• Author / Uploaded
• Mariela Fuentes

Citation preview

IFDC “Prof. Alberto G. Cavero” Leovino D. Martinez 160 (5360) Chilecito, La Rioja

Profesorado de Inglés

Fonética y Fonología inglesa II Segundo año

Gonzalo Tapia 2011

http://ifdccavero.lrj.infd.edu.ar/

This document was created using LYX (http://www.lyx.org/)

Contents

Introduction

7

I.

9

Prominence

1. Pitch

13

1.1. Articulatory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.2. Auditory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

2. Quality

15

2.1. Articulatory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

2.2. Auditory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3. Quantity

17

3.1. Articulatory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.2. Auditory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4. Stress

19

4.1. Articulatory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

4.2. Auditory definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5. The elements of prominence

21

5.1. Syllables associated with prominence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.1.1. Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.1.2. Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.1.3. Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.1.4. Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.2. Syllables associated with a lack of prominence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.3. The perception of prominence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22 1

Contents 5.4. Digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

6. Pitch movement and accentuation

25

II. Accentuation

29

7. Types of accent

31

8. Word accentuation

33

8.1. Word stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

8.2. Alternative accentuation patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

8.2.1. 2-syllable words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

8.2.2. 3-syllable words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

8.2.3. 4-syllable words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

8.2.4. 5-syllable words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

9. Accentuation of compound words

37

9.1. two-root compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

9.1.1. Single-accented compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

9.1.1.1. The second element indicates the performer of the action (the "doer") 37 9.1.1.2. Noun + gerundive (-ing) = noun or adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.3. noun / adjective + noun = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.4. adjective + noun = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.5. adjective (-ing) + noun = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.6. verb + noun = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.7. noun + verb = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

9.1.1.8. verb stem + particle = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

9.1.2. Double-accented compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

9.1.2.1. noun + noun = noun (the first element indicates the location of the second) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

9.1.2.2. noun + noun = noun (the first element indicates the material of

2

which the second is made) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

9.1.2.3. noun + noun = noun (no semantic criteria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

9.1.2.4. adjective + noun = noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

9.1.2.5. adjective + past participle = adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

Contents 9.2. Three-root compound words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

9.2.1. Single-accented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

9.2.2. Double-accented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

III. Accentuation in short strings

41

10.Rhythm

45

10.1.Pitch direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.Some rules of accentuation

45 47

11.1.Sequence of three content words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

11.2.Phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

11.2.1. Transitive transpositional phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

11.2.2. Intransitive phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

11.3.Double-accented compounds

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

11.3.1. Place names: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

11.4.Single-accented compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

11.5.Semantic weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

11.6.Accentuation and usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

11.7.Emphasis and Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

12.Sentence accent, English versus Spanish.

53

IV. Word Accentuation patterns

55

13.Two-syllable words

59

13.1.Primary accent + unaccented syllable (

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

13.2.Primary accent + prominent syllable (

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

13.3.Unaccented syllable + primary accent ( 

). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

13.4.Prominent syllable + primary accent (

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

13.5.Secondary accent + primary accent ( 14.Three-syllable words

14.1.Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

63  ) . . . . . . . . . .

63

3

Contents 14.2.Primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable ( cent + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable (

 ) or Primary ac-

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

14.3.Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (

) . . . . . . . . .

64

14.4.Prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (

) or unaccented

syllable + primary accent + prominent syllable (

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

14.5.Secondary accent + primary accent + unaccented syllable (

) . . . . . . . . . .

65

14.6.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent ( 

) . . . . . . . . . .

66

15.Four-syllable words

67

15.1.Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

  ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

15.2.Primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable (



) or Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + prominent

syllable (

 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

15.3.Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

15.4.Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (

 ) or prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented

syllable (

 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

15.5.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( 

) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

15.6.Secondary accent + prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.Five-syllable words

70 71

16.1.Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

   ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

16.2.Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

  ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

16.3.Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable (



) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

16.4.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( 

4

 )

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

Contents 16.5.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable ( 

 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

16.6.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (  

)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

16.7.Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (  

)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

16.8.Secondary accent + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (



) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.Six-syllable words

73 75

17.1.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable +   ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( 

75

17.2.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (  

 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

17.3.Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (

 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



76

17.4.Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( 



) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

17.5.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( 



) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.Seven-syllable words

76 77

18.1.Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( 



)

. .

77

18.2.Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (





) . . . .

19.Single-accented compound words

77 79

19.1.Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

19.2.Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

V. More on lexical accent

81

20.Two syllable words

83

5

Contents 21.Distinctive function of accent 21.1.noun/adjective - verb distinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

21.2.Compounds versus phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

21.3.Accent shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

22.Practice

6

85

89

Introduction

A segmental study of a string of sounds requires that each sound or segment is perceived as a entity separate from those elements which surround it. A segmental study perceives a string of sounds as a sequence of individual sounds produced over a time continuum. e.g. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | etc. It is possible to produce fairly effective oral communication by uttering segments in sequence. In broad terms, in such strings of segments, the longer the gaps or silences between each segment, the clearer the speech segment perception. If you make the gaps between the segments longer in time it is more easily understood but it is unnatural. This type of speech communication would be associated with robotic or machine speech. The phenomenon of leaving gaps between segments is called "segmentation". But human speech communication involves not just the production of sounds as segments but a complex of acoustic variants which are called supra-segmental features. Such acoustic variants include accent, pitch, rhythm and intonation. Given that they come together in varying degrees in a mixture of acoustic features, such variants are difficult to identify and study as separate entities and to quantify. Prosodic or supra-segmental features cannot conveniently be studied as digitalised concepts as can segmental features. Supra-segmental features are more difficult to study and to quantify because we cannot look at them as digital concepts. Supra-segmental features are a complex system of acoustic features which result in differentiated auditory perceptions. 7

Introduction The basic parameter of a complex of supra-segmental features is the duration of the airstream. The basis of the study of supra-segmental features cannot be the single segment in isolation. Instead, the smallest basic unit for the analysis of supra-segmental features is the syllable. The minimal syllable is a string comprising one vowel. The concepts used for the study of prosodic features are usually expressed in terms of the textualisation of the strings, as follows: 1. shortest string > syllable (minimal syllable = one vowel) 2. relatively longer string than 1. > word 3. relatively longer string than 2. > compound-word, made up of two or three elements 4. relatively longer string than 3. > phrase 5. relatively longer string than 4. > clause 6. relatively longer string than 5. > sentence In phonetic terms, these concepts are differentiated only on the basis of differing airstream duration, e.g. a sentence is produced on an airstream of longer duration than that of a syllable.

8

Part I.

Prominence

9

A string of syllables can be uttered on a monotone, that is, giving equal accentuation weighting to each syllable, or we can give more accentuation weighting to some syllables relative to other syllables in the same string. Giving more accentuation weighting to one syllable relative to another in the same string is what what makes that syllable prominent. Prominent syllables stand out from the other syllables in the same string. Most utterances used in human speech communication, unless they imitate mechanistic robot speech, use the phenomenon called prominence. The fundamental prosodic features which cause a syllable to stand out relative to other syllables are pitch, quality, quantity and stress. These elements employed together generate variations in accentuation, rhythm and intonation. The description of pitch, quality, quantity and stress in terms of the movement of the organs in the vocal tract and the nature of the airstream is extremely difficult. The most convenient method for studying these elements is by analyzing the physical properties of the acoustic wave-form, i.e. the wave-form as generated by the vocal tract in its trajectory to the listener’s ear. However, for an initial description of these elements, we can make a superficial articulatory definition together with a superficial auditory definition. These definitions are not scientifically adequate. Scientifically adequate definitions must involve the instrumental analysis of the sound wave. However, those superficial definitions will give us some idea of the nature of the elements which produce prominence.

11

1. Pitch

1.1. Articulatory definition: In acoustic phonetics it is called frequency. The tenser the vocal folds, the faster they vibrate as an airstream passes between them and the higher the perceived note that is produced. As speakers, we cannot feel our vocal folds vibrating faster or more slowly. The kinaesthetic feedback is imperceptible, but through our inner ear the speaker can perceive a higher or a lower tone. So, in articulatory terms, pitch depends on the tension and consequent rate of vibration of the vocal folds.

1.2. Auditory definition: From the listener’s perception, the pitch of a sound can be placed on a scale running from high to low (vertical parameter). We should note that a change of pitch is possible only on some syllables in an utterance. Alternatively, some syllables in an utterance cannot support pitch variation, e.g. a syllable with a short centralised vowel (schwa).

13

2. Quality

The vibration of the vocal folds produces an almost inaudible note which is amplified by the resonators of the human respiratory system as the air passes through the vocal tract, and is modified to produce differentiated sounds by the configuration of the articulators in the oral cavity, thereby varying the quality of the sound.

2.1. Articulatory definition: In articulatory terms, the quality of the sound depends on the configuration of the articulators as well as the shape of the oral cavity and of the resonators.

2.2. Auditory definition: In auditory terms, quality is that feature in terms of which, two sounds similarly presented and having the same loudness, quantity and pitch are dissimilar, e.g. the difference between [S] and [s] or [I] and [e].

15

3. Quantity

3.1. Articulatory definition: Quantity refers to the duration of the airstream which produces the sound. In articulatory terms this will depend on the duration of the pulmonic egressive airstream and the changes in air pressure which occur in the vocal tract during the production of a specific sound.

3.2. Auditory definition: In auditory terms, quantity is the property of the sound which makes it possible for listeners to place the sound on a scale going from short to long. From the perceptual point of view, quantity is referred to as length or duration.

17

4. Stress

4.1. Articulatory definition: Stress is caused by using greater muscular effort in the movement of the diaphragm, thereby causing air to be exhaled with greater force. The fundamental requirement for a syllable to be stressed is a relatively greater airstream force.

4.2. Auditory definition: Stress is perceived as loudness and in auditory terms we define stress as that property of a sound which makes it possible for listeners to place it on a scale going from loud to soft. Briefly, the speaker feels more energy, the listener hears a louder sound.

In summary, - pitch is quantified on a vertical parameter running from low to high and is quantifiable as frequency and is measured in Hertz (hz). - quality is the factor which differentiates sounds at the segmental level. - quantity is quantified on a horizontal parameter running from short to long and is quantifiable as duration or time and is measured in milliseconds (ms). - stress is quantified on a third-dimension parameter running from soft to loud and is quantifiable as: amplitude and is measured in decibels (db).

19

5. The elements of prominence

These four elements, i.e. pitch, quality, quantity and stress, either separately or in conjunction with other elements, can make a syllable stand out or become more prominent relative to other syllables in the same string. Very basically, if a syllable has a higher pitch than another, it will be prominent. If a syllable has longer duration than another, it will be prominent. If a syllable is louder than another, it will be more prominent. It may also be contended that syllables which include voiced or strident consonants, that is, consonants produced with greater breath force, may be perceived as more prominent.

5.1. Syllables associated with prominence What kinds of syllables are associated with prominence in terms of these four elements?

5.1.1. Pitch In terms of pitch, those syllables which can act as pitch movement initiators are prominent. All syllables can be uttered on a high pitch. But a syllable produced on a high pitch is not necessarily prominent. What makes a syllable prominent in terms of pitch is that the syllable can support either pitch movement nor pitch variation. Those syllables which can support pitch movement or which initiate pitch movement are considered prominent and are called pitch movement initiators.

21

5. The elements of prominence

5.1.2. Quality In terms of quality, syllables which contain a strong vowel are prominent. Strong vowels are located on the periphery of the Cardinal Vowel trapezium. They are [i:]; [e]; [A:]; [æ]; [O:]; [u:].

5.1.3. Quantity Syllables which contain a long vowel and / or a long consonant are prominent, e.g. fricatives and nasals can be longer than plosives.

5.1.4. Stress Syllables which contain a loud sound, that is, which are produced with relatively greater breath force, are considered as prominent.

5.2. Syllables associated with a lack of prominence Those syllables which are non-prominent normally have one or a combination of the following characteristics: 1. cannot usually support pitch movement. 2. contain weak vowels or syllabic consonants. 3. contain short sounds. 4. contain soft sounds.

5.3. The perception of prominence1 All these elements (pitch, quality, quantity and stress) can play a part in making a syllable stand out in comparison with its neighbours. However, they do not all play an equal part, nor are all four of them always present together. Thus, prominence is a graded scale. 1

scalar notation: ( ) = primary accent; ( ) = secondary accent; ( ) = prominent syllable; () = unaccented syllable

22

5.3. The perception of prominence Formerly, stress was considered to be the most important and effective element in producing prominence. However, deeper study has shown this to be untrue. A word like dictation /dIk"teISn/ has three syllables, the final syllable being a syllabic consonant. " It is generally perceived that the second syllable is the stressed one and that it is stressed because it is pronounced with a greater degree of breath force than the surrounding syllables. However, stress is not the only factor that makes this syllable prominent. We can demonstrate this by interfering with the normal pitch pattern of the word. The normal pitch pattern of the word dictation is the following: [

], i.e. with pitch movement

on the second syllable. However, if the word is uttered on a monotone, i.e. stressing the second syllable but making no pitch movement, the pitch pattern is thus: [

].

It is clear that, when uttered on a monotone, it is not so easy to distinguish which syllable is the most prominent. It is concluded, therefore, that stress is not the major element causing prominence. It is incorrect, therefore, to say that syllables are made prominent by stress alone. Instead, pitch movement is the most powerful element which causes prominence. Pitch movement on syllables can be far more important than stress in conveying prominence. Pitch movement cannot be supported on short and / or weak vowels, e.g. [I]; [2]; [6]; [U]; [@]; [3:]. Short, weak vowels are [- prominent]. Pitch movement can be supported on long and / or strong vowels. Long, strong vowels are [+ prominent]. Pitch movement is closely related with semantics. Pitch movement has important implications in the meaning of some words. With some words, the accentuation pattern will determine the meaning of the word. For example, the two-syllable word /In Š s2lt/ can be a noun or a verb. If insult is uttered on a monotone - [   ], then it is impossible to decide whether the utterence is a noun or a verb. 23

5. The elements of prominence On the other hand, if pitch movement occurs on the first syllable of /"InŠs2lt/ - [

], then it is a

noun. If pitch movement occurs on the second syllable of /InŠ"s2lt/ - [

], then it is a verb.

The semantics of the uttered word is dependent entirely on pitch movement.

5.4. Digitalization Prominence can be digitalized. At the segmental level, one of the major criteria for digitalization is voicing [+ / - voice]. In fact, there is no real division between words; as speech sounds, they are merely divided by periods of devoicing. At a suprasegmental level, for digitalization, prominence [+ / - prominent] can be used as a distinctive feature. e.g. a sound can be [+ voice] and [- prominent] as with /@/ or [+ voice] and [+ prominent] as with /A:/. The difference between /@/ and /A:/ is that /A:/ is prominent whereas /@/ is not.

24

6. Pitch movement and accentuation Only certain syllables can support pitch movement. Pitch movement can be initiated only on certain syllables. A syllable on which pitch movement is initiated is called a pitch movement initiator. For example, the first syllable of in | sult (noun) is a pitch movement initiator. Likewise, the second syllable of in | sult (verb) is a pitch movement initiator. When a syllable is a pitch movement initiator, OR HAS THE POTENTIAL TO BE ONE, we shall say that it is accented. Pitch movement initiators are accented syllables. Accent is an element of prominence. A syllable which is a pitch movement initiator is accented irrespective of whatever other elements are present. Consequently, the only condition necessary for a syllable to be accented is that it is a pitch movement initiator. In such cases, the other elements of prominence, i.e. quality, quantity and stress, are irrelevant. Therefore, in order to identify the accented syllable in any string, it is necessary to determine the syllable that can support or which supports pitch movement in that string. When any of the elements of prominence - quality, quantity and stress - are present in a syllable which is incapable of acting as a pitch movement initiator, that syllable will be said to be simply prominent, that is, not accented. All accented syllables are prominent, but not all prominent syllables are accented.

Note: Diacritics (text format): 25

6. Pitch movement and accentuation "=Primary stress ­ = secondary accent Prominent and unaccented syllables are not marked in text format. For example: (6.1) In the word install, written form

syllabic divisions

diacritics

transcription

install

in | stall

in | "stall

/In"stO:l/

scalar notation (

)

The second syllable is accented because it contains a long, strong, stressed vowel which supports a change of pitch and which acts as a pitch movement initiator. The first syllable is unaccented and not prominent. (6.2) In the word ability, written form

syllabic divisions

diacritics

transcription

ability

a | bi | li | ty

a | "bility

/@"bIlIti/

scalar notation (

)

The second syllable is accented, primarily because it supports pitch movement and because it is a pitch movement initiator. The first, third and fourth syllables are unaccented and not prominent. I MPORTANT HINT: T O LOCATE THE ACCENTED SYLLABLE IN A STRING, IT IS USEFUL TO SAY THE WORD WITH A QUESTIONING INTONATION.

(6.3) In the word millionaire, written form

syllabic divisions

diacritics

transcription

millionaire

mi | llio | naire

­millio| "naire

/­mIlj@"ne@/

scalar notation (

)



the last syllable is accented because of stress and the potential of the diphthong [e@] to act as a pitch movement initiator. The first syllable is secondary accented, and the second syllable is unaccented. (6.4) In the word afternoon, written form

syllabic divisions

diacritics

transcription

afternoon

af | ter | noon

after| "noon

/­A:ft@"nu:n/

scalar notation (



)

the third and final syllable is usually accented because it contains a long, strong vowel and supports (or can support) pitch movement. 26

However, the first syllable also contains a long, strong vowel, [A:], and is therefore prominent. But since in normal pronunciation the first syllable of af | ter | noon does not support pitch movement, it is said to be secondary accented. The second syllable of af | ter | noon, a schwa [@], is unaccented and is not prominent. N OTE : I T IS POSSIBLE TO HAVE TWO ACCENTED SYLLABLES IN A WORD. T HE ACCENTED SYLLABLE WHICH SUPPORTS PITCH MOVEMENT, I . E . THE PITCH MOVEMENT INITIATOR , WILL BE SAID TO BE PRIMARY ACCENTED.

O THER ACCENTED SYLLABLES IN THE SAME WORD WILL BE SAID TO BE SECONDARY AC CENTED.

Note too that afternoon has an alternative accentuation pattern, namely, with the pitch movement occurring on the first syllable instead of the final syllable, i.e. (

 )

(6.5) In the word diagram, written form

syllabic divisions

diacritics

transcription

diagram

dia | gram

"dia|gram

/"daI@græm/

scalar notation (

)

the first syllable, a triphthong, supports the pitch movement and is therefore the accented syllable. However, the final syllable /græm/ contains a strong vowel which is produced with considerable breath force. For these reasons, the final syllable of dia | gram is said to be prominent but not accented. Both syllables are prominent, but only the first syllable is accented. It should be noted, too, that the second syllable in dia | gram is semantically loaded and is like a suffix or an element in a compound word, cf. photogramme, spectrogramme, etc. Syllables which are semantically loaded, if not accented, are usually prominent. All accented syllables are prominent, but not all prominent syllables are accented.

27

Part II.

Accentuation

29

7. Types of accent

Accentuation is gradable. In English, when a word has two or more accents - or accented syllables - pitch movement will naturally start on the last of the accented syllables. Such an accent, i.e. an accented syllable on which pitch movement starts is called the primary accent and is marked with a diacritic ["], which precedes the primary accented syllable, or is marked (

) in scalar notation.

Other accented syllables in the word, which naturally preced the primary accent are called secondary accents and are marked [­] or (

) in scalar notation.

Syllables which are prominent but not accented, will be marked (

) in scalar notation, whereas

non-prominent syllables will be marked (  ). A.C. Gimson writes on accentuation: The most common relationship of pitch and stress in word accentuation may be summarised as follows: • Primary accentuation is associated with a potential change of pitch direction. • Secondary accentuation is not normally associated with a change of pitch direction, but may be: prominent (i.e. signalled by a potential change of pitch level). rhythmic

(i.e. having no pitch prominence, but with rhythmical stress and often quality / quantity prominence.

Stress and pitch variations combined may, therefore, be said to constitute a complex which is most powerful in signalling the situation and degree of accent in a word. Note that Gimson includes rhythm as an element of prominence.

31

8. Word accentuation

We have seen that a syllable, in the context of a word, has its own inherent pitch and stress. The combination of these two elements - pitch and stress - is the primary source of accent. However, we must distinguish between word stress and sentence stress - or more precisely, the accentuation patterns of words as opposed to the intonation patterns of sentences. For example, a word spoken in the context of a list of words (e.g. a dictionary) will have its own inherent accentuation pattern. The same word in the context of a sentence may undergo a change in that pattern. Word stress is concerned with the stressing of individual words of two or more syllables when they are uttered in isolation.1 S ENTENCE STRESS, ON THE OTHER HAND, IS THE STRESS THAT IS PUT ON WORDS OF ONE OR MORE SYLLABLES IN ORDER TO INDICATE THEIR IMPORTANCE IN RELATION TO OTHER WORDS IN THE SENTENCE .

8.1. Word stress In English, we find that simple words consisting of two or more syllables have a strong accent on one of those syllables as well as a weak accent on the remaining syllables. In general, any syllable which has as its vowel [I] or [@] is weakly accented. Gimson writes on this: "In addition to the prominence of sounds, due to their nature or the character of the context in which they occur, certain English phonemes are particularly associated with unaccented situations. 1

That is, in their citation form.

33

8. Word accentuation Thus, R.P. /@/ does not normally occur in accented syllables, and /I/ and /U/ –though both of them may receive full accentual prominence – have a high frequency of ocurrence in unaccented syllables. So, basically, if the syllable in a word contains as its vowel an /@/ or an /I/ or an /U/ it will tend to be non-prominent / unaccented.2 We can categorise words for the purpose of analysing their accentuation patterns, in terms of the number of syllables they contain. Accentuation is a relative concept. A prominent syllable is prominent only in relation to other syllables that are not prominent. Therefore, we cannot discuss prominence in words consisting of only one syllable - if they occur in isolation. Thus, the smallest unit that can be used to analyse word-accentuation patterns is the twosyllable word.

8.2. Alternative accentuation patterns 8.2.1. 2-syllable words a.

(

)~(

) - *a | dult; *bro | chure; *bu | reau; *chau | ffeur; con | tact (n ~ v);

de | fect (n ~ v); de | tail (n ~ v); finance (n ~ v); *mean | while.3 b.

(

)~(

 ) - bou | quet; dis | charge; else | where; per | fume; ré | gime; re |

search; wee | kend.

8.2.2. 3-syllable words a.

(

b.

(

c.

( 

2 3

)~( 

  ) - ex | qui | site; up | ri | sing; son | o | rous.

)~( )~(

 

) - dis | co | theque; sou | ve | nir; sub | ma | rine. ) - ci | ga | rette; ca | vi | are; E | cua | dor.

They may, however, be accented in some cases. For example: input, /"InpUt/, or football, /"fUt­bO:l/ The normal accentuation pattern is the first one, but if you use the second, it is also correct.

34

8.2. Alternative accentuation patterns

8.2.3. 4-syllable words a.

(



)~(

  ) - con | tro | ver | sy; for | mi | da | ble; ki | lo | me | tre; no |

men | cla | ture; e | xi | gen |cy. b.

(

c.

(

)/( )/(

  ) - de | mon | stra | ble; hos | pi | ta | ble. 

 ) - te | le | vi | sion.

8.2.4. 5-syllable words a.

(



)/(

    ) - ne | ces | sa | ri | ly; mo | men | ta | ri | ly.

35

9. Accentuation of compound words

A compound word is a short string made up of two or three words. There are two-element and three-element compound words. When words are elements forming a compound word, their accentuation pattern as words in isolation may be varied. So, the accentuation patterns of compound words must be analysed as a distinct category - distinct from word and from sentence (or phrase) accentuation. The most common type of compound words are what are called single-accented compounds. With almost all single-accented compounds, the primary accent is carried by the first syllable of the compound. e.g. "baby-sitter, "stage-coach Exception:­stage-"manager

9.1. two-root compounds 9.1.1. Single-accented compounds Element 1 + element 2 e.g. "baby-sitter - /"beIbIsIt@/

9.1.1.1. The second element indicates the performer of the action (the "doer") e.g. "car-dealer /"kA: di:l@/ "pain-killer - /"peIN kIl@/ 37

9. Accentuation of compound words 9.1.1.2. Noun + gerundive (-ing) = noun or adjective e.g. adjective - "breathtaking - /"breTteIkIN/ noun - "window-shopping - /"wInd@US6pIN/

9.1.1.3. noun / adjective + noun = noun e.g. "headache - /"hedeIk/ de"posit account - /dI"p6zIt @kaUnt/ "current account - /"k2r@nt @kaUnt/

9.1.1.4. adjective + noun = noun e.g. "blackberry - /"blækb@ri/ Exception: grand"duke - /grænd "dju:k/

9.1.1.5. adjective (-ing) + noun = noun e.g. "driving-test - /"draIvIN test/

9.1.1.6. verb + noun = noun e.g. "cookbook - /"kUk bUk/ Exception: cease"fire - /si:s "faI@/

9.1.1.7. noun + verb = noun e.g. "fire-escape - /"faI@r IskeIp/ 38

9.1. two-root compounds 9.1.1.8. verb stem + particle = noun1 e.g. "hold-up - /"h@Uld 2p/ "take-off - /"teIk 6f/ Exception: lie-"down - /laI "daUn/

9.1.2. Double-accented compounds 9.1.2.1. noun + noun = noun (the first element indicates the location of the second) e.g. ­country-"house ­camp-"bed ­shop-"window ­kitchen-"cupboard

9.1.2.2. noun + noun = noun (the first element indicates the material of which the second is made) e.g. ­apple-"sauce ­cotton-"wool ­cherry-"brandy Exceptions: "corn-­flakes "orange-­juice

1

These are nouns derived from phrasal verbs.

39

9. Accentuation of compound words 9.1.2.3. noun + noun = noun (no semantic criteria) ­bank-"holiday ­city-"centre Exceptions: "mother-­tongue "mother-­land "father-­land

9.1.2.4. adjective + noun = noun e. noun + adjective = adjective (the noun maximises the adjective) e.g. ­stone-"deaf

9.1.2.5. adjective + past participle = adjective e.g. ­high-"minded

9.2. Three-root compound words 9.2.1. Single-accented e.g. "merry-go-round "forget-me-not

9.2.2. Double-accented e.g. ­bed-"sitting room ­audio-visual"aids 40

Part III.

Accentuation in short strings

41

9.2. Three-root compound words In sequences of short strings of connected speech, some words are emphasised more than other words. The reasons for this are what we might call natural sentence stress or rhythm. Another reason involves semantic criteria - some words are more important than others in terms of the meaning that is being communicated. Another reason relate to the context or the circumstances of the speech act or communication. Another reason may be the emotional state of the speakers. Obviously, to communicate effectively, a speaker must know which words in the string to accentuate, apart from knowing how each syllable is accentuated. A knowledge of word stress does not lead automatically to a knowledge of sentence accentuation. Whereas as an isolated element in the utterance a word may be accentuated in a specific way, when that word is part of a string, the same speaker may give that word a different accentuation pattern. In general, content words, i.e. semantically-loaded words, e.g. nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are likely to be accented in an utterance. On the other hand, structural words, e.g. auxiliary verbs, personal / reflexive / relative pronouns, prepositions, articles, possessive adjectives and conjunctions, are likely to be unaccented. However, some structural words are frequently accented, e.g. demonsatrative and possessive pronouns, interrogative words, negative and anomalous verbs, modal verbs. However, when dealing with the accentuation of strings, one can never be prescriptive but only descriptive. You can never say that a certain utterance is always accentuated in a certain way, i.e. being prescriptive. You can only say that when a specific utterance was spoken by a specific speaker, it was accentuated in a certain way. In fact, no two utterances are ever accentuated exactly in the same way. Thus, the study of accentuation is a descriptive study, not prescriptive. There are certain variables that make this true. The same utterance may be uttered by different speakers. 43

9. Accentuation of compound words The same utterance may be uttered by the same speaker but in a different context. Another factor would be the emotional state of the speaker, which can make accentuation patterns vary even within the same utterance. So, one can never be dogmatic. Nevertheless, there are some criteria that we can use to study accentuation patterns in general terms. One of the aspects we can study is the direction of pitch movement, which can be analysed once we have already identified the primary accents contained within the uttered string. Another aspect is the range of pitch movement on the primary accented syllable, i.e. narrow band or wide band. So, the first task in any analysis is to identify the primary accented syllable, and then to determine the direction and range of the pitch movement.

44

10. Rhythm

Accentuation in short strings depends on the natural rhythm of the language, and this leads to the study of intonation (changes of pitch range and direction). The second aspect in any analysis is the natural rhythm of the language and the modifications that occur during the utterance. English is what is called a stress-timed language, which means that the natural segmentation of the elements depends on the differentiated changes of air pressure in the vocal tract. Stressed syllables will always be separated by unstressed or unaccented syllables. Other languages can be syllable-timed. In syllable-timed languages, each syllable is produced on one chest pulse, so that each syllable is of equal duration and equal stress. It is sometimes difficult for syllable-timed language (e.g. Castilian) speakers to get used to stress-timed language (e.g. English) speakers.

10.1. Pitch direction Pitch direction in strings in strings is indicated using diacritics which signal pitch direction on primary-accented syllables. List of diacritics for pitch direction in strings The following diachritics mark pitch direction on primary accented syllables. [Ű] rising pitch movement [Ů] falling pitch movement [ŮŰ] falling-rising pitch movement

45

10. Rhythm ­Do

you

­al

ways

have

to

­speak

with

your

­mouth

Űfull?

+

-

+

-

+

-

+

-

-

+

+

By means of chest pulses, we generate bursts of increased air pressure in the vocal tract, viz. chest pulse > relaxation > chest pulse > relaxation > chest pulse > relaxation > ... These chest pulses are used to produce syllables. Each syllable has approximately equal duration which affects the periodicity of the utterance, that is, the rhythm. In an anatomical sense, a syllable-timed rhythm is a more natural rhythm than a stress-timed rhythm. There is an alternative type of pulse, which we call "stress pulse." Stress pulses are a method for controlling air pressure by means of which some syllables are given more emphasis than others, such that the intervening syllables, i.e. those between the stressed ones, are of reduced duration and usually centralised. In a sense, this is a mental organisation of stress patterns - a mentally-controlled activity. In English, there are many ways of accentuating sentences. e.g. ­Don’t

­go

there

un

til

­Sa

tur

day

"mor

ning

+

+

-

-

-

+

-

-

+

-

pulse

pulse

pulse

pulse

stress

stress

stress

stress

There is reduced compression between stressed syllables. Rhythm is the perceived regularity of prominent units in speech. Rhythm is a question of perception. In English there is a real anarchy in stress.

46

11. Some rules of accentuation

11.1. Sequence of three content words In a sequence of three content words, the second will lose its stress if not more than 2 syllables. e.g. a

­nice

old

"man

-

+

-

+

I

­can’t

speak

Chi

"nese

-

+

-

-

+

If the second word is longer than two syllables, it will retain its stress a

­nice

­com

for

table

"chair

-

+

+

-

-

+

I

­can’t

trans

­late

Chi

"nese

-

+

-

+

-

+

(The most regular pattern you can expect in English.)

11.2. Phrasal verbs There are two main divisions: Transitive - It can take an object. a.Transpositional b.Non-transpositional Intransitive - It can’t take an object. 47

11. Some rules of accentuation

11.2.1. Transitive transpositional phrasal verbs Transitive phrasal verbs in a sentence which includes a direct object (when we speak) will adopt different accentuation patterns according to whether the particle of the phrasal verb is transposed or not, and if it is, according to whether the direct object is a full noun or a pronoun. If it is a pronoun, it has to be transposed to the end of the sentence. e.g. ­turn off the "tap +--+ ­turn the "tap off +-+­turn it "off +-+

11.2.2. Intransitive phrasal verbs In intransitive phrasal verbs, both the verb stem and the particle are normally stressed. e.g. ­come "in ++ ­go a"way +-+ However, if the verb stem is preceded by another stressed word, then the verb stem can lose its stress. e.g. You ­can’t come "in -+-+ ­Wake "up // He ­soon woke "up ++

-+-+

Alternatively, if we put a stressed word at the end of the sentence, this will alter the accentuation pattern on the verb stem and particle. e.g. You can ­come in "now --+-+ 48

11.3. Double-accented compounds He ­woke up "early -+-+-

11.3. Double-accented compounds1 e.g. ­week"end ­during the week"end +---+ a ­weekend "party -+-+Some words may also change according to usage. e.g. on ­Friday after"noon (noun)| - + - - - + | semantic usage an ­afternoon "concert (adj)| -+--+-| He ­often inter"rupted -+---+An ­interrupted "visit -+---+be + complement: e.g. she is ­good-"looking - - + + - (the complement is double-accented) She’s ­very sweet-"tempered - + - - + - (it varies with the intensifier) If you use the adjective attributely, i.e. you place it next to a noun, then it loses its primary accent. 1

(Depending on the context, double- accented compounds can undergo a variation in the accentuation pattern, depending on the stress status of words close to them in the utterance.)

49

11. Some rules of accentuation e.g. a ­good-looking "girl -+--+ Alternatively, if you use the double-accented adjective predicatively, i.e. if it is part of the predicate, then it loses its secondary accent. e.g. I ­find her good-"looking -+--+-

11.3.1. Place names: In ­Hyde Park "Corner -+-+On ­Piccadilly "Circus -+---+­opposite Hyde "Park +---+ she ­lives near Picca"dilly -+---+-

11.4. Single-accented compounds2 e.g. excess He­eats in ex"cess Did you ­pay ­excess lug"gage? hello He said hel"lo

11.5. Semantic weight e.g. ­Japa"nese as an adjective: 2

(There are some single-accented words which may undergo rhythmical modifications in certain contexts.)

50

11.6. Accentuation and usage but: a ­Japanese "picture a ­Japa"nese lesson

11.6. Accentuation and usage Accentuation patterns in general depends on usage. The objective of the communication can dictate certain accentuation patterns. For example, in the area of announcements there are fairly well established accentuation patterns: public address, railway station, airport, sports stadium. In announcements, the tendency is for the topic noun to be stressed and not the following content word. e.g. There are ­no "trains today. The same happens in simple statements: e.g. I’m doing "English this year. The "phone’s ringing. As for the usage of names of places, the constant reference establishes the accentuation pattern: e.g. "Oxford Street "Regent Street ­Oxford "Circus ­Regent’s "Park Vic"toria Street Vic­toria "Station

11.7. Emphasis and Contrast Accentuation patterns can be used to signal emphassis or contrast. The first category is when structural words are accented for emphasis: 51

11. Some rules of accentuation e.g. You were ­driving "fast (non-emphatic) You "were driving fast (emphatic) ­Come "in (non-emphatic) "Do come in (emphatic) Explicit contrast is when two ideas are juxtaposed by contrast. e.g. I didn’t ­say Oxford "Street, I ­said Oxford "Road. In this case, the elements or the concepts which are explicitly contrasted -street and road- attract the primary accent, whereas the rest of the elements lose their accents or are left unaccented.

52

12. Sentence accent, English versus Spanish.

The characteristics of English sentence accent can be summarized in two main rules: 1. Given information, that is, information which is already present in the listener’s mind, mainly because it has been previously mentioned, is normally deaccented. 2. Nouns are more accentable than any other items (verbs, adjectives, etc.) Spanish sentence accent, on the contrary, follows a much simpler pattern: 1. The last accent occurs normally on the last lexical item no matter whether this item conveys new information, or if it is a noun or a verb, etc.

53

Part IV.

Word Accentuation patterns

55

scalar notation: ( ) = primary accent; ( ) = secondary accent; ( ) = prominent syllable; () = unaccented syllable Diacritics: ( ­ )=secondary accent, ( " )=primary accent

57

13. Two-syllable words

13.1. Primary accent + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

)

diacritics:

scalar notation:

teacher

(

)

apple

(

)

senate

(

)

ilness

(

)

Monday

(

)

husband

(

)

chocolate

(

)

colour

(

)

little

(

)

region

(

)

circus

(

)

island

(

)

preface

(

)

mountain

(

)

entrance

(

)

59

13. Two-syllable words

13.2. Primary accent + prominent syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

)

diacritics:

scalar notation:

female

(

)

empire

(

)

conduct

(

)

expert

(

)

epoch

(

)

access

(

)

colleague

(

)

climax

(

)

aspect

(

)

forecast

(

)

fortune

(

)

borrow

(

)

contrast

(

)

contact

(

)

proverb

(

)

catholic

(

)

13.3. Unaccented syllable + primary accent (  word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

) scalar notation:

again

(

)

alone

(

)

fatigue

(

)

career

(

)

above

(

)

remark

(

)

believe

(

)

caress

(

)

patrol

(

)

offence

(

)

60

13.4. Prominent syllable + primary accent (

13.4. Prominent syllable + primary accent ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

) diacritics:

scalar notation:

canteen

(

)

arcade

(

)

cartoon

(

)

boutique

(

)

brunette

(

)

champagne

(

)

augment

(

)

although

(

)

campaign

(

)

shampoo

(

)

donate

(

)

technique

(

)

13.5. Secondary accent + primary accent ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

)

) diacritics:

scalar notation:

unknown

(

)

Chinese

(

)

decode

(

)

non-stop

(

)

misuse

(

)

mayonnaise

(

)

farewell

(

)

eighteen

(

)

elsewhere

(

)

rewrite

(

)

rebuild

(

)

violin

(

)

61

14. Three-syllable words

14.1. Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (  ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

fortunate

(

 )

lunatic

(

 )

comparable

(

 )

generally

(

 )

literature

(

 )

necessary

(

 )

decorative

(

 )

subsequent

(

 )

commentary

(

 )

comortable

(

 )

fashionable

(

 )

63

14. Three-syllable words

14.2. Primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (  ) or Primary accent + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable ( ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

corridor

(

 )

absolute

(

 )

catalogue

(

 )

caravan

(

 )

handicap

(

 )

paragraph

(

 )

subtitle

(

)

corpuscle

(

)

pullover

(

)

cucumber

(

)

rectangle

(

)

triangle

(

)

14.3. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

important

(

)

behaviour

(

)

confusion

(

)

abandon

(

)

jalopy

(

)

substantial

(

)

advantage

(

)

determine

(

)

develop

(

)

consider

(

)

horizon

(

)

historic

(

)

64

)

14.4. Prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (

) or unaccented syllable + primary a

14.4. Prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (

)

or unaccented syllable + primary accent + prominent syllable ( ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

ambition

(

)

fantastic

(

)

partition

(

)

authentic

(

)

optician

(

)

transmission

(

)

tomato

(

)

tobacco

(

)

attaché

(

)

distribute

(

)

fiancée

(

)

contribute

(

)

14.5. Secondary accent + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

)

scalar notation:

substandard

(

)

prejudgement

(

)

remarry

(

)

non-fiction

(

)

scientific

(

)

non-smoker

(

)

upcountry

(

)

subconcsious

(

)

65

14. Three-syllable words

14.6. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent (  word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

guarantee

( 

)

seventeen

( 

)

cigarette

( 

)

picturesque

( 

)

serviette

( 

)

recommend

( 

)

understand

( 

)

orangeade

( 

)

millionaire

( 

)

refugee

( 

)

volunteer

( 

)

66

)

15. Four-syllable words

15.1. Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (   ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

category

(

)

arbitrary

(

)

delicacy

(

)

eligible

(

)

preferable

(

)

irritable

(

)

memorable

(

)

testimony

(

)

67

15. Four-syllable words

15.2. Primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable ( 

) or Primary accent + unaccented

syllable + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (   ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

centimetre

(



)

commentator

(



)

calculator

(



)

demonstrator

(



)

architecture

(



)

operator

(



)

characterize

(

 )

capitalize

(

 )

15.3. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

 ) syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

geography

(

 )

obligatory

(

 )

combustible

(

 )

accompaniment

(

 )

demonstrative

(

 )

laboratory

(

 )

praparatory

(

 )

certificate

(

 )

68

15.4. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (

 ) or promine

15.4. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (

 ) or prominent syllable + primary accent

+ unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

 ) scalar notation:

preoccupied

(

 )

appreciate

(

 )

enthusiast

(

 )

apologize

(

 )

similitude

(

 )

economize

(

 )

orthography

(

 )

authority

(

 )

15.5. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (  word:

transcription:

) syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

variation

( 

)

circulation

( 

)

explanation

( 

)

elementary

( 

)

demonstration

( 

)

cafeteria

( 

)

idiotic

( 

)

adolescence

( 

)

69

15. Four-syllable words

15.6. Secondary accent + prominent syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

) syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

acceptation

(

)

conurbation

(

)

expectation

(

)

retardation

(

)

departmental

(

)

relocation

(

)

demarcation

(

)

importation

(

)

70

16. Five-syllable words

16.1. Primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (    ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

capitalism

(

   )

puritanism

(

   )

figuratively

(

   )

cannibalism

(

   )

16.2. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

  )

diacritics:

scalar notation:

inevitable

(

  )

inadequacy

(

  )

catholicism

(

  )

communicative

(

  )

16.3. Unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:



diacritics:

) scalar notation:

accelerator

(



)

refrigerator

(



)

incinerator

(



)

sophisticated

(



) 71

16. Five-syllable words

16.4. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (  word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

 )

diacritics:

scalar notation:

curiosity

( 

 )

aristocracy

( 

 )

archaeology

( 

 )

university

( 

 )

16.5. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + prominent syllable (  word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

 )

diacritics:

scalar notation:

diferentiate

( 

 )

underestimate

( 

 )

rehabilitate

( 

 )

decontaminate

( 

 )

16.6. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (   word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

)

diacritics:

scalar notation:

classification

( 

)

characteristic

( 

)

Mediterranean

( 

)

qualification

( 

)

72

16.7. Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllabl

16.7. Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (   word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

)

diacritics:

scalar notation:

continuation

( 

)

consideration

( 

)

appreciation

( 

)

enthusiastic

( 

)

16.8. Secondary accent + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:

syllabic division:



) diacritics:

scalar notation:

predisposition

(



)

preoccupation

(



)

self-preservation

(



)

73

17. Six-syllable words

17.1. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( 

  )

word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

unexceptionable

( 

  )

individualism

( 

  )

indistinguishable

( 

  )

17.2. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (    ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

irritability

( 

 )

characteristically

( 

 )

etymological

( 

 )

75

17. Six-syllable words

17.3. Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (



 ) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

familiarity

(



 )

availability

(



 )

inferiority

(



 )

responsibility

(



 )

17.4. Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable (  



)

word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

electrification

(



)

solidification

(



)

experimentation

(



)

17.5. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable ( 



) word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

differentiation

( 



)

insubordination

( 



)

individualistic

( 



)

76

18. Seven-syllable words

18.1. Unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable (  word:

transcription:



)

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

intelligibility

(



)

inevitability

(



)

invulnerability

(



)

18.2. Secondary accent + unaccented syllable + secondary accent + unaccented syllable + primary accent + unaccented syllable + unaccented syllable ( word:

transcription:





)

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

irresponsibility

( 



 )

individuality

( 



 )

unconventionality

( 



 )

77

19. Single-accented compound words

19.1. Nouns word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

baby-sitter

(

  )

car-dealer

(

)

pain-killer

(

 )

holiday-maker

(



)

book-seller

(

 )

dish-washer

(

)

housekeeper

(

)

record-player

(

tin-opener

(

)

typewriter

(

)

lawn-mower

(

)

bartender

(

)

lie-detector

(



)

taxi-driver

(



)

egg-beater

(

vacuum-cleaner

(

hair-drier

(

)

ballet-dancer

(

)

stamp-collector

(

leave-taking

(

)

bee-keeping

(

)

book-keeping

(

)



)

) 



)

)

79

19. Single-accented compound words

house-keeping

(

window-dressing

(



)

window-shopping

(



)

car-cleaning

(

19.2. Adjectives word:

transcription:

syllabic division:

diacritics:

scalar notation:

breathtaking

(

)

painstaking

(

)

timesaving

(

)

time-

(

consuming

80



)

)

)

Part V.

More on lexical accent

81

20. Two syllable words

Most two-syllable words are derived from one-syllable words. For example, artist is derived from art, remove is derived from move. Most derivational morphemes do not carry the accent. Thus, these two-syllable words carry the accent on the syllable of the original word: artist

+-

remove

+-

Some other words that follow this pattern (+ -): drive

driver

friend

friendly

fame

famous

like

dislike

build

rebuild

come

become Most two-syllable NOUNS and ADJECTIVES follow this pattern even if they are not derived from a one-syllable word. For example, brother is not derived from *broth, but it still has the pattern + - .

(20.1) Underline the stressed syllables in the following sentence: The artist’s most famous picture shows some women and children in a lovely forest with a purple mountain behind. As usual, there are exceptions to this general rule. For example: mistake, asleep, machine, alone, etc. are all accented on the second syllable. Most two-syllable VERBS are accented on the second syllable.

83

20. Two syllable words (20.2) Underline the stressed syllables in the following sentence. Notice they are all stressed on the second syllable: Escape to Scotland, forget about work, just relax and enjoy the scenery! There are a number of exception to this general rule. For example: cancel, copy, and two-syllable verbs ending in -er and -en are all accented on the first syllable, answer, enter, widen, offer, listen, happen, open, etc.

84

21. Distinctive function of accent

21.1. noun/adjective - verb distinction In some cases, the accent is the only difference between words acting as nouns/adjectives or verbs1 . For example, increase (n) /"INkri:s/, and increase (v) /IN"kri:s/. In addition, there is, sometimes, phonemic variation due to change in accent. word

noun/adjective

verb

absent

/"æbs@nt/

/@b"sent/

accent

/"æks@nt/

/@k"sent/

addict

/"ædIkt/

/@"dIkt/

compound

/"k6mpaUnd/

/k@m"paUnd/

conduct

/"k6nd@kt/

/k@n"d2kt/

conflict contract contrast convict decrease desert export frequent import increase object perfect permit 1

There is not always a change in the lexical accent in words that are both nouns and verbs. For example: answer, picture, promise, reply, travel, visit, etc. are always accented on the same syllable.

85

21. Distinctive function of accent

present project protest rebel record produce protest rebel

(21.1) Write two sentences for each pair, place the stresses and transcribe them. For example: His "conduct was satisfactory. They con"duct themselves very well.

21.2. Compounds versus phrases As previously mentioned, compound nouns tend to be single accented on the first syllable. On the other hand, in a simple adjective + noun combination, both words would be accented. To illustrate this point, let’s use the compound blackboard. There is a difference between: (21.2) (a) a "blackboard. (b) a ­black "board. The main characteristic of compounds is that they form a new word, for a new concept. In this case a blackboard is no longer a board that is black. The same applies for greenhouse and green house: (21.3) (a) a "greenhouse. (b) a ­green "house. In both cases the compound is even written as a single word. Let’s now examine: (21.4) (a) an "English teacher (a teacher of English). (b) an ­English "teacher (a teacher who happens to be from England). What about “toy factory” and “moving van”?

86

21.3. Accent shift

21.3. Accent shift With most morphemes, there is no accent shift i.e. the accent remains on the same syllable. For example: -ness

=

"happy

"happiness

These are some of the morphememes that do not shift the accent pattern of the words (complete thw list with examples of your own): -able drinkable, consumable, etc. -al musical, logical, etc. -er player, catcher, etc. -ful helpful, beautyful, etc. -hood childhood, neighbourhood, etc. -ing boring, singing, etc. im- impossible, -ise civilise -ish childish -less careless -ly friendly -ment employment -ness happiness -ship fellowship un- unhappy under- underpay But there are some which do shift the accent. For example: ed

u

cate

ed

u

ca

tion

For -ion or -ian, the accent moves to the syllable preceding them. Some examples: electric

electrician 87

21. Distinctive function of accent decorate

decoration

music

musician

communicate communication The same happens with -ic: scientist

scientific

economy

economic

atom

atomic

artist

artistic

For -y, the accent falls on the second syllable before the end of the word. For example: na

tion

al

na

tio

na

li

ty

Consider: public

publicity

photograph photography climate

climatology

chemist

chemistry

88

22. Practice (22.1) Circle the word with an accent pattern different from the others. money

machine

mountain

message

answer

agree

allow

attract

middle

minute

mission

mistake

compare

correct

copy

collect

garden

guitar

granny

grammar

complete

common

careful

crazy

pronounce

provide

prefer

promise

shampoo

shoulder

shower

shopping

reason

remove

review

receive

Accentuate the italicized words in the following sentences: (22.2) (a) I got my first record as a present. (b) You’ve progressed this year, but I would like to see even more progress. (c) We import too much petrol, and the export figures are going down. (d) It started as a student protest, but now the army has rebelled against the government. (e) In the desert there is a big contrast between temperatures in the day and at night. (f) These companies produce household objects such as fridges and washing machines. Transcribe: (22.3) (a) How many had he had? (b) One over the eight, I should think. (22.4) (a) What am I wanted for? (b) You are not wanted at all. Neither am I. (22.5) (a) Billy will go with you. 89

22. Practice (b) Billy is going nowhere. Not tonight. (22.6) It would be nice if it would stop raining,| would not it? (22.7) (a) There is nothing for it. We will have to pay the fine. (b) How can we? (22.8) (a) That is kind of you. (b) Far from it. (c) No. It really is very kind. (22.9) (a) Has he had his hair cut? (b) Of course he has, silly! Long ago. (22.10) England and Dwales? Never heard of those! What are “dwales”? (22.11) (a) Where is he at this moment? (b) At the hospital A and E department. (22.12) (a) They must try them themselves, then. (b) They had better not. (22.13) Did they say they were Joe and Ann| or Jo and Dan? (22.14) I am going to the ball as Napoleon. Who are you going as? (22.15) (a) Does this train |stop at all stations. (b) It does not stop at all. (22.16) (a) Why is a short negro| like a white man? (b) Because he’s not a tall black. (22.17) At the village church |they ate Dutch cheeses| and drank orange juice. (22.18) We had some Scottish beef |and some red wine| and some cheese or other. (22.19) (a) Father’s bringing home some missionary for dinner. (b) That will be nice. (22.20) She’s giving him a painting| that she will have done by Christmas. 90

(22.21) He’s going to give them to me is not he? Tell him his father said to. (22.22) We are on our own from here on, are not we? Not that that matters. (22.23) (a) I was wondering what it was that was keeping them. (b) So was I. (22.24) (a) We lost our way| and got ourselves terribly muddy. (b) So were we. (22.25) If you want some| take some. They are perfectly wholesome. (22.26) We saw him in his house. He always has his hands| in his pockets. (22.27) (a) Will you let us have a party, please? (b) Let us see what Father says.

91