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Suzanne Cook

The Forest of the Lacandon Maya An Ethnobotanical Guide

The Forest of the Lacandon Maya

Suzanne Cook

The Forest of the Lacandon Maya An Ethnobotanical Guide

Suzanne Cook Department of Linguistics University of Victoria Victoria, BC, Canada

Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com. Videos can also be accessed at http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8 ISBN 978-1-4614-9110-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-9111-8 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015950469 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

When I first drove into Naha’, in 1990, all the Lacandon men of the community of Naha’ were at work in the middle of a logging road erecting electric power poles. Although electricity failed to arrive for another decade, it was clear that a dramatic shift in the Lacandones’ way of life was underway. I was inspired at that time by a book which described the Lacandones as “The Last Lords of Palenque”.1 It was a romantic portrayal of a Mayan people supposedly forgotten by time. The book has since been debunked for its premise by most scholars: today it is confirmed that the Ch’ol Mayas, rather than the Lacandones, were the builders of Palenque. Furthermore, at the time of its writing, the traditional culture has largely disintegrated, and the forest had already shrunk to a few protected reserves. When I arrived, the government-owned logging company was still extracting timber, and in its wake, immigrants were clamouring to establish homesteads. While conservationists have made some progress towards curbing the destruction, only a few of them have considered the attrition of Lacandon traditional ecological knowledge. Gertrude “Trudy” Blom, wife of archaeologist Franz Blom and proprietor of Na Balom, a research station in San Cristobal, was a powerful voice among those wanting to save the Lacandon forest. As the trees were being felled, she alone expressed great concern for the Lacandones’ emotional, spiritual, and psychological well-being, believing that without the forest they would lose their culture and be forced to join the ranks of the disenfranchised, indigenous people of Mexico. Others were Nations and Nigh, who were the first to show how Lacandon traditional knowledge sustained the ecological diversity of the forest, in their paper “The Evolutionary Potential of Lacandon Maya Sustained-Yield Tropical Forest Agriculture” (1980). Their thesis was that the Lacandones’ traditional agricultural practices not only preserved the forest but facilitated its regeneration, and that without the forest the Lacandones’ ecological knowledge would be lost. Thus, the fates of the forest and the Lacandones were intertwined, each depending on the other to survive. This book is an attempt to record as much of that knowledge as possible, with the hope that it will aid conservationists in their ongoing efforts to save the Lacandon forest, and that it will also interest Mayanists, Mayan enthusiasts, and most of all, the Lacandones. The videos for this book can be accessed at: http://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461491101 Victoria, BC

Suzanne Cook

1

V. Perera and R. D. Bruce, The Last Lords of Palenque: the Lacandon Mayas of the Mexican Rainforest (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986). v

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to the multitude of people who helped me with taxonomic identification. They are: A. C. Aceby, Estación de Biología Tropical “Los Tuxtlas” Instituto de Biología, UNAM; Alfonso Delgado-Salinas, Departamento de Botánica Instituto de Biología, UNAM; Andrew Henderson, MOBOT; Andrew MacDonald, UTPA; Axel Dalberg Poulsen, Oslo Botanical Garden, Natural History Museum University of Oslo; Billie L. Turner, University of Texas at Austin; Carlos R. Beutelspacher Baights, Herbario Eizi Matuda, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas; Daniel Austin, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum; Daniel L. Nickrent, Southern Illinois University; Donald Hodel, University at Davis, U. Cal; Duncan Golicher, El Cologio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), San Cristobal; Eduardo Gomes Goncalves, Depto. de Botânica, ICB, UFMG, Brazil; Eleazar Carranza, Instituto de Ecología, A. C., Centro Regional del Bajío, Pátzcuaro, Mich.; Erin Tripp, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden; Filiberto Malagón, Laboratorio de Malariología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Francisco Morales, Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio); George Staples, Singapore Botanic Garden, National Parks Board; Gerald D. Carr, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology Oregon State University; Gib Cooper, Bamboo of the Americas Organization (BOTA); Gilberto Cortes, BOTA; Harold Robinson, Smithsonian Institution; Heike Vibrans Lindemann, Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agrícolas, Mexico DF; Jens G. Rohwer, Biozentrum Klein Flottbek und Botanischer Garten, Hamburg, Germany; Jerome M. Levi, Carleton College, MN; Jim Conrad, author, naturalist, botanist, Chichen Itza, YUC., Mexico; Job Kuijt, University of Victoria, BC; John Gaskin, Botanist/Research Leader PMRU, Acting Research Leader ASRU,USDA ARS NPARL; John Longino, University of Utah; John M. MacDougal, Harris-Stowe State University; John R. Paul, Colorado State University; Jorge E. Arriagada, St. Cloud State University, Minnesota; Julio Enrique Morales, Herbario USCG, Guatemala; Kenneth A Langeland, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, University of Florida (IFAS); Kent D. Perkins, University of Florida Herbarium (FLAS); Lauren Raz, Universidad Nacional de Colombia; M. C. Alvaro Campos Villanueva, Estación de Biología Tropical “Los Tuxtlas”, Instituto de Biología, UNAM; Mark E Olson, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Michael Grayum, MOBOT; Nee, Michael, New York Botanical Garden; Nelson Zamora, Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio); Oscar Farrera Sarmiento, Flora Jardin Botanico F. Miranda, Chiapas; Paul Maas; Peter Jorgensen, MOBOT; Peter W. Fritsch, California Academy of Sciences; Reinaldo Aguilar, Director of the Flowering Plants of the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica; Robbin Moran, NY Botanical Garden; Rosamond I. Coates, Estacion de Biologia Tropical “Los Tuxtlas”, Instituto de Biología, UNAM; Roy Erkens, Institute of Environmental Biology, Utrecht University; Servando Carvajal, Herbario del Instituto de Botanica de la Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico; Sohrab Kheradmandan, International Investigation Centre for Natural Sciences, I2CNS GmbH; Susan G. Letcher, Purchase College; Thomas Croat, MOBOT; Yero R. Kuethe, James Cook University, Australia. Many thanks go to Robert M. Laughlin, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, and Nancy J. Turner, School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, for reading the book proposal and giving their nod of approval. Finally, I am indebted to Barry F. Carlson, for his financial and emotional support. Without him this book would not have been possible. vii

Contents

List of Videos .................................................................................................................... xxv 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1.1 The Lacandones .................................................................................................. 1.2 History of Research............................................................................................. 1.3 Collection Methods ............................................................................................. 1.4 Lacandon Consultants ......................................................................................... 1.5 How to Read This Book ...................................................................................... 1.5.1 Inventory Format ..................................................................................... 1.6 Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... References ....................................................................................................................

1 1 2 2 2 5 5 6 7

2

Language..................................................................................................................... 2.1 The Language System ......................................................................................... 2.2 Previous Research ............................................................................................... 2.3 Transcription Conventions in This Work ............................................................ References ....................................................................................................................

9 9 9 10 10

3

The Lacandon Rain Forest ........................................................................................ 3.1 Geography ........................................................................................................... 3.2 Climate ................................................................................................................ 3.3 Vegetation ........................................................................................................... References ....................................................................................................................

13 13 14 14 24

4

The Role of Plants in Traditional Lacandon Culture ............................................. 4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 4.2 Food .................................................................................................................... 4.2.1 Maize....................................................................................................... 4.2.2 Beans ....................................................................................................... 4.2.3 Fruits and Vegetables .............................................................................. 4.2.4 Fungi ....................................................................................................... 4.2.5 Ritual Offerings ...................................................................................... 4.3 Agriculture .......................................................................................................... 4.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................. 4.3.2 Kol ‘milpa’ .............................................................................................. 4.3.3 Kolil nah ‘House Garden’ ....................................................................... 4.3.4 Paakche' kol ............................................................................................ 4.3.5 Subsistence Activities ............................................................................. 4.3.6 Current Situation ..................................................................................... 4.4 Housing ............................................................................................................... 4.4.1 Layout ..................................................................................................... 4.5 Artefacts .............................................................................................................. 4.5.1 Furniture.................................................................................................. 4.5.2 Containers ...............................................................................................

25 25 25 25 26 27 27 28 37 37 37 39 39 41 44 45 45 61 61 61 ix

x

Contents

4.5.3 Fibre and Cordage ................................................................................... 64 4.5.4 Religious Objects .................................................................................... 65 4.5.5 Weapons and Tools for Hunting, Trapping, and Fishing ........................ 73 4.6 Crafts ................................................................................................................... 79 4.6.1 Jewellery ................................................................................................. 79 4.6.2 Bows and Arrows .................................................................................... 80 4.6.3 Pottery ..................................................................................................... 80 4.6.4 Musical Instruments ................................................................................ 81 4.6.5 Spinning .................................................................................................. 82 4.6.6 Weaving .................................................................................................. 83 4.6.7 Dyes ........................................................................................................ 86 4.7 Clothing............................................................................................................... 88 4.7.1 Men’s Clothing ....................................................................................... 88 4.7.2 Women’s Clothing .................................................................................. 88 4.7.3 Children’s Clothing ................................................................................. 90 4.8 Medicine and Curing........................................................................................... 90 4.9 Lacandon Plant Classification ............................................................................. 97 4.9.1 Lacandon System of Botanical Classification and Nomenclature .......... 97 4.9.2 Correspondence Between Folk Taxa and Botanical Taxa ....................... 99 References .................................................................................................................... 100 5

Botanical Inventory.................................................................................................... Botanical-Lacandon Index ........................................................................................... English-Lacandon Index .............................................................................................. References ....................................................................................................................

103 281 292 302

6

Ethnographic Inventory ............................................................................................ 6.1 Agriculture .......................................................................................................... 6.2 Artefacts .............................................................................................................. 6.2.1 Accessories ............................................................................................. 6.2.2 Containers ............................................................................................... 6.2.3 Cordage ................................................................................................... 6.2.4 Craft ........................................................................................................ 6.2.5 Furniture.................................................................................................. 6.2.6 Hunting, Fishing, Trapping Items ........................................................... 6.2.7 Musical Instruments ................................................................................ 6.2.8 Religious Objects .................................................................................... 6.2.9 Tools ........................................................................................................ 6.3 Clothing............................................................................................................... 6.4 Deities ................................................................................................................. 6.5 Food .................................................................................................................... 6.6 Geography ........................................................................................................... 6.7 Housing ............................................................................................................... 6.8 Medical Conditions ............................................................................................. References ....................................................................................................................

309 309 311 311 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 320 321 322 325 327 330 333

Appendix 1

Lacandon Plants Unidentified Botanically............................................. 335

Appendix 2

General Botanical Terms in Lacandon ................................................... 343

Appendix 3

Seasons....................................................................................................... 353

Appendix 4

Weather ..................................................................................................... 355

Contents

xi

Appendix 5 Lacandon Texts ......................................................................................... Take Care of the Forest, by CK, Naha’, 1991 .............................................................. Secret of the Balche’ , by AM, Naha’, 2003 ................................................................ Song of the Cacao, by JK, Naha’, 2003 ....................................................................... How to Build a House, by BM, Naha’, 2011 ............................................................... Flint Song, by AM, Naha’, 2003.................................................................................. Song for Spinning Thread, by JK, Naha’, 2003 ........................................................... Song for Grinding, by JK, Naha’, 2003 .......................................................................

357 357 358 360 361 362 363 365

Index .................................................................................................................................. 371

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6

AM (Lt) and BM (Rt) ..................................................................................... AM offers balche’ to the gods ........................................................................ KP with unripe poochin fruit .......................................................................... KM stripping vine for baskets ........................................................................ Säkho’ol.......................................................................................................... Photographer, Chan K’in Daniel ....................................................................

3 3 4 4 5 5

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.15

Chiapas physical map ..................................................................................... Lacandon communities, northern and southern.............................................. Lacandon area................................................................................................. Northern Lacandon territory ........................................................................... Fallow milpa ................................................................................................... Ek’ lu’um ‘black soil’..................................................................................... Soil structure................................................................................................... Canoe by rock cliff ......................................................................................... Waterfall in the southern Lacandon territory.................................................. Forest, 10 year fallow ..................................................................................... Lagoon ............................................................................................................ Lagoon ............................................................................................................ Cattle in pasture .............................................................................................. Naha’, 2010 .................................................................................................... Lacandon homestead ...................................................................................... Schoolyard ......................................................................................................

15 16 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18 Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20

Making tortillas .............................................................................................. Making tortillas .............................................................................................. K’u’umbil wah................................................................................................ Straining sa’ .................................................................................................... Balche’ bark ................................................................................................... Fallow milpa first year .................................................................................... Fallow milpa second year ............................................................................... Sketch of household and gardens ................................................................... House garden .................................................................................................. Slashed milpa ................................................................................................. Milpa, 2010 .................................................................................................... Doubled-over maize ....................................................................................... Flooded milpa, 2010 ....................................................................................... Two extended families’ compounds ............................................................... Typical homestead .......................................................................................... House garden, compost .................................................................................. House garden of KP........................................................................................ Koh’s backyard ............................................................................................... Homestead ...................................................................................................... Outdoor sink ...................................................................................................

35 35 36 36 37 38 38 40 40 42 43 43 45 46 46 47 47 48 48 49

xiii

xiv

Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.22 Fig. 4.23 Fig. 4.24 Fig. 4.25 Fig. 4.26 Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.28 Fig. 4.29 Fig. 4.30 Fig. 4.31 Fig. 4.32 Fig. 4.33 Fig. 4.34 Fig. 4.35 Fig. 4.36 Fig. 4.37 Fig. 4.38 Fig. 4.39 Fig. 4.40 Fig. 4.41 Fig. 4.42 Fig. 4.43 Fig. 4.44 Fig. 4.45 Fig. 4.46 Fig. 4.47 Fig. 4.48 Fig. 4.49 Fig. 4.50 Fig. 4.51 Fig. 4.52 Fig. 4.53 Fig. 4.54 Fig. 4.55 Fig. 4.56 Fig. 4.57 Fig. 4.58 Fig. 4.59 Fig. 4.60 Fig. 4.61 Fig. 4.62 Fig. 4.63 Fig. 4.64 Fig. 4.65 Fig. 4.66 Fig. 4.67 Fig. 4.68 Fig. 4.69 Fig. 4.70 Fig. 4.71 Fig. 4.72 Fig. 4.73 Fig. 4.74

Contents

Storage shed ................................................................................................... Chicken coops ................................................................................................ Typical Lacandon house ................................................................................. Woman on hammock ...................................................................................... Cooking hearth ............................................................................................... Cooking range ................................................................................................ The Kohs’ kitchen, 2000 ................................................................................ The old Kohs’ kitchen .................................................................................... The old Kohs’ kitchen .................................................................................... The new Kohs’ kitchen, 2011 ......................................................................... Stove ............................................................................................................... Cooking on a traditional stove ........................................................................ Kun thatch ...................................................................................................... Battens and shelf for god pots ........................................................................ Parts of a god house ........................................................................................ Lashing ........................................................................................................... Smoke vent ..................................................................................................... Battens in a god house .................................................................................... God house interior .......................................................................................... Ceremonial kitchen......................................................................................... Vertical pole house walls ................................................................................ Concrete house ............................................................................................... Jailhouse ......................................................................................................... AT and his gourd beehive for meliponines, stingless bees ............................. Gourd beehive hangs from house rafters ........................................................ Gourd beehive interior .................................................................................... KM opening lek gourd, to make a lekil wah ‘tortilla plate’ ........................... K’u’umbil wah tortillas in a lekil wah ............................................................ Hama’ balche’cups ......................................................................................... Gourd bowls used for preparing cocoa ........................................................... Me’et ‘trivet’ used to stabilize gourd cups ..................................................... Hol drying on line........................................................................................... Cord made from hol ....................................................................................... Rolling fibres of hol ........................................................................................ Rolling fibres of hol ........................................................................................ Hol hanging over rafters in bedroom.............................................................. Pounded bark fibre of bit’skal hu’un (Ficus sp.) ............................................ Wooden fibre beater ........................................................................................ Aerial root of k’i’ilix holop’ (Philodendron radiatum).................................. God house with balche’ chem in foreground ................................................. Mashing pom in the chemil pom .................................................................... K’ayum drum ................................................................................................. God pot ........................................................................................................... Kiln ................................................................................................................. Pak, the balche’ serving urn ........................................................................... Men’s pak (Lt) and women’s pak (Rt)............................................................ Xikal ............................................................................................................... Rubber ............................................................................................................ Rubber several weeks after it was made ......................................................... Rubber figurines ............................................................................................. Cigars.............................................................................................................. Ka’ grindstone ................................................................................................ Earliest depiction of chocolate, from the Princeton Vase Late Classic period AD. 750 .................................................................. Net full of gourd cups .....................................................................................

49 50 50 51 51 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 62 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 75

Contents

xv

Fig. 4.75 Fig. 4.76 Fig. 4.77 Fig. 4.78 Fig. 4.79 Fig. 4.80 Fig. 4.81 Fig. 4.82 Fig. 4.83

Fig. 4.84 Fig. 4.85 Fig. 4.86 Fig. 4.87 Fig. 4.88 Fig. 4.89 Fig. 4.90 Fig. 4.91 Fig. 4.92 Fig. 4.93 Fig. 4.94 Fig. 4.95 Fig. 4.96 Fig. 4.97 Fig. 4.98 Fig. 4.99 Fig. 4.100 Fig. 4.101 Fig. 4.102 Fig. 4.103 Fig. 4.104 Fig. 4.105 Fig. 4.106 Fig. 4.107 Fig. 4.108 Fig. 4.109 Fig. 4.110 Fig. 4.111 Fig. 4.112 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3

Fig. 5.4

Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6

Ceremonial kitchen table, utensils, and bowls ......................................... Cooking utensils....................................................................................... Xämäch clay griddle ................................................................................ Arrow set .................................................................................................. Arrow fletching ........................................................................................ Arrow heads ............................................................................................. Arrow binding .......................................................................................... Bamboo fish spear .................................................................................... Seed necklace of Ormosia schippii (red and black), Hymenaea courbaril L. (large brown), and Cois lacryma-jobi (grey) ................................................................... Seed necklace of Sapindus saponaria (black) and Ormosia isthmensis (red) .................................................................. Necklace with ‘hamburger beans’ (Mucuna sloanei) .............................. Toucan beak ............................................................................................. Bow and arrow set (ca. 1950s) ................................................................. Female doll............................................................................................... Male doll .................................................................................................. Clay animals............................................................................................. Spinning top (Quercus corrugate) ........................................................... Ceremonial rattle ...................................................................................... Backstrap loom ........................................................................................ Chan K’in wearing the hand spun cotton xikul........................................ Basket ....................................................................................................... Basket rim ................................................................................................ Basket bottom .......................................................................................... Hanging basket, weave............................................................................. Hanging basket ......................................................................................... Ba’ay ‘net bag’ ......................................................................................... Woven bag, loop....................................................................................... Woven purse ............................................................................................. Woven purse, weave ................................................................................. Traditional hammock ............................................................................... Hammock, knots ...................................................................................... Cotton xikul.............................................................................................. Bark cloth xikul........................................................................................ Leather purse-front................................................................................... Leather purse-back ................................................................................... Traditional women’s dress ....................................................................... (a) Feather hair ornament (b) Clusia flava blossom ................................ (a) Lacandon girls, 2011 (b) Lacandon boys on hammock .....................

75 76 76 77 77 78 78 79

'Aak'älyoom Cestrum nocturnum................................................................... (a) 'Akunte' Acacia mayana (b) 'Akunte' Acacia mayana thorn .......................................................105 (a) 'Ak su'uk Bothriochloa laguroides (b) 'Ak su'uk Bothriochloa laguroides tiller (c) 'Ak su'uk Bothriochloa laguroides ..................................................... (a) 'Anis Abelmoschus moschatus unopened pod (b) 'Anis Abelmoschus moschatus flower (c) 'Anis Abelmoschus moschatus seed pod............................................. Axux ak' Cydista aequinoctilis ................................................................ (a) 'Äm ch'uplal Ormosia isthmensis (b) 'Äm ton Ormosia schippii ..............................................................109

104

79 79 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 83 84 84 85 85 86 87 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 91 91 91 92 92 93 93

106

107 108

xvi

Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13 Fig. 5.14 Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16 Fig. 5.17

Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19 Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Fig. 5.24 Fig. 5.25 Fig. 5.26 Fig. 5.27 Fig. 5.28 Fig. 5.29 Fig. 5.30 Fig. 5.31 Fig. 5.32 Fig. 5.33 Fig. 5.34 Fig. 5.35 Fig. 5.36 Fig. 5.37 Fig. 5.38 Fig. 5.39 Fig. 5.40 Fig. 5.41 Fig. 5.42 Fig. 5.43 Fig. 5.44

Contents

(a) Babah 'oonte' (kakache') Ocotea cernua (b) Babah 'oonte' Ocotea cernua seeds .......................................................... Bahun che' Cordia alliodora .......................................................................... Baknikte' Polianthes tuberosa ........................................................................ Balumte' Theobroma bicolor .......................................................................... Bamax Pseudolmedia sp. ............................................................................... (a) Bambu Bambusa vulgaris ‘Vittata’ (b) Bambu Bambusa vulgaris 'Vittata’ ........................................................... (a) Bey ule' tähte' Podocarpus matudai (b) Bey ule' tähte' Podocarpus matudai .............................................................. (a) Bilim suli' Dioscorea bulbifera (b) Bilim suli' Dioscorea bulbifera ........ Booxa'an Acoelorraphe wrightii ........................................................................... (a) Bu'ul box Vigna unguiculata (b) Bu'ul box Vigna unguiculata seeds (c) Bu'ul box Vigna unguiculata flower ............................ (a) Bubuhchi' (yo’och ahpek’) Canavalia flower (b) Bubuhchi' Canavalia ensiformis (c) Bubuhchi' (bu'ul boox) Canavalia ensiformis (d) Bubuhchi' Canavalia ensiformis (e) Bubuhchi' Canavalia ensiformis (f) Bubuhchi' Canavalia ensiformis (g) Bubuhchi' Mucuna puriens (h) Bubuhchi' Mucuna puriens ......................................................................... (a) Buk'luch' Vanilla planifolia. (b) Buk'luch' Vanilla planifolia flower........ (a) Chank’ala’ Canna indica (b) Chank'ala', bamboo, and petsk'in necklace (c) Chank'ala' flower .................................................... Chawah ik Capsicum frutescens ..................................................................... (a) Chäkchob Lantana trifolia (b) Chäkchob Lantana trifolia ...................... Chäklah Bursera simaruba ............................................................................. (a) Chäklanpix Clibadium arboreum (b) Chäklanpix Schistocarpha eupatorioides (c) Chäklanpix Schistocarpha eupatorioides .......................... (a) Chäk halol Heliocarpus appendiculatus (b) Chäk halol Heliocarpus appendiculatus .................................................. Chäk k'o'och Ricinus communis ......................................................................... Chäk mäkäl Xanthosoma mafaffa ................................................................... Chäk me'exk'in Calliandra calothyrsus.......................................................... (a) Chäk nikte' Plumeria rubra f. rubra (b) Chäk nikte' Plumeria rubra f. rubra blossom........................................... (a) Chäk pach Ternstroemia tepezapote (b) Chäk pach Ternstroemia tepezapote ......................................................... (a) Chäk ts'in Manihot esculenta (b) Chäk ts'in Manihot esculenta roots........................................................... Chäk ts'ulha' Crinum amabile ............................................................................. (a) Chechem Metopium brownei (b) Chechem Metopium brownei ............... Chiah Dieffenbachia sp. ................................................................................ Choochel ak' Rhynchosia erythrinoides ......................................................... Chukuch le' uxiiw Heliconia librata inflorescence ........................................ Chukum che' Croton draco............................................................................. Chunup Clusia lundellii.................................................................................. (a) Ch'ayok' Lycianthes heteroclite (b) Ch'ayok' Solanum americanum (c) Ch'ayok' Solanum rovirosanum ............................................ (a) Ch'äm Bromelia pinguin (b) Ch'äm Bromelia pinguin ............................. Ch'ibix bo'oy (a) Chamaedorea elegans (b) Ch'ibix uk'um Chamaedorea cataractarum ............................................. Ch'it bo'oy Chamaedorea sp. ......................................................................... Ch'obenche' Trichilia sp. ............................................................................... Ch'om mäkäl (hach ch'om) Xanthosoma robustum ........................................ (a) Ch'un ak' Passiflora aff. ambigua interior (b) Juliana and Omar with ch'un ak' fruit .......................................................

110 111 111 113 113 114 115 115 117 118

120 121 121 122 122 123 124 125 126 126 127 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 134 135 136 136 137 139 139 140 141

Contents

xvii

Fig. 5.45 Fig. 5.46 Fig. 5.47 Fig. 5.48 Fig. 5.49 Fig. 5.50 Fig. 5.51

Fig. 5.52 Fig. 5.53 Fig. 5.54 Fig. 5.55

Fig. 5.56 Fig. 5.57

Fig. 5.58 Fig. 5.59 Fig. 5.60 Fig. 5.61

Fig. 5.62 Fig. 5.63 Fig. 5.64 Fig. 5.65 Fig. 5.66 Fig. 5.67 Fig. 5.68 Fig. 5.69 Fig. 5.70 Fig. 5.71 Fig. 5.72 Fig. 5.73 Fig. 5.74 Fig. 5.75 Fig. 5.76

Fig. 5.77 Fig. 5.78 Fig. 5.79

Ek' bahche' Guatteria anomala ...................................................................... (a) Ha'as Pouteria mammosa (b) Ha'as Pouteria mammosa .......................... Haban uts'u' Podachaenium eminens .............................................................. Habonsiyo/habón Sapindus saponaria ............................................................... (a) Hach 'akte' Astrocaryum mexicanum thorns (b) Hach 'akte' Astrocaryum mexicanum ........................................................ (a) Hach balche' Lonchocarpus sp. (b) Hach balche’ seeds (c) Hach balche’ seed pod (d) Hach balche’ trunk ........................................ (a) Hach boox Musa acuminata ×Musa balbisiana (b) Hach boox Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana (c) Hach boox Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana ...................................... (a) Hach bo'oy Chamaedorea pinnatifrons (b) Hach bo'oy Chamaedorea pinnatifrons .................................................... (a) Hach chiah (chiah k'aax) Philodendron inaequilaterum leaves (b) Hach chiah Philodendron inaequilaterum ................................................ Hach halol Heliocarpus donnell-smithii......................................................... (a) Hach hänan Desmoncus orthocanthus (b) Hach hänan Desmoncus orthocanthus (c) Hach hänan Desmoncus orthocanthus leaves and stem ............................................................................................... (a) Hach hoben Piper auritum (b) Hach hoben Piper auritum ...................... (a) Hach hut'kih Ipomoea alba flower (b) Hach hut'kih Ipomoea alba stem (c) Hut'kih Ipomoea alba latex ...................................................................... (a) Hach hu'un Ficus sp. (b) Hach hu'un inner bark....................................... Hach 'ilon Monstera sp. ................................................................................. Hach luuch Crescentia cujete ......................................................................... (a) Hach mäkuuläm Piper aduncum (b) Hach mäkuuläm Piper aduncum (c) Hach mäkuuläm Piper aduncum leaves .................................................... (a) Hach 'oochin Philodendron donnell-smithii (b) Hach 'oochin Philodendron donnell-smithii leaf ...................................... Hach 'oox Brosimum sp. leaves ........................................................................ Hach pätan Musa acuminata xMusa balbisiana............................................. (a) Hach sukal Saccharum officinarum (b) Hach sukal Saccharum officinarum .......................................................... (a) Hach suli' Dioscorea alata (b) Hach suli' Dioscorea alata ...................... Hach su'uk Digitaria setigera......................................................................... Hach taw Belotia mexicana ............................................................................ (a) Hach ts'in Manihot esculenta leaves (b) Hach ts'in Manihot esculenta (c) Hach ts'in Manihot esculenta roots ................................................................. (a) Hach xiiw (chukuch le uxiiw) Heliconia sp. (b) Hach xiiw Heliconia sp. .......................................................................... Halo'och k'i'ix Rubus sp. ................................................................................ Holop' Philodendron smithii........................................................................... (a) Huhup Spondias sp. (b) Huhup Spondias sp. (c) Huhu’ (huhup) bark ..... (a) Hunbuhk'ä'winik pätan Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana (b) Hunbuhk'ä'winik pätan Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana fruit .......... 'Ibil k'aax Oxyrhynchus trinervius seed .......................................................... (a) Iich'ak tolok (nukuch tak'lan che') Struthanthus orbicularis vine (b) Iich'ak tolok (nukuch tak'lan che') Struthanthus orbicularis vine (c) Iich'ak tolok (nukuch tak'lan che') Struthanthus orbicularis fruit ............ 'Is Ipomoea batatas ......................................................................................... (a) Its'in säk wawal Calathea crotalifera flowers (b) Its'in säk wawal Calathea crotalifera leaf ................................................ Kahanche' Clusia flava ...................................................................................

141 143 143 144 144 146

147 148 149 150

151 152

152 153 153 154

155 156 156 157 157 158 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166

166 167 168 169

xviii

Fig. 5.80 Fig. 5.81 Fig. 5.82 Fig. 5.83 Fig. 5.84 Fig. 5.85 Fig. 5.86 Fig. 5.87 Fig. 5.88 Fig. 5.89 Fig. 5.90 Fig. 5.91 Fig. 5.92 Fig. 5.93 Fig. 5.94 Fig. 5.95 Fig. 5.96

Fig. 5.97 Fig. 5.98

Fig. 5.99 Fig. 5.100

Fig. 5.101 Fig. 5.102

Fig. 5.103 Fig. 5.104

Fig. 5.105

Fig. 5.106 Fig. 5.107

Fig. 5.108 Fig. 5.109

Contents

Kawe' Coffea L ............................................................................................. Kih Agave sisalana ....................................................................................... Kimil sukun Asclepiadaceae ........................................................................ (a) Koke' ak' Smilax luculenta (b) Koke' ak' Smilax luculenta..................... Komo' (te' 'usin) Renealmia sp. ................................................................... (a) Kopo' Ficus sp. (b) Kopo' wits Ficus sp. ................................................ Korason de mono Entada gigas ........................................................................ Kubuh Pachira aquatica leaves .................................................................... Kulantro Eryngium foetidum ........................................................................ (a) Kun Cryosophila stauracantha plants (b) Kun Cryosophila stauracantha fruit....................................................... Kunkunche' Oecopetalum mexicanum ......................................................... Kunkunche' kab Clethra sp. ........................................................................ Kuti' Talauma mexicana fruit ......................................................................... Ku'uchnook' Bidens odorata ......................................................................... Kuut' Calathea macrosepala ........................................................................ (a) Ganoderma applanatum (b) Kuxumche' (kib lu'um) Cookeina tricholoma .................................................................................... (a) K'ak'che' Aegiphila monstrosa flowers (b) K'ak'che' Aegiphila monstrosa leaves (c) K'ak'che' Aegiphila monstrosa growing tip (d) K'ak'che' Bauhinia rubeleriziana leaves (e) K'ak'che' Bauhinia rubeleriziana seed pods .......... (a) K'alok' che' Billia colombiana seed (b) K'alok' che' Billia colombiana seed ........................................................ (a) K'ante' Erythrina berteroana seeds (b) K'ante' Erythrina berteroana flowers (c) K'ante' Erythrina berteroana plant ......................................................... (a) K'äb ta'k'in Oreopanax obtusifolius plant (b) K'äb ta'k'in Oreopanax obtusifolius inflorescence .................................. (a) K'än 'abäl Spondias purpurea forma lutea ripe fruit (b) K'än 'abäl Spondias purpurea f. lutea leaves (c) K'än 'abäl Spondias purpurea f. lutea tree .............................................. (a) K'än bo'oy Chamaedorea neurochlamys leaves (b) K'än bo'oy Chamaedorea neurochlamys fruit ........................................ (a) K'än chi' Byrsonima crassifolia ripe fruit (b) K'än chi' Byrsonima crassifolia unripe fruit (c) K'än chi' Byrsonima crassifolia tree (d) K'än chi' Byrsonima crassifolia leaves ................................................... K'eben Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti .......................................................... (a) K'i'ilix holop' Philodendron radiatum leaves (b) K'i'ilix holop' Philodendron radiatum aerial roots (c) K'i'ilix holop' Philodendron radiatum inflorescence (d) K'i'ilix holop' Philodendron radiatum tuch'ul (e) K'i'ilix holop' Philodendron radiatum plant............................................ (a) K'i'ix 'uk'unche' Solanum torvum leaves and unripe fruit (b) K'i'ix 'uk'unche' Solanum torvum plant (c) K'i'ix 'uk'unche' Solanum torvum flowers ............................................... (a) K'ik' Castilla elastica sapling (b) K'ik' Castilla elastica latex (c) K'ik' latex from bark slash (d) K'ik’ fruit ................................................ (a) K'ik'che' Virola guatemalensis fruit (b) K'ik'che' Virola guatemalensis sapling (c) K'ik'che' Virola guatemalensis leaves ..................................................... K'ik'ni' balum Ardisia compressa ................................................................. K'o'och Cecropia spp. ..................................................................................

169 171 171 172 172 173 174 174 174 175 176 176 176 177 177 178

179 180

180 181

182 183

184 185

186

187 188

188 189 190

Contents

xix

Fig. 5.110 (a) K'o'och ba'ats' Louteridium donnell-smithii plant (b) K'o'och ba'ats' Louteridium donnell-smithii leaves (c) K'o'och ba'ats' Louteridium donnell-smithii flower (d) K'o'och ba'ats' Stanhopea tigrina............................................................ Fig. 5.111 K'uche' Cedrela odorata ............................................................................... Fig. 5.112 (a) K'ul ak' Dioscorea bartlettii burl (b) K'ul ak' Dioscorea bartlettii leaves......................................................... Fig. 5.113 (a) K'um Cucurbita moschata (b) K'um squash blossoms ........................... Fig. 5.114 (a) K'um sek Passiflora biflora fruit (b) K'um sek Passiflora biflora fruit interior (c) K'um sek Passiflora biflora leaves and immature fruit on vine (d) K'um sek Passiflora biflora leaf.............................................................. Fig. 5.115 K'unche' pahok Geonoma oxycarpa ............................................................. Fig. 5.116 (a) K'uxub Bixa orellana flowers (b) K'uxub Bixa orellana flowers (c) K'uxub Bixa orellana plant ..................................................................... Fig. 5.117 K'u' kan Selaginella silvestris ....................................................................... Fig. 5.118 Läkte' Zanthoxylum sp. ................................................................................ Fig. 5.119 (a) Lek Lagenaria siceraria (b) Lek Lagenaria siceraria seeds ............................................................... Fig. 5.120 (a) Le'mo' Epiphyllum sp. (b) Le'mo' Epiphyllum sp. ................................. Fig. 5.121 (a) Lo'k'in Parathesis sp. plant (b) Lo'k'in Parathesis sp. leaves and fruit .................................................... Fig. 5.122 Maasan kitan Esquisetum hyemale ............................................................... Fig. 5.123 Mahaas Quararibea funebris ........................................................................ Fig. 5.124 Mehen ch'alol ............................................................................................... Fig. 5.125 Mehen ch'eel koox Chione chiapasensis ...................................................... Fig. 5.126 (a) Mehen kopo' Ficus pertusa fruit (b) Mehen kopo' Ficus pertusa cultivated tree ............................................. Fig. 5.127 Mehen k'än'ol Astronium graveolens............................................................ Fig. 5.128 (a) Mehen mäkuuläm plant (b) Mehen mäkuuläm leaves and fruit (c) Mehen mäkuuläm leaves ......................................................................... Fig. 5.129 (a) Mehen 'oochin Philodendron hederaceum (b) Mehen 'oochin Syngonium podophyllum ................................................ Fig. 5.130 Mehen sukal Saccharum officinarum ........................................................... Fig. 5.131 Mehen tak'lan che' Phoradendron crassifolium ........................................... Fig. 5.132 Mehen tuch Thevetia ahouai ........................................................................ Fig. 5.133 Mehen ts'us Vitis tiliifolia ............................................................................. Fig. 5.134 Miis Carludovica labela ............................................................................... Fig. 5.135 (a) Mo'ak' Rhynchosia pyramidalis seeds (b) Mo'ak' Rhynchosia pyramidalis vine ...................................................... Fig. 5.136 (a) Mumun che' Telanthophora grandifolia (b) Mumun che' Saurauia yasicae (c) Mumun che' (muxan che') Gonzalagunia thyrsoidea ............................. Fig. 5.137 Muxan che' Alchornea latifolia .................................................................... Fig. 5.138 Nikte' kisin Bouvardia longiflora ................................................................. Fig. 5.139 Ni' ah'och Anthurium sp. ............................................................................. Fig. 5.140 Ni' ts'ul Mucuna argyrophylla ........................................................................ Fig. 5.141 (a) Nukuch bits' Inga punctata pod (b) Nukuch bits' Inga punctata sweet aril (c) Nukuch bits' Inga punctata seeds.............................................................. Fig. 5.142 Nukuch koyoh Persea schiedeana ................................................................ Fig. 5.143 Nukuch k'än'ol Mosquitoxylum jamaicense .................................................

191 192 192 193

193 194 194 195 195 196 196 197 198 199 200 201 201 202

203 203 204 204 204 205 205 206

207 208 210 210 211

211 212 212

xx

Fig. 5.144

Fig. 5.145

Fig. 5.146 Fig. 5.147 Fig. 5.148

Fig. 5.149 Fig. 5.150 Fig. 5.151 Fig. 5.152 Fig. 5.153

Fig. 5.154 Fig. 5.155 Fig. 5.156 Fig. 5.157 Fig. 5.158 Fig. 5.159 Fig. 5.160 Fig. 5.161 Fig. 5.162 Fig. 5.163 Fig. 5.164

Fig. 5.165 Fig. 5.166 Fig. 5.167

Fig. 5.168 Fig. 5.169 Fig. 5.170 Fig. 5.171

Contents

(a) Nukuch 'oochin Philodendron sagittifolium (b) Nukuch 'oochin Philodendron sagittifolium (c) Nukuch 'oochin Syngonium chiapense (d) Nukuch 'oochin Syngonium podophyllum ............................................. (a) 'Ooh Gynerium sagittatum plants (b) 'Ooh Gynerium sagittatum leaves (c) 'Ooh Gynerium sagittatum flower stalks ................................................. 'Oopil k'aax Annona scleroderma ................................................................. Pahsa' ak' Costus pulverulentus .................................................................... (a) Pakyon Chamaedorea tepejilote plant (b) Pakyon Chamaedorea tepejilote ripe berries (c) Pakyon Chamaedorea tepejilote male inflorescence (d) Pakyon Chamaedorea tepejilote male inflorescence .............................. Patoh ak' Caesalpinia major......................................................................... (a) Pähk'ol Spathiphyllum phryniifolium plants (b) Pähk'ol Spathiphyllum phryniifolium inflorescence ............................... (a) Pähpähche' Chione chiapasensis tree (b) Pähpähche' Chione chiapasensis fruit and leaves................................... (a) Pähpäh xibil Ardisia sp. fruit and leaves (b) Pähpäh xibil Ardisia sp. fruit and leaves ................................................ (a) Pähpox Annona muricata tree (b) Pähpox Annona muricata immature fruit (c) Pähpox Annona muricata inflorescence (d) Pähpox Annona muricata leaves ....................... (a) Päh ak' Disciphania calocarpa vine with fruit (b) Päh ak' Disciphania calocarpa fruit ....................................................... (a) Päh pätan Musa acuminata ×Musa balbisiana fruit (b) Päh pätan Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana plant with fruit ............ Peesache’ Pimenta dioica ............................................................................. (a) Pets'k'in Schizolobium parahybum seed (b) Pets'k'in Schizolobium parahybum trunk........................................................................................... Pichik' (chäk, säk) Psidium guajava red and white forms ........................... Pixan k'ambul Quercus skinneri ................................................................... Pooch'in Passiflora serratifolia .................................................................... (a) Puhan Muntingia calabura tree (b) Puhan Muntingia calabura flowers and leaves ....................................... (a) Pukte' Terminalia amazonia tree (b) Pukte' Terminalia amazonia seeds .......................................................... (a) Put Carica papaya tree (b) Put Carica papaya flowers (c) Put Carica papaya fruit .......................................................................... (a) Puuna' Swietenia macrophylla tree (b) Puuna' Swietenia macrophylla seeds (c) Puuna' Swietenia macrophylla sapling .................................................... P'akan Physalis pruinosa .............................................................................. (a) P'ix Sechium edule fruit (b) P'ix Sechium edule leaves (c) P'ix Sechium edule vines ......................................................................... (a) Sanyah ahch'o' Melothria pendula vine with leaves and immature fruit (b) Sanyah ahch'o' Melothria pendula flower and fruit (c) Sanyah ahch'o' Melothria pendula flower, tendril and stem ............................................................................................ San Lorenso (ts'ak se'em) Kalanchoe pinnata .............................................. (a) Sasakche' Dendropanax arboreus fruit (b) Sasakche' Dendropanax arboreus inflorescence and fruit ...................... Säha' (deleted text) Doliocarpus dentatus .................................................... (a) Säkpahen Coix lacryma-jobi plants (b) Säkche' Coix lacryma-jobi flowers .........................................................

214

216 217 219

220 220 221 221 222

223 223 224 225 225 226 226 227 228 228 229

230 230 231

232 232 233 233 234

Contents

xxi

Fig. 5.172 (a) Säkpähk'ak' che' Psychotria poeppigiana (b) Säkpähk'ak' che' Psychotria poeppigiana............................................... Fig. 5.173 Säk bahche' Guarea glabra leaves ............................................................... Fig. 5.174 (a) Säk bo'oy Chamaedorea arenbergiana plant (b) Säk bo'oy Chamaedorea arenbergiana leaves........................................ Fig. 5.175 (a) Säk chulul Platymiscium dimorphandrum trunk (b) Säk chulul Platymiscium dimorphandrum seeds .................................... Fig. 5.176 (a) Säk halol Heliocarpus donnell-smithii tree (b) Säk halol Heliocarpus donnell-smithii leaves (c) Säk halol Heliocarpus donnell-smithii trunk .......................................... Fig. 5.177 (a) Säk mäkäl Xanthosoma mafaffa (b) Säk mäkäl Xanthosoma mafaffa ............................................................. Fig. 5.178 (a) Säk muxän Heliconia librata inflorescence (b) Säk muxän (chukuch ule' xiiw) Heliconia sp. leaves ............................. Fig. 5.179 (a) Säk 'oop Annona cherimoya immature fruit (b) Säk 'oop Annona cherimoya fruit interior (c) Säk 'oop Annona cherimoya cultivated tree ............................................ Fig. 5.180 (a) Säk wawal Calathea lutea (b) Säk wawal Calathea lutea...................... Fig. 5.181 (a) Säk ya' Chrysophyllum mexicanum leaves (b) Säk ya' Chrysophyllum mexicanum young trees..................................... Fig. 5.182 (a) Semet' Rhipidocladum bartlettii (b) Semet' Rhipidocladum bartlettii ............................................................. Fig. 5.183 Siib Cladium jamaicense .............................................................................. Fig. 5.184 (a) Sikilte' che' Jatropha curcas fruit and seeds (b) Sikilte' che' Jatropha curcas leaves ........................................................ Fig. 5.185 (a) Sapindus saponaria fruit and seed (b) Sapindus saponaria blossom (c) Sapindus saponaria suds ................... Fig. 5.186 Subul Dipholis sp. ....................................................................................... Fig. 5.187 (a) Suumil bits' Inga oerstediana (b) Suumil bits' Inga oerstediana ................................................................. Fig. 5.188 (a) Taw leaves (b) Taw inner bark (c) Chäk taw Trema micrantha tree .............................................................. Fig. 5.189 (a) Tähte' Pinus sp. bark slash (b) Tähte' Pinus sp. wood chips ................................................................... Fig. 5.190 Tämän che' Malvaviscus arboreus flower .................................................... Fig. 5.191 Te' usin Alpinia purpurata inflorescence ...................................................... Fig. 5.192 Tu'xikin Ipomoea sp. flowers........................................................................ Fig. 5.193 T'elen bits' Inga pavoniana fruit and leaves ................................................. Fig. 5.194 (a) Tsaah Cnidoscolus multilobus leaves (b) Tsaah Cnidoscolus multilobus leaf, top side (c) Tsaah Cnidoscolus multilobus unopened flowers (d) Tsaah Cnidoscolus multilobus plant (e) Tsaah Cnidoscolus multilobus stinging hairs .......................................... Fig. 5.195 (a) Tsaayentsaay Vigna umbellata (b) Tsaayentsaay Desmodium tortuosum ..................................................... Fig. 5.196 (a) Tsatsel pom Protium copal leaves (b) Tsatsel pom Protium copal fruit ............................................................ Fig. 5.197 (a) Tsäk'ats Licania platypus cultivated tree (b) Tsäk'ats Licania platypus fruit (c) Tsäk'ats Licania platypus leaves (d) Tsäk'ats Licania platypus small tree ............................................ Fig. 5.198 (a) Tsäläm Leucaena leucocephala trees (b) Tsäläm Leucaena leucocephala leaves, seeds, and flowers (c) Tsäläm Leucaena leucocephala seed pods (d) Tsäläm delonix regia (e) Tsäläm delonix regia ...................................... Fig. 5.199 Tsits Justicia sp. leaves.................................................................................

234 235 236 237

238 238 239

240 241 242 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 248 249 250 251 252

253 254 255

256

257 258

xxii

Fig. 5.200

Fig. 5.201 Fig. 5.202 Fig. 5.203

Fig. 5.204 Fig. 5.205

Fig. 5.206

Fig. 5.207 Fig. 5.208

Fig. 5.209

Fig. 5.210 Fig. 5.211 Fig. 5.212 Fig. 5.213 Fig. 5.214 Fig. 5.215 Fig. 5.216 Fig. 5.217 Fig. 5.218 Fig. 5.219

Fig. 5.220

Contents

(a) Tso'ots Eriobotrya japonica inflorescence (b) Tso'ots Eriobotrya japonica (c) Tso'ots Eriobotrya japonica ripe fruit on tree (d) Tso'ots Eriobotrya japonica fruit interior (e) Tso'ots Eriobotrya japonica leaves ......................................................... (a) Tso'ots bamax Pseudolmedia oxyphyllaria leaves (b) Tso'ots bamax Pseudolmedia oxyphyllaria sap ...................................... (a) Tsuk'in ak' Smilax sp. vine with leaves (b) Tsuk'in ak' Smilax sp. stem and leaves ................................................... (a) Ts'ak kan ak' snake medicine vine Piper amalago leaves (b) Ts'ak kan ak' snake medicine stems (undetermined species) (c) Ts'ak kan ak' snake medicine leaves (d) Ts'ak kan ak' snake medicine vine .......................................................... (a) Ts'oy Clusia lundellii plant (b) Ts'oy Clusia lundellii flowers ................................................................. (a) Ts'ubtok Hampea stipitata flowers (b) Ts'ubtok Hampea stipitata leaves, stem, and flowers (c) Ts'ubtok Hampea stipitata leaf, underside (d) Ts'ubtok fruit ................. (a) Ts'ulha'il petha' Hymenocallis littoralis flower (b) Ts'ulha'il petha' Hymenocallis littoralis flower (c) Ts'ulha'il Hymenocallis littoralis ................................................................................. (a) Ts'us Vitis sp. unripe fruit (b) Ts'us Vitis sp. leaves and fruit ................................................................. (a) 'Ukunte' Sapium lateriflorum tree (b) 'Ukunte' Sapium lateriflorum tree (c) 'Ukunte' Sapium lateriflorum growing tip (d) 'Ukunte' Sapium lateriflorum latex ......................................................... (a) 'Uk'unche' Solanum torvum (b) 'Uk'unche' Solanum erianthum flowers (c) 'Uk'unche' Solanum erianthum leaves ..................................................... (a, b) 'Uuch Diospyros digyna...................................................................... (a) Wakäx su'uk Pennisetum purpureum leaves, stems (b) Wakäx su'uk Pennisetum purpureum flower stalks ................................. (a) Wich ahyuk Mucuna sloanei hilum (b) Wich ahyuk Mucuna sloanei seed .......................................................... (a) Winik su'uk Andropogon glomeratus seed head (b) Winik su'uk Andropogon glomeratus plant ............................................ (a) Wolche' Cordia dodecandra fruit (b) Wolche' Cordia dodecandra leaves ........................................................ Xa'an Sabal mexicana................................................................................... Xänä' mook Chamaesyce hirta ......................................................................... Xikin Schizophyllum commune........................................................................... (a) Xinich (xilich) Parathesis sp. fruit (b) Xinich Parathesis sp. leaves ................................................................... (a) Xoyok Morinda panamensis trunk (b) Xoyok Morinda yucatanensis leaves (c) Xoyok Morinda panamensis inner bark (d) Xoyok Morinda yucatanensis leaves (e) Xoyok young tree .................................................................................... (a) Ya'axche' Ceiba pentandra (b) Ya'ax balche' Lonchocarpus sp. (c) Ya'ax balche' Lonchocarpus rugosus flowers (d) Ya'ax balche' Lonchocarpus sp. leaves, top side (e) Ya'ax balche' Lonchocarpus sp. leaves, underside (f) Ya'ax balche' Lonchocarpus rugosus tree (g) Ya’ax balche’ bark (h) Ya’ax balche’ leaves ..........................................

259 260 260

261 262

263

264 265

266

267 268 269 269 269 270 270 270 271 271

272

274

Contents

xxiii

Fig. 5.221 (a) Ya'ax ch'ib muxan xiiw Calathea macrosepala (b) Ya'ax ch'ib muxän xiiw Calathea macrosepala...................................... Fig. 5.222 (a) Ya'ax hänan Chamaedorea elatior (b) Ya'ax hänan Chamaedorea elatior (c) Ya'ax hänan Chamaedorea elatior .......................................................... Fig. 5.223 Ya’ax’oon ..................................................................................................... Fig. 5.224 Ya'ax 'oox Brosimum alicastrum ssp. Alicastrum......................................... Fig. 5.225 Yahche' ts'in Manihot esculenta .......................................................................... Fig. 5.226 (a) Yo'och ähbaach' Siparuna thecaphora (b) Yo'och ähbaach' Siparuna thecaphora.................................................... Fig. 5.227 (a) Yo'och ik mehen Psychotria sp. (b) Yo'och ik mehen Psychotria sp. ............................................................. Fig. 5.228 Yo'och ik nukuch Psychotria panamensis var. panamensis ......................... Fig. 5.229 (a) Yuyul holop' Philodendron tripartitum (b) Yuyul holop' Philodendron smithii ......................................................... Fig. 6.1 Hach chaachib ‘authentic colander’ ............................................................. Fig. 6.2 Häxal k'ak' ‘firedrill’.....................................................................................

276

276 277 277 278 279 279 280 280 319 319

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Lacandon Orthographic Conventions ............................................................ Table 2.2 Pronunciation Guide ......................................................................................

10 10

Table 4.1 Food Plants .................................................................................................... Table 4.2 Plant Materials (in alphabetical order of scientific name within delimited categories) .......................................................................... Table 4.3 Hulup’ che’ Species ....................................................................................... Table 4.4 Birds and Mammals in the Paakche’ Kol ...................................................... Table 4.5 Agricultural Round ........................................................................................ Table 4.6 Dyes ............................................................................................................... Table 4.7 Plant Medicines .............................................................................................

29 31 39 41 42 90 94

List of Videos

The videos for this book can be accessed at: http://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461491101 Video 1.1

Take Care of the Forest

Video 4.1 Video 4.2 Video 4.3 Video 4.4 Video 4.5 Video 4.6 Video 4.7 Video 4.8 Video 4.9 Video 4.10 Video 4.11 Video 4.12 Video 4.13(a) Video 4.13(b) Video 4.14 Video 4.15 Video 4.16 Video 4.17 Video 4.18 Video 4.19 Video 4.20 Video 4.21 Video 4.22 Video 4.23 Video 4.24 Video 4.25

Balche' Preparation 1 Balche' Preparation 2 Ut'anil Balche' 'Secret of the Balche' Cooking Traditional Foods Cooking Pakyon Uk'aay Käkow 'Song of the Cacao' Uk'aay Huuch' 'Song for Grinding' Clearing a New Milpa Milpa Harvest How to Build a House Tour of the God House Tulis K'ik' Copal 1 Copal 2 Tour of the Ceremonial Kitchen Uk'aay Tok' 'Song of the Flint' Making Arrows Seed Necklace AM Describes the Ceremonial Rattle Uk'aay K'uch 'Song for Spinning Thread' Weaving on the Backstrap Loom Hammock Making Natural Dyes KM Makes Annatto Paste Curing Strings Cooking hearth

Video 6.1

Hach chaachib 'authentic colander'

xxvii

1

Introduction

1.1

The Lacandones

The Lacandones comprise two ethnically distinct groups whose ancestors were Yucatec-speaking Mayas that fled into the Chiapas forest from Guatemala, Campeche, and the Yucatan peninsula between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to escape assimilation or extermination. They moved into the vacuum left by the Ch’ol Lacandones, whom the Spanish had expunged from the forest a century earlier. Arriving in separate waves, the northern and southern Lacandones established their homesteads in areas adjacent to their original homelands. They, along with other apostate Mayas, were called Lacandones, which meant ‘wild Indians, heathens’. According to Thompson (1970), the word did not designate any particular group of people; rather it was a name of a place in the Maya lowlands that was occupied by a group of Ch’ol Mayas. The origin of the word has been analyzed differently by some scholars: Bruce suggests it derives from ah-akan-tun-oob ‘they who set up stone’ (Perera & Bruce 1986: 8), whereas Tozzer believes it derives from acan-tun ‘to groan/thunder stone’ (1907: 4). The Spaniards transformed it according to the rules of their language, which resulted in El Acantún. The word underwent further analysis, becoming El Lacantún and finally El Lacandón. The Lacandones, however, refer to themselves as the hach winik ‘true people’. Although they share a common history and cultural background, the modern Lacandones comprise two distinct groups: northern and southern. These names reflect their geographical location, more than anything else. The northern Lacandones occupy the north-western corner of the Lacandon forest, while the southern Lacandones, the south-east corner near the Usumacinta River. Historical accounts, and archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest that the northern Electronic supplementary material: The online version of this chapter (doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Videos can also be accessed at http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_1.

Lacandones are closely affiliated with the Itzáj Maya (in the Guatemala Petén), whereas the southern Lacandones are closer to the Yucatec Maya. More research is needed. Traditionally endogamous, the two groups are connected through the intermarriage of some of their members. There are a number of northern Lacandones living in the southern community and a few southerners that have moved into the northern community. As such, the division that exists between the two has become somewhat blurred. Nevertheless, each group views the other as being different, which is reflected in their terms for one another. The northern Lacandones refer to their southern neighbours as the chukuch nook’ ‘long tunics’, while the southern Lacandones call the northerners naachil winik ‘far away people’ or huntul winik ‘other people’ (Boremanse 1998: 8). Moreover, although they speak a mutually intelligible variety of Lacandon, each group considers the other’s speech to be deficient and, at times, unintelligible (R. Bruce, personal communication, 1992). The Lacandones were never a large group. Even today they number approximately 600 men, women, and children. There are roughly 300 northern Lacandones, approximately 250 of which live in Naha’, and the rest live in Mensäbäk. The southern Lacandones constitute the other half of the Lacandon population. Although the majority live in their jungle settlements and restrict their movements to travelling back and forth among the three villages, their population numbers change during peak tourist seasons, when ten percent of the population moves to the nearby city of Palenque to peddle their souvenirs (J. McGee, personal communication, 2000). The northern Lacandones of Naha’ are the focus of this book, primarily because they retained their traditional culture longer than the southern Lacandones. Under the leadership of Chan K’in Viejo, their civic and religious leader of more than four decades, they continued to worship their pantheon of deities. But after his death in 1996, the people lost their faith, with many converting to Christianity. This, along with deforestation and increasing numbers of colonist settlements in the forest, has affected the Lacandones traditional beliefs, knowledge, and most of all, their connection with the forest.

S. Cook, The Forest of the Lacandon Maya, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_1, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

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1.2

History of Research

A detailed botanical inventory of the southern Lacandon territory of Lacanha’ Chan Sayab is reported by Levy et al. (2006). This adds to extensive research carried out on this community’s agro-forestry methods (Levy-Tacher et al. 2000; Levy-Tacher and Aguirre-Rivera 2005; Diemont et al. 2006). Less botanical work has been conducted in the northern Lacandon territory. Nations and Nigh (1980) provide a comprehensive list of the wild and cultivated plants in both northern and southern areas along with their Lacandon names. Durán (1999) provides an extensive inventory of the plants in Naha’, that forms the basis for the botanical index published by the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (2006).

1.3

Collection Methods

Data were gathered following a qualitative approach to answer how the Lacandones perceived their natural environment, which plants they deemed important, and whether this was reflected in a conceptual framework akin to a botanical taxonomy. Attention was given to how plants were named, as a guide to uncovering their system of plant classification. For the most part, consultants provided information through informal interviews. To a lesser extent, they participated in formal elicitation sessions that involved picture recognition tasks and tasks that involved sorting plants into categories. Most plants were identified and discussed on walks through the forest with Lacandon consultants. Some plant parts were removed and taken back to the community for verification and further elaboration by other Lacandones, or for use in demonstrations. Lacandon names were cross-checked with those recorded in the Lacandon botanical literature and published inventories, specifically, Breedlove (1986), Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (2006), Durán (1999), Levy et al. (2006), and Nations and Nigh (1980). At times, the same language consultant would give two or more names for the same plant; when this was the case other speakers of the community were asked to select the common name. Consultants who were unfamiliar with the common Lacandon name for a species provided descriptive phrases, a common practice in all linguistic communities. When species were unavailable to inspect, the Lacandon names or descriptions were cross-referenced with botanical data collected by other researchers in the area and compared with images of specimens in various electronic herbaria. Consultations were also carried out with botanists familiar with the area. Botanical names and taxonomic information on most of the species in this work were obtained from electronic botanical databases, botanical literature, and botanists at various

Introduction

institutions, including the Missouri Botanical Gardens (MOBOT), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, Dept. of Ecology, El Cologio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Estación de Biología Tropical “Los Tuxtlas”, Instituto de Biología (UNAM), and the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG). Botanists at these institutions helped identify species from photographs provided to them. Numerous recordings and associated texts of Lacandon narratives, folklore, songs, rituals, demonstrations, and interviews are included, to illustrate the role of plants in Lacandon traditional culture. Most of the texts were transcribed in the field with trained consultants. A number of computer programs were used to compile the inventories and analyze the texts. First, the recordings were digitized and then converted into wav and mpeg files using Cool-Edit.1 Then, Transcriber2 was used to segment and transcribe the recorded discourse. These transcriptions, and Lacandon botanical and ethnographic word-lists were then exported to Shoe Box 5, an integrated data management and analysis computer program developed at the Summer Institute of Linguistics.3 This program was used to create the inventories. The transcriptions and associated recordings were then synchronized using computer programs developed at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics.4 The English translations of the texts were then added to the video files.

1.4

Lacandon Consultants

None of this work would have been possible without the support and enthusiasm of the Lacandon community. Twentytwo Lacandon consultants provided the information for this study. Chan K’in Antonio Martinez (AM) and Bol Ma’ax Garcia (BM) were field guides and teachers, providing identifications and descriptions for a majority of the plants, as well as giving demonstrations, singing songs, and narrating stories (Fig. 1.1). A dedicated practitioner of traditional religion, AM is one of the few remaining hach winik ‘true men’ left. Born in Sa’am (Monte Líbano) around 1925, he was raised by his mother and grandparents. He was raised in a traditional Lacandon setting at a time before the Lacandones still lived in isolated homesteads. He can still recall the song his mother used to sing every time she ground corn on a traditional millstone, watching his grandmother weave on the backstrap 1

Originally Syntrillium Software and now Adobe® Audition® software 2003 http://www.adobe.com/special/products/audition/syntrillium.html/ 2 Transcriber—Copyright 1998–2008, DGA http://trans.sourceforge.net/ 3 Copyright 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2000 by SIL International http://www-01.sil.org/computing/shoebox/Overview.html 4 http://dobes.mpi.nl/

1.4 Lacandon Consultants

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Fig. 1.1 AM (Lt) and BM (Rt). Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 1.2 AM offers balche’ to the gods. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

loom, and helping his grandfather tap trees and prepare copal to be used in ceremonial offerings to the gods. At 89 years old, he is still energetic, rising early in the morning to tend his three milpas. He spends the hottest hours of the day in the cool of the forest or in his god house (Fig. 1.2). BM is AM’s son-in-law. He lives next door, following the customary uxorilocal residence pattern in Naha’. One of Chan K’in Viejo’s (CK) eldest sons, BM benefited from his father’s knowledge, learning how to do things in the traditional manner. He also remembers the myths, folktales, and ritual protocols. He has an intimate knowledge of the forest and continues to cultivate his milpas using traditional methods. As well as being one of the main guides for this book, he helped with the transcription and translation of many of the

audio-video recordings and provided a number of traditional narratives. Other individuals provided additional information or confirmation of names and uses for the species collected from the main consultants. Three, in particular, deserve mention: Koh Maria (KM), Koh Paniagua (KP), and Chan K’in “Sakho’ol” Garcia (SK) (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4). KM and KP are Chan K’in’s widows. They live together in the family household where they raised 20 children between them. Exemplars of the traditional Lacandon woman, they wear the traditional shirt tunic over a colourful skirt and wear their long hair in a single braid tied with bird pelts and feathers. They conduct their lives as did their mothers before them, rising early to grind maize, patting out several

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Introduction

Fig. 1.3 KP with unripe poochin fruit. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 1.4 KM stripping vine for baskets. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

dozen tortillas for the day’s meals, cultivating their milpas, and harvesting bushels of produce before noon. Afternoons are spent washing cloths, shelling maize, chopping firewood, and processing a variety of foods harvested from their milpas ‘cornfields’ and collected in the forest. They also demonstrated methods of cooking traditional foods, and weaving fabric and baskets. SK is the son of KP and Chan K’in Viejo. Born in the late 1980s, he is one of the youngest of their children. He was one of the few people of his generation to have retained an interest in the traditional stories and ceremonial rites, and traditional methods of cultivation. He still recalls much of what he learned from his father, and is conversant about forest species and their traditional uses. He devoted countless hours to identifying plants and explaining their uses, besides helping to transcribe the texts. He also sang songs, narrated stories, and demonstrated the method of making natural dyes (Fig. 1.5). The following lists the other consultants who contributed one way or another to the research for this work: Atanasio (AT), Bol Pedro Martinez Garcia (BMjr), Chanuk Garcia Martinez (BMw), Chan K’in Obregón (CKO), Chanuk Garcia (CNK), Chaxnuk Garcia (CHX), Juana Koh (JK), K’ayum Arturo Garcia (KA), K’ayum Segundo Garcia, K’ayum Garcia (KyP), Mateo Viejo Garcia (M), Irma Nuk Garcia (NI), Nuxi’ Solorzeno (NX), Nuxi’s wife (NXw), and Miguel Garcia (MCG). Chan K’in Daniel Garcia (CKD) took many of the photos (Fig. 1.6).

1.5 How to Read This Book

Fig. 1.5 Säkho’ol. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

5

dialects of the same language, and between people in the same linguistic community. The work is presented in a format similar to most other ethnobotanies. It approaches the data from an ethnographic and botanical perspective, by providing both a botanical inventory and an ethnographic inventory. These inventories constitute the main body of the work. Chapters addressing the socio-historical context, the geography of the study area, and the role of plants in Lacandon culture precede the inventories. Ethnographic photographs and cross-references to audio-video files and Lacandon texts are included in these chapters. The book provides reverse English/Lacandon and Latin/Lacandon indices, and four glossaries that cover general Lacandon plant terms, geographical terms, and seasons and weather terms. An orthographic table, a pronunciation chart, and a note on transcription conventions used in this work follow a brief overview of the Lacandon language.

1.5.1

Fig. 1.6 Photographer, Chan K’in Daniel. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

The author is indebted to all of these people for their patience and good humour, even during trying times.

1.5

How to Read This Book

This work serves as a comprehensive guide to the botanical heritage of the northern Lacandon (Maya), providing, in both the Lacandon language and in English translation, over 450 Lacandon names for plants with full descriptions of the plants and their uses, as well as audio-video recordings that demonstrate their relevance in cultural contexts. Technical jargon is kept to a minimum; where it does occur, an explanation in non-technical terms follows. The names of plants from Yucateco, Itzáj, Mopan, and the southern Lacandon dialect have been included, since words for the same plants can vary across these languages, between the

Inventory Format

1.5.1.1 Botanical Inventory 1) Both inventories are presented in dictionary format, with main entries headed by Lacandon names in alphabetical order: a, ä, b, ch, ch’, e, (g), h, i, k, k’, l, m, n, o, p, p’, (r), s, t, t’, ts, ts’, u, w, x, y 2) The main entry word for each dictionary entry is a Lacandon lexeme or headword. It is indicated in bold type. 3) Phonetic transcriptions in [square brackets] follow the headword, indicating alternate pronunciations. 4) English common names follow. Where more than one name exists, they are also listed within parentheses. When the common name is unknown, this is indicated as (common name unknown). 5) A literal translation is included, whenever possible. 6) Botanical species are italicized. Although every effort has been made to identify the exact species, where there was insufficient evidence to determine a species, the botanical designation contains the genus name followed by sp., e.g., Solanum sp. Where the Lacandon plant refers to a number of species within the same genus, the plural form is used, spp., e.g., Solanum spp. The family name precedes the genus and species names, to help those readers unfamiliar with the flora of the region, e.g., Solanaceae Solanum nigrum. 7) Descriptions of plants and their uses are given in the Lacandon language and are followed by an English translation. The initials of the Lacandon consultants who provided the description are enclosed in parentheses and placed after the English translation. Additional

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8)

9)

10) 11)

12)

information on the species follows, where further clarification is required. Each entry includes information about its taxonomic status according to the Lacandon classification system. Gen. (generic) and Spec. (specific) labels indicate the next higher and next lower level taxa, respectively. When a generic taxon is the headword (the main entry), e.g.,’abäl ‘mombin’, all known specifics are listed in that entry, e.g., k’än’abäl ‘yellow mombin’, chäk’abäl’ ‘red mombin’, ya’ax’abäl ‘green mombin’. Generics are cross-referenced with their specifics. For example, in the entry for k’än’abäl ‘yellow mombin’,’abäl is listed as the generic. Conversely, in the entry for’abäl ‘mombin’ k’än’abäl ‘yellow mombin’ is listed as the specific (See note 8, above). Taxa at the same level, namely “companions” (the Lacandon designation for group members), are marked as Sim. For example, in the entry k’än’abäl ‘yellow mombin’, ya’ax’abäl ‘green mombin’ and chäk’abal ‘red mombin’ are listed as Sim. Synonyms or alternative names, and borrowed names are included, if available. Media associated with the inventory entries are specified by file name and the type of file, e.g., uk’aay huch’. mp4, uk’aay huuch’.doc. Additional information is provided in notes, including Lacandon words collected by previous researchers of Lacandon and cognate words in the other Yucatecan languages—Mopan, Itzáj, Yucatec, and the southern Lacandon dialect. Except for northern Lacandon, the language is indicated within square brackets following the word in abbreviated form, i.e., [Yuc.], [Itz.], [Mop.], [S. Lac.]. The sources for these words follow in parentheses.

1.5.1.2 Enthnographic Inventory The ethnographic inventory focuses on the cultural significance of plants. It is divided into semantic, or cultural, domains. These domains are provided in English and organized alphabetically. Within each domain, the entries are listed alphabetically according to the Lacandon language. The domains include: 6.1 Agriculture 6.2 Artefacts 6.2.1 Accessories 6.2.2 Containers 6.2.3 Cordage 6.2.4 Craft 6.2.5 Furniture 6.2.6 Hunting, Fishing, Trapping 6.2.7 Musical Instruments

Introduction

6.2.8 Religious Objects 6.2.9 Tools 6.3 Clothing 6.4 Deities 6.5 Food 6.6 Geography 6.7 Housing 6.8 Medical Conditions Fields in each entry of the ethnographic inventory are crossreferenced with the relevant species in the botanical inventory. In the ethnographic inventory, the field label Mat (Material) displays the species used; in the botanical inventory, the field label Use displays what the species is used for and how.

1.6

Abbreviations

Field markers used in the entries Activity Pertains to the type of agricultural activity undertaken Ant Antonym Female Pertains to the sex of the species From Borrowed word Gen Generic. A broader term which subsumes the headword. Generic-specific relationships are reciprocally cross-referenced Indicator Refers to the indicator species that signal the time to commence an agricultural activity Lit Literally Loc Location associated with the entry Male Pertains to the sex of the species Mat Material used to make headword, or material of which it is composed Morph Morphology Note Notes Phase Phase in the agricultural cycle or milpa Prep Preparation Ref Reference to audio-video recordings and written texts SD Semantic domain sd2 Semantic domain, second level, e.g., cordage, food. See Cross-reference Sim Similar. Near synonyms or other terms at the same level of the taxonomy and subsumed under the entry Sit Situation Source Source of information, apart from cited sources Spec Specific. A term subsumed under the entry, i.e., types of a kind. Generic-specific relationships are reciprocally cross-referenced

References

Syn Thes

Time Use Variant

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Synonym Thesaurus. A term designating the highest level of the Lacandon botanical taxonomy, i.e., Life Form Pertains to the timing of an event in the agricultural cycle, e.g., sowing Uses associated with the plant or object Variant forms, including synonyms

Other abbreviations Aff.

AGT. forma (plural formae). Itz. Mop. S. Lac. sp. spp. ssp. Tzo. var. Yuc.

Affinis. Used when the identity of a species is unknown but which is very similar to a known species. Agent of an action Refers to a “secondary” taxonomic rank, below that of variety. Itzáj Mopan Southern Lacandon dialect Species More than one species Variety (botanical) Tzotzil Variety (botanical). Yucatec

Morphological symbols Dashes are used to segment morphemes. / / Slashes indicate the underlying representation of words. [] Square brackets indicate the surface representation of words. < Etymological derivation = Equal sign segments a compound word.

References Boremanse, D. (1998). Hach Winik: The Lacandon Maya of southern Chiapas, Mexico. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies Monograph 11. Albany, NY: University of Albany. Breedlove, D. E. (1986). Listados Florísticos de México IV. Flora de Chiapas. México: Instituto de Biología, UNAM. Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas. (2006). Programa de Conservación y Manejo Área de Flora y Fauna Nahá. 1a edición. Tlalpan C.P., México, DF: Dirección General de Manejo para la Conservación, CONANP. http://www2.ine.gob.mx/publicaciones/ consultaPublicacion.html?id_pub=558&id_ tema=12&dir=Consultas ISBN: 968-817-814-4 Diemont, S. A. W., Martin, J. F., Levy-Tacher, S. I., Nigh, R. B., et al. (2006). Lacandon Maya forest management: Restoration of soil fertility using native tree species. Ecological Engineering, 28(3), 205–212. Durán, F. A. (1999). Estructura y etnobotánica de la selva alta perennifolia de Nahá Chiapas. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico. Levy-Tacher, S. I., & Aguirre-Rivera, J. R. (2005). Successional pathways derived from different vegetation use patterns by Lacandon Mayan Indians. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 26, 49–82. Levy-Tacher, S. I., Aguirre-Rivera, J. R., García-Perez, J. D., & Martínez-Romero, M. M. (2006). Aspectos florísticos de Lacanhá Chansayab, Selva Lacandona, Chiapas. Acta Botanica Mexicana, 77, 69–98. Levy-Tacher, S. I., Durán-Fernández, A., & Sánchez-Carrillo, D. (2000). Contribución al conocimiento de la flora útil de la selva Lacandona. Informe final del ProyectoM002. http://www.conabio. gob.mx/institucion/proyectos/resultados/InfM002.pdf Nations, J. D., & Nigh, R. B. (1980). The evolutionary potential of Lacandon Maya sustained-yield tropical forest agriculture. Journal of Anthropological Research, 36(1), 1–30. Perera, V., & Bruce, R. D. (1986). The Last Lords of Palenque: the Lacandon Mayas of the Mexican Rainforest (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press). Thompson, J. E. S. (1970). Maya history and religion. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Tozzer, A. M. (1907). A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. London: Macmillan.

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Language

2.1

The Language System

Lacandon is one of the least known of the Middle American languages (Campbell 1979: 928; Andy Hofling personal communication; Nora England personal communication). It belongs to the Yucatecan Maya family and is divided into a northern and southern variety. Because the Lacandones did not experience centuries of political, cultural, religious, and linguistic domination by the Colonial Spaniards and the Mexican State, the language displays less Spanish influences than its sister languages, Itzáj, Yucatec, and Mopan. Lacandon exhibits a consonant inventory similar to other Maya languages, having stops and affricates that occur in pulmonic and glottalic series. The system includes only one voiced obstruent, /b/. There are six vowel qualities and vowel length is distinctive. The clause structure is morphologically ergative. Verbs take suffixes to indicate valency (transitivity, causation, and reflexivity), tense, aspect, mood, and person. Nouns take possessive suffixes. Both nouns and verbs are preceded by clitics of personal reference (possessor and subject). The verb complex is introduced by tense, aspect, and mood markers. These markers co-occur with corresponding suffixes on the verb. For a more detailed account of the language, please refer to the Lacandon Cultural Heritage website at http://web.uvic. ca/lacandon/Language.htm All Lacandon children still grow up speaking Lacandon. Toddlers are usually reared by their mothers and grandmothers, who invariably speak Lacandon to them. Until very recently, grandmothers were monolingual, and so the children were only exposed to Lacandon during their formative years. Even today, in bilingual Lacandon and Spanish households, mothers still begin speaking to their infants in their native language.

In the past, children began to acquire Spanish during late childhood or early adolescence. But today, with the introduction of a state-run primary school and an increase in their interaction with tourists, government officials, and other Mayan groups, Lacandon children are learning Spanish at an earlier age. With the expansion of colonization in the Lacandon forest, Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Ch’ol, and Tojolobal Mayas now reside in close proximity to Lacandon communities. Of these groups, the Tzeltal is the largest and most ascendant. Intermarriage between the Tzeltales and the Lacandones is not uncommon, and in these households, Spanish is the main language spoken. All of these factors will have an impact on the survival of traditional Lacandon knowledge, and potentially, the Lacandon language itself.

2.2

Previous Research

A grammar (Bruce 1968) is available for northern Lacandon. Grammatical sketches of southern Lacandon can be found in Baer and Baer (1952) and in Baer and Merrifield (1971, 1972). There is also an unpublished dictionary of southern Lacandon from the San Quintín area (Canger 1970). Thompson (1977) provides a comparative study of Lacandon and Yucatec, while Swadesh (1961) gives a survey of Mayan languages. Comparative studies of Lacandon and other peninsular Mayan languages are provided in Fisher (1973), Romero-Castillo (1977), and Tozzer (1907). Northern and southern Lacandon oral performances are examined in McGee (1987, 1997a, b) and Boremanse (1981a, b, c), respectively. More abundant texts from the northern Lacandones are published in Bruce (1974, 1975–1979 vol. 2, 1976).

S. Cook, The Forest of the Lacandon Maya, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_2, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

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Transcription Conventions in This Work

Language

Table 2.2 Pronunciation Guide

Lacandon is a polysynthetic language, which means that words, phrases, and clauses are formed by affixation and compounding, e.g., t-in-lah-han-t-ah ‘I ate it all up’. As word structure devices, the hyphens separating the morphemes are omitted in this work. Hence, the example above would be written as tinlahantah. Lacandon texts are written phonemically, which means that allophones, or non-distinctive phonetic differences, are disregarded. Spanish grammatical and orthographic conventions, i.e., syllable stress and the letter j, are ubiquitous in the extant Lacandon literature. Because these conventions are ungrammatical in Lacandon, they are not used in this work (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Consonants ’ Glottal stop--brief closure of the vocal cords restricting the flow of air. b Voiced bilabial stop, baby ch Alveolar affricate, church ch’ Glottalized alveolar affricate, catch it [kæch’It] h Glottal fricative, house k Velar stop, key k’ Glottalized velar stop, take it [tek’It] l Lateral approximant, late m Bilabial nasal, mother n Alveolar nasal, niece p Voiceless bilabial stop, puppet p’ Glottalized voiceless bilabial stop, stop it [stap’It] s Alveolar voiceless fricative, sun t Voiceless alveolar stop, tune t’ Glottalized alveolar voiceless stop, kitten [kIt’n] ts Alveolar affricate, bits ts’ Glottalized alveolar affricate, itsy-bitsy [Its’i bIts’i] w Bilabial glide, rounded velar, wow x Alveopalatal voiceless fricative, shine y Palatal glide, yellow

Table 2.1 Lacandon Orthographic Conventions Lacandon (Bruce) ’ b ch ch’ h k k’ l(r) m n p p’ s t t’ ts ts’ w x y a ä e i o u

Lacandon (Baer) ’ b č č’ j c, qu c’, q’u l(r) m n p p’ s t t’ ts ts’ w x y a ʌ e i o u

Yucatec (Bricker) ʔ b’ č č’ h k k’ l m n p p’ s t t’ ¢ ¢’ w š y a e i o u

Yucatec Itzaj (Tozzer) (Hofling) ’ b b’ tš ch tš’ ch’ h j k k q k’ l l(r) m m n n p p p’ p’ s s t t t’ t’ c tz c’ tz’ w w š x y y a a ä e e i i o o u u

Colonial Maya IPA ʔ b b ch ʧ cħ ʧ’ h h k c k k’ l l (r) m m n n p p p, pp p’ ç, z s t t tħ, th t’ tz ts dz ts’ u, v w x ʃ i, y j a a ə ə e e i i o o u u

Vowels (descriptions refer to the position and height of the tongue in the vocal tract.) a Central low vowel, sounds like father, but shorter ä Unstressed central mid vowel, like a relaxed /a/ sound, about e Mid-front lax, tell [tɛl]; mid-front tense, labour [lebɚ] i High front, peep o Mid-back, open u High back, shoot Long vowels are pronounced the same as their short counterparts, except that the sound is sustained for a longer period of time. Note: In this work, Yucatec, Itzáj, and Mopan words are written in the Lacandon orthography.

References Baer, M. & Baer, P. (1952). Materials on Lacandon culture of the pethá (pelhá) region. Microfilm Collection of Manuscripts on Middle American Cultural Anthropology 34. Chicago: University of Chicago Library. Baer, P., & Merrifield, W. R. (1971). Two studies on the Lacandones of Mexico. Norman, OK: Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of Oklahoma. Baer, P., & Merrifield, W. R. (1972). Los Lacandones de México: Dos estudios. I.N.I. México. [trans. C. Viqueira]. Boremanse, D. (1981a). Una forma de clasificación simbólica: Los encantamientos al balche' entre los Lacandones. Journal of Latin American Lore, 7(2), 191–214. Boremanse, D. (1981b). A southern Lacandón Maya account of the moon eclipse. Latin American Indian Literatures, 5(1), 1–6.

References Boremanse, D. (1981c). Tomorrow: The day of the jaguar. Latin American Indian Literatures, 6, 45–53. Boremanse, D. (1998). Hach Winik: The Lacandon Maya of southern Chiapas, Mexico. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies Monograph 11. Albany, NY: University of Albany. Bruce, S. R. D. (1968). Gramática del Lacandón. Departamento de Investigaciones Antropológicas (Vol. 21). México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Bruce, S. R. D. (1974). El libro de Chan K’in. Colección Cientifíca, Lingüística, 12. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Bruce, S. R. D. (1975). Lacandon dream symbolism 1: Dream symbolism and interpretation. México: Ediciones Euroamericanas Klaus Thiele. Bruce, S. R. D. (1976). Textos y dibujos Lacandones de Najá. (Trilingual Edition: Lacandón-Spanish-English). Departamento de Lingüística Colección Científica, Lingüística, Núm 45. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Campbell, L. (1979). Middle American languages. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of Native America: Historical and comparative assessment (pp. 902–1000). Austin and London: University of Texas Press.

11 Canger, Una. (1970). Lacandón de San Quintín, Vocabulary of San Quintín. Unpublished manuscript. Fisher, W. M. (1973). Towards the reconstruction of Proto-Yucatec (Doctoral dissertation). University of Chicago, IL. McGee, R. J. (1987). Metaphorical substitution in a Lacandón Maya ritual song. Anthropological Linguistics, 29(1), 105–118. McGee, R. J. (1997a). Narrative structure of Lacandón creation mythology. Latin American Indian Literatures, 13(1), 1–22. McGee, R. J. (1997b). Natural modeling in Lacandón Maya mythology. In F. A. Salamore & W. R. Adams (Eds.), Explorations in anthropology and theology (pp. 175–190). Oxford: University Press of America, Inc. Romero-Castillo, M. (1977). La unidad lingüística del Maya peninsular. Anales del I.N.A.H. 8a(1): 83–108. Swadesh, M. (1961). Interrelationes de las lenguas mayenses. Anales del I.N.A.H., 13, 231–267. Thompson, J. E. S. (1977). A proposal for constituting a Maya subgroup, cultural and linguistic, in the Petén and adjacent regions. In G. D. Jones (Ed.), Anthropology and history in Yucatán (pp. 3–42). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Tozzer, A. M. (1907). A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. London: Macmillan.

3

The Lacandon Rain Forest

3.1

Geography

The Lacandon Forest is the largest unbroken tropical rain forest north of the Amazon. It covers 1,800,000 ha (LevyTacher et al. 2002: 513) of the Eastern Highlands1 of Chiapas, Mexico. The region is classified as part of the Maya Lowlands, but this is an historical-political designation that belies the physiographic reality: the terrain is essentially a series of steep, mountain ridges and narrow gullies, ranging in elevation from 400 to 1500 m (1312–4921 ft.) (Breedlove 1981: 2). The mountain ranges traverse the landscape in a northwest to southeast direction, gradually descending into the rich, alluvial basin of the upper Usumacinta River on the Chiapas and Guatemala borders. The watershed formed by the confluence of the Lacanjá, Pasión, Chixoy (Salinas), Lacantún, and Tzaconeja Rivers, which drain into the Usumacinta River, the seventh largest river in the world, encompasses 106,000 km2 (65,720 mile2). The perennially moist soils and humidity support the only tract of true Tropical Rain Forest in the Lacandon Forest (Breedlove 1981: 7), and a diversity of freshwater habitats. The land formation is predominantly marine limestone, producing sinkholes, springs, complex underground drainage systems, and caves. Variations in elevation, topography, and climate give rise to a number of different vegetation formations in the Lacandon Forest. The major ones have been classified with various names, depending on the approach taken by researchers and authors. Breedlove (1981) broadly delineates them into “optimal” and “seasonal” formations. Optimal formations include Tropical Rain Forest, Lower Montane Rain Forest, Montane Rain Forest, and Evergreen Cloud Forest. They occur throughout a wide range of elevations where conditions are almost constantly humid and seasonal variation is imperceptible. Seasonal formations include Evergreen Seasonal Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Thorn 1

One of the seven physiographic regions outlined by Müllerried (1957).

Woodland/Short Tree Savanna, Pine-Oak-Liquidambar Forest, and Pine-Oak Forest. They occur in diverse landscapes that experience distinct wet and dry seasons. In addition to these formations, bands of transitional forest occur between adjacent formations. The diverse vegetation formations make the Lacandon Forest the richest, most biologically diverse ecosystem north of the Amazon (De la Maza 1997). Although it occupies 0.4 % of the landmass of Mexico, it supports 40,000 species of flora and fauna. An estimated 4000 species of vascular plants have been recorded, including 1500 species of trees (cf. Dirzo and Miranda 1991). One hectare of forest may support up to 160 species of plants, and a single tree, 70 species of orchids. The forest is also home to 25 % of the country’s mammals, 48 % of its birds, 33 % of its bats, 11 % of its reptiles, and 500 species of diurnal butterflies (Vásquez and Ramos 1992). Although species have been reduced by deforestation and human activities, much of the original wild flora and fauna persist in protected areas. Threatened species include: Guatteria anomala; Cryosophila argentea; Chamaedorea arenbergiana; C. pinnatifrons; C. ernestiaugusti; C. metallica; Calophyllum brasiliense; Magnolia grandiflora; M. schiedeana; Talauma mexicana; Astronium graveolens; Podocarpus matuda; Rheinhardtia gracilis; Tillandsia festucoides; Legeophila clavigera; and, Litsea glaucescens (Hernández-Nava 2003). Study Area. Naha’ and Mensäbäk form the northern limit of the Lacandon Forest, in a region referred to as the Subregíon Zona Norte (Northern sub-region). The area covers approximately 87,867 ha, or 9.2 %, of the forest (INE 2000a: 47). The terrain is a succession of deeply folded plateaus and mountain ranges. A layer of marine limestone covers the high ridges. Siltstone and shale derived from marine sediments cover the valley floors. An assortment of soils accumulates in niches, but the predominant soil types are the reddish-brown rendzina, rich in lime formed from the underlying chalk rocks, and the black, dust-like skeletal lithosols.

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The structure of both types is nominally complex and the fertility is relatively low, save for a thin, 50 cm (19″) top layer of organic matter (Durán 1999: 30). Naha’ is located between 16° 56′41″ and 17° 00′42″ latitude north and between 91° 32′52″ and 91° 37′43″ longitude west. Elevation ranges between 910 and 1100 m (2985– 3609′). It covers an area of 3847.41 ha. Mensäbäk is located between 17° 08′36″ and 17° 04′53″ latitude north and between 91° 34′42″ and 91° 40′09″ longitude west. Elevation ranges between 470 and 920 m (1542–3018′). It covers an area of 3368.35 ha (Hernández-Nava 2003: 1).2 The region represents the most important lacustrine area in the Lacandon Forest. Nine lakes are located in Naha’, occupying 127 ha. The largest of these are Naha’ and Ocotalito. Mensäbäk has 21 lakes, the largest being Ts’ibatnah and Mensäbäk. Most of the lakes are interconnected by underground streams and the Naha’ River. This wetland network plays an integral role in the complex hydrologic system of the Usumacinta watershed, recharging the aquifers in the sub-basin of the Lacanjá River (HernándezNava 2003: 2). The wetlands also support a unique ecosystem of Haematoxylon campechianum, numerous species of orchids, bromeliads, high forest evergreens, and remnants of pine-oak forest.

3.2

Climate

The Northern sub-region is classified as a warm and humid thermal tropical zone, or Aw2 (w) (i’) g,3 under the Köppen climatic classification system. Temperatures and precipitation are largely influenced by humid winds coming off the Gulf of Mexico. The monthly average temperature is 23.6 °C (74 °F) with an annual fluctuation of 5.6 °C (42 °F). The coldest month is January, with an average daytime temperature of 20.9 °C (69 °F) and cooler nights. May and June are the warmest months, with an average temperature of 25.6 °C (78 °F). Total annual rainfall is 1862 mm (73″), distributed over two well-defined wet and dry periods. Annual rainfall is greatest at the lower altitudes, decreasing somewhat at the higher altitudes. The rainy season extends from May to December. As January approaches, the weeks become progressively drier and warmer, punctuated by xämäns, or northers. In March, the “dog days” descend and the sun scorches the fields and exposed forest floors, and streams evaporate. This period is brief, for toward the end of April, the rains set in again (Fig. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4).

2

Domínguez-Vázquez and Islebe (2008: 327) say that the altitudinal range of Naha’ is between 800 and 1200 m. 3 Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (2006: 19).

3.3

The Lacandon Rain Forest

Vegetation

Lower montane rain forest is the predominant formation, while montane rain forest occurs on the moist, cool upland slopes. Riparian zones in the low-lying areas support a unique ecological niche where pines intermingle with lowland, rainforest species. Large areas have been extensively transformed by settlers, and timber and oil companies, creating a patchwork of secondary forests, cultivated fields, and acahuales (fallow fields) in various stages of secondary growth. Once continuous with the Lacandon rainforest to the south, the northern territory has been reduced to two forest reserves in just over 50 years; yet, the region still exhibits the greatest biologically diverse transitional zone between the Nearctic and Neotropical ecozones (Hernández-Nava 2003: 3); the high evergreen forest of Naha’ that occurs in the upper margins of the Lacandon forest is composed of a complex plant community structurally similar to the general pattern of other high forests and some distinctive species communities of its own. Botanical species in Naha’ and the surrounding area have been well documented (Durán 1999) and indexed (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006). Records indicate 779 vascular plant species, 452 genera, and 116 families, with over half of the species belonging to Araceae, Arecaceae, Bromeliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Melastomataceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Orchidaceae, and Rubiaceae families. Forest Formations. in the northern territory. Among the numerous formations of vegetation in the state of Chiapas, six occur in the study area (Hernández-Nava 2003).4 Vegetation formations follow Breedlove’s (1981) classifications. 1. Lower Montane Rain Forest.5 This formation covers most of the Eastern Highlands (Breedlove 1981). It spans a broad range of elevations, from 350 to 1100 m and displays the greatest diversity of vegetation. While physically similar to the Tropical Rain Forest, it consists of only two strata of trees (Breedlove 1981: 8). The upper canopy is characterized by trees that range between 25 and 45 m (82–147.6′) in height, their branches adorned with epiphytes and interlaced with lianas. Many of the species are also found in the intermediate canopy of the Tropical Rain Forest. These include: Billia colombiana; Dipholis stevensonii; Aspidosperma megalocarpon;

4

Durán describes four main formations: (1) Selva Alta Perennifolia; (2) Selva Mediana perennifolia; (3) secondary forests; and, (4) stands of Pinus chiapensis (around the lakes of Naha’ Ocotalito.) 5 Corresponds to Bosque Tropical Perennifolio, in part (Rzedowski 1978) and Selva Alta Perennifolio, in part (Miranda and Hernández 1963; Gómez Pompa 1965; Pennington and Sarukhán 1968; Flores et al. 1971).

3.3

Vegetation

15

Fig. 3.1 Chiapas physical map. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook (adapted from Müllerried 1957)

Pseudomedia oxiphyllaria; Manilkara achras; Terminalia amazonia; Coccoloba hondurensis; Talauma mexicana; Pimenta dioica; Oecopetalum mexicanum; Calophyllum brasiliense; Pimenta dioica (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006: 20–21). 2. Montane Rain Forest.6 This formation occurs on the steep slopes and mountain ridges. It is a three- or sometimes two-storied formation. The upper canopy is irregular, with trees reaching up to 35 m (115′), occasionally inter-

spersed with taller trees (Breedlove 1981: 10). Herbaceous shrubs and small trees are abundant in the intermediate and lower strata, in addition to a profusion of aroids, bromeliads, orchids, ferns, and club mosses. 3. Pine-Oak-Liquidambar.7 This formation occurs above 1000 m (3281′) in the northern and north-eastern regions of Naha’ (Hernández-Nava 2003: 6). Here, a diversity of deciduous and semi-deciduous trees forms a continuous canopy. Species include: Oecopetalum mexicanum; Podocarpus matudai; Calatola laevigata; Billia colombiana; Quercus corrugate; Q. skinneri (Comisión

6

Corresponds to Bosque Tropical Perennifolio, in part (Rzedowski 1978) and Selva Mediana or Baja Perennifolia, in part (Miranda and Hernández 1963; Gómez-Pompa 1965; Pennington and Sarukhán 1968); Bosque Mesófilo de Montaña, in part, and Selva Alta Perennifolia (INEGI 1980).

7 Corresponds to Bosque Mesófilo de Montaña (Rzedowski 1978; Rzedowski and McVaugh 1966), and Cloud Forest, in part (Leopold 1950, Martin 1958); Pine-Oak-Liquidambar (Carlson 1954).

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The Lacandon Rain Forest

Fig. 3.2 Lacandon communities, northern and southern. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook (adapted from V. J. Colter and Nations, in Blom, Gertrude 1984)

Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006: 21); Q. Anglohondurensis; Q. Pedunculari; Photiniamicrocarpa; Clusia rosea; Pseudolmedia oxyphyllaria; Eugenia spp.; Sapindus sp.; Pithecellobium matudai; Hedyosmum mexicanum; Lonchocarpus spp.; and, various Lauraceae (Hernández-Nava 2003: 6). The understory is a dense complex of shrubs, vines, mosses, ferns, and Chamaedorea palms, including: Chamaedorea elatior; C. erenbergiana; C. oblongata; C. elegans; C. pinnati-

frons; and, Cryosophila argentea (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006: 21). 4. Pine Forest.8 This formation occurs on the upper slopes and ridges above 1000 m in elevation, where the air is cool and dry, and the soil, thin. The forest is populated by a few species of pines and oaks ranging between 15 and 40 m (49–131′) in height (Breedlove 1981: 19). The dom8

Corresponds to Bosque de Pino y Encino in Rzedowski and McVaugh (1966).

3.3

Vegetation

17

Fig. 3.3 Lacandon area. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

inant species are Pinus maximinoi; P. oocarpa, P. pseudostrobus, and P. chiapensis. Pines also occur around the lagoons of Naha’ and Ocotalito, notably P. chiapensis (Durán 1999), where they intermingle with tropical rain forest species, shrub thicket, and low trees armed with thorns. Other species recorded in this formation include: Pinus tenuifolia; Podocarpus matudai; Eugenia sp.; Rondeletia sp.; Ardisia sp.; Cryosophila argentea; Anthurium chiapasense var. chiapasense; Rapanea myricoides; Myricacerifera; Hauyaheydeana; Litsea glaucescens; and, Oreopanax sp. (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006: 22).

5. Flooded Thorn Woodland.9 Uncommon in other parts of the Lacandon Forest, this riparian forest is unique to Naha’ and Mensäbäk. Dense populations of Haematoxylum brassileto are found here along with epiphytes, Pachira aquatica and other arboreal species. Together they form a narrow band around the lakes (Hernández-Nava 2003: 6). 6. Secondary Vegetation. A patchwork of secondary forest in various stages of recovery is distributed in small areas to the east and northeast of Naha’. Also called second9

Corresponds to Bosque espinoso inundable (CIEDAC 1991).

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The Lacandon Rain Forest

growth and successional forest, this vegetation type refers to primary forest that has been altered by natural causes and human intervention, and displays various stages of re-growth (successions) (Breedlove 1981: 24). Immediately after the felling of the original forest, and from one to two years thereafter, a number of large plants develop, including annual species of Chenopodiaceas, Amaranthaceas, and Compositae. Two or three years later, shrubby vegetation develops. Common species include: Acacia spp.; Mimosa spp.; Calliandra spp.; Opuntia spp.; Arctostaphylos pungens; and Dodonaea viscose. As the forest matures, trees between 15 and 20 m (49–65′) in height dominate the landscape. They include: Belotia mexicana; Heliocarpus appendiculatus; H. donnell-smithii; Hampea stipitata; Cecropia peltata; C. obtusifolia; and Quercus spp. In the shade of the understory flourish species from the ginger family, such as maranta, calathea and heliconia, Xanthosoma robustum, species of piper, ferns, vines, and grasses. Secondary vegetation in more open areas, especially along roadsides, comprises species such as: Saurauia scabrida; Dendropanax arboreus; Clethra suaveolens; Clusia sp.; and Verbesina myriocephala (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas 2006: 22) Figures 3.5–3.16 provide a snapshot of the the study area. Fig. 3.4 Northern Lacandon territory. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook (adapted from C. Morales, http://www.ecotourism-adventure.com/ index.htm)

Fig. 3.5 Fallow milpa. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

3.3

Vegetation

Fig. 3.6 Ek’ lu’um ‘black soil’. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.7 Soil structure. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

19

20 Fig. 3.8 Canoe by rock cliff. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.9 Waterfall in the southern Lacandon territory. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.10 Forest, 10 year fallow. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

3

The Lacandon Rain Forest

3.3

Vegetation

Fig. 3.11 Lagoon. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.12 Lagoon. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

21

22 Fig. 3.13 Cattle in pasture. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.14 Naha’, 2010. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

3

The Lacandon Rain Forest

3.3

Vegetation

Fig. 3.16 Lacandon homestead. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

Fig. 3.15 Schoolyard. Photo Credit: Suzanne Cook

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References Breedlove, D. E. (1981). Flora of Chiapas Part 1: Introduction to the flora of Chiapas. San Francisco, CA: California Academy of Sciences. Carlson, M. C. (1954). Floral elements of the pine-oak-Liquidambar forests of Montebello, Chiapas, Mexico. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 81(5), 387–399. Centro de Investigaciones de Energía, Desarrollo y Conservación. (1991). Naturaleza histórica en la Selva Lacandona. México: CIEDAC. Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas. (2006). Programa de conservación y manejo área de flora y fauna Nahá. 1a edición. Tlalpan C.P., México, DF: Dirección General de Manejo para la Conservación, CONANP. http://www2.ine.gob.mx/publicaciones/ consultaPublicacion.html?id_pub=558&id_tema=12&dir=Consultas ISBN: 968-817-814-4 De la Maza, C. L. (1997). Beneficios monetarios en áreas silvestres protegidas. Aplicaciónde los métodos de valorización contingente y costo de viaje. CONAF/UNDP. Dirzo, R., & Miranda, A. (1991). Altered patterns of herbivory and diversity in the forest understory: A case study of the possible consequences of contemporary defaunation. In P. W. Price, T. M. Lewinsohn, G. W. Fernandes, & W. W. Bensen (Eds.), Plant-animal interactions: Evolutionary ecology in tropical and temperate regions. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Domínguéz-Válzquez, G., & Islebe, G. A. (2008). Protracted drought during the late Holocene in the Lacandon rain forest, Mexico. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17, 327–333. Durán, F. A. (1999). Estructura y etnobotánica de la selva alta perennifolia de Nahá Chiapas (Unpublished master’s thesis). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico. Flores, M., Jiménez L., Madrigal, S., Moncayo, R., Takaki, F. (1971). Mapa y descripción de los tipos de vegetación de la república mexicana. México, DF: Dirección de Agrología, Secretaría de Recursos Hidráulicos.

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Gómez-Pompa, A. (1965). La vegetación de México. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México, 29, 76–120. Hernández-Nava, J. (2003). Areas de protección de flora y fauna de Nahá y Metzabok. Chiapas, México: Ficha Informativa de los Humedales de Ramsar. Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE). (2000a). Programa de manejo de la reserva de la biosfera Montes Azules. México, DF: Instituto Nacional de Ecología. Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE). (2000b). Zonificación de la reserva de la biosfera Montes Azules, Chiapas. México, DF: Instituto Nacional de Ecología. Leopold, A. S. (1950). Vegetation zones of Mexico. Ecology, 31(4), 507–518. Levy-Tacher, S. I., Aguirre Rivera, J. R., Martinez-Romero, M. M., & Durán- Fernández, A. (2002). Caracterización del uso tradicional de la flora espontánea en la comunidad Lacandona de Lacanhá, Chiapas, México. INCI, 27(10), 512–520. http://redalyc.uaemex. mx/pdf/339/33907302.pdf Martin, P. S. (1958). A biography of reptiles and amphibians in the Gomez Farias region, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan 101. Miranda, F., & Hernández, E. (1963). Los tipos de vegetación de México y su clasificación. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México, 28, 29–179. Müllerried, F. K. G. (1957). La geología Chiapas. Gobierno del Estado de Chiapas. Chiapas, México: Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Pennington, T. D., & Sarukhán, J. (1968). Manual para la identificación de Campo de los principales árboles tropicales de México. México: INIF/FAO. Rzedowski, J. (1978). Vegetación de México. México DF: Limusa. Rzedowski, J., & McVaugh, R. (1966). La vegetación de Nueva Galicia. Contributions from the University of Michigan Herbarium IX, 9, 1–123. Vásquez, S. M. A., & Ramos, M. A. (1992). Reserva de la biosfera Montes Azules, selva Lacandona: Investigación para su conservación. Publicaciones especiales Ecosfera 1. México.

4

The Role of Plants in Traditional Lacandon Culture

4.1

Overview

Plants played a vital role in the Lacandon traditional culture. Almost everything was made wild or cultivated species. Some manufactured items, such as metal, firearms, and woven cotton, were introduced through trade with chicleros (chicle tappers) and lumbermen when the forest was opened up to outside industries. But for the most part, the Lacandones relied on their environment to provide them with the food and materials they needed to survive. At the time of contact, the Lacandones had already developed an extensive knowledge of their natural world, drawing on it for spiritual inspiration and incorporating the plants and creatures into their mythology and folklore. Today, the Lacandones rely less on the forest, as the new generation acquires most of their material goods and food from city markets or travelling merchants. Although young families still cultivate milpas (corn fields), the number of crops are drastically reduced compared to what the typical Lacandon farmer cultivated in the past. Nevertheless, there are still a few of the older generation who still obtain most of their material and nutritional requirements from the forest, milpas, and fallow lands. What follows is a description of the subsistence and material culture of such traditionalists. Food Plants. At least 100 species of food plants are still exploited. (See Table 4.1 Food Plants for a list). Of the introduced species, one of the most important is Musa acuminata ×Musa balbisiana ‘bananas and plantains’. In the past, these fruits were added to corn dough when stocks of maize were low. Other cultivated food plants include citrus fruits, mangos, pineapples, and, until recently, sugarcane. Wild species are also cultivated. The most important include: species of palms (Chamaedorea tepejilote), which Electronic supplementary material: The online version of this chapter (doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Videos can also be accessed at http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-9111-8_4.

are harvested for their immature male inflorescences and hearts; custard apples (Annona reticulata and A. cherimoya); elephant ears (Xanthosoma mafaffa); and, monkey hand piper (Piper umbellatum). Material Plants. Over 133 plants are used in Lacandon technology. (See Table 4.2 Plant Materials for a list). Approximately 50 species of trees provide materials for tools, utensils, furniture, weapons, and house construction. Twentytwo of these are used for fuel. Nineteen species of trees, vines, palms, and herbaceous plants are used for cordage, clothing, and mats. Seventeen species are exploited for dyes, paints, and resins. Some 23 species are used for adornment, mainly jewellery, while a number of other species serve a variety of purposes, such as wrappers, toys, cleaning agents, and medicines. The following sections provide details on the cultural domain in which certain plants are used.

4.2

Food

The Lacandones enjoy a wide variety of both wild and cultivated fruits, vegetables, and until recently, game, fish, and species of ants and grubs. Most foods are cooked thoroughly by boiling, roasting, baking, frying, and steaming, but almost all fruits are eaten raw.

4.2.1

Maize

Corn is the most important staple in the Lacandon diet. Dried corn, chich näl ‘hard corn’, is shucked and boiled in a solution of water and k’ulta’an ‘quicklime’, to soften the kernels and loosen the hulls. This process is known as nixtamalization. Not only does this process make corn easier to grind, it also boosts the nutritional value of the grain. The processed form is known as hominy, or k’u’um. The dough prepared from it is called k’u’umbil, which forms the basis for a variety of corn-based foods, including tortillas and different kinds of

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gruels. The common varieties of tortillas and gruels are described below: Tortillas. Tortilla dough is pressed out by hand on a banana leaf or plastic sheet. It is laid carefully onto the xämäch ‘griddle’, turned twice, and then pressed with the palm of the hand to make it puff up. At this point it is either eaten immediately or stored (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). Extra ingredients may be added to tortilla dough, such as mashed plantain and bananas, ground breadnut, partially cooked and ground beans, the seeds of ha’as ‘mammee sapote’ and k’uxub ‘annatto’. Of the number of variations on the basic tortilla, the typical ones are the following: ’Is wah is a sweet tortilla made from the dough of fresh, ripe maize. The raw kernels are pared from the cob, ground into dough and then patted out. The fresh corn makes a slightly sweet, soft tortilla. Ch’uhuk wah ‘sweet tortilla’ is prepared with sugar, salt, and lard. This is a Tzeltal recipe introduced into the Lacandon kitchen. It is rarely made. K’u’umbil wah is a large, 25 cm (10”) disc about 6 mm (0.25”) thick. They are made in great quantities every day and eaten at every meal. Those not eaten are stored until later, when they are reheated over an open fire. Unused dough is stored overnight and made into delicious, sour-dough tortillas, the next morning. These are considered the most nutritious of all the tortilla varieties. Säkpet is a small, 15 cm (6”) crisp tortilla, similar to the Mexican tostada. It is made from fresh dough or from the inflated side of prepared tortillas and then grilled over an open fire. As they remain fresh for a long time, they are the perfect food for lunches in the milpa. Still another kind of tortilla is prepared with raw ts’in ‘manioc’ and maize. Tamales. Tamales are small packages of corn dough wrapped in banana leaves or corn husks. They are usually filled with meat or beans and are either steamed or baked in hot coals. There are at least five main kinds of tamales that Lacandon women prepare: Bu’ulil wah ‘bean tamale’ is made with mashed beans spread between layers of corn dough. Dozens of them are steamed in large pots over an open fire for several hours. Chäkbil wah ‘cooked tortilla’ is made of cooked or raw meats placed between layers of corn dough. These are steamed. Hach wah ‘authentic tortilla’ is a 10–15 cm (4–6”) round tortilla that is usually filled with beans. It is toasted on the xämäch ‘griddle’. Huybil wah ‘stirred tortilla’ consists of scrambled eggs and pieces of tortilla wrapped up in a large leaf. Ground chicken and spices are sometimes added. It is baked on hot coals. Mukbil wah ‘buried tortilla’ is a large, oblong tamale filled with beans or chicken. It is baked on hot coals.

4 The Role of Plants in Traditional Lacandon Culture

Gruels. Gruels constitute the bulk of the Lacandon diet. Typically, they are made of corn dough that has been dissolved in water and are drunk, rather than eaten with a spoon. The following typical gruels are listed from the most to the least frequently consumed. Ma’ats’ is the most common gruel, made with k’u’um. Sometimes it is left to sour, which enhances the flavour and nutritional value. On special occasions, particularly during ceremonies, ground cacao is added with a dollop of the foam spooned on top. K’ayem is similar to ma’ats’ only cooked. Sa’ is prepared with the kernels of fresh corn that have been ground and left overnight to sour. The liquid is strained before it is boiled to a thick consistency. It is usually sweetened (Fig. 4.4).1 K’äh is ground maize that is toasted and then boiled in water. It is sweetened with honey or sugar. Although somewhat gritty, it has a pleasant nutty taste. U’ul is a hot gruel made with fresh corn kernels that have been left to sour before being boiled. In religious contexts, it is called säkha’ ‘white water’ (Baer and Baer 1952). ‘Ulisa’ is a gruel made with fresh corn (Bruce 1975). This may be the same as u’ul. Fresh corn gruels are only available for a short period, July-August, when the ripe ears of corn are still tender. K’ool is a porridge thickened with either k’u’um or softened pieces of tortilla. The basic k’ool is called k’oolbil wah. More elaborate versions include meats, fungi, and vegetables. The dishes are named according to these additional ingredients, e.g., k’oolbil kax ‘chicken porridge’, k’oolbil’ulum ‘turkey porridge’, k’oolbil k’ayoch’ ‘oyster mushroom porridge’, and k’oolbil mäkäl ‘elephant ears porridge’.

4.2.2

Beans

In a country that is based on the three sisters—corn, beans, and squash—beans are further down on the list of Lacandon dietary preferences. Nevertheless, they add substantial nutrients to the Lacandones’ otherwise corn-based diet. Beans are dried and shelled; green pods are rarely, if ever, eaten. Ek’ bu’ul ‘black beans’ are preferred over chäk bu’ul ‘red beans’,’ip’ ‘lima beans’, and box bu’ul ‘cow peas’. Lesser beans, such as tsaayentsaay ‘rice bean’ (Vigna umbellate) grow rampant in house gardens and are often pulled out and disposed of with the rest of the weeds. Beans are boiled and eaten as is, with little or no seasoning, or boiled, mashed, and then fried with onions in oil.

1

Baer and Baer (1952) say that the southern Lacandones do not strain it.

4.2 Food

4.2.3

Fruits and Vegetables

Over 66 species of wild plants, trees, vines, and palms augment the basic diet of corn and beans. Despite this, fruits and vegetables constitute a small percentage of the daily diet. Most berries, fruits, seeds, leaves, and tubers are gathered from the forest and mature acahuales (fallow corn fields). Highly esteemed species, such as some species of Chamaedorea and Xanthosoma, are transplanted from the wild and cultivated in house gardens, providing a close-athand supply of hearts of palms and immature inflorescences. Some species considered weeds are carefully tended, such as ch’ayok’ (Solanum amercianum). Fruits. A variety of wild fruits are gathered from the forest and cultivated in milpas and house gardens. Among the most varied and numerous fruits are bananas and plantains. Next to maize, these are the most valued food. Pätan ‘plantains’ are boiled, roasted, or fried, as they are too coarse and mealy to be eaten raw, except if they have ripened to black. According to Baer and Baer (1952), green plantains are boiled with meats. Boox ‘bananas’ are always eaten raw. Entire stalks are harvested when the fruits are still green and hung up to ripen indoors. Both plantains and bananas are mashed and incorporated into corn dough, especially when maize is scarce. Other common fruits include: put ‘papaya’; pach’ ‘pineapple’ and ch’äm ‘pinguin’;’oop ‘custard apple’, pähpox ‘soursop’; ha’as ‘zapote’;’oon ‘avocadoes’; chinah ‘oranges’; and, chäk chinah ‘mandarins’. A complete list of the fruits is provided in Table 4.1 Plant Foods. Vegetables. More intensively cultivated species include’is ‘sweet potato’, k’um ‘calabasa, pumpkin’, mäkäl ‘elephant ears’, p’ak ‘tomatoes’, p’ix ‘vegetable pear’, and ts’in ‘manioc’.’Is and ts’in are eaten baked in either the white coals of a cooking fire or in pits. K’um (Cucurbita moschata) is a more versatile vegetable, providing both flesh and seeds. It is cured in the field or on top of hot tin roofs until the skin is thoroughly hardened. At this point, it is chopped up into chunks, seeded, and then boiled with sugar or roasted plain. The protein-rich seeds are toasted and eaten out of hand or made into a confection similar to brittle. The toasted seeds are also ground and added to ma’ats’ and ceremonial tamales. Mäkäl (Xanthosoma mafaffa) is cultivated for its starchy tubers and tender leaves. The tubers are peeled and then boiled, while the very young, slightly unfurled leaves are boiled and added to soups. Of the tomato species, the one most widely cultivated is a red, cherry tomato, p’ak (Lycopersicon esculentum var.

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cerasiforme). The fruits are tart and acidic, and so they are always cooked before eating. They are boiled or fried with onions and then added to stews and soups. P’ix is a pear shaped, green squash that grows on a robust vine. Three varieties are cultivated: säk p’ix ‘white vegetable pear’, ya’ax p’ix ‘green vegetable pear’, and k’i’ilix p’ix ‘spiny vegetable pear’. There is little difference in flavour or consistency among them. They are slightly watery and taste like potatoes. The soft seed is also eaten. The leaves are boiled and added to soups and stews. Several introduced species are cultivated. Of these, axux ‘garlic’, k’äxeex ‘epazote’, ts’ak kax ‘mint’, and ts’ak k’ek’en (ts’ak kitam) ‘wild scallions’ are the most popular. Most families also cultivate kulix ‘cabbage’, lechuga ‘lettuce’, and rábano ‘radishes’ in small, raised beds near the house. Lacandon cuisine is plain by Mexican culinary standards. Of the few spices and seasonings that are used, most are fresh. Among the most common, are perehir ‘cilantro’ and kurantro (Eryngium foetidum).’Ik ‘chile’ varieties number in the dozens, yet they are seldom, if ever, used to spice dishes. Rather, they are eaten raw as a condiment. Axux ak’ ‘garlic vine’ is a native plant whose flowers, stems and leaves taste like garlic, and was used extensively before the introduction of axux ‘garlic’. Ts’akax ‘mint’ is used mainly to season chicken stew. K’uxub (k’uxu’) ‘annatto’ seeds are rendered down to a paste, then reconstituted for use as food colouring and mild seasoning for meats and tamales.’Itsänte’ ‘glorybower’ (Clerodendrum sp.)2 is cultivated for its leaves, which are used to season fish. The oily seeds of sikilte’ che’ ‘physic nut’ (Jatropha curcas) are dried, roasted, and ground. The nut powder is cooked with annatto and then used to season meats.3 Before the introduction of commercial cooking oil, the ground seeds were boiled to extract the oil.

4.2.4

Fungi

Although eaten infrequently, a small variety of fungi is gathered from the wild and in milpas. As the men are more often in the forest, they collect the bulk of the fungi. Women collect the species that grow in the milpa or near the homesteads. The varieties eaten by the northern Lacandones include: k’ayoch’ (Pleurotus djamor); lo’loh (Auricularia spp.); säk muluch’ (Oudemansiella canarii); and, xikin (Schizophyllum commune). The Lacandones they always cook fungi, believing that eating raw fungi will rot their insides. They usually prepare it k’oolbil style.

2 3

ahtsunte’, in Baer and Baer (1952). Baer and Baer (1952).

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4.2.5

4 The Role of Plants in Traditional Lacandon Culture

Ritual Offerings

Edible Offerings. Balche’ (Lonchocarpus spp.) is the most important of the food offerings. It plays a central role in every ceremony, and is sometimes the only offering. The balche’ tree was one of the first trees created by the Lacandones’ supreme deity Hachäkyum, as a means to venerate him. It is the main food offering in ceremonies, as it is believed that balche’ makes the gods happy. Ritual intoxication is obligatory, because the sight of men drunk and in good humour pleases the gods. The men are also obligated to consume the entire log of balche’ in one sitting. Tozzer (1907: 136) describes ritual participants drinking gourd after gourd and only stopping to vomit before continuing. Ritual intoxication among the Mayas is an ancient practice. Frey Diego de Landa observed the practice while he was in the Yucatan, more than five centuries ago. Balche’ is brewed in the chemil balche’, a large canoe made from the trunk of puuna’ ‘mahogany’. To prepare the brew, first the inner bark of the balche’ tree is removed from lengths of cut branches. The bark is pounded until pliable and then hung up to dry. Strips of the dried bark are then submersed in numerous litres of water and several kilos of sugar (honey was used in the past). These are reused until the bark extracts have been exhausted. At this point, a few strips of fresh inner bark are added (Fig. 4.5). Two videos showing AM preparing the balche’ for an upcoming ceremony are presented in Video 4.1 Balche’ Preparation 1, and Video 4.2 Balche’ Preparation 2. To ensure the balche’ ferments, one must then recite ut’anil balche’, a charm that summons species of plants and animals with hot or venomous qualities or the ability to agitate the brew, i.e. snakes, frogs, fish, turtles, and the chäk xok ‘supernatural sirens’. If the charm is delivered incorrectly or incompletely then the brew will either fail to ferment or cause severe diarrhea. Tozzer (1907) provides a version of this chant (1907: 177), which differs from the one presented in Video 4.3. After the balche’ has been prepared, the canoe is covered with layers of leaves of pahok or k’unche’ pahok (Geonoma oxycarpa) and left to ferment for 3 days. Before the balche’ is served, several small rituals are performed, including the consecration of the balche’, presented in Video 4.13a. Balche’ ceremonies may be large or small,

depending on their purpose. Tozzer provides a detailed account of a balche’ ceremony performed during the changing of the god pots, together with a number of chants, while Davis (1978) includes comprehensive descriptions of the offerings and the ritual protocol she observed in Naha’ in the 1970s. Today, balche’ ceremonies are rare. AM is the only one in the community of Naha’ (and possibly of all Lacandon communities) who still performs the ceremony, and usually only at the request of tourists or researchers (Fig. 4.5). Käkow ‘cacao’ is the most sacred food in Mesoamerica, after maize, and is thus consumed in ceremonial contexts. The beverage is rarely, if ever, drunk on its own; it is normally mixed with corn gruels. The froth that is raised while it is beaten is spooned on top. Frey Diego de Landa describes the concoction that he witnessed being made in the Yucatan at the turn of the sixteenth century: “They make of ground maize and cacao a kind of foaming drink which is very savoury and with which they celebrate their feasts. And they get from the cacao grease which resembles butter and from this and maize they make another beverage which is very savoury and highly thought of.” ([1566]1941: 90) The process of preparing cacao is so arduous that it constitutes a ritual in itself. In the Florentine Codex, Sahagún (1590) describes a process that mirrors the Lacandon method: “She grinds the beans; she crushes, breaks, and pulverizes them. She adds water, sparingly, conservatively, and then aerates it, making it form a head. She then removes the head, makes it thicken, makes it dry, and stirs water into it.” (1950–1982 [1590], cited in Green 2009: 327) Additionally, the Lacandones roast the cacao before grinding the beans and then beat it, adding the resin of sarsaparilla vine, which makes the beverage foam. After this they stir it into ma’ats’. They call this preparation käkow näl ‘cacao maize’, according the KP. Other edible offerings are b asically the same foods prepared for daily consumption. The only difference is that the corn-based offerings are prepared with maize that has not been processed in quicklime. The main food offerings include the following: Ch’ulha’ ‘wet water’5 is the same as ma’ats ‘posol’; Hach huybil ma’ats ‘true stirred posol’ is the same as huybil ma’ats; Hach ma’ats ‘true posol’ is the same as ma’ats’; Nahwah/nahil wah ‘great tortilla’ are of two kinds: Chäkbil wah ‘cooked bread/tortilla’ is a tamale filled with meat, and bu’ulil wah is a tamale filled with beans; Säkha’ ‘atole’ ‘white water’ is the same as sa’; K’uxub ‘annatto’ is a red paste rendered from the fruit of the ‘lipstick tree’ (Bixa orellana). It is patted into small cakes, dried in the sun, and then stored. In ritual contexts it

4

5

Collectively, offerings of every description are called si(hi)l ‘gift’ in Lacandon.4 Offerings fall into one of two categories: inedible and edible. Inedible offerings transform into food for the gods when they are burned, whereas edible offerings are consumed by ceremonial participants. Edible offerings are described below. Inedible offerings are described in Sect. 4.5.4.

sih-il