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Early Antiquity Antiquity

Early Antiquity Antiquity Early I. M. M. Diakonoff DiakonofF Volume Volume Editor Editor

Philip L. L. Kohl Philip Kohl Project Editor

Project Editor

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

The The University University of of Chicago Chicago Press Press Chicago and and London London Chicago

I. M. M. DIAKONOFF DIAKONOFF is is aa senior senior research research scholar scholar of of ancient ancient history history at at the the I. Institute of of Oriental Oriental Studies, Studies, Leningrad Leningrad Academy Academy of of Sciences. Sciences. Institute PHILIP PHILIP L. L. KOHL KOHL is is professor professor of of anthropology anthropology at at Wellesley Wellesley College. College. The University of The University of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Chicago Chicago 60637 60637 The University of The University of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Ltd., Ltd., London London © © 1991 1991 by by The The University University of of Chicago Chicago All rights rights reserved. reserved. Published Published 1991 1991 All Printed Printed in in the the United United States States of of America America

91 00 00 99 99 98 98 97 97 96 96 95 95 94 94 93 93 92 92 91

55 44 33 22 11

Originally published published as as Istoriya IstoriyaDrevnego Drevnego Mira, Mira, volume volume 1: 1: Originally Rannyaya Drevnost', revised edition. ©© 1982, 1989 Chief Rannyaya Drevnost', revised edition. 1982, 1989 Chief Division Nauka Press. Press. Division of of Eastern Eastern Literature, Literature, Nauka Library of of Congress Congress Cataloging Cataloging in in Publication Publication Data Data Library Istoriia drevnego drevnego mira. 1, Rannlala Ranniaia drevnost'. drevnost'. English English lstor'ITa mira. 1, Diakonoff, volume Philip L. Early antiquity / 1 . M. M. Diakonoff, volume editor; editor ; Philip L. Kohl, Kohl, Early antiquity II. project editor. editor, project p. cm. p. cm. Translation Translation of: of: Istorila Istoriia drevnego drevnego mira. mira. 1. 1. Rannlala Ranniaia drevnost'. drevnost'. Includes Includes index. index. ISBN 0-226-14465-8 0-226-14465-8 ISBN 1. 1. History, History, Ancient. Ancient. I. I. D'lakonov, D'Skonov, Igor' Igor' Mikhailovich. Mikhailovich. II. II. Title. Title. D57.I88 1991 1991 D57.188 930—dc20 90-24148 90-24148 930-dc20 CIP CIP © The The paper paper used used in in this this publication publication meets meets @)

the minimum minimum requirements requirements of of the the American American National National the of Standard for for Information Information Sciences-Permanence Sciences—Permanence of Standard Paper for for Printed Printed Library Library Materials, Materials, ANSI ANSI Z39.48-1984. Z39.48-1984. Paper

Contents Contents

Foreword by byPhilip PhilipL.L.Kohl Kohl Foreword Introduction Board Introduction by by the theEditorial Editorial Board

vii Vll

11

General Outline Outline of of the the First First Period Period of of the the History History of of the the 1 General

2 3 4 5 6

7

8 9

Ancient Ancient World World and and the the Problem Problem of of the the Ways Ways of of Development Development I. M. I. M. DIAKONOFF

27 27

The The City-States City-States of of Sumer Sumer I. M. I. M. DIAKONOFF

67 67

Early Early Despotisms Despotisms in in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

84 84

The Old Old Babylonian Babylonian Period Period of of Mesopotamian Mesopotamian History History The N. N. V. KOZYREVA

98 98

Sumerian Sumerian Culture Culture V. K. K. AFANASIEVA

124 124

The The Predynastic Predynastic Period Period and and the the Early Early and and the the Old Old Kingdoms in in Egypt Kingdoms Egypt I. V. VINOGRADOV

137 137

The The Middle Middle Kingdom Kingdom of of Egypt Egypt and and the the Hyksos Hyksos Invasion Invasion I. V. VINOGRADOV

158 158

The The New New Kingdom Kingdom of of Egypt Egypt I. V. VINOGRADOV I.

172 172

The The Culture Culture of of Ancient Ancient Egypt Egypt I. A. I. A. LAPIS

193 193

10 India and the Pre-Urban 10 The The First First States States in in India and the Pre-Urban Cultures Cultures of of Central Central Asia Asia and and Iran Iran G. G. F. IL'YIN and and I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

214 214

11 11 Asshur, Asshur, Mitanni, Mitanni, and and Arrapkhe Arrapkhe N. B. JANKOWSKA N.

228 228

12 Mesopotamia to Eleventh B.C. Mesopotamia in in the the Sixteenth Sixteenth to Eleventh Centuries Centuries B.C. V. A. A. JAKOBSON jAKOBsON

261 261

13 The The Hittite Hittite Kingdom Kingdom G. G. G. G. GIORGADZE

266 266

vi vi

Contents Contents

Third and 14 Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine in the Third

Second Millennia B.C. B.C. I. I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

286 286

15 The T h e World of of Crete and Mycenae Yu. V. V. ANDREYEV Yu.

309 309

16 Greece of of the Eleventh to Ninth Centuries B.C. B.C. in the Homeric Epics

Yu. Yu. V. V. ANDREYEV

328 328

Phoenician and Greek Colonization Colonization 17 Phoenician Yu. B. Yu. B. TSIRKIN

347 347

Half of of the 18 India, Central Asia, and Iran in the First Half

First Millennium B.C. B.C. G. G. F. IL'YIN AND I. I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

366 366

19 The T h e First States in China T. V. T. V. STEPUGINA

387 387

Half of of the First Millennium B.C. B.C. 20 China in the First Half

T. V. STEPUGINA T. V. STEPUGINA

420 420

Maps Maps Index Index

433 433 441 441

Foreword Foreword PHILIP L. KOHL KOHL PHILIP

On On the the English English translation translation

The organization organization and and nature nature of this book, book, Early Antiquity,and anditsitsconconThe of this Early Antiquity, ceptual ceptual relation relation to to the the two two remaining volumes in in the the three-volume three-volume remaining volumes Soviet study study on on The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World discussed in the World areare discussed in the In-InSoviet troduction. troduction. This This Foreword Foreword explains explains some some difficulties difficulties associated with associated with this work and tries tries to to familiarize familiarize its its EnglishEnglishthe English translation of of this the English translation work and reading audience audience with with certain certain characteristics characteristics of of Soviet Soviet Marxist Marxist hisreading historiography on on antiquity. antiquity. First, First, aa brief brief description description of of the the history history of of the the toriography translation is is required. required. translation first learned learned of of the the three-volume three-volume study study The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient II first World whilevisiting visitingLeningrad Leningrad ininfall fall 1983 1983asasaamember memberof ofan anAmeriAmeriWorldwhile can delegation delegation of of archaeologists archaeologists to to the Soviet Union. Union. Dr. Dr. l. I. M. M. Dithe Soviet Dican akonoff the Leningrad akonoff of of the Leningrad Branch Branch of of the the Oriental Oriental Institute Institute of of the the USSR, Accademy Accademy of of Sciences, Sciences, provided provided the delegation with single the delegation with aa single USSR, copy of of the the first edition of of the the work work and and suggested suggested that that it would be be first edition it would copy worthwhile to to translate translate this this recent recent synthesis synthesis of of his his and, and, primarily, primarily, felfelworthwhile low Leningrad Leningrad colleagues' colleagues' historical studies of of the ancient world. world. This This historical studies the ancient low single copy copy of the limited limited first ended up in my single of the first edition edition ended up gathering gathering dust dust in my library in in Wellesley, Wellesley, dutifully having been been set set aside in my "To Do" file dutifully having aside in my "To Do" file library on research with with Soviet Soviet scholars. scholars. It might have have remained remained on collaborative collaborative research It might there had not had had the the opportunity opportunity the the following following year year to to travel travel to to there had II not Leningrad to participate in the the Rencontre Internationale, Leningrad to participate in Rencontre Assyriologique Assyriologique Internationale, where II again again met met with with Dr. Diakonoff and and discussed discussed with with him him at at where Dr, Diakonoff length his his desire desire to to have have aa major major work work of of his translated into into English. English. length his translated Several possibilities possibilities presented presented themselves, themselves, including including the the recently recently pubpubSeveral lished work primarily written by him: Istoriya drevnego Vostoka: lished work primarily written by him: Istoriya drevnego Vostoka: Zarozhdenie drevneishikh drevneishikh klassovykh klassovykh obshchestv obshchestv ii pervye ochagi rabovlaZarozhdenie pervye ochagi rabovladeVcheskoi tsivilizatsii [The history of the ancient East: The birth of the birth of the del'cheskoi tsivilizatsii [The history of the ancient East: The most ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilimost ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization] (Moscow, (Moscow, 1983), 1983), but but he he reaffirmed reaffirmed his his desire desire to to have have the the multimultization] of the the Ancient World translated, translated, authored three-volume three-volume The The History authored History of Ancient World since it it was was in in his opinion more more up-to-date, up-to-date, better better represented represented his his curcursince his opinion rent understanding understanding of of developments developments in in ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, and and rent offered the the inestimable inestimable advantage advantage of of providing providing aa synthetic synthetic overview overview offered to antiquity as as aa whole. whole. Its introductory chapters chapters (see (see the Introduction Its introductory the Introduction to antiquity and Lecture 1, this this volume) volume) attempt attempt to to structure structure and and interpret interpret the the disand Lecture 1, discussed historical historical materials materials according according to to an an explicit, explicit, consistent, consistent, and and exexcussed panded historical historical framework framework as as evolved evolved by by Soviet Soviet scholars scholars in in the the panded

viii

Foreword

general general Marxist Marxist tradition, tradition, which, which, Dr. Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff believed, believed, would would be be of of considerable interest interest to to Western Western readers. readers. considerable In fall fall 1984 1984 the the University of Chicago Chicago Press Press contacted contacted me me about about the the In University of possibility work, which which had by then then appeared possibility of of translating translating this this work, had by appeared in in its its second revised edition the Soviet Union, and second revised edition in in the Soviet Union, and details, details, as as acknowlacknowledged below, concerning edged below, concerning the the translation translation and and editing editing of of the the final final text text eventually were were hammered hammered out out among among the the interested interested parties in Chiparties in Chieventually cago, cago, Leningrad, Leningrad, and and Wellesley. Wellesley. Some Some of of these these details, details, as as well well as as spespecific problems of aa general general popular work of of popular work cific problems related related to to the the translation translation of this kind, kind, should should be be explicated explicated further. further. All All of of volume 1, Early Early AntiqAntiqthis volume 1, uity, initially initially was was translated translated by Mr. Alexander Alexander Kirjanov and then then enenuity, by Mr. Kirjanov and tered by Ms. Daria Daria Kirjanov, Kirjanov, his his daughter, daughter, into into my my file on the the tered by Ms. file on Wellesley College College mainframe mainframe computer. computer. These These rough rough translations translations Wellesley were then then sent sent lecture lecture by by lecture lecture to Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff in in Leningrad Leningrad for for to Dr. were corrections and and revisions, revisions, aa process complicated not not only only by longcorrections process complicated by longdistance mail mail service service but also by by the the fact fact that that aa substantially substantially revised revised distance but also third edition, edition, upon upon which which this this English English translation translation is is ultimately ultimately based, based, third appeared in in the the Soviet Soviet Union Union during during the the course course of of this this editing. editing. II then then appeared incorporated the revised and and edited edited text on my word processor processor and and incorporated the revised text on my word mailed the the corrected corrected copy copy once once more more to to Dr. Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff for for his his final mailed final approval. approval. Though Though necessary, necessary, such such aa laborious laborious procedure procedure is, is, to to say say the the least, least, time-consuming and and helps helps explain explain why why so so few few outstanding outstanding works works of of time-consuming Soviet historical scholarship are are translated. Some particular particular diffidiffiSoviet historical scholarship translated. Some The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World culties beset the translation of the the The translation of World be-beculties beset the cause it it is is intended intended for for aa general general educated educated lay lay audience. audience. First First and and cause fundamentally, the the reading reading publics of different different countries countries differ, differ, and and fundamentally, publics of this fact fact is is particularly striking when when contrasting contrasting the the potential "marthis particularly striking potential "market," if you you will, for this this book in the the Soviet Soviet Union in the the United United ket," if will, for book in Union to to that that in States. A A cursory cursory comparison comparison of of the the reading available for for reading materials materials available States. purchase in aa subway subway stall stall or or street street corner corner kiosk kiosk in in any any major major Soviet Soviet purchase in city with with those those on on sale sale at at equivalent equivalent locations locations in in American American cities cities would would city quickly convince anyone of this difference. The interested Soviet quickly convince anyone of this difference. The interested Soviet reader does not expect a novel approach to the data or the advancereader does not expect a novel approach to the data or the advancement of new all-encompassing theory theory to to provide provide the the latest perspecment of aa newall-encompassing latest perspective on ancient history; a product is not expected to be sold, but tive on ancient history; a product is not expected to be sold, but current knowledge is to be presented in a straightforward, accessible current knowledge is to be presented in a straightforward, accessible form within an understood understood and and generally generally unquestioned unquestioned theoretical theoretical form within an History of theAncient Ancient framework. It is for such an audience that The framework. It is for such an audience that The History of the World was originally written. The English-reading audience is likely to World was originally written. The English-reading audience is likely to be considerably diverse, diverse, consisting consisting of of specialists specialists from of discibe considerably from aa range range of disciplines—anthropology, history, Assyriology, Assyriology, classical classical studies, studies, etc., etc., ininplines-anthropology, history, terested in in aa theoretically distinctive materialist interpretation of of the the terested theoretically distinctive materialist interpretation

Foreword Foreword

IX ix

past—as interested in a general overview to past-as well as university students interested antiquity. antiquity. The T h e expectations of of such potential readers necessarily will differ. differ. explained in the Introduction, this book was not primarily primarily written As explained for specialists; it is not annotated annotated or extensively footnoted footnoted and, not infrequently, infrequently, controversial controversial theories and interpretations interpretations are presented presented just mention mention two examples in as unproblematic, as givens. Let me just of American fashwhich theories of American scholars are cited favorably in this fashion; D. Schmandt-Besserat's Schmandt-Besserat's theory (itself (itself originally based on an idea significance of of "tokens" for understanding understanding of P. Amiet) on the use and significance of the beginnings of of writing (see Lecture 2); and D. McAlpin's thesis that ancient Elamite and the Dravidian language family are cognate (Lecancient ture 10). 10). Scholars Scholars familiar familiar with the literature literature will immediately realize realize ture with the will immediately interpretations are either either sharply sharply contested contested or inconthat such interpretations Such controversy controversy also also occasionally occasionally concerns concerns clusively demonstrated. clusively demonstrated.11 Such fundamental questions questions of of interpretation interpretation and and classification, classification, such such as as the the fundamental scale and and nature nature of the private/communal private/communal sector sector in in ancient ancient MesoMesoscale of the potamia. Debates on on some some of of these these issues issues also also rage rage within within the the Soviet Soviet potamia. Debates specialist literature literature (see (see below). below). specialist A related difficulty difficulty is due to the lack of of access to or familiarity with of Western research on particular particular problems. Thus, the latest results of for example, H. Weiss's fundamental fundamental work on the beginnings of of urnorthern Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and his writings on the productivbanism in northern ity/unit area of of the dominantly rainfall-based rainfall-based agriculture in northern northern Mesopotamia compared with the exclusively irrigation-based irrigation-based agriculMesopotamia compared presented here. 22 There There is an inevitable lag ture in the south are not presented diffusion of of knowledge across the still-significant still-significant political time in the diffusion frontier that separates Soviet from from Western scholarship, though though fair fair frontier recognition of of this recognition this fact admits that this temporal gap works in the opignorant of of posite direction as well; indeed, we tend to be far more ignorant recent Soviet Soviet scholarship scholarship on on antiquity antiquity than they are are of of our our work. work. In In recent than they any event, event, one one of of the the primary primary purposes of this this volume volume is is to to facilitate facilitate any purposes of the transmission of knowledge across this unfortunate boundary. the transmission of knowledge across this unfortunate boundary. The T h e editor editor of of the English edition, thus, is presented presented with a problem. Should one flag such debatable theories by reference reference to the rele1. For For serious serious criticisms the former former theory, theory, see see M.J. M. J. Shendge, Shendge, "The "The Use Use of of Seals Seals 1. criticisms of of the and the Invention Invention of of Writing," Journal Journal of of the Economic and Social History of of the Orient 26, part 22 (1983); (1983); for for reservations reservations concerning concerning McAlpin's McAlpin's thesis, thesis, see see the the thoughtful thoughtful (and (and part of McAlpin's Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and Its Imlargely sympathetic) review of plications by the Dravidian of the American Oriental Dravidian scholar K. V. Zvelebil in the Journal Journal of Society 105, no. 2 (1985). Society 2. See, e.g.,· e.g., The Origins of of Cities Cities in in Dry-Farming Dry-Farming Syria Syria and and Mesopotamia Mesopotamiaininthe theThird ThirdMilMillennium lenniumB.C., B.C.,ed. ed. by byH. H. Weiss Weiss(Guilford, (Guilford, Conn.: Conn.: Four Four Quarters Quarters Publishing Publishing Co., Co., 1986). 1986).

x

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vant vant opposed opposed literature? literature? Should Should one one note note recent recent research research that that supports or or contradicts contradicts an an interpretation interpretation made made in in one one of of the supports the "lec"lectures"? In In my my opinion, opinion, two two arguments arguments militated militated against against such such interintertures"? ference. First, First, given given the the considerable considerable time and geographic geographic areas areas time and ference. covered in in this collectively written study of of antiquity-literally antiquity—literally this collectively written study covered stretching in in time time from from Neolithic origins to to the the fall fall of of Rome Rome and and in in stretching Neolithic origins space from from the the western western Mediterranean Mediterranean to to East East Asia-no Asia—no single single editor editor space could possibly note all all controversial controversial areas areas of of interpretation. interpretation. Collective Collective could possibly note editorship was not feasible. feasible. Second Second and and more more important, important, the the docudocueditorship was not mentation required required to to address address this this problem would change change the the characcharacproblem would mentation ter of the the work. work. The The introductory introductory chapters chapters of of each each volume and all all ter of volume and the lectures lectures are are clearly clearly synthetic synthetic interpretations interpretations of of aa vast vast corpus corpus of of the data. Final truths never never should should be be expected expected in in history, and intelligent intelligent data. Final truths history, and readers will will immediately immediately recognize recognize that that their their approximation approximation will will be be readers rougher and less less precise in aa generalizing generalizing work of this this kind. kind. In In aa rougher and precise in work of very few few cases cases II took took the the liberty liberty of of noting noting some some relevant relevant research. research. very These always always occur occur in in the the footnotes footnotes and and are are marked marked "Editor's "Editor's note note These (PLK)"; the other, more more numerous instances designated designated "Editor's "Editor's (PLK)"; the other, numerous instances note (IMD)" (IMD)" refer refer to to additions additions made made by the principal principal Soviet Soviet editor, editor, note by the I.M. Diakonoff. I. M. Diakonoff. One must must not not exaggerate exaggerate the the problem; problem; nearly nearly all all of of what what is is prepreOne sented is consensually consensually accepted accepted by by all all historians. historians. For For the remainder, it it sentedis the remainder, should suffice suffice simply simply to to let let the the reader reader beware of these these difficulties difficulties at at beware of should the the outset outset and and seek seek on on his his or or her her own own alternative alternative perspectives perspectives on on parparticular topics of interest. interest. ticular topics of Early Antiquity, volume 1 of of The History of of the the Ancient Ancient World, World,isisaawork work written by by aa group group of of historians historians and and linguists linguists largely largely working working at at the the written Oriental Institute Institute in in Leningrad. Leningrad. Difficulties Difficulties associated associated with with collective collective Oriental authorship are are discussed discussed in in the the Introduction, Introduction, but it is is important important to to authorship but it emphasize here here that that substantial substantial differences differences of of interpretation interpretation exist exist emphasize even within within this this closely closely collaborating collaborating circle circle of of scholars. scholars. Some Some lectures lectures even devote more, more, some some less, less, space space to to straightforward straightforward political political history history or or devote cultural description. description. Others Others focus focus more more intensely intensely on on socioeconomic socioeconomic cultural reconstruction. Such diversity diversity in in perspective and presentation, presentation, of of reconstruction. Such perspective and course, may may constitute constitute more more aa strength strength than than aa liability, liability, and and the the reader reader course, should evaluate evaluate each each lecture lecture on on its its own. own. should The The historical/linguistic historical/linguistic perspectives perspectives of of the the authors authors also also should should be be noted; provides the noted; we we are are told told that that the the study study of of languages languages provides the key key for for penetrating the mental processes or or spiritual spiritual world of antiquity, antiquity, penetrating the mental processes world of whereas archaeological data, data, the the material material culture culture record, record, often often are are whereas archaeological implicitly or or even even explicitly explicitly regarded regarded as as of of relatively relatively limited limited value value for for implicitly reconstructing the socioeconomic structure structure of of ancient ancient societies. societies. Such Such reconstructing the socioeconomic perspective, of of course, course, has has merit merit and and may may indeed indeed be be more more right right than than aa perspective, wrong, but again caveat lector. wrong, but again caveat lector.

Foreword Foreword

Xl xi

Finally, the overall organization lecorganization of the work, the sequence of lectures, should should be mentioned: materials are presented presented roughly in chronological order, though each individual lecture treats separately separately chronological a specific area of early civilization. Thus, fourth through early second second millennia B.C. developments in Egypt are presented after a compamillennia B.C. developments in Egypt are presented after a comparable review review of of the the early early history history of of Mesopotamia Mesopotamia but but before before treattreatrable ments of the beginnings of civilization in South Asia, Central Asia, and, finally, finally, East East Asia. Asia. Such Such aa framework framework is is logical logical and, and, given given the the colcoland, lective authorship, constitutes perhaps the only feasible structure. However, by its very nature this structure tends to minimize historical interconnections among among separate separate areas; areas; it threatens to obscure the the interconnections development in which all the sosingle "world historical" process of development comprehensive history cieties were involved. Thus, paradoxically, this comprehensive of antiquity can be read from from a perspective that stresses the internal of evolution of separate societies, each of which finally reaches the same evolution development (see below). typological stage of development fulfills Despite this inherent, if not inevitable, limitation, the work fulfills T h e format format of the lectures, the the periodization periodization and its main purpose. The elucidated in the introductory introductory lectures, and the guiding guiding typology elucidated Diakonoff and the editorial board board are all responsible for hand hand of Dr. Diakonoff unified work; the fundamental fundamental goal of presenting presenting the creation of a unified the histories histories of separate early civilizations as part of an integral or unithe (vsemirnaya istoriya) istoriya) is is achieved, despite the versal historical process (vsemirnaya organizational problems associated with collective authorship and organizational framework. Certain questions, however, inevitably emerge and must be addressed. addressed. How How are separate early states with their incipient incipient class be anstructures temporally, typologically, and historically related to one ansatisfactory or complete is this canvas that purports to to other? How How satisfactory sketch in broad strokes the main features of the ancient world? What study is the vision of the past, past, the view of history, that permeates this study how does it conform conform to or distinguish itself itself from from an orthodox orthodox and how stage theory theory of development? And, finally, how stage And, finally, how does this macrohistorical collective collective Soviet Soviet overview overview compare compare with with the the overviews overviews of of historical Western macrohistorians-be macrohistorians—be they they explicitly explicitly Marxist-inspired Marxist-inspired or or not? not? Western Soviet Historiography on Antiquity: Common Problems, Particular Solutions An outside observer attempting to describe any complex "school" or unified corpus of scholarship always confronts confronts the doublerelatively unified edged difficulty difficulty of of disentangling common features, more or less uniof the school, from those characteristics versally shared by adherents of difficulty is particuand concerns specific to individual scholars. This difficulty larly pronounced when generalizations are made concerning Soviet

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Foreword Foreword

scholarship, for for the the Western Western observer observer must must be be aware aware of of and and somehow somehow scholarship, consciously prejudices that consciously correct correct for for stereotypic stereotypic prejudices that permeate permeate Western Western understanding of of all all things things Soviet. Soviet. One One such such grossly grossly inaccurate, inaccurate, albeit albeit understanding all-pervasive, all-pervasive, image image is is that that of of aa monolithic, monolithic, dogmatic, dogmatic, highly highly enentrenched orthodoxy orthodoxy to which everyone everyone submits submits either either through through brainbraintrenched to which washing washing or or coercion. coercion. Whether Whether applied applied to to society society at at large large or or to to aa branch of of scholarship, scholarship, such such as as ancient ancient history, history, this this image image distorts distorts realrealbranch ity, actually actually shedding shedding more more light light on on Western prejudice than than Soviet Soviet Western prejudice ity, practice. is also legitimate to of rerealso legitimate to describe describe national national traditions traditions of practice. Yet, Yet, it it is search in in the the historical historical sciences, sciences, and and Soviet Soviet scholars scholars themselves themselves conconsearch sciously refer refer to to "the "the Soviet Soviet school school of of economic economic historians historians of of the the sciously ancient Orient"3-a Orient"3—a phrase phrase that explicitly acknowledges acknowledges the the existence existence ancient that explicitly of such such aa school school and, and, correspondingly, correspondingly, some some commonality commonality of of interest interest of or approach approach that that defines defines it. it. or the features Before Before attempting attempting to to list list some some of of the features characteristic characteristic of of Soviet Soviet writings writings on on antiquity, antiquity, one one first first must must demolish demolish the the aboveabovementioned mentioned caricature. caricature. Soviet Soviet historical historical and and social social science science writings writings abound abound in in polemic, polemic, sharply sharply contested contested points points of of view, view, the the articulation articulation of uninitiated Western readers. As of which which often often shocks shocks uninitiated Western readers. As illustration illustration of of this penchant for within Soviet this penchant for polemic polemic within Soviet historiography historiography on on antiquity, antiquity, one were featured major Soviet one can can cite cite two two recent recent debates debates that that were featured in in major Soviet Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii istorii [The journal of ancient history] devoted journals. [The journal of ancient history] devoted journals. Vestnik several issues issues44 to to the the presentation presentation and and criticism criticism of of aa new, new, detailed detailed linlinseveral guistic theory theory purporting purporting to to reconstruct reconstruct Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European lanlanguistic guage and and culture. culture. Disagreements Disagreements ran ran deep deep and and were baldly guage were baldly NarodyAzii Aziii iAfriki Afriki[Peoples [Peoples expressed. Similarly, Similarly, two two recent recent issues issues of of Narody expressed. of Asia Asia and and Africa] Africa] (1984, (1984, nos. nos. 2-3) 2-3) presented presented aa roundtable roundtable discusdiscusof sion (kruglyi (kruglyistoll stol)onon"the "thestate stateand andlaw lawininthe theancient ancientEast" East"led ledbybyV.V.A.A. sion 5 5 Many EarlyAntiquity. Antiquity. Manyfascinating fascinating Jakobson, one one of of the the contributors contributors to to Early Jakobson, issues were were raised raised in in this this discussion, discussion, some some of of which which are are also also discussed discussed issues in The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World: including origins of law; World: including the the origins of law; the the re- rein 3. Ancient 3. See See I. I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's prefatory prefatory remarks remarks to to his his edited edited volume volume in in English English Ancient (Moscow:Nauka, Nauka,1969). 1969). Mesopotamia Mesopotamia (Moscow: 4. 1980, no. no. 3; 1981, no. no. 2; 1982, nos.nos. 3-4; andand 1984, no. no. 2. 2. 4. Vestnik Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, 1980, 3; 1981, 2; 1982, 3-4; 1984, pubFortunately, Fortunately, these these and and related related articles articles have have been been translated translated into into English, English, initially initially published in Soviet Studies in History 22, nos. 1-2 1-2 (1983), and in Soviet Anthropology and Archeology 22 (1984), V.V. GamArcheology23,23,no. no. (1984),and andsubsequentiyreprinted subsequently reprintedwith withthe theresponse responseofT. of T. GamV. V. V. Ivanov Ivanov to to I.I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's criticisms criticisms in in Journal Journal of of Indo-European Indo-European krelidze and and V. krelidze Studies13, 13,nos. nos.1-2 1-2 (1985). (1985).An AnEnglish Englishtranslation translationof ofthe thedefinitive definitivestatement statementof ofGamGamStudies yazyk ii indoevropeitsi: indoevropeitsi:Rekonstruktsiya Rekonstruktsiyai iistorikoistorikothesis, Indoevropeiskii Indoevropeiskii yazyk krelidze and Ivanov's thesis, typologicheskiianaliz analizprayazyka prayazykai protokul'tury i protokuVtury[Indo-European [Indo-Europeanand andthe theIndo-Europeans: Indo-Europeans:AA typologicheskii reconstruction and and aa historical-typological historical-typological analysis analysis of of aa proto-language proto-language and and aa protoprotoreconstruction culture] (2 (2 vols., vols., Tbilisi, Tbilisi, 1984), 1984), is is currently currently being being prepared. prepared. culture] 5. Fortunately, Fortunately, this this was was also also translated translated and and appeared appeared in in Soviet SovietAnthropology Anthropology Arche5. andand Archeology24, 24,no. no.44(1986); (1986);and and25, 25,no. no.44(1987). (1987). ology

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lationship or relative dependence/independence dependence/independence between religion and ethical and moral norms, on the one hand, and law or legal justice, on the other; culturally based differences differences in the expression of of law, which is defined defined in classic Marxist terms as written codes that express and sanction the interests of of the ruling class. During this discusdifferent source materials, differed differed sharply sion, specialists, utilizing different in their views on fundamental fundamental questions of of interpretation; interpretation; similarly structured presentations with rebuttals in Western jounals may wan in structured of this debate. comparison to the tone and tenor of One of of the major points of contention in this roundtable discussion on ancient law also forms the major theoretical question addressed in Early Antiquity: Antiquity:namely, namely,the thedistinctiveness distinctivenessofofhishisthe Introduction to Early torical development in the East relative to the West (i.e., for antiquity—classical Greece and Rome). There is no reason to recapitulate uity-classical of scholarly writings on this seemingly timeless, perenthe history of nially recurring question; the summary in the Introduction sketches its main contours quite adequately, though it also may partially misunfamiliar reader. The Introduction discusses the debate lead the unfamiliar over the distinctiveness of the East, the phenomenon of Oriental desof the Marxist concept of of an Asiatic mode of of propotism, the validity of formulated and today still duction, and so on, as a problem intially formulated of Soviet scholarship.6 In its review of raging primarily within Western scholarship.6 writings on the subject, the Introduction is uncharacteristically mild, intentionally conciliatory, conciliatory, as as it it glosses glosses over over very very real real and and profound profound intentionally differences among Soviet scholars that appear regularly-indeed, regularly—indeed, differences The History ofthe theAnAnwith increasing increasing frequency-in frequency—in their their literature. literature.77 The with History of cient World World aims aims atat presenting presenting developments developments inin antiquity antiquity asas part part of of cient single, unified unified process-the process—the universal universal history history of of humanity; humanity; its its intent intent aa single, is to to emphasize emphasize the the common, common, shared shared features features at at the the expense expense of of the the is particular and, in in so so doing, doing, lump lump together together disparate disparate civilizations civilizations into into particular and, similar typological typological categories. categories. From From this this perspective, perspective, classical classical Greece Greece similar and Rome Rome theoretically theoretically must must resemble resemble ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern civiliand civilizations. zations. The disagreements within Soviet historiography on such fundafunda6. 6. One One might might add add that that today today this this debate debate in in the the West West experiences experiences perhaps perhaps its its clearest clearest manifestation in battle raging raging over manifestation in the the battle over the the question question of of Western Western scholarship scholarship on on the the East, East, the phenomenon phenomenon of the of Orientalism Orientalism or or disciplines disciplines that that took took shape shape under, under, and and presumably presumably by their their association association with, with, Western Western colonial colonial rule, rule, the the resulresulwere permanently permanently affected affected by were tant image image being that of tant being that of aa distinctive, distinctive, unchanging, unchanging, and and monolithic monolithic Orient. Orient. See See E. E. W. W. Said, Orientalism(New (NewYork: York:Random RandomHouse, House,1978). 1978). Said, Orientalism 7. 7. For For aa thorough thorough review review of of the the earlier earlier Soviet Soviet debate debate on on the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode ofproducof production from its its appearance appearance in in the the thirties thirties through through the the sixties sixties and and early early seventies, seventies, see see S. S. P.P. tion from Dunn, The Fall Falland andRise Riseofofthethe Asiatic Asiatic Mode Mode of Production of Production (Boston: (Boston: Routledge Routledge and Kegan and Kegan Dunn, The Paul, 1982). Paul, 1982).

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mental issues of interpretation, real; and mental issues of interpretation, however, however, are are real; and it it is is healthy healthy that they they are are debated debated openly openly in in their their literature. literature. Those Those who who have folthat have followed English translations translations of of several several of of Diakonoff's Diakonoff's major major theoretical theoretical lowed English studies on on the the private/communal private/communal sector sector in in ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, the the studies nature of the dependent phenomenon of nature of the dependent labor labor force, force, and and the the phenomenon of "helots" "helots" in early early antiquity, that his interpretations in antiquity, for for example, example, will will also also realize realize that his interpretations have have been been critcized critcized (almost (almost predictably) by Soviet Soviet theorists theorists and and histopredictably) by historians, Georgian scholar scholar G. G. A. Melikishvili, whose whose A. Melikishvili, rians, particularly particularly by by the the Georgian mentioned only The disdiscriticisms criticisms are are mentioned only in in passing passing in in the the Introduction. Introduction.8s The agreement between scholars continues, continues, as as reflected reflected in agreement between these these two two scholars in Melikishvili's summary article article "Ob "Ob osnovnykh etapakh razviMelikishvili's recent recent summary osnovnykh etapakh razvitiya drevnego blizhnevostochnogo obshchestva" [On [On the basic stages stages blizhnevostochnogo obshchestva" the basic tiya drevnego of the development of of ancient ancient Near Eastern societiesJ,9 societies],9 which, which, among among of the development Near Eastern other points, attacks the the periodization periodization of of antiquity antiquity presented in The other points, attacks presented in The Historyof ofthe theAncient AncientWorld. World. Other issues of contention include scale History Other issues of contention include thethe scale and significance significance of of the the so-called so-called private/communal private/communal sector sector in in third third miland millennium B.C. B.C. Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and and the the related of the the relative relative lennium related problem problem of size and and dominance dominance of of the temple/state sector sector in in early early Near Eastern the temple/state Near Eastern size irrigation civilizations; civilizations; the the character character of of the the later later military military states states of of the the irrigation second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. (or (or Diakonoff's Diakonoff's "third "third way way of of development," development," second see Lecture Lecture 1); 1); the the nature nature of of the the classical classical Greek Greek polis compared with with polis compared see contemporary and and later later Near Eastern cities; cities; and and property property relations in contemporary Near Eastern relations in classical Greece Greece and and Rome Rome and and how should be distinguished how they they should be distinguished classical from those those present in Near Near Eastern societies. The The interested interested reader reader from present in Eastern societies. should consult consult Melikishvili's Melikishvili's cited cited works and contrast contrast his interpretashould works and his interpretations with with the the overview overview presented in The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World. presented in World. tions Here, one one should should only only be be aware aware that that the the debate debate on on fundamental fundamental quesquesHere, tions of interpretation interpretation both both outside outside and and within Soviet Union conwithin the the Soviet Union contions of tinues and and that that The The History of the the Ancient World provides provides only only aa tinues History of Ancient World particular on aa vast vast corpus corpus of of data, data, aa particular reading set set particular perspective perspective on particular reading forth in a logically consistent, economical, and readable form. forth in a logically consistent, economical; and readable form. If what then If answers answers to to fundamental fundamental questions questions differ, differ, what then unites unites Soviet Soviet Can one refer to historical writings writings on historical on antiquity? antiquity? Can one legitimately legitimately refer to aa Soviet Soviet school of of economic economic historians of the the ancient ancient world? It is insufficient insufficient historians of world? !tis school 8. the Ancient in 8. Contrast, Contrast, e.g., e.g., I. I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's "The "The Commune Commune in in the Ancient East East as as Treated Treated in the Works Researchers," Soviet andand Archeology 2, no.2,2no. (1963), and and SovietAnthropology Anthropology Archeology 2 (1963), the Works of of Soviet Soviet Researchers," "Slaves, andand Archeology 15, nos. "Slaves, Helots, Helots, and and Serfs Serfs in in Early Early Antiquity," Antiquity," Soviet SovietAnthropology Anthropology Archeology 15, nos. 2-3 (1976), with with G. A. Melikishvili's the Most 2 - 3 (1976), G. A. Melikishvili's studies: studies: "On "On the the Character Character of of the Most Ancient Ancient Class Introduction totoSoviet Ethnography, ed. ed. by S.byP.S.Dunn and and E. Dunn, Soviet Ethnography, P. Dunn E. Dunn, Class Societies," Societies," in in Introduction vol. 2, vol. 2, pp. pp. 549-73 549-73 (Berkeley: (Berkeley: Highgate Highgate Road Road Social Social Science Science Research Research Station, Station, 1974); 1974); "The SovietAnthropolAnthropol"The Character Character of of the the Socio-economic Socio-economic Structure Structure in in the the Ancient Ancient East," East," Soviet ogy and 15,15, nos.nos. 2-32-3 (1976); andand "Some Aspects of the Question ofthe Socioogy andArcheology Archeology (1976); "Some Aspects of the Question of the Socioeconomic Ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern Societies," Anthropology and and economic Structure Structure of of Ancient Societies," Soviet Soviet Anthropology Archeology 17,17, no. Archeology no.I (1978). 1 (1978). 9. istorii, 1985, no. no. 4. 4. Vestnikdrevnei drevnei istorii, 1985, 9. Vestnik

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simply to label Soviet scholarship on the ancient world as Marxist or to common denominator find a common denominator in historical materialism as an answer to these questions for, at least, two reasons. First, not all Soviet historians are Marxists, Marxists, though though it probably would be fair to say that those who are who are not Marxists, have pursued their their historical historical researches researches without without are not Marxists, have pursued challenging Marx's Marx's or Lenin's writings, indeed often often without referring referring writings, indeed challenging paradigm and its classic literature at all. That That is, the debatesdebates— to this paradigm occasionally vitriolic-that vitriolic—that have have occurred occurred and continue to rage in the occasionally the whether or Soviet literature have taken place within recognized limits; whether as self-circumscribed self-circumscribed in the future future not Soviet historical writings will be as whether this silence or is unclear, though it, at least, is questionable whether default by omission will continue as Soviet society evolves and accepts default and openly debates more of its own own internal contradications. and Second, as any observer observer of Western Marxism immediately recognizes, not all Marxists, including Soviet historians, interpret interpret Marx and his successors in the same fashion. In the the West, tremendous, at times differences exist among scholars professing professing to write irreconcilable, differences within the Marxist tradition;IO tradition; 10 in the Soviet Union, this tendency may may be muted, but it is still possible to detect differences, find differences, and one may find interpretations relatively more deterministic or vulgar materialistic interpretations emphasizing the more voluntaristic, class struggle alongside others emphasizing side of Marxism. The shared interests and T h e Introduction Introduction to Early Antiquity stresses the shared common common perspectives of the numerous contributors to The History of of the Ancient Ancient World, World, asserting that it was was the conscious decision of the editorial board particular approach board to select scholars sharing a particular approach or oriorientation to historical data. This claim too should be tempered tempered someinsofar as it is fair to judge judge the orientation orientation of specific specific what, at least insofar contributors in terms of their other other published works. contributors A. Dandamaev, a contributor contributor to volvolFor example, the views of M. A. ume 2 of The Ancient World, The History of the Ancient World, The The Florescence Florescence of ofAncient Ancient Societies, Societies,on onthe theslave-owning slave-owningcharacter characterofofNeo-Babylonian Neo-Babylonianand andAchaeAchaemenian societies differ differ markedly from the long-accepted, more orthoof Diakonoff Diakonoff that more or less slavelike dependents were dox position of major exploited labor force throughout all periods of of antiquity. the m~or The contrast is explicitly drawn by Dandamaev in his recently transSlavery in in Babylonia: Babylonia: From From Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great lated Slavery Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great (626-331 B.C): (626-331 B.C.): Slavery never reached in Babylonia such a degree of of developof slave labor as having the leading ment that one can speak of 10. 10. For For divisions divisions within within Western Western Marxism, Marxism, see see P. P. Anderson's Anderson's fine fine studies: studies: ConsideraConsiderations of Western Western Marxism (London: NLB, NLB, 1976), Arguments Arguments within English English Marxism (Lon(LonNLB, 1983). don: NLB, NLB, 1980), and In the Tracks Tracks of of Historical Materialism (London: NLB,

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role role in in the the economy. economy. Slave Slave labor labor was was only only one one of of several several types types of forced forced labor labor and and not always the the most significant..... . . . That That of not always most significant there was no predominance of branch of of there was no predominance of slave slave labor labor in in any any branch the Babylonian economy economy is is not the main more imporimporthe Babylonian not the main point; point; more tant is is that that labor labor in in agriculture agriculture was was furnished furnished primarily tant primarily by by free farmers farmers and and tenants labor also also dominated dominated free tenants and and that that free free labor in craft craft industriesY industries.11 in

Certainly, not not all all the the contributors contributors consider consider themselves themselves represenrepresenCertainly, tatives of of aa particular "school," though, though, as as noted, noted, it it is is not not without without inintatives particular "school," terest for for both theoretical and and obviously obviously practical reasons that that nearly nearly terest both theoretical practical reasons all the in Leningrad. Leningrad. Dr. Dr. DiakonofI Diakonoff and and his his edithe contributors contributors work work in ediall torial board board have have chosen chosen scholars scholars whom they personally have known known torial whom they personally have and collaborated collaborated with with for for years. years. Given Given this this context, context, it it would would be be sursurand prising if one one could could not not detect detect certain certain common common themes themes and and frameframeprising if works for understanding understanding the characterize the works of of this this works for the past past that that characterize the works Leningrad circle circle of of historians historians of of the the ancient ancient world. world. Leningrad Even outside outside this this circle, circle, within Soviet historiography as aa whole, Even within Soviet historiography as whole, one can can detect detect aa common common sense sense of of problem, common arena arena of of dedeone problem, aa common bate that unites scholars as as sharply sharply opposed opposed as Diakonoff and and bate that unites scholars as DiakonofI Melikishvili. Here, Here, reference reference to reading of of Marx Marx is is approapproMelikishvili. to aa particular particular reading priate. Melikishvili writes that priate. Melikishvili writes that in order order to to arrive arrive at at aa characterization characterization of of the the socioeconomic socioeconomic in system of of any any society, society, it it is is quite quite important important to to identify identify its its class system class structure, particularly particularly the the status status of of the the direct direct producers. producers. structure, However, one one must must not not forget forget that the class class structure structure of of sothat the soHowever, ciety is is itself itself derivative derivative and and depends depends on on the the division division of of labor labor ciety operative in in that that society-the society—the economic economic base, base, the the fundamenfundamenoperative tal expression expression of of which which is is property relationships..... . . .since tal property relationships since it it is the the economic economic base—the totality of of the the relationships relationships of of prois base-the totality production—that defines aa system system (society), (society), it it will understood duction-that defines will be be understood that one one system system may may be be distinguished distinguished from from another another above above all that all in terms terms of of that that base, of the the relationships relationships of of production, production, in base, of which, in the words of of Marx, are expressed expressed in in property relawhich, in the words Marx, are property relations. Proceeding Proceeding from from this this assumption, assumption, researchers researchers are are enentions. 11. by v. 11. Trans. Trans, by V. A. A. Powell, Powell, ed. ed. by by M. M. Powell Powell (co-editor (co-editor D. D.B. B. Weisberger), Weisberger), (DeKalb: (DeKalb: Press, 1984), 1984), p. p. 660. 660. Also, Also, see see his his review review of of the the slave-owning slave-owning Northern Illinois Illinois University University Press, Northern debate in in Soviet Soviet Orientalist Orientalist literature literature through through 1977, 1977, "Problemy "Problemy istorii istorii drevnevostochdrevnevostochdebate nykh obshchestv obshchestv vv trudakh trudakh sovetskikh sovetskikh vostokovedov vostokovedov (1967 (1967-1977 gg.)" [Problems [Problems of of the the nykh -1977 gg.)" history of of ancient ancient Eastern Eastern societies societies in in the the works of Soviet Soviet Orientalists Orientalists (1967-1977)], works of (1967-1977)], history Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, 1977, 4. For a recent defense of the slave-owning concept Vestnik 1977, no. no. 4. For a recent defense of the slave-owning concept theAncient AncientWorld, World, F. Il'yin, "Drevneby another contributor contributor to The History to The History ofofthe see see G. F.G.I1'yin, "Drevneby another vostochnoe obshchestvo obshchestvo ii problemy problemy ego ego sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi struktury" struktury" [Ancient [Ancient vostochnoe Eastern society society and and the the problem problem of of its its socioeconomic socioeconomic structure], structure], Vestnik Vestnikdrevnei drevnei istorii, Eastern istorii, 1983, no. no. 3. 3. 1983,

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tirely justified justified in recognizing recogmzmg property relationships as the system-forming system-forming element of of a given society.12 society.12 This is developed from a straightforward, straightforward, unambiguous interpretaof Marx's famous "Introduction" to A Contribution ContributiontotothetheCritique Critique tion of of of Political Political Economy Economy and and summarizes summarizes thethe orthodox, orthodox, oror classic, classic, Marxism Marxism es-esof antiquity. Certain emphapoused by most Soviet Marxist historians of ses, however, are apparent. The primary task of the historian is to characterize the socioeconomic system a society. Thus, there a concharacterize the socioeconomic system ofof a society. Thus, there is is a concern for definition, a need to construct a typology that reduces the bewildering kaleidoscopic array of of historical data into a manageable, understandable whole. Primary effort is expended expended on on defining defining stages stages understandable whole. Primary effort is of development and describing their characteristics; less energy is deof voted to explaining processes of of change or how societies evolve from from one developmental stage to another. The Marxism shared by many Soviet historians of of antiquity is certainly not vulgarly materialist in the of reducing social complexity to features of of the environment environment or sense of of of explaining institutions in terms of of the functions they perform perform to solve problems ultimately posed by nature. Nor is theirs a Marxism of production. The general disemphasizing changes in the forces of 13 of archaeological data already has been noted; paragement of noted;13 while mentioned, technological technological developments developments are are not not emphasized emphasized relative relative mentioned, to the the reconstruction reconstruction of of social social groups groups in in terms terms of of their their access access to to means means to of production. The concern, concern, quite quite properly, properly, is is with with the the recoristruction reconstruction of production. The of direct direct primary primary production, production, which which for for antiquity antiquity always always meant meant agriagriof cultural production—thus, the emphasis emphasis on on the the critical critical variables variables of cultural production-thus, the of landownership and and land land use. landownership use. theAncient Ancient World As the reader soon will discover, The History History ofofthe World is is not a speculative accouI:1t account but a rich summary based on the distillation of primary source materials. Most contributors are internationally of known specialists in their fields, and their lectures here detail current historical knowledge. As emphasized in the Introduction, however, often are so incomplete that they cansource materials for antiquity often not serve as the sole basis for reconstruction, and consequently, the of the authors help them fill theoretical perspectives of fill in the lacunae and guide guide them consciously or or not not in in fleshing out their their portraits and them consciously fleshing out portraits of of past societies and and epochs. epochs. One One aid aid frequently frequently employed employed in in this this task task is past societies is the use use of of an an evolutionary evolutionary theory theory that its Marxist Marxist origins origins in in F. the that finds finds its F. 12. A. Melikishvili, the Questions the Socioeconomic 12. C. G. A. Melikishvili, "Some "Some Aspects Aspects of of the Questions of of the Socioeconomic StrucStructure of Ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern Societies," p. 26. 26. of Ancient Societies," p. ture to contrast the once-popular 13. 13. It It is is instructive, instructive, for for example, example, to contrast the once-popular summary summary of of ancient ancient to the the fall fall of of Rome What Happened HappenedininHistory, History, written Marxist archaeolohistory to history Rome What written by by thethe Marxist archaeoloGordon Childe (rev. ed. with that gist ed. [London: [London: Penquin Penquin Books, Books, 1954), 1954), with that presented presented gist V. V. Gordon Childe (rev. here by Soviet Marxist Marxist linguists/historians. linguists/historians. here by Soviet

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Engels, Origin Origin of of the the Family, Family, Private Private Property, Property,and andthe theState. State.For Forthe theWestWestern particular evolutionern reader, reader, the the terminology terminology associated associated with with this this particular evolutionary perspective may have have aa slight slight anachronistic anachronistic ring. For example, example, in in ary perspective may ring. For the the second second section section of of Lecture Lecture 1, 1, we we read read that that "accelerating "accelerating progress progress distinguishes the the early early class class society society from from barbarism, barbarism, the level that that distinguishes the level even the most primitive society even the most developed developed primitive society cannot cannot exceed." exceed." Societies Societies are ranked on an an ascending ascending scala societatis, and it may always are ranked on scala societatis, and it may notnot always be be clear how they can mutate or or so so transform in order order to be clear how they can mutate transform themselves themselves in to be classified at at aa new new evolutionary evolutionary level. classified level. Evolutionary theory also the basis basis for Evolutionary theory also sometimes sometimes serves serves as as the for reconreconstruction when are silent. silent. For his controversial controversial interpretation interpretation struction when the the texts texts are For his of aa large large and and important economic sector sector in in third third of important private/communal private/communal economic millennium Mesopotamia, Diakonoff Diakonoff utilizes utilizes aa variety variety of of arguargumillennium B.C. B.C. Mesopotamia, ments, one of is based based principally principally on on his his understanding of the the ments, one of which which is understanding of final stage stage of of advanced advanced patriarchal barbarism: final patriarchal barbarism:

In the medieval In the the same same way way as as the medieval society society inherited inherited certain certain the ancient features features of of the the ancient ancient society society structure, structure, the ancient society society did also certain still more ancient did also inherit inherit certain still more ancient structures structures from from the the society which preceded Arising from the. primitive primitive presociety which preceded it. it. Arising from the preurban, pre-class pre-class society, the ancient ancient society not have urban, society, the society could could not have been divided and slaves; the numerbeen divided solely solely into into slave-owners slave-owners and slaves; the numerically predominant part of the ically predominant part of the population population could could not not fail fail to to had been been inherited the mass consist consist of of what what had inherited from from the mass of of the the population of the pre-class pre-class society mass population of the society..... . . . it it certainly certainly was was aa mass of personally free of personally free persons, persons, at at least least in in so so far far as as the the family family heads 14 heads were were concerned. concerned.14 Although the texts themselves us that the case, case, Although the texts themselves do do not not inform inform us that this this was was the such aa mass mass of of free free citizens citizens theoretically theoretically must such must have have continued continued to to exist exist during during the the time time when when the the state state and and temple temple sectors sectors first first slowly slowly develdeveloped; oped; later later it it was was the the impoverished impoverished members members of of this this citizenry citizenry who who hired themselves themselves out the large hired out as as laborers laborers for for the large centralized centralized economies. economies. The to question this reconstruction, may seem logiThe point point is is not not to question this reconstruction, which which may seem logical and basis: aa vision vision cal and convincing, convincing, but but to to emphasize emphasize its its epistemological epistemological basis: of preclass society that that is from Engels's Engels's Origin, of preclass society is derived derived ultimately ultimately from Origin, though bolstered, though bolstered, of of course, course, with with later later historical historical and and ethnographic ethnographic evidence. evidence. Evolutionary teminology teminology permeates the created Evolutionary permeates the created ordering ordering of of antiqantiquity. different "ways uity. We We are are presented presented with with different "ways of of development" development" along along which which preclass preclass societies societies evolved evolved into into stratified stratified states. states. Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and Egypt distinguished and and both are separated separated from the and Egypt are are thus thus distinguished both are from the military states (Hittite, (Hittite, Mitannian, etc.) that arose later later outside irmilitary states Mitannian, etc.) that arose outside the the ir14. Ancient Near 14. 1. I. M. M. Diakonoff, Diakonoff, "The "The Rural Rural Community Community in in the the Ancient Near East," East," Journal Journalof ofthe the Economic and Social History of of the Orient 28, part part 2 (1985): 122.

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rigated heartlands of rigated of the Nile and Euphrates valleys. On the one from history, transcending strict hand, these types are abstracted abstracted from chronological limits: chronological . . . societies belonging typologically to early antiquity do do ... not necessarily arise only in the chronological chronological framework framework of of the classical ancient ancient Orierit: Orient: in certain places the same tyB.C. andpology can also be traced in the first millennium millennium B.C. and— albeit for a short time—in time-in the first millennium millennium A.D., A.D., as, for for instance, in northern northern and eastern Europe. In the tropics, in mountainous mountainous zones, and in piedmont piedmont regions, the same typology may linger and even reemerge as late as the second I5 half half of of the second millennium millennium A.D. A.D. 15

On and make On the other other hand, specific specific discussions always emphasize and clear that the factor factor of of time-the time—the period period when early states emerge-is emerge—is millennium military states (or crucial. In reference reference to the later second millennium of development), Diakonoff Diakonoff writes that third way of his third the fact that these societies took longer longer to attain the level ofa of a class society and of of civilization gave Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia the time to exert a powerful powerful cultural influence potamia influence on these areas-an areas—an influence influence aimed precisely at strengthening strengthening I6 . the authority of of temples and of of the royal power.16 These "types," thus, are related to one another another historically (i.e., they mutually influence influence one another), as, undoubtedly, also would be true true for for which we cannot their early ways for areas for cannot adequately adequately reconstruct reconstruct their of development development from from the available historical evidence (e.g., India India and of China). The T h e question arises as to whether whether or or not an unnecessary unnecessary tension has fostered between between the historical account and the abstracted abstracted been fostered evolutionary evolutionary types. Are the latter really necessary for writing a uniT h e purpose purpose they serve must be the simplification simplification and versal history? The ordering but their use exacts the price (reinforced ordering of of data, but (reinforced by the organizational framework framework of of the work) of of minimizing the historical relaganizational tionships and and interconnections interconnections among the separate societies that transformed of the same transformed themselves into states during the course of "world-historical" time. Marxism and Beyond: The Missing Dialogue The World does notnot concern itself solely with thethe The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World does concern itself solely with reconstruction reconstruction of of socioeconomic socioeconomic systems. systems. Its Its Marxism Marxism is is not not the the crude crude 15. p.46. 15. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 46. 16. p.45. 16. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 45.

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variety that cleanly base from of variety that cleanly separates separates phenomena phenomena of of the the base from those those of the superstructure. superstructure. Some Some of of the the most most fascinating fascinating sections sections attempt attempt to to the reconstruct ancient thought: mythologies, worldviews, early systems systems reconstruct ancient thought: mythologies, world views, early of "proto-ethics," "proto-ethics," and and later later philosophies. philosophies. In In these these sections, sections, ancient ancient of ideology is is not not simply simply reduced reduced to to "false "false consciousness," consciousness," though anthough anideology cient thought thought is is viewed viewed as as related related to to and and ultimately ultimately derivative derivative of of social social cient reality; is, social social experience experience determines determines consciousness, consciousness, more more than than that is, reality; that the reverse. reverse. The The discussions discussions of of how how reality reality colors colors consciousness consciousness and, and, the in turn, turn, is is changed changed by by it it under under the the relatively relatively low low level level of of development development in of productive forces of productive forces in in antiquity antiquity are are insightful insightful and and stimulating. stimulating. Dr.Diakonoff Diakonoff adumbrates adumbrates an anagenda agenda for for aafuture future gengenIn In Lecture Lecture 11 Dr. eration of of historians. historians. As As the the mature mature reflections reflections of of aa great great scholar, scholar, his his eration suggestions deserve attention; as as recommendations for aa suggestions deserve careful careful attention; recommendations for more complete complete accounting accounting of of the the past past by by aa leading leading Soviet Soviet Marxist Marxist hismore historian, whose whose writings writings over over aa long long and and distinguished distinguished career career have have subsubtorian, stantially refined refined and and sustained sustained their their still-dominant still-dominant stage stage theory theory of of stantially successive socioeconomic socioeconomic formations, formations, they they are are of of great great intellectual intellectual ininsuccessive terest. The The attempt attempt is is to to provide comprehensive understandunderstandprovide aa more more comprehensive terest. ing of of the the past than that that obtained obtained from from an an exclusive exclusive focus focus on on the the ing past than interplay between between changes changes in in the the forces forces and and changes changes in in the the relations relations interplay of production. production. of Maintaining his his materialism materialism by by citing citing the the well-known well-known dictum dictum that that Maintaining an mass consciousan idea idea becomes becomes aa material material force force once once it it is is seized seized by by mass consciousness, Diakonoff argues argues for for aa history history of of emotions emotions that that utilizes utilizes and and exexness, Diakonoff tends analytical analytical techniques techniques developed developed by by social social psychologists. Major tends psychologists. Major universal historical historical significance, historical events events of of universal significance, such such as as the the initial initial historical spread of Islam or or the cannot be be adequately adequately exexspread of Islam the French French Revolution, Revolution, cannot plained nor deduced deduced from from aa consideration consideration solely solely of of developments developments plained by by nor in the the forces forces and and relations relations of of production. production. Why Why some some movements have in movements have succeeded and failed and and why occurred precisely when and others others failed why they they occurred precisely when succeeded they did did cannot cannot be be explained explained simply simply by consideration of of economic economic they by consideration phenomena. His is is aa call call for for aa historical social psychology, psychology, aa new, phenomena. His historical social new, much more more comprehensive comprehensive history of culture culture that that considers considers everyeverymuch history of thing "that "that.... . . has has an an impact impact upon upon society society and and that that induces induces men and thing men and women socially valid actions."17 women to to socially valid actions."17 These These thoughtful, thoughtful, provocative provocative suggestions suggestions are are offered offered to to future future historians but they historians of of antiquity, antiquity, but they are are of of interest interest to to other other specialists specialists concerned either either empirically empirically or or theoretically concerned theoretically with with macrohistorical macrohistorical dedevelopments: anthropologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, archaeologists, historical historical sociologists, sociologists, velopments: minded economists, psyeconomic historians historians and and historically historically minded economists, social social psyeconomic chologists, and, and, of course, medieval medieval and and modern modern historians. historians. It It is is imimof course, chologists, possible to to read read this this section section without without reflecting reflecting upon the unfortunate unfortunate upon the possible 17. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 63. 17. p.63.

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XXI xxi

absence of of reference reference to trends in contemporary contemporary Western historiogmacrohistorical studies and critiques and. and deraphy and to Western macrohistorical of historical materialism. materialism. fenses of One would like to know, for example, how Diakonoff Diakonoff would evaluate the macrohistorical works of Annales historians in of certain French Annales of his called-for called-for historical social psychology. Would Braudel's terms of use of of a plurality of of times from from the longue duree to the event be considered a useful useful or a confused confused and obfuscatory obfuscatory analytical technique for for ordering ordering history on a macroscale? Superficially, Superficially, at least, the wellknown attempts to write histories of of the mentalites mentalites of oi given periods (e.g., the studies of of G. Duby, J. LeGoff, P. P. Aries) seem to have already set in practice Diakonoff's Diakonoff's recommendations recommendations for a more complete understanding understanding of of the past. Or Or do they? Would Diakonoff Diakonoff criticize them on fairly obvious materialist grounds? Diakonoff Diakonoff undoubtedly undoubtedly would insist that whether whether one writes an histoire histoire des desmentalites mentalitesor or aa hishistorical social psychology of of the sort he envisages, the critica1 critical task is to of a society at a relate the collective representations or psychology of particular point in time to its social structure, internal contradictions, particular and class class antagonisms. antagonisms. He He would would correctly correctly assert assert that that if if these these connecconnecand of muddled, imprecise tions are not made, the result may be a kind of of ideas in which the mentalites mentalites are viewed either as inexplicahistory of "drift tobly resisting change or teleologically exhibiting a gradual "drift wards enlightenment."IB enlightenment." 18 In certain respects, Diakonoff's Diakonoff's discussion of of the limitations of of previous socioeconomic historical research and suggestions for a history of emotions and a broadened broadened history of of culture seem to anticipate or of independently voice many of of the objections articulated articulated by M. Sahlins independently and—to a Marxist purist—disturbing of in his not-insensitive and-to purist-disturbing critique of "practical reason."1919 Conceptual differences, differences, of of course, are manifest. manifest. of Western (or, here, indusSahlins emphasizes the symbolic ordering of conditioned belief belief in "obtrial) society and its nonreflective, culturally conditioned 18. 18. The The phrase phrase is is M. M. Gismondi's. Gismondi's. See See his his penetrating penetrating analysis analysis of of the the histoire histoiredes des menmentalites,ororwhat whathehesarcastically sarcasticallyrefers referstotoasasthis this"new "newapproach approachtotoilluminating illuminatingthe therole roleofof talites, Theory': A A Critique Critique of of the the Histoire Histoire the common common people people in in history." history." See See his his '''The "'The Gift Gift of of Theory': the desMentalites," Mentalites,"Social Social History 10, 2no.(1985). 2 (1985). an extended discussion of the early des History 10, no. For For an extended discussion of the early histoiredes desmentalites mentalites in the Annales the divergent emphases development of of the the histoire development in the Annales and and the divergent emphases given it it by by L. L. Febvre Febvre and and M. M. Bloch, Bloch, see see A. A. Burguiere, Burguiere, "The "The Fate Fate of of the the History History of of MenMengiven talities in in the the Annales,'" Comparative Studies Studies in in Society Society and and History History 24, 24, no. no. 3 3 (1982). (1982). In In aa talities Annales," Comparative personal communication, communication, Dr. Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff has has informed informed me me that that he he evaluates evaluates the the contricontripersonal bution of of Braudel Braudel and and the the annalistes annalistesinina agenerally generallypositive positivelight. light. bution (Chicago: University of of Chicago 19. 19. See See M. M. Sahlins, Sahlins, Culture Culture and andPractical PracticalReason Reason (Chicago: University Chicago Press, 1976), 1976), as as well as his his later later historical historical essays essays on on Polynesia: Polynesia: Historical Metaphors Press, well as Historical Metaphors andand of the the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann ArMythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of bor: University University of of Michigan, Michigan, 1981), 1981), and and Islands History(Chicago: (Chicago:University UniversityofofChiChiIslands ofofHistory bor: cago Press, Press, 1985). 1985). cago

XXll xxii

Foreword

jective" reality jective" reality and and the the dominance dominance of of pragmatic pragmatic activities activities and and seeks seeks aa posed alternatives, historical historical synthesis synthesis of of conventionally conventionally posed alternatives, such such as as strucstructure ture and and history, history, materialism materialism and and idealism, idealism, or or infrastructure infrastructure and and susuperstructure. Diakonoff perstructure. Diakonoff appeares appeares unaware unaware or, or, at at least, least, unconcerned unconcerned with the the problem problem of of subjectivity subjectivity and and never abandons an an essentially essentially with never abandons historical materialist materialist position, position, though though attempting attempting to to extend extend the the traditradihistorical tional reading of of Marx Marx among among Soviet Soviet historians. certain historians. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, certain tional reading points of similarity similarity remain. remain. It It can can be be argued argued that that with some modificamodificawith some points of tion, Diakonoff's recommendations incorporephrased to to incorpotion, Diakonoff's recommendations might might be be rephrased rate the the anthropological anthropological concept concept of of culture culture initially initially developed developed by by F. rate F. Boas, aa change change that that for for Sahlins Sahlins would would represent represent the the initial, initial, minimally minimally Boas, necessary emendation to to Marx. Marx. If If this this were were attempted, attempted, one one could, could, necessary emendation perhaps, more more clearly clearly detect detect and and understand understand the the differences differences that that sepperhaps, separate aa more more sophisticated sophisticated historical historical materialism materialism from from the the symbolic symbolic arate anthropological or or "culturological" "culturological" approach approach of of Sahlins. Sahlins. anthropological Unfortunately, Unfortunately, this this exercise exercise is is unlikely unlikely ever ever to to be be undertaken, undertaken, for for these disthese possible possible protagonists protagonists carryon carry on totally totally different different scholarly scholarly discourses. Here, Here, one one can can only only note note and and regret regret the lack of of common common conconthe lack courses. ceptual ceptual ground, ground, the the absence absence of of aa shared shared vocabulary vocabulary and and literature literature among scholars scholars concerned concerned with with essentially essentially similar similar theoretical theoretical probprobamong lems on on either either side side of of the the East-West East-West political political divide. divide. The The absence absence of of lems dialogue is is as as apparent apparent as as it it is is unnecessary. unnecessary. Western Western readers readers of of The dialogue The History ofthe theAncient AncientWorld World appreciate quality historical willwill appreciate thethe quality of of historical re-reHistory of search on oh antiquity antiquity conducted conducted by by Soviet Soviet specialists, specialists, aa fact fact long long recogrecogsearch nized by by ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern scholars. scholars. However, However, when when one one turns turns to to nized broader theoretical concerns, concerns, an an unfortunate unfortunate vacuum vacuum exists exists in in which which broader theoretical Soviet and Western scholars scholars seem seem to to be either unaware unaware of of or or out-ofout-ofSoviet and Western be either date with with each each other's other's works. works. There There are are for for example, example, more more recent recent date Western overviews overviews and and macrohistorical macrohistorical theories than those advanced Western theories than those advanced by Spengler Spengler and and Toynbee Toynbee (as (as intimated intimated in in the the Introduction). Introduction). In In realby reality, though, though, the problem is is more more serious serious on on the the Western side, where where the problem Western side, ity, the tendency tendency is is to to dismiss dismiss out out of of ignorance ignorance (including (including the the inability inability to to the read Russian) Russian) Soviet Soviet writings writings as as dogmatic dogmatic and and uninteresting. uninteresting. The The conconread demnation is is not not only only uninformed uninformed but but paradoxical: how can can such such bedemnation paradoxical: how benighted theory produce such quality scholarship? One is reminded of nighted theory produce such quality scholarship? One is reminded of the equally illogical political view that fears a Soviet Union bent on the equally illogical political view that fears a Soviet Union bent on world domination domination while while at at the the same same time time predicts predicts the the imminent imminent colworld collapse of its economy—a thought that inexorably leads one to the to the lapse of its economy-a thought that inexorably leads one gloomy, if realistic, expectation that communication among scholars, gloomy, if realistic, expectation that communication among scholars, as well as politicians, politicians, is is likely likely to to improve improve substantially substantially only only when when the the as well as objective conditions for its persistence themselves change; that objective conditions for its persistence themselves change; that is, is, when sides move move beyond the cold cold war realities of of the the last last forty forty both sides beyond the war realities when both Antiquity,obobyears and and define define aa new new relationship. relationship. Translation Translation of of Early Early Antiquity, years viously represents no such breakthrough, but it does provide us with viously represents no such breakthrough, but it does provide us with aa

Foreword

XXlll xxiii

unified current overview of antiquity and constitutes a small step toward maintaining and extending a sadly underdeveloped dialogue among interested, open-minded scholars and laypersons on the naof long-term historical developments. For the moment, all we ture of should do is simply sit back and enjoy this integrated vision of ancient history presented presented to to us us by by aa group group of of Soviet Soviet specialists. history specialists. Many people worked on the English translation of Early Early Antiquity. Antiquity.A.A. Kirjanov provided a rough translation of the entire volume and completed his task in the time promised. My duties as project director and final editor were immensely simplified by the fact that Mr. Kirjanov's translations were entered into the Wellesley computer by Ms. Ms. Daria Kirjanov, a former student at the College. Initially, I must confess to being somewhat intimidated by the rigorous standards of of editing insisted upon by Dr. Diakonoff; Diakonoff; his command of of English and impeccable sense of grammar, no doubt, increased ,my jny consternation. Obviously, he is primarily responsible for the standards of consistency and editorial uniformity present in the work. Wellesley College must be acknowledged for the support it provided, especially for covering the expenses of mailing rough and edited drafts to Leningrad; the of the Department of Anthropology's help of Anthropology's secretary at Wellesley, Ms. Ms. Edna Gillis, Gillis, in in the the final final preparation of Lectures Lectures 11 11 and and 19 19 also also must must Edna preparation of be mentioned. Publication would have been impossible without the assistance, indeed indeed encouragement, encouragement, of of the the University of Chicago Chicago Press, sistance, University of Press, particularly of its its most most able able and and understanding editor Ms. Ms. Karen Karen particularly of understanding editor Wilson. II would would also'like also like to to thank thank Dr. Dr. Norman Yoffee at at the the UniverUniverWilson. Norman Yoffee sity of of Arizona for his his support support and and for for originally originally suggesting suggesting to to people people sity Arizona for of Chicago Press that I actively participate in this at the University of project and Dr. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky of Harvard University for critiquing the the initial initial draft draft of of this this Foreword. My wife, wife, Barbara Barbara Gard, Gard, critiquing Foreword. My son, Owen, and daughter, Mira (who was born born during the long gestamy sequestersequestertion of of this this work), work), must must be be praised praised for for their their tolerance tolerance of of my tion myself for inexplicably interminable hours in our "computer ing myself room." Without Without their their unreasonable unreasonable patience patience and and encouragement encouragement this this room." work would would not not have have appeared. appeared. work And, finally, I wish to acknowledge that it has been a privilege to M. Diakonoff Diakonoff on this project. The breadth of have worked with Dr. I. M. of his erudition and stature as a scholar require no more comment. Once we had had agreed agreed upon upon aa system system of of editing editing and and regularly regularly corresponded, corresponded, we all work proceeded smoothly. I like to believe this was accomplished not only only because because we we shared shared the the same same professional professional goal goal of of producing producing aa not scrupulously accurate accurate and readable translation but also because we scrupulously grew to to appreciate appreciate each each other other as as colleagues colleagues and and friends. friends. II am am most most grew grateful to have had this opportunity. grateful

Introduction Introduction THE EDITORIAL EDITORIAL BOARD BOARD THE

General Remarks Remarks General

The The occasion occasion to to write write this this book book arose arose out out of of work work conducted conducted over over many years years by by aa large large group group of of collaborators collaborators at at the the Oriental Oriental Institute Institute many of the the USSR USSR Academy Academy of of Sciences Sciences and and other other scholarly scholarly institutions institutions of during the the preparation preparation of of the the extensively extensively documented, documented, multivolume multivolume during Istoriya drevnegoVostoka Vostoka [History of the ancient orient]. latter Istoriya drevnego [History of the ancient orient]. As As the the latter publication is is oriented oriented toward toward specialists, specialists, our our editorial editorial board board and and publication group of of authors authors decided decided to to write write the the present present work work in in the the interest interest group of reaching reaching aa broader broader public. public. Directed Directed at at aa wider wider audience, audience, this this work work of examines the the history of ancient ancient class class societies societies and and states states that that once once examines history of existed in in Asia, Asia, Europe, Europe, and and North North Africa Africa as as part part of of the the process of the the process of existed historical development development of of humanity. humanity. Scholars Scholars of of numerous numerous scientific scientific historical and educational educational institutions institutions from from all all parts parts of of the the Soviet Soviet Union Union participarticiand pated in in this this effort. effort. pated Thus, publication, which (Early Thus, our our publication, which will will consist consist of of three three volumes volumes (Early Antiquity, Florescence of ofAncient Ancient Societies, Societies,and andThe TheDecline DeclineofofAncient Ancient Antiquity, The Florescence Societies),isisananattempt attempttotocreate createa ahistorical historicalaccount accountinvolving involvingthe theenenSocieties), tire tire ancient ancient world. world. It It is is based based on on contemporary contemporary knowledge knowledge and and aa clearer understanding understanding not not only only of of the the individual individual features features of of specific specific clearer societies but but also also of of the the general general features features characteristic characteristic of of ancient ancient class class societies societies as as aa whole. whole. We We hope hope that that it it also also will contribute to to the the solution solution will contribute societies of ongoing ongoing theoretical theoretical controversies controversies on on this this subject. subject. The The authors authors beof believe that that the the idea idea that that specific specific ancient ancient societies societies exhibit exhibit an an absolute absolute dislieve dissimilarity among among themselves themselves has has arisen arisen through through examining examining them them similarity according to to unsuitable unsuitable reference reference scales scales that that are are either either too too restricted restricted according spatially or or too too narrow narrow temporally. temporally. The The authors authors contend contend that that aa comcomspatially prehensive view view of of all all ancient ancient societies, societies, seen seen in in relation relation to to each each other, other, prehensive will reveal reveal general general outlines outlines of of aa .regularity regularity in in the the historical historical developdevelopwill ment of of humanity. humanity. The The readers readers will will judge or not not we we were were ment judge whether whether or right. right. Today's Today's universities universities offer offer separate separate courses courses on on the the specific specific histories histories of of Greece, Greece, Rome, Rome, and and the the ancient ancient Orient. Orient. In In the the case case of of the the Orient, Orient, the courses courses end end abruptly abruptly at at arbitrary arbitrary periods periods in in the the development development of of the the various various Asian Asian or or African African societies, societies, and and their their histories histories are are not not preprethe universal historical historical process. process. Vsemirnaya Vsemirnayais-issented as as integral integral parts parts of of aa universal sented toria [Universal [Universal history] history] (vols. (vols. 1-2, 1-2, Moscow, Moscow, 1955-56) 1955-56) does does permit permit aa toria comparison between between the the more more significant significant societies societies in in the the context context of comparison of universal historical historical development; development; however, however, it it is is too too voluminous voluminous and, and, universal

2 2

Introduction Introduction

therefore, therefore, does does not not offer offer aa general general perspective. perspective. Moreover, Moreover, new new data data have made this this work, work, to to aa considerable considerable degree, degree, obsolete. obsolete. have made Other Vsemirnayaistoria, istoria, nono general, general, comprehensive comprehensive survey survey of of Other than than Vsemirnaya the the ancient the Soviet the history history of of the ancient world world has has appeared appeared in in the Soviet Union. Union. This lack lack is is due due to to the the difficulty difficulty of of treating treating material material covering covering so so many many This societies and and periods (a fact fact that that sometimes sometimes leads leads to to general general textbooks textbooks societies periods (a being authors insufficiently in the the historiography historiography of of being written written by by authors insufficiently versed versed in some of of the the societies societies treated). treated). It It was therefore decided decided to to assign assign the the some was therefore writing of each each section section of of the specialists in in particular particular fields. writing of the book book to to specialists fields. Keeping in in mind mind the the experience experience gained gained in in the the publication publication of of VsemirVsemirKeeping naya istoria, istoria,wewetried triedtotoavoid avoidexcessive excessiveunification unificationofofthe theauthors' authors'texts. texts. naya Thus, the publication is is actually actually aa collection collection of of lectures lectures in in Thus, the present present publication book form, form, read different experts, experts, each each in in his his or or her own way, way, but but book read by by different her own presented so as as to to create create aa general general overview. overview. Without Without supplying supplying expresented so exhaustive data data (because (because the the contents contents of of each each lecture lecture were were determined determined haustive by the specific specific interests, abilities, and and resources of the the individuallecindividual lecby the interests, abilities, resources of turer), such such aa series series should should ideally ideally offer offer aa general general notion notion of of the the subsubturer), ject matter with it deals. The contents contents of however, are are ject matter with which which it deals. The of the the book, book, however, ultimately determined by by the staff of of "lecturers" "lecturers" available. available. Our Our book, book, ultimately determined the staff thus, suffers from gaps, and and there are some some differences differences in in there are thus, suffers from inevitable inevitable gaps, the views adopted by the various writers on specific specific questions, questions, as as well the views adopted by the various writers on well as some some dissimilarities, dissimilarities, for for example, example, in in treating treating cultural cultural questions questions as concerning different different societies. societies. Each or her own concerning Each lecturer lecturer presents presents his his or her own view; and and depending depending on on an an author's author's individual individual interests interests and and point of of view; point preferences, the character character of of the the presentation, as well well as as the relative preferences, the presentation, as the relative emphasis on on the different materials materials presented presented (e.g., (e.g., the amount of of ininthe different the amount emphasis formation on on political, ethnic, or or cultural cultural history history relative relative to to socioecosocioecoformation political, ethnic, nomic information), information), changes changes from from lecture lecture to to lecture. lecture. The The editorial editorial nomic board assumes responsibility for the scientific and and methodmethodboard assumes responsibility for the overall overall scientific ological quality quality of of this book without agreeing with the ininthis book without necessarily necessarily agreeing with the ological dividual authors authors or or particular questions. particular questions. dividual On unanimity among On theoretical theoretical issues, issues, there there is is no no unanimity among Soviet Soviet historians historians (the below). This This lack (the problem problem is is discussed discussed in in more more detail detail below). lack of of agreeagreement naturally naturally is reflected in ment is reflected in our our text. text. The The editorial editorial board board did did not not consider it it possible to impose impose its its own own viewpoint, though aa general general ediediconsider possible to viewpoint, though torial statement the introductory torial statement appears appears in in the introductory chapter chapter to to each each volume. volume. In order order to to ensure ensure aa certain certain degree degree of of structural structural integrity integrity for for the the In book, however, editorial board board preferred to invite invite scholars scholars to to conconbook, however, the the editorial preferred to tribute who who share share most most of of their their theoretical theoretical positions positions and and who who work work tribute within mainstream tradition of Soviet Soviet scholarship. scholarship. Such Such authors authors the mainstream tradition of within the would, we believed, believed, reflect reflect more more or or less less faithfully faithfully the of the the mamawould, we the views views of jority of Soviet Soviet scholars. scholars. However, However, other other opinions opinions on on aa number number of jority of of important theoretical theoretical questions questions do do exist exist among among scholars, scholars, as as we will atatimportant we will tempt to to show show below. tempt below.

Introduction Introduction

33

Notwithstanding the closeness is Notwithstanding the closeness of of their their theoretical theoretical viewpoints, viewpoints, it it is quite understandable understandable that that there there are are disagreements disagreements among among our our auauquite thors, thors, as as an an attentive attentive reader reader will will easily easily discover. discover. Yet, Yet, it it is is important important to to emphasize that that despite despite disagreements disagreements on on minor minor points, points, the the authors authors emphasize based themselves themselves on on similar similar theoretical theoretical premises premises and and had had aa similar similar based understanding of of their their task, task, so so that that these these lectures lectures by by no no means means consticonstiunderstanding tute aa shapeless shapeless collection. collection. Rather, Rather, it it represents represents aa well-defined well-defined entity entity tute whose parts, parts, ultimately, ultimately, are are closely closely knit knit together. together. whose During During the the editing editing process, process, the the editors editors made made various various suggestions suggestions and and asked asked the the authors authors for for certain certain modifications modifications of of their their texts. texts. The The final final decision, decision, nevertheless, nevertheless, lay lay with with the the author. author. In In the the interest interest of of unity, unity, the the editorial editorial board board also also took took the the liberty liberty of of expressing expressing its its own own opinion presented by opinion about about the the material material presented by the the individual individual authorsauthors— namely, namely, in in the the general general theoretical theoretical sections sections preceding preceding each each of of the the three three volumes volumes of of the the work. work. The The editors editors actually actually intervened intervened only only where where the the designed length length of of the the book book or or other other technical technical considerations considerations warwardesigned ranted ranted such such action. action. The The suggestions suggestions and and factual factual corrections corrections of of nunumerous scholars scholars who who read read the the manuscripts manuscripts were were taken taken into into careful careful merous consideration. consideration. publication as book form, Given Given the the character character of of this this publication as lectures lectures in in book form, the the sections sections are are called called "lectures" "lectures" rather rather than than "chapters." "chapters." There There are are four four reasons justifying such aa designation: designation: the the independence independence of of the the secreasons justifying such sections; tions; the the fact fact that that some some of of them them are are actually actually based based on on lectures lectures delivdelivered universities or ered at at universities or other other institutions; institutions; the the fact fact that that the the amount amount of of material, in in most most cases, cases, fits fits into into the the time time span span normally allotted to to aa material, normally allotted be helpful helpful in lecture; lecture; and, and, finally, finally, the the fact fact that that such such aa format format may may be in using book as to emphasize using this this book as aa reference reference manual. manual. It It is is necessary necessary to emphasize that pretend to that this this book book does does not not pretend to replace replace existing existing textbooks, textbooks, particuparticularly university university texts texts on on Greece Greece and and Rome, Rome, which which develop develop the the material material larly in but fail the societies in more more detail detail but fail to to show show the the position position of of the societies treated treated within within the the overall overall human human historical historical process. process. As As we we have have already already stressed, all stressed, this this book book does does not not claim claim to to be be an an exhaustive exhaustive treatment treatment of of all regions regions and and problems problems of of the the ancient ancient world. world. At At the the same same time, time, the the leclectures, written independently by different authors, authors, partially overlap. tures, written independently by different partially overlap. We hope, nevertheless, that that this this book book conveys conveys an an integral integral and and more more or or We hope, nevertheless, less internally internally consistent consistent view of the the ancient ancient world. world. less view of Convinced the historical historical process, process, the Convinced of of the the unity unity of of the the authors authors considconsidered it it possible to adopt adopt aa single single periodization system for for the the history history ered possible to periodization system of ancient class societies societies and and divided divided the into three three stages, stages, of ancient class the materials materials into constituting three three separate separate volumes. The first first stage stage (the (the formation formation of volumes. The of constituting class class society society and and the the state state and and the the early early forms forms of of this this society) society) encomencompasses long time time span, span, stretching stretching from from the the end end of of the the fourth fourth to the passes aa long to the end of the the second B.C. The end of second millennium millennium B.C. The second second stage stage (the (the florescence florescence of ancient ancient societies societies and and the development of of the "slave" econeconof the highest highest development the "slave"

44

Introduction Introduction

omy) begins with the the introduction introduction of of iron iron at at the the end end of of the the second second and and omy) begins with beginning first millennium beginning of of the the first millennium B.C. B.C. and and lasts lasts throughout throughout the the entire entire first millennium millennium B.C. B.C. The The third third stage stage (the (the decline decline of of ancient ancient societies societies first and the appearance offeatures of features indicating indicating the the transition transition to feudalism) and the appearance to feudalism) A.D. occupies approximately approximately five centuries of of the the first millennium A.D. occupies five centuries first millennium The detailed detailed characterization characterization of of each each stage, stage, of of its its economic, economic, politipolitiThe cal, and and cultural cultural features, features, is is given given in in the the introductory introductory lectures lectures preprecal, ceding each each of of the the three three volumes. volumes. Within Within each each volume volume we we tried tried to to ceding examine the the individual individual countries countries chronologically. chronologically. Each Each volume volume is is subsubexamine ject to aa typological typological principle of periodization. As far far as as possible, ject to principle of periodization. As possible, we we characterized the the various various countries countries according according to to their their respective respective stage stage characterized of historical historical development. development. Expecting Expecting aa wide wide readership readership (i.e., (i.e., students, students, of teachers, and and anyone anyone interested interested in in ancient ancient history), history), the staff of of writers writers the staff teachers, aimed for for simplicity, simplicity, clarity, clarity, and and an an accessible accessible presentation presentation (based (based on on aimed scientific data data available available in in the the early early 1980s). 1980s). scientific Discussion of of Theoretical Theoretical Problems Problems Discussion in Contemporary Contemporary Ancient Ancient Historiography Historiography in Any textbook textbook on on history history in in our our country country is is usually usually preceded preceded by by an an ininAny troductory section section defining denning the the subject subject under consideration and and troductory unger consideration stating the the fundamentals fundamentals of of the the Marxist Marxist approach approach to to history. history. The The stating present work work is is not not aa textbook; textbook; it it is is intended intended for for readers readers with with aa suffisuffipresent ciently high high educational educational background background who who are are sufficiently sufficiently versed in the the versed in ciently fundamentals of of historical historical materialism. materialism. Today, Today, the the Marxist Marxist method method fundamentals maintains aa dominant dominant place place among among Soviet Soviet historians historians and and occupies occupies an an maintains important position all over over the the world. world. As As admitted admitted by by many many Western Western important position all scholars, there there does does not not exist exist in in the the West West any any complete complete and and consistent consistent scholars, theory of of history history regarded regarded as as aa single single process, process, aa theory theory comprehencomprehentheory sive enough enough to to match match that that of of historical historical materialism. materialism. We We will will assume assume sive that the the latter latter is is known known to to the the readers readers and and will will attempt attempt to to acquaint acquaint that them with with those those theoretical theoretical problems problems that that today today remain remain unresolved. unresolved. them The central central questions questions of of the the discussion, discussion, which which some some years ago conconThe years ago cerned Soviet historians, can be formulated in philosophical terms as cerned Soviet historians, can be formulated in philosophical terms as follows: What is the correlation between the general and the particufollows: What is the correlation between the general and the particular in in the the development development of of the the different different societies societies and and civilizations civilizations durdurlar ing the the precapitalist precapitalist period? period? The The question question can can be be rephrased rephrased in in terms terms ing of historical historical science science as as follows: follows: Is Is there there aa single, single, common common path of dedeof path of velopment for for all all precapitalist precapitalist societies societies (unavoidably (unavoidably with with local local varivelopment variants), or or are are there there several? several? Of Of course, course, all all Marxist Marxist historians historians adhere adhere to to ants), the concept that, that, in in the analysis, the the relations relations of of production production are are the concept the final final analysis, determined by the level level of of development development of of the the means means of of production. production. determined by the Yet, in theory, theory, it it is is quite quite possible possible to to accept accept that that specific specific local local features features Yet, in of the depending on on geographical geographical of the means means of of production production (e.g., (e.g., those those depending

Introduction Introduction

55

factors) under certain factors) can can lead, lead, under certain specific specific conditions, conditions, to to peculiar peculiar trends trends in production production relations, relations, thus thus producing typologically different different soin producing typologically societies. cieties. In In its its most most general general form, form, this this question question asks asks whether whether the the "West" "West" (i.e., Europe) Europe) and and the the "East" "East" (i.e., (i.e., virtually virtually the the rest rest of of the the world) world) have have (i.e" been developing developing in in more more or or less less the the same same way, way, or or whether whether the the course course been of development development each each has has followed followed is is radically radically different. different. of The West The idea idea of of aa radical radical difference difference between between the the East East and and the the West arose hisarose in in European European scholarship scholarship long long ago. ago. European European philosophers, philosophers, historians, and and writers writers of of belles-lettres belles-lettres became became interested interested in in the the East East as as torians, early early as as the the seventeenth seventeenth century. century. They They built built their their theories theories on on the the Bible, Bible, on on the the sparse sparse and and not not always always reliable reliable information information of of GraecoGraecoRoman Roman writers, writers, and and later later on on information information acquired acquired from from European European ambassadors ambassadors at at the the courts courts of of Oriental Oriental rulers, rulers, from from travelers, travelers, missionmissionaries, aries, and, and, since since the the middle middle of of the the eighteenth eighteenth century, century, from from colonial colonial functionaries. by ideologues functionaries. These These theories theories were were used used by ideologues of of the the growing growing bourgeoisie political aims. bourgeoisie for for their their political aims. The The attitude attitude toward toward the the political political order order of of the the East East swung swung from from idealization, idealization, which which presented presented the the social social and and state state order order of of Oriental Oriental societies societies (especially (especially of of China) China) as as models models to to be be emulated emulated (L. (L. Levalier, Levalier, Voltaire, Voltaire, F. F. Quesnay), Quesnay), to to sharp sharp condemnacondemnations tions of of and and warnings warnings against against any any attempts attempts to to follow follow these these examples examples (F. De(F. Bernier, Bernier, Ch. Ch. Montesquieu, Montesquieu, and and J. J. Rousseau Rousseau in in France France and and D. D. Defoe in in England). England). On On the the whole, whole, however, however, the the dominant dominant viewpoint viewpoint was foe was that that the the fundamental fundamental difference difference between between the the East East and and the the West West conconsisted in in the the absence absence of of private private property property in in the the Orient. Orient. It It was was assumed assumed sisted that all all the the land land in in that that part part of of the the world world belonged belonged to to the the monarchs monarchs as that a!. their property, and that that this this supreme supreme proprietorship proprietorship was was the the foundafoundatheir property, and tion of of "Oriental "Oriental despotism" despotism" and and of of "general "general slavery." slavery." tion The same point of view, with sundry variations, The same point of view, with sundry variations, predominated predominated in in the the beginning beginning of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century. century. Representatives Representatives of of prepreMarxian Marxian political political economy economy (Adam (Adam Smith, Smith, J. Stuart Stuart Mill, Mill, et et al.) al.) and and philosophy philosophy (G. (G. F. F. W. W. Hegel) Hegel) subscribed subscribed to to this this idea, idea, despite despite informainformation tion available available at at that that time time about about the the existence existence in in many many nations nations of of comcommunity munity relationships, relationships, private private property, property, and and so so on. on. In studying studying the the problems problems of of capitalist capitalist society, society, Marx Marx and and Engels Engels inevinevIn itably itably became became interested interested in in societies societies that that had had not not yet yet reached reached the the level level of capitalist capitalist development-hence, development—hence, their their interest interest in in the the Orient. Orient. HowHowof ever, they they began began studying studying the the Orient Orient only only in in 1853, 1853, with with most most of of their their ever, efforts efforts concentrated concentrated between between 1857 1857 and and 1859. 1859. Their Their opinions opinions stemstemming from from these these studies studies were were outlined outlined in in aa draft draft of of aa manuscript manuscript by ming by Economic Formations published during Marx's Marx, Precapitalist Marx, Precapitalist Economic Formations (not(not published during Marx's lifetime). The The Preface Preface to to The The Critique CritiqueofofPolitical Political Economy offers a more lifetime). Economy offers a more succinct review review of of this this subject. subject. In In his his analysis, analysis, Marx Marx formulates formulates the the succinct regular succession succession of of modes of production: "In broad broad outlines outlines Asiatic, regular modes of production: "In Asiatic, ancient, feudal, feudal, and and modern modern bourgeois modes of of production production can can be be bourgeois modes ancient,

6

Introduction Introduction

designated designated as as progressive progressive epochs epochs in in the the economic economic formation formation of of sosoThis is is the the first first expression expression of of aa dialectical dialectical materialist materialist view view of of ciety." ciety." Il This history as as aa single single developmental developmental process. process. This conclusion, of of course, course, history This conclusion, was drawn drawn from from the the scientific scientific data data accumulated accumulated up to that that time. time. Let Let us us up to was point out, out, however, however, that that Marx's Marx's formula formula assumes assumes that that an an "Asiatic" "Asiatic" point mode of production precedes is, the mode of production precedes the the ancient-that ancient—that is, the slave-owning slave-owning mode of of production. production. Also Also his his formula formula lacks lacks another another natural natural human human mode developmental stage: stage: the primitive mode mode of of production. The later later developmental the primitive production. The works of of Marx Marx and and Engels Engels developed developed the the fundamental fundamental principles principles of of works historical materialism materialism in in more more detail, detail, and and as as new new data data became became available, available, historical these principles evolved further, further, and and particular features of of historical historical particular features these principles evolved processes were were better understood. better understood. processes Information the work work of the period period in quesInformation about about the of historians historians during during the in question (i.e., (i.e., about about writings were used Marxist theoreticians), theoreticians), can can writings that that were used by by Marxist tion be found found in in special special publications publications dedicated dedicated to to historiography. historiography. Here Here we be we Society;or,or, will only mention mention the the work by L. L. H. H. Morgan: Morgan: Ancient work by Ancient Society; Re-Rewill only searchesininthe theLine Lineof ofHuman Human Progress Progressfrom fromSavagery Savagerythrough throughBarbarism Barbarismtoto searches (1877). In his Origin of of the Family, Civilization (1877); Family, Private Property, Property, and the State, Engels Engels notes notes that that Morgan's Morgan's book book has has"the "the same same significance significance for for State, the history history of of primitive society as as Darwin's Darwin's theory theory of of evolution evolution has for the primitive society has for Morgan's book was written written from from an an independently independently derived derived biology."2 Morgan's biology."2 book was materialist and contained contained considerable considerable data data about about preclass preclass sosomaterialist position position and cial structure structure as as well as about about approaches approaches to the emergence emergence of of class cial well as to the class society; that that is, is, about about data data illustrating illustrating the the fundamental fundamental positions of positions of society; historical materialism, materialism, which which could could and and did did lead lead to to further further and and deeper deeper historical studies. studies. We must must point point out out that that after after the the appearance appearance of of the first volume volume of of the first We Capital,the theterm term"Asiatic "Asiaticmode modeof ofproduction" production"disappears disappearsfrom from the the Capital, writings of writings of Marx Marx and and Engels. Engels. It It is is also also absent absent from from Lenin's Lenin's works works (ex(except, of of course, course, in in references references to to the the earlier earlier publications publications of of Marx Marx and and cept, Engels). Engels). On On the the whole, whole, the the development development of of historical historical materialism materialism led led to the the conclusion conclusion that that society society passed passed through through three three consecutive consecutive develdevelto opmental stages stages or or formations formations in in the the precapitalist primitive opmental precapitalist period: period: primitive order, slave-owning slave-owning order, order, and and feudalism. feudalism. order, The The end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century and and the the first first decades decades of of the the twentieth twentieth century century saw saw aa rapid rapid development development of of Oriental Oriental studies studies and and an an accumulation which was was accumulation of of enormous enormous amounts amounts of of new new information, information, which not easy to sort out. out. Among Among the the professional of that that time, not easy to sort professional historians historians of time, there was was no no unified unified conception conception of of history, history, except except for for the the hypothesis hypothesis there of cyclical cyclical development, development, aa theory theory that that was was rapidly rapidly losing losing its its supportsupportof 1. K. Progress K. Marx and F. F. Engels, Selected SelectedWorks Works(Moscow: (Moscow: ProgressPublishers, Publishers,1973), 1973), 1:504. 2. Ibid., 3:201.

Introduction Introduction

7

ers. ers. According According to to this this hypothesis, hypothesis, development development occurred occurred from from primiprimitive feudalism feudalism to to Graeco-Roman Graeco-Roman capitalism, capitalism, from from capitalism capitalism back back to to tive feudalism, from from there there to to aa new capitalism, and and so so on. on. This This hypothesis hypothesis feudalism, new capitalism, presented by by Eduard Meyer in was was most most vividly vividly presented Eduard Meyer in the the several several volumes volumes of of his History of ofAntiquity Antiquity(published (publishedbetween between1884 1884and and1902; 1902;numerous numerous his History reeditions appeared until the the middle the twentieth A reeditions appeared until middle of of the twentieth century). century). A somewhat similar similar cyclical cyclical theory theory was suggested by Oswald Spengler Spengler somewhat was suggested by Oswald (The Decline of Based on his theory, (The Decline of the the West, West, 22 vols., vols., 1918-23). 1918-23). Based on his theory, Spengler thought it present "the Spengler thought it possible possible to to present "the spiritual spiritual form, form, duration, duration, rhythm, meaning, rhythm, meaning, and and product product of of the the still still unaccomplished unaccomplished stages stages of of our Western However, Spengler'S Spengler's predictions predictions did did not not come come our Western history." history." However, true. In In the the West the views views of of the the philosophers W. Dilthey, Dilthey, B. B. Croce, Croce, true. West the philosophers W. and R. Collingwood became important. They They thought that hisand R. Collingwood became most most important. thought that history could be be understood only insofar insofar as as it it is is made comprehensible by tory could understood only made comprehensible by professional on specific specific problems; more professional historians historians working working on problems; nothing nothing more can reasonably reasonably be expected. Most Most historians historians limited limited themselves themselves to to the the can be expected. accumulation of of new data. accumulation new data. That the the cyclical cyclical theory theory of of history for explaining explaining That history is is unsatisfactory unsatisfactory for the became evident. the latest latest events events of of world world history history soon soon became evident. It It followed followed from this this that that its its explanation explanation of of any any stage stage of of history history could could be be quesfrom questo aa great to the tioned. This This lack lack of of satisfaction satisfaction contributed contributed to great degree degree to the tioned. rise among historians of rise among Russian Russian historians of an an interest interest in in the the Marxist Marxist theory theory of of the historical historical process, process, which had its the which had had already already had its adherents adherents in in Russian Russian academic the 1890s to 1910s academic circles circles as as early early as as the 1890s to 1910s (e.g., (e.g., N.1. N. I. Sieber Sieber and and A. I. Tyumenev). Tyumenev). This This interest interest continued continued to grow in in the the 1920s 1920s and and A.1. to grow 1930s, began to with the rest of the intelliintelli1930s, when when historians historians began to seek, seek, along along with the rest of the gentsia, niche in the emerging gentsia, their their niche in the emerging Soviet Soviet society. society. A general A general interpretation interpretation of of newly newly acquired acquired data data from from the the perspecperspective of materialism was retive of the the fundamentals fundamentals of of historical historical materialism was urgently urgently required. which different quired. After After long long discussions discussions in in which different solutions solutions were were suggested within the framework framework of of Marxist Marxist theory, theory, aa general general interintersuggested within the pretation was proposed proposed in V. V. V. Struve Struve (originally, (originally, aa student student pretation was in 1933 1933 by by V. of E. E. Meyer) Meyer) in in his his address address "Problem "Problem of of the the Origin, Origin, Development, Development, and and of Decline of of Slave-Owning Slave-Owning Society Society in in the the Ancient Ancient Orient" Orient" and and in in his arDecline his article ticle "Plebeians "Plebeians and and Helots." Helots." Struve's Struve's outstanding outstanding erudition erudition (he (he used used Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Mesopotamian, and and classical classical sources) sources) allowed allowed him him to to supsupEgyptian, port the the conclusion conclusion that that ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society, society, despite despite all all its its specific specific port features, belonged belonged to to the the slave-owning slave-owning type. type. This This theory theory was was not not imimfeatures, mediately accepted. accepted. One One of of Struve's Struve's most most active active opponents, opponents, A. A. I. I. mediately Tyumenev, learned learned Sumerian Sumerian in in order order to to verify verify this this conclusion. conclusion. For For Tyumenev, fifteen years years he he investigated investigated Sumerian Sumerian administrative administrative and and economic economic fifteen documents; his his findings, findings, however, however, can can be be regarded regarded as as not not fundamenfundamendocuments; tally disagreeing with those of of Struve. Struve. tally disagreeing with those From then then on, on, especially especially during during the the postwar postwar period, period, the the concept concept of of From

8

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the slave-owning slave-owning character character of of ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society society was was dominant dominant the 3 among Soviet Soviet historians. This viewpoint viewpoint affirms affirms the the unity unity of of the the uniuniamong historians. 3 This versal historical historical process, process, leaving leaving no no ground ground for for the the "Europe-centered" "Europe-centered" versal and "Orient-centered" "Orient-centered" concepts concepts of of universal universal history. history. Almost Almost all all the auand the authors of of our our book book have have worked worked in in the the tradition tradition established established by by Struve Struve thors and Tyumenev. Tyumenev. and In the West during during this this period and slightly slightly later, later, Arnold Arnold Toynbee's Toynbee's In the West period and theory was most most popular. popular. He He presented presented itit in in the the ten ten theory of of universal universal history history was volumes of his Study of of History (1934-57). According According totoToynbee, Toynbee, volumes of his A A Study History (1934-57). "civilizations"—twenty-one in in number-successfully number—successfully emerged emerged and and "civilizations"-twenty-one grew in in response response to to certain certain sociocultural sociocultural "challenges," "challenges," under under the the grew leadership of of creative creative minorities. minorities. Civilizations Civilizations declined declined when when the the leadleadleadership ers failed failed to to act act according according to to the the demands demands of of the the historical historical situation. situation. ers Actually, Toynbee's Toynbee's theory theory is is simply simply an an elaborate elaborate rationalization rationalization of of the the Actually, popular notion notion that that history history is is aa multicolored multicolored kaleidoscope kaleidoscope of of irregular irregular popular events. Despite Despite aa number number of of useful useful ideas ideas and and acute acute observations, observations, events. Toynbee's theory, theory, on on the the whole, whole, has has made made little little impact impact on on the the discipline discipline Toynbee's Lately, however, however, the the necessity necessity of of regarding regarding the the historical historical of history.4 history.4 Lately, of process as as aa series series of of identical identical stages stages in in all all parts of the has also also parts of the world world has process been in the human history history is is now now currently currently subsubbeen recognized recognized in the West; West; human divided into into pre-urban, urban, and and industrial industrial societies. pre-urban, urban, societies. divided The postwar period saw saw an an even even more more active active development development in in OrienOrienThe postwar period tal tal and and African African studies. studies. Recently Recently collected collected data data naturally naturally required required new theoretical theoretical generalizations, generalizations, since since the the new facts did did not not always always fit new new facts fit the When such two the old old historical historical schemes. schemes. When such aa situation situation arises arises in in science, science, two solutions solutions are are possible; possible; either either the the old old theories theories must must be be adjusted adjusted or or modified, or or if if this feasible, new theories must must be be substituted. modified, this is is not not feasible, new theories substituted. (The latter latter solution solution may may also also consist consist of of aa return return to to older, older, formerly formerly re(The rejected that now appear more more consistent consistent with with the the new jected theories theories that now appear new evievidence.) Many Many Marxist Marxist historians historians considered, considered, and and still still consider, consider, that that dence.) new facts do do not not require revision of of existing existing theories, theories, particularly of new facts require revision particularly of the theory theory of of ancient ancient society society as as slave-owning. slave-owning. More More accurate accurate definidefinithe tions are all all that that is is required. required. This group of of historians historians accepts accepts the the exisThis group existions are tence of of multiple multiple development development variants variants in in ancient ancient society society similar similar to to tence 3. The most complete complete defense of this on ancient ancient history history can can be be found found in in 3. The most defense of this perspective perspective on

G. G. F. F. I1'yin, Il'yin, "Rabstvo "Rabstvo ii drevnii drevnii Vostok" Vostok" [Slavery [Slavery and and the the ancient ancient Orient], Orient], Narody NarodyAzii Aziii i

Afriki, 1973, 1973, no. no. 4. 4. AfTiki, theory of 4. 4. Perhaps, Perhaps, one one also also should should mention mention the the theory of hydraulic hydraulic (irrigation-based) (irrigation-based) OriOriental civilizations civilizations that that was was popular in the the West West about about the the same same time. time. According this ental popular in According to to this theory, the the complete complete monopoly monopoly of of state state economies, economies, supposedly supposedly typical typical of of the the Orient, Orient, theory, was aa form form of of state state socialism. socialism. Regardless Regardless of of the the obvious obvious political political bias bias of of this this theory, theory, we we was may state that it was was largely largely mistaken, mistaken, since since most most of of the ancient Oriental societies were were may state that it the ancient Oriental societies not based based on on irrigation, irrigation, and and their their state state economies economies usually usually coexisted coexisted with with the the private! private/ not communal economic economic sector. sector. Today, Today, this this theory theory essentially essentially has has been been abandom~d. abandoned. communal

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99

those, those, for for example, example, that that characterized characterized nineteenth-twentieth nineteenth—twentieth century century capitalism (except (except that that during during antiquity antiquity the the differences differences between between the the capitalism variants pronounced). They regard the variants were were more more pronounced). They do do not not regard the variants variants as as different different socioeconomic socioeconomic formations formations characterized characterized by by different different modes modes of production but merely merely view view them as variants variants of of one one and and the same of production but them as the same ancient mode mode of of production. production. Hence, Hence, they they adhere adhere to to the the position position that that ancient emphasizes the the "unity "unity of of human human historical historical development." development." Most Most of of the the emphasizes authors of of this book belong to this this group. group. authors this book belong to On On the the other other hand, hand, many many scholars scholars considered considered and and still still consider consider that that views about about ancient ancient Oriental Oriental societies societies is is necessary necessary aa radical radical revision revision of of views in in order order to to overcome overcome the the danger danger of of overschematization overschematization and and dogdogmatism. matism. Several Several works works criticizing criticizing the the slave-owning slave-owning view view of of ancient ancient Oriental Oriental societies societies have have been been published. published. In In addition, addition, the the concept concept of of an an Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of production, production, which which was was based based on on an an early early work work of of Marx and Marx and which which was was popular popular in in the the 1920s, 1920s, has has again again become become aa subject subject of of discussion. discussion. The The first first works works supporting supporting this this latter latter concept concept appeared appeared in in print print at at the the end end of of the the 1940s, 1940s, but but debate debate started started in in our our country country only only after after the the 1964 journal Pensee, Pensee, 1964 publication publication of of the the French French Marxist Marxist theoretical theoretical journal which which contained contained several several articles articles on on the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of production. production. Chesnaux, for for example, example, wrote wrote that that the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of production production J. Chesnaux, "is characterized characterized by by aa conjunction conjunction of of the the productive productive activity activity of of village village "is communities with with the the economic economic intervention intervention of of the the state state authorities, authorities, communities the state state simultaneously simultaneously both both exploiting exploiting and and ruling ruling these these commucommuthe nities." brief, he he defined defined this this mode mode of of production production as as "despotic"despoticIn brief, nities." In cum-village community." community." According According to to Chesnaux, Chesnaux, the the fundamental fundamental cum-village difference between between the the Asiatic Asiatic despotic despotic state state and and other other precapitalist precapitalist difference states consists consists in in the the fact fact that that the the former former "is "is itself itself the the organizer organizer of of proprostates duction." The The main main contradiction contradiction of of such such aa society society is is not not between between duction." classes but but between between the the state state and and the the communities. communities.55 Subsequently, Subsequently, classes Chesnaux revised revised his his views. Chesnaux views. In journal Narody Narody Azii Aziii iAfriki Afrikipublished published the thetheses theses In 1965, 1965, the the Soviet Soviet journal of of two two French French Marxist Marxist scholars, scholars, the the Africanist Africanist J. Suret-Canal Suret-Canal and and the the theoretician M. M. Godelier, Godelier, as as well as Struve's Struve's responding responding thesis. thesis. This This theoretician well as publication actually triggered triggered new discussions among scholars in in our our publication actually new discussions among scholars country. The The controversy controversy developed developed in in two two directions. directions. The The first first was was aa country. more profound study of of the the classic classic Marxist-Leninist Marxist-Leninist writings in order order more profound study writings in to demonstrate demonstrate that that Marx, Marx, Engels, Engels, and and Lenin Lenin actually actually adhered adhered consisto consistently to the "Asiatic "Asiatic mode mode of of production" production" concept. concept. These These attempts, attempts, tently to the however, must be regarded as as failures, failures, since since in in their their later writings, as however, must be regarded later writings, as 5. According According to to Marxist Marxist philosophy, philosophy, any any process process is is moved moved by by some some main main inner inner concon5. tradiction. For For example, example, capitalist capitalist development development is is moved moved by by the the contradiction contradiction between between tradiction. the class. the capitalist capitalist and and the the working working class.

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Introduction Introduction

already already mentioned, mentioned, Marx Marx and and Engels Engels never never again again referred referred to to this this conconcept. cept. Moreover, Moreover, the the fundamental fundamental Marxist Marxist work work on on the the subject subject belongs belongs theFamily, Family,Private Private among these these later later writings, writings, namely, namely, The The Origin Origin of ofthe among Property,and andthe theState, State,which whichwas waswritten writtenbybyEngels Engelson onthe thebasis basisofof Property, Marx;s notes. Marx's own own notes. The The other other side side of of the the controversy controversy was was supported supported by by aa number number of of authors authors who who criticized criticized the the slave-owning slave-owning concept concept of of ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society, proposing proposing their their own own models models and and using using supporting supporting data data from from society, their particular particular areas areas of of expertise expertise without without always always paying attention to to their paying attention materials from from other other regions. regions. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, many many of of these authors' these authors' materials publications were based based on on secondary secondary and and even even tertiary tertiary sources. sources. publications were We cannot cannot enumerate enumerate all all the the participants in this this debate debate or or all all their their We participants in arguments. We shall shall only only mention mention the the most most typical typical and and important important ones. ones. arguments. We all, we we must must note note that that the the concept concept of of an an Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of proproFirst of of all, First duction duction implies implies that that aa special special structure structure (or (or "formation") "formation") existed existed paralparallel to to the the slave-owning slave-owning structure structure (formation). (formation). This This particular particular developdeveloplel mental mental path path was was determined determined by by special special geographical geographical conditions, conditions, particularly particularly by by the the need need for for artificial artificial irrigation. irrigation. It It generated generated the the cencentralized tralized power power of of aa despotic despotic ruler ruler and and was was also also the the cause cause of of the the longlongterm preservation preservation of of the the primitive primitive community, community, which which was was subject subject to to term exploitation. soexploitation. Although Although private private property property did did not not appear appear in in such such societies, it it is is assumed assumed that that the the existence existence of of the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of proprocieties, duction duction is is "everlasting" "everlasting" (apparently (apparently since since the the disintegration disintegration of of the the primitive and primitive community community order?). order?). E. E. S. S. Varga Varga supported supported this this view,6 view,6 and Struve admitted admitted the the validity validity of of the the above-mentioned above-mentioned theses theses (with (with cercerStruve tain caveats), caveats), though though as as applied applied only only to to the the early early period period of of antiquity. antiquity. tain More complex complex structures structures were were also also proposed. proposed. L. L. S. S. Vasil'ev Vasil'ev and and More I. A. A. Stuchevskii Stuchevskii proposed proposed their their own own concept concept of of aa "secondary" "secondary" formaforma1. tion; that that is, is, aa formation formation positioned positioned between between the the primitive primitive order order and and tion; According to to these these authors, authors, aa society society emerging emerging from from the the capitalism.7 According capitalism.' primitive primitive order order can can proceed proceed along along one one of of three, three, almost almost equally equally pospossible, paths: paths: slave slave ownership, ownership, feudalism, feudalism, or or the the Asiatic Asiatic order order (the (the last last sible, combining combining features features of of the the first first two). two). The The actual actual path path is is not not deterdetermined by by the the developmental developmental level level of of the the forces forces of of production production (it (it is mined is about equal equal in in all all cases.) cases.) but but by the type type of of community, community, which, which, in in turn, turn, about by the is determined determined mainly mainly by by environmental environmental conditions. conditions.88 is 6. Ocherki Ocherki po po problemam problemampolitekonomii politekonomiikapitalisma kapitalisma[Essays [Essayson onthe thepoliticoeconomic politicoeconomicprobproblems of of capitalism] capitalism] (Moscow: (Moscow: Nauka. Nauka, 1964). 1964). lems 7. 7. "Tri "Tri modeli modeli vozniknoveniya vozniknoveniya dokapitalisticheskikh dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv" obshchestv" [Three [Three models models for for Voprosyistorii. istorii, 1966, the origin origin of of precapitalist precapitalist societies]. societies], Voprosy the 1966. no.no. 6. 6. 8. recent work work Istoriya Istoriya drevnego [History of the ancient Orient]. 8. In In his his recent drevnegoVostoka Vostoka [History of the ancient Orient], vols. 1-2 (Moscow: 1985), L. L. S. S. Vasil'ev on the the one hand, vols. 1-2 (Moscow: Nauka, Nauka. 1985). Vasil'ev bases bases his his arguments, arguments. on one hand. on Hegel Hegel and and early early Marxian Marxian work and, on on the the other. other, on on social social anthropology anthropology and and conconon work and. tends that that all all class class societies societies are are stagnant stagnant except except those those based based on on private private property in the the tends property in means of of production, as, for for example. example, ancient ancient Greece. Greece. Not Not distinguishing distinguishing between between sovmeans production. as. sov-

Introduction Introduction

11 11

A A similar similar perspective perspective is is advanced advanced in in aa number number of of writings writings by by the the prominent Soviet historian historian and and philologist, G. A. Melikishvili.99 In prominent Soviet philologist, G. A. Melikishvili. In Melikishvili's opinion, opinion, the the most most common common manifestation manifestation of of precapitalist precapitalist Melikishvili's class society society is is feudalism. feudalism. The The slave-owning slave-owning order order appears appears only only in in exexclass ceptional cases cases (Phoenicia, (Phoenicia, Greece, Greece, Rome), Rome), culminating culminating in in aa return return to to ceptional the main main road; that is, is, to to feudalism. feudalism. During During the the early early developmental developmental the road; that stages of of aa class class society, society, the Asiatic mode mode of of production production can can also also come come the Asiatic stages of production production is is defined denned by as aa into existence. existence. This This mode mode of into by Melikishvili Melikishvili as "protofeudal" complex complex of of exploitation exploitation methods. methods.10 "protofeudal" 19 Although Although Melikishvili's Melikishvili's view view differs differs from from the the one one adopted adopted in in this this is nevertheless nevertheless close close to to it it in in many many respects. respects. We We actually actually agree agree book, it book, it is with him him on on the the existence existence of of various various types types of of development development within within the with the framework we try feaframework of of ancient ancient society. society. However, However, we try to to stress stress common common features, defining denning the the different different types types of of ancient ancient societies societies as as ways ways of of develdeveltures, opment mode of opment of of one one and and the the same same ancient ancient mode of production. production. Melikishvili Melikishvili on the the distinguishing distinguishing characteristics, characteristics, which which he puts more emphasis on more emphasis he puts considers Melikishvili emphaconsiders different different production production structures. structures. Yet Yet Melikishvili emphasizes, sizes, to to aa greater greater extent extent than than we we do, do, the the similarity similarity between between the the mode mode of of production production of of antiquity antiquity and and that that of of the the Middle Middle Ages. Ages. To To us us the the difdifference in in this this case case is is more more substantial. substantial. (At (At the the same same time, time, doubtless doubtless ference no one meno one could could dispute dispute the the fact fact that that ancient ancient society society differs differs less less from from meother dieval society society than than both both differ differ from from capitalism; capitalism; capitalism, capitalism, in in other dieval words, from feudalism words, is is separated separated from feudalism by by aa sharper sharper break.) break.) The picture picture of The of world world history history drawn drawn by by another another Soviet Soviet historian historian and and philosopher, V. P. P. Ilyushechkin, Ilyushechkin, seems seems to to us oversimplified.11II He He studstudphilosopher, V. us oversimplified. the forms forms of of exploitation exploitation attested attested in in antiquity antiquity and and in in the the Middle Middle ies the ies Ages and and concludes concludes that that the number of methods of of exploitaexploitaAges the number of possible possible methods ereignty and property, Vasil'ev asserts that only state property existed in all other ancient and medieval societies. 9. "K voprosu 0o kharaktere drevneishikh klassovykh obshchestv" [On the problem of the nature of of the most ancient class societies], Voprosy of Voprosyistorii, istorii, 1966, 1966, no.no. 11;11; "Kharakter "Kharakter sotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo stroya na drevnem Vostoke (Opyt stadial'no-tipologichesstadial'no-tipologichessotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo klassifikatsii klassovykh obshchestv)" [The nature of of the socioeconomic formation formation in koi klassifikatsii of class societies)], the ancient Orient (An attempt at a typological-stage classification classification of Narody Aziii iA/riki, Afriki,1972, 1972,lio. no.4;4;"Nekotorye "Nekotoryeaspekty aspektyvoprosa voprosa0osotsial'no-ekonomichessotsial'no-ekonomichesNarody Azii of the problem of kom stroye drevnikh blizhnevostochnykh blizhnevostochnykh obshchestv" [Some aspects of of Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, the socio-economic formation in ancient Near Eastern societies], Vestnik 1975, no. 2; and others. 1975, 10. It should be noted that G. G. Giorgadze, one of of the authors of of this book and different types of of ancient societies Melikishvili's pupil, adheres to the theory that the different cannot simply be reduced to varieties of the same slave-owning mode of production. 11. See his Sistema vne-ekonomicheskogo vne-ekonomicheskogoprinuzhdeniya prinuzhdeniya i iproblema problemavtoroi vtoroiosnovnoi osnovnoistadii stadii obshchestvennoi evolyutsii [The system of extraeconomic coercion problem obshchestvennoi evolyutsii [The system of extraeconomic coercion andand the the problem of of Sistemyi istruktury struktury the second major major stage of of social evolution] (Moscow: Nauka 1970); Sistemy chastnosobstvennicheskoyekspluatatsii ekspluatatsii[Systems [Systemsand andstructures structuresofofprecapiprecapidoburzhuaznoy chastnosobstvennicheskoy talist exploitation by private proprietors] (Moscow: Nauka 1980).

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Introduction Introduction

tion was was limited of one one or or another tion limited and and the the application application of another depended depended on on differences historical conditions. this, Ilyushechkin differences in in specific specific historical conditions. From From this, Ilyushechkin that all precapitalist societies deduces deduces that all precapitalist societies constitute constitute aa single single "precapitalist "precapitalist formation," the same formation," or or "the "the second second stage stage of of social social evolution." evolution."1212 At At the same time, time, however, however, the the author author virtually virtually ignores ignores the the forms forms of of property property in in the means of production—especially land (real) (real) property. But only only the means of production-especially land property. But the the combination combination of of the the form form of of property property in in the the means means of of production production with the the form form of of exploitation exploitation determines determines the the dominant dominant mode mode of of prowith proplace in process. Moreover, duction duction and and its its place in the the historical historical process. Moreover, the the author author fails fails to to consider consider the the development development of of ideas, ideas, which which depends depends on on the the proprocessual development of socioeconomic socioeconomic history. It is is well well known known that that an an history. It cessual development of idea becomes force as as soon soon as as it it possesses consciousness idea becomes aa material material force possesses the the consciousness of the masses; but ideational structure structure typical typical of of antiquity antiquity is is quite quite of the masses; but the the ideational dissimilar from from that of the the Middle also means means that the that of Middle Ages, Ages, which which also that the dissimilar incentives for for mass different. mass behavior behavior were were different. incentives Finally, Finally, we we also also mention mention that that new new formations formations have have been been postulated postulated (though without sufficiently convincing convincing argumentation) argumentation) during during the the (though without sufficiently course by Yu. Yu.1. course of of this this discussion discussion (e.g., (e.g., by I. Semenov). Semenov). Participants in in this this debate debate variously variously interpret role, Participants interpret the the character, character, role, and the factors and significance significance of of the factors that that are are fundamental fundamental to to the the theory theory of of historical materialism. materialism. Such include property property in the means means of of historical Such factors factors include in the production (especially land); the the character character of of exploitation: exploitation: economic production (especially land); economic (via the the market, market, where labor force force becomes commodity) and and where the the labor becomes aa commodity) (via noneconomic (by (by compulsion); compulsion); and and the correlation of of these facnoneconomic the correlation these two two factors of property and exploitation): exploitation): whether persons property and whether the the persons tors (i.e., (i.e., forms forms of exploited are are deprived deprived of of property property in in the means of of production or not. not. the means production or exploited In our our view, view, property property as as aa relationship relationship of of classes classes must must not not be confused In be confused with simple physical especially in in the the case case when when the the posposwith simple physical possession, possession, especially sessor cannot cannot legally legally dispose dispose of of the the oqject object in in his his own own interest interest and and at at sessor Our position is that that the the character character of of aa society society is is determined determined by will.13 will. IS Our position is by the mode mode of of production, which is is realized realized in in the the developmental developmental level level the production, which of the means means of and is is achieved and reflected (on the of the of production production and achieved and reflected (on the sosocial level) in in the character of of property. This relation relation determines determines both both the character property. This ciallevel) the character of of the exploitation and and the class structure structure of of the the society. society. the character the exploitation the class We believe our position in agreement agreement with the tenets of historihistoriWe believe our position to to be be in with the tenets of cal materialism and that that opposing opposing theories theories have have not offered clear clear anannot offered cal materialism and swers to to the the problem problem of of the the correlation correlation of of these. these decisive decisive factors factors in in swers ancient societies. societies. ancient 12. of social evolution corre12. Ilyushechkin's Ilyushechkin's precapitalist precapitalist formation formation or or second second stage stage of social evolution corresponds to or urban society. sponds to the the preindustrial preindustrial or urban society. 13. 13. That That is, is, property property can can be be defined defined as as an an object object that that an an owner owner can can use, use, possess, possess, and and dispose in his his own own interest interest and his own own will, will, and exclude any proprietor dispose of of in and at at his and can can exclude any non nonproprietor from using, possessing, possessing, or disposing of. from using, or disposing of.

Introduction Introduction

13 13

We will will not We not offer offer further further detailed detailed presentation presentation of of the the views views and and ararguments produced opponents of of the slave-owning formation formation in in the the guments produced by by opponents the slave-owning ancient but will will limit the fundamental ancient Orient Orient but limit ourselves ourselves to to outlining outlining the fundamental directions by the to familiarize directions taken taken by the discussion. discussion. Those Those desiring desiring to familiarize themthemselves to V. Nikiforov's book Vostoki i selves with with its its course course are are referred referred to V. N. N. Nikiforov's book Vostok vsemirnaya [The East and world history] (Moscow, 1975). This vsemirnayaistoriya istoriya [The East and world history] (Moscow, 1975). This work thorough and, the whole, whole, well-argued work contains contains aa thorough and, on on the well-argued analysis analysis of of all viewpoints expressed all the the viewpoints expressed in in the the discussion, discussion, as as well well as as aa comprehencomprehensive bibliography. In recent years, years, this has subsided. sive bibliography. In recent this debate debate has subsided. Its Its main main utility lay in the fact that participants (as as historians utility lay in the fact that many many of of the the participants (as well well as historians who not take part in in the the arguwho did did not take aa direct direct part the discussion) discussion) subjected subjected the arguments their proposed historical constructions ments used used to to support support their proposed historical constructions to to aa new thorough analysis, redefining their concepts concepts where necessary. new thorough analysis, redefining their where necessary. not all However, However, obviously, obviously, not all the the questions questions of of the the history history of of the the ancient ancient world resolved. Uncertainty Uncertainty and in our world have have been been resolved. and incompleteness incompleteness in our views are due due mainly mainly to unequal quality quality and and quantity quantity of of informainformaviews are to the the unequal tion regarding different periods periods and and countries, countries, as as well as to an uneven uneven tion regarding different well as to an elaboration of of some some trends trends of of the elaboration the historical historical process. process. The greatest of documented documented data data about about the entire period period of of The greatest wealth wealth of the entire antiquity, the beginning of class class civilizations civilizations to of the antiquity, from from the beginning of to the the start start of the medieval point out medieval era, era, comes comes from from the the Near Near East. East. We We would would like like to to point out that that the the taxonomic taxonomic rank rank of of early early antiquity antiquity and and late late antiquity antiquity remains remains uncertain. there four taxonomically equivalent uncertain. Were Were there four taxonomically equivalent stages stages of of one one precapitalist society Ages, precapitalist society (early (early antiquity, antiquity, late late antiquity, antiquity, early early Middle Middle Ages, or were two consequent consequent formations-an late Middle Ages) or late Middle Ages) were there there two formations—an anancient cient and and aa medieval medieval one, one, each each of of them them subdivided subdivided into into an an early early and and aa late stage has been been assumed in this book)? Or Or is is one late stage (as (as has assumed in this book)? one dealing dealing with with three consequent three consequent precapitalist precapitalist formations: formations: early early antiquity, antiquity, late late antiqantiquity, and and the the Middle Middle Ages? Ages? Here Here we we arrive arrive at at an an important important theoretical theoretical uity, in our We difficulty, difficulty, which which is is due due to to aa certain certain vagueness vagueness in our constructions. constructions. We still the mechanisms which aa society still actually actually do do not not know know the mechanisms by by which society passes passes from one one form another, nor can we even establish establish whether whether the the from form to to another, nor can we even change change in in each each case case is is from from "formation" "formation" to to "formation" "formation" or or whether whether it it is less less important. important. is Naturally, because because of historical information Naturally, of the the vast vast amount amount of of historical information that that students of of the the ancient ancient Near East have have amassed, amassed, many many authors authors of of our our students Near East book have used kind of book have used Near Near Eastern Eastern data data as as aa kind of standard. standard. But, But, in in the the future, when our in India, future, when our knowledge knowledge of of the the anciem anciem :;ocieties societies in India, China, China, Central Asia, Iran, Egypt, Egypt, and and other other African African countries countries attains attains the the Central Asia, Iran, same scientific scientific level level as as our our present knowledge of of the the Near East, same present knowledge Near East, Greece, and and Rome, Rome, we we hope hope that that historical historical science science will will advance advance withGreece, without the for extrapolations extrapolations from from data data acquired acquired in in one one region region to to out the need need for other regions. regions. other

14

Introduction Introduction

The The Problem Problem of of Sources Sources for for Ancient Ancient History History

Sources of of information information on on the the history history of of the the ancient ancient world world are are manimaniSources cases, more more information information is is available from certain certain fold. In In aa number number of of cases, fold. available from early periods from epochs epochs much much closer closer to our own own time. These than from to our time. These early periods than sources, however however abundant, abundant, are are incomplete, incomplete, aa fact fact that that presents sources, presents seserious difficulties difficulties for for the the objective objective study study of of ancient ancient history. history. rious The history of The history of ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, from from the the beginning beginning of of the the third millennium millennium B.C. third B.C. to to the the beginnings beginnings of of the the Christian Christian era era (first (first cencentury tury B.C. B.C. to to first first century century A.D.), A.D.), is is reconstructed reconstructed from from original original contemcontemporary texts, texts, written written on on clay other objects objects made of clay, clay, porary clay tablets tablets and and other made of stone, and and metal. metal. The The script script is is called called cuneiform, and the stone, cuneiform, and the writing writing syssystem is aa complex, complex, "word-syllabic" "word-syllabic" one. one. The The quantity quantity of of cuneiform cuneiform tem is texts is is enormous-hundreds enormous—hundreds of of thousands, thousands, their their number number increasing increasing texts every year year as as aa result result of of new new archaeological archaeological excavations. excavations. Yet Yet it it would would every be wrong to to think think that that these these discoveries discoveries give give aa completely completely satisfactory satisfactory be wrong view of of ancient ancient Mesopotamian Mesopotamian society, society, of of its its life life and and historic historic events. events. view Royal inscriptions inscriptions praise gods and king and and inform inform us of the the Royal praise the the gods and the the king us of temples he built built (and, (and, less less frequently, frequently, other other structures). structures). The The inscripinscriptemples he tions of Hittite Hittite and and Assyrian Assyrian kings relate only only their their military triumphs; kings relate military triumphs; tions of their accounts accounts are are very very much much biased. (Defeats are, are, of of course, course, ignored.) ignored.) their biased. (Defeats Texts recording recording laws are incomplete incomplete in in terms terms of of the the social social relations relations Texts laws are regulated by by them them and, and, as as often often as as not, not, are are poorly moreregulated poorly preserved; preserved; moreover, such such texts texts have have not not been recovered for for all all historical historical periods periods and and over, been recovered all countries. Religious-literary texts texts are are mostly in all countries. Religious-literary mostly preserved preserved only only in fragments. They They are are difficult difficult to date and and usually illustrate only the fragments. to date usually illustrate only the official ideology. ideology. It It is is rarely extract from from them them any any inforinforofficial rarely possible possible to to extract mation about about the the real real life life and and views views of of the the population. Administramation population. Administrative-economic texts, texts, which which represent represent the vast majority majority of of the the available available tive-economic the vast cuneiform material, material, originate originate from from state state economies economies or or the economies cuneiform the economies of government employees, merchants, merchants, and and others. others. Again, the result result is of government employees, Again, the is society. It It is is not not surprising surprising that that historians historians believed believed aa one-sided one-sided view view of of society. for aa long long time time that that only only state state or or temple economies existed existed in in Mesofor temple economies Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. Texts recording private potamia during the third millennium B.C. Texts recording private legal contracts contracts appear appear on on those those relatively relatively rare rare occasions occasions when when the the solegal social relations were in the process of change and when verbal contracts cial relations were in the process of change and when verbal contracts based on on customary customary law law were were inadequate inadequate for for aa number number of of reasons. reasons. based The periods that are illustrated by numerous written documents The periods that are illustrated by numerous written documents alalternate with with centuries centuries from from which which not single written written document document has has ternate not aa single reached The Hittite Hittite civilization, civilization, which existed in in Asia Asia Minor Minor durdurreached us. us. The which existed B.C. and and also also used used the the cuneiform cuneiform script, script, ing the the second second millennium millennium B.C. ing left us us only only one one royal royal archive, archive, containing containing accounts accounts of of royal royal victories, left victories, treaties between states, legislative legislative texts, texts, instructions instructions to to employees, employees, and and treaties between states, innumerable magic magic rituals-but rituals—but not not aa single single document document dealing dealing with with innumerable

Introduction Introduction

15

the private lives the private lives of of men men and and women. women. From From the the second second half half of of the the first first millennium parchment, potmillennium B.C., B.C., when when such such new new writing writing materials materials as as parchment, pottery sherds sherds (ostraca), (ostraca), and and papyrus came into into use use in in the the Near Near East, East, tery papyrus came practically no no documents documents have have reached reached us; parchment and and papyrus papyrus practically us; parchment disintegrate rapidly, rapidly, and and inscriptions or sherds sherds rub rub off off or or fade fade disintegrate inscriptions in in ink ink or with the passage passage of of time. time. with the Let us now now turn Let us turn to to the the archaeological archaeological remains remains from from the the ancient ancient Near East. East. Until Until recently, recently, extensive extensive excavations excavations were were conducted conducted only only Near on beginning of twentieth century on temples temples and and palaces. palaces. Before Before the the beginning of the the twentieth century the unearthed sites of of ancient ancient towns towns were were razed razed in in search search of of tablets tablets the unearthed sites and and statues statues and and other other "art" "art" objects. objects. Later Later excavations excavations in in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and parts of and other other parts of the the Near Near East East were were conducted conducted by by architects. architects. ConConsequently, began emerging sequently, the the cities cities began emerging with with more more clarity clarity (although (although residential residential houses houses still still attracted attracted only only minimal minimal attention), attention), but but the the circircumstances utensils and tabcumstances surrounding surrounding such such finds finds as as domestic domestic utensils and even even tabremained mostly lets lets remained mostly unrecorded. unrecorded. For For aa long long time, time, the the excavations excavations of of towns towns and and cities cities did did not not proceed proceed stratum stratum by by stratum stratum to to lay lay bare bare the the remains of of the the different different periods. periods. Even Even today, today, many many pottery pottery fragfragremains ments, bones of ments, bones of domestic domestic animals, animals, and and other other artifacts artifacts are are sometimes sometimes discarded—materials that that could could provide provide clues clues to to aspects aspects of of the the daily daily discarded-materials life and and the the diet diet of of the the inhabitants. inhabitants. Yet, Yet, even even when when the the excavations excavations are are life conducted in in the the best possible way, way, archaeology archaeology without without the the support support conducted best possible of written written records records cannot cannot provide complete picture of the the social social of provide aa complete picture of structure or or the the spiritual spiritual culture culture of of aa past past society. society. While While archaeoloarchaeolostructure gists were were gaining gaining on-the-job training in in the the mastery of the the complex complex gists on-the-job training mastery of digging techniques techniques necessary necessary to to furnish furnish proper material for for histoproper material histodigging rians, they often often managed to destroy destroy many many interesting interesting sites. sites. As As aa rule, rule, rians, they managed to early archaeologists archaeologists dug dug the the best ancient sites, sites, and and after after best preserved preserved ancient early having destroyed them, they left left less less significant significant sites sites to to the next gengenhaving destroyed them, they the next eration of scientists, whose methods were more sophisticated. eration of scientists, whose methods were more sophisticated. The has its vast majority The history history of of Egypt Egypt has its own own sources. sources. The The vast majority of of writwritten material material is is represented represented by prayers and and invocations invocations recorded on ten by prayers recorded on the walls walls of of tombs tombs and and on on funeral funeral stelae stelae (at (at times times with with much much embelembelthe lished, though standardized, biographies biographies of of the the deceased). deceased). In In relarelalished, though standardized, tively rare rare cases, cases, inscriptions inscriptions dedicated dedicated to exploits of of pharaohs pharaohs tively to the the exploits were engraved engraved on on temple temple walls. walls. More More important important even even than than the inwere the inscriptions are are the the wall and reliefs reliefs illustrating illustrating the the religious religious scriptions wall paintings paintings and ideas of of ancient ancient Egyptians, Egyptians, who imagined the the afterlife afterlife to to be be aa copy copy of of ideas who imagined their earthly earthly existence. existence. In In these these pictures, we find find numerous numerous scenes scenes of of their pictures, we everyday life, life, although although it it is is difficult difficult to use them them to to re-create re-create the the social social everyday to use aspects of of this this life. life. The The texts texts written written on on the the well-known Egyptian papaaspects well-known Egyptian pyri stem stem from from relatively relatively later later times (second millennium and espepyri times (second millennium and espeA.D.). A A few few cially first first millennium B.C. through through the the first first millennium millennium A.D.). cially millennium B.C. ostraca containing containing economic economic and and legal legal information information have have survived. survived. ostraca

16

Introduction Introduction

The The first first code code of of law law was was found found recently recently but but has has not not yet yet been been fully fully published. published. It was was mainly mainly religious, literary, and, and, occasionally, occasionally, scientific scientific subjects subjects It religious, literary, that were recorded that were recorded on on papyri, papyri, although although documents documents originating originating from from state state administrative administrative institutions institutions have have also also come come down down to to us. us. (Most (Most of of them are are from from the the end end of of the the second second through through the the first first millennium millennium them B.C., as as well well as as from from the the Hellenistic Hellenistic and and Roman Roman periods.) periods.) A A relatively relatively B.C., small number number (except (except for for later later periods) of legal legal contracts contracts also also exist. exist. small periods) of mind that acKeeping in in mind that scholars scholars understand understand Egyptian Egyptian texts texts with with less less acKeeping curacy than than they they do do the the Babylonian Babylonian texts, texts, one one may may say say that that reconreconcuracy struction of of socioeconomic socioeconomic life life in in ancient ancient Egypt Egypt is is aa very very difficult difficult struction matter, and and much much remains remains unclear. unclear. Art Art experts, experts, as as well well as as comcommatter, paratively narrowly narrowly oriented oriented philologists, more success success in in their their paratively philologists, have have more efforts than than economic economic historians. historians. efforts The number of The smaller smaller the the number of documental documental sources, sources, the the more more difficult difficult it is is to to reconstruct reconstruct the the history history of of aa society. society. Documental Documental sources sources have have it two two invaluable invaluable advantages. advantages. First, First, they they are, are, as as aa rule, rule, contemporary contemporary with the the events they relate thus, provide provide more objective accounts with events they relate and, and, thus, more objective accounts of is of what what really really occurred. occurred. Second, Second, given given that that the the number number of of texts texts is sufficiently large large and and that that we we can can ascertain ascertain that that the the large or small small sufficiently large or number reaching us us is result of number of of aa certain certain type type of of document document reaching is not not the the result of the were found, the fortuitous fortuitous conditions conditions under under which which these these documents documents were found, we can as to to whether particular social social phenomephenomewe can draw draw conclusions conclusions as whether aa particular non was was common common or or unusual unusual during during the the period period in in question. question. non With regard narrative sources purely literary With regard to to the the so-called so-called narrative sources (both (both purely literary works and and works ancient historians), historians), it it is is important important to to realize realize that that works works by by ancient they do do not not inform inform us us of of actual actual facts facts but, but, rather, rather, only only of of what what the the auauthey thors, or the group to to which they belonged, thought about about the the subthors, or the group which they belonged, thought subject. Though such such information information is is certainly certainly useful useful to to the the historian, historian, ject. Though we can can rarely rarely check check the the correctness correctness of of the the data data transmitted transmitted by by aa narnarwe rative source. source. Details Details describing describing sundry sundry events events and and quotations quotations of of proprorative nouncements made made by historical figures figures are, are, in in particular, particular, nearly nearly nouncements by historical always fictitious. fictitious. always The The history history of of Palestine Palestine is is known known almost almost exclusively exclusively through through narnarrative sources, sources, although although recently recently discovered discovered archaeological archaeological data data can, can, rative to to some some extent, extent, be be used used in in checking checking their their validity. validity. The The narratives narratives have have been preserved preserved in in the the Bible-the Bible—the holy holy scriptures scriptures of of the the Jewish Jewish and and been Christian religions. religions. The The Bible Bible is is not not aa book an entire entire library library conconChristian book but but an taining aa number number of of writings writings dating dating from from the the twelfth twelfth to to the the second second taining centuries B.C. (Old Testament) and from the first to the second cencenturies B.C. (Old Testament) and from the first to the second centuries A.D. (New Testament). The Bible includes mythological and turies A.D. (New Testament). The Bible includes mythological and leglegendary accounts accounts relating relating to to the the creation creation of of the and to to the life of endary the world world and the life of the peoples in and and around around Palestine Palestine (mainly Jews). It It also also includes includes the peoples in (mainly Jews). criminal, civil, civil, and and ritual legislation; prosaic prosaic historical accounts (these (these criminal, ritual legislation; historical accounts

Introduction Introduction

17

can can be be verified verified to to aa substantial substantial degree degree by by comparing comparing them them with with ararchaeological chaeological data, data, as as well well as as with with Assyrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Babylonian, and and Egyptian Egyptian royal royal inscriptions inscriptions and, and, occasionally, occasionally, even even with with documents); documents); religious religious and secular secular poetry; fragments of of epic epic poems; poems; religious and secular secular and poetry; fragments religious and didactics; rhythmical religious religious (prophetic) didactics; rhythmical (prophetic) sermons-actually sermons—actually often often speeches speeches on on political political events events of of the the day day (these (these can can also also be be substantiated substantiated by historical information information from from other by historical other Near Near Eastern Eastern countries); countries); ficfictional this diverse material is tional stories; stories; and and more. more. Clearly, Clearly, this diverse material is of of quite quite ununequal equal historical historical value, value, but but with with the the aid aid of of historical historical criticism, criticism, biblical biblical texts great deal reliable information. Unfortunately, the texts provide provide aa great deal of of reliable information. Unfortunately, the almost almost complete complete lack lack of of documental documental sources sources severely severely limits limits the the ininvestigation of of ancient ancient Palestine, Palestine, despite the fact fact that that the the number vestigation despite the number of of documents has, in the past few few years, increased, especially especially with with the the documents has, in the past years, increased, sensational discovery discovery of of the the Dead Dead Sea Sea scrolls, scrolls, dating dating from from around around the the sensational second B.C. to to the the second second century century A.D. A.D. second century century B.C. The historiography of presents aa very DeThe historiography of India India presents very difficult difficult problem. problem. Despite the flourishing spite the flourishing of of numerous numerous sciences sciences in in ancient ancient India-philosoIndia—philosophy, phy, mathematics, mathematics, astronomy, astronomy, grammar, grammar, and and others-the others—the science science of of history history did did not not come come into into being being... The The ancient ancient religious religious hymns, hymns, the the Veda, ritual-legislative ritual-legislativecollections, collections,epics, epics,and and philosophical philosophicaland andother other Veda, treatises that reached us us can can be be dated dated only only with with the the greatest greatest diffidiffitreatises that have have reached culty. Although there are are some some royal inscriptions carved carved in stone (dat(datculty. Although there royal inscriptions in stone ing from from aa time time not earlier than than the the third third century century B.C.), B.C.), in in most ing not earlier most cases, cases, they are not not very very informative. informative. Documental Documental sources sources are are completely completely they are lacking. In In the the past half-century, Indian Indian archaeology archaeology has has made made great great past half-century, lacking. progress. One One of of its its major major successes successes was the discovery discovery of of the the ancient, ancient, progress. was the previously unknown Indus Indus civilization, which existed existed during during the third previously unknown civilization, which the third and second second millenia millenia B.C. its written consist only only and B.C. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, its written texts texts consist of very brief inscriptions inscriptions on on seals seals and and other other such such items; items; they they are are of very brief insufficient to decipher the script. The structure of the grammar can insufficient to decipher the script. The structure of the grammar can be ascertained, but we are are unable read the the words. words. be ascertained, but we unable to to read The ancient history history of of China exclusively on The ancient China is is based based almost almost exclusively on narnarrative rative sources. sources. In In contrast contrast to to India, India, historical historical literature literature flourished flourished in in China. secChina. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, it it only only covered covered the the period period starting starting with with the the second the first first millennium millennium B.C., historians of ond half half of of the B.C., although although historians of that that time time had access access to to more more ancient ancient records, which have have not not reached us. InInhad records, which reached us. scriptions from earlier periods periods are preserved on on bronze bronze vessels vessels of scriptions from earlier are preserved of various kinds; kinds; divinatory various divinatory texts, texts, dating dating from from the the second second millennium millennium B.C., are are also also inscribed inscribed on on sheep sheep shoulder shoulder blades, blades, turtle shells, etc. etc. We B.C., turtle shells, We also have ancient hymns hymns and and legends, legends, but but they they have have reached reached us us in in ververalso have ancient sions written written down down much much later later than than the original compositions. compositions. There There sions the original are numerous numerous philosophical, philosophical, scientific, scientific, economic, and military treaare economic, and military treatises, but until lately, there were scarcely scarcely any any documentary documentary sources sources tises, but until lately, there were available. Despite Despite the the fact fact that that important important discoveries already discoveries have have already available.

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been made, made, the the archaeology archaeology of of China China is is still still in in its its initial initial phase. phase. The The been most most sensational sensational discovery discovery was was that that of of the the tomb tomb of of the the first first Chinese Chinese emperor, Ch'in Ch'in Shih Shih Huang-ti, Huang-ti, which which remained remained hidden hidden throughout throughout emperor, antiquity. It It was was surrounded surrounded by by an an entire entire army army of of realistically realistically and and antiquity. brightly colored colored terra-cotta terra-cotta warriors warriors of of the the imperial imperial guard guard with with all all the the brightly details details of of their their arms, arms, clothing, clothing, and and horses' horses' accoutrements. accoutrements. Less Less sensasensational finds finds also also promise promise aa considerable considerable increase increase in in our our knowledge knowledge tional about about ancient ancient China. China. Much Much has has also also been been accomplished accomplished in in the the historihistorical criticism criticism of of the the written written sources. sources. cal Until Until recently, recently, the the most most ancient ancient period period of of Greek Greek history history could could be be studied only only from from nontextual nontextual archaeological archaeological objects; objects; just few dedestudied just aa few cades ago, ago, the the mysterious mysterious Mycenaean Mycenaean word-syllabic word-syllabic writing writing of of the the seccades second half half of of the the second second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. was was deciphered. deciphered. But But the the texts texts ond appeared to to be accounts of of the the palace palace household, household, and and for for aa number number of of appeared be accounts reasons, scholars scholars believe that the the Greeks Greeks of of that that time time did did not not record record reasons, believe that anything else. else. In In addition addition to to archaeological archaeological materials, materials, the the next next period period anything is illuminated illuminated by by epics, epics, which which were were composed composed during during the the eighth eighth to to is seventh centuries centuries B.C. B.C. and and are are attributed attributed to to Homer: Homer: The The Iliad Iliadand and The The seventh Odyssey,These Thesepoems poemspose posea most a mostcomplex complexproblem problemininhistorical historicalcriticritiOdyssey. cism: how how to to separate separate the the poet's poet's imagination imagination from from historical historical reality. reality. cism: Almost no no original original documents documents written written on on perishable perishable materials materials and and Almost contemporary have reached reached us contemporary with with the the events events described described have us from from Greece Greece and Rome. However, two two fortunate fortunate circumstances circumstances neutralize neutralize this this and Rome. However, drawback. First, the Greeks Greeks (and (and later later the the Romans) produced aa very very drawback. First, the Romans) produced rich and and most most diverse diverse narrative narrative literature, literature, including including some some remarkremarkrich able works works of of history history that that will will be be frequently frequently quoted quoted in in our our book. book. able Thucydides (ca. (ca. 460-396 460-396 B.C.) B.C.) can can rightly rightly be regarded as as the the founder founder Thucydides be regarded of scientific scientific historical historical criticism. criticism. Unfortunately, all these these writings writings have have of Unfortunately, all reached us us only only in in the the form form of of medieval medieval copies copies or or on on papyri, papyri, mostly mostly reached from Egypt, Egypt, of of the the first first centuries centuries A.D. A.D. They They have have required required aa huge huge from amount of of critical critical work. work. Second, Second, in in Greece Greece and and later later in in countries countries ininamount fluenced by by Greek Greek culture culture (essentially (essentially the the entire entire Near Near and and Middle Middle fluenced East and and the the Roman Roman Empire), Empire), it it was was customary customary to to record record on on stone stone all all East sorts of private and social events. Among these inscriptions we can sorts of private and social events. Among these inscriptions we can find aa detailed detailed account account of of the the reign reign of of Augustus Augustus written written by the Roman Roman find by the emperor himself, himself, as as well well as as aa few few heartfelt heartfelt words words in in memory memory of of aa emperor slave's concubine; concubine; or or an an enormous enormous customs customs tariff tariff on on international international slave's trade, as as well well as as the the record record of of aa private private sacrifice sacrifice to to aa deity. deity. In In some some trade, cases private private deeds deeds were were also also reproduced reproduced on on stone. stone. A A large large number number of of cases documentary materials materials from from the the times times of of Graeco-Macedonian Graeco-Macedonian and and documentary Roman rule rule have reached us us on on papyri from Egypt. Egypt. Numerous Numerous legisRoman have reached papyri from legislative records records and and legal legal commentaries commentaries (mainly (mainly Roman) Roman) have have also also been been lative preserved (again (again as as medieval medieval copies). preserved copies).

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Today's Today's scholars scholars of of Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history history and and of of culturally culturally and and politically related countries countries (including (including the the ancient ancient Black Sea littoral) littoral) politically related Black Sea have aa great great advantage advantage over over those the Oriental Oriental countries, countries, have those researching researching the because the the sources sources for for Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history history began began to to be be studied studied because about four hundred hundred years years earlier. earlier. The The result is aa truly truly enormous enormous acabout four result is accumulation of of scholarly scholarly work work and and historical historical criticism. criticism. However, However, new cumulation new discoveries and and interpretations interpretations of of old old materials materials continue continue to to appear appear discoveries every year. year. every Graeco-Roman archaeology archaeology has has achieved achieved brilliant results. Everyone Everyone Graeco-Roman brilliant results. is the excavations is familiar familiar with with the excavations of of Pompeii-the Pompeii—the city city that that perished perished under under hot hot ash ash during during aa volcanic volcanic eruption eruption in in the the first first century century of of the the Christian era. preserved almost including inscriptions Christian era. It It was was preserved almost intact, intact, including inscriptions (graffiti) on on the the walls of the houses. Other Other discoveries discoveries are are equally equally fasfas(graffiti) walls of the houses. cinating and and successfully successfully complement complement the the abundant abundant written sources. cinating written sources. Modern science science has has developed developed underwater underwater archaeology, archaeology, making making Modern possible the the discovery discovery of of the the remains remains of of sunken sunken cities, cities, as as well well as as virtuvirtupossible ally intact ships that with all all their their freight freight two thousand ally intact ships that went went down down with two thousand years ago. years ago. In field of In the the last last few few years, years, the the field of comparative comparative historical historical linguistics linguistics has advanced considerably. considerably. We We may may reasonably reasonably hope hope that this source source has advanced that this reconstruction not will will enable enable us us to to make make at at least least aa partial partial reconstruction not only only of of the the material culture of of humanity humanity far material (archaeological) (archaeological) culture far beyond beyond the the range range of of written history but also valwritten history but also of of its its mentality, mentality, its its ideology ideology and and cultural cultural values, and ues, and certain certain social social features. features. The The migration migration routes routes of of the the speakers speakers of hard to of the the most most ancient ancient languages languages are are still still hard to reconstruct. reconstruct. However, However, it seems seems that that aa collaboration collaboration of of linguists linguists with with archaeologists, archaeologists, physical physical it the latest anthropologists anthropologists (who, (who, using using the latest discoveries discoveries in in genetics, genetics, have have made progress), palaeobotanists, palaeobotanists, palaeozoologists, histomade spectacular spectacular progress), palaeozoologists, historians of of the the climate, climate, and and others others will will enable enable us us to create aa base for the the rians to create base for science of of ethnogenesis science ethnogenesis(the (thestudy studyofofthe theorigins originsofofnations). nations).Let Letususnote note that finding finding the the origin origin of of aa nation implies the discovery of of its its three threedisdisthat nation implies the discovery tinct roots: the the history history of of itsitsphysical physical anthropological anthropological characteristics; characteristics; tinct roots: the history of of its its language; language; and and the the history of its its culture. culture. We We very very the history history of rarely information about about all all three. three. rarely have have information This replace aa comprehensive This brief brief survey survey cannot, cannot, of of course, course, replace comprehensive sumsumming provide at ming up up of of research research based based on on ancient ancient sources. sources. But But it it may may provide at least an approximate approximate idea least an idea about about the the character character of of the the sources sources that that served the degree served as as aa basis basis for for the the lectures lectures in in our our book, book, about about the degree to to which be regarded which the the reported reported facts facts can can be regarded as as reliable, reliable, and and about about the the obstacles confronted confronted by scholars in in their historical research. research. obstacles by scholars their historical In In addition addition to to the the difficulties difficulties in in studying studying these these sources, sources, we we must must mention the philological philological difficulties. difficulties. Historians Historians investigating investigating the anmention the the ancient to work materials prepared cient world world cannot cannot afford afford to work with with materials prepared for for them them

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Introduction Introduction

by historians themby philologists philologists or or archaeologists. archaeologists. It It is is crucial crucial that that the the historians themnecessary paspasselves selves read read in in the the original, original, sort sort out, out, and and interpret interpret the the necessary the results results of of sages sages of of ancient ancient texts. texts. They They must must also also learn learn to to interpret interpret the archaeological excavations. excavations. archaeological The historical sources The ancient ancient historical sources are are recorded recorded in in many, many, often often complex complex writing systems systems designed designed for for dozens dozens of of languages, languages, some some of of which are which are writing not yet have not not been been fully denot yet well well understood. understood. Some Some writing writing systems systems have fully deciphered, so so that their interpretation interpretation is is controversial. controversial. The The languages languages that their ciphered, themselves were were always always changing changing and and are are still still changing, changing, so so that that fifth fifth themselves century B.C. B.C. Latin Latin differed differed considerably considerably from from the Latin of of the the first first century the Latin century B.C. B.C. to to the the first first century century A.D., A.D., and and the the latter latter was was notably notably distinct distinct century from medieval medieval Latin, Latin, which, in turn, turn, was was different different from from Renaissance Renaissance from which, in Latin. Akkadian, which existed existed for for two two and and aa half half millennia, millennia, and and ChiLatin. Akkadian, which Chinese, which which existed existed for for three and aa half half millennia, millennia, were, were, of of course, course, three and nese, subject to to still still more drastic change. change. more drastic subject To the problem To end end with with the problem of of sources, sources, it it is is worthwhile worthwhile to to dwell dwell upon upon the following following question: question: Is Is it it not not aa fact fact that that the the sources sources reach reach us us acthe accidentally, cidentally, so so that that we the more more important important ones? ones? To To this this we may may miss miss the legitimate question question there there is is no no unequivocal unequivocal answer. answer. Some Some countries countries legitimate and and some some epochs epochs are, are, one one can can assume, assume, elucidated elucidated satisfactorily. satisfactorily. Thus, Thus, we know know more about Rome Rome under under Emperor than about about we more about Emperor Augustus Augustus than seventeenth-century Russia. Russia. Our Our knowledge about, say, say, the time of of seventeenth-century knowledge about, the time Nebuchadnezzar II II or or about about the the Old Old Babylonian Babylonian Period Period is is considerconsiderNebuchadnezzar able but fragmentary. We We know know by name hundreds hundreds and and thousands thousands of of able but fragmentary. by name few. Of Of other other epochs epochs we persons and and the life histories of aa few. persons the life histories of we know, know, alas, alas, next to nothing, nothing, and and considerable considerable errors errors in in reconstruction reconstruction are are posnext to possible and and even even probable. However, we can be sure that that human society sible probable. However, we can be sure human society lives and and develops develops in in accordance accordance with certain uniform uniform socioeconomic socioeconomic with certain lives and sociopsychological sociopsychological laws. laws. Therefore, Therefore, with with great great caution, caution, we may and we may sometimes allow allow ourselves ourselves to to extrapolate extrapolate from from the the known without too too sometimes known without great aa possibility possibility of of falling falling into into error. error. In In any any event, event, there there is is no no scigreat science that that does does not not have its share share of of unknown or erroneously erroneously ininence have its unknown or terpreted facts. Science is a way to truth, a gradual approach to it; terpreted facts. Science is a way to truth, a gradual approach to it; complete, absolute truth is unattainable. complete, absolute truth is unattainable. narrative art, History History first first emerged emerged in in antiquity antiquity as as aa genre genre of of narrative art, and and it still still retains some features features of of its its literary literary origin. origin. There There is is nothing nothing it retains some wrong in this, this, so so long long as as it it allows allows the to present wrong in the historian historian to present aa living living picpicture of of the the past past not not only only to to the the reader's reader's intellect intellect but also to to the the reader's reader's ture but also imagination. However, However, aa subjective-emotional subjective-emotional approach approach to the facts facts of of to the imagination. history can can do do incalculable incalculable harm harm to to science science and and to society. One One must must history to society. deduce from from the the fact fact what happened, not not what what the the historian historian deduce what really really happened, thinks ought ought to to have The scientist's scientist's task is the the objective objective have happened. happened. The task is thinks cognition of of facts; facts; emotions emotions induced induced by facts are are antithetical antithetical to to science. science. by facts cognition Thus, Thus, the the readers readers of of our our book book must must clearly clearly understand understand that that it it does does

Introduction Introduction

21 21

not contain not contain absolute absolute and and final final truths truths but, but, rather,just rather, just what what can can be be said said about about the the different different subjects subjects involved involved on on the the basis basis of of present-day present-day knowledge. Development Development of the historical not stop; knowledge. of the historical sciences sciences does does not stop; our our ideas about about the the past are changing changing and and will will continue continue to to do do so. so. Maybe Maybe it it ideas past are is the the gradual is gradual revealing revealing of of truth truth that that makes makes history history so so fascinating. fascinating.

Problems Problems of of Ancient Ancient Chronology Chronology Anyone will probably Anyone approaching approaching the the study study of of ancient ancient history history will probably ask, ask, How does does one fix the time at at which which aa particular event in ancient hisHow one fix the time particular event in ancient history place? How tory took took place? How reliable reliable are are the the assigned assigned dates? dates? In In the the specialist specialist numerous disagreements to the literature, literature, one one actually actually finds finds numerous disagreements as as to the dates dates of not to of individual individual events events and and entire entire ancient ancient epochs, epochs, not to mention mention the the apapproximate proximate nature nature of of the the datings. datings. The The difficulties difficulties in in establishing establishing the the chronology of ancient history are due the absence absence of adequate syssyschronology of ancient history are due to to the of adequate tems year reckoning most ancient tems of of year reckoning in in most ancient lands, lands, as as well well as as to to the the characcharacter ter and and condition condition of of many many sources, sources, which which are are not not always always dated dated and and which frequently frequently cannot cannot be be dated dated even even by circumstantial evidence evidence which by circumstantial known from (such (such as as references references to to events events for for which which the the dates dates are are known from other writing peculiarities). other sources sources or or spelling spelling and and writing peculiarities). peSuch Such is is the the case case especially especially with with the the dating dating of of the the most most ancient ancient periods in riods of of oriental oriental societies. societies. The The establishment establishment of of the the chronology chronology in ancient ancient oriental oriental history history is is complicated complicated by by the the fact fact that that there there was was no no single reference reference point point from from which which to to count count the Each country country single the years. years. Each had its own, own, very imperfect way way of of determining determining elapsed elapsed time. time. had its very imperfect Thus, Thus, in in the the Mesopotamian Mesopotamian states states it it was was customary, customary, at at one one time, time, to to designate aa year year according according to to some some important important event event that that took took place place designate during that that year. year. Lists Lists of of such such year designations (date (date formulae) formulae) were were during year designations kept. Sources Sources mention such dates dates as, as, for for example, example, the when aa kept. mention such the year year when certain building was was erected, year of certain building erected, the the year of aa war war against against aa certain certain tribe, tribe, and so so forth. forth. In In other other cases, cases, the the years years were were counted counted according according to to the the and duration of of the the reign reign of of each each king. king. In the count count was was kept kept duration In Assyria, Assyria, the by the limmu. by the annual annual tenures tenures of of certain certain functionaries-the functionaries—the so-called so-called limmu. Scholars Assyrian functionaries by the Scholars also also refer refer to to these these Assyrian functionaries by the Greek Greek word word eponym. eponym.InInorder ordertotocorrelate correlateevents eventsthat thatoccurred occurredatatdifferent differenttimes, times,itit was necessary necessary to to compile compile lists lists of of all all the the dating dating formulae formulae (names (names of was of years) or lists of eponyms, or enumerations of kings with the lengths years) or lists of eponyms, or enumerations of kings with the lengths of their their reigns. reigns. Such Such lists lists could could be be interrupted interrupted by wars or or enemy enemy conconof by wars quests of of the the capital capital city, city, and and they could contain contain both accidental and and they could both accidental quests intentional errors: errors: approximation approximation of of numbers and exclusion exclusion of of some some intentional numbers and names, as as well well as as of of entire entire dynasties dynasties that, that, for for political political reasons, were names, reasons, were not considered desirable desirable to mention. not considered to mention. Such be correlated Such records records can can be correlated with with our our own own chronological chronological system system only when they can can be be related related at at some some point (better yet, yet, at at several) several) to to only when they point (better

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Introduction Introduction

firmly firmly dated dated astronomical astronomical events, events, the the dates dates of of such such events events depending depending entirely the laws celestial mechanics. reliable referentirely on on the laws of of celestial mechanics. The The most most reliable referThat is why all ence points points are ence are solar solar eclipses. eclipses. That is why all historical historical events events that that B.C. are are usually usually dated dated took place in in the East startiiii starting^ from from 1073 1073 B.C. took place the Near Near East with an average average error error no no larger larger than one to two years. years. Less Less reliable reliable with an than one to two are references references to other astronomical astronomical time time measurements, measurements, such such as are to other as those based based on on the the quite quite imperfect imperfect ancient ancient observations observations of of the planet those the planet Venus. This This particular is used used to date events events in in the history Venus. particular reference reference is to date the history of Babylonia Babylonia from from the the twenty-fourth twenty-fourth to to the the sixteenth sixteenth centuries centuries B.C. of B.C. After aa series series of of corrections corrections that that resulted resulted in in lowering lowering the the proposed proposed After dates, we we are are left left with error of of sixty-four sixty-four years, years, forward forward or or dates, with aa probable probable error backward, for the the end end of of the the period period in in question, question, and and up to one one hunhunbackward, for up to dred years years for for its its beginning. Historians have agreed to assign aa concondred beginning. Historians have agreed to assign ventional date, date, 1792-1750 1792-1750 B.C., B.C., to to the the reign reign of of King King Hammurapi Hammurapi of of ventional Babylon, from from which which the the dates dates of of other other events, events, preceding preceding or or followfollowBabylon, ing, are are calculated calculated based on their their distance distance in in time time from from Hammurapi's Hammurapi's based on ing, rule. This This dating dating system system is is called called the the middle middle chronology. chronology. rule. When aa certain certain local local chronology chronology has has aa point of astronomical astronomical referreferWhen point of ence, ence, it it may may also also help help to to establish establish absolute absolute dates dates for for the the ancient ancient chronchronological systems systems of of other other countries. countries. This This determination determination depends depends on on ological finding synchronisms synchronisms between between them; them; that that is, is, historically historically verified verified ininfinding dications that that two two specific specific public public figures, figures, one one from from each each country, country, were were dications contemporaneous or or indications indications of of battles, battles, wars, wars, and and agreements agreements becontemporaneous between the the two two countries. countries. A A chronological chronological system system based only on on synsyntween based only chronisms with with another another system system (as (as are are the the chronological chronological systems systems of of chronisms ancient Asia Asia Minor, Minor, Palestine, Palestine, and and other other areas) areas) is is less less accurate accurate than than aa ancient system directly directly tied tied to to the astronomical time time scale. scale. system the astronomical An An additional additional difficulty difficulty in in establishing establishing an an exact exact chronology chronology for for the ancient New East is is that the year year used in that was mostly mostly the ancient New East that the used in that region region was not 12 not solar solar (approximately (approximately 365 365 days) days) but but lunar-solar, lunar-solar, consisting consisting of of 12 days, months, with with successive months, successive months months alternating alternating between between 29 29 and and 30 30 days, amounting to aa total total of amounting to of 354 354 days days in in aa year. year. The The deviation deviation from from the the natural natural calendar calendar was was compensated compensated for for by by intercalating intercalating leap leap months, months, first first irregularly irregularly and and then, then, since since the the sixth sixth century century B.C., B.C., according according to to aa rigorously applied applied system. system. rigorously Today, Today, our our chronology chronology is is strictly strictly correlated correlated with with astronomical astronomical time. time. Small Small errors errors caused caused by by the the somewhat somewhat imprecise imprecise coincidence coincidence between between the civil civil and and the the astronomical astronomical year year are are corrected corrected by adding one one day day the by adding during leap leap years. during years. In In Egypt, Egypt, time time was was counted counted by by the the length length of of reign reign of of each each pharaoh, pharaoh, and the the count count was was renewed renewed with with each each new new ruler. ruler. A A list list of of pharaohs pharaohs and indicating the the duration duration of of their their reigns reigns has has not not reached reached us us in in its its comcomindicating plete form; it it also also contains contains gaps gaps owing owing to to scribal scribal errors. errors. Moreover, Moreover, plete form;

Introduction Introduction

23

there there was was another another shortcoming shortcoming in in this this list list that that led led to to unjustified unjustified chronological extensions: extensions: reigns reigns of of pharaohs pharaohs who who ruled ruled simultanesimultanechronological ously (coregents, (coregents, as as well well as as contemporaneous contemporaneous kings, kings, each each governing governing ously part of of the the country country during during periods periods of of political political division) division) are are presented presented part as Mesoas sequential. sequential. (The (The same same happens happens sometimes sometimes in in the the king king lists lists of of Mesopotamia.) As the estimate estimate of of dates dates during the third third millenmillenpotamia.) As aa result, result, the during the nium nium B.C. B.C. oscillates oscillates within within aa 300-year 300-year range. range. It It isisonly only at at the the beginning beginning of of the the second second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. that that the the estimates estimates improve improve to to the the range range of of one one or or two two decades. decades. The The dating dating becomes becomes reliable reliable from from the the middle middle of of B.C. on. on. the first first millennium millennium B.C. the The situation situation with with the the dating dating of of ancient ancient Indian Indian history history is is very very poor. poor. The The reason reason is is the the nature nature of of the the preserved preserved sources. sources. Not single exexThe Not aa single ample of of historical historical work work in in the the proper proper sense-be sense—be it it chronicle, chronicle, historihistoriample cal account, account, or or treatise-is treatise—is available available from from this this region. region. Nor have any any cal Nor have royal archives archives or or any any other other official official written written documents documents yet yet been been discovdiscovroyal ered. Virtually Virtually the the only only dated dated sources sources available available for for ancient ancient India India are are ered. inscriptions on on stone stone and and metal. metal. But But even even these these are are few few and and stem stem inscriptions from aa relatively relatively late late time, time, beginning beginning with with the the third third century century B.C. B.C. Let Let from us remember remember that that the the oldest oldest dated dated written written sources sources of of Egyptian Egyptian and and us Mesopotamian history history (although (although these these dates dates are are only only approximate) approximate) Mesopotamian are from from the the third third millennium millennium B.C. are B.C. . In contrast contrast to to Indian Indian sources, sources, those those of of China China contain contain numerous numerous In dates. This This is is because because China, China, like like Greece Greece and and Rome, Rome, is is one one of of the the few few dates. ancient countries countries where where historical historical works works were were written. written. Ancient Ancient China China ancient has left left us us chronicles, chronicles, dynastic dynastic histories, histories, and and valuable valuable generalizing generalizing hishas historical Shih Chi Chi[Historical [Historicalnotes], notes],SsuSsutorical books. books. In In his his voluminous voluminous work work Shih ma Ch'ien Ch'ien (145-87 (145-87 B.C.), B.C.), the the prominent prominent historian of ancient ancient China, China, ma historian of paid great attention attention to to chronology. chronology. This This work, work, which which encompasses encompasses the the paid great time from from the the mythological creation of of the the world world to to the the end end of of the the time mythological creation second century century B.C., B.C., gives gives aa chronological chronological outline outline of of ancient ancient Chinese Chinese second history. However, However, the the basis basis for for the the system system of of dating dating that that Ssu-ma Ssu-ma history. Ch'ien and and other other Chinese Chinese authors authors use use is is often often unclear. unclear. Therefore, Therefore, Ch'ien their dates are are not always quite quite reliable. reliable. their dates not always The situation situation with with the the chronology chronology of of Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history history is The is quite satisfactory satisfactory because of the the great great number number of of historical historical works works that that quite because of have reached reached us us and and that that contain contain sufficiently sufficiently reliable reliable datings. datings. These These have works were were based based on on several several different different chronological chronological systems. systems. Thus, Thus, aa works system of of dating dating after after yearly yearly tenures tenures of of certain certain high high state state functionfunctionsystem aries (the (the system system also also known known from from Assyria) Assyria) was was used used in in Athens, Athens, where where aries years were were counted counted by by archon archon eponyms. eponyms. In In Rome Rome the the year year count count was years was based on on the the yearly terms of of consuls. consuls. Partial Partial records of archons archons and and based yearly terms records of consuls inscribed inscribed on on stone stone have have been there consuls been preserved. preserved. Furthermore, Furthermore, there was aa pan-Greek year count count based Olympiads—festivals that that was pan-Greek year based on on the the Olympiads-festivals

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Introduction Introduction

bound the union union of bound together together the of Hellenic Hellenic communities. communities. The The Olympiads Olympiads took place regularly regularly every years. The Olympiad occurred, took place every four four years. The first first Olympiad occurred, 14 B.C.14 according to to Greek Greek legend, legend, in in 776 776 B.C. according Later, Romans established their year Later, the the Romans established their year count count from from the the legendary legendary date of of the the foundation foundation of of Rome. date Rome. The The Roman Roman historian historian Marcus Marcus TerenTerentius tius Varro Varro (first (first century century B.C.) B.C.) dated dated the the foundation foundation of of Rome Rome to to the the third that is, third year year of of the the sixth sixth Olympiad; Olympiad; that is, to to 754-753 754-753 B.C. B.C. Attempting Attempting to to determine determine the the date date of of the the foundation foundation of of Rome, Rome, Varro Varro utilized utilized synsynyear count based on terms of chronisms chronisms between between the the year count based on the the office office terms of consuls consuls with the the Greek Greek count count based on the the Olympiads. Olympiads. with based on Claudius Ptolemaeus, the Claudius Ptolemaeus, the great great Greek Greek mathematician mathematician and and astronoastronomer the second with mer of of the second century century A.D., A.D., connected connected the the Greek Greek chronology chronology with the Babylonian, Babylonian, which, which, as as mentioned mentioned above, above, has has an an exact exact astronomical astronomical the point of point of reference. reference. Moreover, Moreover, the the Graeco-Roman Graeco-Roman chronology chronology has has number of of other other independent independent astronomical astronomical points points of of reference. reference. aa number Ptolemaeus's references to Ptolemaeus's "Canon" "Canon" includes· includes references to several several astronomically astronomically identifiable solar solar eclipses. eclipses. identifiable Beginning with the sixth sixth to fifth centuries centuries B.C., B.C., aa new independent Beginning with the to fifth new independent historical namely, coins. Numishistorical and and chronological chronological source source appears, appears, namely, coins. Numismatics is is aa field field of of scholarship scholarship devoted devoted to the study study of of coins coins from from the the matics to the point metallic content, weight, area point of of view view of of their their metallic content, weight, area of of diffusion, diffusion, the the declared and and the actual face face value, inscriptions (called (called legends), legends), and and declared the actual value, inscriptions the character of of depicted depicted objects objects and and persons, persons, including including portraits of the character portraits of the heads of state state who who issued issued the the coin. coin. During During archaeological archaeological excavaexcavathe heads of tions, coins are are often often found found that that have have inscriptions inscriptions of of kings kings known known from from tions, coins narrative sources sources (and (and sometimes sometimes unknown), and in in aa number number of of cases cases narrative unknown), and the portrait portrait on on the coin can can be be identified identified with with already already known known sculpthe the coin sculptural portraits. Such coins coins constitute constitute aa link link between archaeological tural portraits. Such· between archaeological data and and the the data data of of the the inscriptions inscriptions and and narrative narrative sources. sources. Besides, data Besides, numismatics supply supply diverse diverse historico-economic, historico-economic, politico-geographic, politico-geographic, numismatics and other other data data to to the the historian. historian. This is especially especially important important for for periperiand This is ods on on which other sources sources cast cast little little light. light. ods which other In A.D., the the Italian Italian monk monk Dionysius Dionysius Exiguus Exiguus proproIn the the sixth sixth century century A.D., posed aa new new chronological chronological system system based on the the birth of Jesus Jesus Christ. Christ. posed based on birth of point of used the the foundation For For his his point of orientation orientation he he used the date date for for the foundation of of Rome. Rome. Dionysius Dionysius proposed proposed December December 25 25 of of the the 753d 753d year year after after Rome's Jesus' birth. birth. Accordingly, Accordingly, the the founfounRome's foundation foundation as as the the date date of of Jesus' dation of of Rome dated in in the year 753 753 before before the of dation Rome began began to to be be dated the year the birth birth of 14. be mentioned the first 14. It It should should be mentioned that that the the legendary legendary character character of of the first Olympiad Olympiad does does not in in any any way way invalidate invalidate the the correctness correctness of the Olympiad-based chronology. It not of the Olympiad-based chronology. It is is imimportant that portant that the the initial initial point point from from which which the the years years are are counted counted be be defined defined at at some some defidefinite point. There There is no need need for reference point point to to correlate nite astronomical astronomical point. is no for such such aa reference correlate with with any any real real historical historical event. event. The The date date of of any any event event calculated calculated from from an an astronomical astronomical referreference point can be recalculated recalculated into ence point can easily easily be into our our chronological chronological system. system.

Introduction Introduction

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Christ. Christ. Now Now it it is is agreed agreed that that Dionysius Dionysius made made an an error error and and that, that, in in rereality, Jesus Jesus must must have have been been born born aa few few years years earlier, earlier, perhaps perhaps in in the the ality, fourth or or even even fifth fifth year year before before our our era. era. fourth The DThe new new year year count count "from "from the the birth birth of of Christ"-A(nno}. Christ"—A(nno). D(omini).—did not not take take root root immediately. immediately. During During the the entire entire Middle Middle (omini}.-did Ages it it coexisted coexisted with with the the biblical biblical tradition tradition of of counting counting years years "from "from Ages the 15 GradGradthe creation creation of of the the world" world" adopted adopted earlier earlier in in Christian Christian nations. nations.15 ually, the the calculation calculation in in years years from from the the birth birth of of Christ Christ or, or, more more corcorually, rectly, from from the the beginning beginning of of our our era era was was accepted accepted in in many many countries, countries, rectly, including Russia. Russia. A A significant significant portion portion of of the the world's world's population population uses uses including this system, system, which which is is also also universally universally accepted accepted in in history. history. Other Other chronchronthis ological systems systems also also exist, exist, but but there there is is no no need need to to discuss discuss them them here. here. ological In In recent recent times, times, historians historians have have relied relied on on an an archaeological archaeological method method to establish establish absolute absolute dates dates with with the the aid aid of of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon dating. dating. to Carbon Carbon dating dating is is based based on on measuring measuring the the concentration concentration of of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon in in excavated excavated artifacts. artifacts. For For instance, instance, aa felled felled tree tree ceases ceases to to take take up up the the radioactive radioactive 14 14 isotope isotope of of carbon, carbon, and and thus, thus, the the time time when when the the tree tree was was cut cut can can be be determined determined according according to to our our present present chronologichronological scale. scale. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, radioactive radioactive carbon carbon dating dating is is imprecise, imprecise, leadleadcal ing to to unavoidable unavoidable errors, errors, which which sometimes sometimes amount amount to to tens tens and and even even ing hundreds of of years years and and which which preclude preclude its its application application to to cases cases that that hundreds At the the present present time, time, aa potentially imrequire more more accurate accurate dating. dating.1616 At require potentially important absolute absolute dating dating method method called called thermoluminescence thermoluminescence is is being being portant developed for for ceramics, ceramics, as as well well as as other other physical methods such such as as developed physical methods archaeomagnetism. archaeomagnetism. For the the time time being, being, however, however, all all dates dates for for ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern hishisFor tory tory earlier earlier than than the the second second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. and and for for Europe Europe and and B.C. remain remain ununChina earlier earlier than than the the middle middle of of the the first millennium B.C. China first millennium certain; certain; they they only only provide provide relative relative orientation. orientation. The The situation situation is is even even worse for for India, India, where where even even the the dates dates in in the the first first millennium millennium B.C. worse B.C. are are frequently approximate approximate and and inaccurate, inaccurate, because because they they are are primarily primarily frequently based on on objects objects imported imported from from other other countries countries with with aa better estabbased better established chronology chronology or or on on late late king king lists lists of of doubtful doubtful accuracy accuracy or or on on eslished establishing that that certain certain literary literary works works influenced influenced certain certain others, others, rather rather tablishing than the the reverse. reverse. Generally Generally speaking, speaking, the the farther farther away away aa territory territory is than is from ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, the the less less accurate accurate is is its its chronology chronology and and the the from more recent recent its its reliable reliable datings. datings. more 15. During During the the Middle Middle Ages, Ages, the the mythological mythological date date of of the the creation creation of of the the world world 15. based on on the the biblical biblical legends legends was was calculated calculated in in various various ways. ways. The The Greek Greek Orthodox Orthodox based church adopted adopted the the year year 5508 5508 B.C., church B.C, and and the the Anglican, Anglican, the the year year 4004 4004 B.C. B.C. 16. 16. Most Most of of the the radiocarbon radiocarbon dates dates relevant relevant to to the the history history of of the the ancient ancient world world need need to be be recalibrated recalibrated by by adding adding aa certain certain correction correction factor factor based based upon upon dendrochronologidendrochronologito cally determined determined dates. dates. The The radiocarbon radiocarbon dates dates for for ancient ancient history history are are too too young young due due to to cally past variations variations in in the the production of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon in in the the earth's earth's atmosphere. atmosphere. past production of

1 General General Outline Outline of of the the First First Period Period of the History History of the Ancient Ancient World of the of the World and Problem of Ways and the the Problem of the the Ways of of Development Development I. M. DIAKONOFF DlAKONOFF

Preconditions Preconditions for for the the Formation Formation of of the the First First Class Class Society Society The Homo separated The genus genus Homo separated out out of of the the rest rest of of the the animal animal kingdom kingdom sapienssapiens, sapiens, roughly million years years ago. ago. Our Our species, species, Homo roughly two two million Homo sapiens hashas existed existed at at least least since since the the end end of of the the Middle Middle Palaeolithic, Palaeolithic, some some forty forty thousand years. years. From From his his ancestors, ancestors, who who belonged to more. more ancient ancient thousand belonged to human species, species, Homo sapienssapiens sapiens inherited ability produce human Homo sapiens inherited thethe ability to to produce simple tools tools for for labor. labor. But But for for thirty thirty thousand thousand years years of of history, history, huhusimple mans, with with the the aid aid of of the the tools tools they they made, made, still still derived derived benefits benefits solely solely mans, from nature, nature, just like their their ancestors; ancestors; for for thirty thirty thousand thousand years, years, they they from just like did not not sow sow or or reap. reap. Their Their means means of of sustenance sustenance were were gathering gathering wild did wild plants, hunting, and fishing, fishing, all all of of which which are are activities activities that are cercerplants, hunting, and that are tainly work. work. In In order order to to exist, exist, however, however, it it was was not not sufficient sufficient for for them them tainly to merely merely produce produce the the necessary necessary work work tools: tools: they they had had to to be be rereto produced. But they could not reproduce the products they had exproduced. But they could not reproduce the products they had extracted from from nature. nature. For For this this reason, reason, the the life life of of human human groups groups tracted (communities usually usually based based on on kinship) kinship) depended largely on on environenviron(communities depended largely mental conditions, conditions, such such as as climate, climate, on on the the abundance abundance or or scarcity scarcity of of mental game, and and on on pure pure luck. luck. Successes Successes alternated alternated with with periods of hunger; hunger; game, periods of mortality was was very very high, high, especially especially for for children children and and the the elderly. elderly. The The mortality surface of of the the enormous enormous planet planet was was inhabited inhabited by by very very few few people, people, and and surface if their their number number increased at all, all, it it did did so so very very slowly; slowly; indeed, indeed, somesomeif increased at times it it may may have have even even decreased. decreased. times This situation situation changed changed about about ten ten to to twelve twelve thousand thousand years years ago, This ago, when in in certain certain ecologically ecologically favored favored regions, regions, some some human human commucommuwhen nities learned learned to to plant plant grain, grain, ensuring ensuring their their year-round year-round food food requirerequirenities ments, and and to to raise raise sheep, sheep, goats, goats, and and cattle, cattle, allowing allowing for for regular regular ments, consumption of of meat, meat, as as well well as as for for provision of milk milk and and cheese cheese consumption provision of (curds). The The domestic animals also also provided leather, which which was was supesupe(curds). domestic animals provided leather, rior to to that that from from hunted hunted animals, animals, and and supplied supplied wool, wool, which which people people rior learned to to spin spin and and weave. weave. Soon Soon after, after, humans humans were were able able to to abandon abandon learned

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I. /. M. Diakonoff Diakonoff

cave cave dwellings, dwellings, twig twig and and mud mud huts, huts, or or dugouts dugouts and and to to live live in in permapermanent houses houses made made of of clay clay or or clay-coated clay-coated rocks rocks and, and, later, later, of of adobe adobe nent bricks. Community Community life life became became safer: safer: the the mortality mortality rate rate decreased decreased bricks. somewhat. Population Population growth, growth, though though never never exceeding exceeding about about 0.01 0.01 somewhat. percent, noticeable from from generation generation to generation, and and the the percent, became became noticeable to generation, first farmers farmers and and livestock livestock herders herders began began to to expand expand gradually gradually over over first the earth's earth's surface. surface. the The The first first humans humans to to achieve achieve these these successes successes inhabited inhabited the the North North Temperate Zone Zone of of the the Eastern Eastern Hemisphere. Hemisphere. This was the the epoch epoch Temperate This was when was not yet over when the the great great Ice Ice Age Age was not yet over in in northern northern Europe Europe and and Asia, Asia, but but to to the the south south of of the the glacial glacial zone zone the the cold cold dry dry climate climate of of the the Pleistocene had had passed. passed. A A significant significant portion portion of of the the Eurasian Eurasian landlandPleistocene mass was was covered covered by by pine pine forests, forests, separated separated from from the the glacial glacial zone zone by mass by aa Greece, Asia Asia Minor, Minor, and and most most zone of of tundra. tundra. The The peninsulas peninsulas ofltaly, of Italy, Greece, zone of China China were all covered covered with deciduous forests. forests. The The expanse expanse of of were all with deciduous of North Africa, Africa, Arabia, Arabia, and and other other Near Near Eastern Eastern regions regions as as far far as as northnorthNorth ern China China (covered (covered today today by by dry dry steppes steppes or or scorched scorched deserts) deserts) was ern was mostly mixed mixed forest forest and and steppe. steppe. Farther Farther to to the the south, south, in in Africa, Africa, southsouthmostly ern India, India, southern southern China, China, and and Indochina, Indochina, lush lush tropical tropical forests forests were were ern growing. growmg. The partly partly wooded wooded steppe steppe regions regions were were the the most most favorable favorable areas areas The for for human human life, life, but but not not everywhere everywhere even even in in this this zone zone were were the the condiconditions sufficiently sufficiently conducive conducive for for aa transition transition to to agriculture agriculture and and livestock livestock tions raising. A A region was suitable suitable when it offered offered wild wild grains grains appropriate appropriate when it raising. region was for consumption consumption and and later later for for artificial artificial sowing sowing (as (as documented documented by for by N. I. I. Vavilov Vavilov in in 1926), 1926), as as well well as as wild wild animals animals that that could could be be domestidomestiN. cated. The The first grains harvested harvested in in their their wild wild state state (aided (aided by by wooden wooden first grains cated. or bone bone sickles sickles with with embedded embedded flint and later later cultivated cultivated were were or flint blades) blades) and barley and and einkorn einkorn and and emmer emmer wheat. Wild stands stands of of barley and these these wheat. Wild barley and barley early wheats grew in in the uplands of Asia Minor, Minor, Palestine, Palestine, Iran, Iran, and and early wheats grew the uplands of Asia southern Turkmenia, Turkmenia, as as well well as as in in northern northern Africa. Africa. Other Other cereals cereals were were southern domesticated later. later. Though Though it it is is difficult difficult to to determine determine where where this this phephedomesticated nomenon occurred occurred for for the the first time, it it is is certain certain that that cereals cereals were were nomenon first time, B.C. in in PalesPalesalready being sown between between the the tenth and eighth eighth millenia millenia B.C. tenth and already being sown tine, in in Asia Asia Minor, Minor, and and on on the the western slopes of of the Iranian uplands. uplands. western slopes the Iranian tine, In Egypt, Egypt, along along the the Danube Danube River, River, in in the the Balkans, Balkans, and and in in southern southern In Turkmenia, grains were being sown no later than the seventh to sixth sixth Turkmenia, grains were being sown no later than the seventh to millennia B.C. At about the same time, these regions saw the domesmillennia B.C. At about the same time, these regions saw the domestication of goats goats and and sheep. sheep. (Late (Late Palaeolithic Palaeolithic hunters hunters had had tamed tamed dogs dogs tication of much earlier.) Cattle and, sporadically, pigs were domesticated later. much earlier.) Cattle and, sporadically, pigs were domesticated later. The standard standard ofliving of living improved improved even even more more during during the the eighth eighth to to sixth sixth The millenia B.C. when people learned to make polished stone tools, woven millenia B.C. when people learned to make polished stone tools, woven baskets, woven woven fabrics, fabrics, and and fired fired pottery, pottery, which which permitted permitted better better food food baskets, preparation and storage. preparation and storage.

General Outline

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With the the disappearance disappearance of of the the northern northern glaciers, glaciers, the the climate climate in in the the With temperate zone zone of of the the Northern became drier. drier. temperate Northern Hemisphere Hemisphere gradually gradually became Foothill Foothill agriculture agriculture depended depended less less and and less less on on natural natural rain rain irrigation irrigation and and more more on on damned damned brooks brooks channeled channeled to to the the fields. fields. For For aa long long time, time, the the population population of of the the northern northern and and southern southern forest forest zones zones was was still still very scanty scanty and and was was not not able able to to adopt adopt the the achievements achievements of of the the inhabiinhabivery tants tants of of the the forest-steppe forest-steppe and and the the steppe-uplands; steppe-uplands; with with the the tools tools then then available, it it was was still still impossible impossible to to clear clear forests forests for for tilling tilling the the land. land. available, Archaeologists attribute attribute significant significant technological technological progress progress to to three three Archaeologists important periods: periods: to to the the final final stage stage of of the the Old Old Stone Stone Age-the Age—the important Upper Palaeolithic-when Palaeolithic—when Homo sapienssapiens sapiens began prevail; Upper Homo sapiens began to to prevail; to to the Mesolithic Mesolithic Age, Age, which which in in the the temperate temperate zone zone coincides coincides with with the the the development of of agriculture agriculture and and animal animal husbandry; husbandry; and and to to the the Neodevelopment Neolithic Age, Age, which which saw saw the the development development of of polished polished stone stone implements implements lithic and the the invention invention of of weaving weaving and and pottery. pottery. But But even even the the most most adadand vanced vanced Neolithic Neolithic communities communities of of northern northern Africa, Africa, the the Near Near East, East, and and the Middle Middle East East were were unable unable to to reach reach the the level level of of production production necesthe necessary for for the the creation creation of of aa civilization. civilization. The The goal goal of of their their agricultural agricultural sary production and and animal animal husbandry husbandry was; was, as as before, before, solely solely to to ensure ensure the the production survival of of the the community community and and its its members. members. Reserves Reserves were were accumuaccumusurvival lated only only for for extreme extreme emergencies, emergencies, such such as as unexpected unexpected natural natural disasdisaslated ters. Working Working the the soil soil with with hoes hoes made made of of stone stone or or horn horn was was very very ters. arduous, even even in in the the softest softest of of soils, soils, and and provided provided very very meager, meager, alarduous, although reliable, reliable, nutrition. nutrition. Domesticated Domesticated goats goats and and sheep sheep still still supsupthough plied only only small small quantities quantities of of wool wool and and milk. milk. Dairy Dairy products products and and milk milk plied had to to be be consumed consumed quickly, quickly, because because long-term long-term storage storage methods methods were were had unknown. It It was was only only in in Asia Asia Minor, Minor, Syria, Syria, and and Palestine Palestine that that during during unknown. the eighth eighth to to sixth sixth millennia millennia B.C., B.C., there there arose arose wealthy wealthy villages villages with with the considerable populations populations and and sometimes sometimes even even surrounded surrounded by by walls considerable walls (which means means that that there there was was something something to to protect!). protect!). These, These, however, however, (which were exceptions, exceptions, and and the the oldest oldest of of these these cultures-Jericho cultures—Jericho in in Palestine Palestine were and