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Montessori Education Centre 41 - 43 North Great Georges Street, Dublin 1. Tel: 878 0071, Fax: 874 6472

MONTESSORI TEACHER TRAINING DIPLOMA

NURSERY COURSE (0-6 years)

EDUCATION FOR LIFE DIRECTORS: Mary Bowers, H.Dip.Mont.Ed., Kevin Bowers, F.C.I.I.

Resume for students to submit to Tutor with first Assignment Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nationality Address

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Course Ref. No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age Marital Status

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No. of children

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Work experience of any kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................

Educational background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................

If you have worked with children what ages?

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If you are employed in a school or day care please give name and address

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How did you learn of the Montessori Educational Centre Distance Learning Course? ...................................................................................................................

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How did you become interested in the Montessori theory of Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................

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Why do you want to pursue this career?

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Course 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Student’s Name: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Materials to be made Practical Life: Folding Fabrics Comments:

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Sensorial: Matching Fabrics Comments:

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Language in English: INSETS: One sample of each of the four stages

PINK PHONETIC WORDS (2/3 letters)

1 Object + Name 1 Picture + Name 1 Large Card with 6 Pictures + Names 1 Word List 1 Sample Secret

BLUE PHONETIC WORDS (more than 3 letters)

1 Object + Name 1 Picture + Name 1 Large Card with 6 Pictures + Names 1 Word List 1 Sample Secret 1 Sentence with Picture attached 1 Sentence with Separate Picture

GREEN PHONOGRAMS AND IRREGULARITIES

1 Picture with phonogram highlighted on name 1 List—Picture on top and phonogram highlighted 1 Packet, for example (ay/ai/ae) or (oy/oi). Packet to contain a list for each phonogram. Phonogram should be highlighted. 1 Sentence with phonogram highlighted 1 Booklet. Phonogram need not be highlighted 1 List with silent letter GRAMMAR (English) 1 1 1 1

Sample Sample Sample Sample

Card of Phonetic Nouns Card of Phonetic Verb Sentence for Farm 1 (including adjective cards) with heading cards Singular/Plural with heading cards and objects

MATHEMATICS 2 Number Games (i) 1 - 10 (ii) 0 - 9 Samples of Simple Recording Comments:

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CULTURE Geography:

Sample Land Forms + Names/Definitions/Workcards Sample Land/Air/Water Pictures One sample Continent Folder + World Map with Continent highlighted and Picture of Children/Family Life for that particular Continent. Map of World showing Continents/Oceans

History:

Story of Creation Sample picture for each era on Timeline + names of eras and definitions Pictures to show interest in Past Pictures for Child’s Day

Biology:

1 Sample matching pictures for Plants and Animals 1 Sample of Parts of Plant/1 Sample of Parts of Animal with names Living/Non Living

Guidelines for the Distance Learning training course •

It is essential for the student to read the prescribed text books in conjunction with the Modules of work.

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Most Units 0f study have questions to be answered. These questions are not to test knowledge but rather as a substitute for attendance at lectures. The Tutor appointed to each student will get to know individual interests through these questions and projects.

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Students are expected to read widely from all relevant books before attempting to answer the assessment questions.

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Quotes should be included in each answer.

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The grade of mark for each answer is given to the student, the tutor will indicate, by comment, the level of the answer. The final all-over mark is given to the student at the end of the course.

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The Tutor may ask the student to repeat an answer, if it is thought to be in the student’s interests to do so.

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It is the Tutor’s task to work with the student, so that he/she gains the optimum understanding of the theories presented in the course.

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Name and address should be put on all work.

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A stamped addressed envelope should be included with each Unit of work. (Overseas students need only send a self addressed envelope.)

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A series of practical classes are held throughout the year at the College.

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Students will receive a Diploma from the Montessori Education Centre upon satisfactory completion of all Modules of work/Workshop/Written and Practical examination. Payment of fees does not guarantee the granting of a Diploma.

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It is recommended that the student completes a maximum of one essay every 4 weeks.

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Two copies of each assignment is to be sent to the tutor. One will be marked and returned to the student. The other copy will be kept by the college.

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Bibliography would be included in assignments.

Module 1 UNIT 1.1

EDUCATION FOR LIFE

1

UNIT 1.2

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MONTESSORI APPROACH

4

UNIT 1.3

MONTESSORI - HER FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

7

UNIT 2.1

EMBRYOLOGY

10

UNIT 2.2

BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

16

UNIT 2.3

PHYSIOLOGY

18

UNIT 2.4

CHILDHOOD ILLNESSES

38

UNIT 3.1

THE NEWBORN CHILD

48

UNIT 3.2

DEVELOPMENT OF MOVEMENT

53

UNIT 3.3

DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

60

UNIT 4.1

THE NEED FOR INDEPENDENCE

66

UNIT 4.2

DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER

67

UNIT 4.3

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

69

UNIT 4.4

BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

71

UNIT 5.1

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

78

UNIT 6.1

THE TASK OF THE TEACHER

83

UNIT 6.2

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

86

UNIT 6.3

PREPARING THE CHILD FOR THE FUTURE

88

UNIT 6.4

CHILDREN AT RISK

89

UNIT 1

PRACTICAL LIFE EXERCISES

91

UNIT 2

SENSORIAL EDUCATION

105

UNIT 3

LITERATURE (0 – 6 YEARS)

132

UNIT 4

LANGUAGE

133

UNIT 5

MATHEMATICS: INTRO TO NUMBERS

170

UNIT 6

COSMIC APPROACH AND CULTURAL SUBJECTS

194

PART TWO

UNIT 1.1

Education for Life Reading for this Unit: ‘The Absorbent Mind’ Learning Objectives in this Unit: • The Montessori “Philosophy” of Education • Understanding How Children Learn • Education as a Means of ‘Drawing Out’ the Innate Potential of the Child • The Importance of the Environment in Education • The Importance of Observation in Education

The Montessori “Philosophy” of Education Today, in our modern world, we seem to be going further away from our goal of a peaceful, harmonious society which is not under the constant threat of war. Man isn’t a controller of his destiny but a victim of repeated mistakes. The solution to this dilemma seems to lie in an improved education system. To achieve a better adult, we must concentrate on the child who labours to become an adult. ‘True’ education (‘educare’—‘drawing out’) is a human awakening in all senses of the word. Real education is an education of the mind, heart, body and soul. Real education involves a compassionate appreciation of the needs of others. We give the child the capacity to transcend its immediate situation and to become an active, knowing participant in its own development and that of the surrounding culture. As Maria Montessori puts it: ‘The pupil’s sense of mastery is his highest reward. His own self-development is his true and almost only pleasure....’ (Advanced Montessori Method. Vol. 1) Many outstanding people such as Gandhi, Martin Luther King or Mother Theresa illustrated by their lives and work the truth of what we have said. In spite of environmental handicaps, these people went ahead to achieve something for others. While we all cannot be ‘outstanding’ in this sense, our education should encourage us to adopt an intellectually-informed mode of behaviour. Our purview must become much wider than our own immediate field. Such a view sees the stark contrasts between our privileged Western World and the poverty and misery of Third World countries. The famous American psychologist A. Maslow* stresses the need for educational systems to take a ‘holistic’ and universal view of children: ‘Schools should encourage children to look within themselves, and to discover personally-meaningful value-systems....’

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Western education has been rich in advanced technological ‘know-how’, but where is the appreciation of life itself? Paradoxically, our present educational system (which is meant to prepare children for life) in fact alienates children from the world around them. Most educationalists now agree on the importance of involving school, community and home in this process of education. Many studies stress the overwhelming importance and influence of home and parents on children’s education. Education for life begins at birth and must become co-extensive with life itself. In fact, much development occurs before birth at all! A definite bond and relationship exists between mother and baby in utero. Intra-uterine life is extremely complex and sophisticated. To take but one example, pre-natal infants do respond sensitively to various types of music: a preference which continues after birth! Maria Montessori* ‘A work of Formation which brings out the immense potentialities with which children are endowed....’ This statement gives a foundation for our aims, objectives, methods and materials in education of a high quality. * *

Maslow ‘Humanistic Education’ Montessori ‘Formation of Man’

Understanding How Children Learn Modern theory in the area of Child Development emphasises the vital importance of infants developing competence in all areas of their lives (Dr. Burton White). Each developmental stage, in fact, can be viewed as ‘rungs on the ladder’ to ultimate, complete development. One important feature common to all theories of learning is the concept of a ‘Learning Set’, an attitude of approach to the learning task. To a considerable extent, learning in the early stages is ‘learning how to learn’. As Montessori says in ‘Advanced Montessori Method’: ‘It isn’t enough that the stimulus should call forth the activity—it must also direct it....’ Some important learning principles are the following: • • • •

The child should be an Active Participant in its own learning Observation shows that children are natural problem-solvers Children learn by active involvement with their own environment Opportunities to explore and interact are key factors in development

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Children’s growth follows a universal pattern (sequence) of development but with individual differences in rate/timing

All great educators agree on the interaction between the cognitive and emotional developmental stages. You cannot separate physical, mental, social, emotional and moral development. Education for Life contributes to a movement for universal liberation by showing us a way to defend and raise humanity. Paulo Freire in his ‘Education for the Oppressed’ has shown how the acquisition of basic literacy skills can radically improve the consciousness and way of life of many so-called ‘Third World’ cultures. Education differentiates us from more primitive life-forms in showing how to form social relations (‘cultures’) and transcend the demands of our immediate situation (‘awareness’).

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Education as a Means of ‘Drawing Out’ the Innate Potential of the Child Knowing and doing are very important in education. The well-educated person doesn’t constantly have to make a parade of his information, something that our present competitive and materialistic educational systems encourage and reward. Small wonder that we have then, a society lacking cohesion, which devalues/values independence and self-esteem! Education for Life aims to liberate the child from this slavish adherence to an ‘imposed’ education and to devise one suited to the child’s own needs. Our aims are the exact opposite of Mr. Gradgrind in ‘Hard Times’: ‘What we want are Facts, Child, Only Facts....’ Science alone (and separated from the child’s own needs) cannot provide an adequate education (Montessori).

The Importance of the Learning Environment Children are innately endowed with an appreciation of just what they require to develop their unique potentialities. The learning environment directs the child in this learning process. The environment must also be tailored to meet the emotional and developmental needs of each particular stage. Compassion and care are also required at each stage. The concept of ‘sensitive’ (critical) periods for the acquisition of certain skills (e.g. language) is now widely accepted. This learning environment is equally important for the adolescent as for the six year old. All obstacles to development should be removed in the interest of the child. Real freedom in the environment is essential. A key factor is interaction between children of differing ages. Many studies attest to the importance of the ‘correct’ environment in meeting children’s needs. Here are a few of them: • • •

Teachers are influenced by Beliefs about Children (Rosenthal) Birth Order can affect the Personalities of growing children (Althus) The early absence of fathers can affect children’s School performance (Carlsmith)

The Importance of Observation The adult is a procreator but the child is a creator: the right conditions are critical in determining whether the child develops normally or becomes twisted or distorted. Teaching and training should harmonise with (not obstruct) the strange powers with which nature has provided the child. In current developmental theory, we have a ‘sectioning’ of the child into disparate sections by various disciplines, which does violence to the innate integrity of the child. ‘The method of observation (i.e. the psychological method) is established upon one fundamental base—the liberty of the pupils in their spontaneous manifestations....’ Maria Montessori To help the child we must observe him with patience, sympathy and love. We must see his difficulties and give him credit for his achievements. Always, we should accentuate the positive in the child. Many of his/her ‘shortcomings’ are in fact a function of our adult deficiencies in meeting his/her needs. Central to the Montessori Method is Observation which is vital to child education. Maria Montessori: ‘It goes without saying that we should observe the individual who writes, not the writing; the subject, not the object....’ *(The Advanced Montessori Method Vol. II)

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UNIT 1.2

Historical Development of the Montessori Approach Reading for this Unit ‘Maria Montessori, Her Life and Work’ E. Standing ‘Discovery of the Child’ Dr. Montessori

Learning Objectives in this Unit: • • •

Maria Montessori and Her Times The Unique Montessori Approach to Education The Nursery-School Movement

Introduction Each particular approach to children develops from a particular individual and from a cultural context and time. Many educational systems have been developed to meet the needs of particular groups in society. Spartan education (as a training for war) and Chinese education (clerical preparation for the ruling elite), come readily to mind. Rousseau’s emphasis on the stultifying effects of ‘society’ in the Eighteenth Century on children’s natural development—‘Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains...’ sets a precedent for Montessori’s revolutionary educational system. For her, it was the child himself that the system should concentrate on, not the child FOR something else (e.g. society, etc.).

Maria Montessori Maria Montessori was born into a well-to-do family in Ancona, Italy, in 1870. She died in 1952, after a lifetime devoted to intense study of children and their needs. By the standards of the time (Victorian), Maria was an exceptional woman. Encouraged by her mother, she developed an aptitude for mathematics and became an exceptional student. By a clerical error (‘Mario’ for ‘Maria’), she was accepted for the Medical faculty in Rome and graduated in 1896—the first lady Italian doctor. She applied her energies to the education of ‘sub-normal’ children. In these efforts, she was influenced by the French educator, Seguin, who stressed the importance of physiological methods in the training of sub-normals. She assisted in the after-care of slum clearance families in Rome. Young children between three and seven were gathered into her ‘House of Children’ (Casa dei Bambini) which opened in January 1907. Here Maria began to apply the first principles of her pedagogy. Since then, the ‘Montessori Method’ (as it later came to be called) has spread around the world, with new centres for the proper training of teachers being set up all the time. There are now Montessori centres in every part of the world. In Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand and Scandinavia, Montessori methods and techniques are finding ready application. Maria Montessori’s dream of education revolutionising the nature of society has become a reality beyond anything she could have imagined.

The Unique Contribution of the Montessori Method Montessori brought a radical new perspective to encouraging the growth of children’s minds. In Unit 1, we have briefly mentioned some of the main characteristics; now, however, we want to look at it in some more detail. In the ‘Absorbent Mind’, Montessori stressed that society can only be improved through the education of its members (children): ‘To have a vision of a cosmic plan, in which every form of life depends on directed movements which have effects beyond their conscious aim, is to understand the child’s work and guide it better....’

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Here are some of the principal features of the Montessori approach to the child:

Individuality In the system, the child is seen as the fount and origin of all education. The child, in fact, has an intrinsic motivation to self-construct its own meaning from experience. J. Bruner, the famous American psychologist, makes the same point when he stresses the ‘uniqueness of the child’s mode of thought’. The child’s own needs are firmly at the centre of the system. Many educationalists (rightly) credited Montessori with sounding the end of ‘group-teaching’ during the formative years and inaugurating the (modern) trend towards a totally ‘Child-Centered’ educational system.

Intrinsic Satisfaction Montessori takes a psychological standpoint—there are no ‘prizes’. Children do not need rewards in order to work at their own education. The pupil’s sense of self-mastery is the highest reward: ‘His own self-development is his true and (almost) only pleasure.’

The Whole Child The method also places great emphasis on the development of the whole child—physically, mentally, emotionally, socially and spiritually. All these aspects are part of the one, undivided personality. Education should take this into consideration.

Particular Method Aspects of the Montessori approach: • ORDER must be present in the Classroom. • HANDS (Sensori-Motor) should be used in all exercises. • REPETITION is vital for learning. • FREE CHOICE Children should have a free choice in what activities to do. • PREPARED ENVIRONMENT The environment (classroom) must be properly prepared. • SPONTANEOUS DISCIPLINE should develop as a consequence of having control over the situation and freedom of choice. • WRITING PRECEDES READING • REWARDS and PUNISHMENTS offend the dignity of the child. • SENSORIAL APPROACH Crucial to the success of the approach is the concentration on the sensorial approach to learning in the early years, when what the child learns through its senses lays the foundation for all subsequent learning. This approach anticipated the findings of workers like Chomsky or Piaget, who emphasised that language will not develop in the absence of early stimulation. • LINKING HOME and SCHOOL While the home is the natural environment of the child in the early years, the class room should become a ‘family extension’ to meet both the emotional and intellectual needs of the child.

The Teacher and the Child This relationship is central to the whole approach. The teacher assumes the role of ‘facilitator’, who enables the child to learn from its own experiences. The teacher accompanies the child on its ‘voyage of discovery’. By intelligent observation of the rate of progress of EACH individual child, the teacher can assist the child in all activities. By using the materials, the child comes to correct its own errors, leaving the teacher to assist learning in the group as a WHOLE social group. We can term this complete approach that of ‘AUTO-EDUCATION’.

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Montessori Materials We will deal with these in subsequent Units; however, it should be realised that Maria Montessori herself placed great emphasis on the correct use of various ‘learning aids’ i.e. practical life / sensorial materials, such as Number Rods / Coloured Bead Stair / Golden Beads / Colour Tablets. These materials are designed to elicit the intrinsic interest of the child in the particular activity involved.

The Discovery Method The Montessori approach is above all else a method which respects the individual ability of each child to learn by its own efforts. This is very much in line with modern psychological theory in the area of learning-theory. Piaget, in particular, stresses that in the earliest stages of the child’s cognitive development (sensori-motor stage), the child learns best by constant interaction with the environment on its own terms. Psychologists also stress the need for each child to acquire its own ‘Learning Set’ (approach to learning). By facilitating each child to proceed at its own pace, the discovery method feeds into both these important areas.

Practical Life Exercises The Practical Life Exercises are a major factor in promoting the socialisation of the child and in ensuring his integration into society. They consist of (A) Personal Exercises and (B) Environmental Exercises. Examples of A would be personal grooming, self-care skills and social skills. Household chores, tending to plants and improving living conditions would be examples of B. These exercises guide the child to acquiring independence, control of movement, concentration, inner discipline and a sense of order. In later Units, we will come back to more of the aspects of the Montessori method which make it unique in its approach to the development of children.

The Nursery School Movement A day-nursery or day-care centre is a place where children are left for the whole day to be cared for by qualified staff. Ideally, it should be a ‘home away from home’ for the children. The first recorded day-care nursery was set up in Canada in 1890. In January 1907, Dr. Montessori set up a nursery in San Lorenzo, Italy. While more facilities were set up for children during the first world war (1914 - 1918), these declined when women were no longer required for war work. After the second world war though, many women remained at work, and day nurseries were set up on a permanent basis. After the Second World War in Germany, Dr. Montessori, Phoebe Child and Margaret Homfray were invited to sions?set up a training scheme for personnel to look after these orphans. United Nations bodies, such as U.N.E.S.C.O. and O.M.E.P. were also established with the aim of providing facilities, research and training for child-care works. In the late 1960’s pre-school nurseries and kindergartens become members of O.M.E.P. These included Froebel nurseries and services run by bodies such as Bernardos and others. One of the greatest needs for such services is the provision of trained staff, capable of dealing with the many children suffering from today’s highly-pressured and (often) fragmented family life.

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UNIT 1.3

Montessori — Her Fundamental Principles Maria Montessori is entitled to a place of honour among the great reformers of the world. Even more significant than her pedagogical reforms is her contribution to the quality of life and the quality of thinking in modern societies. The quality of life, because how we bring up our children underwrites the future of society and she has changed the early experiences of many children around the globe. The quality of thinking, because her work has sparked off controversy, generated thinking and writing about educational practice, and has underscored the fact that education cannot be left to haphazard fortuitous offerings for the betterment of the child, but must be preceded by systematic thinking about the persons who are taught, about methods of teaching them, about the aims of the methods, and about goals and ideals to which this activity is directed. The fundamental principles upon which Maria Montessori laid so much stress are today appearing in modern educational thinking, as more is learned about the development of the child and the processes of education. She held that the ‘whole child’ should be educated: not only the intellect but also the body, mind and soul. Because of this, education begins at the moment of birth (if not earlier; nowadays the quality of the child’s prenatal experience is stressed) and prepares the child for life in all its aspects and complexities. The environment exercises an immense influence on the child’s development. “Our pedagogy considers the environment so important as to make it the central point of the whole system.” Maria Montessori—Secret of Childhood In her work, Maria Montessori proved this statement again and again. In her early experiences with mentally handicapped children, the stimulating environment which she provided for them led to unbelievable levels of learning. The prepared environment offered to the children in the slum district of San Lorenzo transformed them to such an extent that people came from far and wide to see for themselves, disbelieving the reports they had heard. All learning takes place in a social context and the quality of the environment directly influences the formation and development of the child physically, intellectually, emotionally, socially and spiritually. Maria Montessori divided the child’s development into distinct stages — 0 - 6, 6 - 12, 12 - 18. She saw each stage not as a continuation of the previous stage, but as a rebirth, because of the great differences manifested in the child’s character at each stage. Mental growth is not a simple addition to previous knowledge but consists of a qualitatively different mental approach at each specific stage of development. When the child has reached a stage of readiness for another important step his psychological needs must be met: “If the child’s age has carried him past a certain stage it is never possible to obtain in its fullness a development which missed its proper moment.” The importance of this insight can never be overrated. The first stage is characterised by The Absorbent Mind, the term she used to describe the mode of learning used by the child at this time. She discovered that young children learned through their senses and that the quality of sensory stimulation and education influenced later mental development. Dr. Montessori developed materials to guide and train young children. These materials are scientifically based. They are graded in the knowledge they give, leading from simple to complex and contain an inbuilt control of error to enable the child to work independently and correct himself. She tested many materials on the children, meticulously observing their reactions. The materials now included in her method are those selected by the children themselves. These materials were used and returned to by children living in different cultures and different countries. There are “just as many as are necessary” for development. Dr. Montessori believed in limited materials and only one set of each in every classroom. She observed the emergence of qualities of character where children had to share, be patient and self-disciplined when only one set of materials was present. The materials together with the child’s interest make the perfect situation in which education will occur. The interest of the child has to be aroused if he is to learn. Interest is a vital, natural force and it is the teacher’s task to draw and hold it.

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Education in a Montessori classroom is based on the free choice of the child — he must be free to follow the dictates of Nature, which urge him on to educate himself. Children who are given real freedom develop self discipline, love of order and great joy and display a love of work which no coaxing or threatening could ever produce. Maria Montessori found that children need neither reward nor punishment; work alone is all the reward they seek. She also discovered, through experimentation and observation, that a class of mixed ages was more conducive to the complete development of all children present. She recommends an age span of 3 years, therefore, the ideal classes would contain children of 3 - 6 years, 6 - 9 years and 9 - 12 years. There should be open access between these classes. The children are free to visit each group, but she observed that for most of the time each child found her own place and stayed in it. It is a human tendency that we seek out a certain place (“home”) and like to remain there; this can be observed among children also. There should be a minimum of 25 children in a class, with the ideal number being 40. As education takes place in a social setting, this group size was found to be the most beneficial. Of course, more than one adult would be necessary depending on the age group of the class. Maria Montessori left no defined or dogmatic accounts of her method. When asked to be rigid or precise, her answer would be, “I have no method, the child is the method — look to the child.” Her “method” is the result of observing children behaving naturally. These children showed her what they needed to educate themselves and develop their full human potential. By observing the child, we know the method. Thus, we appreciate that the Montessori “Method” is not the result of intellectual debate and idealistic goals but rather it starts with the child — each individual child with his own particular needs and pace of learning. We “look to the child” with love and respect and from him learn how to help in his education.

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Question 1 Montessori brought a radical new perspective to encouraging the growth of children’s minds. In your own words write a structured essay of not more than 1500 words detailing the principal features of this approach and what people and experiences in her life led to her conclusions? Guidelines This question is to be written as continuous prose (no bullet points) as such it requires you to have an introduction, body of essay, and conclusion. You should aim to use approximately 200 words for you introduction, 1000 words for the body of your essay and 300 words for your conclusion. Underline the key words in this question then plan your essay using the following guidelines. Initially look at what the principles of this method are, list these in your rough work and write a short paragraph on each. Secondly, identify who influenced Maria Montessori and how they influenced her. Thirdly consider what the outcome of her research was and how it has been implemented. Your introduction paragraph lets the reader know what will be illustrated in your essay. The body of the essay is where you specify the main points of your essay and the conclusion should reflect on what you have written and how it answers the question.

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UNIT 2.1

Embryological Development Reading for this Unit: ‘The Absorbent Mind’

Learning Objectives for this Unit: •

Introduction and Terminology

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Genetic Development

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Stages in Pre-Natal Development

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Intra-Uterine Influences

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Implications for Development

Introduction and Terminology We celebrate a child’s birthday a year after its birth, often forgetting that for nine months before this great changes in development have occurred, out of sight of all but the mother’s own sensations. In the “Absorbent Mind”, Maria Montessori comments: ‘Just as the body begins with one primitive cell, differing in no apparent way from others, so the human mind also proceeds from nothing, or from what seems to be nothing....’ Walt Whitman, the poet, put it another way: ‘Before I was born, generations guided me....’ For a moment, let us look at the precise meanings of some of the most commonly-used terms for this stage of the child’s development:

Embryo This is an animal in the early stages of growth before birth or hatching. (The human infant up to 12 weeks).

Embryogenisis This refers to the formation and development of the embryo.

Embryology This is the science of the biology of (or development) of the Embryo. It includes both physical and psychological development.

Foetus This refers to the development of the child after 12 weeks.

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Neonate A new-born infant up to four weeks.

Pre-Natal The period of development from conception to birth.

Genetic Development The child’s development and existence is, in fact, inherent in the cells of its parent. The united parent cells bring together the inherited characteristics from both sets of ancestors. The science of GENETICS is the study of the transmission of these characteristics. The father’s nucleus is in the head of the sperm; the mother’s is in the middle of the egg (ovum). In each nucleus there are at least 15,000 GENES, the ‘packages’ of chemical instructions for the design of each and every part of the baby. As we know, it is the father’s sperm that determines the sex of the child. The genetic make-up of the child differs from both parents—it is a mixture of both. When the now-fertilised egg divides in two, the new life of an individual has become. With the exception of IDENTICAL twins (formed from the same ovum), each new baby is a UNIQUE individual, different from all that have gone before. Early work by the Austrian monk, GREGOR MENDEL, discovered the fact that certain characteristics of the species are INHERITED. His experiments with peas led him to the conclusion that certain traits were ‘dominant’ (i.e. they appear in each generation), and others ‘recessive’ (i.e. they may skip a generation or two before appearing). Later, Professor Morgan in the U.S.A. came to the conclusion that it is GENES which carry these individual characteristics and which are largely responsible for the unique combinations of traits found in each individual. Each single sperm or egg cell contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) and each of these, in turn, may contain up to thousands of GENES. In 1953, Doctors Watson and Crick made the momentous discovery that each gene is in fact composed of a protein substance called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), arranged in ladder-like structures within the gene, the famous so-called ‘double-helix’.

The Extent of Genetic Influences: There is now abundant evidence for the effect of direct genetic influences on the behaviour of infants. One good example of this is the ‘Temperamental’ variations seen in infants. Some are active—some passive, some resistant to change, others liking change. The basis for these individual variations is undoubtedly Genetic in origin. PKU (phenylketonuria) is another good example of genetic effects. Children suffering from this condition lack a particular chemical which counteracts some metabolic side-effects. Consequently, they may suffer from mental handicap. Knowledge of this condition has resulted in the ‘prick-test’ for neonates in many hospitals. Significant correlations have also been found between identical twins (sharing the same genetic inheritance) for characteristics such as IQ (intelligence), some psychiatric disorders, height, colouring etc.

Genetic Engineering Nowadays, man can alter a species by means of genetic engineering. This is carried out quite commonly in the plant world but raises deep moral issues when related to human beings.

Nature v Nurture There are many differing opinions held concerning the extent of influence exerted by Nature(genetic inheritance) or Nurture (environmental influence) on the developing character of the young child.

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Stages in Pre-Natal Development Table One—from Embryo to Foetus 0 - 4 weeks

Embryo has rudimentary brain and spinal cord or column.

4 - 5 weeks

Embryo beginning to look human, rudimentary heart and circulation beginning to function.

5 - 8 weeks

Limbs are formed with separate fingers and toes, liver and heart developing rapidly.

8 - 10 weeks

Embryo active and responding to stimuli, weighs approximately one ounce, kicks with legs, bends wrists and curls toes.

12 weeks

The embryo develops into a foetus. He can frown, squint and swallow food. Reflexes are very evident. Vigorous activity, but movements have become graceful and fluid. All movement as yet unfelt outside of the uterus. Facial expression can resemble parents.

5 months

Foetus now 30 cm long weighing approximately half kg. Hair visible on eyebrows and head. The heart beat is louder. Foetus has waking and sleeping periods similar to the newborn. Foetus can rotate eyes up and down, sideways, and open and close them. If the baby was born prematurely now, it could survive in an incubator, but usually the lungs and digestive system are too immature to function.

7 months

Foetus now gaining weight and vision. Lungs and digestive system now more developed. Could survive in an incubator but still lacks the heating insulator of fat under the skin and has very little defenses against disease.

9 months

Baby is born when he is so large that the uterus is stretched to its limits. This is usually within eleven days of the appointed two hundred and twenty-six days in the womb.

The Pre-Natal Experience The Placenta provides a ‘life-line’ between the mother and child during the period of pregnancy. As well as supplying vital oxygen and other nutriments to the developing child, certain hormones, e.g. adrenaline, (which result from ‘emotional’ states in the mother), are also transferred to the child. Good nutrition (for the developing brain), and the avoidance of strong drugs are also important to ensure the health of the developing child. German measles (Rubella) causes physical harm to the child. Other examples are measles or whooping cough (pertussis). Psychological factors are also vital here—in particular how ‘bonded’ the mother feels towards the child. Pregnant mothers are (at least partially) responsible for the shaping and guidance of the child’s personality and for developing the child’s aims and ambitions.

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What occurs in the nine months between conception and birth moulds and shapes our personality in many significant ways. According to a New Zealand gynaecologist, Prof. Liley: ‘From the point of view of the person we are going to be, 90% of the excitement is over by the time we are born!’ Both mother and developing foetus share a symbiotic relationship—what affects one must inevitably affect the other also. Prof. Liley comments: ‘The foetus is not a silent partner in the womb, but is rather the dominant figure in the pregnancy.’ It is only recently that (through modern technology) we have had the opportunity of actually monitoring the progress of the child in the mother’s womb. Before modern research, we were unsure about what the foetus actually feels. Freud suggested it resembled a condition not unlike sleep, i.e. ‘an absence of stimulation and avoidance of objects’. The womb is, in fact, a very noisy place, and the foetus, far from being silent and unresponsive, is very active in response to all stimuli that come from both inside and outside. We should also emphasise the primacy of the foetus in the mother-child pre-natal relationship. It is the foetus who determines the ultimate length of pregnancy—the way he will be born, etc. The foetus is also ruthlessly selfish in ensuring survival—the mother’s physiology is interfered with the provide nutrition (through the placenta). The foetus is also very sensitive to changes in the intra-uterine environment (e.g. mother smoking) and also the changes in the extra-uterine environment.

Sound Appreciation The foetus is sensitive to loud noises. In particular, the sounds of the mother’s heartbeat and the arterial sounds made by the blood-system both ‘set the scene’ for early auditory experience. Many musicologists believe that the basis for rhythmical appreciation, so important in the early education on the child, is laid down at this stage. Flowing water and regular ‘beats’ are among the most popular sounds.

Visual Appreciation The foetus also has visual appreciation. When the mother is dazzled, the foetus’s eyes also seem to contract. The foetus does appreciate light and shade but lacks sufficient light to develop colour vision.

Language Development Language development also begins in the womb. The child should be spoken to constantly to assist speech development, to communicate through and to demonstrate love. From the sixth month, the foetus moves in relation to his mother’s speech. He responds to what he hears—soft, soothing sounds produce a restful response, while harsh or discordant sounds result in excessive activity. With regard to sleep, there is now evidence that we learn to dream in the womb—C.G. Jung believed that one important function of dreaming was to put us ‘in touch’ with the ‘collective unconscious’, the repository of mankind’s accumulated experiences.

Recapitulation Theory By inheritance, each embryo has to pass through all the stages of its predecessors. An embryo synthesises the evolution of the species.

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Intra-Uterine Influences Modern psychological research emphasises the importance of bonding between mother and child. Some modern practices (e.g. surrogate mothering) may tend to devalue/emphasise the vital importance of this process in the development of the human person. It is suggested that at this stage, autistic children learn to ‘turn off’ and avoid all contact with the environment. The mother’s emotional state too, (as well as her diet and lifestyle) can exert a profound influence on the developing child. The foetus is also very sensitive to the ‘emotional environment’ it develops within. The happy first-time mother (with family support) is creating a much different ‘atmosphere’ for her infant than is the unsupported mother—perhaps with ambivalent or openly-hostile feelings to her developing child. It’s well known that anxiety in the mother (through the chemical adrenaline) can result in the newborn being less content and more active than infants whose mothers had a ‘relaxing’ pregnancy. We should remember that the father has an equal role during pregnancy. The unborn child reacts to love and security. Ambivalent feelings cause anxiety in the child even before birth.

Anxiety Anxiety in babies is caused by drink, cigarettes and drugs. A mother’s tools are her feelings and emotions. A child can sense a mother’s longing for a cigarette. The mother gives into the temptation to smoke and inhales the smoke into lungs causing the child to choke. A chain smoker puts her unborn child into a perpetual state of anxiety because the child is continually being choked and actively fears each cigarette. Alcohol damages the adult’s nervous system as well as the child’s nervous system. Brain cells which can never be replaced are damaged by alcohol.

Restless Child When a mother sleeps during pregnancy, the child rests also. When a baby is resting on her bladder in the late stages of pregnancy, a mother can break her sleep pattern. A restless mother bears a restless child. Thus the sleep pattern is affected by the mother during pregnancy. It is essential that the child should have a restful and undisturbed existence in the womb. If the child in the womb is overactive, the doctor should be advised. The unborn child is a feeling, remembering being, who shapes its personality, drives and ambitions. Diet can affect the child both physically and psychologically. The additives in food can affect the unborn child. The drugs in tea, coffee, aspirin tablets all affect the unborn child. No one should take tablets prescribed by friends. Both alcohol and smoking affect the unborn child. Every unborn baby deserves to feel wanted and cared for. The conditions necessary for a healthy, secure development should be guaranteed as his right.

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Implications for Development As we have already seen (through the placenta barrier), the foetus is affected by everything that affects the mother. Here are some of the common negative influences on the developing foetus:

Influences

Foetal Consequences

Excessive drinking in pregnancy

‘Poisons’ the intra-uterine environment for the foetus.

Smoking during pregnancy

Cuts off oxygen supply to the foetus— results in smaller babies.

Drug-taking during pregnancy

As for excessive drinking. Also can result in the baby being born addicted.

Poor diet in pregnancy

Produce less healthy infants. More health complications.

Over-anxious or unhappy mother

Often produce an ‘over-active’ baby.

While the developing foetus is sensitive to influences from both inside and outside the womb, we should not conclude that everything the mother experiences has an equal importance for the child. This is not so—the real danger arises when the unborn child feels cut off from its mother or when physical or psychological (emotional) needs are consistently ignored. All the unborn needs is love and attention. When he gets these, everything else comes naturally.

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UNIT 2.2

The Biological Background Reading for this Unit: ‘The Absorbent Mind’

Learning Objectives for this Unit: •

Cytology

•

Man’s Two Embryonic Periods

•

Stages of Development

Cytology Cytology is the branch of biology that deals with the formation and structure of cells.

Cellular Operation Cells

There are countless millions of living cells living in the body. Each cell consists of a nucleus floating in protoplasma, contained within a membrane.

Nucleus

Gives the cell its character and directs its work.

Protoplasm

A colourless jelly.

Membrane

An exceedingly thin porous skin, through which oxygen and food pass into the cell and waste passes.

All body cells need proper nutrition in order to function and grow. This can be a problem in today’s society with overactive or apathetic children. The baby often is these cases is fed the wrong food/junk food mostly containing additives which badly effect the child’s cell structure. There is then no stamina in the cell structure during the formative years, i.e. 0 - 6. We all began life as a single cell. This cell is a point of union—a link joining the different epochs of history, the different levels of civilisation. Forty-five generations of this doubling of cells by growth division was needed to reach the 30 million, million cells of an adult. Forty-one of these forty-five divisions take place before birth. (Refer: ‘The Absorbent Mind’—Periods of Development). It is an amazing fact that a baby, which at first does not exist, should end up becoming a man or a woman. It is important to understand the basic biological facts which occur during these early stages. New life emerges through contact by the male sperm with the female ovum. This ovum has migrated into the Fallopian tubes where it will merge with the sperm. Many ova are released during the woman’s monthly cycle. Structures called Cilla (Hairs) speed the ovum down its journey. M. Montessori reminds us that:

‘The greatest of men—no matter in which field—be he an Alexander or Napoleon, a Dante, Shakespeare or Ghandi—all were built up from one of these minutes cell bodies.’

When the single egg is fertilised, the miracle of life and of individuality begins. The life of the embryo is a line joining two generations.

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Figure Two below shows the sperm joining the ovum.

Figure Two Most of the 400 million sperm ejaculated into the vagina (1) leak out, but some swim up through the cervix, into your uterus (2) and then into the Fallopian tube (3). The sperm are attracted to the ovum (4) and stick to its surface.

2

4

1

Now the membrane of sperm and ovum start to merge. The 23 threads of genetic material previously packed into a tight ball, to make the journey easier, start to relax. The ovum now has two nuclei each with 23 chromosomes. A unique combination of genes. When they merge, a new life has begun. The single cell now contains all the elements it needs to become a new human being. A microscopic cell giving rise to man. About four days after conception these cells form a hollow ball called the Blastocyst which is guided again by means of the cillia (microscopic hairs) slowly down the fallopian tube towards the uterus. A number of finger-life projections are formed by the embryo with which it will attach itself to the walls of the uterus. A special organ is now formed called the placenta to supply the embryo with oxygen and food in a filter system between mother and embryo. Nature is ready to provide the first source of nutrition for the new life, a starch called glycogen which turns to glucose. This is the embryo’s first food. Now the true biological process of building up a body begins. First there is cellular segmentation. The cell begins by dividing into two equal cells which remain united. Then these become four equal cells, then eight, sixteen and so on. Soon hundreds of cells have been produced. The cells are arranged in three layers. The layers, the ‘germinative leaves’ are as follows: 1

ectoderm

(external)

2

mesoderm

(medial)

3

endoderm

(internal)

Figure 3

The Three Cellular Layers

•

ectoderm

external layer

•

mesoderm

middle layer

•

endoderm

internal layer

Ectoderm

Mesoderm

Endoderm

Each of these layers/walls produce a complicated system of organs: Ectoderm

produces the skin, the sensory and nervous system

Mesoderm

produces the skeleton to support the muscles and body

Endoderm

develops the organs, e.g. intestines, stomach, digestive glands, lungs etc.

Function of the three layers: Although at first alike, the cells begin to change in character to enable them to carry out the function of the organ to which they belong, a specialisation by which the cells become suited to the work of the organ they are building up. This specialisation occurs before the organ begins to operate.

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UNIT 2.3

Physiology One theme central to the philosophy of Maria Montessori is that of educating the whole child— physically, intellectually, emotionally, socially and spiritually. All her life she believed in enhancing the quality of life for the individual and thus for society, through each individual member. She came to believe that this was possible by education by educating the whole child. She spent the second half of her long life in developing a method and philosophy to show how this could be done, observing and learning from the child herself. She discovered a natural, innate drive within the child urging him on to develop, in all areas of his being, to his full potential. Many modern psychologists, notably A. Maslow, hold with this theory of “innate drive” in their approach to motivation. Children and adults have an “inner urge” to become fulfilled as persons. To do so, however, a hierarchy of needs has to be met. The fundamental and most basic of these needs are physiological—concerned with the care and needs of the physical body. If these are adequately met, social needs can be fulfilled, which in turn allows for self-fulfilment.

self fulfilment self expression social-to belong security-shelter, warmth Physiological needs-hunger, thirst

So we see that it is generally agreed that in order for the development of the whole person to take place to its full potential, the basic physiological needs must be met.

What is physiology? Jean Fernal, a French physician, first used the term in its modern sense in 1552. It is the study of the functions of healthy, living organisms and the changes that occur during activity. The knowledge gained by this science is based on direct experimental evidence. As a medical doctor, Maria Montessori was trained in physiology and well versed in its findings. Just as she saw the beauty of the personality when each individual area of development—physical, intellectual, emotional, social and spiritual, was brought forward and then, to fulfil the natural task for which it was created, balanced with the other developments to bring forth a unique being— stable, balanced and healthy. So she saw the beauty of the physical body when each bodily system performed its ordained task to its full potential to bring forth a stable, healthy, well-balanced body. To the very end of her life, Maria Montessori still marvelled at the miracle of the body.

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In the Absorbent Mind (Chapter 5 - end) she says, “And if we inspect the best trained troops in the world, we shall not find an obedience like that of the muscles, which respond immediately to the commands of a single controller and strategist. Docile servants, they practice a special craft of being always ready to carry out exactly the orders they receive. If we let our minds dwell on these facts, and realise how these complex organs, these organs of communication, these muscles and the nerves which make contact with every tiniest cell in the body and if we remember that all this comes from a single cell, the primitive round germinal cell, then we feel upon us the spell of all the wonder and majesty of nature.” The spell of all the wonder and majesty of nature—Maria Montessori felt this spell all about her. Man is the microcosm—the universe is the macrocosm. Just as every part of the body works for the health and development of man, so every part of the natural universe works for the health and development of life itself. Montessori appreciated this fact. Reverence for life is fundamental to her teaching method and to her own being. She constantly refers to the “work of nature” and “man’s cosmic task”. Man as part of the natural order works with nature to uphold the universe and life itself. So as we look at the physiology of the human body, let us keep in mind, as Montessori did, that the pattern that unfolds is repeated time and again in nature—Every part works for the good of the whole. Every part of the body is made up of cells. These cells constantly renew themselves throughout life. The body is never static—there is constant change. The body starts from a single cell, which divides into 2 cells, which in turn divide and multiply to form the embryo and then the baby. From the first simple cells, we get cells that specialise. They take on different characteristics and shapes to form the different organs, each being prepared to carry out a different function. Skin cells are flat and arranged in layers, of which the outer layer is destined to keep dying and to be replaced by those from underneath. Nerve cells form “long tendrils which go for great distances, like the telegraphic cables which join continent to continent.” But once the cells have taken on a set of unique characteristics they can never change again. Montessori sees in this a reflection of society. The Absorbent Mind (Chapter 5, Page 43) “Each person chooses one kind of work, and becomes psychologically unfitted for other kinds. Practising of a profession does not just mean learning a technique. Dedication to it produces inward changes necessary to success. More important than technique is the acquisition of a special personality suited to the work.” We may study physiology by looking at the various systems of the body. Maria Montessori said: “The easiest way to examine something carefully is to take it to pieces but never to lose sight of the Whole by concentrating on the pieces.”

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The Body Systems * 1

Skeletal (and cavities)

2

Muscular

3

Respiratory

4

Circulatory

5

Digestive

6

Nervous

7

Endocrine

8

Urinary

9

Reproductive

All systems overlap. All are interdependent. All work for the health and stability of the whole.

* A system can be described as a group of structures of organs which together carry out essential and related functions.

1.

Skeletal System and Cavities

The body is built around a framework of bones. There are 360 bones in a baby / 206 in an adult. Bones are organs which means they have their own blood supply, nerves, lymph acid. They grow for 20 years. The whole skeleton renews itself every 2 years. Minerals are stored mostly in the bones.

Functions of Bones Framework / Support Protection for vital organs Attachment for muscles Help mobility Formation of blood cells takes place in the bones Transmission of sound (in ear)

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Type of Bones long

(limbs)

short

(wrist, ankle)

flat

(skull, scapula)

irregular (vertebrae, bones of face) joints

(where bones meet

There are 3 types non movable (skull) semi movable (spine) fully movable (hip, knee, wrist)

Synnovial fluid in “bags” of tissue between the joints eases movements. Ligaments stretched across the joint and attached to both bones, hold the joint together.

The Skull There are 29 bones in the skull. Most protect the brain. Small bones in the ear produce sound. The jaw. The head weighs one-eighth of the body weight.

The Spine There are 33 vertebrae: irregular shaped bones which sit one on top of the other. The spinal cord runs through a hole in the middle of each. The lower vertebrae are fused and don’t move. 400 muscles and 1,000 ligaments support the spine.

Vertebrae 7 cervical

—

neck

12 thoracic

—

chest

5 lumber

—

lower back

5 sacral

—

joined to the pelvis

4 coccyx

—

“tail”

The Ribs and Sternum There are 12 pairs of ribs: 7 true ribs which are attached to the sternum; 3 false pairs attached in turn to the 7th; and 2 floating at the back only. All ribs are attached to the spine at the back. The upper limbs are attached to the shoulder girdle, which consists of the collarbone in the front (clavicle) and shoulder blades (scapula) at the back. The lower limbs are attached to the pelvic girdle, which consists of 2 pelvic bones firmly attached to the base of the spine, in the sacrum.

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Cavities There are 4 cavities in the body. 1

Cranial, which contains the brain.

2

Thoracic, which contains the heart, lungs, oesophagus, trachea.

3

Abdominal, which contains the stomach, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, spleen, kidneys, small intestine, part of the large intestine.

4

Pelvic, which contains the lower part of the large intestine, the urinary bladder, reproductive organs.

Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves are found throughout the body.

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2. Muscular System Muscles help movement. Muscle cells have a special skill, they can contract and stretch. Many muscles work in pairs—one muscle contracts and in order to stretch again to its resting position its partner contracts. This can be seen clearly in the upper arm when bending and stretching the elbow. Tendons are the ends of a muscle which are attached to the bone. Each muscle is an organ with its own blood supply, lymph acid and nerves.

The muscular system is under the control of the nervous system.

There are 3 types of muscles. 1.

Voluntary

These are under our conscious control and respond to messages from the brain. They are the skeletal muscles and make up 40% of the body weight. They can contract and relax in half second. 2.

Involuntary or Smooth Muscles

These are slow to contract. Hormones can stimulate contraction—these muscles can function without nervous control. Examples are arteries, veins, digestive system, bronchioles (small tubes in the lungs) and the uterus (the most powerful muscle in a woman’s body). 3.

Cardiac Muscle

The muscle of the heart does have nerves, but beats without nervous control. It contracts to circulate the blood around the body and needs to relax between each contraction. There are many, many muscles, each with its own name, but it is worthwhile looking at one in particular—The Diaphragm. This is a dome shaped muscle which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It moves up and down to help in breathing.

3. Respiratory System Every cell in the human body must generate its own supply of energy to enable it to perform its particular work. The energy is obtained from chemical fuels or nutrients, which are delivered to the cell by the bloodstream. These fuels are broken down (or oxidised) in the cell to release energy. This release of energy in the cells is called cellular respiration. Oxygen must be present for this to take place. So, how does the oxygen arrive in the cells? And how is the poisonous carbon dioxide, which is released during respiration, disposed of? Oxygen is present in the air we breathe. We take in air through the nose. The nose warms the air, the little hairs in the noise filter it and mucus catches any dirt present. The air is now prepared to travel to the delicate lungs. The 2 bronchi branch out from the trachea—one to each lung.

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Each bronchus branches out into numerous bronchioles, little tubes which each end in a cluster of little air sacks called alveoli. There are approximately 600 million alveoli in the lungs. The walls of these alveoli are just one thousandth mm. thick. It is through these walls that the tiny capillary blood vessels in the lungs take up the incoming oxygen in exchange for the carbon dioxide they are carrying (external respiration). The oxygen is carried to the left side of the heart in the bloodstream from where it is distributed to every cell in the body. The carbon dioxide have been carried to the lungs in the returning bloodstream. From the lungs, it is breathed out of the body and into the air. With every breath we inhale and exhale, the process of respiration takes place—usually 15 times a minute! Oxygen is brought into the bloodstream, circulated to every cell where it allows for energy to be released so the cell can function and the waste carbon dioxide is carried by the bloodstream back to the lungs to be expelled from the body.

The Respiratory System

NOSE

TRACHEA

LEFT BRONCHUS

LUNG (detailed as Left Lung)

HEART SPACE

BRONCHIOLES

ALVEOLI

DIAPHRAM

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Exchange of Respiratory Gases

AIR LEAVING LUNGS

AIR ENTERING LUNGS

LOW 0 2 HIGH C0 2

HIGH 0 2 LOW C0 2

LUNGS EXCHANGE OF GASES 02

C0 2

C0 2 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

02

C0 2

02 BODY CELLS CELLULAR RESPIRATION (HIGH C0 2 , LOW 0 2)

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4. Circulatory System Montessori said the circulatory system “is like a river which carries substances to all parts of the body. But it also acts as a collector.”—The Absorbent Mind (Chapter 5, page 43) Every cell in the body depends on the circulatory system for its survival. It provides the food/fuel the cell needs and also the oxygen it needs to convert the fuel to energy. The system carries away poisonous waste products which form during the conversion of food to energy. Without good circulation, the cell will die. Blood is the main circulatory fluid. it flows to every part of the body carrying oxygen, water, nutrients, vitamins, hormones, ions (which are electrically charged particles) to wherever they are needed. It carries carbon dioxide gas, waste from the cells back to the lungs when again the blood is oxygenated and the cycle of circulation repeats again and again. Oxygen is transported in the red cells of blood. There are more of these than white cells. A man has 4/5 litres of blood and a woman generally 3 and half litres. Lymph is also circulated throughout the body in a network of lymphatic vessels. Although the quantity of fluid is not great, it is extremely important in the defence system of the body. It is concerned with the removal of waste—bacteria, dead blood cells, excess fluid, dirt and foreign bodies.

The Heart The “pump” which drives the circulation is the heart. It is a double pump. The left side pumps the blood around the body. The right side pumps the blood to the lungs and then to the left side of the heart for general circulation. The heart is durable and apart from the uterus in a woman, is the strongest muscle in the body. Resting, it pumps 5 litres of blood in one minute and in exercise, it pumps 30 litres in one minute. The blood, rich in oxygen from the lungs, leaves the left side of the heart and circulates into the main arteries. It is pushed along by the muscle wall of the arteries contracting and relaxing, providing a “pulse”. Arterioles are smaller vessels branching from the arteries. These spread out even further into tiny capillaries. It is in these capillaries that the exchange takes place between the blood and the tissue cells. Substances pass through the capillary walls and waste is passed into the blood system. The capillaries join up again as venules, which join together further as veins. Veins return to the heart and enter the right atrium in 2 main veins, (inferior) vena cava coming from the lower body and (superior) vena cava, coming from the head and upper body. From the right atrium, the blood travels to the lungs.

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Circulation - The Heart

SUPERIOR VENA CAVA LEFT LUNG

RIGHT LUNG

PLUMONARY ARTERY

AORTA

R.A. L.A.

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

L.V.

R.V.

Circulation R.A. – Right Atrium.

L.A. – Left Atrium.

R.V. – Right Ventricle.

L.V. – Left Ventricle.

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5. Digestive System Digestion is the transformation of foodstuffs into usable material for the body. The food we eat must be changed into a form which the bloodstream can carry and the cells can assimilate. The process starts in the mouth where the teeth begin breaking down the food. Then the food is swallowed into the oesophagus, a muscular tube 10 inches long which passes through the diaphragm into the stomach. Peristalsis starts here. This is the muscular contraction which moves the foodstuff along the digestive tract. The stomach is a muscular bag which churns the food for several hours while digestive juices break down the food into a liquid, which is known as chyme. The chyme then enters the small intestine, which is about 20 feet/7m. long and one inch in diameter. Here the greatest part of digestion takes place.

There are three parts to the small intestine: duodenum jejunum ilium

The duodenum is the main site of chemical digestion. Digestive juices enter it from the liver and from the pancreas (which is the single most important producer of digestive juices). The broken-down products of digestion can pass through the wall of the intestine and enter the bloodstream to be carried as nourishment to all cells of the body. This absorption of digested foodstuff takes place almost entirely in the ilium. The remaining material of water and undigested matter enters the large intestine.

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Gastro-Intestinal Tract

SALIVARY GLANDS

OESOPHAGUS

GALL BLADDER

PANCREAS

COLON LARGE INTESTINE

ILEUM SMALL INTESTINE APPENDIX

ANUS RECTUM

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The appendix is found at the beginning of the large intestine. This has no specific function in the human. The water is absorbed by the colon and the remaining waste is stored in the rectum until expelled from the body, completing the process of digestion.

6. Nervous System The organs of the body need a method of communicating with each other. In many cases this communication must be very rapid. When we exercise, carbon dioxide builds up quickly in the cells; this must be removed rapidly before a serious condition develops in the body. Our breathing speeds up, removing the carbon dioxide and restoring the balance of the body once more. This is the work of the nervous system. Not only does the nervous system provide rapid communication between the body’s organs, it also provides a constant and vital link with the environment. Nerve impulses make muscles react extremely rapidly but one impulse will only contract a muscle for a short time—a fraction of a second, in fact. The body has a second system of communication when prolonged response is required—this is the endocrine system which produces chemical messages called hormones in contrast to the electrical messages of the nervous system. Now let us look briefly at how each system works. Firstly, the Nervous System—The Nervous System is divided into two areas: The Central Nervous System, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System—the network throughout the body; some nerves carrying impulses to the brain and some carrying impulses away from the brain. The spinal cord, which is protected inside the spinal column, transmits messages to and from the brain. The brain is protected inside the skull. Underneath this is a jacket of fluid, cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a shock absorber for the brain and the spinal cord. Finally 3 tissue wrappings called the meninges. The nerve cells of the brain are very soft and delicate. The role of the brain is that of central receiver, analyser, coordinator, storer and initiator of nerve impulses.

Structure of the Brain The area of the human brain that has developed most in comparison to other animals is the cerebral cortex—this is the layer of grey matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

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The Brain Some functional areas of the cortex.

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

VERTICAL SECTION

THALAMUS

HYPOTHALAMUS

PITUITARY GLAND

MEDULLA CEREBULLUM

COMPLEX MOVEMENTS OF EYES & BODY

MOTOR CORTEX SENSORY CORTEX RECEIVES IMPULSES FROM FACE TRUNK, LIMBS

HAND SKILLS

MEMORY, INTELLIGENCE, PERSONALITY ETC.

SPEECH EYE MOVEMENT

VISION

HEARING RECEIVES IMPULSES FROM EARS

RECEIVES MESSAGES FROM EYES VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS

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The cortex contains Sensory areas that receive impulses from sense organs; motor areas that send out “instruction” impulses; areas responsible for memory, imagination, thought, intelligence, emotions, feelings; association areas which analyse and coordinate incoming impulses. A tremendous amount is still unknown about the cerebral cortex; but it seems undoubtedly to be the seat of all higher activities of the human being. Other parts of the brain: The cerebellum controls balance and posture. The hypothalamus controls circulation of blood, breathing, digestion, vomiting, body temperature, the water content of the body, sleep and adjustments for rage and fear. The thalamus acts as a relay station through which all sensory information passes before going to the cerebral cortex. The medulla controls many basic bodily functions such as breathing, heart rate. Nerves originated in the medulla control the bodily activities over which we have no conscious control. This includes activities of the internal organs and glands, secretion of acid in the stomach, peristalsis in the digestive tract. Speaking of the nervous system, Dr. Montessori said:

“As for the specialised cells of the nervous system, anything corresponding to this is still woefully lacking in human society. From the chaotic state of today’s world, we might well infer that what is needed to carry out their function has not yet been evolved.”

The Absorbent Mind (Chapter 5, Page 44)

7. The Endocrine System This system is a collection of glands which releases “chemical messengers” or hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they are circulated and will act at a site possibly far distant from the gland where they were produced. Hormones circulated in the blood can act over a considerable period of time, unlike nervous impulses. There are 8 endocrine glands: The Pituitary is known as the master gland, as many of the hormones it secretes stimulate the other glands to function. The Pineal is a small, hollow gland at the base of the skull. It is connected with the development of sex organs before puberty. The Thyroid produces a hormone which regulates the metabolism. Lack of thyroxine causes lethargy and obesity, which an excess causes overactivity and inability to gain weight. The Parathyroid consists of 4 glands, each the size of a pea. They are concerned with the control of the concentration of calcium in the blood. The Thymus gland is large in children, but decreases in size after puberty. It plays an important role in the immune system. Without its influence, certain antibodies cannot be formed. The main function of the pancreas is to produce digestive juices; but a small area in the pancreas produces the hormone insulin, which lowers the amount of sugar in the blood by increasing the uptake of glucose by the body cells. An absence of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus. There are 2 adrenal glands situated above each kidney. They are concerned with preservation. The hormone, adrenaline, prepares the body for the fight or flight response.

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The gonad glands are concerned with reproduction: The hormone, testosterone stimulates sperm to be produced in the male and also male characteristics; The hormone oestrogen releases the ova in the female. Of the endocrine system, Dr. Montessori said:

“Hormones exert an influence on the organs, stimulating their activity and above all, controlling their operation so as to produce a certain harmony of action necessary to all.” The Absorbent Mind (Chapter 5, Page 43)

8. Urinary System This system regulates the level of fluid in the body. It comprises of 2 kidneys, 2 ureters (a tube from each kidney to the bladder), the urinary bladder (which acts as a reservoir), and the urethra (a tube to outside the body). The kidneys are filters and vital to life. All blood passes through the kidneys several times a day—150/180 litres of blood enter the kidneys each day and 2 litres of urine are produced from this. Each kidney has approximately 1 million nephrons, which are the special filtering units. Kidneys: Remove toxic waste Control the salt and water level of the blood Maintain the alkalinity of the blood (Healthy blood is slightly alkaline)

9. Reproductive System Human beings are mammals. As with all mammals, the method of producing young in humans occurs by sexual reproduction. This involves the joining of the two special types of cells in a process known as fertilisation. In the male, the special cell is a sperm. In the female, the special cell is an ovum. A normal body cell contains 46 (or 23 pairs) chromosomes. But these special cells have only 23 chromosomes each; so, when they join, the new cell which is created has 46 (23 pairs) Chromosomes—ready to begin a new life. The sexual organs are under the influence of hormones. In the male, testosterone is responsible for the development of sperm and male characteristics. In the female, the ovaries contain ova, potential egg cells. Each month a mature ovum is released from the ovaries into one of the fallopian tubes. If fertilised, this new cell begins a journey down the tube to the uterus, where it implants itself in the prepared, thickened muscle wall. If not fertilised, the monthly cycle is brought to an end with a “period”, when the soft lining which was built up in the uterus to cushion the embryo, is disposed of, ready for the cycle to begin again. All this is under the control of several female hormones: oestrogen, progesterone, etc.

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Some Special Organs

The Liver This lies across the abdominal cavity, to the right, below the diaphragm. It is the largest organ in the body—it weighs approximately 4 and one half pounds. It has a wide range of functions. It stores various substances, such as glycogen, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins A, D, B12. It produces heat which is distributed by the blood. It produces substances essential in clotting the blood. It produces bile to aid digestion in the small intestine. It can destroy toxic substances.

The Spleen It is a large spongy organ between the stomach and diaphragm, on the left side of the body. It is not essential to life although it has many functions: It disposes of red blood cells. It produces antibodies and white blood cells to fight infection. It is a reservoir of blood in case of emergency, i.e. haemorrhage.

The Senses Within the body messages are transmitted via the endocrine and nervous systems. How does the body receive information about the external environment? All throughout the body, specialised sensitive cells are found, known as receptor cells. These are sensitive to various stimuli—light, heat, cold, chemicals, pressure, tension, etc. and send messages as nerve impulses to the brain. Particular types of reception cells are present in large numbers in organs such as the eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin. These form the sense organs which correspond to the 5 basic human senses.

The Eye The eye is like a camera. It has: An aperture (opening through which light can enter). A lens (for focusing the rays of light). A sensitive surface (on which images can fall).

The cornea and aqueous humour help to bend light rays. The iris (coloured part) regulates the amount of light entering the eye by contracting or relaxing the opening in its centre, which is called the pupil. The lens focuses the light rays onto the retina. The retina is a light sensitive surface, like a film; from here the nerve impulses travel to the brain via the optic nerve. The vitreous humour is a clear, jellylike substance which fills the centre of the eye and helps retract the light to a point of focus.

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The Ear Sound is transmitted as pressure waves. The ear is a sense organ that can detect these pressure waves in the air. The sound waves enter the other ear and strike the ear drum, causing it to vibrate. 3 small bones in the middle ear magnify this vibration. In the inner ear, the auditory nerve receives the vibration and relays impulses to the brain where they are interpreted as sound. The inner ear is a labyrinth of tubes, loosely fitted into a labyrinth of spaces in the bones of the skull—somewhat like a snail’s shell. The inner ear is concerned with sound and with balance.

Taste Taste receptors are found not only on the tongue but on the palate and pharynx. These cells have hairline tips which are sensitive to chemical substances, and send nerve impulses to the brain. There are 4 types of receptors to respond to the 4 basic tastes: sweet, sour, salt, bitter.

Smell The receptors for smell lie in a small patch of olfactory membrane in the nasal cavity. Nerve impulses carry information to the brain via the olfactory nerve. We are said to detect 3000 different odours.

Let’s remember the words of Montessori:

“The easiest way to examine something carefully is to take it to pieces but never to lose sight of the Whole by concentrating on the pieces.”

And as we do this, we try to rediscover the sense of awe and wonder at “the majesty of nature.” In the words of Julia Huxley (The Stream of Life, 1926), speaking about the complexity of the human body: “If we are not struck by the greatness of this miracle, it can only be for one reason, that it occurs so often under our eyes in the experience of everyday life.”

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Parts of the Eye

CILIARY MUSCLE

LENS

RETINA PUPIL

BLIND SPOT CORNEA

OPTIC NERVE

IRIS

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The Skin The Skin completely covers the body and is continuous with the membranes lining the body orifices.

Structure The skin consists of two main layers: an outer layer—the epidermis, and the inner layer—dermis. The Epidermis is divided into three layers and is referred to as Stratified Epithelium. There is no blood supply to the Epidermis.

1

The Malpighian layer lies next to the Dermis. It is continuously dividing to produce new cells for the Epidermis. These cells also contain the pigment melanin which determines skin colour.

2

The Granular Layer of lining cells lies above the Malpighian Layer. These cells eventually give rise to the Cornified Layer.

3

The Cornified Layer is a thick layer of dead flattened cells. These cells are constantly being rubbed off to be replaced by new cells from below.

It is estimated that the epidermis is totally replaced every three weeks. The epidermis forms a tough waterproof covering over the surface of the body. The Dermis is a layer of connective tissue. It contains a network of protein fibres which give the skin its elasticity. The Dermis also contains Sebaceous Glands, Muscles and Hair Follicles. Beneath the Dermis is a layer of fatty cells called Adipose tissue, which insulates the body and gives men and women their different shapes.

Function: 1.

Protection: The tough cornified layer covers the entire body giving protection against the entry of bacteria, loss of water and injury. The pigment, Melanin, protects the Dermis and the underlying tissue from harmful effects of ultra violet rays in sunlight.

2.

Excretion: Sweat glands are found all over the body, especially in the armpits and the palms of the hands. Sweat is a fluid composed of water, dissolved salts and a small amount of urea and lactic acid. The sweat passes up the sweat duct and out onto the surface of the skin, where it evaporates.

3.

Heat Regulation In humans the skin is the major temperature regulating organ. The changes in body temperature are under the control of the hypothalamus of the brain.

4.

Sense Organ The skin contains various kinds of sensory receptors for pressure, touch, warmth, cold and pain.

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UNIT 2.4

Childhood Illnesses Prevention and Detection One of the first ways a mother can prevent illnesses is to breast feed her baby. Breast milk contains antibodies which protect the baby from several infectious illnesses for up to 3 months. Breast fed babies are less prone to gastro-enteritis, infantile eczema, obesity, specific types of fits (low calcium), and asthma.

Good Hygiene Good hygiene is always important, especially in the early months of life. Children can become unwell or even seriously ill as an effect of poor hygiene standards. Simple measures such as hand washing after changing nappies or using the toilet, keeping bathrooms clean and washing hands before and after handling foods would greatly reduce the incidence of such illnesses. Children should be taught these standards of hygiene.

Good Nutrition A balanced diet is vitally important for healthy growth of every part of the body (not just teeth and bones). Even a fussy eater will actually choose a fairly balanced diet over a week if given the choice. Vitamin supplements are probably not necessary for children on a normal diet. Even so called junk foods and processed foods are frequently fortified with added vitamins. What is important is eating a balanced diet but there is dispute as to what constitutes a “normal” diet. .

Good Safety Standards Accidents are a common cause of serious injury or even death in children. There are very simple but very effective ways of preventing the too numerous accidents and poisonings which happen around the home. Poisons or household chemicals should be placed out of reach of children preferably in a locked cupboard. One can protect a child physically from burns and falls, etc. by using just a few safeguards. (see PLAY IT SAFE from the Health Promotion Unit, Dept. of Health) The garden can be another area where accidents occur. children should be kept away from garden implements especially powered tools and blades.

Cause of Infectious Diseases Firstly, a number of questions must be answered so that plans can be made to prevent infection.

What causes infection ? How are the infectious diseases spread ? Can they be prevented ?

Infectious diseases are caused by germs (bacteria or virus or other infectious organism) entering the body of a person, evading their immune defence system, multiplying and causing disease. The process of infection involves:

1

The source of germs, i.e. where they come from.

2

Transmission of disease, i.e. how they are carried from one source to the infected person.

3

The recipient, the person who becomes infected.

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The Source of Infection Most infectious diseases which may affect children in a Nursery are spread from person to person. The person may be suffering from the disease or may be a “carrier” of the germs and have no symptoms or ill health from the disease. In some diseases germs may be discharged from the nose or airway during coughing, sneezing and blowing the nose e.g. whooping cough, measles, the common cold, tuberculosis, some forms of pneumonia. Human beings are not the only source of infection. Sometimes, food may be infected, but usually germs that may be present are destroyed by proper cooking. Food is often heat sterilised to prevent transmission of infection e.g. Pasteurisation of milk. Occasionally animals or pets can be a source of infection e.g. worms, fleas, brucellosis, some kinds of pneumonia, eye disease. Some germs are found in the soil, e.g. tetanus bacillus (lockjaw). The germ enters the bloodstream through an open wound often a penetrating wound. Nearly all the childhood infectious diseases found in nursery children are transmitted from person to person.

The Transmission of Infection The main methods by which infection is spread: 1.

Direct Contact: Infection occurs by actually touching a source of infection, e.g. a person kissing someone suffering from a common cold may catch the cold themselves. A child suffering from dysentery will pass the germs in his motions. He may easily contaminate other parts of his skin. If he touches another child, the germs may be transferred to the other child. This type of infection is prevented by hand washing and good hygiene

2.

Indirect Contact: The source of infection is not always direct. An adult may unknowingly infect a child by touching an already infected child and passing the infection on. Clothing can also be a source of infection (the clothes may be contaminated). Infection can also be transmitted in this way by towels or cleaning cloths and sponges. In fact anything that may be used by more than one child. Standards of hygiene must be very high in an attempt to prevent the spread of infection in this manner.

3.

Airborne Infection: Infection can pass through the air from one person to another. For example, an infected person coughing or sneezing close to another person. Tiny droplets of moisture will pass from the infected person and travel through the air. This is the way in which most coughs, colds and flu are spread

4.

Food Borne Infection: On rare occasions, food can be a source of infection. It can become contaminated and the person eating this food will then become infected. Most germs are destroyed by thorough cooking, but if the food is only gently warmed, the germs can multiply and cause infection. Poor storage or inadequate refrigeration can also food to be contaminated. This is a common source of food poisoning, gastro-enteritis and hepatitis.

If a cook has a septic sore on the hand and is preparing food, then the food may become contaminated by staphylococci. In dealing with young babies, particular attention must be paid to washing the hands, to prevent the milk feeds becoming infected. If the hands are not clean, they may be contaminated with gastro-enteritis germs which may infect the teats, milk, or the feeding bottles. Germs multiply very quickly in milk, particularly if it is warm.

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Immunisation: Immunisation programmes are very effective in protecting from infectious diseases and reducing childhood infectious diseases and death. In some parts of the world children are not allowed to enter school until they have completed their immunisation schedule. Most countries have voluntary take-up of immunisation but we still have a significant number of children who are not immunised, for whatever reason, and so many infectious diseases remain to be eradicated. Rubella (German measles) is a most important case in point - there is a large body of health care workers who would like to see boys given Rubella vaccine too - this would dramatically decrease the chances of pregnant women contracting Rubella and subsequently risk giving birth to a handicapped child. Most illnesses in childhood are infective and an important activity in the early life of every individual is meeting and establishing immunity to a wide variety of infecting organisms. These mechanisms are not fully established at birth. Some immunity is passed from mother to the baby, giving protection against a number of common infections such as measles, mumps and rubella until about 6 - 9 months when the baby’s own immune system takes over. There are a number of infections not protected because the “immune cells” do not cross the placenta from mother to baby. The most notable of these non-protected infections is whooping cough. As infectious diseases account for a large part of the mortality and morbidity of early childhood, it is logical to institute whatever preventative measures are available. In determining such a schedule, two basic decisions need to be made: a)

Against what diseases should a child be protected?

b)

At what age should it be given?

The age at which it should be given depends upon the age of susceptibility of the child and the age at which he can best respond to the vaccine. There is often conflict here, as in the case of whooping cough: the greatest danger of the disease is in the first 6 - 12months, but the immune response is poor before the age of 6 months. Diphtheria Now excessively rare in western Europe but this depends on continuing immunisation of as many as possible. There are no contra indications. Whooping Cough The third component of triple vaccine is the only one of the three to cause any disturbance of health. Minor reactions are common restlessness, fever or transient screaming episodes coming on a few hours after the injection. They last a few hours. It is advisable to give a child some Calpol a few hours before the injection and a few hours after to offset most of these symptoms. Occasionally the temperature rises so high that febrile convulsions have occurred but they are uncommon. It is recommended that it is not given to babies with disordered brain function or to a child who has had a previous reaction to Whooping Cough vaccine or to a child with eczema. Poliomyelitis The vaccine is given orally. It is highly effective. An injectable vaccine is also available. Smallpox This illness has been eradicated world-wide and the vaccine is no longer used. Measles A mild illness may occur 10 days after the injection. Protection is for at least 10 years. Rubella The main danger from rubella / German measles is to the embryo. At present the vaccination is given to girls between 10 - 14 years, and to non-immune adult females. The duration of the immunity is not less than 7 years. B.C.G. Gives substantial protection against TB. Baby gets local redness, swelling and sometimes ulceration 3 -6 weeks later. The local signs go in 2 - 6 months. (See Protect Your Child; immunise from Dept. of Health) 40

Screening Programmes Their primary function is to detect problems early and mobilise the appropriate services. The obvious problems of deafness and eye defects only account for part of what these programmes should be for. The health and educational progress of a child is directly related to the home and environment. The child of an unskilled worker has a greater chance of being born dead or with a serious physical handicap than a child from the professional classes. Poor and disadvantaged children may be more exposed to illness and may do less well at school. Unsatisfactory homes are not just those where there is overt cruelty, poverty or squalor; stress at home may result from one parent families, family financial problems, parental discord or parental illness or inadequacy. The medical service sees the childhood casualty of such situations: poor development, illness and behaviour problems, or children who have a stay in hospital because of the home situation rather than the severity of the disease. The teacher sees the casualties also - unhappy children, delinquent children and children with learning problems. Area medical and social services “exist” particularly for such children, but all too often they are best used by the child of well-informed, middle-class parents, while the socially disadvantaged child cannot use them because his parents either do not know or do not how to access these services. Child neglect is more often due to deprivation in terms of housing and education rather than deliberate cruelty. Therefore, all medical and paramedical staff have a constant duty to detect children in need or distress to see that they have the opportunity to benefit from the help that is available. You are also very important in this respect. Deafness and visual defects are the most consistent problems detected. Unfortunately the interval between screenings and the take up rate are too low - as a child carer you should be aware of this. If a mother says she is worried about a child’s hearing at age 4 weeks, it should not be dismissed a full examination should be done and the child followed up until everyone is satisfied there is no problem. Even at 6 weeks, hearing aids can be fitted and the sooner the child begins to hear sounds the better the chance for him from every aspect: hearing, speech, and general mental achievement.

The signs of deafness are: 1

No interest in surroundings

2

No startle reflex

3

Not turning to noise or name being called

4

Not talking

5

Behavioural problems/temper tantrums

These children need assessment at a clinic and will be referred to an ENT surgeon from there. You can check a child’s hearing if you are suspicious of deafness with a very simple test: a baby of 6 months will turn to the sound of a rattle held at 18” from the ear on a horizontal line. The commonest eye problem is a squint (a turn in the eye). It is important to treat these as soon as possible, not for cosmetic reasons, but because the vision in the eye may deteriorate if the squint is not treated. A squint that comes and goes before 6 months of age may not be significant, but a fixed squint before this age is of importance and needs assessment and treatment. Squints are not always picked up at screening, but if parents or carers say they notice a squint then the child should be referred to an eye clinic. Treatment is often the wearing of glasses and patching the good eye; surgery is sometimes necessary. There is often a family history of squints. Colour vision may also be tested particularly in boys as colour blindness is more common in males. Asthma Some 10 - 12% of the population have asthma. It is more common in children and also probably more common among boys. Some 60 - 70% of children with asthma will loose the condition before they complete secondary school. There is frequently a family history of asthma. If the child has an inhaler or medicine for his asthma, you should make sure you know how to help him when he is in your care. If a child has continuing wheeze or does not respond to his medications or is becoming distressed then you must seek medical help or take the child to a casualty department in hospital. You should have the name of the family doctor and the child’s

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specialist to call upon if necessary. Most children with asthma do equally well at school etc. if their condition is controlled but often they “do not like” sports etc. as they may become wheezy with exercise. Swimming is well tolerated. Medications may improve exercise tolerance. Children with asthma should be encouraged to be “normal” and should not be allowed to exploit their condition as an excuse for poor behaviour or participation provided they are well. Croup A choking sound called stridor develops, often with a harsh cry and barking cough. There may be fever. Management poses lots of problems. There is a need to exclude a foreign body as a cause of sudden onset of wheeze but DO NOT put fingers or anything else in a childs mouth who has croup or stridor. Hospitalisation is confined to those with marked respiratory distress, age under 1, and very worried parents.. At home, make a humidity tent. It usually lessens in 12 hours and has gone in 3 days.

Foreign Bodies Choking The child will be distressed and may turn blue. He will be unable to cough or to speak or to breathe. Turn the child upside down and give him 4 back slaps and 4 abdominal thrusts. Nose The only sign may be a persistent mucky, smelly discharge from one nostril. Get him to hold the other side shut and blow hard; this may dislodge it. On no account attempt to do it yourself. Take him to your doctor or hospital. Instruct child to breathe through mouth. Ear Incline head and flood with tepid water. If unsuccessful, take to doctor. Nose Bleeds Common in older children. If they are frequent, the child should be seen by a doctor. Management sit the child forward over a bowl. Tell him to sit quietly. Put pressure on the side of the nose that is bleeding, for 10 minutes. IF YOU ARE WORRIED ABOUT A CHILD ALWAYS SEEK HELP

Skin Diseases Boils Local redness, warmth, swelling and pain. You may use dry non adherent dressings in older children. Never squeeze a boil, you may spread the infection. They may be a sign of acute local infection but repeated boils may also be a sign of decreased immunity or diabetes. They should be seen by a doctor. Head Lice Often the teacher is the first person who notices nits. Lice are insects who live in hair. They hook onto the scalp and lay small white eggs on the hair called nits. The head is itchy so the child scratches. Several treatments are available in retail pharmacists. Everyone in the family should be treated. Follow the manufacturers advice and instructions Burns Burns can be due to fire, hot liquids or chemicals. Chemical burns may have specific treatments and expert advice must be sought. Advice may be printed on the product label. Burns due to fire or hot liquid are always serious in children and can easily be underestimated in severity. Immediate Treatment: REMOVE / STOP THE CAUSE OF THE BURN and cool with water. This prevents the burn going deeper. If his clothes are burning put his whole body in water. Do not forget to use a FIRE BLANKET if you have one. Do not put butter or anything else on a burn. If he has a large burn, leave his clothes on until he reaches hospital. Do not break blisters - they protect from infection. Burns are generally more serious than they seem so unless they are trivial they should be seen by a doctor.

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Poisons: Seek advice from the Poisons Information Service.. DO NOT GIVE MILK OR WATER OR ANY OTHER MEDICINE WITHOUT ADVICE. DO NOT MAKE CHILD VOMIT WITHOUT ADVICE. DO NOT PUT FINGERS DOWN CHILDS THROAT. Always seek medical advice Head Injuries The scalp bleeds profusely and frequently leads to alarm and anxiety. Apparently trivial injuries may cause a bleed inside the skull which will only become apparent after an interval of time. A loss of consciousness, however brief, must be regarded seriously and the child taken to hospital. Worrying signs following a head injury include vomiting, drowsiness or severe headache. A drowsy or comatose child should be laid in the recovery position. Make sure tongue is not obstructing breathing. Always seek help as soon as possible as there are many causes of coma.

Management General Measures In any acute iIIness - basic guidelines of management. Rest: A child who feels ill will want to rest; one who feels well will not. There are very few indications for trying to enforce rest - active disease of the heart or lungs or painful joints may restrict activity. At home the couch downstairs with the TV is more conducive to rest than bored isolation in the bedroom. You can also keep a better eye on them, in case their condition deteriorates. Temperature and Humidity: There is still a widespread fear that febrile children may suffer from chilling and consequently parents switch on bedroom heats and pile on blankets. THIS IS WRONG. Such measures can only help raise body temperature and increase discomfort and, most importantly, increase the risk of febrile convulsions. A febrile convulsion is a specific type of convulsion which is directly related to a high temperature. Room temperature should be comfortable (about 65F. 18C.). High fever in a young child is an indication for active cooling by giving antipyretics (Calpol), removing blankets and clothing, using fans and, if necessary, tepid sponging (not cold sponging as this will only close up the skin vessels and slow down the cooling process). Allowing a child play in a tepid bath under supervision will also cool a febrile child. They also need fluids to help cooling and prevent dehydration due to sweating. (They need food because they are using up a lot of calories. Dry air is irritating to an inflamed respiratory tract and may aggravate cough. Central heating often dries air and this can be overcome by placing a reservoir of water by the radiator. High humidity can only be achieved in a tent. Diet: During acute illnesses, especially febrile illnesses, drinking is far more important than eating. The child should be encouraged to drink frequently small quantities of water, fruit juice or glucose drinks. A vomiting child should have a small drink after each vomit: some will return with the next vomit, but some will stay down. It does not matter if a sick child eats little or nothing for a few days. The lost weight will soon be regained. Returning appetite is a good sign of returning health. Isolation: Children with infectious diseases nursed at home do not necessarily need to be isolated. Measles and chickenpox are highly infectious before the spots appear and siblings and classmates are probably already infected before the rash develops. With rubella the risk to pregnant women must be remembered. It is very important that all female staff of child-bearing age should arrange with their family doctor to undergo blood tests to determine their state of immunity to this disease. Those who are susceptible should be vaccinated. Quarantine of the contacts of a person with an infectious disease has proved ineffective in the prevention of infectious diseases. It is better just to keep them under surveillance. Parents should be made aware if their child had been in contact with an infectious disease. By the age of 14, 90% of children have had measles; 70% chickenpox and whooping cough; and 50% have had rubella and mumps unless immunised. By the age of 14, 90% of children have had measles; 70% chickenpox 43

and whooping cough; and 50% have had rubella and mumps. In any case there is much to be said for acquiring the ID in childhood. Their effect are usually much more serious in adults, i.e. mumps— orchitis, rubella—fetal anomalies. Many of these diseases first reveal themselves by such symptoms as fever, headache, general malaise, irritability, fast breathing and possibly vomiting, before the appearance of such obvious signs, such as rash or diarrhoea, the child may complain of feeling cold and shivering, or may have a sore throat, runny nose, watery eyes either alone or in combination. When a child who is usually active and attentive appears listless and disinterested in his work, won’t eat, teachers/carers would be well advised to look for such early signs and symptoms and if they are present the child should/may be excluded from school.

Common infectious diseases. It is inappropriate to treat most of them with antibiotic. The general measures are usually all that is needed. These illnesses on the whole are self-limiting. Measles: Rash dark red-from behind the ears and forehead spreading over the face and trunk and finally to the limbs, then becomes confluent on the trunk. Pink/red sclera. Prodromal period. Measles rash usually comes on the fourth day after which the child usually begins to recover. The illness may last up to 14 days. Rubella: Same distribution as measles but more pinky. Hard to differentiate. Chickenpox: Usually mild. Lesions mainly on the trunk. Mumps: Parotid swelling (the side of the jaw). Can affect both sides Whooping Cough: Serious disease in the very young infant, they often do not whoop but frequently have convulsions. Older children have the whoop, paroxysmal cough leading to vomiting and “bloodshot eyes”. In children who have been immunised the disease tends to be mild, the whoop absent and the diagnosis easily missed. The purpose of immunisation is to reduce whooping cough in the community and thus reduce the risk of any child getting whooping cough. Scarlet Fever: This has become less common now since the introduction of penicillin. It is caused by a particular strain of streptococcus (germ which causes sore throats) and while the “scarlet colour” is impressive the outcome with antibiotics is excellent. Diarrhoea: A child who dies from diarrhoea does so from dehydration. The signs of dehydration are: 1

Thirst but a severely ill and dehydrated child may not be thirsty

2

Loss of weight.

3

Sunken eyes with no tears.

4

Dry mouth.

5

Little urine / dry nappies

6

Lax skin.

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Rehydration: (See Gastro-enteritis in Children from Dept. of Health.) Make up rehydration fluid solution as instructed by manufacturer.

Convulsions With a first fit you should always call the doctor immediately. The immediate management of a child with a convulsion is: 1

Lay him on the floor in his recovery position with his head turned slightly to one side so if he vomits it will come out of his mouth and not go down into his lungs.

2

Make sure his tongue is forward so he can breathe easily.

3

Do not stop him moving, but stop him hurting himself. Do not put anything in his mouth or between the teeth.

4

If he feels hot take off his clothes and cool him - tepid sponging, fan.

5

If it goes on longer than 10 minutes contact his doctor or take him to a casualty department. Inform parents.

Types of Convulsions All convulsions or seizures should be taken seriously. Epilepsy is common in all age groups. Up to 10% of he population may have a seizure at sometime in their lives 1

Convulsions are common in 0 - 1 month old. The main causes being birth injuries, decreased calcium (Day 4 - 8) and decreased Sugar (Day 1 - 2).

2

1- 6 months. They may be a sign of brain injury or malformation

3

Pre-school children 6 months - 5 years. At this age 4% of children have a convulsion. The commonest form is a febrile convulsion. They are most common between the ages of 6 months - 3 years. They are most uncommon over the age of 5. A family history of febrile convulsion or epilepsy is present in 20% of cases. Febrile convulsions are usually generalised. They last between 1 - 20 minutes, most are brief. They are precipitated by a febrile illness, particularly a “cold”. 50% will have repeat febrile convulsions. Less than 2% after the age of 5 years. Prolonged or frequent convulsions make fits more likely in later life.

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Timetable for Immunisation At Birth

BCG

From 2 Months

Diptherisa Tetanus Whooping Cough

5 in 1

Hib Polio Meningitis C 4 Months

Diptheria Whooping Cough Tetanus

5 in 1

Polio Hib Meningitis C 6 Months

Diptheria Whooping cough

5 in 1

Tetanus Polio Hib Meningitis C 15 Months

Measles Mumps

MMR

Rubella About 5 years

Diptheria

(Booster)

Tetanus

(Booster)

Polio

(Booster)

Whooping Cough

(Booster)

Measles Mumps

MMR

Rubella 12 -14 years

Tuberculosis

(BCG)

if not protected (imune) Girls of ages 10 - 14

Rubella (german measles)

About 17/18 years

Tetanus

(Booster)

Meningitis C

if not already received

Occasionally vaccines such as hepatisis, influenza or pneumonia vaccines may be advised

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Question 1 “All work for the good of the whole”. Name the body systems and discuss with reference to three body systems how each plays a part in the functioning of the human body using no more than 1000 words.

Question 2 (a) Define what is meant by Embryo and Foetus. (b) Name the parts of the cell that carry the design instruction for each part of the infant. (c) Define the main function of each of the following: •

Pituitary Gland

•

Pancreas

•

Kidneys

•

Spinal Cord

•

Medulla

(d) In your area what is the immunisation schedule?

Question 3 Researching the area of the genetics discuss a physical or mental handicap.

Guidelines

Question 1 Devote no more than 250 words to your introduction, which should introduce the reader to the areas being covered in your essay. The body of your essay (approximately 500 words) should be divided equally between the three body systems. A good discussion is required with approximately 250 left for your concluding paragraph. Identify all the body systems and select three to elaborate using roughly 130 words on each. Finish your essay with any conclusions that you have come to.

Question 2 When asked for a definition be brief and to the point. Some of these questions only require a sentance to answer fully. Approximately 200 words should be used to answer this question.

Question 3 This question requires you to research the area of genetics by using your course books, internet, books and personal experience. It is imperitive that you have concrete evidence to support your answer. Use approximately 150 words for your introduction, which should introduce the reader to what will be covered in your essay. Then no more than 500 words for the body of the essay and 150 words for your concluding paragraph

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UNIT 3.1

The New-Born Child Reading for this Unit: ‘Birth Without Violence’

Le Boyer

‘Birth Rebirth’

M. Odente

‘Book of Childcare’

Hugh Jolly (or any good childcare book)

Learning Objectives for this Unit: • Introduction • The Three Stages of Labour • Natural Child-Birth • Infant Capabilities

Introduction In ‘The Absorbent Mind’, M. Montessori begins with the statement:

‘The most important period of life is not the stage of University studies, but the first one—the period from birth to the age of six, for that is the time when man’s intelligence itself, his greatest implement is being formed. Not only his intelligence, but the full totality of his psychic powers—at no other stage has the child such a need for an intelligent help and any obstacle that impedes his creative work will lessen the chance he has of achieving perfection....’

Many psychological researchers (e.g. Bloom ‘64) have since then confirmed the vital importance of these early years in contributing to the child’s development. By year 8 (it is now assumed), the child will have formed about 80% of its eventual intelligence! The new-born infant (or neonate) has been found to have many more capabilities than was once thought. Reflexes are well-developed; visual skills proceed apace and ‘social skills’ (such as eye-fixation and smiling) are in ‘infantile’ form, ready to appear. The period of ‘infancy’ lasts 18 months and constitutes a vitally important stage in the child’s development. ‘Being born’ (itself) can be seen as traumatic for the child—from an insulated, quiet world, the child is violently expelled into the ‘noisy, buzzing confusion’ (as William James called it) of the ‘outside’ world. This first ‘shock’ leaves lasting emotional impressions on the child. Many specifically psychological approaches have focussed on this period, e.g. Janov’s famous ‘Primal Scream’ therapy. For Freud also, in the midst of the inevitable stresses and conflicts of life, people (unconsciously) yearn for the embryonic security of the womb. Curled up in the foetal position, we can observe many (stressed) children ‘regressing’ to more infantile behaviour under environmental pressure.

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The Three Stages of Labour Generally speaking, the more ‘normal’ the labour and ensuing child-birth, the easier it is for the child to adjust to an independent life. When labour begins, the child is ‘pushed’ down a narrow, dark passage and has to begin using functions (e.g. independent breathing) it didn’t have to use in the warm security of the mother’s womb. The Onset of Labour: The onset of true labour is signalled by one of more of the following three signs: a.

The onset of regular, rhythmic uterine contractions, which may be painful.

b.

The passage of a small amount of blood-tinged, sticky mucus from the vagina (the show).

c.

The gushing of liquid from the vagina. This is due to the rupture of the membranes which form the amniotic sac (the breaking of the waters).

The First Stage of Labour At a specific point in time, labour starts. The uterine contractions at first are not very strong and occur at long intervals. However, they do become stronger and more frequent. This stage of labour does not distress too much and is called the quiet phase. With each contraction, the muscle fibres of the uterus shorten a tiny fraction, so that a pull is exerted on the cervix, which is the weakest point. The pull on the cervix firstly shortens it until it no longer hangs down into the vagina but is drawn up flush. The pull then opens the cervix, slowly, wider and wider. This is called Cervical Dilation. During the quiet phase, the baby’s head flexes more so that it tucks in its chin and the head moves deeper into the pelvis. The end of the first stage is determined by a change in the contractions. They become stronger and more frequent and here the mother usually asks for drugs to help ease the pain and discomfort. The cervix continues to dilate, and the baby is pushed further down. As the cervix is fully dilated, the uterus and the vagina both form a curved passage along which the baby will pass with the aid of the contractions and mother pushing. The period of time from the onset of labour and full cervical dilation is called the first stage of labour. It can last approximately 13 hours in a first labour and approximately 7 hours in a second or subsequent labour.

The Second Stage of Labour The second stage of labour is the time when the mother-to-be has to help. She has to aid in the expulsion of the baby from the birth canal. At the same time, the expectant mother gets the urge to push. This is caused by the pressure of the baby’s head on the tissues in the middle of the pelvis. The baby is pushed downwards, and because of the shape of the pelvic muscles, the head turns so that it comes to look backwards. With each contraction, and aided by the mother’s pushing efforts, the baby’s head moves nearer the vaginal opening and soon the top of its head can be seen by the doctor. Finally, the head stretches the vaginal entrance and the tissue between it and the back passage. This area is called the perineum, and it becomes tightly stretched over the baby’s head. This is called the crowning of the head. The perineum may tear jaggedly, or the doctor may make a deliberate small cut with the scissors. This is called an episiotomy. After the head is crowned, the next contraction pushes the baby further, and the head is born. Once the head is born, the shoulders of the baby and the rest of its body can slip out easily. The baby is born and lies between the mother’s legs whilst its nose and mouth is being cleared of mucus. The cord is tied (clamped) and cut. The baby takes its first breath and its cry is heard by the mother. The doctor makes sure the baby is normal, and then hands it to the mother, who can cuddle and fondle it as the afterbirth is being expelled.

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The Third Stage of Labour Little more remains but to wait for the expulsion of the placenta. This has separated from its attachment to the wall of the womb as the child was born. The doctor waits for this to come, or often gives an injection which makes the uterus contract firmly and so expel the placenta quickly. This reduces the blood lost by the mother. Labour is over.

The Father in Labour It was his sperm which fertilised the egg; it is he who has given half of his genes to this new child. What is his place in labour? This depends greatly on culture and custom. In some tribal societies, the man undergoes a mock labour and is pampered and cossetted all the while as his wife is giving birth, with a single female attendant or on her own. Other societies see giving birth as a sexual experience, and here the man stimulates the woman as she is in labour and is himself stimulated. Again, other cultures look on birth as a public event and the mother calls everyone to a public place to witness as she gives birth. In others, the man is excluded from the place of birth and is expected to ignore the whole event. In western society, there is a trend to involve the man in the process of labour. In all stages, he can remain with his wife so that she has someone she knows and loves and with whom she can share her experience.

Natural Childbirth Many mothers (and fathers) today are beginning to realise the artificiality and technical “coldness” of hospital deliveries. In fact, it is well to bear in mind that it is only in modern times that childbirth began to be associated with “hospitals” or “sickness”. Up to relatively recently, local midwives and wet-nurses attended the expectant mother in her own home. Undoubtedly, the security of familiar surroundings and the presence of familiar faces contributed to her feeling comfortable and relaxed at the time of delivery. Nowadays, however, much of our pre and post-natal services are located in institutional settings such as hospitals and clinics. Advocates of more natural method of childbirth point out some unnatural practices current in present day maternal care (all of which add to the stress of the delivery)—here are some of the main ones. Position Most hospitals use stirrups to provide ease of view to staff. This may be very uncomfortable for the mother. Shaving and Enemas Both these practices may be seen by the mother as invasions of her privacy (although necessary for hospital routine). Use of Forceps These are an aid to delivery but can also result in marks on the side of the child’s head. Inducement Often the birth may be hastened through “inducement”. This may often serve the needs of the hospital rather than the mother’s own needs.

Many studies have compared ‘hospital’ with ‘home’ births (e.g. Golberg). Home births seem to allow for easier bonding with the child and more ‘family’ involvement. These advantages must be weighted with the possibility of medical complications. Some other points from a recent survey: •

70% of hospital mothers felt ‘too tired’ to bond with their babies.

•

50% of mothers who have daughters are disappointed (comment?).

•

20% of first-time mothers have never held a baby on their own.

•

33% of new mothers have never seen a baby breast fed.

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One of the major advocates of ‘Natural’ childbirth has been Dr. Le Boyer.

Preparation Apart from the medical care the pregnant woman needs, there are a great many ways in which she can care for herself. Rest is the most obvious thing she needs and will probably find, in the first three months of her pregnancy, that she gets tired very easily. Extra sleep at night and a rest at any opportune time during the days is the best way to counteract this. Although rest is important in order that the woman regains some of the strength that is being used to create her baby; exercise is also important. Her muscles still need to be used in order to keep her bodily functions normal, but a sensible approach to exercise is necessary. Walking and swimming are both good for her, provided they are carried out moderately and much less violently than at former times. During pregnancy the body tends to hold more fluid, so it is a good idea to drink a little more than usual in order to stimulate the kidneys to pass more. The type of drink taken is important as too many sweet or fizzy drinks are fattening; so water or fruit juice are more desirable. Sensible eating habits are also necessary in order to keep both mother and baby healthy. Protein and iron containing foods are essential, plus plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables for the necessary vitamins. Although it is true to say that the growing foetus is taking all the nourishment it needs from the mother, this does not mean that the woman has to eat for two. Apart from the present discomfort the woman will probably experience from eating too great a quantity, too great a weight gain can lead to many problems during and after pregnancy. The woman’s body will become large and heavy with the weight of the growing baby without putting extra strain on it by carrying unnecessary weight due to overeating. Most doctors recommend an approximate weight gain of 10.5 kg. over the full pregnancy, as this allows 3.5 kg. for the baby’s weight, 3.5 kg. for the water being carried and 3.5 kg. for the afterbirth and waste matter. To carry more extra weight than this can lead to such problems as blood pressure, varicose veins and the emotional problems that many women undergo at the loss of their figure and the feeling of cumbersomeness that can accompany pregnancy. Attention to personal hygiene and appearance during pregnancy can help enormously towards the feeling of well-being. A woman is at her most feminine when pregnant, so she should make the most of pregnancy by making a special point of keeping well groomed. These observances during pregnancy will also help after the birth for it will be easier to return to her normal size much quicker if her weight gain has not been excessive.

Infant Capabilities It used to be thought that the new-born infant was a passive, helpless and highly-underdeveloped creature. Subsequent study has shown just how false this view was. Dr. Montessori felt very strongly that we should learn about the child from the very beginning, as each stage of development prepares the child for the next. The most important thing to remember is that the baby’s most intense experiences—the ones which affect his developing mind MOST strongly, come earliest in life. The newborn is very sensitive to the atmosphere of its birth surroundings. Should this NOT prove to be a welcoming place, irreparable harm may be done to the child; harm which may cause problems which only appear later in life. (This is the basis of Janov’s therapy, cited earlier). Conditions surrounding the birth of the infant should be as pleasant and non-threatening as possible. Neonates are very sensitive to both touch and sound: gentle movements should be encouraged and extremes of lighting or noise avoided. Music can often be a great ‘soothing’ influence at this stage also. (In fact, Le Boyer’s approach to the birth is to have the child born into WATER—which, after all, is the environment it’s just COME from!) After birth, the baby is given to the mother to allow bonding to occur. Breathing in the child should be gently encourage (a major change from the womb)—gentle BATHING of the infant also helps to reassure and induce comfort in the infant. Visitors should be few in number, so as to allow for intimacy between mother and child. Also most mothers may be at their ‘worst’ for some time following the delivery. This is a precious time for all members of the family. All sensations the infant experiences are recorded UNCONSCIOUSLY. This unconscious memory is called Mneme by psychologists. These early vital sensory impressions leave traces which affect all subsequent learning—in this sense they are Primal Mnemes.

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The baby should be held close the mother’s left breast, allowing the infant to feel the mother’s heartbeat. Studies show that babies held in this position sleep longer, gain weight quicker and are less agitated. SUCKING is one of the newborn’s basic activities—in fact, the ‘rooting reflex’ suggests that this is biologically programmed in to the child. Until three months, the infant’s motivation to suck isn’t primarily hunger-orientated. In fact, Nature seems to have ensured an excess of sucking activity over nutritional requirements. Mothers should ensure immediate access to the nipple at this stage. The ‘comfort factor’ in the sucking-response should not be underestimated. Crying is a behaviour that often causes distress to the mother. Just WHY do babies cry so much? M. Montessori puts her finger on the cause—‘Babies cry to signal their distress to the rest of humanity.’ Nature HAS ensured that adults find this distressing. A crying baby is a distressed baby—this is its ONLY means of communication to us. Babies often suffer discomfort they can’t articulate—they may be lying uncomfortably, be hungry or just bored. ‘Poor’ mothers dismiss crying in their infants as ‘just being spoiled—seeking attention’—who are WE to say a helpless infant IS NOT worthy of our attention? Carrying babies in ‘slings’ (a common practice in third world countries) has now been adopted in the west. This practice is excellent for infants, allowing them to feel the sensation of moving as well as developing their visual senses. Dr. Le Boyer also encourages daily massage for the infant—touching can be a powerful reassurance and also discharges physical tension in the infant. This should continue until the child can turn itself over (about 3 - 6 months). Each baby is TOTALLY INDIVIDUAL—with each child, different needs may be paramount. The mother’s skill likes in treating EACH INFANT in just the way it requires. While various (and often competing) theories about ‘how to raise a brighter child’ will always abound, we should remember M. Montessori’s injunction:

‘Don’t look to the method—look to the child’ or again...

‘Let the child be your teacher.’

For a long time, M. Montessori was the only doctor to recognise the child’s needs in this way. Now we have others like Drs. Le Boyer and La Danta. To conclude with a summary from M. Montessori:

The 'The child builds its innermost self out of the deeply-felt impressions he receives— this especially in the first part of its life. It is in babyhood, by means of his infantile powers alone, that the child acquires personal characteristics that will mark him forever. This is his way of adapting to the world in which he finds himself. In so doing, he is happy, and his mind matures....’

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UNIT 3.2

Development of Movement Reading for this Unit: ‘The Absorbent Mind’

Learning Objectives in this Unit: The Montessori approach to motor development The evolutionary background to movement Principles of development The development of movement in the child Hyperkinetic children Perceptual-motor development Training implications

Introduction: The development of movement (Motor Development) holds a central position in the Montessori approach to child development. This is in line with modern child centred attitudes to children generally, which stress the importance of learning early to control and manipulate their environment. One large study of 4 - 5 year-olds showed that, on average, they engaged in 2,200 separate activities involving 600 objects in a single day! Even the most superficial observation of young children bears out that MOVEMENT—evident in physical actions and in play—is one of their primary characteristics. Maria Montessori stressed that not every environment was equally effective in stimulating the motor-development of children. In fact, this required a PREPARED ENVIRONMENT to optimally facilitate its development. ‘If the child has no intelligent aim in his movements, he is without internal guidance, thus movement ties him... (p. 149) Maria Montessori—‘Spontaneous Activity in Childhood’ So, in the Montessori approach, development of movement takes place in a setting specifically designed to enable the child to learn from its own actions and to assist in the establishing of its internal ‘movement structures’ (Schemes). This is in line with the Montessori motto of: Helping the child to do it himself....

Evolution / Biology of Movement Man’s ‘movement equipment’ has been heavily influenced by his evolutionary history. The adoption of an upright (two-legged) posture resulted in considerable biological readjustment. This included the great extension of visual capacities and the freeing of hands for productive activities. The development of finger-thumb opposition and hand manipulative abilities led to many important evolutionary advances, e.g. tool-making and the development of gestures. Biologically, a considerable part of the human brain is devoted to the elaboration of motor capacities, which are also closely integrated with perceptual skills. The Cerebellum or ‘motor brain’ is devoted exclusively to the management of coordination, movement and balance. Connected with the motor cortex of the cerebrum, neural connections run through the spinal cord to and from the muscle groups in the body. At birth, this system is substantially complete but requires both learning and growth the advance beyond the purely reflex level. Repeated activity develops control of the voluntary muscles by the Mota Cortex of the brain.

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Principles of Development: Gesell and others have identified some important general principles of development which apply particularly in the area of motor development. The importance of these principles lie not least in the fact that they provide some guidelines as to the kinds of training inputs which best help the child develop in this area. 1

Principle of Development Direction: Here the point is that development in the child proceeds from the head to the feet, i.e. control initially comes over the neck muscles, upper arms and so on. Also, control of the larger muscles (e.g. of the trunk) comes before control over the smaller muscles of say, the fingers. (You will notice that this does in fact correspond to development as we see it in the child—control over the head coming first, then the back, the legs and finally the small muscles of the fingers, etc.

2

Principle of Reciprocal Interweaving: The development of (both) sets of opposing muscles groups does not occur concurrently— one group may be stronger (at one time) that the other. This is clearly seen in an activity like walking, which has a number of definite stages to completion.

3

Principle of Functional Asymmetry: ‘Sidedness’ or ‘Handedness’ may reflect cultural training. Generally, though, development seems to favour one side over the other (e.g. writing with the right hand etc.)

4

Principle of Individual Maturation: This stresses the fact that EACH child is a distinct individual and develops at a pattern and rate totally UNIQUE to itself.

5

Principle of Self-Regulatory Fluctuation: This important principle of development suggests that development in all areas proceeds unevenly. At one stage, motor development may be most important; at another, language development and so on.

Development of Early Movement: Intra-Uterine development of motor capacities results finally in both reflexive and voluntary movements. In the womb, the neonate can kick, suck its fingers, and show distress in response to loud noise. At birth, motor capacities are mainly reflective and include basic movements such as the ‘rooting reflex’ (mouth oriented to the nipple); the ‘startle reflex’ (limbs thrown out to the side of the body) and the ‘Babinski reflex’ (toes point downward when sole is stroked). As development proceeds, however, this ‘reflexive repertoire’ of motor skills is elaborated to include more voluntary control over the body.

Motor Development 0 - 3 Months The baby lying on his back discovers his hands and feet by lifting them to eye level—he will notice his hands and follow their movement—unaware that they are his. 4 Months He can lift his head. 6 Months He can sit up with the help of a cushion. At this stage of development the cartilage in his feet is not stong enough to take the weight of his body or to walk on. Movement is connected all the time with sight. Under 6 months the bady will grasp anything near him, once it comes within his vision. After six months grasping becomes more intentional.

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9 Months Baby starts crawling, grabbing onto something within reach, to balance. His desire now is to exercise his hands by holding onto everything and feeling things. Baby is doing this to acquire ability. Putting lids on and off pots, dropping a toy out of a pram. This is also a time when he tries to feed himself—the drive of the horme (the innate urge to develop) urges him towards independence. Up to nine months there has been rapid cerebellum development. The lower part of the brain, which is very small during the first four months, develops with great rapidity so that at fifteen months, it is as large in proportion to the cerebrum as in the adult. 12 Months Sometime around the first birthday, the child begins to stand up independently and to take the first tottering steps. His first walking movements were on tip-toe; now, at one year, he places his foot flat on the ground. By 15 months the child can walk unaided. At this period it is very important that the environment be so arranged as to provide motives for the child to act independently. The development of Equilibrium is an important achievement of this period. There are in fact four stages in this process: 1

Sitting up

2

Crawling/walking on all fours

3

Walking with help

4

Walking unaided

Standing alone and walking independently greatly increase the child’s own feelings of autonomy and control. This coincides with the ‘toddler’ period, which often sees clashes between children and adults over behaviour generally. The responsibility is on the adults here to ensure that the environment is reasonably safe for the child. 18 Months Once the child can walk he seeks new challenges. 1

He walks carrying heavy objects. Maria Montessori called this the stage of the ‘little porters’.

2

He enjoys climbing and can negotiate a staircase.

24 Months The child runs. He can hold objects with certainty. He enjoys rolling and tumbling. Up to 30 Months The child is capable of and enjoys long walks but at his own pace. He walks to explore his environment not to arrive at a destination. Maria Montessori calls this the end of the sub-conscious period and the start of the conscious period. Now the child needs constant opportunities to exercise his physical skills and to indulge his boundless curiosity.

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Motor Development and the Child’s Environment At 8 - 9 Months Uses wrist as well as fingers and thumbs. Can wave, pick up things properly; can twist. Imitation—the child needs to be shown appropriate actions, e.g. to push a car a child will have to be shown how to do this. He will not come up with this idea himself. At 9 Months He lets go of things, drops things (cause and effect); pulls things (objects on strings); can pull things if on a string, watches to see where things go. At 10 - 11 Months Uncurls fingers, gives objects to a person. At 1 Year Throws specifically. Some can build a tower—most will not.

Sensori-Motor Intelligence Combination of observation processes (sensory) motor processes (motor) e.g. hand and eye coordination. Sensori-Motor intelligence makes use of all senses. 7 Months Circular reaction—Actions repeated as units, without any previously determined goal, recognition or memory, e.g. touch something and something happens by accident (not done with a fixed purpose in mind). 8 - 10 Months Secondary Circular Reaction (means to an end behaviour). Recall and memory. Purpose to actions. From one year the sensori-motor intelligence becomes fully developed.

Object Permanence If something is put behind the back—at 6 months the object is “gone” to the infant, but at 8 - 10 months he realises that the object is put behind the back and begins to look for it. Small children need a safe, secure environment. They do not like change. Adults should ensure that the child can have as much freedom as possible to explore the environment, within the limits of safety.

A Note on Hyperkinetic Children A children differ in their levels of activity; some are constantly on the move, others are more lethargic. These differences seem to be largely a function of their genetic or ‘temperamental’ differences. In the modern home, with many “prized possessions” and (possibly) limited space, the needs of the children to express themselves often seem in conflict with domestic requirements. Many parents feel their children are more ‘hyperactive’ or ‘hyperkinetic’. In fact, ‘true’ hyperkinesis is a much rarer condition. These ‘troublesome’ children are more likely to be merely ‘overactive’. ‘Hyperactivity’ seems to result from some ‘minimal’ damage to the brain at birth, possibly as a result of a difficult delivery. This condition is characterised by constant, ‘driving’ activity; learning problems; limited concentration; and severe impulsiveness. In contrast to children who are merely ‘overactive’, these hyperactive children don’t grow out of it, rather it may grow worse. Hyperactive children (though normally intelligent), may do poorly in school and suffer personality problems as a result. Treatment has been by drugs or environmental restructuring. With overactive children, their behaviour usually improves with increasing age and maturity.

Perceptual - Motor Development The development of the coordination of hand and eye is called perceptual-motor development. This area is important as it provides the foundation for subsequent skills such as buttoning, typing, drawing and writing. Progress in this area is closely related to the developing of Hand Skills.

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Development of the Hand The newborn child’s hands are tightly closed.

3 Months

Baby examines hands Sucks hands This heralds start of oral exploration This is the age for dribbling

3 - 4 Months

Development of grasping Holds rattle between hands Learns to coordinate eye and arm movements

6 Months

Intentional grasping of objects Helps to feed himself

6 - 7 Months

Chews Plays with toes Transfers things from one hand to the other

8 Months

Baby offers you something. Does not know how to let go of object. Drops things over side of cot

8 - 10 Months

Starts looking for fallen objects Grasping of something selected

10 Months

Baby plays games like pat-a-cake Waves goodbye Baby becomes a society being Baby offers objects Can uncurl fingers and let go

12 Months

Holds up arms and legs to assist in undressing

15 Months

Place bricks on top of each other Directs hand movements towards work

18 Months

Lifts heavy objects in arms. Uses hands to help.

Left Hand Children

To change this state of affairs causes confusion, stuttering, difficulty in learning how to read and write.

20 Months

Exercises with hands to build up coordination Work leads to independence Helps with simple housework

24 Months

Further development of coordination and work leading to independence

3 Years

Holds small objects Pincer Grasp Threading Buttoning

1

3 /2 Years

Beginning of Pencil Control

4 Years

Good hand coordination

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Implications for Montessori Training of the Child To take account of the child’s own natural drive to express itself in action and movement, the Montessori child’s is specifically adapted to aid development in this important area. Some practical consequences are the following:

•

Materials and equipment area child-centred, i.e. tables and chairs are child-sized; shelves are low and accessible to the child, and children can make their own choice of materials and activities.

•

Stress is placed on stimulating all the senses of the child—touch, sight, balance, etc. This also aids the development and coordination of movement.

•

No restrictions are placed on the child’s movements; it decides on what activity to engage in and when. This effectively promotes the development of motor skills.

•

All in all, the school is seen as an extension of the home. By alternating periods of activity and rest (as occurs naturally), the child’s total development is promoted.

Appendix 1: Piaget’s Stage of Sensori-Motor Development Epistemology and Stage Theory: The understanding of ‘to understand /acquire knowledge’ was the core of Piaget’s work. Known technically as epistemology, the study of how children come to understand and acquire knowledge about their world is still dominated by the work of this Swiss giant. Trying out movements and experimenting are major ways for the child to learn about the world i.e. to become intelligent. Piaget’s approach to the development of intelligence in children has been to stress that this process emerges from the child’s interactions with the environment in a stage by stage fashion.

Stage Theory Through these interactions the child begins to develop internal mental structures (schemes) which serve as guides for future behaviour. During the first two years (Sensori-Motor Period), these schemes are largely developed through perceptual-motor and sensory-motor areas. The widespread acceptance of Stage Theory, each step being built on the previous one has had a profound effect on the way schools, particularly primary schools, are run. From this notion developed the concept of readiness: the child cannot move to certain skills until the earlier ones that form the basis are mastered.

Stages and Ages Tables of Piaget’s stages often allocate an age to each, implying that this is the age at which the stage should operate. Piaget’s intention was to illustrate that stages of cognitive development occur in the same sequence for everyone, but he allowed that the ages at which stages are reached will vary depending on factors related both to maturation and experience. It is essential, therefore, to note that ages are indicated as a rough guide only.

Cognitive Development and Other Behaviour For Piaget, the stages of cognitive development provide a basis for other behaviour. Thus, for example, he saw moral development as a progression of stages that depends on cognitive processes.

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The Sensori-Motor Period This stage goes from birth to about 24 months. The main general characteristics are the ability to move, to respond to the environment, and to begin to communicate. The infant is seen as being born with a set of reflexes. By interacting with the environment through movement (hence the term sensory-motor) the infant sets in motion the assimilation/ accommodation process, thus transforming the reflexes into organised patterns of behaviour with Piaget labelled schemes. Once established, schemes can then be used intentionally. An example of an organised pattern of behaviour being used intentionally during this period is the ability to obtain something out of reach. The infant learns techniques to achieve this. Less easily observed is the movement from the egocentric state of neonate. By egocentric, Piaget did not mean selfish as we mean it; he referred to a state of mind in which there is no distinction between oneself and the rest of the world. By the end of the sensory-motor period, children have moved away from totally egocentric thought to an understanding that there are objects permanently independent of themselves. A way of observing evidence for the attaining of object permanence is to watch a child’s reaction when a toy is taken away and hidden. At first, up to about six months, there will be no attempt to recover the toy; after this the probability is that the child will try to pull away the cloth or whatever is hiding it. Egocentric behaviour does not disappear at the end of the sensory-motor period. Some vestiges of thinking the world revolves around oneself remain, even into adulthood in some cases.

Sub-divisions of the sensory-motor period are as follows:

Approximate Age in Months

Substage

Examples of Activity

0-2

Hereditary reflexes

Sucking, grasping

2-4

Acquired adaptations

Two separate actions are brought together (e.g. fist waving and sucking)

4-8

Circular reactions

Constant practice at actions until they can be produced at will

8 - 12

Intentional behaviour

Pushing an obstacle aside

12 - 18

Directed groping

Varying movements as if it sees what will result

18 - 24

Symbolic representation

Actions can be represented symbolically without their actual performance

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UNIT 3.3

Development of Language Reading for this Unit: The Absorbent Mind Discovery of the Child

Learning Objectives in this Unit: •

Mechanism for acquiring skills

•

External factors

•

Emergence of different sounds

•

Guidelines for same

•

Speech—Practicalities

Introduction Language is an instrument of collective thought and is the central point of difference between the human animal and all other species. Language is development by the “Absorbent” mind of the child. We do not teach him a language, this development follows definite laws whether the language he has to absorb is simple or complex. Dr. Montessori noted that the child has a sensitive period for language. It is not a mechanical auditory motor process, but a period of development set aside by nature for the specific purpose of acquiring the skill of language. During this period the child needs all the help and stimulation necessary to ensure that the full benefits of this fertile period are reaped. He must hear our voice and the more conversation and music he hears in the first two years, the more easily he learns to speak. The sensitive period for language is 0 - 5 years of which the first three years may be said to be the Absorbent period. During the Absorbent period the child is actually constructing the mechanism for the imprinting and storing of all the data and information which will eventually become the spoken word.

Mechanism for Acquiring Skills Consider this mechanism for the development of language. In the Cortex of the brain are two centres: Aural for the hearing or reception of language, and Motor for the production of language. The receptive centre is linked closely with Psyche in which language is sub-consciously developed and also with the ear. The ear is completed before birth—it is like a harp with 64 strings placed in graduation of length in the form of a shell. This hearing sense incidentally is the slowest to develop. Observe the baby—all sorts of sounds can be created around him without much reaction. Why is this ? It is because those centres in the brain are designed solely for language and this mechanism responds only to the spoken word. (He will turn to the sound of the voice.) This isolation of language is essential in order that the psyche sub-consciously isolates the human voice from that of the lawnmower, animal noises, traffic etc. It is because nature has built and prepared these very selective centres that man can speak. This mechanism begins in the darkness of the sub-conscious and fixes itself permanently. We really cannot understand what changes take place in the sub-conscious, but we can observe the external factors and react to them.

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External Factors The development of language has certain milestones. While the mysterious inner development is taking place at a phenomenal rate, the external signs of progress appear to be slow. This is why people tend to think that the child does not develop language until later. Progress seems to come in spurts between, say, his first syllable and word. Again, there seems to be a standstill with only a few words for a long time. But the sub-conscious is constantly at work. The pattern which all children follow seems to vary very slightly. The very first beginning may be said to come during the third week of life, when the baby makes satisfactory sounds after food, (goo-goo etc.—it varies from child to child). The principle factors appear in the form of baby’s reactions. Auditive Reaction During the second month he smiles and coos when spoken to. Even at this early stage he is relating to the human voice. He will stop crying to listen if you speak or sing. Visual Reaction •

At three months (sometimes four months) he notices that the sound comes from the mouth. He will watch attentively every movement of your mouth and even move his own mouth in sympathy. Now, as well as cooing and gurgling, he utters new sounds.

Emergence of Definable Sounds •

At about six months he utters his first syllable. He repeats and repeats this sound. It is believed that all the sounds of all languages and even those that have not been recorded, are babbled at this stage. This is not the result of imitation. It is spontaneous. (Even deaf children babble for a time but, without the encouragement of hearing themselves or any other voice, they stop after a few months).

•

At twelve months or towards the end of the first year he imitates and utters his first intentional word. He knows now that language has a purpose and meaning. Soon after this he has two-syllable words—he begins to understand the sense expressed in language.

•

At one and a half years he uses names—he puts names on things. He has the power to pick up nouns from all other words he hears—most important to his world. Between the age of eighteen months and twenty-one months he forms phrases—sometimes running words together (fusion of words) with no regard for grammar.

•

At two years he completes his vocabulary with prefixes and suffixes, conjunctions, verbs and adverbs.

It is only after two years of this ceaseless work does the sub-conscious hand over to the conscious, when the child makes full use of his powers, prattling all day long. He is now aware that there is a purpose to these fascinating sounds which he is making. Two and a half years is the border line of intelligence, when man is formed! We refer to this age as the “Explosive Epoch”. After this the child’s language development is no longer explosive but if he is in a cultural environment his speech development and vocabulary is enriched. During the child’s conquest of language there lies the danger of regression. This is largely due to the adults’ misunderstanding of this period of development. Unfortunately, any obstacles put in his way during this sensitive period leave a scar. This is because all impressions during the sub-conscious period remain permanent. Adult defects in speech-hesitation, stammering, pronunciation difficulties— all originate in the period when the mechanism of speech is established. Any form of violence in speech or action does irreparable harm to the child. Remember that the child’s psyche is not the same as ours. His mind is formed by impressions and if these impressions are not suited to him he regresses. He is totally depended on impressions received and is not capable of being selective, e.g. disregarding the bad or negative impressions. Instead he reacts to a negative or violent impression by taking refuge in regression.

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It is also important during the formative years that we use “correct” language when speaking to babies and young children. “Correct” as in correct pronunciation and grammar. The baby who frequently hears “baby talk”, e.g. bikkie for biscuit, goo goo for soother, etc. will find it difficult to change to the correct word as he gets older. He has to unteach himself. Remember that the child’s wonderful learning mechanism is just as receptive to the correct word as to the adults “invented” baby talk! This is not to say that the child should be constantly corrected in his early stages of speaking. He should be encouraged to talk and to feel that talking is fun. Understanding what the child is saying is very important. Otherwise frustration can build up in time. He must not be aware of failure. “Mothers of society in general far from keeping babies in isolation should let children live in contact with grown-ups and frequently hear the best speech clearly pronounced.” Maria Montessori

Baby Talk Guidelines 0 - 6 months—Cooing Babies communicate from the moment they are born, crying to tell you they are hungry, hot, uncomfortable or just in need of a cuddle. From about six weeks, these lovely baby sounds begin— gurgling and open “cooing” noises such as ‘ahh’ and ‘ohh’. These are often accompanied by smiles and excited movements of the arms and legs. By 6 weeks a baby will recognise parents’ voices and by 4 months he will try to turn his head to see them when he hears them coming. He will also respond to your tone of voice: reassured by a soothing voice, responsive to a sing-song chatter. 6 months - 1 year—Babbling From 6 months, the baby will be making a much greater variety of sounds, such as ‘goo’, ‘der’, ‘gaba’, ‘adah’, ‘aroo’, etc. And by 9 months he will begin to use jargon. That is, long strings of babble which have the intonation pattern of our speech. In fact, it will sound very much like ordinary speech and will contain most of the sounds he will need when talks later on. By 9 months, he will understand ‘no’ and ‘bye-bye’ and by 1 year will be understanding the names of everyday objects such as cup, dinner, ball, plus, Daddy, Mummy, etc. He will now respond to short instructions such as “Give it to Daddy,” “Wave bye-bye,” “Clap your hands,” etc. 1 - 2 years—First Words During this year your child will begin to use his first words. He will understand many more words than she actually says, so that by the time he has a vocabulary of 20 words, he will understand at least 100. He will therefore be able to had a familiar object when asked for it or point to a particular picture. Initially, he will continue to ‘jargon’ when he plays but actual words will creep into his chat. He will often repeat words that said or echo the ends of sentences. From this age onwards, the adults will have to be careful not to use any words they won’t want repeated. 2 - 3 years—Putting Words Together From 2 years old, children will begin to put words together. At first, they will use two word sentences such as “Daddy gone” or “See dog” and by the end of the year they will be putting three or even four words together and have a vocabulary of several hundred words. Generally, once children start putting words together, their language develops at a tremendous rate and by 3 years they will be understanding most of what is said to them. Gradually they will add more words to their sentences, but even a 3 year old will omit many of the little words such as ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘is’, ‘in’, etc. Grammar is simplified, so they will say “me go shops now” rather than “I am going to the shops now.” 3 - 4 years—Learning the Rules As a child starts to talk about what he did yesterday and what he might be doing later, he will add the appropriate words and word endings. So for example, “Me play John yesterday,” will become “I played with John yesterday.” During this year are heard the classic grammatical errors such as “I goed to Grandma’s.” Correct grammar does not have to be taught, a child will pick it up by listening. He will learn about size (big and little, fat and thing) and colour, and will start to use those little words he missed out at 3 years old, such as ‘a’, ‘the’, ‘and’, ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘under’, etc. A child will now start to use ends of words such as going, played, boats, and will change words round to form a sentence. “Can I have a drink?” instead of “me have drink?” He will now understand most of what is said so do not talk about him to friends as if he was not there. 62

4 - 5 years—Stories and Questions Some mistakes in the child’s speech are heard during this year but they will be far fewer. “Goed” will now be “went”; “foots” will be “feet”; and so on. He will be using four, five and six word sentences by the end of the year and have a vocabulary of several thousand words. He will ask a wide variety of questions, beginning with ‘what’, ‘where’ and ‘who’ and in particular, ‘why’. By the time the child is 5 years old, he will be asking about the meaning of abstract words. For example, he may say, “What does always mean?” or “What does necessary mean?” And it is often quite a struggle to answer his questions. Although he may not be reading yet, he will be able to go through a book and tell the story. He will even make up stories himself.

When Children Learn Sounds Most children learn the sounds of speech in the same order, but some are quicker than others. This is a rough guideline.

•

One month - One and a half years

Many words will sound very different from how we would say them, but so long as it is a word, the sounds do not matter. Vowel sounds, e.g. (ee, ahh, oo, etc.) will be largely correct but ends of words will often be omitted, e.g. (‘ba’ for ball and ‘du’ for duck). Often only mothers know what their child is saying. Sounds to expect P B T D N M.

Stammering Many children will go through a stage where speech is very hesitant; they repeat words or sounds over and over, or may have difficulty getting the words out. This may sound like stammering or stuttering (both words mean the same), but very few children grow into real stammerers. In fact, the majority of children grow out of this stage by the time they are 5 or 6 years old. Most children don’t worry if they hesitate and probably don’t even know they are doing it. But if the adult worries, the child may sense the anxiety and may become unnecessarily self-conscious. If the child does stammer, remember the following points:

•

Give the child plenty of time to speak. When he is telling you something, give him your full attention and don’t rush him.

•

Don’t draw attention to the child’s speech and never tease him about it. He needs to know you are interested in what he is saying, not how he is saying it.

•

Always remember that it is a stage the child may grow out of soon.

Consult a speech therapist if: •

The child appears very anxious about his speech.

•

You are anxious and need reassurance.

•

There is a history of stammering in the family.

•

The child is still not fluent at 6 years.

When to see a speech therapist •

If the child is 2 years old, has no words, and does not use jargon at all. (Jargon is the name for the long strings of babble which are uttered with intonation patterns of normal speech.)

•

If the child is two and a half years old and has less than half a dozen words.

•

If the child is 3 and uses very few phrases.

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•

If the child is 3 and you have difficulty understanding what he is saying.

•

If the child is three and a half and strangers cannot understand her at all, even if you know what she is saying.

•

If the child has difficulty with a particular sound.

•

If the child is over 5 and has very hesitant speech.

•

If the child has a hoarse voice and a doctor can offer no medical explanation.

•

If adults have any worries concerning the child’s speech and language development, whatever his age.

How to see a speech therapist Speech therapists generally see children in health clinics or sometimes in a clinic within a hospital. To get an appointment, generally a referral is needed from one of the following: A health visitor A general practitioner (family doctor); or The child’s teacher If the health visitor or doctor is reluctant to refer a child but you are nevertheless concerned, be insistent. If necessary, contact the local health clinic and discuss it with a speech therapist directly.

Practicalities We all want to help children to progress, particularly in the area of speech, but we don’t want to put them off talking altogether. Here are some points to consider before deciding if and when to correct a child’s speech.

•

The most important thing is that the child hears the correct version of what he is saying ‘wrongly’. This need not involve correcting as such. So, for example, if he says, “I saw a ‘pider on the wall,” you immediately say, “Was it a big spider?”

•

Never correct the child or try to make him say something if his error is quite appropriate for his age group. For example, if a two and a half year old said, “Want my tars” (instead of cars), this would be quite normal. Just make sure he hears you say the correct version afterwards.

•

However sweet it sounds, don’t be tempted to use the child’s version of words instead of making sure he hears how everybody else would say it. For example, don’t refer to the cat as ‘putty tat’ just because he does. The child’s speech won’t mature unless he is constantly hearing how it should be done. “Putty tat” may by very cute at the age of 2 or 3 years, but downright irritating at 5 years.

•

If you know the child can say a word like you do, but tends to forget at time, you may like to correct him—that is, show him how it is said and see if he can repeat it after you. Some children respond well to this and quite enjoy it—others do not. Always take the child’s personality into account and never let a child think he has been naughty because he has not said a word correctly. Never make him think he is stupid or babyish because of his speech.

•

Always make sure the child enjoys talking. If you are interested in what he is saying and give your full attention accordingly, talking will be fun. If you are constantly nagging him because of his mistakes, talking will be a bore. The consequence? He won’t bother to talk; so tread carefully.

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Question 1 (a) Define the skills or capacities that the neonate has (b) With reference to Le Boyer, list the qualities of an ideal ‘birth-system’. (c) What principle of development (Gesell) stresses that the rate of development of the child is totally unique to it? (d) Name and briefly explain the difference between hyperactive and hyperkinetic children. (a) What is the first of Piaget’s stages of development?

Question 2 Explain the stage of development of language and how can the adult and the environment aid the child in this development?

Guidelines

Question 1 When asked for a definition be brief and to the point. You should aim to use no more than 500 words to answer this question. It is essential that you read Le Boyer’s book, ‘Birth without Violence’ and draw on this when answering (b). The terms hyperactive and hyperkinetic (d) can be easily confused, in your answer you should clearly state the difference between them and what treatment, if any, is available.

Question 2 The introduction to this essay should explain what you hope to achieve in your essay and for this you should use no more than 200 words. In the body of the essay, which will be approximately 1000 words you should firstly identify the stages of development of language, keeping in mind that the sensitive period for language is 0 – 5 years. List the stages of development of language and in each stage show how the adult, (teacher/parent) can help the child. Remember to include the home environment as well as the school environment and how this can help the child in perfecting his language skills. Bear in mind that music is a type of language and can prepare the child’s ear to hear the different sounds that are required for him to expand his language skills. Use no more than 300 words in your concluding paragraph which should bring together all of your main points

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UNIT 4.1

The Need for Independence From the moment of birth, the child is active in trying to assert his true nature. In his early years he cannot do this successfully, due to the many obstacles in his way. Many of these obstacles are due to his own physical inability—he cannot feed himself, he cannot walk at first, he cannot talk until he is approximately 2 1/2 years old. Yet all the time, the Horme is urging him on, driving him to develop the skills needed to be independent, so he can develop to his full potential. The child’s life is a series of steps towards complete independence. Once he is born, his own body takes over control of itself, no longer dependent on the mother’s for life functions. Once he is weaned, he can make choices in the the type of food he prefers to eat. Once he can crawl and then walk, he can move around independently to explore his environment and satisfy his innate urge to learn. Once he can talk and communicate, he can make his thoughts and wishes known and begin to act in a social context, moving away from the close family circle, making independent contact with others (approximately 2 1/2 years). As each step on the road to independence is taken, wider horizons appear. The child who is deprived of independence becomes progressively more and more handicapped as the years go by. By the time a child has reached 6 years of age, the basis of independence will be set, especially if he has been to a Montessori Nursery School. Physically he can feed, wash, dress himself, co-ordination is well established. Socially he can handle himself in a small group outside the family. He will have had the experience in the class which will make him emotionally secure and independent. He will be able to think for himself and work independently. The Control of Error inherent in most of the Montessori materials helps in this. Most importantly, there has been the freedom in the environment, which enables independence to occur and the right type of help from the adults and older children present—help to enable the child carry out tasks by himself. Maria Montessori distinguishes between help and servitude. Help is useful and brings with it social humanitarianism and dignity. Servitude weakens and impoverishes the person who is served.

“But actually, he who is served instead of being helped is in a certain sense deprived of his independence. Rather, his human dignity should make him say, “I do not wish to be served because I am not helpless, but we should assist one another since we are social beings.” Maria Montessori—The Discovery of the Child

When a child is allowed to be independent, he can build up the skills he needs to further that independence; he gains confidence from his own ability and self esteem from his success to look after himself. When he is given freedom to be independent, he learns how to make choices and decisions; he can uphold his own dignity because he is not at the mercy of someone else’s will; he is not a burden because of his inability to act.

“No-one can be free unless he is independent. Therefore, the first active manifestations of the child’s individual liberty must be so guided that through this activity he may arrive at independence.” Maria Montessori—The Montessori Method

At every stage of the child’s development, we must ensure that the child is encouraged to act independently and given the freedom to practice doing so. The child strives to be independent. He must do so, if he is to be free. Our society values freedom, but political freedom is not enough. Our children must be able to think for themselves if they are to be free. They must be able to express their views and opinions and have the independence and confidence to see themselves as valuable individuals. Too often the school system does not encourage this. How can we expect to produce free, independent adults, who can take responsibility in our society, if we deny our children their need for independence?

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UNIT 4.2

Development of Character Dr. Montessori describes character as being “the behaviour of men driven, though often unconsciously, to make progress.” It can also be described as “the sum of qualities distinguishing an individual”. The possession of character gives its holder the ability to live with others in a civilised way. Our society lays great importance on the development of character, not only for the individual’s sake but for that of society. Dr. Montessori believed that all the noble qualities which education aims to produce in our children, are present in them naturally. All that is needed is the right environment for the child to display and refine these attributes. From birth to approximately 3 years of age, the child absorbs his environment subconsciously, guided by the Horme and sensitive periods which can be seen as Nature’s way of forming character, providing special interests of great intensity which urge creative work for developing each part of the child’s character. The child needs to be free to decide on his actions, prompted by these natural guides. In this way, he builds up independence and, as the subconscious hands over to the conscious, at approximately 3 years of age, willpower begins to develop. Willpower comes with practice. The child needs to be given opportunities to use her will, make decisions, etc., otherwise a strong will, which is an essential part of a strong character, will not develop. Concentration is vital also. The child with concentration is the master of her environment; without concentration, objects in the environment are the child’s master. Concentration develops through repetition of purposeful activity. The environment should offer opportunities for constructive activity and freedom for these to be carried out. With concentration, comes perseverance, the ability to carry through and finish what has been begun. This in turn reinforces the child’s independence, ability to make choices and a strong willpower. Parents and teachers should provide opportunities for the kind of experiences that will teach children how to live with others in a civilised way. If we show respect and consideration, they will learn to have these for others. The potential for noble virtues is innate in the child, but adults need to provide the right environment and example to encourage it to develop. It is the adults responsibility to ensure that natural goodness and affection develop into strong character and high principles. These qualities evolve where there is freedom, love and order, in an atmosphere where there is harmony between people who are working together and who respect each other. All children should be given the chance to make the very best of themselves. We are all born with a certain potential and everyone should be given every opportunity to develop this potential to the fullest, both spiritually and mentally. Dr. Montessori believed that this will be the basis on which society will be based in the future. As teachers in serving the child, we serve life.

Attitudes adopted by parents and teachers with children up to 7 years of age are likely to become permanent in the child’s mind. If the child lives with: criticism

he learns to condemn

hostility

he learns to fight

ridicule

he becomes shy

jealousy

he feels guilty

tolerance

he learns to be patient

encouragement

he learns to be confident

praise

he learns to appreciate

fairness

he learns justice

security

he learns to have faith

approval

he learns to like himself (a good self-image)

acceptance and friendliness

he learns to find love in the world

In the nursery school, the children are helped to develop the qualities of the strong character.

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concentration perseverance co-operation independence tolerance respect patience sharing self discipline self confidence

Children construct their own character between the ages of 3 - 6 years. Character is the result of a long, slow sequence of activity carried out by the child itself. It is built up through experience and experiment. No amount of “lecturing” or “advice” will help the child develop his character; it can only come about through his own activity. All the adult can do is provide the right environment, encouragement and freedom for the child to work unimpeded. By 7 years of age, the character is formed; after this, it can only be moulded with great care but never basically altered. The child between 6 - 12 years of age develops a conscience and is aware of good and evil. From 12 - 18 years of age, he forms ideals. We can reason and advise these children, but after 7 years they can no longer develop character spontaneously. It is of no use for adults to complain that teenagers lack self-discipline or will power; If, in this first stage, the child’s energies and drives find nothing to satisfy them in the environment, defective behaviour patterns appear. In “The Absorbent Mind”, Dr. Montessori describes the “deviations” of strong and weak types of children. The miracle is that with the right environment and freedom to work with chosen activities, every child can rid himself of deviated behaviour before he reaches the age of 7 years. Through work and freedom, the child develops inner discipline. This form of discipline is essential to the development of a strong character. With it, the child can meet the challenges of life and strive to fulfil his great individual potential. Self discipline is an immensely strong quality. Discipline imposed by some outside authority can never achieve the same results as inner self discipline can. Imposed discipline only applies in the presence of the upholding authority. It leads to competitiveness, selfishness, intolerance, lack of responsibility, of initiative, perseverance and self reliance. It weakens rather than strengthens character. It is a human tendency to strive to fulfil our potential. This cannot be achieved without strong character, which is the natural birthright of every individual. Too often our children are deprived of this right by obstacles put in their path. The future of the human species lies with our children and it is our responsibility to equip them with all they need to take up the challenge of the future.

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UNIT 4.3

Development of Personality Personality: “Total qualities of the individual character, especially as perceived by others.”

“He collects and incarnates the mental qualities from his immediate environment and by this means he constructs his own personality.”

In the first 2 1/2 to 3 years, the developments of the child are very obvious. There is rapid growth; the child learns to walk and talk. It is the period of greatest development. Progress in the third year is less striking as it is less obvious. The child often becomes very moody—temper tantrums and difficulties in the home are frequent. Why? It shows that something is happening, something that is not obvious and the child needs more understanding and careful attention. There is in fact an extremely important development going on, the development of personality. up to now the child’s development has been guided by the subconscious mind. In the first period there is no possibility of conscious memory. The Horme is driving the child to develop its full potential. The Mneme is absorbing all impressions to form a subconscious memory. Nature is in control of the child.

Dr. Montessori said, “At the age of 3 years life seems to begin again, for now consciousness shines forth in all its fullness and glory.”

Before 3 years the functions are being developed. In the first part of his life the child is entirely dependent on us. Now at 3 years he has acquired powers which permit him to defend himself. He can run away if we want him; he can protest if he does not like something. He is not purposely being naughty—he is trying to master his environment, to assert his new powers and the adult who does not understand this will react in the wrong way and so temper tantrums occur. During the development of the physical embryo, all the organs of the body are constructed separately in their own time, and it is in the last period before birth that the system of communication—the blood vessels and the nervous system—is developed. It is the same with the “psychic embryo”—the first three years of life—during the last period of this stage a process of organisation takes place that establishes a central control and constructs an individual with a personality and a will of his own. What nature has given develops with work/activity. Continuous effort and experience are required. Preaching and continual correction will not help. Growth comes from activity, not from intellectual understanding. The Will is only developing; it needs practice to become strong. The child needs to use his will power if he is to gain control over it. He needs to act, not to reason. Great tolerance and love is needed on the part of the adult. A good sense of humour is a great help. If obstinacy is met with force, tantrums are the result. It is better if the adult gives in to the child rather than have this problem. If we observe the child, these tantrums can be avoided. It is a lot easier to prevent a tantrum than to cope with one, once it starts. We should make sure that the child does not get overtired or frustrated. Too much stimulation before the child is ready can do this. If a child has a regular routine, it is upsetting for him if it is changed. If he is working/playing with something he might not want to be interrupted and rushed into the car to go to the shops; he might prefer to stay at home and play. When a child does have a tantrum the adult should be very gentle, calm but firm. She should speak to the child in a low voice and hold him against her if possible. The child is now out of control—this is very frightening for him—he is crying out for help. If treated correctly this stage will be outgrown very quickly. Attitudes adopted at this stage are likely to become permanent. The child we receive into our Montessori class at 2 1/2 to 3 years of age is the product of the home from which he has come. He reacts to the experiences he has received. He reacts to encouragement or joy, love, frustration or anger. This, then, is an extremely suggestible age; scolding and punishment can have undesirable long term

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results. Personality is being created and attitudes now are likely to become fixed and permanent. The tone of the adult’s voice is very important. The whole mind seems to be very impressionable at this age when self-consciousness and memory are just beginning to function. Adult phobias are often traced back to this very impressionable stage. People are afraid that if they give in to the child he will become spoiled. But severity will do no good, the child will only get worse. A battle of will will only make a tyrant out of the adult and a slave or rebel out of the child. Cooperation is the only answer. In a normal happy home where there is love and understanding, the problem will not often arise. If the children are given plenty of scope for activity without too much interference and then plenty of rest, there will be no problems. Construction of the child’s personality is reached by his own efforts and experiences. He has a long road to travel to maturity. If his energies find nothing to satisfy them in the environment, defective behaviour problems will occur. These deviations arise from failure to organise his personality. Maria Montessori described the attributes of normality as concentration, work, discipline, sociality, and those of deviation as caprice, sloth, disorder and timidity. We are privileged as Montessori teachers to be able to correct the defects which have been acquired in the first three years, when the children come to our Nursery Schools from 3 - 6 years, because Nature is still busy perfecting the many newly formed powers. In a prepared environment with specially designed materials the child is free to respond with confidence and self control. Through his own work and purposeful activity, the child rids himself of any deviations before 6 years of age and thus displays a natural personality with admirable qualities.

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UNIT 4.3

Behavioural Problems There is a wide variety of behavioural problems and also a variety of options as to what are problems and what are simple stages of the child’s development. We shall attempt to cover most problems in this Unit. However, some will be dealt with more fully than others. Bad behaviour is usually transient and the chid tries out various forms of behaviour that last for a few days only, if the parents handle the situation properly. As the child constantly experiments with new activities, so he experiments with forms of behaviour in an attempt to find the most satisfactory one. So care must be taken to ensure that temper tantrums do not lead to the chid getting his own way, for this will lead the child to continue with them because of the rewards they bring. If, however, the ‘problem’ does continue, then it means there must be an underlying cause for the child’s behaviour. In such case, adults should be understanding and try to find out the cause and remove it. It is wrong of us to think a child is born with behavioural problems, for it is the example and handling of adults that determines the way a child behaves. Many behaviour patterns are learned through imitating those of the adults. However, it is true to say that the child’s inborn temperament may be a contributory factor to his behaviour, but it is not the cause. Some children are naturally more quick tempered than others and this will lead to temper tantrums, but there still has to be a cause to arouse the temper.

Anger This is the most common behavioural problem in toddlers. Anger is one of the three earliest emotional responses in babies, as can be seen if his bottle is taken away from him; e.g. screaming and kicking are the result. If a toy is taken away from an eight month old, then the response will be the same. Anger is roused in infancy by any form of restraint or interference with what the baby wishes. Unwise handling of situations in the first year of the child’s life, can often lead to tantrums becoming a problem in the following years.

Temper Tantrums These tantrums are very common in children from about 15 months to 3 years old. Many of the tantrums are brought on by frustration. The chid is now active and can do many different things but gets impatient if unsuccessful at something. Because of the child’s mobility, it is the time when he experiences most adult intervention, if restrained from touching certain things or handling and experimenting with household items in the way he would like. Helplessness, anxiety and insecurity are also possible reasons for such tantrums and in these cases, the child should be reassured by his parents and helped to do something that is permissible and will equally serve to occupy him. Until the child is old enough to practice self-control, it is best to avoid, as much as possible, issues that will give rise to a show of temper. If the child’s temper is frequently aroused, then a habit can be formed. However. if the outbursts always cause the parents to give in, then this, too, can create a habit in the child. So avoiding tantrums, and redirecting the child’s thoughts to something more positive, is the best way of handling them. There is another possible cause for such behaviour in the child and that is poor health. Lack of sleep will the make the child nervy and irritable in the same way it does an adult. Also, if the child is not eating properly and has become run down, it can have the same effect. So, when trying to handle a child with this particular behavioural problem, it is worth checking that health is not the cause of his problem.

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Stubbornness and Defiance Most children pass through a stage of this and it is known as the “Stage of Resistance”. This behaviour pattern often corresponds with that of anger and temper tantrums. When adults are confronted by a stubborn and defiant child, it is difficult to resist the temptation to lose their temper and to punish the child. The authority of the adult is being challenged and this is seen as unacceptable from another adult, let alone from a child. However, to be able to control a child, first we must learn self-control. In general, the reason for this stage of defiance is that in early infancy the child first recognises the meaning of the words “yes” and “no”. As they become more mobile, they hear the word “no” far more often, e.g. “do not touch”; “no, you must not go there,” etc. The child starts to respond in the same way, saying no as an answer to everything, even sometimes when he means yes. Coupled with this is the fact that it is a natural part of the child’s development to assert himself and this is a good way of doing it. The best way to overcome this stage is to avoid giving the child too many unnecessary commands. Instead of “put your toys away,” try “see how many toys you can put away by the time I make your bed”. Avoid giving him the opportunity to say “no”. Also, we should think carefully before refusing one of his requests. Often we say no simply because we cannot be bothered and the child will follow our example. When telling the child not to do something such as tearing the newspaper, it helps to redirect his attention and to explain why he must not do it, e.g. “if you tear the paper, Daddy will not be able to read it”; “why not cut out some shapes from this clean piece of paper?” Often it is our own bad behaviour that leads to it in children. Double standards are present such as our expecting the child to obey us instantly, whilst ignoring the requests he makes of us. This unfairness becomes clear to him and so he rebels. Also, adults have a tendency to talk to children in a way that they would not dream of speaking to another adult. This is wrong for we should not treat them as inferior human beings. We should speak to them in a way that we would like to be spoken to ourselves. In this way, natural good manners are learned from our example. If we show discourtesy to them, then they in turn will show it to us. It is a good policy to always remember that children have no natural awareness of right and wrong and we must teach them and show them by our example.

Aggression Aggressiveness is a true life force. It is part of the drive for survival and therefore it cannot be treated as a bad feeling. Adults should train children to use their aggression in socially acceptable ways. Obviously, we must discourage acts of aggression on other people and property, but we must also provide outlets for the child’s aggression. Adults vent their aggression in various ways, i.e. in stories or films that incorporate violence; in some form of sport either as participants or spectators. Children can vent their aggression on toys meant for banging and hammering, e.g. hammer and peg sets, or by using plasticine to pull about. In their sand play the child can dig, prod and slap without doing any damage to himself or any property. Painting can also be a useful outlet for aggression if the child is allowed to use bold colours any way he chooses on the paper. When dealing with aggression, it is important to remember that it is natural for the child to hit out at the person who is preventing him from doing what he wants. It is also up to us to teach him to control his aggression and to channel it into positive outlets, e.g. kicking a football or banging a drum. It is necessary for the child to experience aggression so that he can be taught to come to terms with it and control it in preparation for adult life. If the child is never thwarted in his desires and never feels aggressive, then what a shock is in store for him in adult society which is full of obstacles and barriers to one’s desires. Once the child has shown some aggressive act, it is essential that we do not then try to correct his behaviour with corporal punishment. This act of aggression from us will only reinforce the child’s aggressive feelings. It is very difficult to love an aggressive child, but if we respond to aggression with hostility, we will receive aggression in return. We should show the child love and understanding and explain that what he has done is not nice and offer him one of the acceptable means for aggressive outlets. 72

There are various reasons why a child is aggressive persistently after attempts to help him control this urge. It can be an attention seeking device because he feels he is being ignored or is not shown enough love by his parents. It can also be an indication of some emotional disturbance such as insecurity or a realisation of the hostile atmosphere in the home. As in all other behaviour patterns, the child imitates the adults around him and if he sees them behaving with hostility, then he will copy.

Destructiveness Between the ages of 2 - 3 years, most children go through a phase of destructiveness. It is a natural stage in their development. The chid wants to pull things down to build them up again and undo them to discover how they are made. Obviously, this can be very difficult to cope with if it is the household objects and property the child pulls about. So we have to supply him with plenty of toys that he can experiment with, without damaging them. There are a wide variety of construction toys available that a child can pull apart and put back together again. At about 4 years old, the child has progressed from the destructive to the constructive phase. If, however, the destructiveness persists then there must be a reason for it and the parents should find out what it is; for to punish the child for his actions will not remove the cause of his behaviour. It may be that in his early years, the child did not have enough opportunity for concentrated play and so he quickly becomes impatient when confronted with anything difficult. Unless he is given the opportunity to puzzle things out for himself, he will never learn to concentrate on something or to persist until he achieves his goal. It is far too easy for parents to do things for the child rather than let him struggle on, but it is through the struggling that he will learn. The child needs to be encouraged into independent achievements rather than to be discouraged by our interfering. He needs to complete successfully the task that he has set about. If the child does become discouraged, then this can cause impatience and he may abandon the task in frustration and anger and feel the urge to destroy. Too many restrictions and disciplines imposed on the child can have the same effect. Children have immense reserves of energy and they need outlets for it or it can spill over and do some damage. They have to be given the opportunity for noisy and messy play without having to worry about getting dirty or disturbing people. They need an opportunity for vigorous physical activities, e.g. running, climbing, etc., to work off all their energy. To confine the child too much will mean all this energy will be bottled up inside him and he will give it ventilation in a fit of destructiveness. The reason for persistent destructiveness must be sought and often a clue to it is given in the child’s play, when he is talking to his toys. Usually some unhappiness is the cause, e.g. jealousy of a new baby, and his destructiveness symbolises his desire to be rid of the new baby. Lack of security in the home, quarrelling amongst the parents etc. can lead a child to be destructive. Also, poor health and lack of sleep can lead to irritability and destructiveness. All these factors should be taken into account when trying to find out why the child wants to destroy things.

Jealousy Jealousy implies a desire to monopolise someone or something. The usual target of jealousy is the mother. Children naturally want to have the complete attention and love of their mother and so resent the demands anyone else makes on their mother’s attention. Until they learn to control this feeling and realise that others also have a right to their mother’s attention, they can display obvious jealousy. When a new baby comes into the family, this may lead to behavioural problems arising out of the older child’s jealousy. All children feel jealous of a new baby and this is quite natural. They should be allowed to openly show their feelings and then be helped to deal with them. If they are forced to keep their feelings bottled up inside them, it could lead to all kinds of problems and hatreds. The ways in which a child expresses his jealousy vary. It depends on his age, temperament and the way his parents handle the situation. All adults have experienced jealousy themselves at some time and so we know what a powerful and overwhelming experience it can be. So we should understand and sympathise with the child and what he is going through. Before the birth of the baby, the parents should prepare the child by talking about the baby and including the child in the preparation for it. Helping the buy baby equipment, etc. will make the child feel part of the event. Being told that he will be able to help his mother look after the baby and allowing him to pass the clothes, soap, etc. at bathtime will all help to involve the child with the new baby.

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It is most important to show the child that the baby has not usurped him in the parents’ affections and that he is loved as much as ever. The baby will be very demanding on the mother’s time but she should still make time to do things with the older child, i.e. read stories, do jigsaws, etc. Although the chid may be independent as regards dressing himself, etc. it will prevent resentment if the mother helps him at times as she does this for the baby. A fine balance has to be kept in appealing to the child’s ‘grown-up’ independent self and also recognising the need for the parents’ expressed love. One of the most common ways of the child revealing his jealousy is through reverting back to baby habits such as thumb-sucking and wetting themselves. He feels that because the baby has everything done for him, his behaving like a baby will gain the same attention. Other signs are refusing to go to sleep, calling the mother to him on various minor pretexts, refusing to eat unless the mother feeds him, clinging to his mother and making constant petty demands on her. This is the time when tantrums, defiance and rebelliousness are common. All these things are signs of the child’s distress. He needs comforting and assurance that he is loved. He is experiencing feelings of loss and insecurity and needs to be reassured. Acts of aggression and cruelty towards the baby may occur and although they must be prevented, the child should not be punished for them, for this will instill the resentment and possibly turn it to hatred. Instead, the child should be told nicely how helpless the baby is, that to hurt it is wrong and that he should help to look after the baby instead. Appealing to the child’s sense of protectiveness usually helps and encourages him to look after the baby for his mother, in the sense of coming to tell her when he has woken up for his feed or when he is tired, etc. So by showing that his help is needed and that he is loved as much as ever, the child should overcome his jealousy naturally.

Stealing Stealing is a word which cannot be applied to the actions of a child before the age of about 4 years. It is only as the child reaches a certain level of maturity that he is able to understand that he cannot just take whatever he fancies and keep it. As a toddler, he was used to being able to pick up what attracted his attention and now he has to learn the difference between what is his and what is not. From an early age, children should be taught that there are certain things they cannot touch, e.g. ornaments etc. for fear of them getting broken. In the same way, he should be taught that he should not take things that belong to someone else or are not given to him. In nursery and school, the child is given equipment to use but these are on loan and must be returned. If we want the child to learn to respect others’ property, then we must set the example by respecting his property. This means that we must not give away or throw out any of his toys without first asking his permission. If he was to do this to any of our belongings, we would naturally be very annoyed and must expect him to feel the same. An older child who takes things and knows the difference between his property and someone else’s may be acting so for a variety of reasons. Often it is done for effect, to look big in front of friends or to buy popularity with what he has taken. In such cases, the reason for the child’s inferiority should be removed and the need to steal will disappear. If a constant habit of stealing has been established, then this is usually a sign of some inner distress, insecurity and deprivation. A child who is deprived of sweets, for example, may feel an overwhelming impulse to steal them at any opportunity. For some children, it is a way of drawing their parents’ attention and this suggests a feeling of insecurity and lack of affection. Yet again, the example set by adults is very important and a child who steals may be doing so simply because he is copying his parents or because of the influence of the environment in which he lives—friends steal so the child follows suit.

Untruthfulness Children can be untruthful for a variety of reasons, the most common reason being to avoid getting into trouble. If this is so, then it indicates unwise handling on previous occasions when the child had done something wrong. Children need to be encouraged to tell the truth, not frightened into telling lies. So, if the child does own up to doing something wrong, we should praise his honesty, not punish him for his crime but merely caution him. To punish him when he has owned up will only make him frightened to tell the truth in future. If the child is already in the habit of lying, then he has to be coaxed back to being honest, not bullied into it. Yet again. it is advisable to avoid situations where he is able to tell lies. Instead of 74

saying, “Did you break the vase?”, say, “I know it was an accident that the vase was broken, but take more care when playing indoors”. Make it clear that untruthfulness is disliked and that honesty is a quality that is highly praised. Some forms of lying are better classified as exaggeration. In a minor way, this is not a bad thing and may arise from the child’s lack of experience or attainment of specific knowledge. A child who is given a handful of coins may state he has hundreds of coins simply because he does not know how else to describe the amount. Certain forms of exaggeration, if not too gross, are acceptable, but the child should be encouraged to be exact in his descriptions or the exaggerations tend to grow and become habits that carry on into adult life. Often children distort stories about themselves and their achievements out of a sense of inferiority. In such cases, the cause of the inferiority complex should be discovered and, if possible, removed, or the chid made to see it is not important enough for him to lie. Lack of encouragement can also lead to exaggeration or lies in order to gain the sought for recognition. Parents should be wary of this situation and give praise and encouragement to their children. Some children find it difficult to draw a line between fiction and fact and this is often referred to as imaginative thinking. The ‘tall stories’ which such children tell are not deliberate lies, but are a sign of the child’s inability, as yet, to properly use imagination. Children have so much to do and think about that often they tell untruths which are the result of forgetfulness. If asked if he posted the letter his mother gave him, he might say yes and then later the letter is found in his pocket. This may not be a deliberate lie but merely the fact that the child thought he had posted the letter as he passed the box, but his mind was on other things. In all cases of untruths, it is unwise to punish the child. It is far better to explain the merits of telling the truth and to set the child an example by always being truthful yourself.

Fears At birth a baby only has two fears, that of losing its support and loud noises. However, as the child grows, he acquires many different fears. The reason for these fears has to be suggested in the first place, e.g. ‘be careful, that dog might bite you’, is a natural warning when a child approaches a strange dog, but this can lead the child to have a fear of dogs in the future. Parental attitudes can influence a child into fears, e.g. if the mother is afraid of spiders and the child sees this, then he too will become afraid of them. As adults, we have a responsibility to avoid showing our fears in front of children as this can lead them to the same fear. The things that adults say to children can cause fears, e.g. “If you do not behave, that policeman will take you away”. This can do great harm as the child may need the help of a policeman at some time and this fear will make for an awkward situation. Probably one of the worst threats we can make to a child is that his mother will go away and leave him. This strikes deeply at his security and will cause him to cling to her and be unduly dependent. However naughty the child has been, we should never let him think we love him less. Once a child has a fear of mother leaving him it will make it impossible for her to leave him with friends or relatives if she has to go somewhere without him. Fear of the dark is probably the most common of childhood fears. We should never suggest to a child that it is anything to fear and should not ridicule the child for his fear. Usually the problem can be overcome by the use of a night light or leaving the landing light on so it shines into the child’s room. Total darkness can be frightening, even for an adult, so we should sympathise with the child’s fear. Provided that the situation is treated normally and no fuss is made about it, the child will eventually grow out of the fear. Shyness can also be regarded as a very mild form of fear. Young babies at 5 - 6 months old often go through a phase of shyness and will cry when they come into contact with strangers. This is only short-lived and usually they overcome it. If the older child is shy in front of strangers, then the best way to help him overcome it is to let him get used to them gradually, in his own time. To stand him in front of a room full of visitors and try to force him to socialise, will only make him worse. He should be allowed to gradually come round to speaking to them. Excessive shyness can lead to a fear of strangers and help and understanding will be needed for him to overcome this. There is obviously a reason why the child has lost his confidence with strangers and such things as being talked about as the ugly duckling of the family can cause this. A child is very sensitive and should not be made fun of especially by strangers. 75

Nightmares These can be brought on by the child’s fears or by his having stolen or told a lie or even by his jealousy. Unsuitable bedtime stories or television programmes can be the cause, or too many excitable games last thing at night. Adults should be aware of the unsuitability of stories about witches, giants, etc. at night time and seeing violence or scary creatures on television. If the child does suffer from repeated nightmares, then he should be encouraged to talk about them and the cause found. If the nightmare is discussed openly in daylight, then it will not seem half as bad as in the darkness of the night. If the child tries to avoid talking about it then he will brood over it and it could cause problems in later life. Fears that are talked about openly by a child who is surrounded by love and security will soon pass.

Sleep Disorders Refusal or failure to go to sleep is a phase most children pass through briefly. The child may start crying when put to bed or wake up later in the night crying. Nightmares may be the cause of this reluctance to sleep. Sleep walking and sleep talking is something that certain people are prone to but there is no known cause for it. However, over excitement or anxiety does seem to be connected. One of the most infuriating sleep disorders from the parents’ point of view, is early morning awakening. Some children rise at 5am or earlier every morning. There are a variety of reasons for these sleep disorders and habit formation could be a major reason. If the child repeatedly refuses to go to sleep and is allowed to stay up, then a habit of not going to bed until the parents do can be set up. When a child wakes up crying at night, this again can become a habit if it is not handled carefully. If the child is then taken into the parents’ bed, then he will want to do this every night and a pattern can be set up. Obviously, if the child is crying, he must be comforted, but care should be taken that the child understands it is only on that one occasion and that it must not happen every night. Different sleep requirements can be the reason for a child’s failure to go to sleep and for waking early each morning. There is very little that can be done for a child who needs very little sleep because we cannot force him to sleep if he is not tired. All that can be done is to make sure he gets plenty of exercise and fresh air and is kept fully occupied during his waking hours in an attempt to exhaust him and encourage sleep. In babies, discomfort can often be a cause of sleeping problems and such things as a soiled nappy or irritating clothing should be looked for. Pains due to wind or any other stomach upsets can lead the child to be wakeful and miserable and parents should find out if this is the cause of the child’s sleeping difficulty. Often bed is used as a form of punishment for the child and this then leads to problems when it is actually bedtime for him. It is unwise to send the child to bed as punishment as it can lead to all sorts of problems, both for the child and the parents at future sleep times.

Questions 1 Independence is the key to the formation of will, personality and character in the child during the formative years.

Enlarge on this statement using no more that 2000 words.

Guidelines The introduction to this essay should explain what you hope to achieve in your essay and for this you should use no more than 200 words. In answering this question highlight what is meant by independence, will, personality and character, giving each area equal attention and show how the development of independence is crucial to the development of the other areas. Look at how the adult can aid/hinder the child’s development of independence and so cause defects in the child’s personality especially in the formative years (0-6 years). Look at how behavioural problems effect the development of character and how these can be addressed. Do not confine yourself to the child of school going age look at the child from 0-6 years. Use no more than 1500 words in the body of the essay. Finish your essay with a concluding paragraph of no more than 300 words in which you draw together all of your findings.

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UNIT 5.1

Heredity—Environment Mankind has always been curious about its beginnings. The ancient Hebrews recorded their beliefs in the Book of Genesis. The early Greeks and Romans believed that living things arose spontaneously from non-living things in their surroundings. Aristotle, the Greek Philosopher, held that although animals like frogs, toads and snakes arose spontaneously; they came from mud that was activated by the sun’s light and heat. Others of that time believed that living things grew spontaneously from dead, decaying animals, from filthy rags, from dew on the grass, from sluggish water and from rain from the heavens. This Theory of Spontaneous Generation was held until late in the seventeenth century. Then in 1680 an Italian scientist, Redi, observed a fly laying eggs in a decaying piece of meat. This set him thinking and experimenting. After a lot of experimenting it was proved that all living things, plant and animal, come from other living things of the same kind; they grow old and they die, and in order for a species of plant or animal to continue and survive, it must reproduce itself. There are two methods of reproduction:

1)

Asexual Reproduction, in which the new individual develops from a single parent (e.g. binary fission in Amoeba and budding of Yeast).

2)

Sexual Reproduction, in which two parents are needed to produce an offspring.

Two parents are required to produce the sperm cells (male) and the egg cells (female).

It is the sex or germ cells and not the other body tissues which pass on the characteristics of a species from one generation to the next. Theoretically, the germ cells are immortal. The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes which have been found to hold and determine hereditary characteristics of a species. A single sperm or egg cell of man contains 23 chromosomes, and the fertilised egg contains the characteristic two pairs of 46 chromosomes. Everyone is aware of similarities and differences among the members of his immediate family. We are all members of the human species so we bear the characteristics of a male or female mammal belonging to Homo Sapiens. There is probably a genial resemblance among all the members of a given family. Specifically there will be differences in physical traits, differences in emotional responses to a given circumstance.

The similarities we could note would be: Hair (colour, curly, straight) Colour of eyes Adult height Shape of ear lobes etc.

The differences in eye colour, hair colour, structure and so on in a single family are called variations. These variations, some due to heredity and some to influences in the environment, result in differences in species from one generation to the next and changes in forms of life from the beginning of recorded time. It was an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel who discovered how characteristics of a species are inherited. He wanted to understand how some children of brown-eyed parents were brown eyed and others blue eyed, or why some children of red-haired parents or grandparents had red hair while a brother or sister did not.

He carried out experiments on the garden pea for nine years and discovered what he called the dominant and recessive traits.

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Later Professor Morgan in America came to the conclusion that the genes carry and produce the identifying characteristics of a species. Now we all recognise many differences among all living things. These may be due to what we inherit but they may also result from existing and changing factors in our environment. It is common knowledge that each of us is born with inherited physical and mental traits. As we grow older and adapt ourselves to the environment, some of these characteristics are modified or changed. Dr. Montessori said in “The Absorbent Mind”,

“Neither the discoveries nor theories derived from the scientific achievements of our day, are enough to explain the mysteries of life; but every fresh detail which those achievements bring to light, adds something to our understanding of it”.

“The child at birth, bears within him constructive possibilities, which must unfold by activity in his environment.” He has in himself potentialities which determine his development and this will take its characteristics from the world about him. It is only when we consider the newly born child that we see he differs from other newly born mammals from the point of view of heredity. All young mammals inherit a specialised behaviour. The bodily form is suited to the functions it has to do in life. The habits, the way of moving, whether skipping, running, climbing, are established from birth onwards. Their adaptation to the environment aims at exercising characteristic functions so that the ‘cosmic aim’ of each individual species may be fulfilled. Man, on the contrary, has an almost unlimited power of adaptation as regards his capacity to live in all geographical regions, and his capacity to assume all forms of habit and work. Dr. Montessori said in “Formation of Man” that

“Man belongs to the only species capable of an indefinite evolution in his activities in the world. From this flows the development of civilisation of the world.”

The human species is the only one which by nature is not fixed in its behaviour. So man does not receive an inheritance, a fixed behaviour. Man is different from animals with regard to heredity. He does not inherit characteristic features but only the potentiality to form them. It is therefore after birth that the characteristics are built up. Example: Savage of Aveyron who, in the absence of human company, did not develop human characteristics—language, etc. Dr. Montessori described the young child as a spiritual / psychic embryo. In the unborn baby, all the physical organs—heart, lungs, etc. have been established by 12 weeks after conception. They then grow and begin to work together, so by the time the baby is born, he is capable of functioning physically, independent of his mother’s body. A similar pattern takes place with the psyche, only much of it happens after birth, as the psychic organs need activity in the environment to stimulate their construction. Maria Montessori says, “He (the child) is an embryo in whom exists nothing but nebulae with the power to develop spontaneously, but only at the expense of the environment.”

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Two definitions of Nebulae:

“Like mysterious potentialities comparable to those genes in the germinal cell which have power to direct the future tissues so that they can form complicated and structurally complete, determined organs.”—Oxford Dictionary

“Creative energies which will guide the child to absorb from the environment.”— Dr. Maria Montessori

To establish his psyche, speech, memory, behaviour patterns etc., the young child needs to be active in an environment because it is the environment which provides the raw materials for him to construct the psychic/spiritual embryo. The potentialities inherent in the child must be stimulated by the environment—this is why completion of the psyche and further cognitive development can only take place after birth. When the cognitive organs have been formed, they begin to work together as an entity. This happens at about three years of age when the child comes out of the unconscious state to the conscious. Only Man can adapt to the environment into which he is born. He has no fixed characteristics which limit him to one type of surroundings. He takes and fixes his characteristics from his inherent potentialities after birth. By merely living—without any conscious effort the young child absorbs his environment. He absorbs language, customs, habits, prejudices and feelings, and generally all the changes which our intelligence, logic and reason might wish to bring about. Gandhi once said,

“I could approve of and follow many customs of Western people, but I could never cancel from my soul the worship of the cow.”

The child builds himself and reproduces in himself the characteristics of the people in his environment. Man has to adapt himself to all kinds of conditions and circumstances in the environment. Adaptation in childhood occurs naturally and is lost by the time adulthood is reached. Once a person has adapted himself, he is happy only in his centre; for example, Eskimo fascinated by Arctic; Ethiopian attracted by desert, etc. If the child has to create his personality at the expense of the environment, he must be in contact with the world. He must take part in it, he must be in touch with the lives of adults. If the child is left in the Nursery/Playroom he will not develop.

To conclude: Man is a superior being who is endowed with intelligence and is destined to do a great task on earth. It is man who creates civilisation. He is and always has been a worker. Dr. Montessori said in “Formation of Man”:

“It seems natural to man that the child should begin by absorbing the environment and accomplish his development by means of work, of gradual experiences in surroundings. He nourishes and develops his human qualities first by his unconscious and then by his activities directed to outward things. We see, therefore, that the child can only develop fully in the environment, such as the family, the school, which must correspond and satisfy the creative powers within him and help them to develop fully.”

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Man’s Two Embryonic Periods Man alone seems to have two embryonic periods: 1

Pre-Natal

2

Post-Natal Psychic / Spiritual Embryo

Only man has this in the form of a prolonged infancy—a vital difference in the species. The newborn child physically develops from nothing. Organs are built around a point of sensitivity—an accumulation of material by the absorbent mind. These points of sensitivity develop any organs that the psyche may need. After the organ is formed, the point of sensitivity disappears. When all the organs are ready, they unite to form the psychic entity.

‘A constructive activity which is carried on in what may be called the formative period and it takes the baby into a kind of spiritual embryo.’

To quote Watson, the famous American Behaviourist:

‘In an infant there is no pre-established behaviour.’

He confirmed the lack of instincts and psychological heredity. The baby is born with genetic inheritance and unlimited potentialities. Man’s actions are due to ‘conditioned reflexes’ (Pavlov), superimposed one on top of the other, at ever-higher levels of functioning. The very young child learns these “reflexes” by being active in the environment into which he was born. Dr. Ruth Benedict gives a good example of this type of adaptation in a Patagonian girl. While formerly operating at a stone-age level of development, following rescue by French missionaries, she soon developed two languages and rapidly accommodated herself to modern society. This shows the capacity of the mind to absorb unconsciously from the environment. Man’s second embryonic period adapts him psychically and spiritually to his own time and place of birth.

Stages of Development In one of her most famous books, ‘The Absorbent Mind’, Dr. Montessori stresses that development consists of a number of periods and sub-periods. These are given in Table Two below: Table Two FIRST STAGE

0 - 6 years

Substages

0 - 3 years 3 - 6 years

SECOND STAGE

6 - 12 years

Substages

6 - 9 years 9 - 12 years

THIRD STAGE

12 - 18 years

Substages

12 - 14/15 years 14/15 - 18 years

Note the development from birth to 6 years. The child has come from being a helpless baby to one who can go to school, find his way about and understand ideas. In the second stage, the child is mentally and physically healthy, strong and stable. This is recognised as a good time for learning and absorbing culture. In the period from 12 years onwards the child enters second level education. However, it is also a very sensitive stage of development, the adolescent period being very unstable, changeable and rebellious. Yet the educational institutions do not recognise these facts, often with traumatic rather than fruitful results for some adolescence.

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Question 1

‘By merely living and without conscious effort the child absorbs his environment’. Enlarge on this statement using no more than 2000 words.

Guidelines The introduction to this essay should explain what you hope to achieve in your essay and for this you should use no more than 200 words. The key words in this question are ‘without conscious effort’ and ‘absorbs’. Firstly it is necessary that you identify what is meant by conscious effort, this will lead you to discussing the ‘Spiritual Embryo’; where the child is constructing himself and to the ‘Absorbent Mind’; the means by which this construction is possible. Use the majority of the body of the essay, approximately 1500 words, to clearly elaborate these points. Also, look at how the environment can have both a positive and negative impact on the child and the importance of the prepared environment. Look at the child’s role within the environment and why freedom within that environment is necessary for him to reach his full potential. Finish your essay with a concluding paragraph of no more than 300 words in which you draw together all of your findings.

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UNIT 6.1

The Task of the Teacher Teaching in a Montessori classroom is not an easy job. Because of constant change in today’s world, the teacher’s task has been altered considerably to keep pace with the modification of society. Dr. Montessori, through extensive observation and insight, developed an approach towards the child encompassing a philosophy of education, a new role for the teacher, a new role for the environment and a vast array of educational materials for the young child to use. In this new role, the teacher has four primary functions:

1

To observe each child and assess his individual needs.

2

To maintain the rights of each child.

3

To create and maintain a stimulating environment and programme.

4

To provide adequate links between the child and the environment.

He/she is the guide rather than the source of learning. She (he) encourages the child to do everything he can for himself in harmony with his inner guide — the horme — which urges him onwards in his mastery of independence. She is the keeper of the environment — she designs and maintains it. She presents the materials to the child as he is ready for them. She carefully observes each child’s stage of development in all areas: physically, intellectually, emotionally, socially and spiritually. She guides the child in his choices and use of the environment and his relations with the other children. The Montessori teacher should have a deep knowledge and full understanding of the Montessori principles and her method of education. He/she must believe in these principles and have faith that they do work when followed carefully.

“The teacher, when she begins work in our schools, must have a kind of faith that the child will reveal himself through work.” The Absorbent Mind — Maria Montessori

The teacher should also have the humility to accept his/her own shortcomings and be open enough to learn from experience, to be better able to implement Dr. Montessori’s principles. She must understand the significance of the child’s spontaneous activity and his striving for physical and mental independence. Once she begins to understand the child, her task becomes easier. But again, getting to understand each child is not an easy matter. The child she receives into the classroom is the product of what she has experienced and absorbed in the environment of the home. He has absorbed the emotional atmosphere of the home and has responded to the adult’s treatment of him. The adult’s treatment may not always have helped in the child’s emotional growth. Therefore, the teacher gets all variations, from the shy, withdrawn child to the boisterous, noisy child. Neither of these are very easy to manage in school. This is the reason we advise small groups of children when starting a Montessori school and then gradually build up the numbers. In this way the children can gain confidence in us as they get to know what we expect them to do. The child has a right not only to be loved but to be respected as a human being — as a personality. Dr. Montessori’s approach to children is one of respect. Each child is creating a man, which is no small task but one of great dignity. They deserve all the support, help, admiration and respect which we can give. The future of mankind depends on them. Too often this is disregarded and children are treated as second class citizens of little or no significance. They are our future and they deserve our humblest respect.

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Dr. Montessori believed that no human being is educated by another person. He must do it himself or it will never be done. A truly educated individual continues learning long after the hours and years he spends in the classroom because he is motivated from within by a natural curiosity and love of knowledge. She felt that early childhood education should cultivate the child’s own natural desire to learn. In the Montessori classroom this is done firstly by allowing each child to experience the excitement of learning by his own choice rather than by being forced, and secondly by helping him to perfect his natural tools for learning so that his ability will be at a maximum in future learning situations. No hurdle should be too high and no question should be left unanswered. The teacher should be humble enough to admit when she doesn’t know the answers. Then teacher and child can find out together. Dr. Montessori recognised adult pride as a significant barrier to expression of the child’s true nature. She said:

“One who would become a teacher must rid his heart of pride...he must learn to humble himself.” The Secret of Childhood — Maria Montessori

Pride is reflected in a wide range of detrimental behaviour emanating from the adult’s personality. Examples:

1

reactive behaviour

2

emotional attachment

3

dependency

4

excessive approval and judgment

5

over involvement with individual children

6

psychological manipulation and unconscious intimidation.

All of those expressions of pride aim to call attention to oneself and one’s position and importance. In other words the child is subjected to a type of tyranny. Dr. Montessori also wrote in the Secret of Childhood:

“Pride is concealed under the guise of good and develops into a kind of tyranny when confronted by a child’s feeble attempts to express himself.”

She also says in The Absorbent Mind:

“The kind of education still in vogue condemns the teacher to be a dictator...teachers of the older school hold firmly to irrational rules and have little to guide them but illusion and prejudice.”

In the Montessori class the teacher is part of the environment. She is always there when she is needed. She is attractive, happy, patient, calm and dignified. She is soft spoken and never tries to dominate a child. Her voice is gentle and soothing. Her movements are gentle and graceful, never clumsy or rough. She is able to care for and lover her charges so that they feel her presence and security no matter what stage they are at. She is aware of the full development of each child from his physical, emotional and mental development to his moral and spiritual development. She is like a flame that heartens all by its warmth, enlivens and invites all who need her. Her imagination is alive and her mind open to new information. She has a scientific approach to life and never fails to be struck with awe and wonder by the miracles of creation.

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She must recognise when a child starts to concentrate and take the greatest care that he is not disturbed. The child who is concentrating is developing himself psychically. All obstacles should be removed from his path. The teacher ensures that other children respect his work and do not disturb him, also that he/she (the teacher) does not interrupt his concentration either with a “helpful” comment or even a glance of approval. The Montessori teacher is trained to observe and have the ability to stand back and be unobtrusive when necessary. There is a tendency today for teachers to pat and cuddle small children. Dr. Montessori thought this familiarity was a great mistake and a hindrance to progress. We should behave in a dignified, mature way, in order to gain their confidence. Children who are starting school are full of hope and enthusiasm. They need someone who will help them to realise the great things of which they are capable. They need someone who will answer their mental needs. We must serve the child. If a teacher is to educate, she must first of all prepare herself and then prepare the environment. She must free herself from all preconceived ideas about children, be ready to observe them, each with a unique personality, unique potentials and unique needs, and learn from them. Maria Montessori compares the perfect teacher with the perfect valet, except that the teacher’s master is the child’s spirit. The perfect valet prepares his master’s environment, keeping everything ready for when the master wishes to use it; he serves meals to his master but doesn’t force him to eat and having served everything properly, unobtrusively steps back. Our aim is to prepare children for life, to help them understand their role on this earth and to make them aware of their obligations to their environment and their contribution to maintaining the conditions necessary for the future existence of Mankind.

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UNIT 6.2

Classroom Management The first requirements for good management of a Montessori classroom are an understanding of the philosophy of the method and intimate knowledge of the material through repeated practice on the part of the teacher as well as a knowledge of the sequence and purposes. It is essential that the environment be prepared not only to allow for adequate space for placement of materials within specific areas (practical life, sensorial, language, math, etc.) but also to allow for space in which to work. Obviously, open space is needed in the sensorial area to accommodate floor work with pink tower, long stair, broad stair, knobless cylinders; in the math. area to accommodate read and blue rods and Sequin boards; in the language area to accommodate the movable alphabet. Adequate table space must be planned for golden bead operations and map work. Consider the flow of traffic through the areas in order to reduce interference with concentration. Try to avoid having the main entrance to the room or access to the bathroom near areas involving floor work. Keeping down or eliminating the movement of the children through work areas can be done by blocking off areas with low shelving. Careful planning of the physical arrangement of the room can eliminate some problems of interruption of work. Be sure to determine room arrangement prior to the beginning of school. If rearrangement occurs once the children begin, it makes it difficult for them to remember where materials belong. If several teachers are involved in a classroom with a large number of children, there may be a problem with all the teachers knowing what every child is doing, who has had lessons with what material, who is ready to proceed to the next step, who needs more lessons at a lower level, etc. Some teachers, especially inexperienced ones, feel more comfortable keeping records to which all teachers may refer. If this deemed necessary, record keeping must be done unobtrusively so that the child is not aware that every time he has a lesson or does work, the teacher is writing it down. A wall chart in a cupboard or some out of sight location can be marked with date and lesson opposite a child’s name or separate file cards may be used but this takes longer to record. Ideally, each teacher becomes so familiar with each child that an understanding of needs is established without referral to a written record. This comes with experience. Inexperienced teachers may be more comfortable working in only one or two areas at a time such as practical life and nature, or sensorial and language. It is important for the teacher to feel confident and secure even though ideally it is not the best plan to have children associate a particular teacher with particular activities. Probably the greatest problem in classroom management is in the area of discipline. The goal is to assist the child in developing self-discipline. The most important rule to remember is that the teacher must control the child who is unable to control himself yet give him opportunities to develop the self-discipline he so desperately needs. The general limitations of classroom freedom require respect for others and for the environment. Specific limitations must be reasonable and enforceable and understood by all teachers and children alike. Specific requirements are: No physical aggression (including “hitting back”). No taking of materials from another either with or without permission of the child in possession. (Materials are taken from the shelf only.) No interference with work or concentration on the part of teachers as well as children. Never doing for the child what he is able to do for himself. Children are expected: To work only with those materials which have been presented to them. To choose their own work. To handle materials carefully and quietly. To return materials to the proper location. To avoid interfering with the work of other children. To be kind to and considerate of all.

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It is the daily duty of the teachers to be consistent in enforcing the limitations. Inconsistency undermines the entire structure of discipline. Teachers must abide by the limitations, for what is done impresses children more than what is said. Make the expectations clear to the children by stating briefly what is required but give only one statement at a time. Never read all the rules for they will not remember them. If a child has violated a limit, never say, “Why did you do that?” If several children are involved, say to each in turn: “What happened?” Then reflect what each has stated. Usually the problem will be solved by the children once they verbalise the situation. Remember that the focus is not on the child but on the behaviour as being unacceptable. When a child violates a limit, the teacher must respond immediately. Without raising the voice, state the limit or rule to the child while keeping eye contact at his eye level, then continue to keep eye contact for at least two seconds. Eye contact is absolutely essential. Ask the child to repeat what was said, then say: “Do you understand?” If he says, “No,” give a brief explanation. If he says, “Yes,” tell him it is not to happen again. Never threaten or lecture but let the child know you mean what you say by a firm serious tone of voice and expression. It confuses children to receive a serious message in a non-serious manner. Once they realise that the teacher does mean what is said, violation of limits is eliminated except in those unfortunate children whose home environment is so inconsistent and unstructured that testing limits is the established behaviour pattern. For those children who have difficulty in following limitations, the second violation does not require a repetition of state of the rules. He knows the rule and further talking about it will not impress him. On the second offense, lead the child to an isolated table where he may sit and watch others but have no social contact. Although it is the adult inclination to do so, do not explain to the child what is happening. These children tend to have past experience of too much lecturing and no action. After a few minutes of sitting quietly at the table, the teacher returns and tells the child he may go back to work. The child who repeatedly violates limits may need to sit in an isolated area but should be made comfortable and treated gently and lovingly. If he has not yet acquired the ability to concentrate, he should be given an interesting toy or a simple task that would be too easy for others of his age group. In the first Children’s Houses: “the isolated child was always made the object of special care, almost as if he were ill.” (Montessori Method, Chapter V, on Discipline). Any attention that the teacher has to give him must be given warmly but very quietly. “Isolation” only means withdrawal from the over-stimulating closeness of other children. This child must not be left completely alone but must have the reassuring presence of an adult near him. Serious problems, not only in behaviour but also in hearing, speech, vision or movement, should be called to the attention of the parents for evaluation and remediation, by professionals. Any child who continuously disrupts the classroom and who shows no improvement should be dismissed from the school in all fairness to the other children as well as the teachers who must spend an inordinate amount of time controlling one individual. Before this last resort, however, there should be consultation with the family doctor who may be able to find a physical cause for the behavioural disorder. Possible causes range from food allergies to incipient diabetes or other glandular malfunctions and these possibilities should be investigated before psychological or emotional causes are deduced. Classroom operation is facilitated by having written statements for parents concerning arrival and departure times and procedure, items the child may and may not bring to the school, conferences, observation of classroom, people to contact in case of emergency. It is just as important to inform parents about their requirements, as it is to make classroom expectations known to children.

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UNIT 6.3

Preparing the Child for the Future The aim of education, as Maria Montessori saw it, is to prepare the child for life. She set out to give him the skills and attributes which are necessary to live life to the full and fulfil his own individual potential. Her method does not set out to provide recruits trained for some socio-economic purpose but to “lead out” habits and develop the human gifts innate in all members of our species. It is an education of the “whole child”, not only the mind, but also the body, heart and spirit. We are well aware of the vital importance of the first period of development (0 - 6) — it is the foundation on which all future development is built. In this period, the child is endowed with an absorbent mind. He absorbs his environment and from it he creates his intellect, character and personality. He learns about his world and becomes adapted to his time and place in the natural order of things. He develops from quite a helpless little baby to a strong, energetic child who physically is very capable and independent. From the baby who felt secure with his immediate family, the child by 6 years of age, has developed the basic social graces and skills, and is now a member of a cohesive society. The basis for sound emotional and spiritual development has been established through the child’s sense of security in his environment and the self esteem he has built up. All patterns for future thought and behaviour are firmly established by 6 years of age. In a Montessori classroom, the child has learned “how to learn”. He has explored the world through his senses and has come to understand through his own activity. He has had the freedom to follow his natural curiosity, to work at any task for as long as he needed and at his own individual pace. He has organised his own learning programme, helped by his innate drive and the prepared environment. The child of 6 years of age has become physically independent. On this basis, he can continue his drive towards adult independence. By 12, he will make his own moral decisions and by 18 he will become socially and perhaps economically independent. By 6 years of age, the child in a Montessori environment will be normalised. His ability to concentrate will be established, as will his power of self-discipline. His attitude to work and his sense of self-responsibility will be fixed. He has developed a love of learning and enjoys work. Once established, these attitudes are his for life. Due to the cosmic approach in education, the child has had a broad introduction to knowledge. Later in life, he will find his own particular fields of interest and will have the confidence and knowledge to choose. As a member of society by cohesion, his care and empathy for his group has laid the foundations for a strong social sense and an ability to adapt to adult life in society. Through the freedom and independence he has experienced in the nursery class, the child of 6 years has established self confidence and self respect which will help to carry him through any obstacles or problems he will meet in life. He has been respected and valued as a unique individual in the nursery and in turn, he has learned to respect his peers and adults, his own work and theirs, and his environment. All this can be achieved in a relatively short span of years, given the proper environment. These formative years can never be regained; opportunities missed in this first period can never fully be compensated. If we want our children to develop their full potential as adults, we must not wait until they are nearly adults. Maria Montessori, among others, has shown how each stage of development is dependent on the previous and all hinges on these vital early years. How better can we prepare the next generations than by giving them a prepared Montessori Nursery environment?

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UNIT 6.4

Children at Risk Violence within a family context is not a new or unknown phenomenon and it occurs across all social classes and cultures (Orr 1985). Essentially it can be seen as a misuse of physical and economic power and, therefore, the main victims within a family context are women, children and the elderly. Child abuse is one type of violence within the family. It falls into four main categories, though often these overlap.

1

Physical violence

2

Physical and emotional neglect

3

Emotional abuse

4

Sexual exploitation, which includes incest, child rape, paedophilia and child prostitution.

Initially child abuse was described in terms of physical injury. Kempe 1962 described the ‘Battered Child Syndrome’—any child with unexplained bruising, wounds, fractures or brain injuries that did not correspond to the explanations given by the parents. That definition has been considerably widened and today it includes children who are the victims of acts that are more difficult to prove because they leave no physical trace. Recently professional awareness of sexual abuse of children has developed. It has now been recognised as a separate and significant problem in its own right, albeit linked to the well-documented phenomena of physical and emotional abuse of children. Child abuse is nothing new. Art and literature clearly indicate a pattern of cruel and violent behaviour towards children. For example, Dickens and Bronte describe, very graphically, the ill-treatment of children in the 19th Century. There has been a change from the time when children were thought of ‘as small immature adults who wore adult clothes and shared the games, stories, work and sexual jokes of adults’ (Aries 1973) to the angel face full of innocent pranks. Freud had a role in this when he pointed out the importance of early childhood experience for later development. Childhood is now recognised as an important stage in man’s development, a stage to be protected. “They were married and lived happily ever after.” There is a tendency, even amongst professionals, to cling to this stereotype, even though evidence shows that often family life can be stormy and dangerous. Conflicts can arise in the ‘normal family’ for many different reasons. For example, it is difficult, not easy, to live intimately and loving with others in the family (Roberts 1982). We bring to our new family our past experiences of our family life. This can lead to different expectations and cause conflict. Society also places certain expectations on the family. There are certain roles for men and women. Men are expected to work, therefore, unemployment is a severe blow to social status. Again is it a normal expectation that family members continue to have power over, and have a right to influence other family members? Maybe if the expectations of the more powerful members are not satisfied they may resort to force in order to get the desired response. “Because I say so,” is a common saying. Physical discipline is used in our culture to socialise children. John and Elizabeth Newson in their study found that 97% of the children they studied in Nottingham were hit every day and this was seen as normal child rearing practice (Newson 1968). So one can see that abuse in families cannot be explained simply by saying that it is the result of individuals who are selfish, sick, mad, violent or sadistic. This would explain only a small part of it. Most abuse is much more complicated and to try and explain it requires us to examine not only individuals, or specific families, but also the wider social context of family life and also to understand the nature of conflict and violence. One must recognise the inherent conflicts, frustrations, and therefore, threats that are built into family life. As Kempe stated, it is surprising not that there are so many battered babies that there are so few.

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How can we help avoid the problem or prevent it? 1

By educating young people about the frustrations and difficulties of parenting.

2

By antenatal preparation for the emotional aspects of childbirth and childrearing.

3

By identifying potentially abusing parents and helping towards reducing stress.

Educating young people about the frustrations and difficulties of parenting: By being involved in Health Education in schools we can stress the skill and hard work involved in obtaining a fulfilling and emotional relationship. It is important not to confine the teaching of children about parenthood to ‘mothercraft’ this rarely touches on what you do if you find your child detestable and unlovable. To expect that family life will be a bed of roses will prevent the teaching skills for coping with family conflicts. Again if children are to be protected more effectively against sexual abuses they have to recognise when they are at risk. By just saying beware of strangers leaves them more vulnerable. Antenatal preparation for the emotional aspects of childbirth and childbearing: There is evidence to suggest that many women do not know what to expect in relation to pregnancy, labour, childcare and breastfeeding. Adequate preparation for motherhood is vital. Kempe states that a lot is taught about “Mothercraft” but very little about mothering. By this he meant the sensitive, generous and individualistic approach to the young child by a very tender mother or father prepared to give promptly and predictably whatever the baby needs in the way of individual attention, food and comfort. (Kempe)

Family 1

Chaotic—with social and familial chaos and multi agency involvement.

2

Conflict avoidance—with rigid personal boundaries and difficulties in relation to sex.

Social Factors 1

While child abuse occurs in all sections of society without distinction (Kempe 1971) the lower socio-economic groups seem to be subject to special environmental stresses and strains associated with socioeconomic deprivation and discrimination. Middle-class parents are spared the daily tensions and pressures of life in poverty. It is not surprising therefore that child abuse is more common in the former.

2

Abusing families tend to be isolated physically and emotionally (Schneider 1972) so they have no one to trust or to call in a crisis. They tend to use social, family and professional support systems poorly.

It is important that the “at risk” factors are identified as far as is possible in the neonatal period. Kempe states that 76% of potentially abusing parents can be identified within 24 hours of birth. In a study in Oxford over half the women later referred by a social worker for actual or threatened abuse had been seen in hospital at the time the abused child was born. (Lynch 1976) Some examples of programmes which could help towards preventing abuse are those which deal with community awareness, e.g. involvement with women’s groups, or holding workshops to educate parents, teachers and other concerned adults about child abuse. As stated earlier, often potentially abusing parents have little understanding of child development. One excellent programme which addresses this issue in Ireland is the Early Childhood Development Programme. The Early Childhood Development Programme which Public Health Nurses in the Eastern Health Board have been involved in since 1981 is a far reaching initiative which gives skilled support to parents of young children at the most vulnerable time in their lives, before childhood and in the early years of childhood. The focus of the programme is on nutrition, language, social and cognitive development as well as health and self-esteem.

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UNIT 1

Practical Life Exercises Recommended Reading The Discovery of the Child Secret of Childhood

The term ‘Practical Life’ is used to describe exercises which help the child to develop the skills needed for everyday practical living. They form the foundation of the Montessori system. Just as the Nursery classroom is an extension of the home, these exercises are an extension of the work of the home. Between 2 1/2 and 3 1/2 years of age, the child has an intense interest in practical housework. In the Nursery class, he is shown how to carry out these exercises in the best possible way. Because of his independence the child builds up a good self image, a sense of self worth and an attitude of responsibility. These simple exercises help the child to gain independence within a prepared environment, to have control of the movements and help him take care of the environment. The teacher first should carry out the exercises himself, using little movement and as few words as possible before demonstrating the exercises to the child. He should look at the movement through the eyes of the child and try to anticipate difficulties. The teacher should familiarise himself completely with the exercise, then demonstrate it to the child. These exercises develop the human function of the unity of thought, will and actions. In carrying out those exercises, the child forms a habit of conscious constructive activity. These exercises encourage a sense of order. A sense of order is necessary for growth and communication and is important for the child between the ages of 3 - 6 years. Everyday habits and customs vary in each part of the world so each teacher will decide the Practical Life Exercises that are the most suitable to her environment. Dr. Montessori saw that all cultures have their own Practical Life activities. “The adult perfects the environment. The child perfects himself.” (The Absorbent Mind) The adult does the exercise for the sake of looking after the environment and the child does the exercise for inner development. However, it is important to note that the older child does the exercises for a tangible purpose. The purpose of the exercises is not only the visible end result, but the invisible—the psychic construction going on within the child, evidence of which we seen in the child’s desire to repeat the exercise and his growing ability to concentrate.

Movement Voluntary repetition of movement is of the utmost importance for mental development. The hand should be active in any learning experience. One knows from one’s own experience how frustrated and upset the child becomes when the adult prevents him from carrying out what nature has decreed and how persistent frustration may induce deviation in behaviour.

“Man takes possession of the environment by the hand and transforms it as his mind directs, thus fulfilling his mission on the great stage of the Universe.” (The Absorbent Mind)

Dr. Montessori used the term “synthetic movement” when speaking of the exercises in Practical Life. This is a movement directed and ordered by the intellect to an intelligible purpose.

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Normalisation: Practical Life exercises are a major factor in a Montessori classroom and promote mental, physical and moral development and help normalise the child. The normal child is capable of standing alone, possesses self image, self knowledge, is independent and has self- esteem. Normalisation comes through concentration. The child is provided with motives for activity by the practical material which provokes his interest. The Practical Life exercises guide independence, control of movement, concentration, inner discipline and a sense of order, all of which bring normalisation, which is the basic foundation for complete development. A normalised child can help other children, learn to to appreciate his own culture, learn skills which enable him to cope in his own culture, learn to use tools of different trades. Each exercise is a real piece of work, thus lending itself to purposeful activity in the environment; for example, sweeping the floor, arranging flowers, washing dishes, polishing a mirror, etc. The teacher should “teach teaching—not correcting’ (The Absorbent Mind). By this, Dr. Montessori meant that the imperfections of a child when carrying out an exercise should not be corrected in the middle of such an exercise. To be corrected at this time may result in the child developing a defensive reaction. Another lesson at a later date, without reference to the imperfection, should help the child. As the child works with the Practical Life Exercises the motive for perfection may take place as the ‘synthetic movements’ develop and the child begins to concentrate and discovers the control of error in his materials. The Practical Life exercises are numerous and cater for the children from two and a half years upwards, becoming more complicated as the child matures. Dr. Montessori said:

“The more complicated civilisation becomes, the more important it is to give our children a particularly prepared environment.”

The exercises are divided into four main groups, though some exercises may overlap.

1

Care of the Person

2

Care of the Environment

3

Movement

4

Social Skills

General Note on the Practical Life Exercises •

The teacher demonstrates each exercise with the minimum of essential movement, using as few words as are necessary.

•

Most of the exercises are presented to the individual child.

•

Order. The teacher is the custodian of the prepared environment and should see that all materials are complete, clean and kept tidily together.

•

Materials are set out in the classroom according to the group to which they belong, i.e. Care of the Person.

•

An intelligent approach sees that the material is well handled and used only for the purpose for which it is designed.

•

Observe the child and guide where necessary.

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The Functions of the Practical Life Exercise •

To grow in self knowledge

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To develop self esteem

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To grow in independence

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To gain knowledge of the environment

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To develop motor perception and perfection of movement

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To develop a sense of responsibility

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To absorb the cultural habits of one’s own society

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To foster cooperation

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To establish order

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Through repetition of an exercise, concentration is developed

•

Normalisation, which is developed through concentration

Care of the Person These exercises isolate and teach skills which the child needs to be able to look after himself, thus fulfilling his need for independence, developing self-esteem and maintaining his dignity.

List of Suggested Exercises:

Personal Hygiene 1

Washing hands

2

Brushing teeth

3

Brushing/combing hair

4

Blowing nose

5

Proper use of toilet

Care of Own Property 1

Hanging up clothes

2

Folding clothes

3

Polishing shoes

4

Using fastenings on clothes and bags. (Dressing frames are provided to help the child develop skill with many types of fastenings.)

5

Rolling up sleeves for messy work; using aprons and mats for same.

6

Sewing (for the older child). Preparatory exercises are introduced in the nursery.

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Hand Washing MATERIALS Apron Table at the child’s height in a permanent position Soap and a soap dish Small attractive basin and jug Fingernail brush and container Hand towel Bucket for used water Sponge

Notes: There are a number of preliminary exercises needed for this exercise, e.g. filling a jug, carrying and emptying a bucket, folding a towel. The wash table should be set up in a peaceful corner of the room with a picture or a mirror on the wall.

Presentation Put on the apron. Fill the jug three quarters with water. Pour the water slowly and directly into the centre of the basin. Pay special attention to the spout and watch for the last drop of water. Place the empty jug next to the basin on the table. Listen for the sound of the jug as it is placed on the table. Immerse hands in the bowl palms up and then palms down. Give brisk downward shakes to get rid of excess water. Pick up the soap and rub on the hands. Rinse soap, give a shake and replace in dish. Lather the hands, unhurriedly, washing all parts, paying attention to individual fingers, between the fingers and wrists. Rinse all soap off thoroughly. Shake excess water off the hands. Take the fingernail brush in dominant hand and the soap in other hand. Wet both by dipping into water. Rub a little soap on the brush with brush facing down. Shake soap and replace dish. Clean nails of one hand and then the other. Rinse brush, shake, replace in dish. Rinse excess soap off the hands. Place palms together and fingers downward, watching the water drip off into the basic. Open the towel. Dry hands individually and thoroughly. Hang or fold the towel. Replace with a dry towel if needed. Pull out the bucket Grasp bowl with both hands and empty the water slowly into the bucket, watching for the last drop. Pour the rest of the water from the jug into the basin then pour it into the bucket. Hold the bowl with one hand and wipe it out with a sponge or cloth. Look to see if the bowl is dry. Place the jug inside the basin. Move the material to one side of the table. Wipe the table with a sponge or cloth using a downward motion from top to bottom.

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Pull all the material back in its proper place. Take a floor cloth, look for drips on the floor and clean floor if necessary. Carry the bucket with both hands to the sink and empty it. Wipe the bucket dry. Hang up the apron.

Exercise: The child does the exercise as presented.

Control of Error The size of the jug for the source of water should be smaller than the bowl. Seeing water spill on the table, floor, etc. Sound of jug when placed on the table. Amount of soap used.

Points of Interest Pouring of water—watch for last drop. The feel of the soap The soap bubbles The scent and colour of the soap The scent and softness of the washed hands The feel of the water The order of the material when finished Putting soap on the nail brush without spraying

Purpose To teach the child to attend to his personal hygiene. To give the child a peaceful activity where he can get into a meditative mood. To develop: a) Order; b) Co-ordination; c) Concentration; d) Independence.

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Washing the Hands

2. 1.

3.

5 4.

6.

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1.

Nail Brush

2.

Soap

3.

Jug and Bowl

4.

Cloth

5.

Towel

6.

Bucket

Care of the Environment The children are shown the routine tasks to be performed in the environment. Through freedom to carry out these simple tasks they become responsible. A ‘job rota’ can be made out by the teacher so that each child has a responsible task to perform for the good of the whole. Can anything be more satisfying to a child than the knowledge that “I did it myself.”?—a satisfaction which Dr. Montessori described as ‘valorisation of the personality’, giving the child a sense of his own value or worth.

List of Suggested Exercises:

Scrubbing tables / chairs Washing / drying dishes Putting away / tidying Mopping up Sweeping / dusting Caring for plants and animals Arranging flower Scraping / washing vegetable Pouring and spooning Polishing Washing and hanging out clothes, etc. Caring for the garden Setting a tray Folding

Ironing clothes (the iron for young children is light and kept at a very low temperature.)

Folding Material: One set of four squares of plain material where the line to be folded is marked in stitching. Another similar set of 4 squares of plain material (different colour) unmarked. Presentation: Take the first square of Set 1 to the child’s table. Having introduced the exercise, show the child how to fold the material, carefully placing corner to corner and running fingers along the crease. Exercise: The child does as shown. When he can fold this piece, one unmarked square from Set 2 introduced and he is invited to fold it in the same way. As the child is ready, the next pair of squares is added to the exercises. Eventually he is shown how to fold a variety of clothes. Control of Error: If properly folded, the stitching in Set 1 will be on the fold.

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Purpose: Care of the self and environment Co-ordination of movement Independence Concentration

Note: The child uses his new skills in the classroom, folding towels, polishing cloths, clothes, etc.

Folding

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Practical Life Exercise for Movement These exercises aim to develop the child’s manipulative skills. “The hand is the instrument of the brain.” Maria Montessori Movement is basic to all intellectual development. We start by training the gross motor movements and as the child’s co-ordination improves, introduce exercises which develop and refine the finer movements.

List of Suggested Exercises

1

Rolling and unrolling (floor mats at first, then table mats)

2

Sitting on a chair

3

Moving quietly in the classroom

4

Carrying chairs / tables / books / scissors

5

Handling books

6

Pouring

7

Folding

8

Opening and closing doors / boxes / bottles / nuts and bolts

9

Using keys

10 Hanging up things 11 Threading (large objects at first, then progressively smaller) 12 Sharpening pencils 13 Exercises with various sizes of tweezers (training the pincer grasp). 14 Squeezing with the whole hand 15 Cutting with scissors 16 Walking the line

The Scissors Show the child how to handle and use a pair of scissors. These scissors should have a rounded point and they must be quite sharp. Make sure the scissors are child-size. Talk about the scissors amongst the children; show them how to pass them. Emphasise the correct purpose of a scissors in the nursery—cutting paper, etc., which has been designated for use.

Material for Cutting Exercises Heavy card and sharp scissors

Presentation: Hold the scissors in dominant hand and piece of card in the other. Open and close scissors on the edge of the paper in order to make a fringe.

Exercises The child does as shown.

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Stages of cutting:

Cutting around a page—fringing Cutting along a straight line Cutting along a line as far as a dot (the dot is the control) Cutting a zig-zag line. Cutting a zig zag line as far as dot. Cutting along a curved line. Cutting along a curved line as far as dot.

Control of Error: The paper is cut along the line.

Note: Cutting requires good co-ordination and strength. These skills are practiced first before cutting is introduced.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

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Social Skills: These exercises help the child to conduct himself politely and with dignity in society and in company. They vary according to the accepted norm of the child’s native culture.

Suggested List of Exercises

1

Table manners

2

Polite greeting

3

Shaking hands

4

Asking for something

5

Expressing thanks

6

Apologising / excusing oneself

7

Knocking door

8

Speaking softly yet audibly

9

Approaching person to speak / not shouting across the room

10 Waiting turns 11 Sneezing/coughing/yawning in company 12 Helping people if they drop something 13 Moving past blocked space 14 Respect for others’ work and possessions 15 Walking in line or in twos 16 Disposing of litter 17 Avoiding waste—food, water, paper, etc.

Walking the Line Material A line one inch wide, painted or taped in white on the floor in an ellipse as large as the classroom will allow. Small flags of different nations Small bells Weights on the end of string (i.e. small bags filled with sand) Smaller cubes from the pink tower Shallow flat baskets Small wine glasses filled with coloured water

For Outdoor Use: A raised plank 10 cm high.

Presentation The teacher shows a few children how to stand on the line, and space themselves at equal distances around it. She shows the children how to walk along the line, placing the whole of the foot on the line. They are encouraged to take smaller and smaller steps, until they can walk slowly, heel- to- toe.

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Over a period of time, they are introduced to various exercises which keep their interest and encourage them to walk correctly. a)

They are given a flag to carry. They are told to hold it high. This helps them to walk with their heads up, without looking at their feet.

b)

They are given a bell, they must carry it without letting it ring.

c)

They have a weight on a string to hold out vertically to one side, they must not let the weight swing.

d)

They have flat baskets to carry on their heads without using their hands.

e)

They carry a few of the smaller cubes of the pink tower with two hands, without dropping any.

f)

They have a small wine glass filled with coloured water, without letting any water spill.

The objects should be kept where the children can choose the ones they want and change them when they wish to do so. This is NOT a musical exercise but quiet tunes, without any marked rhythm, can be played at the same time. The exercise can also be done without music.

Another Exercise The teacher shows the child how to walk on the plank. This may be used indoors or outdoors. Exercise The child does the exercise as demonstrated. Purpose To develop perfect balance.

The Silence Game Children love the silence game. They are interested in silence. They like to listen to noises which one does not normally hear, i.e. the ticking of a clock, shuffling of feet etc. When you wish to introduce the game, ask the children to be really quiet. When there is no talking, or movement, you can commence. The children must understand that to get silence they all must be very still. Call the children’s names one by one and they come quietly. It is important to call every child. If someone does not hear his name, call some of the other children, then call his name again. The children need to listen in order to hear their names. It is important that the teacher allows enough time for each child’s name to be called. The teacher should aim at the maximum silence possible in any class. As soon as the children understand the exercise a card on which the word ‘silence’ is written is hung face to the wall in the classroom. The teacher or one of the children can turn it around when they want to play the silence game. Silence will quickly spread through the room without a word being said. There is no need to draw attention to the silence sign. The teacher herself must call the children’s names. The silence game must never be played in order to get peace in a noisy classroom. It is not possible to play it with a new class that is still disorderly. Before a child can play the silence game, he should have the ability to keep still. He should have done the exercises for the control of movement, e.g. moving chairs quietly, scrubbing tables without spilling water etc. The teacher should be familiar to the children so that they trust and obey her. The children should have developed a social conscience and be kindly towards each other before joining the games. They then contribute to a collective silence. According to Dr. Montessori, the Silence Game is a spiritual, relaxing experience which must not be broken off abruptly and she said it left the children happy, calm and rested.

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Stereognostic Exercises The stereognostic sense is the sense by which we recognise size and shape in space, i.e. by using both tactile and muscular senses to gain sensorial impressions.

Sorting 1

Use objects of three dimension such as Cubes, Spheres, Cylinders, Prisms. Each set should be a different size, shape and colour.

2

Various sets of objects similar in shape but not in size or colour. For example, buttons. Each size should be in a different colour.

3

Objects differing in size and shape, such as beads, grain etc. Each set should be kept on a sorting tray.

Presentation The child is shown how to feel each object and separate them according to shape. He may close his eyes or use a blindfold.

Trays 2 and 3 These may be introduced to the child when the teacher observes that he/she is ready for them.

CONTROL OF ERROR: Colour for Tray 1 and 2. Shape for Tray 3.

Secret Bag or Mystery Bag Material Small or large bag with a drawstring A blindfold A variety of objects that appeal to children, e.g. model animal, a car, a shell, a spoon, a lock, etc.

Presentation Group exercise The material should be between the teacher and the children on a table. Introduce the the lesson as a game. Take the objects out of the bag for the children to see. Get the children to identify the objects. Place all the objects in the bag, reminding them of the names of the objects. With eyes closed, take an object out of the bag and feel carefully along its surface, using the stereognostic sense. Identify the object. Invite a child to repeat your action. Give each child the opportunity to identify an object making sure every child has a turn. A blindfold may be used instead of closing the eyes. At a later stage, the teacher changes the objects in the bag and asks the child to identify them without seeing them.

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Use any three dimensional shapes (that the children would be familiar with) that differ in size and shape. Allow the children to work together if they are familiar with the secret bag. Purpose Education of the stereognostic sense. Development of the child’s power of discrimination.

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UNIT 2

Sensorial Education The child in the first stage of development, 0 - 6, has a different type of mind. The child learns about his world through experience gained by interaction with his environment. He constructs his intelligence through his senses. To help the child learn to his full potential, we should help to educate and refine his senses. This new approach to education was regarded by Maria Montessori as her ‘initial contribution to education and the key to the continuation of her work”. When the child comes to class (about two), he has got these impressions from the environment via his senses which are his points of contact with the world. Often these impressions are not ordered or organised. The child must know what he is experiencing, otherwise he has “eyes that do not see and ears that do not hear”. He must be educated to discriminate and appreciate the vast range of sensorial knowledge which he has accumulated subconsciously. He is now ready for the rediscovery of his environment, and his inner wealth of impressions. Our role is to educate these senses through the material. The materials aim at refining the child’s senses (the mans by which he understands his world) and at assisting the child’s self-construction and psychic development. They help his growth by providing the child with stimuli that capture his attention and initiate a process of development.

“The first essential for the child’s development is concentration.” (The Absorbent Mind)

In order to serve the purpose of internal psychic development the material must correspond to the child’s inner needs. This means that any individual material must be presented to the child at the right moment of his development. Montessori suggested age levels for introducing each of the materials to the child. However the sensitive moment for the introduction to any individual child must be determined by observation and experimentation. The Teacher watches for the quality of concentration in the child and for the spontaneous repetition of his activities. This indicates the great work of construction that is going on within the child.

Suggested Reading The Absorbent Mind The Secret of Childhood The Discovery of the Child.

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The Sensorial Materials The material consists of a series of objects grouped together according to some definite quality which they possess, e.g. colour, shape, dimension, sound, texture, weight, temperature.

The aesthetic quality appeals to the young child.

It lends itself to purposeful activity, removing, replacing, grading and matching. Children learn through activity.

When Dr. Montessori first started to work with the materials she noted: a)

How often the child returned to it.

b)

What was the child’s reaction.

c)

The effect it had on the child’s total development.

The materials have specific aims:

a)

To isolate the sense being taught (refined).

b)

To be activity provoking.

c)

To be self-correcting.

d)

To lend itself to grading and pairing.

e)

To be attractive to the child and draw him to work.

Because of this, they must by used to in a specific way. Maria Montessori realised that by developing to the fullest the potential of each sense, we could then introduce their interactions with one another and their coordination. He absorbs the basis of the decimal system.

The aim of the sensorial materials is twofold:

1)

To make the children aware of everything around them, by sharpening the senses.

2)

To help the child’s inner development.

In this way the senses are naturally stimulated and the intellect will develop naturally. “Nothing comes into the mind that does not first come through the senses.”

In using the Sensorial materials we must remember:

a)

Never to overload the child (as this may distract the attention of the child and render the exercise mechanical) but build up knowledge systematically.

b)

To help the child to compare and discriminate the various impressions recorded through the senses.

c)

The more the child repeats the more he stabilises his knowledge and develops his psychic nature.

d)

It is essential that the teacher uses as few words as possible so that she more readily conveys the quality in the material. (The lesson must be presented in such a way that the personality of the teacher shall disappear.—The Absorbent Mind) 106

The Cylinders Material Four plainly varnished wooden blocks containing ten cylinders each. The cylinders vary in dimension regularly. Block 1 The cylinders vary in all dimensions. Each cylinder increases or decreases by .5cm on each dimension from the preceding one. The tallest cylinder is the thickest and the smallest is the thinnest. Block 2 The cylinders vary in all dimensions as in Block 1, but the tallest cylinder is the thinnest and the smallest is the thickest. Block 3 The cylinders vary in diameter by .5cm from the preceding one. They are all the same height.Block 4 Cylinders vary in one dimension: height. Each cylinder increases or decreases in height by .5cm from the preceding one. Presentation It is not essential to present the cylinders in any particular order but Block 1 and Block 2 are the easiest and Block 4 is the most difficult. The control of error is clear in 1, 2, 3 but not so obvious in 4. Invite the child to come to the shelf, take a block to the table. Sit beside the child and place the block of cylinders between the child and teacher with sufficient space in which to work. Take out the cylinders beginning at the left and holding the knob of each between thumb and first two fingers. (Mix the cylinders on the table in front of the block.) After a short pause replace the cylinders in correct holes choosing them carefully in order of size, from left to right. Invite the child to try. Exercise The child does the exercise as shown. He can now use any set without a further lesson. When a child can do each set well, he can be shown how to use two sets together, placing the blocks in an inverted v or parallel mixing the cylinders from both in the limited space thus made and then replacing them. Then he can work with three sets. Place them on the table in the form of a triangle, mix and replace them. Finally he can use all four sets which he places in the form of a square, mixes all the cylinders inside the square and then replaces them. Purpose Visual perception of differences in dimension. Awareness of dimension, leading to observation of the environment. Coordination of movement. Indirect preparation for writing. (The fingers and thumb which hold the pencil are used to hold the knob.) Concentration. Sense of order. Control of Error In Blocks 1, 2, 3, the cylinders cannot all be replaced unless each is in its correct socket. In Block 4 all can be replaced , so the control of error is visual alone. 107

1

2

3

4

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The Pink Tower Materials Ten pink wooden cubes varying from 1 cubic cm. to 1 cubic decimetre. A floor mat

Presentation Ask the child to spread mat on the floor. Mix the cubes on the mat. Build a tower beginning with the largest cube. Choose with deliberation. Grasp cubes from above with one hand—(with thumb and two middle fingers on opposite sides, index and little finger being on the other sides) giving a muscular impression of size. Place each cube concentrically on the previous one in one movement. Observe the tower when built. Take the tower apart before inviting the child to work.

Exercise 1 The child repeats the exercise as shown. Exercise 2 When the child has mastered this exercise, show him how to build a tower with two ledges towards the child and two other ledges exactly even. Move the smallest cube around the the ledges from the bottom to the top. (Relationship in cubic size.)

Purpose Visual and muscular perception of dimensions. Awareness of dimension, leading to observation in environment. Coordination of Movement. Concentration. Sense of Order. Indirect preparation for Mathematics (decimal system).

Control of Error The tower will fall over if badly built.

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Pink Tower

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The Broad Stair or Brown Stair Material A floor mat Ten brown wooden prisms which are all the same length but vary in height from 1 cm to 1 decimetre

Presentation Ask the child to place mat on the floor and help to carry the prisms. Mix them on the mat. Arrange them in order of size to form a stair starting with either the narrowest or broadest prism. When the stair is built, run your fingers lightly down the stair and along the edge to make sure that it is even. Later move the smallest prism along each step of the stair in turn to show the relationship in size of the prisms.

Purpose Visual and Muscular perception of dimension. Awareness of dimension leading to observation in environment. Coordination of movement. Indirect preparation of Mathematics (decimal system). Concentration. Sense of order.

Control of Error Visual perception of error. The child also can feel any irregularities.

Broad Stair

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Long Stair or Red Rods Material A floor mat Ten red wooden rods of the same thickness which vary in length from 1 decimetre to 1 metre.

Presentation Ask child to place mat on the floor and help to carry the rods vertically to mat. Mix the rods on the mat. Build the rods in order of length to form a stair beginning with either the longest or the shortest. The ends on the left side must be exactly even. When selecting a rod, place it on the mat and bring the first two fingers of the dominant hand exactly along it, from left to right, to get a muscular impression of length; then place it in position.

Exercise The child does the exercises. Later, the teacher moves the shortest rod up the stair to show that the difference between any two rods in succession is always one rod. (Indirect preparation for counting.)

Purpose Visual and muscular perception of length. Awareness of dimension in the environment. Coordination of movement. Indirect preparation for Mathematics (decimal system). Concentration. Sense of order.

Control of Error Visual perception of error. The child also can feel any irregularities.

Long Stair

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Using the Pink Tower, the Broad Stair and Red Rods together The child is encouraged to use these materials together to constructively explore dimension. The child may build the Broad Stair then the Pink Tower beside it to see the relationship between the cube and the prism. Later he may take the 3 sets, Pink Tower, Broad Stair, and Long Rods together and build all of them side by side. He compares size and dimension. These are exercises in comparing and discriminating, usually carried out by the older child.

Knobless Cylinders Material 4 Boxes, each containing a set of 10 cylinders—colour coded. Boxes relate to cylinder blocks 1 - 4.

Presentation Show the child how to use one box. The cylinders may be compared to the corresponding block. The cylinders may be graded on a table or built into a tower on a mat on the floor. Later several boxes may be used together.

Purpose Exploration of dimension.

N.B. This material is introduced at a later stage than the cylinder blocks.

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Box 1

Primary Colour Red Blue Yellow

Box 2

Box 3

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The Colour Boxes Material Box 1 3 Pairs of wooden tablets finely wound with silk thread or painted in the primary colours - red, blue, yellow. Box 2 11 Pairs of Tablets in red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple, pink, grey, brown, black, white. Box 3 Tablets in six to eight shades of nine different colours in a box with a partition for each colour: crimson, brown, grey, purple, orange, green, yellow, red, blue. Presentation Box 1 Select a suitable table. (Neutral colour) 1

Familiarisation

Take Colour Box and, removing the lid, place the tablets in disarray on the table. Hold each tablet by the lower corner using the thumb and the first two fingers of the dominant hand. Do not touch the coloured section when holding the tablet. Replace in box and invite the child to do. 2

Matching

Ask the child to remove tablets from Colour Box 1 and place in disarray on table. Then show how to match the 3 pairs. Child repeats the exercise. Box 2 Exercise 1 When the child can do Box 1, he progresses to Box 2. He is invited to match the 11 pairs of tablets in the same way as he did with Box 1. Exercise 2 When the child can match and pair the colours, he is taught the names of the colours by using the Three Period Lesson. Exercise 3 The child is invited to choose a colour and remove the set of tablets. Teacher shows how to arrange them in gradation, beginning with either the lightest or the darkest. Work from left to right. The child uses just one set of shades at a time. Later he is shown how to make a wheel of colour. Exercise The child uses the boxes as shown. Purpose Perception of colour Aware of colour in the environment Appreciation of Art work Coordination of movement Concentration Sense of order

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The Three Period Lesson The purpose of the Three Period Lesson is to teach new concepts in a repetitive way, thereby helping the child to better understand the materials as they are presented. This also aids the teacher in seeing how well the child is grasping and absorbing what is being shown to him. These three steps should be used with every initial demonstration of the materials. If the child does not seem to understand one of the periods, begin again, always making sure that one step is fully understood before going on to the next.

First Period—Naming of Object Each object is shown in isolation. The child is given the association between the object being shown and its name. This is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Second Period—Recognition of Name Two or three objects are shown. The child is asked to make a choice. Show me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Third Period—Recall of Name Each object is shown in isolation. The child is asked to remember the name himself. What is this? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Sound Boxes Material A box containing 6 red cylinders. Each cylinder makes a different sound when shaken. A box containing 6 blue cylinder, identical to the 6 red ones in all aspects except colour.

Presentation Familiarisation Using one box, the teacher demonstrates how to handle the material.

Exercise 1 Take the two boxes to the child’s table. Take out two red cylinders as different in sound as possible, and the corresponding two blue cylinders. The red ones are placed to one side of the table and the blue one to the other. The teacher than asks the child to shake one of the red boxes, listening to the sound it makes and place it in the centre of the table; then shake the blue boxes in turn until he finds the one which sounds the same as the red one. The teacher then shows the child how to put the two together and how to find the other pair. When the child can match the two most contrasting cylinders, his given the complete set to match. Exercise 2 The teacher takes one box of cylinders to the child’s table, saying that she is going to show him how to grade them. She will then shake each cylinder in turn and place it to the left or right, according to whether it is loud or soft. When she has them all in a row, she shakes each in turn to check that they are correctly graded.

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Purpose To train the ear To interest the child in sounds

Sound Boxes

Smelling Bottles Material Set 1 6 Pairs of opaque bottles containing liquid substances with distinctive smells, e.g. peppermint, essence, coffee essence, lavender, eau-de-cologne, antiseptic, vanilla essence, etc. Place one or two drops on the cotton wool ball in each bottle. The inside lid and base of each pair of bottles are marked with a matching coloured disc. Set 2 6 Pairs of opaque bottles with air tight stoppers or lids. The bottles are filled with dry substances which have distinctive smells; for instance, dried lavender, herbs, coffee, spice cloves etc. There are also matching discs on the lids and base of the bottles. The dry substances can be sewn into a muslin bag. Presentation Familiarisation Using one set, the teacher demonstrates how to handle the material. Exercise 1 The child is shown how to match the two most contrasting pairs of smelling jars. Purpose To train the sense of smell Aware of smell in the environment Control of Error When the exercise is finished, each pair should have the same colour disc on the base of the bottles.

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The Fabrics Material A box with matching pieces of fabric cut into the same sized squares. Use various materials, e.g. silk, nylon, linen, cotton, etc. Each set is a different colour.

Presentation Familiarisation The teacher shows the child how to feel fabric, using one set.

Exercise Take two or three fabrics from each set, which are completely different in texture. Silk, muslin and wool are suitable. Place pairs in disarray and show the child how to match them by touch. He is encouraged to pair them with his eyes shut or by using a blindfold. When he can do this he can match the complete set. Later he may learn the names of the fabrics using a 3 period lesson.

Exercise The child does the exercise as shown.

Purpose Development of the sense of touch. Awareness of texture in the environment.

Control of Error Each fabric is a different colour.

Fabrics

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The Rough and Smooth Boards Material Four wooden rectangular boards Board 1 A board mounted half with very smooth paper and half with the finest sandpaper. Board 2 A board with six strips of paper alternating rough and smooth. Board 3 A board mounted with three or four strips of paper of different graded smooth textures. Board 4 A board mounted with three or four strips of papers of different graded rough textures.

Presentation Board 1 The child washes his hands in warm water, gently rubbing the tips when drying in order to increase sensitivity. The teacher shows the child how to feel the first half of the board very lightly from the top to the bottom, and then the other half, with the fingertips going over the whole area. He then is given the terms rough and smooth. Board 2 The child lightly feels the alternate rough and smooth strips of paper. Board 3 and 4 The child feels the different textures lightly. These boards are used for vocabulary work: smooth, smoother, smoothest, rough, rougher, roughest. The child can be encouraged to close his eyes or use a blindfold and touch the boards, saying the words to himself. 1

2

3

Exercise The child does the exercises as presented.

Purpose Lightness of touch To refine the tactile senses Awareness of texture in the environment

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The Touch Pairing Tablets Material Box of tablets mounted with strips of material of different textures and colours in matching pairs.

Presentation Using the two most contrasting pairs, the teacher suggests to the child that he should shut his eyes or wear a blindfold and, touching each tablet, should find a pair that feels alike and place them together. When he can do this, he can work with the complete set.

Exercise The child pairs the tablets.

Control of Error Each pair is a slightly different colour.

Purpose To refine the tactile senses.

Touch Paring Tablets

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The Baric Tablets Material 3 sets of wooden tablets of the same size which differ in weight by 5 grammes between each set. Each set has a different colour.

Presentation Familiarisation Using the lightest and the heaviest set, sit opposite the child at his work table. Ask the child to hold his hands off the table with his palms up and his fingertips bent slightly and spread out. Place one tablet from the heaviest set and one from the lightest set on the fingertips of the child’s left and right hands. Point to the light tablet and say “light” and likewise point to the heavy tablet and say “heavy”. Repeat several times. Then ask the child to show you the heavy tablet and then the light tablet. Get the child to place the heavy tablet in one pile and the light tablet in another pile. The child must repeat the exercise in order to understand it. Exercise 1 The teacher then does the exercise with the child mixing the two sets and asking the child to identify the heavy and light tablets which are placed in separate piles. Two tablets must be used at all times. When the child is familiar with the baric tablets he then does this exercise with his eyes closed or with a blindfold. Exercise 2 The teacher does the same exercise, first using the lighter and medium tablets, then using the heavier and medium tablets. Exercise 3 The exercise is done using the light, medium and heavy tablets, which are sorted into three separate piles.

Control of Error Each set of tablets is a different colour.

Purpose Perception of a small weight difference Awareness of weight in the environment

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Taste Bottles Material Box containing 2 matching sets of bottles. Each set contains substances which represent the range of the human sense of taste.

Presentation 1

Take one set to the child’s table and show him how to use the material.

2

Take two pairs of contrasting tastes to the child’s table for matching.

3

Match the complete set of bottles.

Purpose To develop the child’s awareness of taste.

Thermic Tablets Material Box containing 2 matching sets of materials, each with a different temperature to the touch, e.g. metal, cork etc.

Presentation 1

Take one set to the child’s table and show him how to experience the temperature with the flat of the hand or against the cheek. A blindfold may be used.

2

Take the two most contrasting pairs and show the child how to match them.

3

Take the complete sets to match.

4

One set of tablets may be graded from warm to cold or vice versa.

Purpose To develop the child’s thermic sense.

Thermic Bottles Material Box containing 2 sets of thermic bottles, to be filled with liquid of varying temperatures.

Presentation As thermic tablets.

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The Bells Material Set 1 Eight white-based bells, one octave from middle C on the piano, a striker and a damper. Set 2 Eight brown-based bells, giving the same notes as Set 1. Set 3 Five black-based bells and five more brown-based ones, giving the sharps and flats. Set 4 Board, coloured to correspond with a keyboard instrument.

Presentation 1

Using Set 1, show the child how to carry one set at a time so that the metal part is never touched. Show how to hold and swing the striker freely so that it makes contact at the rim. Show how to use the damper to stop one sound before striking the next bell. Encourage the child to hum each tone as he strikes the bell.

2

Take four bells to the table, the white and brown G and C of sets 1 and 2. Strike one bell then find its match. Put them together. Repeat this for the other pair. Then mix the bells and encourage the child to pair them. When the child understands the exercise he can work alone. When the child can pair four bells, he can take more pairs. The teacher encourages him to hum the note the bells make, as he strikes them.

3

When he is pairing all the bells well, he can have Set 3—the black and brown bells then correspond to the sharps and flats—to pair as well.

Exercise The child does the exercises as shown.

e Purpose Musical training.

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The Geometric Cabinet The Presentation Tray A wooden tray with a hinged flap. It contains three flat solid sections and three wooden frames with insets—a triangle, a circle, a square.

Geometric Cabinet A wooden cabinet with five drawers. Each drawer contains a tray of wooden frames with insets.

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Six circles arranged in order of size.

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Six rectangles arranged in order of size.

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Six triangles—a right-angled scalene triangle, and acute-angled scalene triangle, an obtuse-angled scalene triangle, a right-angled isosceles triangle, and acute-angled isosceles triangle, an obtuse-angled isosceles triangle.

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Six polygons—pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon.

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Two curved figures—an ellipse and an oval.

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Four quadrilaterals—rhombus, parallelogram, trapezium, trapezoid.

The Presentation Tray Presentation Remove the three insets, one at a time, and place on flat solid sections. Then demonstrate how to take each inset, lifting it with pincer grasp by the knob in the centre, and feeling around with the fingertips of the opposite hand. Then replace it. When the child knows this tray very well, the teacher may replace the insets with others from the Geometric Cabinet. The child may then take any drawer from the Geometric Cabinet and mixing up the insets on the table, feel around them and replace them in the correct frame. At a later stage the child learns with a three-period lesson.

Control The insets will not fit correctly in the wrong frames.

Purpose Tactile awareness of shape in the environment. Indirect preparation for geometry, reading and writing. Visual awareness of shape in the environment. Coordination.

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Cabinet of Geometrical Insets

Polished wooden cabinet of six drawers, containing 36 wooden geometrical insets and frames.

Tray containing wooden instes and frames of triangle, square and circle.

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The Geometrical Cards Material Three boxes of cards corresponding to each inset in the geometric cabinet. Box 1 Contains white cards with geometrical shapes coloured in blue. Box 2 White cards with geometrical shapes in a thick blue outline. Box 3 White cards with geometrical shapes in a fine blue outline.

Presentation The child takes a drawer from the cabinet and the corresponding cards from Box 1. Having laid out the cards on the table, he takes the insets from the drawer and matches them directly over the shapes on the cards. When he can do this well, he may use the cards from Box 2 and then Box 3. The teacher may use the three sets of cards as a game—lay out a set of cards on the table at each of three corners of the room. Then showing the child an inset from the Cabinet, ask him to go around and collect the corresponding cards from the tables.

Purpose To teach the child to recognise symbols of shapes thus leading to abstract conception of forms. Indirect preparation for reading as it trains the eye to match shapes.

Solid Geometry A solid is a three-dimensional form of a volume of matter. It consists of the same matter from any point on the surface through to any opposite point or side. Some solids are named by the surface that bounds them, e.g. cube, cone, sphere. When thickness is added to surface, we leave the realm of plain geometry and enter that of solid geometry. Geometry is not new, it was found in many civilisations—3000 BC in the Pyramids of Egypt, and 4000 BC in the step Pyramids of Giza, the Sumerians in the city of Ur in the Middle East. These civilisations did not know much about mathematical geometry, the great reason and logic came with the Greeks around 600 BC. This civilisation was able to prove the truths of mathematical statements. Thales—640 BC was a Greek who began the study of lines and angles. Around 500 BC, Plato was the first to leave a description of a regular polyhedra—a polyhedron is a many faced solid. There are 9 regular polyhedra and 5 of them were described by Plato. Archimedes—studied semi-regular solids. There are approximately 80 but he described 13 of them.

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Regular Solids *The five Platonian solids are polyhedra—Each surface or face is a polygon and all sides are straight. They are named by the number of faces.

Tetrahedron = 4 faces, each an equilateral triangle. Hexahedron = 6 faces, each a square. Octahedron = 8 faces, each an equilateral triangle. Dodecahedron = 12 faces, each a pentagon. Icosahedron = 20 faces, each an equilateral triangle.

Curved solids: Sphere, ovoid, elipsoid.

Semi-Regular Solids *Curved Solids with Flat Bases: Cylinder, Cone, Hemisphere.

*Prisms and Pyramids: Named by their bases: Square based prism, hexagonal based prism, octagonal based prism, square based pyramid, hexagonal based pyramid.

The Geometric Solids Material Five baskets, each with one set. 1

The hedrons, regular solids are named:Tetrahedron Hexahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron

2

The curved solids with flat bases: Cylinder Cone Hemisphere

3

The curved solids: Sphere Ovoid Elipsoid

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4

The Prisms: Square based prism Hexagonal based prism Octagonal based prism

5

The Pyramids: Square based pyramid Hexagonal based pyramid

A second set of solids for pairing exercises. Extra baskets. A blindfold.

Presentation 1

Feeling—Take one set in a basket to the child’s table. Show the child how to feel each solid stereognostically. The child can then close his eyes and feel them.

2

Explore some solids with the child—roll them on the floor—try a few different ones, e.g. the cone, sphere—these orbit but the prism won’t. The child discovers that curves move and straight lines do not.

3

Pairing—Take two baskets to the child’s table, each containing the same solids. Show him how to match the solids by feeling them. He may use a blindfold.

4

Later teach the child the names of the solids with a three period lesson.

Purpose Introduction to Geometry. Develop awareness of geometric shapes in the environment. Develop the Stereognostic sense.

Control of Error Visual as the child will see his mistake when he removes the blindfold.

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The Binomial Cube Material A wooden box containing 8 blocks painted Red, Blue, and Black, together representing the cube of a binomial equation (a + b).

Presentation On the child’s table: Place box in upper left hand corder of work space on table. Hinged sides of box should face front and right. Remove lid, open sides of box and place lid (with pattern showing) in angle made by opened sides with the red square in the corner next to the box. Remove the top layer of blocks starting with the red cube, placing them on the table. Repeat with the second layer. Beginning with the red cube, place blocks on the control on lid. Place hand flat on this layer to indicate that they are all the same height. Place second layer of blocks on top of previous layer. Indicate that these are all the same height by placing hand flat across them. Starting with the blue cube, place the first and then second blocks back in the box. Fold up sides, replace lid and invite child to use the material. Exercise The child uses the cube as demonstrated. Purpose To develop the child’s perception of dimension. To encourage the perception of a mathematical pattern. To indirectly prepare the child for algebra. Control of Error Each coloured surface should be placed to touch only surfaces of the same colour. Note: The blocks are set out precisely like this because they correspond to the algebraic formula, but do not teach this equation to the children.

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The Trinomial Cube Material A painted wooden cube divided to represent a trinomial cube (a + b + c). The parts of the cube are painted with squares of red, blue and yellow and rectangles of black.

Presentation On the child’s table. Place the box in upper left hand corner of work space on table. Hinged sides of the box should face front and right. Remove lid, open sides of box and place lid (with pattern showing) in angle made by opened sides with the red square in the corner next to the box. Remove the top layer of blocks starting with the red cube which should be nearest the open side. Remove the second layer. Remove the third layer. Beginning with the red cube, place blocks of first layer on the control of the lid. Place hand on this layer to indicate that they are all the same height. Place blocks of the next layer on top of previous layer. Indicate that these are all the same height by placing hand flat across them. Place blocks of last layer on top of previous layer ending with the yellow cube. Indicate that these are all the same height by placing hand flat across them. Starting with the yellow cube, place the first layer of blocks back in box. Place second and then third layers of blocks from the lid into the box. Fold up sides, replace lid and invite child to use the material.

Purpose To develop the child’s perception of dimension. To encourage the perception of a mathematical pattern. To directly prepare the child for algebra.

Control of Error Each coloured surface must touch only another surface of the same colour.

Note: Unpainted Cubes The binomial and trinomial cubes are available without colour coding also. They are given to the child who is completely familiar with the coloured versions.

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The Constructive Triangles Materials 4 Boxes, i.e. Rectangular Box, Triangular Box, one small and one large Hexagonal box, each containing triangles.

Presentation Triangular Box: This can be done on the table or on the floor. Pick out the triangles which are alike in colour, size and shape; call attention to the black lines by drawing fingers down them. Put the triangles together with black lines touching. Pause to allow the child to grasp what has been done, and then mix up the triangles and invite the child to do the exercise. The child may use the other boxes in a similar way when he can work well with the triangular box.

Exercise The child now puts the triangles together as shown. After the child has become familiar with the above, he can be shown how to substitute the lined triangles with the blue set without lines.

Purpose Direct preparation for Geometry. Exploration of Shape.

Tessellation Material Several packets, each containing many geometric pieces. Each packet contains just one shape— isosceles triangles, pentagons etc.

Presentation Take one pack to the child’s table and ask him to place the pieces side by side, so that there are no gaps between them. If this is possible, we can say that the shape in this pack tessellates.

Purpose To develop a knowledge of geometric shapes through exploration.

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UNIT 3

Literature for 0 - 6 Year Olds Babies are born into a world of sound. All about them, in their environment, there is noise but their attention becomes focused on one sound above all others—that of the human voice. Most parents instinctively talk to their babies as if they understand every word, and the babies respond accordingly with great joy and enthusiasm. Much time is spent in listening and absorbing the language around them before they actually begin to talk. This time is most important and the basis of all language development. The adults, in the babies’ environment, should keep this in mind and let them hear the best language, clearly spoken. We automatically say and sing rhymes to babies as we dress them—counting fingers and toes, as we bounce them on our knees etc. We also have books suitable for the very young (either cloth or board) which we look at with them and we talk to them about the picture on each page (usually an animal or toy). Here starts a love of books by our handling of them and the joy and enthusiasm we show when using a book with babies. When babies begin to talk, they will name the pictures and discuss each, guided by the adult. Books for toddlers should be simple and attractive; picture books with one clearly defined picture of something in the children’s’ environment on each page. They need not have too many pages. As children progress, they enjoy a simple story. The best stories are realistic, dealing with some experience which children can relate to—starting nursery school, a visit to the museum/farm, baking a cake for tea. The text should be clear and simple, using good language and the pictures (one per page) realistic. In the nursery class, it is often more practical to have one large picture about which the teacher can tell a story; e.g. a picture of a hen, which lives in the farmyard, lays eggs etc. By this stage, children remember rhymes and also enjoy action songs. Every culture is rich in nursery rhymes which have been passed down from generation to generation. In the Montessori Nursery Class, the children are shown how to carry and handle books with care and to turn the pages correctly (Practical Life Exercises). There is a library corner and the children are encouraged to use it, as well as listening to stories which the teacher reads to the class as a whole. It is important to have a time when each child can talk to the group and express his thoughts. It often is as simple as, “I am going to Granny’s for lunch,” but free expression forms the basis for creative writing at a later stage. While it is encouraged, it is never forced on an unwilling child—this child will speak to the group when ready. As the children begin to read, books are made available at their reading level. First, they will read with help and then, when their ability and confidence grow, they will read independently, and with comprehension. The children up to 6 years of age, are exploring and absorbing the world into which they have been born. We aim to give them a rich and stimulating environment in which to create themselves. The language and books we offer them can help us greatly in our task. If later, the children are to exercise creative powers, they must now build up a store of realistic mental images about their world. This can be done through real experience and good literature, based on these experiences.

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UNIT 4

Language Language forms the basis of our civilisation. Without it, we cannot communicate. Children are more interested in language than anything else. The sensitive period for language is 0 - 5. This is when the child is intensely interested in language and absorbs good usage and vocabulary. They love to hear new words. We should use a wide range of vocabulary when we speak to children under five years of age because they are developing their language. They need to speak, be spoken to and to have good stories and poems read to them. If they do not get this help in the first five years their language usage will be poor. In the first five years, they are able to learn two or more languages at the same time, if they are part of the natural environment. Some children come to the Nursery school with very few words because they come from non verbal homes. We must try to give them the rich language they are not getting at home. We can do this by using full sentences when we speak and by using more and more words every day. Reading, writing, grammar, etc., are given to the children in the nursery class because of their sensitivity to language. We take advantage of this to give them a solid foundation.

Reading Effectiveness Dr. Montessori always spoke of the rights and potential of the child, and she set about to develop a practical method of education which would help children to achieve their full potential. She wanted to help all children to become competent men and women in the society where they would live. Over the past hundred years, the Montessori method has established a record of success in tens of thousands of schools all over the world. Its effectiveness has been demonstrated with children from both poor and affluent homes as well as with children who are physically or intellectually handicapped. The research and studies have helped to change the course of education today. Many aspects of modern education have been adapted from Montessori theories. She is credited with the development of the open and free classroom, individualised education, and manipulative learning materials. Her success was given widespread notice when “deficient” adolescents from her schools were able to pass the standard sixth-grade tests of the Italian public schools. This showed her that public schools should be able to get far better results with normal children. She had a chance to prove this when she started her “Children’s Houses” in the slum district in Rome. The conditions she faced here were appalling, but she studied the children and they taught her how to teach them. They begged her to teach them how to read and write and they learned to do so quickly and enthusiastically, using special manipulative materials that she designed for maximum appeal and effectiveness. She discovered that writing came before reading. Through the practical life and sensorial exercises, the child’s hand is prepared for holding the pencil (cylinders, geometric cabinet). He gets great practice using the pencil when working out patterns and designs with the insets. These shapes incorporate all the shapes needed to form the letters of the alphabet. When the child learns the sounds of the letters, using the sandpaper letters, he is very quick to write them. The phonic method of learning to read produces understanding because the child first learns the phonetic sound of each letter. Then he learns how to build words by putting the sounds together. He has plenty of opportunity to practice this using objects and picture cards. At this stage the child is not able to read back the words he builds but he should hear the teacher reading them back. The more work they do at this stage the better. When they continually hear the teacher reading back the sounds, their ears get used to it and they begin to do it themselves. Reading is the act of interpreting printed and written words. It is a basic tool of education and one of the most important skills in our everyday lives. Through reading we acquire new ideas and obtain needed information, it also adds to our personal pleasure and we broaden our interests. Through reading we can share the knowledge and the lives of people of today and people of the past and people throughout the world.

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Once a child knows how words are composed he is led very gently, at his own pace, through a well-prepared reading scheme. When a little child begins to read he shows a keen interest and desire to learn words. English is one of the richest languages in the world. It has more than 26 sounds we get in the alphabet. It has Celtic words, Latin words from the Romans, words from the Anglo Saxons, from the Vikings and also a French influence from the Normans, letters were combined to get the new sounds like sh, th, etc. First our children learn to read phonetically. Then they learn about thirty combinations and sounds and practice with those. After this they can read anything but lots of practice is still important. Reading does not depend on intelligence. Until a child can read he cannot be educated. Reading is his first step in independence. Once he can read he can get any knowledge he wants from books. In our Montessori schools grammar is introduced as an extension of the reading scheme. This helps the child’s intellectual approach to language. He is not given definitions but he will discover the definitions for himself. He will now be able to use his best words for the purpose of expressing himself in language and in writing. He will also come to realise the syntax of the English language, by the order of words in a sentence. Comprehension is developed through use of the grammar material. Reading comprehension cannot be established until the mechanics of phonetics and phonograms are mastered and the reading rate or speed of reading cannot be improved until comprehension has been developed. It is a love of reading and appreciation of literature that are the goal of an effective reading programme. Parents and teachers can help to develop this love of reading by providing good books, by reading good stories and poetry to them but at the same time we should not overdo reading to them, we can also tell them stories. The teacher will be the child’s model for effective reading. In the matter of reading aloud the teacher has an important task to accomplish. “Our teachers should be cultivators of the fine arts ... it is the musical quality of the voice that will attract the children.” Dr. Montessori ---- “The Montessori Elementary Material” The cultural materials made by the teacher provide plenty of opportunity for practice in reading. The teacher’s enthusiasm will spark off their interest in the subjects. They will want to read the simple definition cards to get more knowledge and work cards give them a challenge. They need to understand what they read to answer the questions. Their interest will take them much further than one would imagine. The problem is keeping up with their interest. It is wrong to force the child to read too young. Three and a half is time enough to teach the sounds. It is also wrong to leave it too late. They must have learned by 6/7 years of age, otherwise it will be a hard task for them.

Writing Writing is miraculous. We see symbols on a page which create pictures in our minds and we can then read out words. The greater part of the world cannot read or write. For writing we need well-developed hands. The hands are the instruments of the will in a three year old and by four he can work very well with them. Civilisation depended on Man using his hands. There would be no civilisation if he could not because the hands and the brain work together. Man is only happy when he is using his hands. We should pay greater attention to the development of the hands of the 2 1/2 year old then by 4 they can do anything. The mind develops in certain stages and if we help the child through these stages, by 4 years he will have a rich language, about 3,000/4,000 words. He will understand more words than he uses. He will have a respect for books. His hands will be well developed. His brain will be able to deal with symbols and he will want to read and write himself.

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Introduction to Writing It is very important that the teacher can write well. Children reproduce what they see. They have a very strong visual image, so they should see good quality writing at all times. The teacher, therefore, should take care with any writing on view in the classroom. It should be well written and unless she can write well she should not write at all on any pictures or posters. Writing is a complex activity, dependent on motor mechanisms and work of the intellect. The hand must be prepared for the difficult task of holding the pencil, the child must be able to draw the different shapes which represent the letters of the alphabet and he must also know the different Phonetic sounds of the letters. The exercises with the sensorial materials give the child an unconscious indirect preparation for writing. Control of the hand, lightness of touch and knowledge of shape are all developed.

Cylinders The fingers which hold the pencil are prepared by exercising with the Cylinders. The child uses the pincer grasp to hold with the first two fingers and thumb, the knob of the cylinder which is nearly the same size as the pencil. Rough and Smooth Boards The control of the muscular action needed for lightness of touch prepares the child for writing. Geometrical Cabinet Using the first two fingers the child feels the lines and curves which compose the letters of the alphabet. In all other pieces of sensorial material the child’s coordination of movement necessary to write are practiced. The child has to handle all this material properly, even his wrist is strengthened while exercising with the Pink Tower, Knobless Cylinders, etc. Insets for Design This exercise is a direct preparation. The child has already felt round most of these shapes while exercising with the Geometrical Cabinet. Now he substitutes a pencil for his fingers. The child works with these metal insets for a long time. First he outlines the shape and then he fills it in with parallel lines. Children enjoy this exercise and after some time find that they can make very beautiful patterns and designs. The child’s ability to draw or colour gives him an opportunity of moving his hands in a controlled manner. Coordination of movement and hand-eye coordination are necessary as a preparation for writing. Sandpaper Letters The child who repeatedly traces the sandpaper letters, saying the phonetic sound as he does so, is preparing for writing. Through sight, touch and hearing the child familiarises himself with the letters of the alphabet, obviously necessary before he can read and write.

Writing Practice 1

Sandpaper letter; blank paper. The child feels the letter and writes.

2

Pink and blue boxes; blank paper. The child draws the pictures and writes the words.

3

Lists; blank paper. The child copies list. He gradually progresses to lined paper and is encouraged towards creative writing.

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Preparation for Writing Insets for Design Material 10 geometrical insets with their own frames. 2 stands; one for geometrical insets with straight edges and the other geometrical shapes with curves. Curved insets: Quatrafoil, Circle, Oval, Curved Triangle and Ellipse. Straight edged insets: Rectangle, Square, Triangle, Pentagon and Trapezium. The Quatrafoil and the Curved Triangle are really two art shapes as opposed to being geometrical shapes. Inset paper in different colours A selection of coloured pencils in pencil holders Trays for carrying materials.

Presentation Stage 1 Take one inset, a piece of inset paper and 2 coloured pencils to work table; place the frame of inset exactly over the paper and draw around inside of empty socket with one colour. Remove the frame and fill the figure with light parallel lines moving from one side of the figure to the other side, with the other colour. Stage 2 Take any inset. Draw figure as before then turn frame once and draw the figure again. Fill in the sections with coloured pencils to make a design. Stage 3 Pattern using two insets. Take any inset. Draw as before. Then take a second inset and superimpose it on the first. Fill in as in Stage 2. Stage 4 - Double Outline Make figure with inset frame. Put inset down on outline and with a different coloured pencil, outline the inset. This results in a double outline. Fill in as before. Note: The first 4 stages are given to children under 6 years of age.

Control of Error Frame exactly covers the inset paper.

Different Patterns (for older children) •

Mirror image pattern. Turn inset so it is directly under the outline drawn.

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Turn inset using the Diagonal.

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Border pattern using tip of inset.

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All over pattern—cover whole paper with shapes.

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Can colour pattern in different shades of one colour.

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Purpose Penmanship and dexterity of hand Geometrical design and colour combinations Understanding of symmetry.

Age 3 and half plus.

Further Work Relate to art Relate to environment Draw attention to the design in pictures and on clothes.

Preparation for Writing and Reading Sandpaper Letters Materials Each letter of the alphabet cut out in fine sandpaper and mounted on strong cardboard. The vowels are mounted on blue and the consonants on pink. The letters are in the middle of the cards so that there is a space on either aside for the child to hold the card steady. They therefore suit left and right handed children equally well.

Presentation The teacher takes any two letters to the child’s table. She chooses two which contrast in shape and sound to give a three period lesson. She sits beside the child, places one letter between them and feels the letter a few times in the direction in which it is written, saying the phonetic sound of the letter as she does so. She then places the letter in front of the child and asks him to feel the letter, showing him how to feel the shape with the index and middle fingers of the dominant hand. While the child feels, the teacher repeats the phonetic sound of the letter and encourages the child to feel the letter many times while she continues to repeat the sound. The teacher puts both letters in front of the child and asks him to select and feel the one she asks for. As he feels the letter, the teacher continues to say the sound. The child may spontaneously say the sound after the teacher and this should not be discouraged. She then gives the child one letter and asks him to feel it and say the sound. She gives each letter in turn. At the end of the third period of the lesson she gives the child the idea that words are composed of these letters and starts him analysing words into their component sounds. Suppose the teacher takes C and M, she will say, “Listen for a ‘C’ when I say Cat.” “Listen for a ‘C’ when I say Topic.” “Listen for a ‘C’ when I say Car.” “Listen for a ‘C’ when I say Act.” When she has given a number of words with ‘C’ she does this with ‘M’, Man, Am. She should not confine herself to initial letters.

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Exercise The child takes any letters he knows, traces the form of the letters with two fingers and says the sound of the letters. He may be given blank papers and a pencil to practice writing the letters. The teacher gives him more letters as he is ready for these, or he can go to her to be shown how to feel and sound them.

Purpose Learning to recognise the forms by touch and sight and to know the phonetic sounds of all the letters of the alphabet. Gaining muscular memory of the form of the letters through touch, as a preparation for writing. Understanding the composition of words and beginning to analyse them into their component sounds.

Control of Error If the child’s fingers move off the sandpaper he knows it at once by the different texture of the surface.

Age 3 and one half years onwards. The child learns through four senses: hearing, touch, sight and the muscular sense. Great care must be taken when teaching the child to feel the letter to see that he starts where one would normally start in writing and to see that he traces the letter through in the direction of writing. He must keep his fingers on the letter from start to finish except for the dots on the i and j and the cross on the t and f.

Phonetic Sounds A Apple

H Hena

O Otter

V Van

B Bag

I Ink

P Peg

W Wet

C Cat

J Jug

Q Quack

X Ox

D Dog

K Kettle

R Rat

Y Yellow

E Egg

L Lamp

S Sun

Z Zebra Zoo

F Fish

M Mug

T Tap

G Gap

N Nut

U Up

If a word is to be phonetic, the letters in that word should have exactly the sound represented. Thus “cup” is phonetic—C as in “cat, U as in “up”, and P as in “peg”, but “car” is not.

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Word Building with Large Movable Alphabet Material A large box with compartments, one for each letter of the alphabet, containing the letters cut out in stiff cardboard or similar substance. Vowels are blue, consonants pink. The pink and blue dots are separate.

Presentation On a mat on the floor the teacher introduces the box. She accustoms the child to the position of the letters in the different compartments by asking him to find various ones for her. He may also be asked to match them to the sandpaper letters. When the child is familiar with the material, the teacher starts to build words with him: “Now we will make...” She chooses any simple three-lettered phonetic word, e.g. “cat”” “What sounds can you hear when I say ‘cat’?” She enunciates the word clearly. The child says “c”. “Yes, find ‘c’.” The child does so and puts it on the mat. “What other sounds can you hear?” The child nearly always says “t”. “Yes, find ‘t’.” The ‘t’ is found; the teacher accepts it but leaves a space between the ‘c’ and ‘t’ and the teachers says that there is a sound between ‘c’ and ‘t’ which the child will hear if he listens distinctly until the child hears the ‘a’. When the word is built, the teacher reads it back to the child. The teacher continues to make words with the child in this way until he has understood. She always completes the exercise by reading back what the child has built. This is an exercise in word analysis and recomposition. The child is never asked to read the words he has built.

Exercise The child builds words with the movable alphabet on the mat. He is given words in the beginning as they need to be phonetic, though at the same time he can try any words he wishes. 1

When he can work alone he is given pink boxes containing small objects, whose names are three-lettered, phonetic words, e.g. box, hat, nut, pig,, jug. He places each object in turn on the mat and builds its name beside it with the letters.

2

Similar pink boxes of collections of pictures, whose names are short phonetic words, are used in the same way as the objects.

3

After much practice with 1 and 2, he has blue boxes with objects and then pictures for longer phonetic words, e.g. felt, clip (one syllabled words at first, then multi-syllabled words).

Purpose Analysis of words as a preparation for reading, writing, spelling and alerting the child to the sequence of sounds.

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Age 4 years onwards.

m I Phonetic Reading Each teacher should make her own reading material for the child, writing with the same alphabet used in the child’s culture. To teacher must make certain that everything she writes for the child to read should be written with great care and precision. She should always draw guide lines, equally spaced. For the “phonetic reading” there should be 1 cm between each line. The lines are erased once the lettering is complete.

Pink Material 1. Objects and Cards.

Material Pink boxes with 6 - 8 objects representing two and three lettered phonetic words and word cards for each object. Cards may be 6 cm square. All the boxes for the reading material should be of a uniform size.

Presentation The child identifies and lays out the objects in a row. The teacher puts the packet of cards on the table in front of him and asks him to give the sound of each letter on the first card. He does this slowly and is then asked to sound out the letters more and more quickly until he is saying the word. When he can “hear” the word himself and recognises it, he is asked to put the card with the object he has named.

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Exercise The child works with the teacher on the first box, and is then allowed to take any other pink box of objects and cards and work in this way by himself.

2. Pictures and Cards

Material Pink cards with pictures of objects representing two or three lettered phonetic words and word cards for each picture.

Presentation The teacher shows the child how to lay out the picture cards; then asks him to sound out the words one by one and place each word-card with the picture named.

Exercise The child works with the teacher on the first box, and is then allowed to take any other pink box of pictures and cards and work in this way by himself.

3. Sheets of Pictures and Cards

Materials Sheets of pink card on which are mounted pictures of objects with two- or three-lettered names, clearly spaced in two rows. The cards may be about 26 cm x 22 cm for six pictures and there should be 8 cm between the two rows and between the second row and the edge of the sheet. At the back of sheet, an envelope should be stuck, containing pink word-cards made as for 1 and 2.

Presentation The teacher shows the child where to find the cards, and lets him read them and place them appropriately.

Exercise The child works with the other sheets by himself.

Purpose For 1, 2, 3, the child learns to be confident in reading short words aloud. He learns that the written word has a meaning and in each case he shows his understanding of the meaning he has read by placement of appropriate objects or pictures with the words.

Control of Error For 1, 2, 3, if the child makes a mistake, he will be left with a word which does not fit the last object or picture. Age 4 onwards. Further Practice When the child has become really confident with these three exercises, he may be given the following:

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4. Word Lists

Material Lists of two-and three-lettered phonetic words, clearly written on pink cards. (A suitable size for the cards would be 26 cm x 9 cm).

Presentation The child may read them when he likes. The lists may be hung around the room at points where the children may gather.

5. “Secrets Box”

Material A pink box with thin slips of folded paper each having a three-lettered phonetic words on it. Inset paper, cut in 4 is suitable.

Presentation The teacher shows the child how to put the empty lid beside the box; take one piece of paper, read it, fold it again, and place it in the lid. She tells the child he may read them all and then put them back in the box, but he need not tell anyone what he has read. It will be his secret.

Exercise The child continues as he has been shown.

Purpose For 4, 5. To become more confident in reading. To begin to “internalise” reading, that is, to read to himself, without sounding out the words aloud.

Age 4 onwards.

Blue Material The sequence for the presentation of blue material is exactly the same as for the pink material, plus some extra exercises. 1

Cards and objects

2

Cards and pictures

3

Sheets of pictures and cards

4

Word lists

5

Secrets box

6

Capital letters

7

Sentence cards

Longer ‘phonetic’ words are kept in blue boxes.

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6. Capital Letters Before introducing Sentences, capital letters are taught to the child. Material Alphabet frieze, containing one picture per letter of the alphabet, A - Z, having the appropriate initial letter under the picture in both capital and lower case. Separate cards to match frieze. Presentation Lay out the frieze and ask the child to match the corresponding card. Exercise The child does the exercise as presented. 7. Sentence Cards Material 1

Boxes containing blue sentence cards about 8 cm wide. Each card has a picture and a sentence about it composed of short and long phonetic words. “The” is taught by the “look and say” method.

2

Boxes containing blue sentence cards with separate pictures to be matched to the sentences.

Presentation 1

The teacher gives the cards with the pictures to the child to read.

2

She shows the child how to match the pictures with the cards after reading each sentence.

Exercise The child does the exercise as presented. Books Short phonetic story books are provided for the child to practice and enjoy reading.

Phonetic Grammar The child is given experience of the function of words before he learns grammar formally.

First Introduction to the Noun: Noun Game The teacher asks various children to bring her things in turn, e.g. “Mary, bring me a book.” “John, bring me a rubber.” After doing this a few times she suddenly asks for something leaving out the noun: “Bring me ......” “Bring me ......” The children usually start guessing and bringing all sorts of things, but the teacher refuses each, “No, I did not want a pencil.” “No, thank you, I did not want a flower.” etc. At last she tells them what she wanted: “Bring me a bead.” This game is repeated many times. Purpose To get the children to understand the function of a noun. We cannot talk about anything until we give it a name.

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Phonetic Nouns Material Large black cards (11 cm x 6 cm) with the phonetic names of objects in the environment written in white ink. Presentation The teacher indicates to the child that he can read the word and place the card beside or on the object (e.g.) desk, insets, rods, magnets, etc. He may like to leave the cards out for a little while, but it will be his responsibility to put them away eventually. Exercise The child uses the materials presented. Purpose To develop understanding of the function of nouns.

Formation of the Plural Material Black boxes, each containing two bundles of black phonetic Noun cards, each with a heading card for Singular and Plural. The cards are 6 cm x 5 cm and written in white ink. The heading cards may be in fawn or grey. Objects corresponding to the singular and plural noun-cards such as clips, pegs, twigs and bands. Presentation The heading cards are placed at the top of the table and explained. The two bundles of cards are placed in front of the child, singular to the left, plural to the right. The child reads the cards from the Singular pile, i.e. “clip”, placing each card and appropriate object in a line under the heading card. The cards from the Plural pile are placed in disarray on the table. The child works from here, placing the appropriate plural opposite the singular card and under the plural heading card, together with a number of objects to signify plural. Exercise The child does the exercise as presented.

Purpose To give a visual picture of Singular and Plural.

Adjective A group game. Ask a child for an object, e.g. “Can I have a small book?” Then ask for another object without defining it, e.g. a box. When it is brought, refuse it by saying “I didn’t want a green box.” The child gets another box and it is refused by saying, “I didn’t want a little box.” The child gets another box and this time is told, “Yes, I wanted a large yellow box.” (Or whatever he brought that was not like the first two items.)

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Purpose To get the children to understand the function of an adjective.

Phonetic Verbs Material Large red cards 11 cm x 6 cm with phonetic commands, e.g. “jump”, “skip”, “run”, etc.

Presentation The child reads each word and does the action. A small group of children can do this exercise.

Exercise The child uses the verb cards as shown.

Purpose To understand the function of verbs.

Phonetic Farm Material A box which contains animals that have phonetic names. Word cards measuring 6 cm x 6 cm: black for nouns, blue for adjectives and red for verbs. (The letters may all be in white ink.) Heading cards (fawn or grey) for each part of speech

Presentation 1

The child is instructed to put out the objects on the table, read the black cards and place them beside the animals.

2

When the adjective has been introduced, he is given the blue cards. He decides where to place them. (The word “the” should be included, and taught separately if not already met in “phonetic” stories.)

3

Lastly, when the verb has been introduced, he is given the verb cards, and encouraged to make sentences, e.g. “The fat pig grunts.” “A black cat sits.” “The big dog runs.”

Exercise The child works with the farm as shown.

Purpose To introduce Syntax sensorially.

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Non-Phonetic Reading Material When a child has mastered “phonetic” reading and has had plenty of practice, we introduce phonograms. Phonograms are two or more letters together which make one sound e.g. ‘sh’ ‘ph’. Later we introduce silent letters and irregularities.

Introduction 1.

Phonogram Boxes

Material As many as possible green boxes, each having a “phonogram” written clearly on the lid. Each box will have pictures mounted on green card and corresponding names cards. Phonograms are highlighted in red. Writing is approximately 3/4 cm.

Presentation The teacher takes one box to the child’s table, e.g. the box with ‘sh’ written on the lid. She says, “When you see these two letters together say ‘sh’.” She opens the box and lets the child take out the cards and then she replaces the lid. The child lays out the picture-cards. He reads the cards. “Sh” on the lid helps him to remember the new sound.

Exercise The child practices as shown. He gradually learns to read many combinations of letters.

Purpose To extend his reading ability.

2. Lists Material Green cards about 13 cm x 30 cm with one picture and a list of words all containing the same phonograms. The picture illustrates the first word and the phonogram is highlighted in red.

Purpose Practice and development of confidence in reading.

3. Small Movable Alphabets Material 2 boxes of small movable alphabets in two separate colours.

Presentation 1: Child chooses any list. First he builds the phonogram and then builds the words using one colour to highlight Phonogram and the other colour to complete word.

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Presentation 2. Child chooses any Phonogram box. He builds words to correspond to the pictures. He uses word cards as a control.

Purpose Extension of reading and writing scheme.

a b

4. Booklets Materials Small booklets with a phonogram clearly written on the cover and one word written on each right hand page. Phonograms are highlighted in red. Exercise The child reads booklets and may like to write his own. Purpose Practice in writing.

5 Folders Material Green folders, each one containing a “family” of phonograms. Phonograms are highlighted in red. While working through the materials the child discovers that many phonograms have the same sound but are spelt differently, e.g. pail/pale. He is then introduced to folders containing families of phonograms. Exercise The child reads and compares the lists. Purpose To help build up the basic understanding of the principles of English spelling.

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6. Simple Sentences a

Sentence with some non-phonetic words, all of which contain the same phonogram (highlighted).

b

Sentences containing several phonograms.

7. Interactive Reading Passages for the child to read with comprehension.

Non-Phonetic Grammar The Noun (Black) Noun Cards Non-phonetic noun cards are placed on objects around the classroom.

The Verb (Red) Verb Cards Non-phonetic verb commands which the children act.

Non-Phonetic Farm Non-phonetic nouns, adjectives and verbs for the second farm.

Singular & Plural Box 2 Non-phonetic words with a simple plural—add—s.

Rules for non-phonetic sounds •

consonants followed by “h” are not phonetic.

•

two vowels together are not phonetic (course 1).

•

in a one syllable word: er, ir, or, ar, ur, are not phonetic.

•

in a multi-syllable word they might be phonetic.

•

“y” on the end of a word is not phonetic.

N.B. Remember, in the English language there are exceptions to every rule

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Phonetic Words a

e

i

o

u

pan bag cat man hat van

hen ten bed net pen peg

tin kid nib lid six pig

pot top box dog fox log

jug gun hut nut mug tub

bat tap fan rat jam map

egg men leg red web elf

pin tit pip bib wig ink

rod pod mop cot ox dot

bud sun cup rug bus sum

can fat ham mad bad had pad rag sat ran tax pat has lad sad gap wag ant dad

beg fed led wet let pet set bet get yes hem yet met vet wed Ben Ted vex den Meg elk Ned end elm keg jet

vim win dig hid hit sit it gig mix bit big hit bin fix din jog nip sip lit rid tip rim if in rip is

hod cod rod bog hog fog lot not nod mop mob sob hot rob odd hop don on got

bun fun dug run gum hum but mud rub us rum up pun sup rut hug hun nun cub tug pup bug

ass gag lap rap sap add

pop sod sop of jog jot

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a

e

yap am and at gas an lag as act flag lamp hand tram crab pram stag trap band stamp glad sand cram slam pant land slap flax flat plank grand stand tramp cramp stab slab bank scab snap rang rank damp brag clap trap bang sank

belt tent vest desk next stem

bend send lend went bent dent lent rent sent mend

slept wept crept swept kept

self tent best pest rest test west

felt

i

o

did dim fit him kin wit dip fin lip

job

king ring milk film fist blot lift twig

frog doll pond

hilt wing link pink drink tilt brim dint prim sift tint grin drip

loft plug scot tongs sock clock spot plod plop clot plot stop fond bond cost flop drop soft

print twist from silk trim hint skin grim skip spin trip sing sink prism gift wink

lost frost clogs crop slot prod prop oft romp font

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u

stud pump plum drum duck grub crust trumpet slug club stun stub dump bump hump lump huff nuts gust must

tuft clump dust rust just sung hung stump slump mumps trust stung drunk stunk skunk

a

e

i

camp

melt spend swell fled fret

rink mist twin swim bill strip split fling bring gilt limp

steps eleven ss

ll

ff

kiss miss cross loss moss toss mess less bless cress fuss hiss mass lesson boss ass lass press gloss

ill will bill sill till fill hill mill bell dell fell hell tell well doll pill still kill grill skull dull lull gull smell swell spell dwell sell still drill

puff muff gruff fluff stuff huff off ruff stiff cliff coffin muffin scruff traffic

ing king wing sing ring ringing singing running stocking skipping fling spring sling bring swing

o

u fund hunt grunt bulb jump tusk scum glum

button cotton banns rabbit mitten attic bonnet buzz address blossom kitten kennels tennis bottom carrot fizz ribbon squirrel rotten fossil mutton happen turret

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-ck

cock tack sack sock lock duck truck stick racket clock rock brick

qu

quell quest request banquet quill quilt quit liquid equip conquest

a (neutral “a” accepted as phonetic)

ask staff raft mast cask fast glass plant last task past brass

deck trick sick tuck back smack lick prick crack neck kick peck

class mask cast grass half slant pass fasten basket vast craft

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rack pack stack mock wick stuck stock suck locket track spick smock

command demand Africa extra umbrella delta Canada

speck rick luck block lack muck ticket packet cricket wicket tick flock

Phonograms and Silent Letters

Soft c

Soft g

-tion

princess fence pence prince office since scent mince cell quince dunce civil

defence hence absence pretence sentence

gem fringe bridge judge hedge sledge cudgel porridge dodge edge plunge fidget fudge college grudge

regiment cringe wedge tinge pledge hinge sedge

action fraction mention attention addition multiplication affection suction subtraction condition ration expedition construction

justice accept except excellent success accident

midget rudge lunge lodge smudge dredge nudge magic intention infection option distinction friction diction faction fiction function section question

155

innocent cancel acid pencil

-sion

division mansion tension vision pension mission extension session passion discussion admission compassion

oo

cook book foot rook hook wood footman hood brook crook wool

provision invasion

good look nook stood took

156

ar

car jar star tart barn card lark dart cart harp ark scarf

far dark scar yard park tar mark bar part bark hard harm

start mar harvest carpet hark spark darkness garden smart parting arctic

darn art artist barbed regard marvel garment remark garland darling custard beggar target vicar market

ch

such much Dutch hutch chap chill latch match lunch bunch witch switch

rich chip crutch vetch chest children hatchet ditch chop fetch catch finch quench chit

bench chapel scratch batch chum catch wretch drench trench notch hitch itch stretch

satchel hotchpotch clutch splotch duchess French chestnut chink despatch bitch patch

crowd bow sow row down howl how drown growl frown now scowl prowl

allow

ch

ache anchor chorus architect monarch chemical echo choir

-ow

cow sow brown crown owl towel clown trowel town gown fowl vowel

157

pitch hatch

ou

pound hound mound cloud spout count trout round found loud countless out

al

talk walk stalk walnut bald malt caldron almost halt salt

all

ball hall squall all tall small call fall wall pall stall

oi

poison join oil soil boil toil spoil point joint coin coil moist

accounts sound

proud about around amount ground snout stout sprout

ointment appoint disappoint hoist joist foil loin broil quoit avoid

158

bound pout lout bout mount aloud noun

-oy

joy toy boy coy alloy employ annoy royal loyal ahoy destroy

-ea

head dead lead heaven read bread tread spread dread instead dreadful bestead

breast dealt meant dreamt peasant pleasant deaf sweat realm

-le

candle apple bottle nettle mangle handle saddle rattle bundle bubble kettle cattle

paddle little middle puddle muddle cuddle brittle tremble bramble tumble grumble sizzle

-o

love sponge above once come glove son won ton London Monday

mother wonder monkey onion month other plover front smother monk another dove

159

nestle riddle puzzle hustle crumble nozzle spindle jostle humble muzzle gristle rectangle

rumble scramble bristle mumble pebble jungle scribble single invisible simple possible responsible

ph

prophet telegraph elephant sphinx phantom graph phlox phut Daphne Philip

-er

fern butter slipper duster hammer spanner ladder dagger hamper dinner robber letter

cobbler lantern sister her herd clever clatter bitter winter

-ir

bird skirt girl fir dirk sir first swirl squirm affirm smirk flirt

dirt twirl squirt kirk firm confirm stir

-ur

fur curl burn turn Turk hurt furl surf burst purr blur

spur cur turf burr occur curt slur scurf turf suburb recur

gutter better

160

mister term matter otter jerk batter ever silver stern serpent

fatter pert offer mutter never bladder udder perhaps perfect person verb desert

disturb murmur burden furlong turnip absurd

-or

born corn cord cork ford fork form fort for horn lord

lorn forlorn morn morning pork port sort torn factor tractor import important export distort inform

ow

bowl crow pillow window yellow bow marrow sparrow snow elbow arrow barrow

blow low mow own slow glow grow flow row fellow willow hollow

tow grown mellow stow follow flown fallow harrow furrow morrow bellow narrow

widow borrow sorrow

u-e

tube cube mule duke flute tune rule rude dupe dune brute use

mute Yule ruse rune lute volume jute fume muse dispute excuse Luke

June fuse amuse confuse costume astute

-ew

few stew new pew screw strew crew drew Andrew grew dew

mews news blew brew Kew flew Jew jewel

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-ue

blue hue glue true duel due flue clue

issue subdue rescue value continue

sh

ship shop fish shed dish shell brush radish ash shrimp shelf shilling

shut wish shot splash bush blush crash rash rush smash shunt flash

crush shrub shod hush gash sash shred rubbish sham shun shin shrill

th

thin throb think thud broth thump moth smith thank cloth thrill thing

width depth froth method sixth tenth then that thrust them theft fifth

seventh

a-e

gate cake spade drake snake ape rake plate slate crane lake cape

flame grate tape take tame lane bake lame wake made name late

162

brave label raven ale make pale blame blaze cable slave hate maze fate

stake wade ate mane scrape mate grave trade came save babe flake safe

cash slush mesh flush vanish banish finish

rave lemonade same grapes cane fade pave stale Jane scale

ai

pail nail rail tail maid rain Spain snail train paint sails

-ay

mail laid raid aim brain trail strain sprain waist fail wail

saint wait grain taint faint gain drain bait pain gait stain

again afraid explain claim frail railing contain obtain quaint maiden maintain

bay hay may day say gay lay pay way stray tray play

spray stay jay clay bray ray crayon fray pray gray Sunday payment

sway display delay relay array essay midday decay slay dismay ashtray playing

ea

pea meat seat bead bean team leaf seal stream beak teapot peacock

neat cream lean reap speak read dream steam clean weak eat meal

beast yeast seam season mean veal leak scream leap feat peat plea

least treat beat squeak squeal east feast bleat creak beam heal

ee

bee tree reel sweet sweep street eel feet toffee queen green seeds heel

reed peel wee seem been deep peep week seen feed creep steep weed

sleep greed tee fee deed feel free bleed meet tweed need keep preen

creed weep sleet deem heed coffee sixteen keen keel

163

-ie

field yield priest brief fiend grief pier tier

-ey

abbey alley valley donkey hockey jockey cockney key

-y

holly dolly candy bunny penny golly teddy berry sixty seventy sentry pansy

putty Betty inky sorry softly happy sunny Bobby Tommy pity jolly empty puppy

very entry merry witty ditty fifty merrily petty sandy Molly Polly silky

ugly body sadly rusty crusty

i-e

pine five hive lime spike bride vine stile kite slide pipe spire

bite wide dine ride wipe size like hide wife line dive mile

nite time pile smile pride file bribe crime side pike fine mine

drive life ripe wives lives tile

-i

mild pint kind mind find wild rind blind bind unkind grind wind 164

-ie

lie tie vie die tied lied pie flies cries magpie cried tried

fries dries fried pied spied allied applied relied replied satisfied

-igh

flight fight night high fright blight light sigh might right tight bright

slight plight lighten sight delight frighten nigh brighten alight lightning midnight

-y

o-e

oa

rope stone stove mole clove globe bone smoke note cone pole robe coat

by cry fry dry spry sty fly my try spy pry sky

reply apply typist ply trying cypress defy ally supply deny

hope hole slope spoke joke vote tone stole poke home cove dome moat

dote owe trove dope rove strove grove mope elope wove hope code

165

satisfy multiply occupy qualify

boat goat soap oak stoat coal foal toad loaf road cloak o

mb (silent B)

roast coast moan load soak groan goal toast float croak oats

boast goad roan roam foam loam coax gloat Joan loan soapsud

old fold roll so cold hold swollen stroll oval go Mexico bold

sold post no fold ago host

bomb lamb dumb numb limb crumb jamb debt plumbing

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gold golden scold told

bolt colt folk both

silent g

sign gnome gnaw gnu feign gnarl gnash reign sigh deign

hedge ledge judge wedge grudge midget badge trudge bridge midge porridge

silent h

whip whizz whim whisk whist when whiff whitsun honest

which wheel whack what white whale whine wheat

while whisky whisper wheeze honour hour heir whit whistle

silent k

knob knot knoll knit knelt knack

knee knock knife knowledge kneel know knead

knave knew knapsack knotty knuckle knight

silent t

castle gristle thistle jostle wrestle rustle bustle

listen

silent w

wren wrap wreck wrist wrong writ wrung

wrath wreak wreath wrench write wretch wrote sword answer wrapper

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-ar

war warn ward warp wart wardrobe toward warbled quart quarter awkward warder

swarm reward

-au

Paul haul fault haunted fraud gaunt daub daunt jaunt taunt vault exhaust

aw

straw saw paw fawn pawn lawn claw hawk raw draw jaw yawn caw

drawn brawl crawl awl awful awning brawn dawn drawl flaw law prawn

-oo

boot pool loop root hoop moon roof spoon stool loom broom balloon

cool tool stoop noon food mood roost soon fool zoo proof hoof boon

168

-ture

lecture fracture adventure culture disfigure fixture imposture scripture sculpture structure texture signature picture

-are

compare snare Clare prepare stare fare ware bare hare mare scare

air

fair air hair lair despair stair affair unfair pair

flare rare care dare spare blare farewell welfare square

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UNIT 5

Introduction to Numbers Maria Montessori said that the sensitive period for Mathematics is from 4 to 7 years of age. During this time, the child has a keen interest in number. From an early age, however, we give the child the language of mathematics. We count with the small child and sing number rhymes. In daily life, we talk about our system of weights and measurement e.g. buying a litre of milk, etc. But it is not until the child reaches the sensitive period that we begin to educate an understanding of number.

The Number Rods Material Ten wooden rods which differ in length from 1 dm to 1 metre. Each decimetre is coloured either red or blue. The first rod is only one colour. The second rod, for example, has one red and one blue section.

Presentation 1

The teacher and the child take the rods to a floor mat and place them in random order. The teacher says, “Today I am going to show you how to count. Build a stair in the same way as you built the long rods, starting with the smallest and keep the red ends together.” The teacher takes the first three rods and, using the three period lesson, shows the child how to count them.

2

Continue until the child can count all 10 rods.

Purpose To learn the quantities 1 - 10 and associate them with their names.

The Sandpaper Numbers Material 10 cards with the numbers 1 - 10 cut in fine sandpaper and mounted separately on green card.

Presentation Take either two or three sandpaper numerals to the work table. Hold the card with the non-dominant hand and trace the outline with the first two fingers of the dominant hand tracing the number in the direction in which it is written: This is how we write one. The child traces the number a few times and the teacher says the name of the number, e.g. This is one. Carry on with the three period lesson getting the child to feel the numeral at each stage in the direction in which he will write it. Put them in sequence when finishing the exercise.

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The next day check if the child knows what has been taught. Continue in this fashion until he knows the numbers from 1 - 10.

Purpose To learn symbols 1 - 10 and associate them with their names.

1 2

The Number Rods and Cards Material

The number rods and a set of cards on which are written the number 1 to 10. A floor mat.

Presentation 1

Place the rods on a mat in disarray. Place the numeral cards on a table. Show the child a rod and ask him to count it. Ask for the corresponding numeral. Put the numeral card against the last section of the rod. Repeat until each rod has the correct numeral against it. Teacher always completes exercise by placing rods and cards in sequence.

2

Show the child a numeral. Ask him to name it and then to get the corresponding rod. Teacher completes exercise by placing rods and cards in sequence.

Purpose To associate the numerals with quantities for the numbers 1 to 10.

Note Before starting this exercise, match the sandpaper numerals with the laminated numerals, so child becomes familiar with them.

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The Spindle Box Material A small box containing 45 spindles. A long deep wooden box with ten compartments marked with the numerals 0 - 9 in order, at the back.

Presentation The teacher asks the child to name the numerals as she points to them at random. She points to one and asks the child to name it. She then counts one spindle into her hand and places it into the compartment. She continues and invites the child to take over the exercise. The teacher gives the child time to discover the empty compartment. She can then say to him that zero gets nothing.

Exercise When he understands the exercise, the child can work alone, returning the spindles to the small box after he has completed the exercise.

Purpose To make the association between the numbers 0 - 9 and their corresponding quantities. The first introduction to “zero”.

Control of Error There are just enough spindles to do this exercise correctly, therefore, if there are any left over at the end, or if there are not enough to finish the exercise, the child knows he has made a mistake and can correct himself.

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The Numeral Cards and Counters Material 10 numeral cards with numbers from 1 - 10. 55 counters all the same size and colour.

Presentation Exercise 1: The cards are on a table in disarray. The teacher asks the child, “What do we begin with?” “One.” (child) “Find it.” (teacher) The child finds 1 and is shown where to place it. The teacher gives the child the box of counters and asks the child, “How many counters do we need for that number?” “One.” She shows the child where to place it. The teacher asks the child, “What comes after 1?” The child answers “Two.” She continues teaching the child in this manner until the exercise is understood. Exercise 2: Even/Odd numbers. If the child does not notice the pattern of odd/even the teacher draws his attention to it at a later stage.

Purpose Recalls the sequence of numbers for first time. Has a visual impression of Odd and Even numbers.

Control of Error Sufficient number of counters to correspond with cards.

1 2 3 174

Number Games Material Trays Slips of paper with numbers 0 - 10 written on them. Various coloured counters. Presentation This number game is done as a group exercise. Introduce by saying, “Today we are going to play a game.” Give each child a tray and get them to choose a slip of paper. Tell them to read this slip of paper, but tell no one what it says and get whatever number of counters it says on the slip of paper. The children get their own number of counters and bring them to the teacher to verify their answer.

Game No 2: I CAN COUNT Material Box of different objects that appeal to the child. Laminated cards which have written on them the numbers 1 - 10. Purpose The number games reinforce what they already know. Control of Error The control of error in the number games is the teacher.

Individual Exercises with the Number Rods–Addition: Material 10 wooden rods, varying from 1 dm. to 1 m. in length. Alternate decimetres painted red and blue. Presentation 1

The number rods are built in a stair on the mat. Take the 10 rod away from the others and ask the child to count it. Take the nine rod and put it under the 10 rod and ask the child to count it. Ask, “What can be put with 9 to make 10?” Child finds the 1 rod and puts it at the end with the 9 rod to make 10. Reiterate, “Yes, 9 and 1 makes 10.” Continue with the other rods, (Note: 5 cannot be done as there is only one 5 rod.) Next day use the proper mathematical terms: 9 plus 1 equals 10, etc. The numbers which compose 9, 8, 7 etc. can also be given.

2

Same exercise as above except child may wish to write down the sum on blank paper. If so, teach the meaning of the symbols “+” and “=” using the three period lesson.

Purpose Practice in addition. The idea that 2 quantities together make 1 larger quantity. Control of Error Correct sums are equal in length to the first rod.

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Subtraction Material 10 wooden rods varying from 1 dm. to 1 meter in length. Alternate decimetres painted red and blue.

Presentation 1

Take the rods and build the combinations of 10, i.e. 9+1, 8+2, 7+3 and 6+4, into a rectangle. Now teacher takes 4 away from 10 and asks the child, “How many are left?” Child says “6”. Teacher: “Yes, we had 10, we took 4 away and we have 6 left.”

2

Do the same exercise as above, writing the sum on blank paper. Teach the symbol “–”. Decomposition of other numbers can also be shown (9, 8, 7, etc.)

Exercise Practice in subtraction. When you take one quantity away, you are left with a smaller quantity.

Control of Error Block of 10, etc.

The Short Bead Stair Material 9 different coloured bead bars (each number is a different colour).

Presentation The teacher shows the child how to count the bead bars and make a triangle. The child builds several bead bars into triangles to become familiar with the material.

Purpose Preparation for further number work, i.e. sequin boards, etc.

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Addition Using the Short Bead Stair Material Two sets of short bead stair Slips of paper with written sums Mat

Presentation 1

Ask the child to build 2 triangles with the beads and read the sum on the first slip. She shows the child how to use the bead bars to find the answer. The child records the answers on the sum slip. Slips consist of paper marked in squares of about 1 inch with one square for each numeral and symbol. The square in which the answer is to be written is edged in red. The sum is kept under 10 until the child has worked with Sequin Board A.

Purpose To reinforce the child’s knowledge of Addition.

Subtraction Using the Short Bead Stair Material One set bead bars Mat Subtraction Sums Slips

Presentation The teacher asks the child to build the triangle and read the sum. She shows him how to do the sum using the bead bars. The child records the answer on the slip.

Purpose To reinforce the child’s knowledge of Subtraction.

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Coloured Bead Stair Stages of recording for:

4+2 =

Last box outlined in Red.

3+5 = Last box outlined in Red. Space between sums.

1+6 = 8+1 = 7+2 = 3+3 = 6+4 = 2+6 = 9+1 =

Last box outlined in Red. No Space between sums.

No Red boxes. No spaces.

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Presentation of the Decimal System Golden Beads 1. Teaching the Names Material 1 gold bead, 1 ten bead bar, 1 hundred square, 1 thousand cube, 1 small felt mat, a small tray. Presentation The beads are brought to the table on a tray. They are laid out in order on the tray with the unit on the right. The teacher teaches names using the three period lesson. Purpose The child learns the names “unit” “ten bead bar” “hundred and “thousand” in association with the quantities. The child understands the relative values of one, ten, hundred and thousand by sight, feel and weight. 2. Counting Through Material 9 unit beads, 9 ten bead bars, 9 hundred squares, 1 thousand cube, 1 large felt mat, a tray. Presentation Take the material on the tray to the child’s table and spread the mat on the table. Put the unit beads on the mat and ask the child to count them one by one, placing them one under the other as if making a ten bar. When 9 is reached, ask “If I had one more unit how many would I have?” “Yes, ten.” The 9 beads are taken away. Continue with ten bars. Count the nine 10s with the child, putting them side by side as if making a hundred square. When nine 10s have been counted, ask “If I had one more 10 bar how many would I have?” “Yes, 10.” The teacher explains that ten tens are the same as 100, so put the 10 bars away and take out the 100 squares. Count the hundred squares with the child one by one, placing them on top of each other as if making a thousand cube. When all nine have been counted, if there were one more, it would make ten hundred. Teacher explains that 10 hundreds are the same as one thousand. Teacher takes away the hundreds and puts out a 1000 cube. Purpose To understand the functioning of the decimal system — concrete form.

One thousand

One hundred

179

One ten

One unit

Recognising Quantities Material 9 unit beads, 9 ten bars, 9 hundred squares, 9 thousand cubes. Small felt-lined trays. Presentation Place the material on the table with the units on the right. Give the child a tray. Ask the child to bring a quantity on his tray. At first ask for a quantity of one group. E.g. “Bring me six units,” then “Bring me five tens,” etc. Gradually add one more group until the child is bringing a quantity from all four groups, such as one thousand, five hundreds, four tens and two units. Do the reverse exercise. The teacher places not more than nine units, tens, hundreds, or thousands on a tray and the child counts the beads and tells how many there are. Gradually more complicated amounts can be given. Purpose To associate the name with the quantities. To understand the decimal system.

180

The Large Numeral Cards Teaching the Names Material A set of Large Numeral Cards on which are written the numerals 1 - 9 in green. The numerals 10 - 90 in blue on cards twice the width of the unit cards. The numerals 100 - 900 in red on cards three times the width of the unit cards. The numerals 1000 - 9000 in green on cards four times the width of the unit cards. Presentation Use the three period lesson to teach the names of the written symbols 1, 10, 100, 1000. Finish with all the cards placed in front of the child with 1000 on the far left. (The child already knows 1 and 10 from previous exercises.)

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Note: The colour green is repeated for the thousands because it represents units of thousands. Tens of thousands will be blue, hundreds of thousands will be red.

181

Counting Through Presentation Take all the cards to a large table or use a floor mat. Show the child how to place the unit cards one below the other on the right side. Get the child to name them as you do so. “One. Two.” When 9 is reached ask, “If there were one more how many would it be?” The child says “Ten.” “Yes, so we will count the tens.” Place the ten cards one below the other on the left of the units, naming them with the child: one ten, two tens.... When nine tens have been counted, ask the child “If I had one more ten how many would I have?” Child says “Ten tens.” Teacher: “Ten tens are the same as one hundred.” Place the hundred cards one below the other to the left of the tens, naming them with the child as you do so. When up to nine has been counted say “If I had one more how many would I have?” Child: “Ten hundreds.” Teacher: “Ten hundreds are the same as one thousand.” Place the thousand cards one below the other, naming them with the child.

Purpose To illustrate the functioning of the decimal system — symbolic form.

Recognising Numerals Material Large Number Cards Trays

Presentation All cards are set out on a table. Ask the child to fetch a card on a tray. E.g. “Bring me 700.” At first, ask for a card from just one group, gradually adding until a card from each group is asked for. The reverse exercise is also given by putting the cards on the tray and asking the child to read them.

Purpose To associate the names with the written symbols. To understand the decimal system.

Combining Quantity and Symbol Material Set of numeral cards Unlimited golden bead material Felt-lined trays

Presentation Individual or Group Exercise: The large numeral cards are laid out in their columns on a large table or floor mat. The golden beads are on another table in the correct order, with the units on the right. 182

1

The teacher puts a quantity of beads on the tray of each child and asks him to count them and put the matching card below.

2

The teacher puts a large numeral card on the child’s tray and asks the child to get the same quantity of beads and put them above the card. The exercise continues until the child brings beads from all four categories together.

Purpose To give the child practice in associating the quantities with the numerals and with understanding the place value.

Combining Quantities and Symbols Bird’s Eye View Materials 45 unit beads, 45 ten bars, 45 hundred squares, 3 or more thousand cubes. A set of large numeral cards. Presentation Ask the child to lay out the green numeral cards for the units one below the other and to place beside each card to the right of it the correct number of unit beads, building up the units in columns one unit below the other. To the left of these, starting at the top again, the child should lay the blue numeral cards for the tens, placing beside each card to the right of it the correct number of ten bars building them towards a square by placing them side by side. To the left of these, starting at the top again, the child should lay out red numeral cards for the hundreds, placing beside each card the correct number of hundred squares, piling them up towards a cube. To the left of these, starting at the top again, the child should lay out green numeral cards for thousands, placing beside each card the correct number of thousand cubes, using as many cubes as are available up to 9000, if possible. The child then has laid out before him a Bird’s Eye View of the decimal system. Purpose To associate the concrete quantity with appropriate numerals.

Learning the Names of Numbers 11 - 19 Material 9 ten bead bars 1 set of coloured bead bars (1 - 9) Presentation The child builds a triangle with coloured bead bars. Take the one, two and three bars and 3 ten bars aside and using the three period lesson, teach 11, 12 and 13. To begin, take a ten bar and a one coloured bead bar and say, “This is eleven. Ten and one makes eleven.” Count through. Do likewise with 12 and 13.

183

Summary Teacher places them in sequence 11, 12 and 13. Check that the child knows what has already been taught the day before and teach the names 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19. Take two or three numbers at a time. Always finish in sequence. Exercise The child composes the numbers 11 - 19 with the bead bars and names them. Purpose To learn the names of the quantities 11 - 19.

Learning the Written Symbols 11 - 19 Material Sequin Board A Set of Number Cards 1 - 9 Mat

Presentation This exercise is done on the floor. Point to the first ten and ask the child if he recognises it. The child knows it is ten. Remind him that ten and one are eleven. This is how we write 11 and slip card 1 over the 0 of the first ten. 10 and 2 and 12 (Slip in card 2) 10 and 3 and 13 (Slip in card 3) 10 and 4 and 14 (Slip in card 4) The teacher builds the numerals from 11 - 19 in this way and uses the three period lesson to teach it to the child. The lesson is always ended by counting in sequence.

Purpose

10 10 10 10 10

To learn the symbols 11 - 19.

10 10 10 10 184

3 79

Combining Quantities and Symbols 11 - 19 Material Sequin Board A 9 ten bars 1 coloured bead stair

Presentation The cards are stacked to the right of the board. The coloured bead stair and the ten bars are laid out to the left. Ask the child to make eleven with the beads and place them to the left of the board and eleven card on the board. Continue until the number 11 - 19 are made.

Purpose To learn association of numeral and quantities 11 - 19. To learn to count 11 - 19.

Learning the Names of the Quantities 20 - 90 Material 45 ten bars A mat Presentation Take 6 ten bars out of the box. Put one ten bar in front of the child and ask if he recognises it. Using the three period lesson, teach the quantities twenty and thirty. When these are known continue until the child knows 10 - 90. The teacher always finishes lesson in sequence.

Purpose To learn the names of the quantities 20 - 90.

Learning the Names of the Symbols 20 - 90 Material Sequin Board B A floor mat Presentation Place the board on a mat on the floor. Teach the names of the numerals 20 - 90 using the “Three Period Lesson”. Repeat the lesson on subsequent days until the child is sure of the names.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Purpose To learn symbols 20 - 90.

185

Combining the Quantities and Symbols 10 - 90 Material Sequin Board B 45 Ten Bead Bars A floor mat Presentation Place the board on the mat. The ten bars are placed to the left of the board. Point to the top numeral and ask the child to read it. It is 10. Ask the child to place 10 in beads beside the numeral. He continues by placing two ten bead bars to the left of the board beside 20 and so on until he reaches 90. Purpose To associate the quantities with the numerals 10 - 90.

To Learn the Names of Numbers 11 - 99 Material Sequin Board B Cards 1 - 9 9 Ten Bars 9 Golden Bead Units Floor mat

Presentation Place the board in the centre of the mat, with the numeral cards stacked to the right in sequence. Place the beads on the left of the board. Get the child to read the top numeral, “This is ten.” Ask him what comes next. Get him to make 11 with beads and numerals. Help him to continue in this way until he has composed the quantities to 19 and the corresponding numerals to 19. The child sees if one more unit were added there would be a ten bar and ten unit beads; so the child removes the 9 unit beads and replaces it with a ten bar. There are now 2 ten bars which makes 20 and these must be moved down to the left of the numeral 20. The child puts another unit, making 21. He now forms the corresponding numeral by slipping the 1 card over the 0 of the 20. He continues in this way until 99 is reached.

Purpose To associate the quantities and numerals 11 - 99. To learn to count 11 - 99.

186

Chains 100 Chain

Material 10 golden bead 10 bars linked to form a chain Numeral Cards 10 - 100 Mat

Presentation After associating the chain with the 100 square (golden beads), lay it out in a line on a mat on the floor. Ask the child to count the beads and place the appropriate numeral card at each ten until 100 is reached.

Purpose To count 1 - 100.

1000 Chain

Material 100 golden bead 10 bars, linked to form a chain Numeral Cards, 10 - 1000 Mat

Presentation After associating the chain with the 1000 cube, lay it out in a line on a mat on the floor. The child counts the beads and places the appropriate numeral cards at each ten until 1000 is reached.

Purpose To count 1 - 1000

187

The Bank Game Material Set of large number cards Unlimited golden bead material Felt-lined trays

Presentation Group Exercise The large number cards are set out in their columns on a large table or floor mat. The golden beads are on another table, in the correct order, with the units on the right. One child takes charge of the beads, another takes charge of the cards. The teacher asks each child who is playing the bank game to: 1

Go to the bank and ask for a certain quantity golden bead on his tray.

2

Go to the child in charge of the cards and ask for the same quantity in large number cards. The child then returns to the teacher with his completed tray.

The exercise is later done in reverse.

Purpose To prepare the child for group operations with the golden bead.

Changing Exercise with Golden Bead Materials Material Golden Beads Large Numeral Cards Tray Large Mat Ask child to lay the cards out on the table starting with the units on the right, then tens, hundreds and thousands. Place the bead material in the same order on another table. This is called the bead bank.

Presentation Teacher puts a random number of beads on a tray. Get the child to sort them, putting all the units together on the right hand side, etc. Child counts units into a line; when he comes to ten he goes to Bank and exchanges them for a ten bar. He places the 10 bar on the tray above the other tens. The child continues to count units, changing them as necessary until there are not sufficient units left to make up ten. He puts the corresponding numeral cards below them. The child will then count the 10s in the same way, changing at the Bank for a hundred square every time the 10s are reached. The hundreds and thousands are counted and changed and the final quantity is made up with the numeral cards below the beads.

188

Exercise The child takes a quantity of beads, sorts and counts them, changing them where necessary and sets out the appropriate cards. Purpose To give further practice with the decimal system. To promote the understanding that there must never be more than nine in any group.

Group Operations with the Golden Bead Material Note: Each of these exercises is a group exercise. One child will act as banker and is in charge of the bead material, which is placed on a table. Another child is in charge of the Large Numeral Cards, which are on another table, and is responsible for keeping them in order and giving them to children as requested. Another child is in charge of the Small Numeral Cards, which are on yet another table. Children do the sum.

Addition Without Change Material Large quantity of unit beads, ten bars hundred squares, thousand cubes. Large numeral cards up to 9000 Sets of small numeral cards up to 9000 Felt-lined trays Presentation The teacher introduces a sum that does not involve change. The teacher asks each child to go to the bank and ask for the small number cards and beads for each addend e.g. 1431, 2243 & 1211. Each child goes to the bank and gets the corresponding quantity of golden bead material. The teacher checks each amount as it is brought to the table. She places each quantity of beads and cards one under the other, beads to the left and cards to the right. The teacher then adds all the units, tens, hundreds, and thousands together. The first child is now asked to count the units. The child counts 5 units. The teacher then asks the child to fetch the Large Numeral Card of five. The second child counts the ten bars and gets the corresponding Large Numeral Card. The third child counts the hundred squares and gets the corresponding Large Numeral Cards for the hundreds etc. The answer formed with the Large Numeral Cards is superimposed by the teacher and placed below the three sets of Small Numeral Cards e.g. 1431 + 2243 + 1211 ----------4885 1431, 2243, 1211 are the addends. 4885 is the sum. The teacher recaps on the operation (“When we added.....”) and result, using appropriate mathematical language throughout. 189

Addition with Changing Material Large quantity of unit beads, ten bars, hundred squares, thousand cubes Large Numeral Cards up to 9000 Sets of Small Numeral Cards up to 9000 Felt-lined trays

Presentation Introduced when the children have done several sums that involve no changing. The teacher introduces a sum that involves changing e.g. 3433, 3317 and 1573. She proceeds as in last exercise until units, tens, hundreds and thousands are put together. The first child is now asked to count the units. When he counts ten he exchanges them at the Bank for a ten bar. This ten bar is placed above the rest of the ten bars. The teacher now asks the child to count the remaining units. The child counts and gets the corresponding Large Numeral Card. The next child counts the ten bars including the 10 bar exchanged at the Bank and exchanges them for a hundred square, which he places above the other hundred squares. There are only two ten bars remaining so that child fetches the corresponding Large Numeral Card for 20. Continue until all the beads are counted. The answer, formed with the Large Numeral Cards is superimposed and placed below the three sets of Small Numeral Cards e.g.

3433 +3317 +1573 -----------8323

with the Golden Bead Material to the left.

Subtraction Without Change Material As for addition

Presentation 1

At first, choose sums which do not involve changing, e.g. 465–212. The teacher asks the child to go to the bank and ask for the minuend, e.g. 465 in golden bead and large cards. The teacher checks the amount when it is brought and places it on the table, beads on the left and cards on the right. She asks the child to put 212 in small number cards on the table and to take away this amount in beads starting with the units. The children count what is left (as they remove each hierarchy) and place small numeral cards under each hierarchy to record. The teacher superimposes the small cards and places them under the other cards. Teacher recaps on the operation using mathematical language throughout.

190

Subtraction With Change 2

When the children have done several sums without change, give them sums involving “changing”, e.g. 6214–1256.

The child subtracts this quantity from the minuend in golden beads, changing where necessary.

Purpose To show the working of subtraction sums so that the children can really understand the process. Terminology: minuend – subtrahend = difference.

Multiplication Without Changing Multiplication is similar to Addition

Material Large quantity of unit beads, ten bars, hundred squares and thousand cubes. Large Numeral Cards up to 9000 Sets of Small Numeral Cards up to 9000 Felt-lined trays

Presentation The teacher asks the children to get the same number in small numeral cards, e.g. 123. Each child gets the corresponding amount of bead material from the Bank. The teacher checks the quantity that each child brings her arranging in sequence with units on the right, then tens, hundreds and finally thousands. The quantities are arranged on the work table one below the other and the Small Numeral Cards, one below the other. The first child counts the units and fetches the corresponding Large Numeral Card etc. The teacher superimposes the Large Numeral Cards which form the answer, e.g. 369 under the Small Numeral Cards, e.g.

123 +123 +123 --------369

The teacher recaps on the operation using the appropriate mathematical language. 123 is the multiplicand 369 is the product The multiplier is 3

Purpose To learn multiplication

191

Multiplication With Changing Material Unlimited amount of unit beads, ten bars, hundred squares and thousand cubes Large Numeral Card up to 9000 Sets of Small Numeral Cards up to 9000 Felt-lined trays Presentation Introduce when the child has had plenty of experience doing multiplication with no changing. The teacher gives each child the same number, e.g. 1715. Child proceeds as before, changing where necessary. 1715 +1715 +1715 ------------5145 Purpose To learn multiplication.

Division Material Unlimited amount if Golden Bead Material Large Numeral Cards Set of Small Numeral Cards Felt-lined Tray Presentation At first choose sums which do not involve “changing”, e.g. 9636 ÷ 3. Ask the children to place 9636 formed with the large number cards and the corresponding quantity of golden beads, on the table. As the quantity is to be divided by 3, have 3 children with trays. Explain that you are going to divide the beads exactly amongst them. There are 9 thousand-cubes, so give each child one cube in turn until all nine are used. Child gets the corresponding small number card. Continue in this way until all beads are divided. Teacher then explains the answer to a division sum is always the quantity which any one of the children has on his tray. Teacher recaps on the operating using mathematical language throughout. Dividend - divisor = result or quotient Purpose To show the working of the division sum.

Note: Sums involving ‘changing’ and then ‘remainders’ are introduced as the children are ready. 192

Snake Game Material Coloured bead stairs Golden bead ten-bars One set of black and white bead bars 1 - 9. These are black to bar 5, then 5 black beads, and 1 white bead for 6, then 5 black and 2 white beads for 7, etc. in order to make the bars easier to recognise. A felt mat

Presentation Spread the mat on a table Make a “snake” with the coloured bead bars of the short bead stair. The bars are arranged in any order; but, to make checking easy, if there is a 9 in the snake, have a 1 also, etc. e.g. 1+6+2+8+2+5+4+6+5+3+9+7+8+4 The set of black and white beads are formed into a triangle by placing the bars in order from 1 - 9 at the top of the mat. Count the bars, beginning at one end of the snake. Count until 10 is reached. (In this case on the 8 bar.) Continue to count to the end of the bar, starting at one again. There will be 10 and 7. Replace the 1, 6, 2 and 8 bars by a golden ten and a black and white 7 bar. Continue to count from the end of the 10 bar, first the black and white 7, then the 2 bar, then the 5, making 10 and 4. Replace the black and white 7 bar in the triangle. Place the 2 and 5 bars with the other coloured bars, replacing the 7.2 and 5 bars by a golden 10 and a black 4. Continue counting the snake from the end of the golden ten bars and so on until the whole snake has been turned into golden tens. In this case, 7 ten bars. To check, form tens with the coloured bars which had formed the snake, e.g. place 9 and 1 together, 8 and 2, etc. Check these against the golden tens of the answer. Later on, a “snake” which does not work out exactly in tens may be introduced.

Purpose Preparation for learning the addition tables. Black and white bead bars.

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Sequence of Mathematics Exercises Course One 1 - 10 •

Number Rods

•

Sandpaper Numerals

•

Matching Sandpaper numerals to laminated numerals 1-10 (Familiarisation)

•

Matching number rods and numerals

•

Spindle Box

•

Cards and Counters

•

Number Cards

Parallel Exercises Colour Beads - Introduction Composition and Decomposition of number 1 - 10 Introduction of + and = Simple Addition with coloured beads Simple Subtraction with coloured beads

Decimal System Golden Beads Naming Counting through

Combining Beads 7 Cards

Number Cards Naming

Give beads to get cards.

Counting through Bring me

Give cards to get beads.

Bring me

Bird’s eye view

Bead Chains 11 - 19

20 - 20

11 - 99

Beads

Beads

Sequin Board A

Sequin Board B

Sequin Beads

Combining Both

Combining Both

Group Operations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division Snake Game

194

Board

B

&

UNIT 6

Cosmic Education Suggested Reading To educate the human potential — Maria Montessori

The sensitive period for acquiring culture is during the child’s second period of development, 6 - 12 years of age. At this time all the cultural subjects — History, Geography, Biology, Science are learned in great detail with great eagerness. But as with every area of development, the basic preparation is done during the formative period, 0 - 6, when the “seeds” of all subjects are sown. To help the child gain a clear and meaningful identity within the natural order of things, Dr. Montessori developed the cosmic approach to education. We start by giving the child “a vision of the whole universe. The universe is an imposing reality and an answer to all questions.” —Maria Montessori, To Educate the Human Potential We give the child the broadest view possible of his cosmic environment and help him discover the nature of all its components—their interrelationship and interdependence. We present the child with his world in such a way as inspires him with awe and wonder, and gets him emotionally involved with all he learns.

1

The result is that the child sees the struggle of life to develop itself. This struggle and long labour has benefited him. He has a place in the development and a responsibility to further it. Therefore, life is full of meaning instead of being meaningless.

2

To achieve this the teacher must make the right use of imagination in awakening interest. She must sow endless seeds and stimulate the seeds of interest already sown with attractive literary and pictorial material, all correlated to a central idea, i.e. The Cosmic Plan in which all of consciously or unconsciously serve the great purpose of life.

3

Each individual life on earth is seemingly selfish, fighting for its own survival, but in reality each serves the good of the whole. Every living this has a part to play and work to do. Plants supply oxygen to the air and food for herbivores. The soil is teeming with living creatures who spend their lives keeping it fertile for the plants to grow in. Some animals are scavengers, carnivores keep a check on the number of animals so there won’t be too many for the forage available. All living things help the plants by converting oxygen to carbon dioxide. And so the balance of nature is maintained with every living creature fulfilling its role. Only man can and too often does destroy his environment and jeopardise the careful balance of nature.

4

Man has constantly changed and enriched his environment. This ability is what sets him apart from animals. Unlike animals who are born with a behavioural pattern, man develops his behaviour through experience and interaction with the environment; in short, through education.

5

In the Montessori curriculum Biology, History, Science and Geography are all interrelated and they cannot be divided into separate subject areas. They constitute a truly integrated curriculum. The interrelationship and interdependence of all things is stressed.

6

History follows the development of the Solar System, life on earth, the development of man, early civilisation and recorded history. The child sees the long labour of man to accomplish all that is here for present day mankind to enjoy.

7

Biology gives the child a means of classification so he can structure and relate the facts he discovers about all living things. The ultimate goal is an ecological view of life and a feeling of responsibility for the environment.

8

The study of Geography is designed to show how the physical configurations of the earth contribute to the history of mankind. The study of physical geography is the basis for the study of economic geography—which shows the interdependence of all men.

9

The first Science experiments are designed to give the child the basic knowledge which will make possible the understanding of the natural laws. 195

10 Dr. Montessori’s objective is to prepare children for life and to help them understand their role in the history of mankind; to make them aware of their obligations to their environment and their contribution to maintaining the conditions necessary for the future existence of mankind in using the cosmic approach to education.

History History is the story of life on earth. Our aim in teaching history is to transmit knowledge of the past with special awareness of the evolution and progress of all living things. We highlight man’s role and his contribution to evolution. But, as he is the only animal consciously capable of changing the environment, we must not forget to stress his responsibility to the natural order. We keep war and disaster in proper perspective, regarding them as failures. We highlight the many signs of positive progress. With an understanding of the past, how man fails and achieves, the child can build up the future. We are born in time, we have to fit into our era in history. The young children are prepared indirectly so their minds will be ready to comprehend what we mean by “the past”. Then as always, the Montessori method of teaching history begins with a general view. With the whole picture as the backdrop, particular events are studied later in detail. In teaching history, we must keep in mind the natural order of the universe, the tendency to evolve and the guidance of an all-powerful force. There is a basic force which enables life to grow and evolve, not only as the individual, but also the species, so that each adapts to the local environment, thus bringing about new forms of life, which are different from the old. All living organisms are descended from one primeval cell. We must emphasise that evolution does not mean that monkey became man but that both had a common ancestor. Living organisms develop from one generation to another. There is constant change. We must emphasise that creation is still going on—it is a process that is behind us and before us. There have been many theories on the process of evolution. Darwin made a major contribution with the theory of natural selection. His theory is being constantly revised. We have learned a lot about life on earth but nothing is proven and is forever open to revision.

Direct Preparation for Pre-History Concept of time The child is made aware of time passing, using the classroom clock, from his earliest days in school.

Succession of time The child will already have some notion as to what comes after what, simply from living. He gets a broad notion of the yearly cycle, e.g. his birthday in August, Daddy’s birthday in October, then Christmas, etc. He gets an idea that the weekend follows the week. The calendar and weather charts will help the child gain a clearer idea of the succession of time.

Duration of time The child’s notion of duration of time is very vague. Help the child to have a concept of the duration of time. Talk to him about the length of time it takes to do certain things throughout the day.

Pictures of the child’s day Pictures denoting the activities of the child’s day, from rising in the morning to going to bed at night. Information cards and simple work cards for the older child when he is reading.

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Interest in the past Pictures and objects to be discussed and explained in order to arouse the child’s interest and awareness of the Past. Information cards and simple work cards for the older children. Golden bead time line — introductory lesson Box of golden unit beads; mat; blank name slips. Heading card reading “Present Day”. The teacher sets out beads to represent the ages of the children. Children who have worked with and understand “tens” and “units” can set out the ages of the members of their families, using 10 bead bars and unit beads.

Pre-History Time Line ‘Black Tape’ Time Line Material A length of black tape about 1.5 inches wide. One tenth of an inch of white tape attached to one end of black tape. Presentation Tell the story of creation as you unravel the tape. Purpose of the ‘Black Tape’ To give the child an idea of all the time that has passed before man came on earth as his first introduction to a pre-history time line.

Pre-History Time Line Evolution of life Materials Time line of differently coloured lengths of paper, fabric or some such material, each length measured to scale, representing the various eras that have passed since the formation of the earth. Models and pictures. The complete exercise is done in one lesson. The story of creation is given in more detail than with the Black Tape time line. Name slips, definition cards and sample work cards for the child who is reading. The Eras Azoic Era

–

no life

Proterozoic Era

–

proterozoic life

Palaeozoic Era

–

old life

Mesozoic Era

–

middle life

Cenozoic Era

–

recent life

The white tape represents when Man appeared on Earth. 197

Diagram of the sun and the planets

SUN

MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS

JUPITER

SATURN

URANUS

NEPTUNE

PLUTO

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Geography The study of Geography deals with a physical description of the Earth. Following the cosmic approach, we first give the young child a vision of the whole universe. From this we isolate our planet, look at the elements which constitute it, its physical features and political divisions. We prepare the child so that later he may study his world in detail, having first been introduced to the whole.

The Sun and Solar System Discuss the importance of the Sun. The Sun is a medium-sized star which gives us light and heat. Without it we cannot live, plants cannot grow.

Planets Nine planets orbit the sun. We live on Earth. We can tell in brief the origin of our Solar System and the Universe. Through working with pictures of the Sun and Planets, the children discover some basic qualities of each.

The Dance of the Planets Sandpaper Globe Material A small globe painted blue with land areas denoted by sandpaper.

Presentation Bring the Globe to the child and tell him that it is a model of our Earth. Feel the Globe all over and then invite the child to feel the shape of the globe, using the stereognostic sense. Invite the child to feel the smooth parts of the globe. Tell him that these smooth parts represent the water and the rough parts the land. Let him discover there is more water than land.

Purpose To introduce the child to the shape of our planet. To show him two main divisions—land and water. To show more water than land.

Relief Models of Selected Physical Features Land and Water Forms Material Relief trays, plastic cloth, sponge, jug of water coloured blue.

Presentation For the presentation bring along two contrasting models, e.g. a lake and an island. Pour the water into two trays. The various features appear. Invite the child to feel the land and the water areas in each tray, giving the name for each feature.

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Excerise The Child can work the relief models by himself in this way. Gradually the other models are presented in the same way.

Relief Cards Diagrams corresponding to the relief models.

1

Relate the cards to the models.

2

Match the two sets of cards

3

At a later stage, teach the names of the forms by three period lesson.

4

When the child is reading, add name slips, definition cards and simple work cards.

Land, Air and Water Three containers, each holding one of the elements, to teach the basic components of our biosphere. We relate these to our surroundings and show how we need them in everyday life. Packs containing pictures and photos are available in the classroom for the child’s use. Later information cards and work cards can be added.

Coloured Globe Material A small globe (like the sandpaper globe) with each continent painted in a different colour. The oceans are painted blue.

Presentation Bring the coloured globe and the sandpaper globe to the child. Help the child to link the coloured globe with the sandpaper globe which he already knows. Explain to the child that the land masses are called continents. Each colour represents a different continent. The water is divided into oceans.

Exercise After the initial presentation the child can work with the globe himself.

Purpose To introduce the child to the continents, oceans, shapes and positions of the land masses.

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Jigsaw Map of the Continents Materials Map of the world (corresponding to the coloured globe) into which the continents can be fitted as in a jigsaw puzzle. Presentation Bring the jigsaw map and the coloured globe to the child’s table. Explain to the child that if the globe was divided in two and each part flattened down that it would look like this—the two circles of the jigsaw map. Help the child to relate the map to the globe. Exercise The child becomes familiar with the map by using it as a jigsaw. Teach the names of each continent by the three period lesson. Purpose To familiarise the child with the continents. Folders Colour coded folders, each corresponding to a continent. Each contains a map of the world (relevant continent highlighted) and pictures to represent that continent. Scenarios Models of life styles in different continents.

Maps Sets of maps of the world Continents and Oceans 1

The child matches the continents from the jigsaw map to the world map.

2

Two maps, one with continents named, one without names. Child places name slips on unmarked map.

3

Two maps, one with oceans named, one without names. Child watches names using name slips.

At this stage, children can use name slips on all materials. Map of the World Exercise Children are encouraged to collect wrappers and stickers from food products and place on relevant continents. The Whole World Works Many projects are carried out showing the benefit of one group of people’s work for the whole world and the basic principles of the import/export trade. Pictures, charts and cards are available. 201

Biology Bio logos — Knowledge of Life Biology is the science of physical life. It deals with all aspects of living things. We help the young child become aware of all living things in such a way that he may study them later in detail. Biology divides into two branches: Botany — the study of plants Zoology — the study of animals There are .25 million species of plants and more than one million species of animals, .75 million of which are insects. Man has always been interested in his environment. In earliest times, he drew pictures of animals in caves. In the 17th Century Buffant wrote ‘L’histoire natural”. The voyages of the great explorers, Columbus, Cook etc. brought new biological discoveries. Darwin’s theory brought a great change in the science. Nowadays, modern research is making new discoveries all the time. The Teacher’s Task 1

To draw attention to the natural order: help the child to see that each animal and plant has a function, each contributes to the good of the whole.

2

To emphasise man’s responsibility to nature: he is the caretaker of his environment, the only animal capable of changing the natural order for better or for worse.

3

To cultivate a reverence for life by the teacher’s own example and by getting the child emotionally involved with the wonder of nature.

4

To prepare the child for later, formal classification of plants and animals.

Ideally the classroom would be light, airy and attractive, with doors opening onto the garden, which would be fenced in for the sake of hygiene. Work in the garden should coincide with the seasons. Care of the garden Raking leaves, taking dead leaves off plants, weeding, planting, etc. The nature table This is used to focus attention on particular aspects of plant and animal life. It is kept simple and uncluttered. The items are changed regularly to coincide with seasons and work being carried on in the classroom. Care of the nature table This is included in the daily routine of practical life. — Washing the table — Watering plants — Arranging flowers —

Discarding dead flowers

— Caring for animals The Sun The importance of the Sun and the dependence of all living things on the Sun, are kept in mind at all times. 202

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Botany Work in Botany coincides with the Seasons.

Starting in Autumn

Materials Charts and pictures for each month and season 1

Collect leaves for sorting.

2

Collect seeds—nuts, berries, etc.

3

Pictures of plants.

4

Sets of matching cards—trees, vegetables, fruit, wild flowers, cultivated flowers.

5

Set seeds and bulbs.

6

Study trees, leaves, flowers (real specimens).

7

Parts of the tree, leaf, flower—jigsaws

8

Parts of the tree, leaf, flower—matching cards.

9

Sets of pictures—flowering trees/plants, fruit bearing trees/plants, trees with cones.

Zoology 1

Model animals. Sort into categories: wild and domestic.

2

Pictures of animals: wild and domestic.

3

Sets of matching cards—wild animals, domestic animals, birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, etc.

4

Families of animals.

5

Hibernating animals (November and March).

6

Nocturnal animals.

7

Tiny creatures.

8

Study real animals.

9

Parts of mammal, bird, fish, amphibian, reptile—jigsaws.

10 Parts of mammal, bird, fish, amphibian, reptile—matching cards. 11 Sets of cards. Animals with hooves, animals with claws, animals that eat meat, animals that eat plants, animals with feathers, animals with shells.

Basic Classification Living / Non-living Chart with pictures. The child begins to classify his environment.

Plant / Animal Chart with pictures. The living world is divided into these two classifications.

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Zoology Carnivore / Herbivore Sets of pictures to be sorted into each category and heading cards.

Vertebrate / Invertebrate Sets of pictures to be sorted into each category plus heading cards.

Botany Seed Bearing and Non-Seed Bearing Sets of pictures to be sorted into each category plus Heading Cards.

Note: In all the above work the teacher uses the correct terminology to accompany the child’s sensorial experience. The child hears rich language through the cultural subjects to aid his development in this area (sensitive period for language is between 0 - 5 years). No definitions or formal explanations are given at first, precise knowledge is for the older child. The under fives learn through activity. All work must be accompanied by activity and handwork— colouring, drawing, sticking, cutting out. Make wall charts, models, simple scenarios, e.g. “playdough” hedgehogs hibernating under a cluster of dead leaves. Dr. Montessori’s is a discovery method—let the child discover or lead him into a situation in which he cannot help but discover for himself. Then that knowledge is well and truly his own. As the child begins to read and write, name slips, definition, information cards and simple work cards are added to all packs of material.

Practical Science Simple experiments can be carried out to help the child understand some basic natural laws in a sensorial manner. The following headings are a useful guide.

Liquid Sink / Float Experiment Heading cards and a variety of everyday items to test.

Soluble / Insoluble Experiment Heading cards and a variety of substances to test.

Freeze / Boil Water Discover the results.

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Gas Air is gas. Air occupies space. Plunge a glass into a bowl of water.

Air moves. A fan will illustrate this; also, a lighted candle in a draught.

Air can be used up. Put a lighted candle in an inverted jar.

Solids Gravity Everything falls to the floor.

Magnets Box of objects to test.

Light Light is made up of colours. If light is passed through a prism, the rays are broken up into the solar spectrum.

Light bends. Look at a spoon in a glass of water.

Nature Study Experiments A magnifying glass is essential on a nature table. Many experiments are carried out related to the current work in Biology. In all scientific studies, the teacher records the findings with the children in a methodical, orderly way.

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207

• Add Name Slips, Definitions and Simple Workcards as child begins to read.

5/6 Years

• Era Time Line

Black Tape Time Line

Age in Golden Beads

Products of the World

Map of Continents / Oceans

• Folders

Jigsaw Map of World

Models Land and Water Forms / Coloured Globes / • Land, Air, Water

Matching Cards

Jigsaws for 'Part of'

Sandpaper

• Child's Day

4 Years

Matching Pictures

Dance of Planets

Interest in Past

Living / Non Living Plant / Animal Herbivore / Carnivore Seed Bearing / Non Seed Bearing Verebrate / Invertebrate

Packets for (Animals with Paws) (Animals with Hooves) (Animals that gnaw)

Matching Cards for 'Part of'

Pictures

Planting and Gathering / Animal

Sun

Concept of Time

Biology

Geography

History

3 Years

Solar System

208