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Children's literature

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Contents Articles Overview Children's literature

1 1

Children's literature timeline

12

Children's literature canon

13

Children's literature criticism

14

Types of children's literature

17

Fairy tale

17

Picture book

29

Chapter book

35

Young-adult fiction

35

Early Works

49

Orbis Pictus

49

Brothers Grimm

50

Hans Christian Andersen

59

The Pilgrim's Progress

69

A Little Pretty Pocket-Book

87

The Governess, or The Little Female Academy

89

Lessons for Children

91

19th Century Works

100

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

100

Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There

112

Little Women

119

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

124

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

128

The Jungle Book

139

1900-1960 Works

145

The Wonderful Wizard of Oz

145

The Tale of Peter Rabbit

158

The Call of the Wild

165

The Wind in the Willows

168

Peter and Wendy

175

Winnie-the-Pooh

184

Little House in the Big Woods

192

The Hobbit

196

The Little Prince

210

Pippi Longstocking

222

The Chronicles of Narnia

228

The Cat in the Hat

246

Modern Works

252

James and the Giant Peach

252

Where the Wild Things Are

258

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory

262

A Wizard of Earthsea

269

Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret.

274

Harry Potter

277

A Series of Unfortunate Events

297

Percy Jackson

309

Other Works

318

List of fairy tales

318

List of children's classic books

338

List of children's literature authors

342

References Article Sources and Contributors

360

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

373

Article Licenses License

376

1

Overview Children's literature Children's literature as such probably started in the 17th century; it is generally believed that before then books were written mainly for adults. Additionally, most printed works were hard to come by due to their cost and were mostly available for purchase only by upper class society. Scholarship on children's literature includes professional organizations, dedicated publications, and university courses.

Four children reading Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas!

Defining children's literature There is some debate on what constitutes children's literature. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as "a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier".[1] Books written by children Some books written for children, such as The Young Visiters by Daisy Ashford (aged nine) or the juvenilia of Jane Austen, written to amuse brothers and sisters, are also written by children. Anne Frank wrote a novel and many short stories in addition to her diary (which is not described as children's literature). Barbara Newhall Follett wrote four books, beginning with a novel called The House Without Windows at the age of nine; when the manuscript was destroyed in a fire, she rewrote it from memory. In 1937 two schoolchildren, Pamela Whitlock and Katharine Hull sent their manuscript of The Far-Distant Oxus to Arthur Ransome, who persuaded his publisher Jonathan Cape to produce it, characterising it as "the best children's book of 1937". In Daisy Ashford as a child 1941 The Swish of the Curtain written by Pamela Brown was published while Pamela Brown herself was still only 17 years old. Dorothy Straight's How the World Began and S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders are more recent examples of books written by children. Books written for children

Children's literature Children's literature is usually understood to comprise books intentionally written for children to read. Nancy Anderson, associate professor in the College of Education at the University of South Florida in Tampa,[2] defines children's literature as all books written for children, "excluding works such as comic books, joke books, cartoon books, and nonfiction works that are not intended to be read from front to back, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference material".[3] Some of this work is also very popular among adults. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series was originally written and marketed for children, but it was so popular among children and adults that The New York Times created a separate bestseller list. Another work dating back to the Victorian Era is Charles Dicken's "A Christmas Carol". Both children and adults continue to enjoy this story and the lessons it teaches. Often no consensus is reached whether a given work is best categorized as adult or children's literature, and many books are marketed for both adults and children. Books chosen for children The most restrictive definition of children's literature are those books various authorities determine are "appropriate" for children, such as teachers, reviewers, scholars, parents, publishers, librarians, retailers, and the various book-award committees. Parents wishing to protect their children from the unhappier aspects of life often find the traditional fairy tales, nursery rhymes and other voyages of discovery problematic, because often the first thing a story does is remove the adult influence, leaving the central character to learn to cope on his or her own: prominent examples of this include Snow White, Hansel and Gretel, Bambi and A Series of Unfortunate Events. Many see such isolation of child characters from supporting adults as necessary preparation for the transition to adulthood. The school story became a common device for this, beginning with Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857) by Thomas Hughes and F.W. Farrar's Eric, or, Little by Little, although the framework had been explored as early as 1749 by Sarah Fielding in The Governess, or The Little Female Academy. Life begins for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn in the Mark Twain stories (1876 and 1885) once Aunt Polly's ineffectual tutelage is shaken off. In the classic British novels Tom's Midnight Garden (Philippa Pearce, 1958) and Jessamy (Barbara Sleigh, 1967), for example, the responsibility is enhanced by isolating the child not just spatially, but in time, through the use of time slip. Arthur Ransome used the device of children acting for themselves extensively in his Swallows and Amazons series (1930–48) and included poignant discussion of it (the "duffer" question in Swallows and Amazons and Swallowdale). Books chosen by children

2

Children's literature

3

The broadest definition of children's literature applies to books that are actually selected and read by children. Children choose many books, such as comics, which some would not consider to be literature at all in the traditional sense; they also choose literary classics and recognized great works by modern writers, and often enjoy stories which speak on multiple levels. In the opinion of novelist Orson Scott Card, "one can make a good case for the idea that children are often the guardians of the truly great literature of the world, for in their love of story and unconcern for stylistic fads and literary tricks, children unerringly gravitate toward truth and power."[4] Someone who enjoyed Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as a child may come back to the text as an adult and see the darker themes that were lost on them as younger readers. In addition, many classic books that were originally intended for adults are now commonly thought of as works for children. Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was originally intended for an adult audience.[5] Today it is widely read as a part of children's school curriculum in the United States. Huckleberry Finn

Types of children's literature Children's literature can be divided in many ways. Children's literature by genres A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content, or length. Nancy Anderson, associate professor in the College of Education at the University of South Florida in Tampa,[2] has delineated six major categories of children's literature, with some significant subgenres:[6] 1. Picture books, including board books, concept books (teaching an alphabet or counting), pattern books, and wordless books 2. Traditional literature: there are ten characteristics of traditional literature: (1) unknown authorship, (2) conventional introductions and conclusions, (3) vague settings, (4) stereotyped characters, (5) anthropomorphism, (6) cause and effect, (7) happy ending for the hero, (8) magic accepted as normal, (9) brief stories with simple and direct plots, and (10) repetition of action and verbal patterns.[7] The bulk of traditional Literature consists of folktales, which conveys the legends, customs, superstitions, and beliefs of people in past times. This large genre can be further broken down into subgenres: myths, fables, ballads, folk music, legends, and fairy tales.[8] 3. Fiction, including the sub-genres of fantasy and realistic fiction (both contemporary and historical). This genre would also include the school story, a genre unique to children's literature in which the boarding school is a common setting. 4. Non-fiction 5. Biography, including autobiography 6. Poetry and verse. Children's literature by age category Children's literature is an age category opposite adult literature, but it is sub-divided further due to the divergent interests of children age 0–18. • Picture books appropriate for pre-readers ages 0–5. Caldecott Medal winners often (but not always) fall within this category. • Early Reader Books appropriate for children age 5–7. These books are often designed to help a child build his or her reading skills.

Children's literature

4

• Chapter book appropriate for children ages 7–11. • Short chapter books, appropriate for children ages 7–9. • Longer chapter books, appropriate for children ages 9–12. Newbery Medal winners often (but not always) fall within this category. • Young-adult fiction appropriate for children age 13–18. The criteria for these divisions are vague, and books near a borderline may be classified either way. Books for younger children tend to be written in very simple language, use large print, and have many illustrations. Books for older children use increasingly complex language, normal print, and fewer, if any, illustrations. Series Book series are common in all literary genres, and children's literature is no exception. Sometimes the success of a book for children prompts the author to continue the story in a sequel or to launch a series, such as L. Frank Baum's Wizard of Oz. Enid Blyton and R. L. Stine have specialized in open-ended series. Sometimes a series will outlive its author; when Baum died, his publisher hired Ruth Plumly Thompson to write more Oz books. The Nancy Drew series and others were written by several authors using the same pen name.

Illustrations Children's books are often illustrated, sometimes lavishly, in a way that is rarely used for adult literature except in the illustrated novel genre popular especially in Japan, Korea and France. Generally, the artwork plays a greater role in books intended for the youngest readers (especially pre-literate children). Children's picture books can be a cognitively accessible source of high quality art for young children. Many authors work with a preferred artist who illustrates their words; others create books together, and some illustrators write their own books. Even after children attain sufficient levels of literacy to enjoy the story without illustrations, they continue to appreciate the occasional drawings found in chapter books. Folklore is the oldest of stories including nursery rhymes, folktales, myths, epics, legends, fables, songs, and ballads that have been passed down by storytellers for hundreds, even thousands, of years to enlighten and entertain generations of listeners, young and old. (Literature and the Child, 7th edition, Lee Galda, Bernice E. Cullian, and Lawrence R. Sipe, p. 175). "The Journey": illustration by Elizabeth Shippen Green for a series of poems by Josephine Preston Peabody, entitled "The Little Past", which relate experiences of childhood from a child's perspective.

History

It is difficult to trace the history of literature specifically for children to a precise starting point. Literature mainly for readers and listeners up to about age 12 is detailed below. Literature for older children includes Tom Sawyer, Anne of Green Gables, the Hardy Boys mysteries, The Jinx Ship and its sea story sequels, the Nancy Drew mysteries, The Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings trilogy, Lassie Come Home, The Black Stallion and its sequels, the Harry Potter fantasy series, and the His Dark Materials fantasy trilogy. 15th Century

Children's literature Some stories which became popular among children were written in the 15th Century. Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur (1486) and the tales of Robin Hood (c. 1450) were not written with children in mind, but children have been fascinated by these stories for centuries. 17th Century In 1658 Jan Ámos Komenský published the illustrated informational book Orbis Pictus in Bohemia. It is considered to be the first picture book published specifically for children. Also during this time, Charles Perrault (1628–1703) laid the foundations of the fairy tale in France. His stories include Little Red Riding Hood, Sleeping Beauty, Puss in Boots, and Cinderella. 18th Century In 1744 John Newbery published A Little Pretty Pocket-Book in England. He sold it with a ball for boys or a pincushion for girls. It is considered a landmark for the beginning of pleasure reading marketed specifically to children. Previously, literature marketed for children had been intended to instruct the young, though there was a rich oral tradition of storytelling for children and adults. But by the time William Blake's Songs of Innocence was published in 1789, books written specifically for the use of children outside of school had become, according to F.J. Harvey Darton, "a clear but subordinate branch of English literature."[9] Popular examples of this growing branch included Thomas Day's The History of Sandford and Merton (1783-9) - which embodies many of the educational and philosophical tenets espoused by Jean-Jacques Rousseau - and Maria and Richard Lovell Edgeworth's Practical Education: The History of Harry and Lucy (1780), which urged children to teach themselves.[10] 19th Century In the early 19th century the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm wrote down and preserved tales told by oral tradition in Germany, such as Snow White, Rapunzel, and Hansel and Gretel (1812). Recent research suggests that many such tales were based ultimately on written materials, usually French or Italian.[11] One of many didactic An English writer popular in the first half of the nineteenth century was Maria Elizabeth Budden. From 1830 to 1834 Russian poet Alexander Pushkin published his Russian folklore-based fairy tales in verse: The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda (1830), The Tale of Tsar Saltan (1831), The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish (1833), The Tale of the Dead Princess (1833), The Tale of the Golden Cockerel (1834). Wilhelm (left) and Jakob Grimm (right) from an 1855 Between 1835 and 1848 Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) of painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann Denmark published his beloved fairy tales: The Little Mermaid (1836), The Emperor's New Clothes (1837), The Ugly Duckling (1844), The Snow Queen (1845) and others. During Andersen's lifetime he was feted by royalty and acclaimed for having brought joy to children across Europe. His fairy tales have been translated into over 150 languages and continue to be published in millions of copies all over the world and inspired many other works.[12] "The emperor's new clothes" and "ugly duckling" are expressions that have passed into the English language.

In 1865 Lewis Carroll (1832–1898) published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland in England. The tale plays with logic in ways that have given the story lasting popularity to adults as well as children. It is considered to be one of the most characteristic examples of the genre of literary nonsense, and its narrative course and structure has been enormously influential, mainly in the fantasy genre. Also in 1865, Mary Mapes Dodge published Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates, the story of a Dutch boy who seeks a speed skating prize--silver skates--in a boy's race. Hans lets a friend win, because the friend needs the prize more.

5

Children's literature In 1880 Johanna Spyri (1827–1901) published Heidi (1880) in Switzerland. The subtitle declared that it is a book "for children and those who love children". In 1881 Joel Chandler Harris (1845–1908) published Uncle Remus, a collection of stories narrated by the fictional storyteller Uncle Remus and featuring Br'er Rabbit and other animals speaking African-American dialect. In 1883 Carlo Collodi wrote his puppet story, The Adventures of Pinocchio as a first Italian fantasy novel for the children of Italy. In 1883 Robert Louis Stevenson wrote the classic pirate adventure novel Treasure Island. Traditionally considered a coming-of-age story, it is an adventure tale known for its atmosphere, character and action, and also a wry commentary on the ambiguity of morality—as seen in Long John Silver. It is one of the most frequently dramatised of all novels, and its influence on popular perception of pirates is vast. In 1894 Rudyard Kipling published The Jungle Book, a collection of stories about a boy who lives in the jungle with animals, that has been made into a series of animated and live-action film adaptations. In 1898 Albert Bigelow Paine wrote the first of his three Hollow Tree books, The Hollow Tree and Deep Woods Book. This was followed in 1901 by the Hollow Tree Snowed-in Book and in 1915 by Hollow Tree Days and Nights. In 1899 Helen Bannerman published Little Black Sambo, the story of a boy abused by four tigers who, at the end of the story, suffer the consequences of their abuse--melting into butter and being eaten on pancakes. In 1900 L. Frank Baum (1856–1919) published The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It has been constantly in print since. It is one of the best-known stories in American culture and has been translated into 40 languages. Its success led Baum to write thirteen sequels. Other authors continued the series for decades. 20th Century In 1902 Beatrix Potter published The Tale of Peter Rabbit, that follows Peter Rabbit, a mischievous and disobedient young rabbit, as he ventures into the garden of Mr. McGregor. The book has generated considerable merchandise over the decades since its release with toys, dishes, foods, clothing, videos and other products made available. Potter was one of the first to be responsible for such merchandise when she patented a Peter Rabbit doll in 1903. In 1908 Kenneth Grahame wrote The Wind in the Willows from his retired position as secretary of the Bank of England. He moved to the country, where he spent his time in the River Thames doing much as the animal characters in his book do; namely, as one of the most famous phrases from the book says, "simply messing about in boats" for his son.

6

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7

In 1911 J.M Barrie (1860–1937) published Peter and Wendy where Peter Pan, one of the most famous characters in children's literature, magically refuses to grow up and spends his never-ending childhood in the small island called Neverland. In 1920 Hugh Lofting wrote The Story of Dr. Doolittle, the first of ten Dr. Doolittle books. In 1926 A. A. Milne wrote Winnie-the-Pooh, chapter stories about an adorable bumbling teddy bear, his best friend Piglet, and other animal characters. The House at Pooh Corner, more Pooh stories, followed in 1928. In 1930 The Little Engine That Could was published. Written by Arnold Munk under the pen name Watty Piper and adapted from earlier stories by other authors dating back to 1906, the book is the story of an undersized anthropomorphic switch engine that successfully accepts a challenging job turned down by bigger, main-line engines: hauling a load of toys over a mountain to children on the other side.

Peter and Wendy

In 1931 Jean de Brunhoff published Histoire de Babar, the French edition of the first of seven Babar the elephant stories. English versions titled The Story of Babar were published in Britain and the United States in 1933. In 1933 Laura Ingalls Wilder (1867–1957) published the first installment of the Little House on the Prairie series in the United States based on her childhood in a Western-pioneering family. The books have remained continuously in print since their initial publication and are considered classics of American children's literature. Several of them were named Newbery Honor books. They remain widely read. The books were also adapted into a long running, popular American television series, Little House on the Prairie. In 1934 Pamela L. Travers wrote Mary Poppins, the first of a long series of books about a magical nanny and the children she shepherded. The last Mary Poppins book was published in 1989. In 1936 Munro Leaf wrote The Story of Ferdinand, the story of a gentle Spanish bull who refused to accept his appointed role as a bull ring combatant. In 1945 E. B. White (co-author of Strunk and White's The Elements of Style), wrote Stuart Little, the story of an intelligent, semi-anthropomorphic mouse who sailed a tiny boat and drove a tiny car. A few years later, in 1952, White published Charlotte's Web, the story of a barnyard spider and her animal friends. In 1945 Marguerite Henry published Misty of Chincoteague, the story of a wild Assateague Island, Virginia, pony who is tamed and domesticated on nearby Chincoteague Island. Though based on a real pony named Misty who was born and raised on Chincoteague, the story alters Misty's birth island and domestic heritage. In 1950 C. S. Lewis (1898–1963) published the first of installment of his Chronicles of Narnia series in the UK. The Chronicles of Narnia has sold over 120 million copies in 41 languages, and has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage, and cinema. In addition to numerous traditional Christian themes, the series borrows characters and ideas from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as from traditional British and Irish fairy tales. In 1957 Theodore Seuss Geisel, writing under the pen name Dr. Seuss, wrote the first and best known of his Dr. Seuss books: The Cat in the Hat. Several sequels followed. Also in 1957, the next best known Dr. Seuss book, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, was published.

Children's literature In 1964 Roald Dahl wrote Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, the story of Charlie Bucket's adventures inside Willy Wonka's chocolate factory. At the end of the story, Charlie wins a prize--the chocolate factory! In 1964 Louise Fitzhugh wrote Harriet the Spy, the story of an 11 year old girl who gets into trouble by spying on her neighbors, classmates, and friends. She ultimately becomes editor of the school newspaper, in which capacity she makes amends for earlier remarks that alienated people. In 1972 Graham Oakley wrote The Church Mouse, the first of a series of twelve Church Mouse books extending until 2000. The main characters are Arthur and Humphrey, two mice who, along with the lazy cat Sampson, operate in England's Anglican Church of Saint John. In 1990 Joanne (J.K.) Rowling wrote The Harry Potter Series, in which 3 characters embark on new adventures across 7 books, all leading up to an epic battle between good and evil. The main characters are Harry Potter, Hermione Granger and Ronald Weasley. 21st Century In 2001, Eoin Colfer (born 1965) published the first installment of his Artemis Fowl series in Ireland. In 2008, titles from the series spent six weeks at number one and helped the Penguin Group post record profits in a tough economy.[13]

Scholarship Scholarship in children's literature written in or translated into English is primarily conducted in three different disciplinary fields: (1) literary studies (English departments, language departments), (2) library and information science, and (3) education (Wolf, et al., 2011). There has historically been little overlap between the topics studied or the methodologies used to conduct research in each of these fields, but recently more attention has been paid to how scholars from across disciplines might collaborate, as well as how each field of study contributes unique information and theories to scholarship related to children's literature. Research from a Literary Perspective: Typically, children's literature scholars from literature departments in universities (English, German, Spanish, etc. departments) conduct literary analyses of books. These studies are considered literary criticism analyses and may focus on an author, a thematic (e.g.,) or topical (e.g., ) concern, a genre, a period, or a literary device (e.g., ). The results of this type research are typically published as books or articles in scholarly journals. The highly regarded research journals that publish literary studies in children's Dutch writer Anne de Vries literature include Children's Literature Association Quarterly, Children's Literature in Education, Children's Literature, The Lion and the Unicorn, and International Research in Children's Literature. Research from a Library & Information Science Perspective: The field of Library and Information Science has a long history of conducting research related to children's literature. The focus of the 1999 Trejo Foster Institute for Hispanic Library Education was Library Services for Youth of Hispanic Heritage. [14] Research from an Education Perspective: Most educational researchers studying children's literature explore issues related to the use of children's literature in classroom settings. Some educational researchers, however, study home settings, children's out-of-school reading or parents' use of children's books, for example.

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Children's literature Educational Application Children's literature has long been used by good teachers to augment classroom instruction providing a meaning-centered application for one of education's richest resources - children's literature. When introducing fiction to young readers, using a children's literature is an effective means to introduce the parts of a story to students (characters, setting, plot, introduction, theme, and conclusion). For our youngest students, the teacher may elect to start out with only characters, introduction, and conclusion. As the students become more proficient, the other components of a story may be introduced. By grade 5, students are able to grasp more complicated concepts, such as theme, on a basis level of understanding. Scholarly associations & centers: the Children's Literature Association, the International Research Society for Children's Literature, the Library Association Youth Libraries Group, the Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators the Irish Society for the Study of Children's Literature, IBBY Canada and Centre for International Research in Childhood: Literature, Culture, Media (CIRCL), National Centre for Research in Children's Literature.

Awards Some noted awards for children's literature are: • Australia: the Children's Book Council of Australia runs a number of annual CBCA book awards • Canada: the Governor General's Literary Award for Children's Literature and Illustration (English and French). A number of the provinces' school boards and library associations also run popular "children's choice" awards where candidate books are read and championed by individual schools and classrooms. These include the Blue Spruce (grades K-2) Silver Birch Express (grades 3–4), Silver Birch (grades 5–6) Red Maple (grades 7–8) and White Pine (High School) in Ontario. Programs in other provinces include The Red Cedar and Stellar Awards in B.C., the Willow Awards in Saskatchewan, and the Manitoba Young Readers Choice Awards. IBBY Canada offers a number of annual awards. • The Philippines: The Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature for Short Story for Children in English and Filipino Language (Maikling Kathang Pambata) since 1989 and Children's Poetry in English and Filipino Language since 2009. The Pilar Perez Medallion for Young Adult Literature (2001 and 2002). The major awards are given by the Philippine Board on Books for Young People. They include the PBBY-Salanga Writer's Prize for excellence in writing and the PBBY-Alcala Illustrator's Prize for excellence in illustration. The Ceres Alabado Award for Outstanding Contribution in Children's Literature; the Gintong Aklat Award (Golden Book Award); The Gawad Komisyon para sa Kuwentong Pambata (Commission Award for Children's Literature in Filipino) and the National Book Award (given by the Manila Critics' Circle) for Outstanding Production in Children's Books and Young Adult Literature. • United States: the major awards are given by the American Library Association Association for Library Service to Children. They include the Newbery Medal for writing, Michael L. Printz Award for writing for teens, Caldecott Medal for illustration, Golden Kite Award in various categories from the SCBWI, Sibert Medal for informational, Theodor Seuss Geisel Award for beginning readers, Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal for impact over time, Batchelder Award for works in translation, Coretta Scott King Award for work by an African-American writer, and the Belpre Medal for work by a Latino writer. Other notable awards are the National Book Award for Young People's Literature and the Orbis Pictus Award for excellence in the writing of nonfiction for children. • United Kingdom and Commonwealth: the Carnegie Medal for writing and the Kate Greenaway Medal for illustration; the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize; and the Guardian Award. • Internationally: the Hans Christian Andersen Award, the Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award and the Ilustrarte Bienale for children's book illustration (Barreiro, Portugal). • Online: the Cybils Awards, or Children's and Young Adult Bloggers' Literary Awards, are the first major series of book awards given by children's and young adult book bloggers.

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Notes [1] “Convention on the Rights of the Child” (http:/ / www. hakani. org/ en/ convention/ Convention_Rights_Child. pdf) The Policy Press, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [2] "Biography of Nancy A. Anderson, EdD" (http:/ / www. nancyaanderson. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-03. [3] Anderson 2006, p. 2. [4] Card, Orson Scott (November 5, 2001). "Hogwarts" (http:/ / www. hatrack. com/ osc/ reviews/ everything/ 2001-11-05. shtml). Uncle Orson Reviews Everything. Hatrack River Enterprises Inc. . Retrieved 2009-03-03. [5] Liukkonen, Petri (2008). "Mark Twain" (http:/ / www. kirjasto. sci. fi/ mtwain. htm). . Retrieved 2009-03-03. [6] Anderson 2006 [7] Anderson 2006, pp. 84–85. [8] Anderson 2006, p. 89. [9] Leader, Zachary, Reading Blake's Songs, p.1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=z7Q9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA1& dq=books+ written+ specifically+ for+ the+ use+ of+ children+ outside+ of+ school+ had+ become& ei=1menS_jiOJPyzATkqvXbCA& cd=1#v=onepage& q=books written specifically for the use of children outside of school had become& f=false) [10] Leader, Zachary, Reading Blake's Songs, p.3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=z7Q9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA1& dq=books+ written+ specifically+ for+ the+ use+ of+ children+ outside+ of+ school+ had+ become& ei=1menS_jiOJPyzATkqvXbCA& cd=1#v=onepage& q=books written specifically for the use of children outside of school had become& f=false) [11] See Ruth Bottigheimer: Fairy tales, old wives and printing presses. History Today, 31 December 2003. Retrieved 3 March 2011. Subscription required. (http:/ / www. historytoday. com/ ruth-bottigheimer/ fairy-tales-old-wives-and-printing-presses) [12] Elias Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen: the story of his life and work 1805–75, Phaidon (1975) ISBN 0-7148-1636-1 [13] "Penguin Group Announces Record 2008 Profits" (http:/ / www. booktrade. info/ index. php/ showarticle/ 20011) (Press release). Book Trade Announcements. Monday 2 March 2009. . Retrieved 2009-03-03. [14] Immroth, Barbara Froling, and Kathleen de la Peña McCook. 2000. Library services to youth of Hispanic heritage. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. Toggle expanding/contracting information section Harvard (18th ed.)

References • Anderson, Nancy (2006). Elementary Children's Literature. Boston: Pearson Education. ISBN 0205452299. • Chapleau, Sebastien (2004). New Voices in Children's Literature Criticism. Lichfield: Pied Piper Publishing. ISBN 9780954638443. • Huck, Charlotte (2001). Children's Literature in the Elementary School, 7th ed.. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072322284. • Hunt, Peter (1991). Criticism, Theory, and Children's Literature. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0631162313. • Hunt, Peter (1996). International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415088569. • Lesnik-Oberstein, Karin (1996). "Defining Children's Literature and Childhood". In Hunt, Peter (ed.). International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. London: Routledge. pp. 17–31. ISBN 0415088569. • Lesnik-Oberstein, Karin (1994). Children's Literature: Criticism and the Fictional Child. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198119984. • Lesnik-Oberstein, Karin (2004). Children's Literature: New Approaches. Basingstoke: Palgrave. ISBN 1403917388. • Rose, Jacqueline (1993, orig. pub. 1984). The Case of Peter Pan or the Impossibility of Children's Fiction. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812214358. • Wolf, Shelby (2010). Handbook of Research in Children's and Young Adult Literature. Cambridge: Routledge. ISBN 9780415965064.

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Further reading • The Oxford Encyclopedia of Children's Literature, ed. by Jack Zipes, Oxford [etc.]: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006, 4 vls.

External links • International Children's Digital Library (http://www.childrenslibrary.org/) Repository of 2,827 children's books in 48 languages viewable over the Internet. • Small World Books – children's literature from around the world (http://www.itsasmallworld.co.nz) • Arne Nixon Center for the Study of Children's Literature (http://www.arnenixoncenter.org) • Children's Literature Research Collections (http://special.lib.umn.edu/clrc/), at the University of Minnesota • Baldwin Digital Library of Children's Literature (http://www.uflib.ufl.edu/UFDC/UFDC.aspx?c=juv) • Children's Books Wiki (http://childrensbooks.wikia.com), a Wikia-hosted wiki about children's literature. • Children's eTexts (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?subject=Children) at Project Gutenberg ( more (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?locc=PZ)) • German Children and Young Adult Literature Portal, Goethe-Institut (http://www.goethe.de/kue/lit/prj/kju/ enindex.htm) • • • • • • •

International Board on Books for Young People (http://www.ibby.org) Popular Children's Book for Teaching Chinese (http://www.mandyandpandy.com) CBI Clubhouse, Informational Site for Children's Book Writers (http://www.cbiclubhouse.com:The) The Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators (http://www.scbwi.org) Children's Literature Network (http://www.childrensliteraturenetwork.org) The academic discipline of Children Literature of ZJNU in China (http://www.chchc.cn/) Children's Book Council of Australia (CBCA), Sutherland Sub branch – literacy in children and young adults of the Sutherland Shire (http://www.cbcasutherland.org.au/) • Litland.com Review of Children's Literature against character education guidelines (http://www.litland.com) • The Ball State University Digital Media Repository Historic Children's Book collection (http://libx.bsu.edu/ cdm4/collection.php?CISOROOT=/HistChldBks) provides online access to children's books from the 20th and 19th centuries.

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Children's literature timeline

Children's literature timeline Timeline of turning points in children's literature • Orbis Pictus (1658) by John Amos Comenius: Earliest picturebook specifically for children. • Fairy tale collections are one of the earliest forms of published fiction that have never lost their charm for children, though several of the classic tales are gruesome and were not originally collected for children. Famous collectors and retellers of Fairy Tales include Charles Perrault, the brothers Grimm, Hans Christian Andersen and Andrew Lang. • The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come by John Bunyan (1678): many later children's fantasies were modeled on this Christian allegory. • A Token for Children. Being An Exact Account of the Conversion, Holy and Exemplary Lives, and Joyful Deaths of several Young Children (1672) by James Janeway: One of the first books specifically written for children which shaped much eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century writing for children. • A Little Pretty Pocket-Book (1744) by John Newbery: Earliest marketing tie-in and storybook marketed as pleasure reading in English • The Governess, or The Little Female Academy (1749) by Sarah Fielding: Often described as the first novel for children. • Lessons for Children (1778-9) by Anna Laetitia Barbauld: The first series of age-adapted reading primers for children printed with large text and wide margins; in print for over a century. • Struwwelpeter (1845) by Heinrich Hoffmann (published in English as Slovenly Peter): One of the earliest examples of grotesque humor as well as of modern picturebook design. • Little Eva: The Flower of the South by Philip J. Cozans (1853): First known children's novel to feature racial (i.e. pro-slavery) bias. • Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857) by Thomas Hughes, the first true school story. • Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll: Early surrealism and extensive criticism of didacticism. • The Jungle Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling. • Swallows and Amazons (1930) by Arthur Ransome, started trend of outdoor holiday adventures. • Five on a Treasure Island is published in 1942 by Enid Blyton. • The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) by C. S. Lewis. • The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955) by J.R.R. Tolkien. • The Cat in the Hat (1957) by Dr. Seuss: First high quality limited-vocabulary book, written for early readers. • To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) by Harper Lee: Pulitzer for book market to children; also seminal work on race. • Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997) by J. K. Rowling, and sequels; worldwide publishing phenomenon, one of the bestselling books of all time and one of the most widely translated works of literature. Worldwide popularity caused resurgence of interest in children's literature. • Maggie Goes on a Diet (2011) by Paul Kramer: Insperational book for children who are over weight, and stiring controversy before being released.

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Children's literature canon

Children's literature canon As with adult literature, the validity of defining a canon of worthy or renowned works in children's literature is hotly debated. Nevertheless, many books have had enormous impact on publishing history and are still in print today. Due to the didactic nature of much children's publishing, in which the majority of books are written, published, selected, and taught by adults but consumed by children [1] , the children's literature canon is extremely powerful in influencing the books actually read.

Important Children's Books Nineteenth Century • Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass (1871) by Lewis Carroll: early surrealism and children's novels as pleasurable and non-didactic. • Max and Moritz (1865) by Wilhelm Busch. • Little Women (1868) by Louisa May Alcott. • The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) by Mark Twain. • • • •

The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi. Treasure Island (1883) by Robert Louis Stevenson. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) by Mark Twain. The Jungle Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling: a collection of several stories.

Early Twentieth Century • The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) by L. Frank Baum, later expanded into a series of books which were tremendously popular in America during the first half of the twentieth century. One of the earliest fantasy books where children go to another world. • The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902) by Beatrix Potter. The first in her series of 23 animal stories, published in a miniature format. • The Call of the Wild (1903) by Jack London: Inspired by the high adventure of the Yukon gold rush. • The Wind in the Willows (1908) by Kenneth Grahame • Anne of Green Gables (1908) by Lucy Maud Montgomery • Peter and Wendy (1911) by J. M. Barrie (better known as Peter Pan) • Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The House at Pooh Corner (1928) by A. A. Milne. • Little House in the Big Woods (1932) and sequels by Laura Ingalls Wilder • The Hobbit or There and Back Again (1937) by J. R. R. Tolkien: an early example of the modern lighthearted quest fantasy • Le Petit Prince (1943, English: The Little Prince) by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry • Pippi Longstocking (1944) by Astrid Lindgren. • The Chronicles Of Narnia (1949–1954) by C. S. Lewis • The Cat in the Hat (1957) by Dr. Seuss: First high quality limited-vocabulary book, written for early readers

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Children's literature canon

Since 1960 • • • • •

James and the Giant Peach (1961) by Roald Dahl The Phantom Tollbooth (1961) by Norton Juster Where the Wild Things Are (1963) by Maurice Sendak Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (1964) by Roald Dahl A Wizard of Earthsea (1968) by Ursula K. Le Guin, and sequels broke ground for epic fantasy in several ways: the first book had a non-white hero, the later books explored the role of gender in fantasy and power, and the quest structure isn't good vs. evil but balance. • Are You There, God? It's Me, Margaret (1970) by Judy Blume, approached puberty more openly than children's books had in the past. • Harry Potter (1997) by J.K. Rowling

References [1] Nodelman, Perry (1992). "The Other: Orientalism, Colonialism, and Children's Literature". Children's Literature Association Quarterly 17: 29–35.

Children's literature criticism The term children's literature criticism includes both generalist discussions of the relationship between children's literature and literary theory and literary analyses of a specific works of children's literature. Some academics consider young adult literature to be included under the rubric of 'children's literature.' Nearly every school of theoretical thought has been applied to children's literature, most commonly reader response (Chambers 1980) and new criticism. However, other schools have been applied in controversial and influential ways, including Orientalism (Nodelman 1992), feminist theory (Paul 1987), postmodernism (Stevenson 1994), structuralism (Neumeyer 1977), post-structuralism (Rose, 1984, Lesnik-Oberstein, 1994) and many others.

Approaches Child focused Early children's literature critics aimed to learn how children read literature specifically (rather than the mechanics of reading itself) so that they could recommend "good books" for children. These early critics were often teachers, librarians and other educationalists. The critics often disagreed about what books they think children would like, and why, and about which books will be "good" for children and why. Though many critics are still child-centric, the discipline has expanded to include other modes of analysis. As children's literature criticism started developing as an academic discipline (roughly in the past thirty years or so, see historical overviews by Hunt (1991) and McGillis (1997)), children's literature criticism became involved with wider work in literary theory and cultural studies. Construction of the child Many children's literature critics now point out that children are not one group, but differ according to gender, ethnicity, religious background, and so on. Feminist children's literature critics such as Lissa Paul (1987) therefore try to work out how boys and girls read differently, for instance. Other critics (for instance, Peter Hunt (1991), Perry Nodelman (1992), John Stephens (1992), and Roderick McGillis (1996)) take this idea a step further and argue that children are often "colonized" by adults, including children's literature critics, because adults speak on behalf of children instead of letting children express themselves. However, these critics too can not agree on what then are "true" children expressing themselves, and which books are therefore "good" for them. Finally, a few critics, notably

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Children's literature criticism Jacqueline Rose (1984) and Karin Lesnik-Oberstein (1994 and 2004) take this discussion even further, arguing that identities are created and not "inherent", and that in the case of an identity such as "childhood" it is created by "adults" in the light of their own perceptions of themselves. That is, "adulthood" defines "childhood" in relation to differences and similarities it perceives to itself. This post-structuralist approach is similar to that argued by critics in gender studies such as Judith Butler and is widely accepted and used in sociological and anthropological studies of childhood (Jenks 1996; Jenks, James and Prout 1997).1

Textual focus Many scholars approach children's literature from the perspective of literary studies, examining the text as text without focus on audience. Stephens and McCallum (1998) discuss the intertextuality of children's literature, while Rose explores the identifying characteristics of the genre. Nodelman (1990) looks at the synthesis of text and illustration in picturebooks.

Cultural studies focus Culture studies scholars investigate children's literature as an aspect of culture. Children's literature, in this light, is a product consumed like other aspects of children's culture: video games, television, and the like. For more analysis of children's culture in general, see Jenkins. For literature in particular as cultural artifact, see Mackey.

References • Chambers, Aidan (1980). "The Reader in the Book". In C.Carpelan, A.Parpola P.Koskikallio (ed.). The Signal Approach to Children's Books. Metuchen: Scarecrow. pp. 250–275. • Hunt, Peter (1991). Criticism, Theory, and Children's Literature. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16231-3. • Hunt, Peter (1996). International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08856-9. • Jenkins, Henry (1998). The Children's Culture Reader. New York: New York UP. • Jenks, Chris (1996). Childhood. London: Routledge. • Jenks, Chris, Allison James and Alan Prout (1997). Theorizing Childhood. Oxford: Blackwells. • Lesnik-Oberstein, Karin (1994). Children's Literature: Criticism and the Fictional Child. Oxford: Clarendon Press. • Lesnik-Oberstein, Karin (2004). Children's Literature: New Approaches. London: Palgrave. • McGillis, Roderick (1996). The Nimble Reader: Literary Theory and Children's Literature. New York: Twayne Publishers. • Mackey, Margaret (1998). The Case of Peter Rabbit: Changing Conditions of Literature for Children. New York and London: Garland. • Neumeyer, Peter (1977). "A Structural Approach to the Study of Literature for Children". Elementary English 44: 883–887. • Nodelman, Perry. "Bibliography of Children's Literature Criticism" [1]. Retrieved October 26, 2005. • Nodelman, Perry (1992). "The Other: Orientalism, Colonialism, and Children's Literature". Children's Literature Association Quarterly 17: 29–35. • Nodelman, Perry (1990). Words About Pictures: The Narrative Art of Children's Picture Books. Athens, Ga: U. Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-1271-1. • Nodelman, Perry (1996). The Pleasures of Children's Literature, 2nd ed. New York: Longman. ISBN 0-8013-1576-X. • Paul, Lissa (1987). "Enigma Variations: What Feminist Theory Knows about Children's Literature". Signal 53: 186–201.

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Children's literature criticism • Rose, Jacqueline (1992 (originally published 1984)). The Case of Peter Pan or the Impossibility of Children's Fiction. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. • Stephens, John (1992). Language and Ideology in Children's Fiction. London: Longman. • Stephens, John and Robyn McCallum (1998). Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children's Literature. New York: Garland. • Stevenson, Deborah (1994). "'If You Read This Last Sentence, It Won't Tell You Anything': Postmodernism, Self-Referentiality, and The Stinky Cheese Man". Signal 19: 32–34.

External links • • • •

Centre for International Research in Childhood: Literature, Culture, Media (CIRCL) [2] Children's Literature Association [3] National Centre for Research in Children's Literature [4] The International Research Society for Children's Literature [5]

References [1] http:/ / io. uwinnipeg. ca/ ~nodelman/ resources/ allbib. htm [2] http:/ / www. rdg. ac. uk/ circl/ [3] http:/ / www. childlitassn. org/ [4] http:/ / www. ncrcl. ac. uk/ [5] http:/ / www. irscl. ac. uk/ news. htm

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Types of children's literature Fairy tale A fairy tale is a type of short story that typically features folkloric characters, such as fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, dwarves, giants or gnomes, and usually magic or enchantments. However, only a small number of the stories refer to fairies. The stories may nonetheless be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described)[1] and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in "fairy tale ending" (a happy ending)[2] or "fairy tale romance" (though not all fairy tales end happily). Colloquially, a "fairy tale" or "fairy story" can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale. In cultures where demons and witches are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, they usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, people, and events; they take place once upon a time rather than in actual times.[3]

1865 illustration of Tom Thumb and the Giant

Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form. The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, the evidence of literary works at least indicates that fairy tales have existed for thousands of years, although not perhaps recognized as a genre; the name "fairy tale" was first ascribed to them by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today's fairy tales have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world.[4] Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today. The older fairy tales were intended for an audience of adults, as well as children, but they were associated with children as early as the writings of the précieuses; the Brothers Grimm titled their collection Children's and Household Tales, and the link with children has only grown stronger with time. Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways. The Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the tales' significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales.

Fairy tale

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Definition Although the fairy tale is a distinct genre within the larger category of folktale, the definition that marks a work as a fairy tale is a source of considerable dispute.[5] One universally agreed-upon matter is that fairy tales do not require fairies. (The term itself comes from the translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's conte de fées, first used in her collection in 1697.)[6] Common parlance conflates fairy tales with beast fables and other folktales, and scholars differ on the degree to which the presence of fairies and/or similarly mythical beings (e.g., elves, goblins, trolls, giants) should be taken as a differentiator. Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between "fairy tales" and "animal tales" on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals.[7] Nevertheless, to select works for his analysis, Propp used all Russian folktales classified as a folk lore Aarne-Thompson 300-749 – in a cataloguing system that made such a distinction – to gain a clear set of tales.[8] His own analysis identified fairy tales by their plot elements, but that in itself has been criticized, as the analysis does not lend itself easily to tales that do not involve a quest, and furthermore, the same plot elements are found in non-fairy tale works.[9]

“

From The Facetious Nights of Straparola by Giovanni Francesco Straparola

Were I asked, what is a fairytale? I should reply, Read Undine: that is a fairytale ... of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful. (George MacDonald, The Fantastic Imagination)

”

As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be more common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves.[10] However, the mere presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face, as in fables.[11] In his essay "On Fairy-Stories", J. R. R. Tolkien agreed with the exclusion of "fairies" from the definition, defining fairy tales as stories about the adventures of men in Faërie, the land of fairies, fairytale princes and princesses, dwarves, elves, and not only other magical species but many other marvels.[12] However, the same essay excludes tales that are often considered fairy tales, citing as an example The Monkey's Heart, which Andrew Lang included in The Lilac Fairy Book.[11] Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales.[13] Davidson and Chaudri identify "transformation" as the key feature of the genre.[14] From a psychological point of view, Jean Chiriac argued for the necessity of the fantastic in these narratives.[15] Some folklorists prefer to use the German term Märchen or "wonder tale"[14] to refer to the genre, a practice given weight by the definition of Thompson in his 1977 edition of The Folktale: "a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses."[16] The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and archetypal: princesses and goose-girls; youngest sons and gallant princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magical helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; glass mountains; and prohibitions and breaking of prohibitions.[17] In terms of aesthetic values, Italo Calvino cited the fairy tale as a prime example of "quickness" in literature, because of the economy and concision of the tales.[18]

Fairy tale

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History of the genre Originally, stories we would now call fairy tales were not marked out as a separate genre. The German term "Märchen" literally translates as "tale" – not any specific type of tale. Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures. The first significant person to record fairy tales was Charles Perrault who recorded stories such as Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella in his book of Mother Goose fairy tales. The fairy tale emerged as an unquestioned genre in the works of the Brothers Grimm, who recorded various tales from different cultures and revised many of Perrault's.[19] In this evolution, the name was coined when the précieuses took up writing literary stories; Madame d'Aulnoy invented the term conte de fée, or fairy tale, in the late 17th century.[20] Before the definition of the genre of fantasy, many works that would now be classified as fantasy were termed "fairy tales", including Tolkien's The Hobbit, George Orwell's Animal Farm, and L. Frank [21] Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Indeed, Tolkien's "On Fairy-Stories" includes discussions of world-building and is considered a vital part of fantasy criticism. Although fantasy, particularly the sub-genre of fairytale fantasy, draws heavily on fairy tale motifs,[22] the genres are now regarded as distinct. A picture by Gustave Doré of Mother Goose reading written (literary) fairy tales

Folk and literary The fairy tale, told orally, is a sub-class of the folktale. Many writers have written in the form of the fairy tale. These are the literary fairy tales, or Kunstmärchen.[6] The oldest forms, from Panchatantra to the Pentamerone, show considerable reworking from the oral form.[23] The Brothers Grimm were among the first to try to preserve the features of oral tales. Yet the stories printed under the Grimm name have been considerably reworked to fit the written form.[24] Literary fairy tales and oral fairy tales freely exchanged plots, motifs, and elements with one another and with the tales of foreign lands.[25] Many 18th-century folklorists attempted to recover the "pure" folktale, uncontaminated by literary versions. Yet while oral fairy tales likely existed for thousands of years before the literary forms, there is no pure folktale, and each literary fairy tale draws on folk traditions, if only in parody.[26] This makes it impossible to trace forms of transmission of a fairy tale. Oral story-tellers have been known to read literary fairy tales to increase their own stock of stories and treatments.[27]

Fairy tale

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History The oral tradition of the fairy tale came long before the written page. Tales were told or enacted dramatically, rather than written down, and handed down from generation to generation. Because of this, the history of their development is necessarily obscure.[28] The oldest known written fairy tales stem from ancient Egypt, c. 1300 BC (ex. The Tale of Two Brothers),[29] and fairy tales appear, now and again, in written literature throughout literate cultures, as in The Golden Ass, which includes Cupid and Psyche (Roman, 100–200 AD),[30] or the Panchatantra (India 3rd century BCE),[30] but it is unknown to what extent these reflect the actual folk tales even of their own time. The stylistic evidence indicates that these, and many later collections, reworked folk tales into literary forms.[23] What they do show is that the fairy tale has ancient roots, older than the Arabian Nights collection of magical tales (compiled circa 1500 AD),[30] such as Vikram and the Vampire, and Bel and the Dragon. Besides such collections and individual tales, in China, Taoist philosophers such as Liezi and Zhuangzi recounted fairy tales in their philosophical works.[31] In the broader definition of the genre, the first famous Western fairy tales are those of Aesop (6th century BC) in ancient Greece.

Ivan Bilibin's illustration of the Russian fairy tale about Vasilisa the Beautiful

Jack Zipes writes in When Dreams Came True, "There are fairy tale elements in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, and ... in many of William Shakespeare plays".[32] King Lear can be considered a literary variant of fairy tales such as Water and Salt and Cap O' Rushes.[33] The tale itself resurfaced in Western literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, with The Facetious Nights of Straparola by Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 1550 and 1553),[30] which contains many fairy tales in its inset tales, and the Neapolitan tales of Giambattista Basile (Naples, 1634–6),[30] which are all fairy tales.[34] Carlo Gozzi made use of many fairy tale motifs among his Commedia dell'Arte scenarios,[35] including among them one based on The Love For Three Oranges (1761).[36] Simultaneously, Pu Songling, in China, included many fairy tales in his collection, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (published posthumously, 1766).[31] The fairy tale itself became popular among the précieuses of upper-class France (1690–1710),[30] and among the tales told in that time were the ones of La Fontaine and the Contes of Charles Perrault (1697), who fixed the forms of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella.[37] Although Straparola's, Basile's and Perrault's collections contain the oldest known forms of various fairy tales, on the stylistic evidence, all the writers rewrote the tales for literary effect.[38] The first collectors to attempt to preserve not only the plot and characters of the tale, but also the style in which they were told, were the Brothers Grimm, collecting German fairy tales; ironically, this meant although their first edition (1812 & 1815)[30] remains a treasure for folklorists, they rewrote the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.[39] Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of Bluebeard was thus rejected, and the tale of Briar Rose, clearly related to Perrault's Sleeping Beauty, was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.[40]

Fairy tale This consideration of whether to keep Sleeping Beauty reflected a belief common among folklorists of the 19th century: that the folk tradition preserved fairy tales in forms from pre-history except when "contaminated" by such literary forms, leading people to tell inauthentic tales.[41] The rural, illiterate, and uneducated peasants, if suitably isolated, were the folk and would tell pure folk tales.[42] Sometimes they regarded fairy tales as a form of fossil, the remnants of a once-perfect tale.[43] However, further research has concluded that fairy tales never had a fixed form, and regardless of literary influence, the tellers constantly altered them for their own purposes.[44] The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev (first published in 1866),[30] the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (first published in 1845),[30] the Romanian Petre Ispirescu (first published in 1874), the English Joseph Jacobs (first published in 1890),[30] and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales (first published in 1890).[26] Ethnographers collected fairy tales over the world, finding similar tales in Africa, the Americas, and Australia; Andrew Lang was able to draw on not only the written tales of Europe and Asia, but those collected by ethnographers, to fill his "coloured" fairy books series.[45] They also encouraged other collectors of fairy tales, as when Yei Theodora Ozaki created a collection, Japanese Fairy Tales (1908), after encouragement from Lang.[46] Simultaneously, writers such as Hans Christian Andersen and George MacDonald continued the tradition of literary fairy tales. Andersen's work sometimes drew on old folktales, but more often deployed fairytale motifs and plots in new tales.[47] MacDonald incorporated fairytale motifs both in new literary fairy tales, such as The Light Princess, and in works of the genre that would become fantasy, as in The Princess and the Goblin or Lilith.[48]

Cross-cultural transmission Two theories of origins have attempted to explain the common elements in fairy tales found spread over continents. One is that a single point of origin generated any given tale, which then spread over the centuries; the other is that such fairy tales stem from common human experience and therefore can appear separately in many different origins.[49] Fairy tales with very similar plots, characters, and motifs are found spread across many different cultures. Many researchers hold this to be caused by the spread of such tales, as people repeat tales they have heard in foreign lands, although the oral nature makes it impossible to trace the route except by inference.[50] Folklorists have attempted to determine the origin by internal evidence, which can not always be clear; Joseph Jacobs, comparing the Scottish tale The Ridere of Riddles with the version collected by the Brothers Grimm, The Riddle, noted that in The Ridere of Riddles one hero ends up polygamously married, which might point to an ancient custom, but in The Riddle, the simpler riddle might argue greater antiquity.[51] Folklorists of the "Finnish" (or historical-geographical) school attempted to place fairy tales to their origin, with inconclusive results.[52] Sometimes influence, especially within a limited area and time, is clearer, as when considering the influence of Perrault's tales on those collected by the Brothers Grimm. Little Briar-Rose appears to stem from Perrault's Sleeping Beauty, as the Grimms' tale appears to be the only independent German variant.[53] Similarly, the close agreement between the opening of Grimms' version of Little Red Riding Hood and Perrault's tale points to an influence – although Grimms' version adds a different ending (perhaps derived from The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids).[54] Fairy tales also tend to take on the color of their location, through the choice of motifs, the style in which they are told, and the depiction of character and local color.[55]

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Fairy tale

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Association with children Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children.[56] Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children's literature. The précieuses, including Madame d'Aulnoy, intended their works for adults, but regarded their source as the tales that servants, or other women of lower class, would tell to children.[57] Indeed, a novel of that time, depicting a countess's suitor offering to tell such a tale, has the countess exclaim that she loves fairy tales as if she were still a child.[58] Among the late précieuses, Jeanne-Marie Le Prince de Beaumont redacted a version of Beauty and the Beast for children, and it is her tale that is best known today.[59] The Brothers Grimm titled their collection Children's and Household Tales and rewrote their tales after complaints that they were not suitable for children.[60]

Cutlery for children. Detail showing fairy-tale scenes: Snow White, Little Red Riding Hood, Hansel and Gretel.

In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. The Brothers Grimm concentrated mostly on eliminating sexual references;[61] Rapunzel, in the first edition, revealed the prince's visits by asking why her clothing had grown tight, thus letting the witch deduce that she was pregnant, but in subsequent editions carelessly revealed that it was easier to pull up the prince than the witch.[62] On the other hand, in many respects, violence – particularly when punishing villains – was increased.[63] Other, later, revisions cut out violence; J. R. R. Tolkien noted that The Juniper Tree often had its cannibalistic stew cut out in a version intended for children.[64] The moralizing strain in the Victorian era altered the classical tales to teach lessons, as when George Cruikshank rewrote Cinderella in 1854 to contain temperance themes. His acquaintance Charles Dickens protested, "In an utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave importance that fairy tales should be respected."[65] [66] Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim, who regarded the cruelty of older fairy tales as indicative of psychological conflicts, strongly criticized this expurgation, because it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues.[67] The adaptation of fairy tales for children continues. Walt Disney's influential Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was largely (although certainly not solely) intended for the children's market.[68] The anime Magical Princess Minky Momo draws on the fairy tale Momotarō.[69] Jack Zipes has spent many years working to make the older traditional tales accessible to modern readers and their children.[70] In Waldorf schools, fairy tales are used in the first grade as a central part of the curriculum. Rudolf Steiner's work on human development claims that at age six to seven, the mind of a child is best taught through storytelling. The archetypes and magical nature of fairy tales appeals strongly to children of these ages. The nature of fairy tales, following the oral tradition, enhances the child's ability to visualize a spoken narrative, as well as to remember the story as heard.

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Contemporary tales Literary In contemporary literature, many authors have used the form of fairy tales for various reasons, such as examining the human condition from the simple framework a fairytale provides.[71] Some authors seek to recreate a sense of the fantastic in a contemporary discourse.[72] Some writers use fairy tale forms for modern issues;[73] this can include using the psychological dramas implicit in the story, as when Robin McKinley retold Donkeyskin as the novel Deerskin, with emphasis on the abusive treatment the father of the tale dealt to his daughter.[74] Sometimes, especially in children's literature, fairy tales are retold with a twist simply for comic effect, such as The Stinky Cheese Man by Jon Scieszka and The ASBO Fairy Tales by Chris Pilbeam. A common comic motif is a world where all the fairy tales take place, and the characters are aware of their role in the story,[75] such as in the film series Shrek.

John Bauer's illustration of trolls and a princess from a collection of Swedish fairy tales

Other authors may have specific motives, such as multicultural or feminist reevaluations of predominantly Eurocentric masculine-dominated fairy tales, implying critique of older narratives.[76] The figure of the damsel in distress has been particularly attacked by many feminist critics. Examples of narrative reversal rejecting this figure include The Paperbag Princess by Robert Munsch, a picture book aimed at children in which a princess rescues a prince, and Angela Carter's The Bloody Chamber, which retells a number of fairy tales from a female point of view. One use of the genre occurred in a military technology journal named Defense AT&L, which published an article as a fairytale titled Optimizing Bi-Modal Signal/Noise Ratios. Written by Maj. Dan Ward (USAF), the story uses a fairy named Garble to represent breakdowns in communication between operators and technology developers.[77] Ward's article was heavily influenced by George MacDonald. Other notable figures who have employed fairy tales include Oscar Wilde, [78] Jean Ingelow, Sara Coleridge, [78] Kathryn Davis, A. S. Byatt, Italo Calvino, Jane Yolen, Terri Windling, Donald Barthelme, Robert Coover, Margaret Atwood, Kate Bernheimer, Espido Freire, Tanith Lee, James Thurber, Robin McKinley, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Kelly Link, Bruce Holland Rogers, Donna Jo Napoli, Cameron Dokey, Rikki Ducornet, Robert Bly, Gail Carson Levine, Katie Farris, Annette Marie Hyder, Jasper Fforde, and many others. It may be hard to lay down the rule between fairy tales and fantasies that use fairy tale motifs, or even whole plots, but the distinction is commonly made, even within the works of a single author: George MacDonald's Lilith and Phantastes are regarded as fantasies, while his "The Light Princess", "The Golden Key", and "The Wise Woman" are commonly called fairy tales. The most notable distinction is that fairytale fantasies, like other fantasies, make use of novelistic writing conventions of prose, characterization, or setting.[79]

Film Fairy tales have been enacted dramatically; records exist of this in commedia dell'arte,[80] and later in pantomime.[81] The advent of cinema has meant that such stories could be presented in a more plausible manner, with the use of special effects and animation; the Disney movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 was a ground-breaking film for fairy tales and, indeed, fantasy in general.[68] Disney's influence helped establish this genre as a children's genre, and has been blamed for simplification of fairy tales ending in situations where everything goes right, as opposed to the pain and suffering – and sometimes unhappy endings – of many folk fairy tales.[74]

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Many filmed fairy tales have been made primarily for children, from Disney's later works to Aleksandr Rou's retelling of Vasilissa the Beautiful, the first Soviet film to use Russian folk tales in a big-budget feature.[82] Others have used the conventions of fairy tales to create new stories with sentiments more relevant to contemporary life, as in Labyrinth,[83] My Neighbor Totoro, the films of Michel Ocelot,[84] and Happily N'Ever After. Other works have retold familiar fairy tales in a darker, more horrific or psychological variant aimed primarily at adults. Notable examples are Jean Cocteau's Beauty and the Beast[85] and The Company of Wolves, based on an Angela Carter's retelling of Little Red Riding Hood.[86] Likewise, Princess Mononoke,[87] Pan's Labyrinth,[88] Suspiria, and Spike[89] create new stories in this genre from fairy tale and folklore motifs. In comics and animated TV series, The Sandman, Revolutionary Girl Utena, Princess Tutu, Fables and MÄR all make use of standard fairy tale elements to various extents but are more accurately categorised as fairytale fantasy due to the definite locations and characters which a longer narrative requires. A more modern cinematic fairy tale would be Luchino Visconti’s Le Notti Bianche, starring Marcello Mastroianni before he became a superstar. It involves many of the romantic conventions of fairy tales, yet it takes place in post-World War II Italy, and it ends realistically.

Motifs Any comparison of fairy tales quickly discovers that many fairy tales have features in common with each other. Two of the most influential classifications are those of Antti Aarne, as revised by Stith Thompson into the Aarne-Thompson classification system, and Vladimir Propp's Morphology of the Folk Tale.

Aarne-Thompson This system groups fairy and folk tales according to their overall plot. Common, identifying features are picked out to decide which tales are grouped together. Much therefore depends on what features are regarded as decisive.

Beauty and the Beast, illustration by Warwick Goble

For instance, tales like Cinderella – in which a persecuted heroine, with the help of the fairy godmother or similar magical helper, attends an event (or three) in which she wins the love of a prince and is identified as his true bride – are classified as type 510, the persecuted heroine. Some such tales are The Wonderful Birch; Aschenputtel; Katie Woodencloak; The Story of Tam and Cam; Ye Xian; Cap O' Rushes; Catskin; Fair, Brown and Trembling; Finette Cendron; Allerleirauh; and Tattercoats. Further analysis of the tales shows that in Cinderella, The Wonderful Birch, The Story of Tam and Cam, Ye Xian, and Aschenputtel, the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother and refused permission to go to the ball or other event, and in Fair, Brown and Trembling and Finette Cendron by her sisters and other female figures, and these are grouped as 510A; while in Cap O' Rushes, Catskin, and Allerleirauh, the heroine is driven from home by her father's persecutions, and must take work in a kitchen elsewhere, and these are grouped as 510B. But in Katie Woodencloak, she is driven from home by her stepmother's persecutions and must take service in a kitchen elsewhere, and in Tattercoats, she is refused permission to go to the ball by her grandfather. Given these features common with both

Fairy tale types of 510, Katie Woodencloak is classified as 510A because the villain is the stepmother, and Tattercoats as 510B because the grandfather fills the father's role. This system has its weaknesses in the difficulty of having no way to classify subportions of a tale as motifs. Rapunzel is type 310 (The Maiden in the Tower), but it opens with a child being demanded in return for stolen food, as does Puddocky; but Puddocky is not a Maiden in the Tower tale, while The Canary Prince, which opens with a jealous stepmother, is. It also lends itself to emphasis on the common elements, to the extent that the folklorist describes The Black Bull of Norroway as the same story as Beauty and the Beast. This can be useful as a shorthand but can also erase the coloring and details of a story.[90]

Morphology Vladimir Propp specifically studied a collection of Russian fairy tales, but his analysis has been found useful for the tales of other countries.[91] Having criticized Aarne-Thompson type analysis for ignoring what motifs did in stories, and because the motifs used were not clearly distinct,[92] he analyzed the tales for the function each character and action fulfilled and concluded that a tale was composed of thirty-one elements and eight character types. While the elements were not all required for all tales, when they appeared they did so in an invariant order – except that each individual element might be negated twice, so that it would appear three times, as when, in Brother and Sister, the brother resists drinking from enchanted streams twice, so that it is the third that enchants him.[93] One such element is the donor who gives the hero magical assistance, often after testing him.[94] In The Golden Bird, the talking fox tests the hero by warning him against entering an inn and, after he succeeds, helps him find the object of his quest; in The Boy Who Drew Cats, the Father Frost acts as a donor in the Russian fairy priest advised the hero to stay in small places at night, which protects tale Father Frost, testing the heroine before him from an evil spirit; in Cinderella, the fairy godmother gives giving her riches. Cinderella the dresses she needs to attend the ball, as their mothers' spirits do in Bawang Putih Bawang Merah and The Wonderful Birch; in The Fox Sister, a Buddhist monk gives the brothers magical bottles to protect against the fox spirit. The roles can be more complicated.[95] In The Red Ettin, the role is split into the mother – who offers the hero the whole of a journey cake with her curse or half with her blessing – and when he takes the half, a fairy who gives him advice; in Mr Simigdáli, the sun, the moon, and the stars all give the heroine a magical gift. Characters who are not always the donor can act like the donor.[96] In Kallo and the Goblins, the villain goblins also give the heroine gifts, because they are tricked; in Schippeitaro, the evil cats betray their secret to the hero, giving him the means to defeat them. Other fairy tales, such as The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was, do not feature the donor. Analogies have been drawn between this and the analysis of myths into the Hero's journey.[97] This analysis has been criticized for ignoring tone, mood, characters and, indeed, anything that differentiates one fairy tale from another.[98]

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Interpretations Many fairy tales have been interpreted for their (purported) significance. One mythological interpretation claimed that many fairy tales, including Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, and The Frog King, all were solar myths; this mode of interpretation is rather less popular now.[99] Many have also been subjected to Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological analysis, but no mode of interpretation has ever established itself definitively.[100] Specific analyses have often been criticized for lending great importance to motifs that are not, in fact, integral to the tale; this has often stemmed from treating one instance of a fairy tale as the definitive text, where the tale has been told and retold in many variations.[101] In variants of Bluebeard, the wife's curiosity is betrayed by a blood-stained key, by an egg's breaking, or by the singing of a rose she wore, without affecting the tale, but interpretations of specific variants have claimed that the precise object is integral to the tale.[102] Other folklorists have interpreted tales as historical documents. Many German folklorists, believing the tales to have been preserved from ancient times, used Grimms' tales to explain ancient customs.[103] Other folklorists have explained the figure of the wicked stepmother historically: many women did die in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources.[104]

Compilations See also: Collections of fairy tales Authors and works: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Mixed Up Fairy Tales Book of British Fairy Tales (United Kingdom, 1984) by Alan Garner Fairy Tales (USA, 1965) by E. E. Cummings Fairy Tales, Now First Collected: To which are prefixed two dissertations: 1. On Pygmies. 2. On Fairies (England, 1831) by Joseph Ritson Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 16th century) Grimm's Fairy Tales (Germany, 1812–1857) Hans Christian Andersen (Denmark, 1805–1875) Italian Folktales (Italy, 1956) by Italo Calvino Joseph Jacobs (1854–1916) Legende sau basmele românilor (Romania, 1874) by Petre Ispirescu Madame d'Aulnoy (France, 1650–1705) Norwegian Folktales (Norway, 1845–1870) by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe Narodnye russkie skazki (Russia, 1855–1863) by Alexander Afanasyev Pentamerone (Italy, 1634–1636) by Giambattista Basile Charles Perrault (France, 1628–1703) Panchatantra (India, 3rd century BCE) Popular Tales of the West Highlands (Scotland, 1862) by John Francis Campbell Ruth Manning-Sanders (Wales, 1886–1988) Kunio Yanagita (Japan, 1875–1962) World Tales (United Kingdom, 1979) by Idries Shah

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Notes [1] [2] [3] [4]

Thompson, Stith. Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology & Legend, 1972 s.v. "Fairy Tale" Merriam-Webster definition of "fairy tale" (http:/ / m-w. com/ dictionary/ fairy tale) Catherine Orenstein, Little Red Riding Hood Uncloaked, p. 9. ISBN 0-465-04125-6 Gray, Richard. "Fairy tales have ancient origin." (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ science/ science-news/ 6142964/ Fairy-tales-have-ancient-origin. html) Telegraph.co.uk. 5 September 2009. [5] Heidi Anne Heiner, " What Is a Fairy Tale? (http:/ / www. surlalunefairytales. com/ introduction/ ftdefinition. html)" [6] Terri Windling, "Les Contes de Fées: The Literary Fairy Tales of France" (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ rdrm/ forconte. html) [7] Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folk Tale, p. 5. ISBN 0-292-78376-0. [8] Propp, p. 19. [9] Steven Swann Jones, The Fairy Tale: The Magic Mirror of Imagination, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1995, p. 15. ISBN 0-8057-0950-9. [10] Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p 55, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977 [11] J. R. R. Tolkien, "On Fairy-Stories" , The Tolkien Reader, p. 15. [12] Tolkien, pp. 10–11. [13] The Fairy Tale: The Magic Mirror of the Imagination. Routledge, 2002, p. 8. [14] A companion to the fairy tale. By Hilda Ellis Davidson, Anna Chaudhri. Boydell & Brewer 2006. p. 39. [15] http:/ / www. freudfile. org/ psychoanalysis/ fairy_tales. html [16] Stith Thompson, The Folktale, 1977 (Thompson: 8). [17] A. S. Byatt, "Introduction" p. xviii, Maria Tatar, ed. The Annotated Brothers Grimm, ISBN 0-393-05848-4. [18] Italo Calvino, Six Memoes for the Next Millennium, pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-674-81040-6. [19] Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, pp. xi-xii, ISBN 0-393-97636-X. [20] Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 858. [21] Brian Attebery, The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature, p. 83, ISBN 0-253-35665-2. [22] Philip Martin, The Writer's Guide of Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Liar to Hero's Quest, pp. 38–42, ISBN 978-0871161956. [23] Swann Jones, p. 35. [24] Brian Attebery, The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature, p. 5, ISBN 0-253-35665-2. [25] Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. xii. [26] Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 846. [27] Linda Degh, "What Did the Grimm Brothers Give To and Take From the Folk?" p. 73, James M. McGlathery, ed., The Brothers Grimm and Folktale, The Three donars .ISBN 0-252-01549-5. [28] Jack Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, p. 2. ISBN 0-415-92151-1. [29] John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Fairytale," p. 331. ISBN 0-312-19869-8. [30] Heidi Anne Heiner, "Fairy Tale Timeline" (http:/ / www. surlalunefairytales. com/ introduction/ timeline. html) [31] Moss Roberts, "Introduction", p. xviii, Chinese Fairy Tales & Fantasies. ISBN 0-394-73994-9. [32] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, p. 12. [33] Soula Mitakidou and Anthony L. Manna, with Melpomeni Kanatsouli, Folktales from Greece: A Treasury of Delights, p. 100, Libraries Unlimited, Greenwood Village CO, 2002, ISBN 1-56308-908-4. [34] Swann Jones, p. 38. [35] Terri Windling, White as Ricotta, Red as Wine: The Magic Lore of Italy (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ rdrm/ forital. html)" [36] Italo Calvino, Italian Folktales, p. 738. ISBN 0-15-645489-0. [37] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, pp. 38–42. [38] Swann Jones, pp. 38–39. [39] Swann Jones, p. 40. [40] G. Ronald Murphy, The Owl, The Raven, and the Dove: The Religious Meaning of the Grimms' Magic Fairy Tales, ISBN 0-19-515169-0. [41] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, p. 77. [42] Degh, pp. 66–67. [43] Iona and Peter Opie, The Classic Fairy Tales p. 17. ISBN 978-0192115591. [44] Jane Yolen, p. 22, Touch Magic. ISBN 0-87483-591-7. [45] Andrew Lang, The Brown Fairy Book, "Preface" (http:/ / www. mythfolklore. net/ andrewlang/ brown. htm) [46] Yei Theodora Ozaki, Japanese Fairy Tales, "Preface" (http:/ / www. surlalunefairytales. com/ books/ japan/ freemanmitford/ preface. html) [47] Grant and Clute, "Hans Christian Andersen," pp. 26–27. [48] Grant and Clute, "George MacDonald," p. 604. [49] Orenstein, pp. 77–78. [50] Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 845. [51] Joseph Jacobs, More Celtic Fairy Tales. London: David Nutt, 1894, " Notes and References (http:/ / www. surlalunefairytales. com/ authors/ jacobs/ moreceltic/ ridere. html)" [52] Calvino, Italian Folktales, p. xx.

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Fairy tale [53] Harry Velten, "The Influences of Charles Perrault's Contes de ma Mère L'oie on German Folklore", p. 962, Jack Zipes, ed., The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm. [54] Velten, pp. 966–67. [55] Calvino, Italian Folktales, p. xxi. [56] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, p. 1. [57] Lewis Seifert, "The Marvelous in Context: The Place of the Contes de Fées in Late Seventeenth Century France", Jack Zipes, ed., The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 913. [58] Seifert, p. 915. [59] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition, p. 47. [60] Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 19, ISBN 0-691-06722-8. [61] Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 20. [62] Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 32. [63] Byatt, pp. xlii-xliv. [64] Tolkien, p. 31. [65] K. M. Briggs, The Fairies in English Tradition and Literature, pp. 181–182, University of Chicago Press, London, 1967. [66] http:/ / www. victorianweb. org/ authors/ dickens/ pva/ pva239. html [67] Jack Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, p. 48, ISBN 0-312-29380-1. [68] Grant and Clute, "Cinema", p. 196. [69] Patrick Drazen, Anime Explosion!: The What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation, pp. 43–44, ISBN 1-880656-72-8. [70] wolf, Eric James The Art of Storytelling Show Interview Jack Zipes – Are Fairy tales still useful to Children? (http:/ / www. artofstorytellingshow. com/ 2008/ 06/ 29/ jack-zipes-fairy-tales/ ) [71] Zipes, When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition and so on!, pp. 24–25. [72] Grant and Clute, "Fairytale," p. 333. [73] Martin, p. 41. [74] Helen Pilinovsky, "Donkeyskin, Deerskin, Allerleirauh: The Reality of the Fairy Tale" (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ rdrm/ fordnky. html) [75] Briggs, p. 195. [76] Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, pp. 251–52. [77] D. Ward, Optimizing Bi-Modal Signal to Noise Ratios: A Fairy Tale (http:/ / www. dau. mil/ pubs/ dam/ 09_10_2005/ ward_so05. pdf)PDF (304 KB), Defense AT&L, Sept/Oct 2005. [78] Children's Literature: An Illustrated History edited by Peter Hunt. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-212320-3 [79] Diana Waggoner, The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy, pp. 22–23, 0-689-10846-X. [80] Grant and Clute, "Commedia Dell'Arte", p. 219. [81] Grant and Clute, "Commedia Dell'Arte", p. 745. [82] James Graham, "Baba Yaga in Film" (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ crossroads/ crBabaYagaF. html) [83] Richard Scheib, Review of Labyrinth (http:/ / www. moria. co. nz/ fantasy/ labyrinth. htm) [84] Drazen, p. 264. [85] Terri Windling, "Beauty and the Beast" (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ rdrm/ forbewty. html) [86] Terri Windling, "The Path of Needles or Pins: Little Red Riding Hood" (http:/ / www. endicott-studio. com/ rdrm/ rrPathNeedles. html) [87] Drazen, p. 38. [88] Spelling, Ian (2006-12-25). "Guillermo del Toro and Ivana Baquero escape from a civil war into the fairytale land of Pan's Labyrinth" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070707173614/ http:/ / www. scifi. com/ sfw/ interviews/ sfw14471. html). Science Fiction Weekly. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. scifi. com/ sfw/ interviews/ sfw14471. html) on July 7, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-07-14. [89] "Festival Highlights: 2008 Edinburgh International Film Festival" (http:/ / www. variety. com/ index. asp?layout=festivals& jump=features& id=3168& articleid=VR1117987482). Variety. 2008-06-13. . Retrieved 2010-04-28. [90] Tolkien, p. 18. [91] Propp, Morphology of the Folk Tale. [92] Propp, pp. 8–9. [93] Propp, p. 74. [94] Propp, p. 39. [95] Propp, pp. 81–82. [96] Propp, pp. 80–81. [97] Christopher Vogler, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers, 2nd edition, p. 30, ISBN 0-941188-70-1. [98] Vladimir Propp's Theories (http:/ / www. brown. edu/ Courses/ FR0133/ Fairytale_Generator/ propp. html) [99] Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 52. [100] Bettleheim Bruno (1991). The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140137279. [101] Alan Dundes, "Interpreting Little Red Riding Hood Psychoanalytically", pp. 18–19, James M. McGlathery, ed., The Brothers Grimm and Folktale, ISBN 0-252-01549-5. [102] Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 46.

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[103] Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, p. 48. [104] Marina Warner, From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales And Their Tellers, p. 213. ISBN 0-374-15901-7.

References • Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson: The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography (Helsinki, 1961) • Thompson, Stith, The Folktale. • Heidi Anne Heiner, "The Quest for the Earliest Fairy Tales: Searching for the Earliest Versions of European Fairy Tales with Commentary on English Translations" (http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/introduction/ earliesttales.html) • Heidi Anne Heiner, "Fairy Tale Timeline" (http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/introduction/timeline.html) • Carrassi, Vito, "Il fairy tale nella tradizione narrativa irlandese. Un itinerario storico e culturale", Bari 2008.

External links • Cabinet des Fees (http://www.cabinet-des-fees.com/) - An Online Journal of Fairy Tale Fiction • Fables (http://www.lefavole.org/en/) - Collection and guide to fables and Fairy Tales for children • Once Upon a Time (http://www.folkstory.com/articles/onceupon.html) - How Fairy Tales Shape Our Lives, by Jonathan Young, Ph.D. • Once Upon A Time: Historical and Illustrated Fairy Tales. Special Collections, University of Colorado Boulder (http://libcudl.colorado.edu:8180/luna/servlet/UCBOULDERCB1~53~53) • CiffCiaff (http://www.ciffciaff.org/en) - Multilanguage fairy tales collection

Picture book A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. The images in picture books use a range of media such as oil paints, acrylics, watercolor and pencil.Two of the earliest books with something like the format picture books still retain now were Heinrich Hoffmann's Struwwelpeter from 1845 and Beatrix Potter's The Tale of Peter Rabbit from 1902. Some of the best-known picture books are Robert McCloskey's Make Way for Ducklings, Dr. Seuss' The Cat In The Hat, and Maurice Sendak's Where the Wild Things Are. The Caldecott Medal (established 1938) and Kate Greenaway Medal (established 1955) are awarded annually for illustrations in children's literature. From the mid-1960s several children's literature awards include a category for picture books. Peter Rabbit with his family, from The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter, 1902

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Characteristics Any book that pairs a narrative format with pictures can be categorized as a picture book. "In the best picturebooks, the illustrations are as much a part of the experience with the book as the written text."[1] Picture books are most often aimed at young children, and while some may have very basic language especially designed to help children develop their reading skills, most are written with vocabulary a child can understand but not necessarily read. For this reason, picture books tend to have two functions in the lives of children: they are first read to young children by adults, and then children read them themselves once they begin to learn to read.

A child with an illustrated book of Three Billy Goats Gruff

There are several subgenres among picture books including concept books, nursery rhymes, toy books, alphabet books and early readers. Picture books also cover a wide variety of themes and are also published with content aimed at older children or even adults. Tibet: Through the Red Box by Peter Sis is one example of a picture book aimed at an adult audience. Board books are picture books published on a hard cardboard. Board books are often intended for small children to use and play with. Cardboard is used for the cover as well as the pages, and is intended to be more durable. Pop-up books employ paper engineering to make parts of the page pop up or stand up when pages are opened. More broadly books using similar techniques are known as movable books. The Wheels on the Bus by Paul O. Zelinsky is one example of a bestseller pop-up picture book. Often the author and illustrator are two different people. Once an editor in a publishing house has accepted a manuscript for a text from an author, the editor selects an illustrator.

Early picture books Orbis Pictus from 1658 by John Amos Comenius was the earliest illustrated book specifically for children. It is something of a children's encyclopedia and is illustrated by woodcuts.[2] A Little Pretty Pocket-Book from 1744 by John Newbery was the earliest illustrated storybook marketed as pleasure reading in English.[3] The German children's book Struwwelpeter (literally "Shaggy-Peter") from 1845 by Heinrich Hoffmann was one of the earliest examples of modern picturebook design. Collections of Fairy tales from early nineteenth century, like those by the Brothers Grimm or Hans Christian Andersen A reprint of the 1658 illustrated Orbis Pictus were sparsely illustrated, but beginning in the middle of the century, collections were published with images by illustrators like Gustave Doré, George Cruikshank,[4] Vilhelm Pedersen, Ivan Bilibin and John Bauer. Andrew Lang's twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed. Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, illustrated by John Tenniel in 1866 was one of the first highly successful entertainment books for children.

Picture book

31 Toy books were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century, small paperbound books with art dominating the text. These had a larger proportion of pictures to words than earlier books, and many of their pictures were in color.[5] The best of these were illustrated by the triumvirate of English illustrators Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, and Kate Greenaway whose association with colour printer and wood engraver Edmund Evans produced books of great quality.[6] In the late 19th and early 20th century a small number of American and British artists made their living illustrating children's books, like Rose O'Neill, Arthur Rackham, Cicely Mary Barker, Willy Pogany, Edmund Dulac, W. Heath Robinson, Howard Pyle, or Charles Robinson. Generally, these illustrated books had eight to twelve pages of illustrated pictures or plates accompanying a classic children's storybook.

Alice from Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, illustration by John Tenniel, 1866

Beatrix Potter's The Tale of Peter Rabbit was published in 1902 to immediate success. Peter Rabbit was Potter's first of many The Tale of..., including The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin, The Tale of Benjamin Bunny, The Tale of Tom Kitten, and The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck, to name but a few which were published in the years leading up to 1910. Swedish author Elsa Beskow wrote and illustrated some 40 children's stories and picture books between 1897–1952. Andrew Lang's twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed. In the US, illustrated stories for children appeared in magazines like Ladies Home Journal, Good Housekeeping, Cosmopolitan, Woman's Home Companion intended for mothers to read to their Cover of Babes in the Wood, children. Some cheap periodicals appealing to the juvenile reader started to illustrated by Randolph Caldecott appear in the early 20th century, often with uncredited illustrations. Helen Bannerman's Little Black Sambo was published in 1899, and went through numerous printings and versions during the first decade of the 20th century. Little Black Sambo was part of a series of small-format books called The Dumpy Books for Children, published by British publisher Grant Richards between 1897 and 1904.

Picture book

32

Early to mid 20th century L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz was published in 1900, and Baum created a number of other successful Oz-oriented books in the period from 1904 to 1920. In 1910, American illustrator and author Rose O'Neill's first children’s book was published, The Kewpies and Dottie Darling. More books in the Kewpie series followed: The Kewpies Their Book in 1912 and The Kewpie Primer 1916. In 1918, Johnny Gruelle wrote and illustrated Raggedy Ann and in 1920 followed up with Raggedy Andy Stories. Other Gruelle books included Beloved Belinda, Eddie Elephant, and Friendly Fairies. In 1913, Cupples & Leon published a series of 15 All About books, emulating the form and size of the Beatrix Potter books, All About Peter Rabbit, All About The Three Bears, All About Mother Goose, and All About Little Red Hen. The latter, along with several others, was illustrated by Johnny Gruelle. Wanda Gág's Millions of Cats was published in 1928 and became the first picture book to receive a Newbery Medal runner-up award. Wanda Gág followed with The Funny Thing in 1929, Snippy and Snappy in 1931, and then The ABC Bunny in 1933, which garnered her a second Newbery runner-up award.

Title page from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum from 1900

In 1931, Jean de Brunhoff's first Babar book, The Story Of Babar was published in France, followed by The Travels of Babar then Babar The King. In 1930, Marjorie Flack authored and illustrated Angus and the Ducks, followed in 1931 by Angus And The Cats, then in 1932, Angus Lost. Flack authored another book in 1933, The Story about Ping, illustrated by Kurt Wiese. The Elson Basic Reader was published in 1930 and introduced the public to Dick and Jane. In 1930 The Little Engine That Could was published, illustrated by Lois Lenski. In 1954 it was illustrated anew by George and Doris Hauman. It spawned an entire line of books and related paraphernalia and coined the refrain "I think I can! I think I can!". In 1936, Munro Leaf's The Story of Ferdinand was published, illustrated by Robert Lawson. Ferdinand was the first picture book to crossover Babar by Jean de Brunhoff, from into pop culture. Walt Disney produced an animated feature film along with 1931 corresponding merchandising materials. In 1938 to Dorothy Lathrop was awarded the first Caldecott Medal for her illustrations in Animals of the Bible, written by Helen Dean Fish. Thomas Handforth won the second Caldecott Medal in 1939, for Mei Li, which he also wrote. Ludwig Bemelmans' Madeline was published in 1939 and was selected as a Caldecott Medal runner-up, today known as a Caldecott Honor book. In 1942, Simon & Schuster began publishing the Little Golden Books, a series of inexpensive, well illustrated, high quality children's books. The eighth book in the series, The Poky Little Puppy, is the top selling children's book of all time.[7] Many of the books were bestsellers[8] including The Poky Little Puppy, Tootle, Scuffy the Tugboat, The Little Red Hen. Several of the illustrators for the Little Golden Books later became staples within the picture book industry. Corinne Malvern, Tibor Gergely, Gustaf Tenggren, Feodor Rojankovsky, Richard Scarry, Eloise Wilkin, and Garth Williams. In 1947 Goodnight Moon written by Margaret Wise Brown and illustrated by Clement Hurd was published. By 1955, such picture book classics as Make Way for Ducklings, The Little House, Curious George, and Eloise, had all been published. In 1955 the first book was published in the Miffy series by Dutch author and illustrator Dick Bruna. In 1937, Dr. Seuss (Theodor Seuss Geisel,) at the time a successful graphic artist and humorist, published his first book for children, And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street. It was immediately successful, and Seuss followed

Picture book up with The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins in 1938, followed by The King's Stilts in 1939, and Horton Hatches the Egg in 1940, all published by Random House. From 1947 to 1956 Seuss had twelve children's picture books published. Dr. Seuss created The Cat in the Hat in reaction to a Life magazine article by John Hersey in lamenting the unrealistic children in school primers books. Seuss rigidly limited himself to a small set of words from an elementary school vocabulary list, then crafted a story based upon two randomly selected words—cat and hat. Up until the mid-1950s, there was a degree of separation between illustrated educational books and illustrated picture books. That changed with The Cat in the Hat in 1957. Because of the success of The Cat In The Hat an independent publishing company was formed, called Beginner Books. The second book in the series was nearly as popular, The Cat in the Hat Comes Back, published in 1958. Other books in the series were Sam and the Firefly (1958), Green Eggs and Ham (1960), Are You My Mother? (1960), Go, Dog. Go! (1961), Hop on Pop (1963), and Fox in Socks (1965). Creators in the Beginner Book series were Stan and Jan Berenstain, P. D. Eastman, Roy McKie, and Helen Palmer Geisel (Seuss' wife). The Beginner Books dominated the children's picture book market of the 1960s. Between 1957 and 1960 Harper & Brothers published a series of sixteen "I Can Read" books. Little Bear was the first of the series. Written by Else Holmelund Minarik and illustrated by a then relatively unknown Maurice Sendak, the two collaborated on three other "I Can Read" books over the next three years. From 1958 to 1960, Syd Hoff wrote and illustrated four "I Can Read" books: Danny and the Dinosaur, Sammy The Seal, Julius, and Oliver.

Mid to late 20th century In 1949 American writer and illustrator Richard Scarry began his career working on the Little Golden Books series. His Best Word Book Ever from 1963 has sold 4 million copies. In total Scarry wrote and illustrated more than 250 books and more than 100 million of his books have been sold worldwide.[9] In 1963, Where The Wild Things Are by American writer and illustrator Maurice Sendak was published. It has been adapted into other media several times, including an animated short in 1973, a 1980 opera, and, in 2009, a live-action feature film adaptation directed by Spike Jonze. By 2008 it had sold over 19 million copies worldwide.[10] American illustrator and author Gyo Fujikawa created more than 50 books between 1963 and 1990. Her work has been translated into 17 languages and published in 22 countries. Her most popular books, Babies and Baby Animals, have sold over 1.7 million copies in the U.S.[11] Fujikawa is recognized for being the earliest mainstream illustrator of picture books to include children of many races in her work.[12] [13] [14] Most of the Moomin books by Finnish author Tove Jansson were novels, but several Moomin picture books were also published between 1952 and 1980, like Who Will Comfort Toffle? (1960) and The Dangerous Journey (1977). The Barbapapa series of books by Annette Tison and Talus Taylor was published in France in the 1970s. They feature the shapeshifting pink blob Barbapapa and his numerous colorful children. The Mr. Men series of 40-some books by English author and illustrated Roger Hargreaves started in 1971. The Snowman by Raymond Briggs was published in Britain in 1978 and was entirely wordless. It was made into an Oscar nominated animated cartoon that has been shown every year since on British television. Japanese author and illustrator Mitsumasa Anno has published a number of picture books beginning in 1968 with Mysterious Pictures. In his "Journey" books a tiny character travels through depictions of the culture of various countries. Everyone Poops was first published in Japan in 1977, written and illustrated by the prolific children's author Tarō Gomi. It has been translated into several languages. Australian author Margaret Wild has written more than 40 books since 1984 and won several awards. In 1987 the first book was published in the Where's Wally? (known as Where's Waldo? in the United States and Canada) series by the British illustrator Martin Handford. The books were translated into many languages and the franchise also spawned a TV series, a comic strip and a series of video games. Since 1989 over 20 books have been created in the Elmer the Patchwork Elephant series by the British author David McKee. They have been translated in 40 languages and adapted into a children's TV series.

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Awards In 1938, the American Library Association (ALA) began presenting annually the Caldecott Medal to the most distinguished children's book illustration published in the year. The Caldecott Medal was established as a sister award to the ALA's Newbery Medal, which was awarded to a children's books "for the most distinguished American children's book published the previous year" and presented annually beginning in 1922. During the mid-forties to early-fifties honorees included Marcia Brown, Barbara Cooney, Roger Duvoisin, Berta and Elmer Hader, Robert Lawson, Robert McCloskey, Dr. Seuss, Maurice Sendak, Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire, Leo Politi, Tasha Tudor, and Leonard Weisgard. The Kate Greenaway Medal was established in the United Kingdom in 1955 in honour of the children's illustrator, Kate Greenaway. The medal is given annually to an outstanding work of illustration in children's literature. It is awarded by Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). Since 1965 the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis (German Youth literature prize) includes a category for picture books. The Danish Hans Christian Andersen Award for Illustration has been awarded since 1966. The Boston Globe-Horn Book Award, first presented in 1967, includes a category for picture books. In 2006, the ALA started awarding the Geisel Award, named after Dr. Seuss, to the most distinguished beginning reader book. The award is presented to both the author and illustrator, in "literary and artistic achievements to engage children in reading."

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Kiefer, 156 Hunt, p. 217 Hunt, p. 668 Hunt, p. 221 Whalley, p. Hunt, p. 674 according to a 2001 list of bestselling children's hardback books compiled by Publishers Weekly. Four of the top eight books on the Publishers Weekly list are Little Golden Books. New York Times obituary of Richard Scarry (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9D04E0D91030F930A35756C0A962958260) [10] Thornton, Matthew (February 4, 2008) "Wild Things All Over" (http:/ / www. publishersweekly. com/ article/ CA6528120. html). Publishers Weekly [11] Publishers Weekly (http:/ / www. publishersweekly. com/ article/ CA186995. html). Retrieved 23 April 2007. [12] Gyo Fujikawa, a Children's Illustrator Forging the Way, Dr. Andrea Wyman. Versed, Sept. 2005. (http:/ / ala. org/ ala/ aboutala/ offices/ diversity/ versed/ versedbackissues/ september2005a/ fujikawa. cfm) URL accessed 21 July 2009. [13] Penguin Group Diversity. (http:/ / us. penguingroup. com/ static/ html/ aboutus/ youngreaders/ grosset. html) URL accessed 23 April 2007. [14] Ask Art:Gyo Fujikawa. (http:/ / www. askart. com/ AskART/ F/ gyo_fujikawa/ gyo_fujikawa. aspx) URL accessed 23 April 2007.

Source • Kiefer, Barbara Z. (2010). Charlotte Huck's Children's Literature.New York, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-337856-5 • Ray, Gordon Norton (1991). The Illustrator and the book in England from 1790 to 1914 (http://books.google. com/books?id=HsTU8eWtej8C&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=edmund+evans+printer#v=onepage& q=edmund evans printer&f=false). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-26955-8. Retrieved 2010-02-28. • Hunt, Peter; Sheila Ray (1996). International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature (http://books. google.com/books?id=XqaTzQBVDCAC&pg=PA465&dq="edmund+evans"#v=onepage&q="edmund evans"&f=false). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-16812-7. Retrieved 2010-03-01. • Zielinski, Linda & Stan; "Children's Picturebook Price Guide", Chap. 1: Today's Golden Era Of Picturebooks; Flying Moose Books; 2006. ISBN 0977939405

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External links • Children's Picture Book Database (http://www.lib.muohio.edu/pictbks/) at Miami University

Chapter book A chapter book is a story book intended for intermediate readers, generally age 7-10.[1] [2] Unlike picture books for younger readers, a chapter book tells the story primarily through prose, rather than pictures. Unlike books for older readers, chapter books contain plentiful illustrations. The name refers to the fact that the stories are usually divided into short chapters, which provide children with opportunities to stop and resume reading if their attention spans are not long enough to finish the book in one sitting. Chapter books are usually works of fiction of moderate length and complexity. The New York Times Best Seller list of Children's Chapter Books has included books with intended audience age ranges from 6 to 14 and up.[3] This may reflect a straightforward interpretation of "chapter books" as those books directed at children that are long enough to include chapters. However, some publishers such as Scholastic Corporation and Harper Collins include the phrase "chapter book" in series titles aimed specifically at younger readers, including the I Can Read! series and the Magic School Bus series.

References [1] http:/ / www. findmeanauthor. com/ childrens_fiction_genre. htm [2] Loer, Stephanie (2001-04-29). "Chapter Books Lead Young Readers from Pictures to Novels". Boston Globe. [3] Taylor, Ihsan. "Hardcover" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ best-sellers-books/ 2011-01-02/ chapter-books/ list. html). The New York Times. .

Young-adult fiction Young-adult fiction or young adult literature (often abbreviated as YA),[1] [2] also juvenile fiction, is fiction written for, published for, or marketed to adolescents and young adults, roughly ages 14 to 21.[3] The Young Adult Library Services (YALSA) of the American Library Association (ALA) defines a young adult as "someone between the ages of twelve and eighteen". Young adult novels have also been defined as texts written for the ages of twelve and up. Authors and readers of young adult (YA) novels often define the genre as "literature written for ages ranging from ten years up to the age of twenty" (Cole). Another suggestion for the definition is that Young Adult Literature is any text being read by adolescents, though this definition is still somewhat controversial. Accordingly, the terms young-adult novel, juvenile novel, young-adult book, etc. refer to the works in the YA category. Although YA literature shares the fundamental elements of character, plot, setting, theme, and style common to other genres of fiction, theme and style are often subordinated to the more tangible basic narrative elements such as plot, setting, and character, which appeal more readily to younger readers. The vast majority of YA stories portray an adolescent as the protagonist, rather than an adult or a child It is generally agreed that Young Adult Literature is literature written for adolescent readers, and in some cases published by adolescent writers. The subject matter and story lines are typically consistent with the age and experience of the main character, but beyond that YA stories span the entire spectrum of fiction genres. Themes in YA stories often focus on the challenges of youth, so much so that the entire age category is sometimes referred to as problem novels or coming of age novels.[4] Writing styles of YA stories range widely, from the richness of literary style to the clarity and speed of the unobtrusive and even free verse.

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Young-adult fiction

History of young-adult fiction Sarah Trimmer The first recognition of young adults as a distinct group was by Sarah Trimmer, who in 1802 described "young adulthood" as lasting from ages 14 to 21.[3] In her self-founded children's literature periodical, The Guardian of Education, Trimmer introduced the terms "Books for Children" (for those under fourteen) and "Books for Young Persons" (for those between fourteen and twenty-one), establishing terms of reference for young adult literature that remain in use today.[3] However, nineteenth-century publishers did not specifically market to young readers, and adolescent culture did not exist in a modern sense.

The Beginning Beginning in the 1920s, it was said that "this was the first time when it became clear that the young were a separate generation" (Cart 43); but multiple novels that fit into the YA category had been published long before. In the nineteenth century there are several early examples that appealed to young readers (Garland 1998, p. 6) including The Swiss Family Robinson (1812), Waverley (1814), Oliver Twist (1838), The Count of Monte Cristo (1844), Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857), Great Expectations (1860), Alice in Wonderland (1865), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Kidnapped (1886), The Jungle Book (1894) and Moonfleet (1898). A few other novels that were published around the turn of the century include Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson, Heidi, by Johanna Spyri, and Black Beauty by Anna Sewell. In 1937 The Hobbit, by J. R. R. Tolkien, was published, and Betty Smith's A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1943) also is a beloved by adolescents today. Some claim that the first real young adult novel was The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger, and that it opened up a whole new eye to what types of texts adolescent readers read. Following this novel, other classic texts such as Harper Lee's, To Kill a Mockingbird; Maya Angelou's novel, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings; and Toni Morrison's, The Bluest Eye all entered the genre of Young Adult Literature as well, along with many others.

Mid-Century In the 1950s, shortly before the advent of modern publishing for the teen romance market, two novels drew the attention of adolescent readers: The Catcher in the Rye (1951), and Lord of the Flies (1954). Unlike more-recent fiction classified as YA, these two were written with an adult audience in mind.[5] The modern classification of young-adult fiction originated during the 1950s and 1960s, especially after the publication of S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders. This book focused on a group of teens not yet represented and instead of having the nostalgic tone that was typical in young adult books written by adults, it displayed a truer, darker side of young adult life because it was written by a young adult. As the decades moved on, the stormy sixties became the era "when the 'under 30' generation became a subject of popular concern, and that research on adolescence began to emerge. It would also be the decade when literature for adolescents could be said to have come into its own" (Cart 43). For this reason others adopt The Outsiders, published in 1967 by S. E. Hinton who at the time was only a teenager, as the initiator of the adolescent literature genre. This book sparked talk about what adolescents face, and that adolescents can produce books that they can relate to. 1967 was the year when a multitude of YA books began to be seen, and ever since YA lit has grown into a thriving, popular genre. In the 1970s, what has become to be known as the "fab five" were published. "For the record, the fab five are: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou; The Friends by Rosa Guy; The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath; Bless the Beasts and Children by Glendon Swarthout; and Deathwatch by Robb White" (Cart 77).

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Young-adult fiction

70's and 80's As publishers began to focus on the emerging adolescent market, booksellers and libraries, in turn, began creating YA sections distinct from either children's literature or novels written for adults. The 1970s to the mid-1980s have been described as the golden age of young-adult fiction—when challenging novels began speaking directly to the interests of the identified adolescent market.[3] In the 1980s: "the 1980s contained a large amount of Young Adult publications which pushed the threshold of topics that adolescents faced such as rape, suicide, parental death, and murder. Also in the 1980s, "teenagers seemed to want to read about something closer to their daily lives-romance novels were revived" (Cart 99). In the 1990s, Young Adult Literature pushed adolescent issues even further by including topics such as, drinking, sexuality, drug use, identity, beauty, and even teen pregnancy" (Lubar). Also in the 1990s, it seemed as though the era of Young Adult Literature was going to lose steam but "due in part to an increase in the number of teenagers in the 1990s the field matured, blossomed, and came into its own with the better written, more serious, and more varied young adult books published during the last two decades" (Tomlinson and Lynch-Brown 5).

Marketing Teens have also become more and more marketable to text publications, bookstores have begun dedicating entire sections of their bookshelves to "teen" and "young adult" novels and texts, and movies are now produced more often that portray popular young adult texts with adolescent protagonists. As the genre continues to become more popular, and authors continue to publish texts that adolescents can relate to, Young Adult Literature will continue to be read and supported by adolescent and adult readers alike. Examples of other novels that predate the young-adult classification, but that are now frequently presented alongside YA novels are (Garland 1998, p. 6): • • • • • • • •

Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903) Anne of Green Gables (1908) The Secret Garden (1909) The Yearling (1938) My Friend Flicka (1941) Johnny Tremain (1943) The Outsiders (1967) The Pigman (1968)

Notable authors • V.C. Andrews (1923–1986): American author of several popular gothic horror family sagas for teenagers; examples include Flowers in the Attic and Melody. • Laurie Halse Anderson: American author of both fiction and non-fiction. Some of her more well known novels include Speak, Fever 1793, Catalyst, Prom, Twisted, and Wintergirls. Anderson is a Margret A. Edwards Award [6] recipient. • Clive Barker Although not usually a young adult writer, "Abarat" was written for a young adult audience and is considered one of his most important works. • David Belbin (born 1958): English author. His novels include Love Lessons and Denial. • Tim Bowler (born 1953): English author. His novels include River Boy and Frozen Fire. • Judy Blume (born 1938): American author; wrote teen classics Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret. and Forever.

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Young-adult fiction • Malorie Blackman (born 1962): British author of the award winning Noughts & Crosses Trilogy and Boys Don't Cry. • Rae Bridgman: Canadian author known for her fantasy-adventure series The MiddleGate Books, including The Serpent's Spell, Amber Ambrosia and Fish & Sphinx • Meg Cabot (born 1967): American author of many popular books and series, such as The Princess Diaries series. • Kate Cann: Young adult trilogies and "Holiday" stand-alones. • Isobelle Carmody (born 1958): Wrote the award-winning, Obernewtyn Chronicles. Born in Melbourne, Australia as was Garth Nix, they are often compared and are close friends. • P. C. Cast and her daughter Kristin Cast: American writers of the House of Night series of vampire-based fantasy novels. • Eoin Colfer (born 1965): Irish author noted for the Artemis Fowl series. • Suzanne Collins (born 1964): American author of the popular The Hunger Games trilogy which includes The Hunger Games, Catching Fire and Mockingjay. • Susan Cooper (born 1935): British author, Susan Cooper wrote the popular The Dark is Rising series. • Joe Craig (born 1980): British author, wrote Jimmy Coates series. • Sarah Dessen (born 1970): American author of such popular young-adult fare as The Truth About Forever and That Summer. • Cory Doctorow (born 1971): Canadian author. His novels include Little Brother and For the Win. • Cornelia Funke (born 1958): German author, Cornelia Funke wrote the successful Inkheart trilogy. • John Green (born 1977): The American Michael L. Printz Award winning author of Looking for Alaska, An Abundance of Katherines, and Paper Towns, also awarded a 2007 Michael L. Printz Award Honor for An Abundance of Katherines and the 2009 Edgar Award for Best Young Adult Novel for Paper Towns. • William Golding (1911–1993): British author, Nobel Prize for Literature laureate best known for his novel Lord of the Flies. • Lisi Harrison: author of bestselling series The Clique and The Alphas • Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988): American science fiction writer, whose novels include Tunnel in the Sky and Citizen of the Galaxy. • Charlie Higson (born 1958): British author, wrote Young Bond series. • S.E. Hinton (born 1950): American author, wrote The Outsiders, Rumble Fish, That Was Then, This Is Now, and Tex. • Ellen Hopkins (born 1955): American New York Times Bestselling author, wrote "Crank" series, and several other novels in verse • Anthony Horowitz (born 1956): British author, Anthony Horowitz is writing the best selling Alex Rider series. • Brian Jacques (1939-2011): British author of the successful and critically acclaimed Redwall series. • Maureen Johnson (born 1973): American author of 13 Little Blue Envelopes and the Suite Scarlett series. • Gordon Korman • C. S. Lewis (1898–1963): British author, 95 million copies of his Chronicles of Narnia series have been published worldwide since The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe debuted in 1950. • Megan McCafferty (born 1973): American author of the New York Times Bestselling Jessica Darling series, which debuted in 2001. • Lurlene McDaniel (born 1948): American author; penned a series of novels dealing with terminal illness that were enormously popular during the 1980s and 1990s.

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Young-adult fiction • Stephenie Meyer (born 1973): American creator of the popular vampire romance franchise Twilight.[7] • Robert Muchamore (born 1972): British author, known for writing the hugely successful CHERUB series, and the new spin-off series, Henderson's Boys. • Walter Dean Myers (born 1937) : American author, known for his writing about Harlem including Fallen Angels, Monster, Scorpions and many other books. • Garth Nix (born 1963): Australian author, Garth Nix wrote the Keys to the Kingdom and Old Kingdom series. • Francine Pascal (born 1938): American creator of the popular Sweet Valley Twins and Sweet Valley High franchises. • Gary Paulsen (born 1939): American author, wrote Hatchet and many other young-adult novels. • Philip Pullman (born 1946): British author, Philip Pullman wrote the successful and controversial His Dark Materials trilogy. • Kathryn Reiss (born 1957): American Author, Kathryn Reiss is an award winning author of time travel and suspense novels for young-adults, as well as American Girl mysteries for younger readers. Sample titles: Time Windows, Dreadful Sorry, PaperQuake, Paint by Magic, Sweet Miss Honeywell's Revenge, Blackthorn Winter, A Bundle of Trouble. • Rick Riordan (born 1964): American author, wrote the award winning Percy Jackson and the Olympians series, the best-selling The Kane Chronicles, and The Heroes of Olympus • J. K. Rowling (born 1965): British author, J.K. Rowling is an award winning young-adult author today and arguably the most successful. Being the author of the extremely successful and critically well received Harry Potter series, her books have been sold in more than 400 million copies worldwide and are translated into more than 63 languages. She is also the first billionaire-author (in terms of US-dollars). • J.D. Salinger (1919–2010): American author of the young adult classic The Catcher in the Rye. • Elizabeth Scott (born 1972) : American author, writes romance along with contemporary issue fiction, The Unwritten Rule, Living Dead Girl, and As I Wake. • L.J. Smith (author) (born 1965)an American author of young-adult literature. Wrote many romantic fantasy stories. Two of her book series have turned into television series. • Jerry Spinelli (born 1941): Very prolific American author of young adult fare such as Stargirl and Eggs. • Jonathan Stroud (born 1970): British author, wrote the best-selling Bartimaeus Trilogy amongst other books. • Julian F(rancis) Thompson (born 1927): American author of nineteen popular, award-winning YA novels, including The Grounding of Group 6 currently being made into a movie. • Mark Walden (born 197?): British author, wrote the bestselling H.I.V.E. series. • Scott Westerfeld (born 1963): Scott has written books such as the Uglies series which contains the best selling books Uglies Pretties Specials and Extras. He also wrote So Yesterday and Peeps as well as the Midnighters trilogy. So Yesterday won an award for American Library Association 2005 best book for young adults, and Uglies and Peeps got the 2006 American Library Association best book for young adults award. • Edward Irving Wortis (pen name Avi; born 1937): American author of critically acclaimed young adult historical fiction, such as Something Upstairs and The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle. • Cecily von Ziegesar (born 1970): American author of the popular teen novels Gossip Girl. • Paul Zindel (1936–2003): This Pulitzer-Prize winning American author wrote over 40 young adult novels, including The Pigman. His books have sold over 10 million copies and have been translated into languages all over the globe.

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Young-adult fiction

Genre Young Adult Literature has become a genre which covers various text types including: novels, graphic novels, short stories, and poetry. Much of the literature published consists of young adult fiction which in itself contains several different types of text, but the genre also contains other various types of non-fiction such as biographies, autobiographies, journal entries/diaries, and letters. Although many genres exist in young adult literature, the problem novel tends to be the most popular among young readers. Problem novel refers to young adult novels in the realistic fiction category that “addresses personal and social issues across socioeconomic boundaries and within both traditional and nontraditional family structures” (Cole 98). Memoirs are also popular forms of Young Adult Literature. The genre itself has been challenged due its seemingly mature content by critics of Young Adult Literature, but "other converted critics have embraced Young Adult so dearly that they have scoured the canon for any classics they could adopt into the YA family" (Stephens 2007).

Themes Young Adult Literature uses a wide array of themes in order to appeal to a wide variety of adolescent readers. Some of these themes include: identity, sexuality, science fiction, depression, suicide, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, familial struggles, bullying, and numerous others. Some issues that are talked about in young adult literature are things such as friendship, love, race, money, divorce, relationships within families.[8] “The culture that surrounds and absorbs young adults plays a huge role in their lives. Young Adult Literature explores themes important and crucial to adolescence such as relationships to authority figures, peer pressure and ensuing experimentations, issues of diversity as it relates to gender, sociocultural, and/or socioeconomic status. Primarily, the focus is centered around a young lead character and the reader experiences emotions, situations, and the like through this character and is able to see how these problems/situations are resolved.[9] It also needs to play a significant role in how we approach this group and the books we offer them to read” (Lesesne 14). Reading about issues that adolescents can relate to allows them to identify with a particular character, and creates a sense of security when experiencing something that is going on within their lives. "Whether you call them archetypes or stereotypes, there are certain experiences and certain kinds of people that are common to adolescents. Reading about it may help a young person validate his or her own experience and make some kind of meaning out of it" (Blasingame, 12). In a paper written by April Dawn Wells, she discovers seventeen common traits of young adult novels. These include: “friendship, getting into trouble, interest in the opposite sex, money, divorce, single parents, remarriage, problems with parents, grandparents, younger siblings, concern over grades/school, popularity, puberty, race, death, neighborhood, and job/working.[10]

Characteristics Young adult literature contains specific characteristics that are present throughout the genre. These characteristics encompass: “multi-themed story, tension versus shock effect, memorable characters, accurate facts and details, no unlikely coincidences, original idea, memorable voice, authentic dialogue, effective/clear writing style, sense of humor, widespread appeal, intriguing openings and memorable closings” (Cole 61-65). Other characteristics of Young Adult Literature include: "(1) Characters and issues young readers can identify with; those issues and characters are treated in a way that does not invalidate, minimize, or devalue them; (2) Is framed in language that young readers can understand; (3) Emphasizes plot above everything else; and (4)Is written for an audience of young adults" (Blasingame 11). Overall, Young Adult Literature needs to contain specific elements that will not only interest adolescent readers, but elements that relate directly to real situations adolescents face, and contain believable, empathetic characters.

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Young-adult fiction

Usage in Education Research suggests young adult literature can be advantageous to reluctant student readers by addressing their needs. Authors who write young adult literature have an adolescent’s age and interests in mind. The language and plots of young adult literature are similar to what students are accustomed to finding in reality, television, movies, and popular culture (Bucher, Manning, 328-332). The following are criteria that researchers have come up with to evaluate the effectiveness of young adult literature in the classroom (Bucher and Manning, 9-10). • The subject matter should reflect age and development by addressing their interest levels, reading and thinking levels. • The content should deal with contemporary issues and experiences with characters adolescents can relate. • Subjects can relate to dealing with parents and adults, illness and death, peer pressure with regards to drugs, sex, and the complications of addiction and pregnancy. • The content should consider existing global concerns such as cultural, social, and gender diversity; environmental and political issues as it relates to adolescents. Young Adult Literature has been integrated into classrooms in order to increase student interest in reading. Research has been performed on what type of impact the introduction YA Lit has on students, particularly adolescent males and struggling readers: "Researchers have shown that introducing YA Literature to males improves their reading ability. YA Literature, because of its range of authors and story types, is an appropriate literature for every adolescent male who needs compelling material that speaks to him" (Gill). Research shows that not only adolescent males have been labeled as reluctant readers, struggling readers use reluctance as a coping mechanism. Young Adult Literature has been used to open up the door of reading literature to these readers as well: "When voluntary reading declines, the problems of struggling readers are only aggravated. By allowing adolescents to read good young adult literature, educators are able to encourage independent reading, which will, in turn, help adolescents develop the skills necessary to succeed" (Bucher and Manning). Another reason that Young Adult Literature has been incorporated into classrooms is to be paired with classic texts that are traditionally read in classrooms, and required by many schools curricula. Using YA Lit alongside a canonical piece of text can increase a students comprehension of the common themes the various texts have, and make reading a classic text more enjoyable: "Young adult literature can spark interest in the classics and vice versa. Although it's clear that young adult literature is more accessible, that doesn't warrant denying the classics to struggling readers. The classics shouldn't be reserved for exceptional students, and Young Adult Literature shouldn't be reserved for at-risk readers. (Cole 513).

Situational Archetypes in Literature The classic canon in high school literature classes can often be too overwhelming and far removed from everyday life of the adolescence. Sarah K. Herz and Donald Gallo suggest using archetypes from traditional literature to “build bridges” to the classics through young adult literature. Young Adult Literature offers teachers an effective way to introduce the study of archetypes in literature by grouping a variety of titles around archetypal situations and characters. Herz and Gallo suggest before or after studying a traditional classic or contemporary novel it is a good time to introduce the concept of archetypes in literature. Based on the Jungian theory of archetypes, consider a literary archetype as a character type or theme which recurs frequently in literature (Herz and Gallo, 64-66). Recognizing archetypes in literature will help students build the foundation for making connection among various works of literature. Students can begin to grasp and identify the archetypal images and patterns that appear in new forms. Archetypes also help students become more conscious of an author’s style and to think about and recognize the way in which a particular writer develops a character or story (Herz and Gallo, 66).

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Young-adult fiction

Using Classic Situational Archetypes in the Classroom A partial list of classic situational literary archetypes as comprised by Herz and Gallo in two separate editions of their book, From Hinton to Hamlet: Building Bridges between Young Adult Literature and the Classics. The Young Adult Novels are paired with Classic Novels based on situational archetypes.(Herz and Gallo, 66-70).

Birth/Death/Rebirth: Presents the main character in a conflict. Through pain and suffering, the character’s spirit survives the fight and through a development of self awareness the main character is reborn. Breathing Underwater by Alex Flinn / Hamlet by William Shakespeare

The Fall: Expulsion from Eden. The main character is expelled because of undesirable actions on his or her part. Speak by Laurie Halse Anderson / The Scarlet Letter by Nathanial Hawthorne

The Journey. The protagonist takes journey, either physically or emotionally, and brings meaning in their life. The Crazy Horse Electric Game by Chris Crutcher / The Odyssey by Homer and Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck.

The Test or Trial. The main character experiences growth and change; he or she experiences a transformation. The True Confessions by Charlotte Doyle by Avi, Permanent Connections by Sue Ellen Bridgers, Dancing on Dark Waters by Alden Carter, and Driver's Ed by Caroline Cooney / The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane and The Color Purple by Alice Walker.

Annihilation; Absurdity; Total Oblivion. In order to exist in an unbearable world, the main character accepts that life is “absurd, ridiculous, and ironic”. The Giver by Lois Lowry / Catch 22 by Joseph Heller and Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut Jr..

Parental Conflicts and Relationships. The protagonist deals with parental conflict by rejecting or bonding with parents. Tiger Eyes by Judy Blume, Midnight Hour Encores by Bruce Brooks, Ironman by Chris Crutcher, and The Runner by Cynthia Voigt / Ordinary People by Judith Guest, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan, and The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams.

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Young-adult fiction

The Wise Old Woman or Man. This figure protects or assists the main character in facing challenges. Phoenix Rising by Karen Hesse, Memoirs of a Bookbat by Kathryn Lasky, Jacob I have Loved by Katherine Paterson, and Remembering The Good Times by Richard Peck / To Kill A Mocking Bird by Harper Lee and The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck.

The Hero. The main character leaves his or her community to go on an adventure, performing actions that bring honor to the community. Staying Fat for Sarah Byrnes by Chris Crutcher and Make Lemonade by Virginia Euwer Wolff / A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens and Cyrano de Bergerac by Edmond Rostand.

The Sacrificial Redeemer. The protagonist is willing to die for a belief; the main character maintains a strong sense of morality. The Chocolate War and The Bumblebee Flies Anyway by Robert Cormier / Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare and Antigone by Sophocles. Other suggestions for classical/young adult text pairings using YA publications (List generated by Joan Kaywell, as cited in Cole 515-516): Classical Text / Young Adult Text / Common Themes / Topics To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee / Monster by Walter Dean Myers / Trial: Guilty before Innocent Lord of the Flies by William Golding / The Clique by Lisi Harrison [11] / Use and Abuse of Power The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain / The Watsons Go To Birmingham 1963 by Christopher Paul Curtis / Prejudice Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury / Feed by M. T. Anderson / Exploring the Future Dracula by Bram Stoker / Twilight by Stephenie Meyer / Vampires The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne / Sandpiper by Ellen Wittlinger / Sexual Behavior Alienation Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger / America by E. R. Frank / Mental Illness Rebellion

Edgy content From its very beginning, young-adult fiction has portrayed teens confronting situations and social issues that have pushed the edge of then-acceptable content. Such novels and their content are sometimes referred to as "edgy." In particular, authors and publishers have repeatedly pushed the boundaries of what was previously considered acceptable regarding human sexuality. Examples include: • • • • •

Paul Zindel's The Pigman (1968) (teen smoking, drinking, pranks, peer pressure) Paul Zindel's My Darling, My Hamburger (1969) (a teen's first sexual encounter and abortion) Judy Blume's Forever (1975) (a teen's first sexual encounter and contraception) Nancy Garden's Annie on My Mind (1982) (two high-school girls who fall in love) Julian F. Thompson's [12] The Grounding of Group 6 (1983) (comedic satiric thriller: parents send their children to boarding school to be murdered, sexual encounters among the teens and assassin/teen romantic relationship). • Shelley Stoehr's Crosses (1991) (self-mutilation) • Chris Crutcher's Staying Fat for Sarah Byrnes (1993) (religion, peer pressure, child abuse, abortion, suicide) • Melvin Burgess's Junk (1996) (US title: Smack (heroin addiction, teenage prostitution, squatting) • Rob Thomas's Rats Saw God (1996) (drugs, sex)

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Young-adult fiction • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

David Belbin's Love Lessons (1998) (teacher/student sexual affair) Linda Glovach's Beauty Queen (1998) (teenage exotic dancing and heroin addiction) Laurie Halse Anderson's Speak (1999) (rape) Stephen Chbosky's The Perks of Being a Wallflower (1999) (suicide, teenage sexuality, drug use, and abusive relationships) Sarah Dessen's Dreamland (2000) (emotionally, mentally, and physically abusive relationships, drug abuse, and running away) Alex Flinn's Breathing Underwater (2001) (emotionally, mentally, and physically abusive relationships) Alex Sanchez's Rainbow Boys (2001) (high school boys exploring gay sex, accepting their sexuality, and falling in love) Patricia McCormick's Cut (2001) (self-mutilation) Linda Newbery's The Shell House (2002) (a split narrative, one concerning a homosexual relationship during the First World War, the other in the present day concerning a possible gay relationship between teenage boys) KL Going's Fat Kid Rules The World (2003) (obesity, depression, homelessness, drug addiction, social alienation) Alice Hoffman's Green Angel (2003) (self-mutilation) Angela Johnson's The First Part Last (2003) (teen fatherhood) Jonathan Trigell's Boy A (2004) (rehabilitation, suicide, abuse, media) Julie Anne Peters' Luna (2004) (transsexuality) John Green's Looking for Alaska (2005) (Under age drinking, smoking, oral sex) Steve Berman's Vintage: A Ghost Story (2007) (depressed gay boy who deals with suicide and loneliness) An Na's The Fold (2008) (plastic surgery, race relations, lesbianism) Elizabeth Scott's Living Dead Girl (2008) (kidnapping, rape, oral sex, violence) Greg Neri Surf Mules (2009) (drug trafficking) Lucy Christopher Stolen (2010) (kidnapping) Joanne Hichens's Stained (2009) (sexual abuse, teen pregnancy, post-natal depression, drugs, suicide) David-Matthew Barnes's Mesmerized (2010) (gay teen love, hate crime) and Swimming to Chicago (2011) (gay teen love, teen pregnancy)

YA novels currently in print include content about peer pressure, illness, divorce, drugs, gangs, crime, violence, sexuality, incest, oral sex, and female/male rape. Critics of such content argue that the novels encourage destructive or immoral behavior. Others argue that fictional portrayal of teens successfully addressing difficult situations and confronting social issues helps readers deal with real-life challenges. Debate continues regarding the amount and nature of violence and profanity appropriate in young-adult fiction.

Hyphens (young adult vs. young-adult) Recognition of the noun young adult and its punctuation as an adjectival modifier are inconsistent. Some dictionaries recognize young adult as a noun (Random House, 2nd 1987), while others do not (Webster's International, 3rd 2002). When recognized (as by Random House), young adult is treated as an open compound noun, with no hyphen. When the noun young adult is placed before another noun (such as fiction, novel, author), however, the use of a hyphen varies widely. For example, an Internet search (of the Web or of news articles) using the key words young adult fiction shows widespread inconsistency in hyphenation. Although the Chicago Manual of Style falls short of declaring the omission of the hyphen as grammatically incorrect, it clearly addresses the issue in "Compounds and Hyphenation," sections 7.82-7.86: "When such compounds precede a noun, hyphenation usually makes for easier reading. With the exception of proper nouns (such as United States) and compounds formed by an adverb ending in ly plus an adjective, it is never incorrect to hyphenate adjectival compounds before a noun."(Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition 2003, p. 300) The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference is a little more forceful on the subject: "The most complicated business conducted by hyphens is uniting words into adjectival compounds that

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Young-adult fiction precede nouns. Many writers neglect to hyphenate such compounds, and the result is ramshackle sentences that often frustrate the reader." (Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference 2005, pp. 274–275) The Wikipedia Manual of Style also addresses the issue of hyphens for compound adjectives. Although none of the sources cited above list young adult as an example, each clearly expresses a preference for hyphenating compound modifiers. With that in mind, young adult is a noun (without a hyphen) as defined by Random House. But when the noun young adult precedes another noun, it becomes a compound modifier and warrants a hyphen, as in young-adult fiction, young-adult author, young-adult novel, and so on. Because the sources do not declare the absence of a hyphen as grammatically incorrect, widespread inconsistencies in the punctuation of young adult are likely to continue, either out of ignorance or as conscious choice of style.

Literature Whether any particular work of fiction qualifies as literature can be disputed. In recent years, however, YA fiction has been increasingly treated as an object of serious study by children's literature critics. A growing number of young-adult-fiction awards recognize outstanding works of fiction for adolescents.

Trends The category of YA fiction continues to expand into new genres: graphic novels, light novels, manga, fantasy, mystery fiction, romance novels, even subcategories such as cyberpunk, splatterpunk, techno-thrillers, and contemporary Christian fiction. New formats such as ebooks make it easier for teens to access these online.

Boundaries between children's, YA, and adult fiction The distinctions between children's literature, YA literature, and adult literature have historically been flexible and loosely defined. This line is often policed by adults who feel strongly about the border.[13] At the lower end of the YA age spectrum, fiction targeted to readers age 10 to 12 is referred to as middle-grade fiction. Some novels originally marketed to adults have been identified as being of interest and value to adolescents and, in the case of several books such as the Harry Potter novels, vice versa.

Awards Various young-adult-fiction awards are presented annually, and mark outstanding adolescent literature writing. • The Michael L. Printz Award is an award for a book that exemplifies literary excellence in young adult literature. It is named for a Topeka, Kansas school librarian who was a long-time active member of the Young Adult Library Services Association.[14] • The William C. Morris YA Debut Award first awarded in 2009, honors a debut book published by a first-time author writing for teens and celebrating impressive new voices in young adult literature. The first William C. Morris award was given to Elizabeth C. Bunce for A Curse Dark as Gold.[15] • The Margaret A. Edwards Award was established in 1988, honors an author, as well as a specific body of his or her work, for significant and lasting contribution to young adult literature. The annual award is administered by YALSA and sponsored by School Library Journal magazine. It recognizes an author's work in helping adolescents become aware of themselves and addressing questions about their role and importance in relationships, society, and in the world.[16] • The Alex Awards are given annually to ten books written for adults that have special appeal to young adults. The winning titles are selected from the previous year's publishing. The Alex Awards were first given annually beginning in 1998 and became an official ALA award in 2002.[17]

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• Odyssey Award honors the producer of the best audiobook produced for children and/or young adults, available in English in the United States. Co-administered with Association for Library Service to Children.[18] • YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction for Young Adults [19] honors the best nonfiction book published for young adults (ages 12–18) during a November 1 – October 31 publishing year.[20]

Notes Blasingame, James. Books That Don't Bore 'Em: Young Adult Books That Speak to This Generation. New York: Scholastic, 2007. Print. Bucher, K., Manning, M. Lee. "Young Adult Literature and the School Curriculum" Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall. 2006.Web. 12 May 2009.

[21]

education.com Pearson

Bucher, Katherine Toth, and M. Lee. Manning. Young Adult Literature: Exploration, Evaluation, and Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2006. Print. Cart, Michael. From Romance to Realism: 50 Years of Growth and Change in Young Adult Literature. New York: Harper Collins, 1996. Print. Cole, Pam B. Young Adult Literature: In the 21st Century. New York: McGraw Hill, 2009. Print. Gill, Sam D. "Young Adult Literature for Young Adult Males" 2009.

[22]

. The Alan Review Winter 1999. Web. 12 May

Herz, Sarah K., and Donald R. Gallo. From Hinton to Hamlet: Building Bridges between Young Adult Literature and the Classics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996. Print. Herz, Sarah K., and Donald R. Gallo. From Hinton to Hamlet: Building Bridges between Young Adult Literature and the Classics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005. Print. Lesesne, Teri S. Making the Match: The Right Book for the Right Reader at the Right Time, Grades 4-12. Maine: Stenhouse Publishers, 2003. Print. Lubar, David. "The History of Young Adult Novels" [23]. The Alan Review Spring 2003. Web. 12 May 2009. Stephens, Jonathan. "Young Adult: A Book by Any Other Name...:Defining the Genre" 2007. Web. 12 May 2009.

[24]

. The Alan Review Fall

Thomlinson, Carl M., Lynch-Brown, Carol. Essentials of Young Adult Literature. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. 2007. Print. • John Grossman (2003). Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-10403-6. • Eccleshare, Julia (1996). "Teenage Fiction: Realism, romances, contemporary problem novels". In Peter Hunt, ed.. International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. London: Routledge. pp. 387–396. • Egoff, Sheila (1980). "The Problem Novel". In Shiela Egoff, ed.. Only Connect: readings on children's literature (2nd ed.). Ontario: Oxford University Press. pp. 356–369. • Garland, Sherry (1998). Writing for Young Adults. Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. pp. 5–11. ISBN 0-89879-857-4. • Lutz and Stevenson (2005). "The Hyphen". The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference. Cincinnati, Ohio: Writer's Digest Books. pp. 274–275. ISBN 1-58297-335-0. • Nilsen, Alleen Pace (April 1994). "That Was Then ... This Is Now". School Library Journal 40 (4): 62–70. • Stuart Berg Flexner, editor in chief ; Leonore Crary Hauck, managing editor. (1987). Random House Dictionary, 2nd edition. Random House. ISBN 0-394-50050-4. • ed. in chief Philip Babcock Gove (2002). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0-87779-206-2.

Young-adult fiction • Kenneth L. Donelson, Alleen Pace Nilsen. (1980). Literature for Today's Young Adults. Scott, Foresman and Company. ISBN 0-673-15165-4.

Other publications • Authors and Artists for Young Adults, serial publication (Gale, 1989+) with bio-bibliographies of novelists, poets, dramatists, filmmakers, cartoonists, painters, architects, and photographers which appeal to teenagers. Entries typically are six to twelve pages in length, have a black & white photo of the author/artist and other illustrations. Recent volumes include a sidebar recommending similar books/works the reader might like also. • ALA Best Books for Young Adults[25] by YALSA, edited by Holly Koelling. • Books for the Teen Age, annual book list selected by teens for teens, sponsored by the New York Public Library [26]

• More Outstanding Books for the College Bound [27], by YALSA (Young Adult Library Services Association), professional organization for librarians serving teens in either public libraries or school library/media centers; a division of ALA.[28] • Diana Tixier Herald. (2003) Teen Genreflecting. 2nd ed. Wesport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited. • Judging a Book by Its Cover:  Publishing Trends in Young Adult Literature [29], by Cat Yampbell, The Lion and the Unicorn; Sep 2005; 29:3; Children's Module, The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp348–372, at p350-351. • Frances FitzGerald, "The Influence of Anxiety" in Harper's, September 2004, p. 62-70 • Grenby, Matthew. “Introduction.” The Guardian of Education. Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 2002. ISBN 1843710110

References [1] Fox, Rose (2008-03-17). "The Narrowing Gulf between YA and Adult" (http:/ / www. publishersweekly. com/ blog/ 860000286/ post/ 1610023361. html). Publishers Weekly. . Retrieved 2008-09-24. [2] Cruz, Gilbert (2005-03-07). "Teen Playas" (http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/ 0,,1033923,00. html). Entertainment Weekly. . Retrieved 2008-09-24. [3] Grenby, "Conservative Woman", 155 [4] Lamb, Nancy, Crafting Stories for Children. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest Books, p. 24 [5] FitzGerald 2004, p. 62 [6] http:/ / www. ala. org/ ala/ mgrps/ divs/ yalsa/ booklistsawards/ margaretaedwards/ margaretedwards. cfm [7] Serjeant, Jill. "Vampires Turn Gentler With Eye Toward Teen Girls" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Entertainment/ wireStory?id=8297240), ABC News, August 10, 2009. Accessed August 14, 2009. "Stephenie Meyer's young adult romance novel Twilight has sold some 17 million copies, and fans of shy 17-year-old Bella Swan and outsider vampire Edward Cullen helped the movie bring in $383 million at global box offices." [8] Wells, April Dawn " Themes Found in Young Adult Literature: A Comparison Study Between 1980 and 2000 (http:/ / www. ils. unc. edu/ MSpapers/ 2861. pdf)." University of North Carolina, Apr 2003. Web. 28 Sept. 2010. [9] " Qualities of Young Adult Literature (http:/ / www. education. com/ reference/ article/ qualities-young-adult-literature/ )." education.com. Education.com, Inc., 2006. Web. 28 Sept. 2010. [10] http:/ / ils. unc. edu/ MSpapers/ 2861. pdf [11] http:/ / lisiharrison. net/ [12] http:/ / julianthompson. net/ [13] muse.jhu.edu: Children's Literature Association Quarterly (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ childrens_literature_association_quarterly/ v033/ 33. 2. flynn. html) [14] " Michael L. Printz Award (http:/ / www. ala. org/ yalsa/ printz)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2007. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. [15] William C. Morris YA Debut Award (http:/ / www. ala. org/ yalsa/ morris)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2007. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. [16] " Margaret A. Edwards Award (http:/ / www. ala. org/ yalsa/ edwards)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2006. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. [17] " Alex Awards (http:/ / www. ala. org/ ala/ mgrps/ divs/ yalsa/ booklistsawards/ alexawards/ alexawards. cfm)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2006. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. [18] " Odyssey Award (http:/ / www. ala. org/ yalsa/ odyssey)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2006. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. [19] http:/ / www. ala. org/ ala/ mgrps/ divs/ yalsa/ booklistsawards/ nonfiction/ nonfiction. cfm [20] " YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction for Young Adults (http:/ / www. ala. org/ ala/ mgrps/ divs/ yalsa/ booklistsawards/ nonfiction/ nonfiction. cfm)." ala.org. American Library Association, 2006. Web. 02 Oct. 2010.

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Young-adult fiction [21] http:/ / www. education. com/ reference/ article/ young-adult-literature-school-curriculum/ [22] http:/ / scholar. lib. vt. edu/ ejournals/ ALAN/ winter99/ gill. html [23] http:/ / www. davidlubar. com/ yahist. htm [24] http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa4063/ is_200710/ ai_n21137330/ [25] Best Books for Young Adults, 3rd ed. (http:/ / www. alastore. ala. org/ SiteSolution. taf?_sn=catalog2& _pn=product_detail& _op=2339) [26] The New York Public Library. "Resources for Teens" (http:/ / teenlink. nypl. org/ bta1. cfm). The New York Public Library. . Retrieved 2010-09-13. [27] http:/ / www. alastore. ala. org/ SiteSolution. taf?_sn=catalog2& _pn=product_detail& _op=1855 [28] YALSA: The Young Adult Library Services Association (http:/ / www. ala. org/ ala/ yalsa/ yalsa. htm) [29] http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ lion_and_the_unicorn/ v029/ 29. 3yampbell. html

External links • In defense of mean-girl books (http://www.macleans.ca/culture/media/article. jsp?content=20071015_110183_110183), by Lianne George, Macleans, 15 Oct 2007. • " New Trend in Teen Fiction: Racy Reads; Parents Alarmed that Books are More 'Sex and the City' than Nancy Drew (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8962686/)", by Janet Shamlian, NBC News, 15 Aug 2005. • " Now and Forever: The Power of Sex in Young Adult Literature (http://pdfs.voya.com/VO/YA2/ VOYA200602AuthorTalk.pdf)," by Tanya Lee Stone, VOYA, Feb 2006. • NPR: Multicultural Books Offer Diverse Reading Experience (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=12093236&sc=emaf) Michel Martin interviews ALA President Loriene Roy, 19 Jul 2007. • " Racy Reading; Gossip Girl Series is Latest Installment in Provocative Teen Fiction, and It's As Popular As It Is Controversial (http://www.southcoasttoday.com/daily/08-05/08-06-05/b01li276.htm)," by Linda Shrieves, The Orlando Sentinel, 6 Aug 2005. • " Teens and their Literature are Rocking the Marketplace (http://www.seattlepi.com/books/306531_teenlit08. html)", Seattle Post Intelligencer, 7 Mar 2007. • "Teens Reading More Challenging Books" (http://www.wdbj7.com/Global/story.asp?S=6474837), WDBJ-7, 5 May 2007. • "Who Says Teens Don't Read?" (http://www.roanoke.com/entertainment/wb/xp-136866) by Erinn Hutkin, Roanoake Times, 30 Oct 2007. • " Young Adult Fiction: Wild Things (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/12/books/review/12wolf.html)," by Naomi Wolf, The New York Times, 12 Mar 2006. • A Change in the Weather (http://talistay.bitpartmedia.com) by Robert Gould, a modern-day fairy tale for young adults. • Best Books For Young Adults - A growing resource of some amazing books (http://www. bestbooksforyoungadults.com)

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Early Works Orbis Pictus Orbis Pictus, or Orbis Sensualium Pictus (The Visible World in Pictures) is a textbook for children written by Czech educator Comenius and published in 1658. It is something of a children's encyclopedia and is considered to be the first picture book intended for children.[1]

Contents The book is divided into chapters illustrated by woodcuts, which are described in the accompanying text. The book has 150 chapters and covers a wide range of subjects:

A late 18th-century reprint of Orbis Pictus, published in Pressburg (Bratislava).

• inanimate nature • botanics • zoology • religion • humans and their activities

History Originally published in Latin and German in 1658 in Nuremberg, the book soon spread to schools in Germany and other countries. The first English edition was published in 1659. The first quadrilingual edition (in Latin, German, Italian and French) was published in 1666. The first Czech translation was published in the 1685 quadrilingual edition (together with Latin, German and Hungarian), by the Breuer publishing house in Levoča. In the years 1670–1780, new editions were published in various languages, with upgraded both pictures and text content. Orbis Pictus had a long-lasting influence on children's education. It was a precursor of both audio-visual techniques and the lexical approach in language learning.[2]

Plaque commemorating the publication of Orbis Pictus in Levoča

Orbis Pictus

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External links • Online Orbis Pictus in Latin [3] • orbis sensualium pictus - translation by Charles Hoole Published 1777 online at Google Book Search [4] • Online Orbis Sensualium Pictus in Latin and English Audio [5]

References [1] Epstein, Connie C. (1991). The Art of Writing for Children. Archon Books. p. 2. ISBN 0-208-02297-X. [2] "Learning from Comenius - the pedagogical underpinnings of the Orbis Pictus" (http:/ / www. teflideas. com/ 2011/ 05/ 14/ learning-comenius/ ). . [3] http:/ / www. grexlat. com/ biblio/ comenius/ index. html [4] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC27390661& id=pxkaVd0-bpgC& pg=RA3-PA1& lpg=RA3-PA1& dq=inauthor:Comenius& as_brr=1 [5] http:/ / comenius. posterous. com/

Brothers Grimm The Brothers Grimm (German: Die Brüder Grimm or Die Gebrüder Grimm), Jacob Grimm (January 4, 1785 – September 20, 1863) and Wilhelm Grimm (February 24, 1786 – December 16, 1859), were German academics, linguists, cultural researchers, and authors who collected folklore and published several collections of it as Grimm's Fairy Tales, which became very popular.[1] Jacob also did academic work in philology, related to how the sounds in words shift over time (Grimm's law); he was also a lawyer whose legal work, German Legal Antiquities (Deutsche Rechtsaltertümer) in 1828, made him a valuable source of testimony about the origin and meaning of much legal historical idiom usage and symbolism.[2] They can be counted along with Karl Lachmann and Georg Friedrich Benecke as founding fathers of Germanic philology and German studies. Late in life they undertook the compilation of the first German dictionary: Wilhelm died in December 1859, having completed the letter D; Jacob survived his brother by nearly four years, completing the letters A, B, C and E, and was working on Frucht (fruit) when he collapsed at his desk. The first collection of fairy tales Children's and Household Tales (Kinder-und Hausmärchen) was published in 1812 and it contained more than 200 fairy tales. Some collections of the stories had already been written by Charles Perrault in the late 1600s, with somewhat unexpected versions. In the original published forms, the Grimm's fairy tales were dark and violent, in contrast to the lighter, modern "Disney versions" of those tales.

Wilhelm (left) and Jacob Grimm (right) from an 1855 painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann

1000 Deutsche Mark (1992)

They are among the best-known story tellers of European folk tales, and their work popularized such stories as "Cinderella" (Aschenputtel), "The Frog Prince" (Der Froschkönig), "Hansel and Gretel" (Hänsel und Gretel), "Rapunzel", "Rumpelstiltskin" (Rumpelstilzchen), "Sleeping Beauty" (Dornröschen), and "Snow White" (Schneewittchen).

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Life Origin and early life Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm (also Carl - see Note a below) and Wilhelm Carl Grimm[a] were born on 4 January 1785 and 24 February 1786 respectively, in the Wolfgang section of Hanau, Germany near Frankfurt in Hessen, the sons of Philipp Wilhelm Grimm, a jurist and bailiff with offices at Schlüchtern and Steinau, originally from Hanau, and Dorothea Grimm, née Zimmer, a former neighbor and the daughter of an apothecary.[3] They were among a family of nine children, six of whom survived infancy.[4] Their early childhood was spent in the countryside. The Grimm family lived near the magistrate's house between 1790 and 1796 while the father was employed by the Prince of Hessen. When the eldest brother, Jacob, was 11 years old, their father, Philip Wilhelm, died and the family moved into a cramped urban residence.[4] Two years later, the children's grandfather also died, leaving their mother to struggle to support them in reduced circumstances.[5] "They urged fidelity to the spoken text, without embellishments, and though it has been shown that Sculpture of brothers Grimm in Hanau they did not always practice what they preached, the idealized 'orality' of their style was much closer to reality than the literary retellings previously thought necessary."[6] Others argue that "scholars and psychiatrists have thrown a camouflaging net over the stories with their relentless, albeit fascinating, question of 'What does it mean?'"[7] Another possible environmental influence can be discerned in the selection of stories such as The Twelve Brothers, which mirrors the collectors' family structure of one girl and several brothers overcoming opposition.[8]

Kassel and educational career Both brothers Jacob and Wilhelm were educated at the Friedrichs-Gymnasium in Kassel and later both studied law at the University of Marburg. There they were inspired by their professor Friedrich von Savigny, who awakened an interest in the past. They were in their early twenties when they began the linguistic and philological studies that would culminate in both Grimm's law and their collected editions of fairy and folk tales. Though their collections of tales became immensely popular, they were essentially a by-product of the linguistic research, which was the brothers' primary goal.

Graves of the Brothers Grimm in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin.

In 1808, Jacob Grimm was appointed court librarian to the King of Westphalia. In 1812 the brothers published their first volume of fairy tales, Tales of Children and the Home. They had collected the stories from peasants and villagers; they were also aided by their close friend August von Haxthausen. In their collaboration, Jacob did more of the research, while Wilhelm, less sturdy in stature and intellect, put the work into a literary form that would appeal to children and the masses. They were also interested in folklore and primitive literature. In 1816

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Jacob became a librarian in Kassel, where Wilhelm was also employed. Between 1816 and 1818, they published two volumes of German legends and a volume of early literary history.

The German Grammar In time, the brothers became interested in older languages and their relation to German. Jacob began to specialize in the history and structure of the Germanic languages, devising a theory that became Berlin memorial plaque, Brüder Grimm, Alte known as Grimm's law, based on immense amounts of data. In 1825, Potsdamer Straße 5, Berlin-Tiergarten, Germany Wilhelm Grimm married Henriette Dorothea (Dortchen) Wild, (Jacob never married and lived most of his life in his brother's home). In 1830, they moved together to Göttingen, where both secured positions at the University of Göttingen.[9] Jacob was named professor and head librarian in 1830, Wilhelm a professor in 1835. In 1837, the Brothers Grimm joined five of their colleague professors at the University of Göttingen, later known as the Göttingen Seven, in protesting against the abrogation of the liberal constitution of the Kingdom of Hanover by King Ernest Augustus I, the reactionary son of King George III. They were fired from their university posts and three were deported, including Jacob Grimm, who with Wilhelm settled in Kassel, outside Ernest's realm, at the home of their brother Ludwig. However, the next year brought an invitation to Berlin from the King of Prussia.[10]

German Dictionary Jacob and Wilhelm were ignored in the appointment of a chief librarian place in Kassel. A year later, in 1830 the two brothers moved away from Kassel to Göttingen, where they had also a common household. They spent time in writing a definitive dictionary, the German Dictionary, in German: Deutsches Wörterbuch, the first volume being published in 1854. The work was carried on by future generations.[11] Jacob then got a job as a librarian and professor of German Classical Studies. His brother William was also a librarian in Göttingen and a year later, Associate Professor. In his teaching, Wilhelm was often compromised by disease. Around 1832, the first volume of Jacob Grimm's "German Mythology" (Vol. 2: 1844, Volume 3: 1854) was published. This edition had an inspiring effect on many fairy tales and legends collectors.[11] (retrieved 28-03-2011) Between then and 1837, Jacob published two more volumes of "German Grammar". The two brothers then dealt with animal fables and in the same Title page of the first volume of the year, 1834, Jacob Grimm finalized a work he began in 1811, "Reinhart German Dictionary. (Reineke) Fox", which was the first publication of this traditional animal epic, and the first coherent documentation of its vernacular versions. Subsequently, in 1835 he published his work on "German Mythology"; in this work Jacob examined pre-Christian beliefs and superstitions. This work had enormous influence on the research of myths. The third edition of the Children's and Household Tales was written in 1837 by Wilhelm alone. In 1838, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm began their joint work on the German dictionary.[11] (retrieved 28-03-2011)

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Grimms Tales

Front cover of the Grimms Fairy Tales Book

The Brothers Grimm began collecting folk tales[12] around 1806, in response to a wave of awakened interest in German folklore that followed the publication of Ludwig Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano's folksong collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn ("The Youth's Magic Horn"), 1805–08. By 1810 the Grimms produced a manuscript collection of several dozen tales, which they had recorded by inviting storytellers to their home and transcribing what they heard. However, these oral tales were heavily edited and many of the tales had its roots in written sources[13] . The brothers were bound to come across the same story more than once. When they did, the brothers used a technique of “contamination”, meaning they would strip away the similarities and try to rediscover the core of the story[14] . Buchmärchen (‘book tales’) is a term used to imply a mix of written and oral work. Some of the Grimm tales were referred to as this[15] . Although they were said to have collected tales from peasants, many of their informants were middle-class or aristocratic, recounting tales they had heard from their servants. For example; it was Dortchen Wild’s family and their nursery maid who told the brothers some of the more famous tales, such as “Hansel and Gretel” and “Sleeping Beauty”[16] . Several of the informants were of Huguenot ancestry and told tales that were French in origin.[1] Marie Hassenpflug, an educated woman of the French Huguenot ancestry, was just one of the women who shared her stories. They then adapted it [17] . It is possible that these informants could have been familiar with Charles Perrault’s tales because certain Grimm works are similar to those of Perrault's[18] . Some scholars have theorized that certain elements of the stories were "purified" for the brothers, who were devout Christians.[19] Aside from the added Christian elements, gender role models emerged and, over time, edited to become more ‘homey and cute’ to appeal to children.[20]

In 1812, the Brothers published a collection of 86 German fairy tales in a volume titled Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children's and Household Tales). In this volume, Wilhelm said that their stories came from the oral tradition of tales, which was a tradition they wanted to save[21] . They published a second volume of 70 fairy tales in 1814 ("1815" on the title page), which together make up the first edition of the collection, containing 156 stories. They wrote a two-volume work titled Deutsche Sagen, which included 585 German legends; these were published in 1816 and 1818.[22] The legends are organized in the chronological order of historical events to which they were related.[23] The brothers arranged the regional legends thematically for each folktale creature, such as dwarfs, giants, monsters, etc. not in any historical order.[23] These legends were not as popular as the fairytales.[22] First page of Grimm's Children's and Household Tales, First part

A second edition of the Children's and Household Tales followed in 1819–22, expanded to 170 tales. Five more editions were issued during the Grimms' lifetimes,[24] in which stories were added or subtracted. The seventh edition

Brothers Grimm of 1857 contained 211 tales. Many of the changes were made in light of unfavorable reviews, particularly those that objected that not all the tales were suitable for children, despite the title.[25] The tales were also criticized for being insufficiently German; this not only influenced the tales the brothers included, but their language. They changed "fee" (fairy) to an enchantress or wise woman, every prince to a king's son, every princess to a king's daughter.[26] (It has long been recognized that some of these later-added stories were derived from printed rather than oral sources.)[27] These editions, equipped with scholarly notes, were intended as serious works of folklore. The Brothers also published the Small Edition (German: Kleine Ausgabe), containing a selection of 50 stories expressly designed for children (as opposed to the more formal Large Edition (German: Große Ausgabe). Ten printings of the "small edition" were issued between 1825 and 1858. The Grimms were not the first to publish collections of folktales. There were others, including a German collection by Johann Karl August Musäus published in 1782–87. The earlier collections, however, made little pretence to strict fidelity to sources. The Brothers Grimm were the first workers in this genre to present their stories as faithful renditions of the kind of direct folkloric materials that underlay the sophistication of an adapter such as Perrault. In doing so, the Grimms took a basic and essential step toward modern folklore studies, leading to the work of folklorists like Peter and Iona Opie[28] and others. The Grimms' method was common in their historical era. Arnim and Brentano edited and adapted the folksongs of Des Knaben Wunderhorn; in the early 19th century Brentano collected folktales in much the same way as the Grimms.[29] The early researchers did their work before academic practices for such collections had been codified.

Linguistics In the very early 19th century, the time in which the Brothers Grimm lived, the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had recently dissolved, and the modern nation of Germany did not exist. In its place was a confederacy of 39 small- to medium-size German states, many of which had been newly created by Napoleon as client states. The major unifying factor for the German people of the time was a common language. Part of what motivated the Brothers in their writings and in their lives was the desire to help create a German identity. Less well known to the general public outside of Germany is the Brothers' work on a German dictionary, the Deutsches Wörterbuch. It was extensive, having 33 volumes and weighing 84 kg (185 lbs). It is still considered the standard reference for German etymology. Work began in 1838, but by the end of their lifetime, only sections from the letter 'A' to part of the letter 'F' were completed. The work was not considered complete until 1960.[30] Jacob is recognized for enunciating Grimm's law, the Germanic Sound Shift, that was first observed by the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask. Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic sound change to be discovered.

Books, film and television From the 1930s to the present, some of the Grimms' best known fairy tales have been adapted by Walt Disney Animation Studios as animated feature films and other media: Snow White[31] [32] (1937), Sleeping Beauty (1959), The Princess and the Frog (2009) which is an adaptation of "The Frog Prince," Tangled (2010) as an adaptation of "Rapunzel". Hansel and Gretel is no exception having had numerous opera, movies, and television adaptations. A live action adaptation of "Snow White", tentatively titled Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, is in development at the Disney Studios, with Francis Lawrence, the director of I Am Legend, at the helm.[33] Henry Levin and George Pal released the 1962's United States movie The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm, with a cast including Barbara Eden, Russ Tamblyn, Yvette Mimieux and other high-profile stars of the time.[34] Directed by Henry Levin, the movie intertwined a fictionalised version of the Grimm brothers' lives as young men with fantasy productions of some of their fairy tales (directed by George Pal). It went on to win the 1963 Oscar for costume design and was nominated in several other categories.

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Brothers Grimm A made-for-TV musical called Once Upon a Brothers Grimm was released in 1977, aired in the United States. It starred Dean Jones as Jacob and Paul Sand as Wilhelm. The basic plot presented the brothers traveling and getting lost in a forest, and encountering various characters from the tales that made them famous. In the late 1980s and early 1990s Nickelodeon aired a cartoon series called "Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics" as a part of its daytime Nick Jr. block. It was originally broadcast in Japan as "Gurimu Meisaku Gekijou". In 1998, in the movie Ever After, the Grimm Brothers visit an elderly woman, the Grande Dame of France, who questions their version of the Cinderella story. The Brothers Grimm reply that there was no way for them to verify the authenticity of their story as there were so many different versions. She proceeds to tell the story of "Danielle De Barbarac". The Grimme Prize-nominated German TV crime thriller, titled A Murderous Fairytale (Ein mörderisches Märchen) was produced in 2001, used elements of Brothers Grimm fairytales. In the film directed by Manuel Siebenmann, which was written by Daniel Martin Eckhart, the elderly killer challenges the detectives with a series of Brothers Grimm fairytale riddles. Comic book writer Bill Willingham created in 2002 the comic book Fables, which includes characters from fables as the main characters.[35] Many of these characters are among those collected by the Grimm brothers. The author Michael Buckley began a popular young reader's series (geared for age 7–12) titled The Sisters Grimm in 2005, in which the two characters, sisters, are the direct descendants of the Brothers Grimm. They discover the family secret in which the fairy tales told in their ancestor's stories are not fictional, but instead are documentations of fairy-tale encounters. The brothers brought all of the characters to New York to escape prosecution. The sisters solve mysteries inside the town the characters are trapped in. Also in 2005 The Brothers Grimm, a film directed by Terry Gilliam based roughly on the Grimm brothers and their tales, starring Heath Ledger as Jacob Grimm and Matt Damon as Wilhelm Grimm in the title roles, resembles the contents of the sagas from the brothers' collections, much more than the academic nature of their lives. In this version, the Brothers Grimm aren't innocent fairy tale collectors.[36] Zenescope Entertainment began in 2005 releasing a monthly on-going comic series titled Grimm's Fairy Tales, a horror comic book that presents classic fairy tales, albeit with modern twists or expanded plots. John Conolly, an Irish writer, publishes in 2005 a book named The Book of Lost Things, it is his first non-mystery novel.[37] [38] This book includes many darker adaptions of the Grimm's tales; including Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty and Rumpelstiltskin. The crime novel Brother Grimm, by Craig Russell, was published in 2006. A serial killer stalks Hamburg and uses themes of Brothers Grimm fairytales, to pose his victims and to write riddles about the next one. Chief Detective Jan Fabel has to hunt down the Fairytale Killer, as the press soon calls him. In 2010, the novel was adapted for German television, directed by Urs Egger and written by Daniel Martin Eckhart under the title Wolfsfährte (engl.: wolfs spoor), the German title of Craig Russell's novel. Actor Peter Lohmeyer took on the role of Chief Detective Jan Fabel. The book The Grimm Legacy was published in 2010 by Polly Shulman, about a girl who starts working at a mysterious museum which holds items from Grimm fairy tales. Lethe Press published A Twist of Grimm by William Holden in 2010, a collection of Grimm's Fairy Tales re-imagined as gay erotica. NBC Universal greenlit pilot entitled in 2010 Grimm starring Bitsie Tulloch, Kate Burton, Russell Hornsby and Silas Weir Mitchell. Created by David Greenwalt and Jim Kouf and to be directed by Marc Buckland, Grimm is described as a dark but fantastical cop drama about a world in which characters inspired by Grimm’s Fairy Tales exist. Mark Miller's Empyrical Tales series is strongly influenced by these works. The Fourth Queen (Comfort Publishing, 2009) and The Lost Queen (Comfort Publishing, 2011) adapt several of the characters and stories into the fantasy world of Empyrean. The stories serve both as an homage and as a new fairytale. As the Empyrical Tales continues, later books will include references to other folklore and mythology from around the world.

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Notes a.   The New German Biography records their names as "Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Carl"[39] and "Grimm, Wilhelm Carl".[40] The German Biographical Archive records Wilhelm's name as "Grimm, Wilhelm Karl".[40] The General German Biography gives the names as "Grimm: Jacob (Ludwig Karl)"[41] and "Grimm: Wilhelm (Karl)".[42] The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints also gives Wilhelm's name as "Grimm, Wilhelm Karl".[40]

References [1] Zipes 1998, pp. 69–70 [2] Seul, Jürgen (2011-01-04). "Jacob Grimm zum Geburtstag: Von der Poesie im Recht" (http:/ / www. lto. de/ de/ html/ nachrichten/ 2267/ Von-der-Poesie-im-Recht/ ) (in German). Legal Tribune ONLINE, Spiegel Online. . Retrieved 2011-03-29. [3] "Geschichte der Grimms" (http:/ / www. grimm01. de/ geschichte/ index. html?1). . Retrieved 2011-04-06. [4] Michaelis-Jena 1970, p. 9 [5] It has been argued that this is the reason behind the brothers' tendency to idealize and excuse fathers, leaving a predominance of female villains in the tales—the infamous wicked stepmothers, for example, the evil stepmother and stepsisters in "Cinderella", but this disregards the fact that they were collectors, not authors of the tales.Alister & Hauke 1998, pp. 216–219 [6] Simpson & Roud 2000 [7] Thomas O'Neill, National Geographic, December 1999 [8] Tatar 2004, p. 37 [9] "Jakob Ludwig Karl Grimm", Major Authors and Illustrators for Children and Young Adults, 2nd e., 8 vols. Gale Group, 2002.

[10] Die Brueder Grimm Timeline (http:/ / www. diebruedergrimm. de/ texte/ seiten/ ebiogrimm. htm) at DieBruederGrimm.de, Retrieved 4 February 2007 [11] "Grimm, Jacob und Wilhelm, Biographie" (http:/ / www. zeno. org/ nid/ 20004900235) (in German). Zeno.org (Contumax GmbH & Co. KG). 2003. . Retrieved 2011-03-28. [12] James M. McGlathery, ed., The Brothers Grimm and Folktale, Champaigne, University of Illinois Press, 1988 [13] Haase, Donald, ed. "Literary Fairy Tales." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Folktales and Fairy Tales. Greenwood Group, 2008. 579. Web.