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Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. By studying and knowing the different learning theories, we can better understand how learning occurs. Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning. ... Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.

Behaviorist Theories A behaviorist perspective includes an assumption that student learning behaviors may be shaped by specific actions (stimuli) that lead to specific responses. From a behaviorist perspective, reinforcement plays a vital role. Both positive reinforcement (employing a stimulus to the environment) and negative reinforcement (withholding a stimulus from the environment) increase the likelihood of the learning behavior occurring on a consistent basis. Understanding and implementing an effective process of reinforcement decisions determine the level of change in the learner—that is, the degree to which new learning is taking place. Much behaviorist research has been completed using animals, with the results then applied to human learning. Cognitive Theories Originally conceived as an alternative theory to the behaviorist approach, cognitive theories seek to explain how the mind works during the learning process. While changes in behavior occur, the cognitivist attributes these changes to specific mental processes that may be measured and enhanced. Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that information, then uses that information to produce learning outcomes. Central to the cognitive approach is the understanding that individuals must participate actively in the learning process rather than just responding to stimuli. Stages of cognitive development determine the learner’s ability to understand abstract, complex concepts. Constructivist Theories Central to the constructivist approach is the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New learning is shaped by past experiences and constructs/schema the learner brings to the learning process. Cultural tools such as speech and writing are first used in a social context and may lead to higher-level thinking and learning. The context or setting of the learning environment may determine the effectiveness of a learner’s ability to construct new knowledge. Encouraging the application of knowledge to new situations enhances the learner’s ability to transfer knowledge and increases skill development that may be universally applied. Motivation/Humanist Theories Humanist theories find their focus in the whole person of the learner—that is, cognitive and affective needs of the learner must be addressed. The growth of the individual over a lifetime must be considered, and the individuality of each learner is central to the effectiveness of that growth. Recognizing that human potential is expansive and that the learner brings values and

personal perspective to the learning environment is key. The learning environment at its best is student-centered and should be personalized to the needs of each individual student. These foundational learning-theory domains provide insight and perspective to our understanding of the roles of the educator and the student in a school setting. Some follow-up questions, however, seem appropriate: In what ways do these theories impact learning in a digital age? How do these theories inform classroom and instructional design? In a school setting, what are the implications of each theory domain for student life-readiness preparation?

The Five Educational Learning Theories

Educational Learning Theories While studying to become a teacher, whether in a bachelor’s degree or alternative certificate program, you will learn about learning theories. There are 5 overarching paradigms of educational learning theories; behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, design/brain-based, humanism and 21st Century skills. Below, you will find a brief outline of each educational learning theory, along with links to resources that may be helpful. 1. Behaviorism is a view in which behavior can be explained by external factors and behavioral conditioning can be used as a universal learning process. In behaviorism, the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement are effective tools of learning and behavior modification, as well as a punishment and reward system.  

Behaviorism Overview Behaviorism Learning Theory

2. Cognitivism is a learning theory developed by Jean Piaget in which a child develops cognitive pathways in understanding and physical response to experiences. In this theory, students learn most effectively through reading text and lecture instruction.  

Paradigms of Learning Educational Theories of Learning

3. Constructivism is the idea that people are responsible in creating their own understanding of the world and using what they know based on previous experiences in the process of linking new information to these experiences. People use these experiences and new information to construct their own meaning. 

Constructivism

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Influential Theories of Learning

4. Humanism focuses on the individual as the subject and asserts that learning is a natural process that helps a person reach self-actualization. Scenarios and role modeling are important factors in humanistic learning, as are experiences, exploring and observing others.  

Humanistic Approaches to Learning Humanism Learning Theory

5. Connectivism is a relatively new learning theory, developed and based upon the idea that people process information by forming connections. This theory has developed with the digital and technology age, adapting to advances in these arenas. This new theory suggests that people no longer stop learning after formal education and continue to gain knowledge from other avenues such as job skills, networking, experience and access to information with new tools in technology. 

Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age

Learning theory–and the research that goes into it–is a topic seen frequently in universities and teaching programs, then less frequently after once teachers begin practicing in the classroom. Why this is true is complicated. (If you’re teaching, you may have more pressing concerns than being able to define obscure learning theories which don’t seem to have a place or role in what you’re teaching tomorrow.) I thought it might be useful to have a brief overview of many of the most important learning theories teachers should know in a single graphic, which is why I was excited to find Richard Millwood‘s excellent graphic. Millwood is Visiting Research Fellow at Trinity College Dublin, Director of Core Education UK. (You can read his blog here.) While the graphic is necessarily brief (and has a few typos), I found it did a great job of bringing together a lot of the most critical–and common–learning theories in one place. If you get nothing else from a post like this, perhaps the most critical takeaway is that there are dozens of theories that underpin what and how you teach already, and that the better you understand them, the better chance you’ll have to master your current approach and begin to bring new possibilities into your classroom as your ‘teaching brain’ makes room for this kind of thinking. Some definitions were a bit too brief, so I added language for clarity or depth (though a few I need to go back and further deepen and explain, like ‘Interpersonal Relations.) Let me know in the comments if you have any suggested citations or ideas that could improve the resource. I’ll continue to add resource, links, and citations as relevant.

32 Learning Theories Every Teacher Should Know 1.Instructivism The premise behind ‘Instructivism’ is that teachers take on a central role in the learning process and transfer that knowledge directly to the students. 2. Multiple Intelligences We have several different ways of learning and processing information, but these methods are relatively independent of one another: leading multiple intelligences as opposed to a (single) ‘general intelligence) factor among correlated abilities. 3. Experiential Learning Knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. The learner must be able to reflect on the experience, use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience, and make decisions and solve problems to use the ideas gained from the experience. 4. Learning Styles Optimal learning demands that students receive instruction tailored to their learning styles. (And stop learning styles don’t work.)

5. De-schooling Society School is damaging to education: “The pupil is thereby ‘schooled’ to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the ability to say something (well) or new.” 6. Home schooling Home schooling: Characterized primarily by the family being responsible for the child’s ‘education.’ There’s a spectrum of approaches available from reproducing school at home, to project-based learning in authentic and self-actuated and organized learning environments, to complete ‘unschooling.’ 7. Unschooling The underlying assumption of Unschooling is that children will learn naturally if given the freedom to follow own interests and a rich assortment of resources. 8. Critical Pedagogy An educational movement guided by passion and principle to help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action. 9. Interpersonal Relations Teacher types: lion-tamer, entertainer and new romantic–the problem of self-judgment in assessment 10. Montessori Education Montessori Principles: 1. Mixed-age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2.5 or 3-years-old to 6-years-old. 2. Student choice of activity within a prescribed-range of options 3. Uninterrupted blocks of work time 4. A ‘Constructivist’ or ‘discovery’ model where students learn concepts from working with materials rather than by direct instruction 11. Scientific Pedagogy Education-based on science that modifies and improves the individual 12. Experiential Education The process that occurs between the teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the learning environment and content. 13. Constructionism The underlying principle of Constructionism as a learning theory is that the learner is not a passive ‘vessel,’ but must actively participate in their own learning. It requires learners to build on existing knowledge when acquiring new knowledge. 14. Social Constructivism A learning theory founded on the idea that meaning is both built and socially-negotiated through interactions with others.

15. Constructivism: Radical Constructivism Knowledge as mental representation: 1a. Knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or by way of communication; 1b. Knowledge is actively built up by the cognizing subject; 2a. The function of cognition is adaptive, in the biological sense of the term, tending towards fit or viability; 2b. Cognition serves the subject’s organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of an objective ontological reality. 16. Project-Based Learning A framework for unifying otherwise disparate ‘strands’ of teaching and learning. In ‘PBL,’ students learn through the design, completion (and often ongoing iteration) of ‘projects.’ One way to think of PBL is in contrast to traditional ‘units’ of ‘instruction.’ 17. Genetic Epistemology A human being develops cognitively from birth throughout his or her life through four primary stages of development; sensorimotor (0-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), and formal operational (11+). Assimilation (occurs through the) incorporation of new experiences into existing mental schema; accommodation changes mental schema. 18. Zone of Proximal Development The area of capabilities that learners can exhibit with the support from a teacher. 19. Scaffolding Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals. See also The Gradual Release of Responsibility 20. Discovery Learning Learners obtain knowledge by forming and testing hypotheses. 21. Meaningful Learning New knowledge to acquire is related with/to previous knowledge. 22. Mastery Learning In Mastery Learning, ‘the students are helped to master each learning unit before proceeding to a more advanced learning task.” 23. Educational Objectives Taxonomy of learning objectives that educators set for students in three ‘domains’: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. Learning at the higher levels is dependent on achieving lower levels (first). Designed to motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.

24. Radical Behaviorism Learning as a process of forming associations between stimuli in the environment and the corresponding responses of the individual. Reinforcement strengthens responses and increases the likelihood of another occurrence when the stimulus is present again. 25. Communities of Practice Groups of people who share a concern of a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. 26. Situated Learning According to Northern Illinois University, Situated Learning is “an instructional approach developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, and follows the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and others (Clancey, 1995) who claim that students are more inclined to learn by actively participating in the learning experience. Situated learning essentially is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living (Stein, 1998, para. 2) where learning occurs relative to the teaching environment.” 27. Conversation Theory A cybernetic and dialectic framework that offers a scientific theory to explain how interactions lead to ‘knowing.’ 28. Competency-Based Learning Competency-Based Learning is an approach to learning that focuses on actual, observable skills (or ‘competencies’) rather than grasp of concepts as measured by traditional academic assessments. Though mastering competencies obviously requires understanding of concepts, it is not driven towards that end. 29. Problem-Based Learning An approach to learning where the solving or important ‘problems,’ often through inquiry and Project-Based Learning catalyzes the learning experience. 30. Place-Based Education The emphasis of a meaningful ‘place’ (that is, one meaningful to the learner) in the circumstance of learning. 31. Question-Based Learning A formal process of inquiry where questions are formed, then improved based on the revelation of relevant, significant, and accurate data. 32. Learning Blends/Combination Learning An alternative to traditional academic ‘lessons,’ combination learning blends are combinations of learning ingredients (e.g., topic, audience, outcome, apps,

Theories of Learning Learning theories provide a foundation for ISD. An instructional designer's theoretical approach to learning affects how the instruction is designed, developed, implemented, and evaluated. Most instructional designer's theoretical orientation is based upon one or the integration of three theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These three theories may be familiar to you from an undergraduate psychology or education courses. They may also be familiar to you from previous courses in your program. Although the distance education literature, particularly for higher education, purports that constructivism underlies effective distance learning, additional learning theories are also applicable. Let's briefly consider definitions of these theories and their application to distance education instructional design. Please note that in in-depth study of each of these theories is not within the scope of this course. If you would like to know more, I would encourage you to read the seminal works of some of the theorists mentioned in this discussion.

Behaviorism Applied to Distance Education Davidson-Shiver and Rasmussen (2006) purport that there are several key concepts of behaviorism that have been applied to the educational environment and that you may find important in designing and implementing a distance education course or program. Please note that these are a few selected concepts; there are many more. Practice - Research demonstrates that repetition via practice can strengthen learning. Providing learners with opportunities practice after the presentation of material or reading may allow learners to strengthen a specific skill. In the e-learning environment, an instructor may use Second life, a virtual world, to deliver a lecture and engage his or her students in a role-play. To read about an example of this, take a virtual trip to Innovate to Read Educational Opportunities for Clinical Counseling Simulations in Second Life. Modeling - Modeling is defined as a demonstration of the desired behavior or response. For example, a course designer may encourage an instructor to provide instructions for an assignment and then post exemplarily work of previous students as examples. Another example is an instructor modeling the writing of desired discussion board responses when interacting on discussion forum. Reinforcement - Theorists purport that learners learn or exhibit desired behaviors when provided with positive or negative reinforcement. For example, in the e-learning environment, an e-mail from the instructor providing results and explanation of those results on an assignment may serve as a positive reinforcement. In the mobile environment a reinforcing text could be sent. (Note: For this to be a positive reinforcement the learner must view the e-mail as pleasant. When planning reinforcement, learners' characteristics should be taken into consideration).

Active Learning - Behaviorist purport that learners should be active in that they should respond to stimulus in order for learning to occur. In the e-learning or mobile environment, instructors may require students to require students to answer questions in a discussion forum or via text messaging. The instructor may require learners to share documents in a collaborative workspace such as a wiki or other collaborative workspace. The purpose of this is so that instructors may observe students understanding of the material; thus, making this different than active learning described in constructivism.

Cognitivism Applied to Distance Education Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning 

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Mayer, is well known for his cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer, (2003) says the following about learner centeredness, “it is not what is done to the learner, but how the learner interprets what happens, that is, on the learner’s personal experience” (p. 5). His theory is based upon several primary assumptions: There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information Each channel has a finite capacity, and the learner can only process a finite amount of information in one channel at a time The brain does not interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory information in a mutually exclusive fashion; rather, these elements are selected and organized dynamically to produce logical mental constructs. Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based upon prior knowledge, and the learner make sense of incoming information by actively creating mental representations.

Many of the design principles are based upon this theory. We will read more about this in the upcoming weeks as we delve deeper into our text book. There are multiple key principles of cognitivism that have been applied to the educational environment and that you may find important in designing and implementing an e-learning course. Many of these, as stated earlier, are discussed in detail in your text book (Clark& Mayer, 2008); a few are identified here: 

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Reflection upon content is important. In the online environment, an instructor can ask students to reflect upon the content to bring prior knowledge and experience to the forefronts of their minds. In order for learning to be meaningful, it should be relevant. In the online environment, an instructor or instructional designer may identify primary learner audience prior knowledge and background and relate instruction and assignments to learners’ backgrounds.

Instructional Design (ISD) Models Now that we have explored learning theories that are foundational to instructional design, we are going to consider instructional design models, these processes assist us in applying learning theories in a systematic, yet often iterative manner as we design instruction. Although there are many different approaches, most ISD models follow ADDIE: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The following describes each stage of ADDIE: 1. Analysis - The process for identifying and defining what is to be learned 2. Design - The process of determining how it is to be learned-based on audience need, timetable, and budget 3. Development - The process of authoring and producing the learning materials 4. Implementation - The process of installing the learning solution within the realworld business environment 5. Evaluation - The process of measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning, based on the stated objectives; occurring in each phase of the ADDIE model and at the project end (see http://www.crawfordinternational.com/html/cai_addie.asp)

Davidson-Shivers and Rasmussen (2006) identify two type of ISD models. They say that traditional ISD models focus on planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating on a lesson of course level. The core elements of the traditional models include determining learners' needs, identifying learning goals and objectives, planning assessment and developing assessment tools, planning instructional strategies and media, pilot testing, implementing, and evaluating. The most common

traditional ISD models include Gagne's (1985) Conditions of Learning and Dick, Carey, and Carey's (2005) model. The second type of ISD model is for macro-level design. These models assist with design on a program level rather than a lesson or course level. Common ISD models for macro-level design include Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson and Spiller's Elaboration Theory, Rapid prototyping (expeditiously developing prototypic instructional material), and Morrison, Ross and Kemps' (2004) model. In this unit, two of these models are briefly summarized: Dick, Carey, and Carey's (2005) and Morrison, Ross and Kemps' (2004) model. These are the two models upon which much of the instruction in this course is based and what you will use as a foundation to design your own instructional unit in this course. To learn more about these models and the ones mentioned above, you can use the links at the end of the unit. I would also encourage you to read some of the seminal works on the ISD models.

Now that we have briefly discussed the different learning theories, let's summarize them. Learning Theory

Traditional Traditional Constructivism/ (Behaviorism) (Cognitivism) Social Constructivism

Theorists

Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner

Theories and Pavlov's Instructional Classical Models Conditioning Skinner's Operant Conditioning Thorndike's Laws and Connectionism Contract Learning Individualized Instruction Information Processing Model Assumptions about Knowledge and Learning

Knowledge is an objective reality to be obtained

Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne

Dewey, Vygotsky Rort, Piaget, Bruner

Dual Coding Theory

Situated Cognition

Elaboration Theory Schema Theory

Social-Cultural Learning Case-Based Learning

Collins & Discovery Stevens Inquiry Learning Teaching Model Distributed Learning Keller's ARCS Model of Problem-Based Motivation Learning (PBL) Merrill's Component Display Model Knowledge is an objective reality to be obtained

Knowledge is constructed through environmental interactions and it Learning is a is embedded in change in Learning is behavior and the concerned with the context in goal of teaching internal mental which it is used is to produce process behavioral (including Knowledge is change in insight, collaboratively information constructed and processing, meaning is

desired direction Emphasis is on the relationship between observable, measurable behaviors and environmental variables

memory, individually perception) and imposed results in information in an organized manner in the stored in memory

Locus of Learning

Stimuli in external environment

Internal cognitive structuring

Learning is in relationship between people and environment.

Educator's Role

Expert, knowledge source Arranges environment to elicit desired response

Is responsible to structures content of learning activities to assist learners in organizing information in an optimal manner for assimilation

Facilitator Guide Collaborator

Works to establish communities of practice in which conversation and participation can occur. Learner

Passive, consumer of knowledge According to behaviorism, the learner is a responder to environmental stimuli, a tabula

Active processor of information

Active, constructors of knowledge

rasa shaped by reinforcements Instruction and Assessment

Instruction and assessment is teachercentered and criterion-based;

Instruction and assessment is independent, contextual, and reflective

The purpose of instruction is to elicit the desired response based on a stimulus (e.g., automatically performing a specified procedure)

Instructions aims to assist learners in using strategies that result in changes in thinking

Knowledge obtainment, retention, and reproduction (recalling facts) is key.

The goal of instruction is for learners to develop capacity and skills to learn better

Instruction encourages

Instruction and assessment is student -centered, collaborative, and customized to learners' prior knowledge. Authentic assessments, portfolios, contextual, casebased projects, authentic tasks and dialogue are primarily instructional strategies. Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge for the purpose of a product.