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Inc.

page_i

New York

\342\226\240 IVsel

\342\226\240 Honc

ko\\c

Page ii of Congress

Library

Data

Cataloging-in-Publication

Leo

Alting,

mekanisk

[Grundlaeggende

teknologi.

English]

version edited Manufacturing engineeringprocesses/ LeoAlting; English \342\200\224 2nd rev. and ed., by Geoffrey Boothroyd. expanded, and materials processing; 40) p. cm. \342\200\224 (Manufacturing engineering of:

Translation

mekanisk

Grundlaeggende

teknologi.

Includes bibliographical referencesand ISBN 0-8247-9129-0 (alk. paper)

1. Manufacturing

index.

I. Boothroyd,

processes.

III. Series.

G. (Geoffrey).

II. Title.

TS183.A4713 1994 93-33384

670.42-dc20

CIP

second edition

This

by Akademisk

published

Alting

contains figures and tables from Forlag

Mekanisk

Grundlaggende

new figures

and

\302\251 1974

Teknologi

and tables preparedfor

by Leo 3, 8,

Chapters

10, 11, and 12, unlessotherwisestated.

The publisher

on this

discounts

offers

book when orderedin bulk

write to Special Sales/ProfessionalMarketing This book

is printed

Copyright reproduced

\302\251 1994

on

acid-free

the

at

Dekker, Inc. All Rights by Marcel or transmitted in any form or by any means, in writing

permission

Madison

Avenue,

Current printing 10

(last

New

any

from the publisher.

York,

New York

10016

digit):

98765432

PRINTED IN THE

UNITED

more

information,

below.

Reserved.

Marcel Dekker,Inc.

270

For

paper.

photocopying, microfilming, and recording,or by without

address

quantities.

STATES

OF AMERICA

page_ii

electronic information

Neither

this book

or mechanical, storage

nor any

part

may

including

and retrieval

system,

be

Pageiii Foreword

book the subject of manufacturing is discussed within the framework of a fundamental of processes. This should help the reader understand where a particular process fits within the overall scheme and what be suitable for the manufacture of manufacturing processes might a particular component.The treatment of the subject matter is adequately descriptivefor those unfamiliar with the various processes and yet is sufficiently for an introductory academic analytical course in manufacturing. One attractive feature of the book is the of particularly presentation summaries of the various manufacturing processes in data sheet form. In this

classification

are many textbooks that attempt to deal with manufacturing processes at the introductory level: some are formed from a collection of individual chapters having no common theme or underlying of structure; most are purely descriptiveand of little interest to those wishing to introduce analyses Some textbooks concentrate only on the processes into their teaching; one or two are too analytical. mechanics of processes or on the mechanical of processes such as machining, metal and types forming, There

so on, powder

while neglecting the metallurgy.

The enhancements

None

life

cycle

or chemical

types of

criticisms can be leveledat

included in this second editionbring

chapterson nontraditional the

metallurgical

of these

approach

processes,

manufacturing

the

systems

to man-

page_iii

processes suchas welding,casting,and this

textbook

book.

right

(including

up-to-date.

the Japanese

The new

philosophy), and

Page

ufacturing

are valuable

additions. Professor Alting

approach, emphasizing recycling manufacturing organizations throughout the

GEOFFREY

is

the

a well-known

a subject

of products, world.

BOOTHROYD

page_iv

world

which is rapidly

authority

becoming

on

the a top

iv

life cycle

priority

for

Pagev Preface

to

Second

the

Edition

This editionincludesenhancementsand

well as three new

chapters

of the chapters in the First Edition manufacturing industry today.

of several

extensions

of great

on topics

importance

to

the

as

The major revisionsare as follows:Chapter and 3, on engineering materials, has been rewritten In Chapter 8, on joining, the section sections on ceramics and composites have been added. on welding arc formation and maintenance has beencompletely rewritten and expanded, and data sheets on the In most are on data sheets on the most 10, important welding processes given. Chapter casting, In have been added. on data sheets on the most important casting processes Chapter 11, plastics, important plastic processeshave been added. Chapters

12 to 14 present

new material. Chapter 12,on

nontraditional

such important processes

manufacturing

cycle approach

on the in

life cycle manufacturing

fundamentals

includes

systems,

equipment,flexiblemanufacturing manufacturing, productionplanning, 14,

machining, and

laser

layer

(rapid prototyping).

Chapter 13, on manufacturing

Chapter

processes,

manufacturing

as electricaldischarge electron beam machining, abrasive u ltrasonic electrochemical processing, jet machining, machining, machining, discusses

systems,

and

scheduling

control,

approach in manufacturing, with

emphasis

of manufacturing systems, advanced efficient manufacturing, and the Japanese production philosophy.

integrated

CIM-computer

provides

on envi-

page_v

a basic

understanding

of the life

Page

ronmental,

health, and

occupational

developinga sustainable This

new edition

thus

resource consequences.This

life

cycle

perspective

is a

necessity in

industry.

manufacturing

and more comprehensive treatment of the manufacturing a broader context in relation to manufacturing and the systems a more text for academia as wellas for complete practicing

an expanded

provides

in and places the processes life cycle perspective.Thebookis now and manufacturing and industrial engineers. designers

processes

The development of

the

of

Technical

experiences

and

contributed the

the

new edition

University needs chapter

have

has

been

carried

out by for about

of Denmark, who uses the text been important in the selection of the

on manufacturing

I want to express my gratitude Dr. Siggaard for providing

mainly

to Professor his

knowledge

Associate Professor J. R. Dissing, 200 students every year. His

new

material.

Dr. K.

Siggaard has

systems. and Dissing for his valuable on manufacturing systems.

LEO ALTING

page_vi

significant

vi

contributions

and

Page vii

Preface

to the

is an

engineering

Manufacturing

in order to

introduced

fully

to the

due

generallybeentaught student or the

of the

fact

that

in

practicing

At

years

methods

colleges

descriptive

is

of society.

approaches have not

and scientific

field. This field has mainly

engineering

traditional

the

thus

and

industry

engineering

in the manufacturing

technicians and skilledcraftsmen.

discipline in any industrialized society.For many in engineering curricula that and significance

stature

demands

the

fulfill

This situation is partly been

important

been granted the

has not

manufacturing necessary

First Edition

been

considered

the purview

and universities, manufacturing

manner, which is not

very

challenging

of

has for either the

engineer.

in computer technical developments in the last decade,for example, technology and its and applications in design(computer-aideddesign,CAD) manufacturing (computer-aided CAM), have stressedthe need for a more systematic engineering approachin manufacturing,

Rapid

oriented

manufacturing

This books manufacturing

The book

toward

representsthe engineering.

gives a systematic

first

practical fundamental

problem-solving. step in the

development of a more systematic

The mission is accomplished through and

coherent

picture

the

of the manufacturing

page_vii

following

field.

main

approach

features:

in

viii

Page

book allows a quick survey to methods available for the production

The book createsa basis

for

process

systematic

and

Finally, the presentation

is basedon a scientific

imagination

a general

utilizes

To achieve the preceding goals new point of view. Traditionally, the different description. When common

process

model

built

the

processing

die

design,

and

systems.

production

and

engineering

systematic tool and

development,

systematic

approach

that stimulates the

background.

been necessary to consider from a manufacturing engineering are treated each a specific processes individually, requiring special are analyzed, it appears that they can all be describedby a processes from a few fundamental elements. A combination of these elements all known (and unknown) processes. This modelis describedin

5 to 11 specific processareasaredescribedand structured to the according 1. It should be mentioned that on and 10, Chapter Chapter casting, Chapter 11,on are not fully to the new model but the reader is encouraged technology, developed according as a valuable exercise. 1. In

Chapter

for

of

it has

up

gives a processmorphology

and limitations

of specific

systematic design of production machinery

and

of the possibilities components.

be made

The

Chapters

model presented in plastics

to do

this

In order to material

give the

(plasticity

necessary

to understand the processes, Chapter 2 introduces of materials, and Chapter 4, the fundamentals

background

3, engineering

Chapter

properties,

metalworking

the

reader

theory).

As a reminder that the application of manufacturing processes is not determined and economic viewpoints, Chapter 12 introduces the subject of industrial safety. A

material has been used as results are very encouraging.

of this

version

years

and the

hours

with 80

discussed is

training

It is

my

duration

at The

many

engineering

editorial

introductory

comments

Dell K. Allen,

Brigham Young

improvements

for

which

I am

Technical University of Denmark for

improve

drastically

colleges and universities will be able to use in manufacturing course engineering.

and suggested University,

has

technical

is one semesterof about 42 problems are presented, someof which

hours of homework.Along with the course, classes. The resultsof the course

that

hope

from

of the course

in special problem in parallel. given

textbook for a fundamental

For valuable

a textbook

The

solely

7

class are

when workshop

the

book

as their

is thanked. Professor improvements Dr. G. Boothroyd and stimulated several manuscript

also read the

very grateful.

LEOALTING

page_viii

Page

Contents

iii

Foreword

Preface to the Second Edition to the

Preface

v

First Edition

vii

1

1

Process Model

A Morphological

1

1.1 Introduction

2

1.2

Structure of

Basic

Manufacturing

Processes

6

1.3

Material Flow

System

10

1.4 of

Examples

Manufacturing

Processes

16

1.5

Energy Flow System

1.6

33 Flow

Information

System

47

1.7

Summary

49

2 of

Properties

Engineering

Materials

49

2.1

Introduction

50

2.2 Material

Properties

50

2.3

Mechanical

Properties of Materials

Engineering Materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Important Material Properties in Manufacturing Effect of the Processes on the Material Properties 3.4 Classification of Materials Metallic Materials

Nonferrous Metals Plastics (High Polymers)

3.11 Composite Materials Basic Theory of Metalworking 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Two- and Three- Dimensional Systems of Stress True Stress-Natural Strain Curves and Instability 4.4 Yield Criteria Effective Stress and Effective Strain Work of Deformation Classification of the Manufacturing Processes

Classification of the Processes Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes 6.1 Introduction Characteristics of Mass-Conserving Processes 6.3 Typical Examples of Mass-Conserving Processes Determination of Forces and Energ 6.5 Summary Solid Materials: Mass-Reducing Processes 7.1 Introduction Characteristics of Mass-Reducing Processes 7.3 Geometrical Possibilities 7.4 Examples of Typical Mass-Reducing Processes 75 Determination of Forces and Power

page

8 Solid Materials: Joining Processes

239

8.1

239

8.2 Characteristics of the Joining Processes

241

8.3 Fusion Welding

242

8.4 Pressure Welding

255

8.5 Joining Processes Based on Filler Materials with Tf < Tw Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding

261

8.6 Survey of the Joining Methods

267

8.7 Examples of Typical Joining Processes

269

281

9 Granular Materials: Powder Metallurgy

9.1

281

Introduction 9.2 Characteristics of the Powder Metallurgical Processes

282

9.3 Properties and Applications

294

10 Liquid Materials: Casting Processes

301

10.1

301

Introduction 10.2 Characteristics of Casting Processes

302

10.3 Melting (and Control of Composition)

305

10.4 Mold Production, Pouring, and Solidification

310

10.5 Casting Processes

322

10.6 Geometrical Possibilities

331

10.7 Examples of Typical Casting Processes

336

11

343

Plastics and Plastic Processing

11.1

343

Introduction

11.2

343

Manufacturing Properties of Plastics

11.3

347

Plastic Processing Methods

11.4

357

Examples of Typical Plastic Processing Methods 12 Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes

363

12.1

363

Introduction 12.2 Processes

364

12.3

409

Layer Manufacturing Technology 13

417

Manufacturing Systems

13.1

417

The Fundamentals of Manufacturing Systems 13.2 Advanced Production Equipment

page_xi

t

422

Page xii

13.3

429

Flexible

Manufacturing Systems 438

13.4 Integrated

Computer

Manufacturing

13.5

442

Efficient

Manufacturing

13.6

444

Production

Planning

and

Control

13.7

447

The Japanese Production

Philosophy

13.8

449

Conclusions

14 Cleaner

451 Manufacturing

451

14.1 Introduction

452

14.2

Cleaner

Manufacturing

453

14.3

Selectionof Manufacturing

Processes

and

Materials

454

14.4

Waste Reduction

Program

454

14.5 Saving

Energy

Program 455

14.6

Pollution

Minimization

455

14.7

Better

Conditions

Working

14.8

455

Conclusion

457

15

Notes on

Industrial

Safety

15.1

457

Introduction

15.2 Industrial

457

Safety

15.3 Risks in Industry

458

and Risk Analyses 459

15.4

Governmental

Laws

and Regulations 461

References

Problems Answers

465

to Selected Problems

481

483

Appendix: Unit Conversions

487

Index

page_xu

1

A

1.1

Model

INTRODUCTION

In industrial

used. To

processes,

select

the

including

tolerances

are

technically

a given product,

of the

methods processes or manufacturing and economically best manufacturing to have a broad, fundamental necessary

many different

production,

be able to for

sequence knowledge

and

Process

Morphological

it

is

of the various possibilities and limitations manufacturing the work materials used and the geometries,surface finishes,

required.

in detail, but processes are not considered are based is structure on which all processes and this a the elements in structure, defining considering of systematic materials processing is obtained, which is based on a understanding and allows evaluation of the an general engineering background possibilitiesand of the different processes. This approach has a broad, general limitations in the application since it reflects invariant relations, methods,or principles, but context of this book it will be related only to those processescharacteristic of the

In

this

first

a coherentpicture introduced. By

manufacturing

chapter of

the individual

the common

industry.

1

Chapter1

2

1.2

OF

STRUCTURE

BASIC

PROCESSES

MANUFACTURING

The term object, available:

To produce (1) material,

purpose of the

any

in

change

(2) energy, it is

process,

in the properties of an information content (form data), state, be property, three essential agents must (3) information. Depending on the main

hardness,

geometry,

including

on.

so

and

be defined as a change

in general

can

process

and

either a

material

following sections, only process. considered, especiallythose producing geometrical or both (1). This does not, material however, properties,

process, or an will be processes

an energy

process,

In the

information

material

or changes a limitation

changes imply

in

of the

general principles.

1.2.1 General ProcessModel The

a material

that

material

flow,

1.

flow, and

energy

flow,

Through

*

of the of the final

mass

The

mass

to = 0)

(dM

work

0)

as

follows: the

can

be

as follows:

characterized

can be a shape

circumscribed by change is brought

the

initial

about

Material (o) (Material product

(i)

1.1

1.2:

Fig.

processes processes assembly or joining processes

can be characterized

component that

means

Material (i)

FIGURE

in

shown

materials

work

* The geometry of the final material geometry, which the removal of material.

Information

as

material,

Mass-reducing processes (dM
0). Here M means massof material, i input, and o output. processes (dM and 2 refer to the number of material elements. three

The

1.2

FIGURE

main

of material

types

(dM =

Assembly or joining \342\200\242 The that the

(sometimes

expressed

as dM

> 0) can

be

follows:

as

characterized

processes

1

geometry is obtained of the final geometry

final

of the

masses

components methods.

the previous

These three types of material depending

on the

process,

lubricants,

cooling

fluids,

in material

by

mass

the

properties

processes.

flow

have flow

auxiliary

and filler without

which

a

assembling

components so equal to the sum of of by one or both

or joining

is approximately are manufactured

material but, necessary, such as

been related to the work of material

may be

at a change material. Mostprocesses aiming in geometry are mass-conserving change

as energy associated with the process can be characterized or of loss removal and to the transmission energy. workpiece, supply, energy what might be termed shape and property flow includes Information as the be characterized can A certain information. geometry for a certain material The

energy

flow

Chapter 1

4

change

the material. In on the impressed

for

information

shape

is

information

to the

sum of the

a

process, shapeshape

geometry-changing

material so that

final

the

and the shape-change shape information The information is created impressed shape-change or die a a certain an interaction between tool contour and a (with content) by material and the of movement for the work tool or die. This means that pattern a geometry-changing a is characterized material flow on which, by process by of an energy flow, the shape-change information means to the corresponding is equal

information

initial

by the process.

information

information

is

flow

impressed.

a change

Impressing

more steps, which l0 = /, +

in

A/,, +

on a

geometry

material can

be carried out

or

in one

that

means

AIp2

+

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 \342\200\242

+

(1.1)

*im

where I0 is the desiredgeometry, /, the initial shape information and Ipn the shape-change information for a single process.The is determined processes necessary partly for technical and partly

of the

material, of

number

economical

for

reasons.

Similarly, the property information so on, involves the sum of the

and

changes

in

The

proper

interaction

includes

knowledge

and so

on. This

is governed by the component, of the forces, power, friction which is control information,

Based on the three is shown

manufacturing process

flow,

flow

described,

systems

in Fig.

1.3.

In

this

and

the

control and partly

flow

systems,

information, lubrication, analytical

which data,

cutting and

partly

a complete model of a the various kinds of material information flow associated with

context,

and shape and property will be considered.

flow,

energy

strength,

material

later.

is discussed

empirical,

by the various processes. between these three fundamental

hardness,

produced

properties

desired

yieldingthe

for example, of the initial

flow, properties

processes

manufacturing

Morphological Structure of the Processes

1.2.2

it appears that can all be processes they manufacturing model built a few a from fundamental up by general morphological related to the three flow these elements, a systems. By combining which all from obtained can be is manufacturing processes morphology

When

analyzing

described elements

process deduced.

The

elements

fundamental

flow

Material

State

in this

of material

Basic process Type

of

flow

(process

type)

morphological

model are:

A

Process

Morphological

5

Model

Energy

flow

Control

Shape

Shape

information

(Si)

Information

information^^

(S0

>

Shape

information

flow

FIGURE 1.3

Energy

Model of a

material

process.

flow

Tool/die supply

Energy

Transfer

medium

Equipment characteristics

Energy

Type

of energy flow

Information

Surface

creation

Pattern

of

(principles)

movement

for

Material

Tool/die

Each of these elements can have different in Fig. 1.4. By \"values,\" as shown choosing a value from each column the fundamental basis for a material process is obtained. Some of the combinations are physically but, in general, impossible

Chapter 1

6

field,

model

1.4,

in Fig.

shown

which the

geometry to create

type of

flow

various

single elements

must

are

their elements

and

systems

the

properties

desired

change

the process.

characterizing

system

deals with the state of the material for are changed, the basic processesthat in geometry and/or and the properties,

State of Material

1.3.1

states

different

can

solid or incoherent differencesin the

material,

in

its

The

the

of the

process structures. In is also important. Here a

composition

materials to

be

may

helpful,

the forming

evaluate

into

division

usual

states

different

different

quite

and heterogeneous materials and partly

gaseous.

sequences,

processing is maintained.

materials

later, result

and

granular,

a subdivision

consideredas

material can be processed as shown in Fig. are, When processing compositematerials, state can be appear at the same time. The granular can be divided of the solid state, sincesolids into coherent materials. solid Considering the technological (granular)

in which the

states

various

1.4, solid, fluid,

granular

the

flow

material

the

and/or

be used

The

of the

flow

SYSTEM

FLOW

MATERIAL

1.3

can

the three

consequently,

next.

discussed

As

the possibilities

generate new process ideas.

model, a knowledge

to use the

obtained;

of

survey

to establish a process. coherent picture of the process and limitations of the various

necessary

ingredients

a systematic and

gives

be used to

also

can

able

be

To

be

a quick

enabling

processes;it

basic

all the

contains

model

the

This morphological

materials into

division

to

properties

in

obtain

shown

as

will,

state of the

to the

addition

partly

solid and

homogeneous for ideas

new

to the

relation

basic

processes.

Homogeneousmaterials the

form

include

of chemical

Heterogeneousmaterials Materials can

further

include be

homogeneous

mixtures

and pure materials

mechanical

mixtures.

by their

characterized

thermal, chemical,

depending on the purpose of the analysis be conducted. Clearly, in a study of manufacturing processes, a broad is important. of materials and their properties knowledge and understanding and mechanical,

manufacturing

1.3.2

Basic Processes

Basicprocessesare defined by

the

properties,

as

the properties of the of their interaction nature

geometryand/or

in

compounds and elements.

those

processes with

the

that create

changes

basic processes are A manufacturing material.

The

materials.

in

to

the

characterized process

Infonnation

flow

Material

flow

Energy

Energy characteristics in equipment

in

supply

tool/die systems state of

basic

type

material

process

process

1

1

solid

mechanical

1

1

thermal

granular 1

1

chemical

liquid

of

material

|

1

massconserving

none

forming

| 1-D

translation

1

I

|

2-D forming

rotation

I

|

gaseous

free

forming

energy supply through

energy

type of

characteristic

energy

active

work

movements

restricted

elastic

pressure

motion

differences

restricted

plastic

mass

rigid

translation

if

combination of

both

pressure

forces

restricted

conduction

heat

systems (torches, etc)

open

radiation

general

combinations of these to the

the

1.4

The morphological

/,

infonnation flow/impression from tool/die to material

/,

kinenutic movements from equipment to tool/die

structure

of material

bath systems

unspecified

flow,

chemical

tool/die

energy source utilized \302\243*, in the equipment

FIGURE

systems

3r

tool/die

from the

the

electrical

processes.

thermal

f closed systems (ovens, etc)

heat

granular

flow

\302\243t energy supply to equipment

o

5\"

jz:

|

combination of both

energy supply \302\243, material from

a*

| rotation

bquid

Morphological process model

o \342\226\2403

mechanical

1

joining

I

none

|

forming

transfer media

1

1

total

1

massreducing

pattern of movement tool/die

surface

creation

>

flow,

electrochemical 1 basic processes 1\342\200\224mechanical basic 2\342\200\224thermal

processes

basic 3\342\200\224chemical

processes

chemical

8

1

Chapter

1

Phase 1

Phase

2

Phase

1

3

1

Basic

Basic

1

Basic

process

process

1

process

1 1

basic

(secondary

change)} primary

pre-processes)

processes,

1

.

(property

\342\226\240 Shaping

Preparation,

'

1.5

Division of a

of a

consists

normally

of the material flow.

1

typical

\342\200\242

basic processes,which of basic

series

processes can

phases.

constitute

be divided

the into

structure three

phases:

1, which consists of the suitable state\342\200\224geometry

Phase

cropping,

etc.)\342\200\224for

Phase 2, which geometry and/or

consists

change

The basic processesassociated The structure

processes.

designing The Table

interaction described

manufacturing

shown

with in

Fig.

the component

bring

deburring,

a

into

etc.)

basic processesassociatedwith

processes(according phases

into

the desired

create

that

cooling,

1.5, where the

in Fig.

material

melting, sawing, in geometry and/or properties

processes that

(solidification,

the

(heating,

change primary of the basic processes

called the primary basic

2 are

that bring

processes properties

in properties of the basic

This division is illustrated phase

basic and/or

the

Phase 3, which consists the specified end state

in

into three

process

manufacturing

series of

Any

(secondary basic pro-

| cesses,post-processes)

basic

processes)

1

FIGURE

treatment

After

1 and

3 are

1.5 is very

useful

to

the primary

called secondary when

analyzing

goal). basic

and

processes.

into three main categories, as shown processes can be divided 1.1. Each of these categoriesis characterized by the nature of the are with the work material. The various single basic processes

basic

later.

relevant series of objective for a processhas been established, be Here the actual type of basic can found. secondary processes primary when has a significant material influence, since the materials react differently actions. If or chemical to thermal, mechanical, aiming processes only subjected of possible at geometrical changes are considered,the number primary basic in to those shown Table 1.2. in is reduced 2 l.S) Fig. processes(phase When

the main

and

A Morphological

Categories of BasicProcesses

The Three Main

1.1

TABLE

Process Model

Mechanical

Chemical

Thermal

Elastic

deformation

Plastic

deformation

Brittle

fracture

Ductile fracture

Heating

Solution/dissolution

Cooling

Combustion

Melting

Hardening

Solidification

Precipitation

Phase transformation

Flow

Evaporation

Mixing

Condensation

etc.

etc.

Diffusion

Separation

Placing

Transport etc.

TABLE

1.2

Change

Geometry

of basic

Category

Processes

Basic

Primary

Used

in

that

Processes

Material

Basic processes

process

Plastic deformation

Mechanical

Fracture

and ductile)

(brittle

Elastic deformation Flow Thermal

(filling,

placing, etc.)

Melting

Evaporation

Solution-dissolution

Chemical

(electrolytical

Deposition

(electrolytical and chemical) and chemical)

Combustion

It

is the the

coupling

with

and number

types the

information

material

flow

system

1.6 showsone example.To to

distinguish

The flow

the

way

established

it is

in which

of secondarybasicprocesses flow exists here.

that

A close

required.

Flow Type (Type of Processes)

1.3.3 The

basic process and

primary

determines

between

as

give

graphically

more

detailed

shown

in Table

metallic materials.

1.3. Examples

in various

illustrated

examples

three flow types as shown can be characterized

processes

manufacturing

system column for

the

can be

in

it

would

Fig.

ways. Figure be necessary

1.2.

according to

the

of processesare listed in

material the

last

10

1

Chapter

1

Phase 2

I \342\226\240 E

I

Phase State

State

Phase I

IE

IE

State

I

I

y

L_

Basic

Basic

Basic

process

process

process

1

(state)

material

energy

patte

rn of

move

(E)

information

(I)

auxiliary

material

I

To

phase

1, 2,or

Basic

3

process

1 State

Schematic

1.6

FIGURE illustrations

be drawn

can

material flow system. flow types.

of the

illustration

main

the

within

it is possible to distinguish As mentioned in Section 1.2.1, of flow: mass-conservingprocesses,mass-reducing processes, Selection of flow or processtype depends joining processes.

of material, geometry,

EXAMPLESOF MANUFACTURING

1.4 In this 1.3

section a short

is given,

described

to

partly

background for the here.

chapters

(1,2,4).

1.4.1

Forging

will

individual

be characterized

(metal), mechanical

sections.

primary

be

the

and

three types assembly or

on the

requirements price, and other factors.

examples

process

as: mass

are

mentioned

in

Table

to give discussion and partly a and joining processes are not

Assembly in described

processes

basic

among

PROCESSES

the foregoing

illustrate

following

1.3, and the

can

descriptionof

The examples

of Table

Forging

number,

tolerance,

surface,

More detailed

accordance with the structure in more detail in later

discussed

conserving,solidstate

process\342\200\224plastic

deformation.

of

work

material

A wide

vari-

A

Morphological

of Technological

Classification

1.3

TABLE

Material ProcessesUsedin

Category of

Process or flow

11

Model

Process

State of

type

Mass-conserving

material

Solid

Mechanical

Plastic

Materials\"

Process

Primary

basic process basic process

examples Forging

and

rolling

deformation

processes

(dM =

Shaping

0) Granular

Mechanical

Flow and

plastic Powder compaction

deformation

Mass-reducing

Fluid

Mechanical

Flow

Solid

Mechanical

Ductile

processes

WM

1.21

S o

based on:

transmission

\342\200\2423

?

No motions

Principles Total

Two relative motions

of surface creation

forming

(TF)

0-

Rigid Not

Not rigid

CA

forming (ODF)

O,: \342\231\246

O,:

E O,: \342\231\246

0~

O,:

\342\231\246

Free

forming

6A

O,:

Rigid

O,:

o

supply)

Rigid

ovvvl

02

Rigid

Not

rigid

Not rigid Rigid

3

Not rigid

I

O,: \302\2433

Rigid

Not rigid

rigid

Rigid

Rigid KM

Not rigid

(TDF)

O,:

Not rigid

Rigid Not

(total energy

motion

rigid

Rigid

V?.

Two-dimensionalforming

>-

O,:

\342\231\246

One-dimensional

Onerelative

I*

O,: Not

rigid

Rigid

Not

rigid

Rigid Not

rigid

(FF) Oj: Not rigid

\342\226\241

Oz- Not

rigid

Oj:

\342\226\241

Not rigid

Not rigid

\342\200\236

I \342\226\241 1

OlS

Not rigid

Oj:

Not

rigid *4

(a)

(b>

w

f 50

THE 73 as

cn ?3 >-3

>

c

O

G

o

cn

\342\200\2420

CO

>

cn

H O cn

FIGURE 3.1

Classification of someof the

m

THE T3

a

> O cn cn >-9 W

O \302\253-3 cn h

z

o

50

r

cd cn 03 \302\253-3

M O 5\302\260 3 cn w

a

o

? a:

o

cn

cn

> cn cn M cn

cn

\\

I engineering

materials.

CO

73

Materials

Engineering

materials (wood,

concrete, bricks,etc.)that

are

not

for the present

important

discussion.

3.5

MATERIALS

METALLIC

3.5.1

Bonding

and

Structure

by the metallic bonding, where the metal ionsare held has a high mobility of the cloud.\" This type of bonding together the the in for and accounts free electrons level, (valence) high strength general and the be deformed without to fracture), relatively high ductility (ability of metals. These general tendenciescan be influenced by many meltingtemperature factors; consequently, exceptionsare common. with cubic, have a crystalline structure Metals body-centered predominantly

Metalsare characterized

by an \"electron

face-centered cubic, or materials

normally

consist

hexagonal close-packed

of thousands

lattice

of small

individual

structures.

Crystalline or grains, individual many

crystals

solidification, depending on the production method. During within the melt. As solidification lattices begin to form at various points random or which have orientation, these proceeds grow, meet, and grains, crystals of disorder in the where a boundaries form the grain 3.2), high degree (Fig.

atomic

exists

arrangement

[1,5,6].

influence on the properties of the a dominating The grain boundaries have are functions of the rate of nucleation The number and size of the grains metal. Once a metal has solidified,the number of grains and the rate of grain growth. which can be changed and size of the grains by deformation or heat treatment, The within rather wide limits. will allow its mechanical propertiesto be varied size on the following equation illustrates, for iron, the influence of the grain

yield stress:

Oo =

(3-1)

*i+4=

GRAIN

(a|

FIGURE

3.2

The formation of

-*i

II

/.

ii-

*

>*

2

2

7r,=

~7T3

03

V3 \342\200\2245-03

2

(cylindrical

Forging

workpiece) 1

hi

r~\342\200\224I\342\200\224

1

In

D2

,no;

*

CO

,no;

[= 2e2 =

2e3)

z -o,

Extrusion

>*

lno;

In

(=

-(o,

o3

=

-2\342\202\2542

-

-2e3)

o3)

Bulging In

%

In

D2

I

'2

~\302\2533

(=

-M

2e2 =

2e,]

Spherical segment Tube

expansion

In 22

I

'2

-a

*2 = *i

+

(D2

-

D,),uniform deformation

>/0|2+ 022-0|02

124

WORK

4.6

the

Determination of work

4.11

FIGURE

OF DEFORMATION of work, depending on amount material requires a certain work which the deformation takes place.The deformation of the energy necessary to determination a it allows as quantity, of the forces involved. and allows a determination deformation under

conditions

is an

of deformation.

of a

deformation

The

4

Chapter

important

carry out the Both parametersare necessaryfor

the

of machinery

selection

or the design of

machinery.

curve in Fig. 4.11, it can be seen that the From the stress-strain of dt is increase a strain to accomplish deformation per unit volume =

dw

The

work

W = If

every

(homogeneous

the strain

from

e, to the

strain

e2,

the work

per

becomes

volume

w =

of

a dt

If the deformation is carried out unit

work

(4.38)

dl

to

to deform the

necessary

J jwdV element

=

in the

deformation),

whole

volume

V then

becomes

(4.39)

jJVadldV volume V Eq.

is supplied

(4.39)

can be

with the written

same amount as

of work

Basic

125

of Metahvorklng

Theory

fl

f\342\200\224 \342\226\240V-TN

\\\342\200\224\\-\\\342\200\2241\342\200\224I\342\200\2241 4\342\200\224XJ v-J.\342\200\224V,\342\200\2241 h^ Redundant Friction Homogeneous

(a)

(

(b)

o

FIGURE 4.12

of deformation: Work (a) original workpiece; (b) homogeneous work of deformation); (c) nonhomogeneous workpiece (i.e., homogeneous of the workpiece (i.e., the work of deformation is equal to homogeneous deformation + frictional work + redundant work of deformation work). of the

deformation

work

The

per

yield stress

by

mean

the

Om(\342\202\2542\342\202\254,)

with Eq.

combined

1

fa

(4.38) gives

-

\342\200\224 Jei \342\202\254i \342\202\254?

ft>\342\200\224

|\302\243

\\ \\

t *'

x&>Xaje>' f^s^^2r\302\243^

T/R

T

I V

\\^\\ \\ V

v^-^^^i \\zc

M

(C^^J \\ l^rl \302\273 ^^\"M

Bar forging J

Swaging

R/T

R

^

Tube

rolling

Spinning

R

T

&t

v^

of

Chapter 6

140

6.4

TABLE

of Free-Forming

Examples

Processes

of motions

Pattern

Examples of

Tool

Workpiece

Free

processes

forming

J.

T

1