression

of the vast technical component that the act of building involves. Even apart

from the highly binding prescriptions of the

were

built very slowly,

by masses of

texts, architectural structures

men engaged

in

hard labor over long

periods of time and using technical means that further increased the distance

between the intention of the short, the architectural

artist

and the

final realization

work did not correspond

of the work. In

finally to the aesthetic

canons suggested by philosophical speculations.

There

is

no doubt

that Indian religious architecture,

importance and abundance, of

its

predominant

reflects Indian civilization better than

means of artistic expression. That

civilization, as

we know,

in its

any other leaves the

widest possible margin for religious speculation. Apart from the sacred significance attributed to construction materials (whether brick), A Indian architecture

— "functionalism."

obeys a unique

symbolic

The very

—

that

is

wood,

stone, or

to say, a religious

act of building

—which

and

began by

determining the rapport between the universe and the chosen terrain, with

geomantic appraisals and the exorcising of bhiitas (demons and the site as

dedicated

well

as

gods other than those

—had the value of

a magical rite.

to

whom

There was

and destined

to support the

from

temple was

a full

awareness of

the "sacrifice" of which the earth was victim, withdrawn as cultivation

spirits)

the

it

was from

weight of the wall structure.

It

was

45

60.

Buddb Gaya,

61. Badami. Rock Temple No. 2,

temple of the

Mabctbodbi.

detail of the entrance.

62. Badami. portico of Rock Temple

No.

1.

thought necessary to placate the earth through the

rite

of castusamana in

order to establish a favorable relationship between the creative force of the earth itself and the

human work

was to

that

rise

on

There existed thus

it.

between architecture and nature, formulated on the

a kind of rapport

magical basis of such

rituals,

basis

Now,

of invisible forces rather than on those of aesthetic harmony.

the

the multiplication and interweaving of symbolic

elements, the very fact that the construction of a religious structure could

be likened to a

liturgical act

—

seem

all

to

have excluded

in the

most absolute

fashion any urgent search for rasa, a term that refers to the very substance

of the aesthetic experience (although

one being "flavor"). But to a secondary plane, the as

is

less,

if

it

has

numerous meanings, the chief

traditional classifications relegated architecture

works created were not rendered

thereby,

less valid

proved by the universal appreciation accorded them today. Nevertheeven

Indian world and despite their negative premises, works

in the

of architecture enjoyed a popularity that precluded any complicated reading of the symbolic and religious values they incorporated.

We

independent of their

find traces of this in literary works: temples,

symbolism, are compared significant

bulk to huge mountains, s but

in describing the ruins

more

of Polonnaruwa compares them to old

men who bend more and more toward The same

still

the suggestion offered by the Culaiamsa, a Pali-Singhalese

is

work, which

in their

the

ground with the passage of time.

text speaks of constructions that, "rising in stone or brick, create

a pleasure for the eyes." This clearly corresponds to a particular impression

aroused by the work of art outside of its religious and symbolic implications.

The in

by the Pali-Singhalese

critical attitude reflected

text, like that

shown

other works that strive to express the grandeur of certain temples through

unexpected or daring metaphors, leads back to one of the most valid and widespread currents of thought.

The aesthetic

speculation of Dandin, Sanskrit author and poet of the sixth

century, points out in fact that the rasa to which state

we

refer

is

nothing but a

of mind, a sentiment intensified by a combination of different elements

but essentially a normal one (which as a result can be perceived and

when

expressed in the literary forms of which

we have

prompted by forms

partially accidental, as in the case

that turn out to

of the Polonnaruwa ruins. constantly hyperplastic

and sculpture

enormous

due

It

is

be

spoken), even

it is

obvious that the exterior decoration

between architecture

to the inseparable relation

— has an influence on the impressionistic value aroused by the

size

of religious architectural structures. Because of such a

phenomenon, the symbolic component of the work and the myriad images adorning

its

exterior intervene almost unconsciously; they blend into a single

significance that

is

generally connected with the mountain, with

thrust,

and with a vision

to say,

mountains

effort

is

— with

its

that reunites the concretions of the earth

a spiritual effort at elevation.

toward achieving a

reality that

precludes

The

all

upward

— that

is

direction of the

that

is

relative or

contingent.

47

64. Badami, temple of Bbutanatha.

63- Badami, Rock Temple No. 3. interior of the portico with statue of

Vishnu.

'

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Q,

If

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f 1

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«*«&£.

50

65. Aibole. temple of Lad Khan,

66. Aibole. temple of Durga. detail of

exterior.

sculptured decoration of a pillar.

67. Aibole, temple oj Durga. exterior

of apse. 68. Aibole, temple of Durga, exterior.

51

69. Aibole, city walls. 70.

Sanchi, Monastery No. 45.

11.

Sam hi. Temple

52

No. 18.

12.

Kanchipuram, temple

of

Kailasanath; in the foreground, the

mandapa.

73.

Mamallapuram, Dharmaraja

V.

rath (monolithic chariot-temple),

and

elevation, section, aerial view,

ground plan (from Volwahsen, 1969).

3 p nil B lln *m/—i 11^

A

II

I

tTl

^fk.

/"

gsMUffJ

54

Buddh Gaya.

Mahabodbi.

1

temple of the

VI.

A i bole,

temple of Durga, detail.

17/ Mamallapuram.

Bhuma

rath.

mm

74.

Vlll Mamallapuram, temple on the

Mamallapuram, Descent of the

Ganges, rock sculpture.

beach.

V**^:

'**,;:

-b

75.

Mamallapuram,

Varaha.

56

rock temple of

76.

Mamallapuram, Dharmaraja

rath.

— 77.

From

Western viewpoint

the

— and limited to sacred Hindu buildings

and

the effect of the massive temples could be said to have been close to the

Baroque

some

in

movement of

respects, especially in the

and shadow.

resulting play of light

surfaces and the

was admittedly a swollen, heavy, and

It

exotic Baroque, but rich in effects and rendered abstruse by the diversity

of

its

artistic

language and expressive means. Indeed, the decoration and

obeyed a foreign and vexing

the treatment itself of the images

taste

measured against Western choices and experience. Nevertheless, precisely because of this similarity, superficial it

moment when

Baroque

critical

was

and poorly understood though

In reality, the architecture

of the culture that produced

spirit," at a particular

of India can be evaluated only on the basis

it,

being understood that

it

it

The degree and

offers universal in

intensity of these impressive appraisals

modes of thought and

are obviously modified as a result of the

fixed

hierarchies of values corresponding to the diversity of those cultures that

from time

to time

architecture.

have confronted the discovery or the knowledge of Indian

In any case, there

is

a clear aesthetic difference

The

peace and serenity;

movement of

search of the Buddhist in

Hinduism, there

architectural

between

life

dynamism (and

a prevailing

of the universe.

however linked

to cosmic

second has

parameter the rhythm of

its

directed toward an ideal of a

volumes) that attempts to express a divine

majesty shining through the very

as

is

is

symbolism,

is

based on a

The first philosophy, human measure. The

of the universe;

life

it

transcends

the individual and his destiny, as well as his range of mental sentiments, to

awe of

express an overwhelming

This

is

to say, nature

artists,

rooted in civilization, in man, after

in the

judge by the quite numerous and systematic

motif of Indian architectural constructions It

theme equally

a

is

motif also recurred India,

down

to

plan of

in the

own

our

in real barriers of

urgent.

The

to the pressure

it

made

Only the

the reality of social conflict fade.

— not only theoretical —

exercises

(Buddhism) and through

in history

upon individuals through

a hopeless,

a sense of

result has

intertwined,

oppressive

life

hierarchies.

kind were reflected

in the field

architecture, producing

—along

of the figurative

For prakrti

cities,

it

and for

By

cities,

whether these were square

city

in

planning. Every

which the

in

celestial,

extension, this symbolic

being understood that

the village. Thus, the motif of the center found plans of

fundamental

in all

human agglomeration

its

of is

place in the theoretical

shape (the square being the

symbol of the ordered world, the perfection of form and of order);

more

rectangular, with the principal streets inscribing a rhombus; or even abstract (circular, semicircular, or triangular).

The their

— but

origin

—perhaps Assyrian,

every case these geometric figures had

that

is

of converting the magical forces of the

—pre-existing or assembled and condensed by preliminary foundation — into a of support for human cohabitation and into a form of

rituals

basis

breath or of is

in

own value and symbolic meaning. The constant significance underlying

these various symbols soil

may be of foreign

idea for the round plan

by means of the Parthians

for a

life, in

unison with the rhythm of the cosmic breath.

human dimension

for cities, in order that

men may

The

search

feel therein the

likewise achieved through the geometric

is

treatment of the indefinite (but not infinite) space of the urban complex.

it

becomes changed and exaggerated when

Here

alludes to a greater intensity of the sacred,

of a

stupa

in

various

periods

surrounding enclosure; or

even

series of squares.

it

The

may

will

the geometric tendency, since

is

even more evident. The plan

be frankly

circular,

including

its

display a circle inscribed in a square, or

plan of the

Hindu temple

will

on the contrary

to react

be primarily an enclosed rectangle, though sometimes the sides of the

community'

enclosure are segments of reversed ellipses; the disposition of the buildings,

1

certainty of endless reincarnation attenuates the instinctive

which can vary considerably,

will

sometimes be symbolic and sometimes

quincuncial, with one building at each corner and one at the center, thus

of beings crushed by

exploiting the diagonals of the rectangle as axes for the placement of

The only

structures in space. In every case, there

fundamental, and respected choice was that of religious

58

The

and the wish

extremely resigned isolation (Hindu-

terror of death, rendering less miserable the

insuperable,

less

drive toward the Absolute, an essential concept of Indian

religious speculation,

ism).

because lacking

orthodoxy) of Indian culture has made to appear

been a lack of interest

entirety.

treatises, the

day, the essential unit of

a question of sacred constructions.

relativistic

its

the representation of the center.

the terrestrial, and even the infernal worlds met.

the other hand, the concept

way

is

valid for architecture

it is

in its

all

The Dominant Theme

To

On

of generations therein, to the detriment of other (

essence

in

the collective unconscious of the Indian people.

all,

tremendous

spirit

in

harmony with because they were deeply

Indian world in

are the fruit of a highly particular social situation that concentrates the

undertakings which the religious

were

— not only because they were

rhythm of the universe, which

the sacred.

not to deny that the great sacred works of Buddhism and Hinduism

efforts

these forms

the natural surroundings, but also and above

Buddhists and Hindus, which can be related to the essence of their respective quests for truth.

is

anonymous

if

temple or palace was an axis mundi, a sacred center

at this artistic trend.

and sentiments no different from those recorded

values, suggestions,

Indian literature.

human

"category of the

as a

thought was directed

—that

prakrti

is,

even have been imagined.

effects that in other civilizations could not

Created by great

rath.

when it

was, that even the Indian experience helped (indirectly) in the paradoxical

definition of the

Mamallapuram, Bbuma

full,

belief. Ideas

arts,

free,

of

this

and thus also

with other profound components

in

— forms

is

isolated visibility for the principal building,

of the

total

order of symbolic (and thus

whole. In a certain sense,

this

an obvious attempt to provide

which nevertheless forms part

artificial)

space constituted by the

arrangement endowed the hemispheres of

59

78.

Mamallapuram, rath and

elephant.

huge masses of medieval temples with

stupas and the

alluded symbolically to the mountain par excellence

of the world,

axis

There

made

clearly,

is

concrete by

as theoretical implications are

They may be temple

life

there exists

in location that

West, especially insofar

in the

—

when not

actually

(Madura), combined temple and

cities

monastery complexes (Ajanta), or

with the

the

concerned. Sacred constructions are frequent-

decentralized with respect to urban agglomerates,

that attract to their precincts

fact,

dichotomy

characteristic

does not exactly correspond to what occurs

isolated.

that

pillar,

replica.

Western world. In

in the

between the sacred and profane a

ly

prominence

with respect to sacred monuments, a shade of meaning

from what we find

different

man-made

its

a

— the cosmic

as previously stated

—

isolated temples

groups of persons having economic connections

of the temple. In

we

such cases,

all

are in the presence of

"centers" in themselves, whose magnificence forms no part of an urban

emerges from the desire

context, but

and

for a deliberate

specific

encounter

with the sacred. As such, these centers were purposely created to be alien to the city, but in a

The

abbey.

form different from

city, in its turn,

was seen

as a

that of the Christian

designed to connect the sacred with the daily

who

spiritual needs,

of a mass of

human

beings

of the religious construction that

in

theory was always placed

center (but that in practice might be located differently, even though

gravitating directly toward the center).

profane

is

— which — knew,

never capable of conferring

is

in return, that

to convert

detail acted

influences that

were

it

we

—

is

real

lived in an urban

sacred and

autonomy on

human

its

own

environment where every

the invisible magical and religious forces into

protective, creative, and responsive to the order and

divine law that reigned within

Thus,

The dichotomy between

here reduced to a different degree of intensity. This same

mass

grid

life

availed themselves, as a specific and ready reference point for their

at the

city

monastery or

consecrated and functional center,

its

walls.

find in the texts that the basic structure

—generally a rectangular

overlaid by a street pattern that increases the symbolic values of

the urban center. Such insertions also provide solutions that satisfy the

demands of

traffic relating to

fortified city

might be

in the

the location and function of the city

the inner network but enclosing

octagonal, or hexagonal bastions the basic square. streets,

Other

it

may

in

a

call for

to the corners of

a greater width of the

particular direction;

—always with the basic network

in

mind

—

in

or situate the

such a way as to form

a symbolic figure (the swastika, for example). Nevertheless, theoretical

considerations,

conditioned the growth of

the

social

its cities,

reality

beyond these

of the Indian

world has

producing spontaneous variations

the basic grid pattern and the symbolic geometrical figures.

and undivided, bound up with a town plan, appears

The

in

grid, rigid

at its clearest

only in

the metropolises and cities of the Indus Valley culture. Although

60

A

within a quadrilobate ring of circular,

whose lobes correspond

theoretical plans

which were oriented

buildings

itself.

form ofapadma (lotus blossom), preserving

it

is

Mamallapuram. temple on

79.

80.

the

beach.

Mamallapuram, temple on

the

beach, detail.

impossible to reconstruct the successive stages,

known

it is

from these

that

derive the erudite and speculative plans already to be found

Vedic

in the

phase, but which were to be fully developed in technical writings only

much

later. It is

under construction

certain nevertheless that the division of the space

network of squares and

into a

— subordinate^— into triangles emerges from

requirements of a religious and symbolic kind. However, the geometric treatment of the available space

modern

because the work

for the work. This

is

significance and

representation

its

in

scheme

that

call

a result of

itself, as

find in

a multiple visibility

symbolic

its

concrete form of a vertical axis (the

magical axis mundi), must offer equally valid and thus being subject to a

we

very different from what

is

and leads to what we might

architecture,

is

more

total

views from

all

sides,

sculptural than architectural.

Even the word "facade" takes on a shade of meaning quite different here from

its

facade

is

use in the European world and in some other parts of Asia.

determined by points of access to the

underlines, but

symbolism

it

does not prevail over the

The

whose existence

interior,

or apse views.

lateral

it

Its

much

as

be found

in

charged with symbolism

as

as the center carries the Indian architectural

mass

as

possible toward plastic values.

The Development of Architecture in India It

should be pointed out that

every village, and which,

—aside from the Vedic

in its simplicity,

any of the great architectural works experienced oscillations rise

of Buddhism, and

is

in religious thought. It thus

later

It

altar to

keeps pace with the

modified by the affirmation of certain trends

Hinduism and the consolidation of Buddhism alone that imparted to India religion,

as

— the architecture of India has obviously

in

international sphere.

is

Jainism.

Nevertheless,

was the expansion of Buddhism

though heterodox with respect

it

was

a pre-eminent position in the

to

— a clearly Indian

Vedic-Brahmanic-Hindu

its

background— that in fact produced Asian humanism. The spread of properly Hindu thought was more limited and less rich in suggestions capable of development.

Beginning with the Maurya period, or more precisely with the reign of Asoka, the architectural constructions that have the most part Buddhist.

we

However,

in

also find chaityas (sanctuaries)

chaitya of Sudama that

come down

to us are for

addition to stambas (isolated pillars),

and viharas (monasteries). Besides the

we have already mentioned,

there

is

that

of the Lomas

Rishi cave, which also displays an entrance with the characteristic kudu

(horseshoe arch) that surmounts and frames the entrance and that was to

become one of the most widespread motifs in Indian upper windows in other typical constructions,

for

execution in stone (as

in the

caves) the characteristic

caves

traits

from a wooden architecture

at

of the

architecture. it

carries

Used

also

over into

its

Kanheri and Karli, and the early Ajanta

wooden

kudu, a proof of

that has disappeared.

As

its

derivation

for civil constructions,

63

f

•

-

"

-

-— . C2tX '-' v-v

--!-*.

•

r

.

X

"!

,"-

;\ -i-yfr:

82. Kalugumalai, monolithic

81. Gwalior, temple of Teli-ka-

Mandir.

Vettuvan Koil temple. 83. Pattadakal, temple of

Malikarjuna.

i^S

(now Patna), whose splendor was described by the Greek Megasthenes, Seleucid there remain the foundations of Asoka's palace at Pataliputra

ambassador to the Maurya court. The royal palace on the ancient Sirkap at Taxila most likely belongs to the same period; only survives, is

though other remains

testify to the

very probable that the palace

Achaemenid

palaces, taking

its

destroyed by

laid

inspiration

site

of

ground plan

former richness of the

at Pataliputra,

AD, was partly

the fifth and seventh centuries for

its

site. It

between

fire

out according to the plans

from

a similar concept of

royalty.

Later centuries offer a

much wider panorama. The stupa, as we have often

had occasion to mention,

assumes very different forms

it

development,

diffusion over

as well as in

As

a construction lacking interior space.

is

characteristic sacred building, its

all

in

of Buddhist Asia.

a

Indian

its

has a

It

multiple symbolic significance: as a magical center (the axis of the world);

of the universe, seen from outside; as a tomb, cenotaph,

as a representation

or reliquary; as a reminder of edifying or miraculous events. built as a votive offering territory. It replaces the

can also be

importance of the

altar

and can be considered an

image of the Buddha, whose essence permeates the entire

architectural

universe. Finally, a

It

or as a sign of the faith erected on new, vast

can vary greatly

it

in size

and form, from miniature replicas

few inches high (but with the same importance) to mountain stupas such

as the

Borobudur of Java, which

is

an entire large

hill

transformed into a

symbol. In the period

under consideration, we find a number of famous

ranging from that

at

Bharhut (whose decoration

is

stupas,

an example of a school

which independent characteristics are mingled with a desire

of sculpture

in

to avoid the

anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha by substituting

symbols) to the stupa of

Buddh Gaya

Enlightenment) and the celebrated group Stupas

at this

(a at

reminder of the Buddha's Sanchi

in

Madhya

Pradesh.

time are surrounded by a vedikd (fence) with open toranas

(gates) at the cardinal points consisting of vertical posts with horizontal

beams. The stupa hemispherical

itself,

dome

body with a

cylindrical at the base, rises into a

called an

of parasols —with a — represents both the of the universe and

belvedere, the harmikd, at whose center an axis often diminishing in diameter

false

anda (egg) surmounted by a kind of small series

axis

Buddha.

The period of construction of the stupas at Sanchi is The most probable date is the second or first century certainly the date for the so-called

pillars

earlier periods visit to

which

is

city.

confirms the holy tradition of the

The presence of one site

from somewhat

and may supply some foundation for the emperor's presumed

pay homage to a small Buddhist community that had settled

surrounding

almost

Great Stupa, the focal point of the entire

sacred complex situated a few miles outside the

of Asoka's

rather controversial. B.C.,

hills.

in the

But, aside from the considerable sacred significance of

the complex, what

is

important

is

its

intermingling of architectural and

65

84. PatUtdakal. temple of

Mallikarjuna.

figurative evidence that can be

stupa

is

deduced from the decorations. Here the Buddha, of

truly the image, or rather the epiphany, of the

his

Law

that rules the universe (serving in fact in aniconic representations to express

the Buddha's presence), and

is

moreover a psycho-cosmogram. The form,

suggested by the apparent aspect of the vault of the sky, implies

in its turn

the total presence and intangibility (ascribed to the foundation relics) of the

Buddha, who

way

in this

human

seen not as a

is

teacher but as the essence

of the universe.

The at

dome

type of stupa with a hemispherical

we have

school. For example,

is

Amaravati, where the diameter of the sacred area

found

at

in the

several

is

Andhra

huge stupa

hundred yards,

remains of other works of the same kind, though smaller

as well as the size,

found

also

traces of the foundations of the

in

Nagarjunakonda, Gummadidirru, Prolu, and Guntupala. The

domes, more globular, were grafted onto drum bases much higher than the examples

This data

at Sanchi.

is

supplied by reliefs with sculptural rep-

from these we can

resentations of local stupas;

Andhra school considerably modifies sacred area.

The

vedikar (the

openings

images of facing lions placed

outer fence) were flanked with

in the

at the tops

of the posts, while the outer edge

drum halfway up

of the raised circular walk surrounding the

On

projecting balconies that faced the gates.

and joined

at their capitals, five pillars

symbolic significance

was

is

also see that the stupa of the

the appearance of the entrance to the

unknown, but

of equal height were erected. Their

assumed

it is

presence of verticalized bands, almost surfaces

empty and thus contributing

to effects of light

the globular mass of the stupa and diminishes

dome, conceived so

the

that their practical use

oriflammes or banners that had a

to support

of crown. There

is

as to

displayed

these balconies, side by side

ritual

meaning. The

—alternately

carved and

and perspective

its

—modifies

isolation while enclosing

exceed a hemisphere

in

curvature, in a kind

thus a change in style that derives from the cultural

conditions of the Andhras and from a state of mind that foreshadows future

developments

in

Indian

art,

which were

to

be more balanced and

knowledgeable. In the northwest Indian regions so-called

Greco-Buddhist

vertical thrust.

that

This thrust

must have included

into a conical trunk that

art is

—

that

is,

of Gandhara

the area of expansion of the

— the

frequently obtained by

stupa acquires a strong

wooden

superstructures

series of terminal parasols, transforming the stupa

sometimes rose

to considerable height.

We

know

of this verticality through models, sometimes very elaborate, or through the small stupas to be found in areas outside the Indian subcontinent (in

Afghanistan or Central Asia), which though the direction taken by the

not unlike what

we

Gandhara

stupa.

late are sufficient to indicate

An upward

thrust, a mysticism

find in the Gothic, characterize these productions of

the north, from which derive, by various intermediate stages, the Tibetan

chorten, where even the

dome is distorted to take on the shape of an

inverted

pot (the term "pot" serves as a technical one). Lamotte has given us an

66

.

...

-

85. Pattadakal, temple oj Virupaksa.

some 200

accurate listing of Indian tower stupas, almost always

The importance of though some of these,

the

Gandhara school

not really limited to stupas,

is

complex, find their place

as in the Takht-i-Bahi

and Hellenistic component fundamental to

known

traces of the Classical

this school.

Proceeding from the

as Balkh),

with their Parthian-style

decorations and high embrasures, to such Hellenistically inspired

Ai

Khanum ("Lady Moon"

in

Uzbek)

in

show

rather scenographic overall solutions that surely

fortifications of Bactra (today

feet in

Gandhara region. 7

height, to be found primarily in the

—which

is

situated at a

cities as

bend of the

Amu Darya River and preserves the agora, principal street, citadel, and even a beroon

—or the complex of Kapisa-Begram, one

on properly

arrives back

Here we recall Charsadda and Puskalavati, the Greek Peukelaotis and in some respects the sister city Taxila. In practice, virtually all urbanization in the Gandhara region is Greek in character, based on Indian

soil at Taxila.

models

Hellenistic

that are

modified only to the extent that local

taste

suggests different solutions, as for example in the skyline of the chapels that

top off the stupa of Takht-i-Bahi. This architecture,

even

in

is

not to deny that Gandhara

though employing round support towers, octagonal motifs

domes, and other elements of foreign derivation,

autonomous cal, Iranian,

of Jandial

is

essentially an

architecture, primarily "constructed," in which Indian, Classi-

and perhaps Central Asian elements come together. The temple

at Taxila, for

example,

But the

is

a distyle in antis modified to suit the

component

— smothered

needs of a

fire cult.

works

Surkh Kotal, which nevertheless preserves Greek elements

as

Classical

in

such gigantic

sometimes comes to the surface again in the plan of sacred complexes (Mohra Moradu, Jaulian, and Loriyan Tangai). Here space is divided into an aligned order that places the principal

one wing

monument

at the center, leaves

available for cells and chapels, and reserves the other for the

erection of the votive stupas.

The

vertical thrust, already

mentioned,

is

not

only an anti-Classical element, but a search for particular effects, deriving

from

a conception of space entirely foreign to India

and nevertheless clearly

Gandharan. In the

development of the

the cylindrical verticalizing

stupa, the square or rectangular base

body of the dome-topped drum

element by means of the steep

of the central body of the stupa

Even when the plan of the base

itself is

and

more

is

grafted

staircases that

on which

becomes a

ascend to the base

that are placed at the four sides.

involved, becoming cruciform or

star-shaped, the conception of the space remains an

upward one,

in

a

controlled succession of superimposed and diminishing horizontal planes.

There remains the overall conception being enjoyed from every point),

—

multilateral (and indeed capable of

static at

the base, but animated in the

conical trunk of the upper structure. In practice,

U*.*:

it

can be

through the superimposition of the different forms vertically oriented precision of the imaginary line

made

objective

that strengthen the

from which the

stupa's

constituent forms derive.

69 «ti

86. Ellora, Kailasanatb, exterior of the monolithic temple.

:

^^B

50 i

70

i

TTZC

87. Ellora, Kailasanatb, elevation, transverse section,

and

plans; at the

of a monolithic column in the courtyard of the temple (from right, elevation

Volwahsen, 1969).

s

If

A

(

A

A

\

A

.

71

88. Ellora, Kailasanatb. detail of the

89. Ellora, Kailasanatb, exterior,

southeast portion.

90. Ajanta, view of Cares No. 6-19.

91. Ajanta, cares, plan of the complex (from Volirahsen. 1969).

92. Ajanta, Care No.

'

::

;:

1,

plan.

111 o-J

El ran YS&\

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fv

Hj?i

£?>i 73

-

93- Ajanta,

Cave No.

2. plan.

94. Ajanta.

Cave No.

6.

lower

and upper

95. Ajanta. Cave No.

9,

plan of the

96. Ajanta.

levels.

the chaitya.

91. Ajanta.

Cave No. 10, plan of

representation of

ttjxh niin minium \%& p],wi=j

D

ta

r~~-*i

o

o

o

o

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r

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interior of

in high

',?,

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QLI

Buddha

relief.

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1

Cave No. 19. a

the chaitya. stupa with

chaitya.

plans of the

99. Ajanta,

98. Ajanta, Care No. 26. interior of the chaitya. stupa with

exterior.

Buddha.

representation of the seated

As

Cave No. 26,

a

one notes an

for such later stupas as those at Sarnath and Nalanda,

At Sarnath

increase in mass and a feeling of heaviness in the constructions.

the superimposed cylindrical masses, with collar fittings and greatly flattened

show

terminal ogives,

a structural tension that

seems

over the

to radiate

surrounding space. At Nalanda the staircases for access, projecting from the square base so as to form a cruciform plan with a central square, produce effects of

geometric and (in a certain sense) of abstract movement that

any case are very

and

far

removed from

rounded forms. As

soft,

enormous dimensions, century;

or

lost

became

a

as at

in

the Indian taste for curvilinear values

use spread over Asia, the stupa achieved

its

Borobudur

in central

commemorative monument,

as

Java during the ninth

happened

in

Central Asia;

character as an architecture without interior space by having a

its

chapel with an image of

Buddha

installed in the

cupola (or rather

in the

anda).

Care Architecture

The

ancient examples

from the Maurya period were followed by a

considerable range of works hollowed out of the rock, especially of the sanctuaries

known

(though the Sanskrit word

as chaityas

funeral rites of cremation and the ashes of the dead). to

be related to the stupa only by the

The

its

final

false lateral

development

connected with chaitya appears

contains one in

it

plan of the chaitya, of particular interest for

displays in

and

fact that

is

The

its

interior.

its

balance and harmony,

a particular form, with a semicircular apse

naves that are too narrow for effective use. At the same

time the chaitya becomes elongated. At Bhaja the ratio of width to length, unusually marked by the large central cupola surmounting the stupa, taking into consideration

at Ajanta,

reckoned thus

at 1:2.7; at Karli

become

larger and

participation

in

the chaityas

clearly 1:3.

it is

more

the Western basilica; this

all

With

on the

site,

religious ritual,

can be

the passage of time, chaityas

magnificent, approaching, even

means

1:2.5;

is

it

if

remotely,

was an increasingly broad

that there

with a profound change

composition of those attending. Moreover, the

fact that

in

the social

not only

monks but

the laity as well participated in rites, exegesis, and the study of doctrine

shown by the at

is

large meeting halls for both groups that are already indicated

Bhaja.

Experts

all

finest artistic

one

that

agree

in their estimation

of the Karli complex as one of the

achievements of cave architecture

shows how easy

it is

—a credible observation, but

to perceive the care

and application

that

went

into the construction of these works. Similar works, built in the open,

influenced those extracted from caves, and this explains

why

at Karli

we

find the repetition of an interesting solution for the facade with three

entrances, and especially a greater interest in the external space, something

already to be seen

at

Ajanta (Cave No. 19 belonging to the Gupta period).

Sanghardmas (certain monasteries) cut into the rock deserve mention along with chaityas. Their

cells

had (and have) a quadrilateral plan,

77

100. Kanchipuram, temple of

Vaikunthaperumal,

exterior.

101. Osia, temple of Haribara 1

1.

02. Osia, temple of Haribara 2.

1

105. Osia, temple of Surya

2.

104. Osia, temple of Surya of the mandapa.

J.

detail

105. Osia, temple of Pipala Devi.

106. Gyaraspur, Char-Kumbha (temple with four columns).

107. Osia. vieic of the reservoir

and

110. Gyaraspur, Ath-Kambha

underground palace.

(temple with eight columns).

108. Osia. veranda of the underground palace.

109. Osia. partial view of the reservoir.

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