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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

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In SI Units

Serope Kalpakjian Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Steven R. Schmid University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana

SI conversion by Chi-Wah Kok Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

PEARSON Prentice Hall Singapore London N e w York Toronto Mexico City Munich Paris Capetown

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I r i n П EnL / 1I 1Т 1 1 XJ

Sydney Tokyo Madrid Hong Kong Montreal

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CONTENTS Preface xvii About the Authors ...

Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11

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What Is Manufacturing? 1 Product Design and Concurrent Engineering 7 Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service Environmentally Conscious Design, Sustainable Manufacturing, and Product Life Cycle 12 Selecting Materials 13 Selecting Manufacturing Processes 15 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 19 Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing 22 Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management 22 Manufacturing Costs and Global Competitiveness 24 General Trends in Manufacturing 25 Summary 26 References 26 Bibliography 28

Fundamentals of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials 29 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12

Introduction 29 Tension 30 Compression 45 Torsion 48 Bending 50 Hardness 51 Fatigue 56 Creep 58 Impact 59 Residual Stresses 59 Triaxial Stresses and Yield Criteria Work of Deformation 70 Summary 74 Summary of Equations 76 Bibliography 77 Questions 77 Problems 79

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Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals 83 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11

Introduction 83 The Crystal Structure of Metals 84 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals 85 Grains and Grain Boundaries 91 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 94 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 95 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working 98 Failure and Fracture 98 Physical Properties 105 General Properties and Applications of Ferrous Alloys General Properties and Applications of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys 115 Summary 126 Summary of Equations 127 Bibliography 127 Questions 128 Problems 129

Surfaces, Tribology, Dimensional Characteristics, Inspection, and Product Quality Assurance 131 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Introduction 131 Surface Structure and Properties 132 Surface Texture and Roughness 134 Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication 138 Surface Treatments, Coatings, and Cleaning 154 Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation 164 Dimensional Tolerances 170 Testing and Inspection 172 Quality Assurance 175 Summary 183 Summary of Equations 183 Bibliography 184 Questions 185 Problems 186

Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment; Heat Treatment 188 5.1 5.2 5.3

Introduction 188 Solidification of Metals Cast Structures 195

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5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 199 Melting Practice and Furnaces 207 Casting Alloys 208 Ingot Casting and Continuous Casting 214 Expendable-Mold, Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes 217 Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes 223 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes 227 Heat Treatment 236 Design Considerations 245 Economics of Casting 254 Case Study: Lost-Foam Casting of Engine Blocks 255 Summary 256 Summary of Equations 257 Bibliography 257 Questions 258 Problems 260 Design 262

Bulk Deformation Processes 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

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Introduction 265 Forging 266 Rolling 288 Extrusion 307 Rod, Wire, and Tube Drawing 320 Swaging 329 Die Manufacturing Methods 331 Die Failures 332 Economics of Bulk Forming 333 Case Study: Suspension Components for the Lotus Elise Automobile 334 Summary 336 Summary of Equations 336 Bibliography 338 Questions 338 Problems 340 Design 344

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Introduction 346 Sheet-Metal Characteristics 347 Shearing 351 Bending of Sheet and Plate 360 Miscellaneous Forming Processes 372 Deep Drawing 387 Formability of Sheet Metals and Modeling Equipment for Sheet-Metal Forming 403

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7.9 7.10

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Design Considerations 404 Economics of Sheet-Metal Forming 406 Case Study: Cymbal Manufacture 407 Summary 409 Summary of Equations 410 Bibliography 411 Questions 411 Problems 413 Design 415

Material-Removal Processes: Cutting 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15

Introduction 416 Mechanics of Chip Formation 418 Tool Wear and Failure 440 Surface Finish and Surface Integrity 447 Machinability 450 Cutting-Tool Materials 453 Cutting Fluids 464 High-Speed Machining 466 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing Round Shapes 467 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing Various Shapes 482 Machining and Turning Centers 495 Vibration and Chatter 501 Machine-Tool Structures 503 Design Considerations 504 Economics of Machining 507 Case Study: Ping Golf Putters 510 Summary 512 Summary of Equations 513 Bibliography 514 Questions 515 Problems 518 Design 521

Material-Removal Processes: Abrasive, Chemical, Electrical, and High-Energy Beams 523 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

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Introduction 523 Abrasives 524 Bonded Abrasives 526 Mechanics of Grinding 530 Grinding Wheel Wear 536 Grinding Operations and Machines

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9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17

Finishing Operations 547 Deburring 551 Ultrasonic Machining 552 Chemical Machining 554 Electrochemical Machining 558 Electrochemical Grinding 560 Electrical-Discharge Machining 561 High-Energy-Beam Machining 566 Water-Jet, Abrasive Water-Jet, and Abrasive-Jet Machining 568 Design Considerations 570 Process Economics 573 Case Study: Manufacture of Stents 574 Summary 576 Summary of Equations 577 Bibliography 578 Questions 579 Problems 580 Design 582

Properties and Processing of Polymers and Reinforced Plastics; Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling 584 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14

Introduction 584 The Structure of Polymers 587 Thermoplastics: Behavior and Properties 594 Thermosets: Behavior and Properties 601 Thermoplastics: General Characteristics and Applications 601 Thermosets: General Characteristics and Applications 604 High-Temperature Polymers, Electrically Conducting Polymers, and Biodegradable Plastics 605 Elastomers (Rubbers): General Characteristics and Applications 607 Reinforced Plastics 608 Processing of Plastics 619 Processing of Polymer-Matrix-Reinforced Plastics 637 Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling 643 Design Considerations 656 Economics of Processing Plastics 657 Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners 658 Summary 660 Summary of Equations 661 Bibliography 662 Questions 663 Problems 666 Design 667

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Properties and Processing of Metal Powders, Ceramics, Glasses, and Superconductors 669 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14

Introduction 669 Powder Metallurgy 670 Compaction of Metal Powders 676 Sintering 685 Secondary and Finishing Operations 691 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy 692 Economics of Powder Metallurgy 695 Ceramics: Structure, Properties, and Applications 697 Shaping Ceramics 706 Glasses: Structure, Properties, and Applications 712 Forming and Shaping Glass 714 Design Considerations for Ceramic and Glass Products 71 i Graphite and Diamond 719 Processing Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites 720 11.15 Processing Superconductors 723 Case Study: Hot Isostatic Pressing of Valve Lifter 724 Summary 725 Summary of Equations 726 Bibliography 727 Questions 727 Problems 729 Design 730

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Joining and Fastening Processes 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18

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Introduction 732 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 734 Arc Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode 736 Arc Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode 744 High-Energy-Beam Welding 746 The Fusion Welded Joint 749 Cold Welding 760 Ultrasonic Welding 761 Friction Welding 762 Resistance Welding 764 Explosion Welding 770 Diffusion Bonding 771 Brazing and Soldering 772 Adhesive Bonding 780 Mechanical Fastening 784 Joining Nonmetallic Materials 788 Design Considerations in Joining 790 Economic Considerations 794

CONTENTS

Case Study: Friction Welding of Monosteel Pistons Summary 796 Summary of Equations 797 Bibliography 797 Questions 798 Problems 801 Design 802

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Fabrication of Microelectronic, Micromechanical, and Microelectromechanical Devices; Nanomanufacturing 803 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18

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Introduction 803 Clean Rooms 807 Semiconductors and Silicon 808 Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation 809 Films and Film Deposition 812 Oxidation 813 Lithography 815 Etching 822 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 832 Metallization and Testing 833 Wire Bonding and Packaging 835 Yield and Reliability of Chips 839 Printed Circuit Boards 839 Micromachining of MEMS Devices 841 LIGA and Related Microfabrication Processes Solid Freeform Fabrication of Devices 857 Mesoscale Manufacturing 858 Nanoscale Manufacturing 859 Case Study: Digital Micromirror Device 860 Summary 863 Bibliography 864 Questions 865 Problems 866 Design 867

Automation of Manufacturing Processes and Operations 869 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5

Introduction 869 Automation 870 Numerical Control 877 Programming for Numerical Control Adaptive Control 884

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CONTENTS

14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12

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Material Handling and Movement 887 Industrial Robots 890 Sensor Technology 895 Flexible Fixturmg 899 Assembly, Disassembly, and Service 901 Design Considerations 904 Economic Considerations 907 Case Study: Robotic Deburring of Plastic Toboggans Summary 909 Bibliography 910 Questions 910 Problems 912 Design 912

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Systems 914 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15

Introduction 914 Manufacturing Systems 915 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 916 Computer-Aided Design and Engineering 918 Computer-Aided Manufacturing 923 Computer-Aided Process Planning 924 Computer Simulation of Manufacturing Processes and Systems 927 Group Technology 929 Cellular Manufacturing 935 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 937 Holonic Manufacturing 940 Just-in-Time Production 941 Lean Manufacturing 943 Communications Networks in Manufacturing 943 Artificial Intelligence 946 Summary 949 Bibliography 950 Questions 951 Problems 952 Design 952

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Product Design and Manufacturing in a Global Competitive Environment 954 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9

Introduction 954 Product Design and Robust Design 955 Product Quality and Quality Management 960 Life-Cycle Engineering and Sustainable Manufacturing Selection of Materials for Products 968 Substitution of Materials in Products 972 Capabilities of Manufacturing Processes 974 Selection of Manufacturing Processes 978 Manufacturing Costs and Cost Reduction 980 Summary 983 Summary of Equations 984 Bibliography 984 Questions 985 Problems 986 Design 986

Answers to Selected Problems Index

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