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Class TABLE OF CONTENT PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE...........................................................................................................1 CHEMICAL BONDING...........................................................................................................2 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM....................................................................................................3 ACID BASE............................................................................................................................4 IONIC EQULIBRIUM..............................................................................................................5 CHEMICAL KINETICS...........................................................................................................6 OXIDATION-REDUCTION..................................................................................................... 7 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS..................................................................................................... 8 MOLE CONCEPT................................................................................................................... 9 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS.................................................................................................... 9 - 10 ELECTRO CHEMISTRY........................................................................................................ 11 SOLUTION AND COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES...................................................................11 - 12 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY........................................................................................................ 12 GASEOUS STATE................................................................................................................. 13 SOLID AND LIQUID STATE.................................................................................................. 14 SURFACE CHEMISTRY & COLLOIDAL STATE.................................................................. 15

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

s s la

C

PERIODIC TABLE................................................................................................................. 16 EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY............................................................................................... 17 s- BLOCK ELEMENTS..........................................................................................................17 BORON FAMILY.....................................................................................................................18 CARBON FAMILY...................................................................................................................18 OXYGEN FAMILY...................................................................................................................19 HALOGEN FAMILY.................................................................................................................20 - 21 TRANSITION ELEMENTS (D-BLOCK ELEMENTS).............................................................21 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS............................................................................................21

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY GOC........................................................................................................................................22 ALKANES...............................................................................................................................23 ALKENES...............................................................................................................................23 ALKYNES...............................................................................................................................23 HALOGEN COMPOUNDS.....................................................................................................23 ALCOHOLS............................................................................................................................24 PHENOLS...............................................................................................................................24 ETHERS................................................................................................................................. 25 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS...................................................................................................25 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS............................................................................................................26 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS....................................................................................................26 CARBOHYHYDRATES, AMINO ACIDS AND POLYMERS...................................................26 CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS....................27 IMPORTANT REAGENT.........................................................................................................28 -29 MAIN USE OF COMPOUNDS............................................................................................... 29 SMELL OF SOME COMPOUNDS......................................................................................... 29 IDENTIFICATION TESTS....................................................................................................... 30

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Class

1

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE 2 2 æ n2 ö n h 2 = 0.529 ç ÷ A, rn = n ´ r1 2 2 4p mZe Z è ø

1.

rn =

2.

PE Z2 ET = KE = = - 13.6 2 eV 2 n

3.

DE =

4.

v=

2 4 hc 2p me æ 1 1 ö = ç 2- 2÷ 2 l h è n1 n2 ø

s s la

é1 1ù 1 = RZ 2 ê 2 - 2 ú , éë R = 1.0968 ´107 m-1 ùû l ë n1 n2 û

5. Total no. of spectrum lines=

n(n - 1) 2

C

6. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (D x )(Dp ) ³ h / 4p 7. Moseley's law : v = a (Z - b), En = -

13.7 eV / atom n2

8. Nodes (n -1) = total nodes, l= angular nodes, (n – l – 1) = Radial nodes 1 2

9. Photoelectric effect: hv = hv 0 + mv 2 10. Orbital angular momentum: l (l + 1)

h 2p

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2

CHEMICAL BONDING 1. % ionic character

=

Actual dipole moment ´ 100 Calculated dipole moment

2. Fajan's Factors: following factors are helpful in including covalent character in ionic compounds (a) Small cation (b) Big anion (c ) High charge on cation (d) High charge on anion (e) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration (ns2p6d10) e.g. Cu+, Ag+, Zn2+, Cd2+

s s la

1 2

3. -DH f = H S + Hd + IE + D H EG - E L 4. M.O. theory: (a) Bond order = 1 ( Nb - N a ) 2

C

(b) Higher the bond order, higher is the bond dissociation energy, greater is the stability, and shorter is the bond length. (c ) Species Bond order Magnetic properties H2 1 Diamagnetic + H2 0.5 Paramagnetic Li2 1 Diamagnetic 5. Q = 1 [V + SA - (± q )] 2

6. Former charge = V- æç L + 1 S ö÷ è

2 ø

7. VSEPR theory (a) (LP – LP) repulsion > (LP – BP) > (BP – BP) (b) For NH3→ Bond Angle 106045' because H2O molecule contains 2LP and 2BP where as NH3has ILP and 3BP. 8. Bond angle: Decrease in bond angle down the gp is due to LP – BP repulsion (a)NH3> PH3 > AsH3 (b)H2O > H2S > H2Se

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Class

3

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 1.

K p = K c( RT )? n g where D ng =n p -n R

2.

Free Energy change(GD)

(a) (b) (C)

If GD=0 then reversible reaction would be equilibrium. If GD=(+) ve then equilibrium will displace in backward direction. If GD=(-) ve then equilibrium will displace in forward direction.

3. (a) K c unit ® (moles/li)Dn (b) K p unit ® (atm)Dn (c) Total molecule at equlibrium =[total initial moles +Dn] (d) Time required to establish equlibrium a 1 / k c (e) If in any heterogeneous equilibrium solid substance is also present then its active mass & partial pressure is assumed 1. 4. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

s s la

C

Le chatelier's principle Increase of reactant conc. (Shift forward) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift backward) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift forward) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift forward)cTime Total

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4

ACID BASE 1.(a). Lewis Acid (e- pair acceptor) ® CO2 , BF3 , Alcl 3 , Zncl 2 , Fecl3 , PCl 3 ,Sicl4 ,SF6 , normal cation (b). Lewis Base (e- pair donor) NH3 , ROH, ROR, H2 O, RNH2 , R 2 NH,R 3 N, normal anion 2. Dissociation of Weak Acid & Weak Base → (a). Weak Acid ® K a = Cx 2 / (1-x) or K a = Cx2 (b). Weak Base ® K b = Cx 2 / (1-x) or K b = Cx2

s s la

3. Buffer solution: (a)

Acidic ® pH = pK a + log{salt / Acid }for Maximum buffer action pH = pKa Range of Buffer pH = pKa ± 1

C

(b) Alkaline ® pOH = pKb +log {Salt/ Base} for max. Buffer range for basic buffer = pKb ± 1

(c )

4.

Moles/lit of Acid or Base Mixed Change in pH dCBOH dCHB B= =dpH dpH Buffer Capacity =

Necessary condition for showing neutral colour of Indicator pH = pKln or [HIn] = [In- ] or [InOH]=[In + ]

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Class

5

IONIC EQULIBRIUM 1. Relation between ionisation neutral constant (K i ) & degree of ionisation (a ): Ki =

a2 a 2C = (Ostwald's dilution law) (1-a )V (1-a )

It is applicable to weak electrolytes for which a < < 1 then a = K iV =

Ki orV ­ C ¯ a ­ C

2. Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/ L of a common ion, to a weak acid (or weak base)a becomes equal to Ka X

æ or K b ö [where a =degree of dissociation] ç X ÷ø è

s s la

3. (A) If solubility product = ionic product then the solution saturates. (B). If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved in it.

C

(C ). Id ionic product > solubility product the solution is super saturated (principle of precipition). 4. Salt of weak acid and strong base: pH = 0.5( pK w + pKa + log c) Salt of weak base and strong acid pH = 0.5( pK w - pKb - log c ) Salt of weak acid and weak base: pH = 0.5( pK w + pKa - pK b )

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Class

6

CHEMICAL KINETICS 1. Unit of Rate constant: K = mol 1- Dn lit Dn -1 sec -1

2. First Order reaction: 2.303 a 0.693 log10 & t1/2 = t a- x K - kt [ A]t = [ A]0 e K=

3. Second Order Reaction: When concentration of A and B taking same.

s s la

1æ x ö K2 = ç t è a (a - x) ÷ø

When concentration of A and b are taking differentK2 =

2.303 b( a - x ) log t ( a - b) a(b - x )

4. Zero Order Reaction: K=

a0 - at t

x = kt & t1/ 2 =

C

a0 2K

5. Arrhenius equation: - Ea / RT

K = Ae

& slope =

- Ea 2.303RK

whenT ® ¥ , thenk = A (\ e - Ea / RT = 1)

æk ö

E

æT -T ö

2 a 2 1 6. log ç k ÷ = 2.303R ç T T ÷ è 1ø è 1 2 ø

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Class

7

OXIDATION-REDUCTION 1. Oxidant itself is -reduced (gives O2) Or Oxidant → e (s) Acceptor Reductant itself is- oxidised (gives H2) Or reductant → e (s) Donor 2. (i) Strength of acid α O.N (ii) Strength of base α 1/ O.N 3. (a) Electro Chemical Series:- Li, K, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, H2, Cu, I2, Hg, Ag, Br2, Cl2, Pt, Au, F2

s s la

(b)As we move from top to bottom in this series (1) Standard Reduction Potential ­ (2) Standard Oxidation Potential¯ (3) Reducing Capacity ¯ (4) Ip­ (5) Reactivity¯

C

4. (a) Formal charge = Group No. – [No. of bonds+ No. of non- bonded e-s] (b)At A node → Oxidation, Cathode → Reduction

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Class

8

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 1. Equivalent weight of element = Atomic wt of the element n factor

2. Equivalent weight of Compound =

Formula wt of the compound n factor

3. Equivalent weight of an ion = Formula wt (or At. Wt.)of ion its valency

s s la

4. The law of dulong and petit Atomic wt. ´ specific heat » 6.4

C

5. Normality (N)= Number of equivalents of solute Volume of the solution in liters

6. Molarity (M)=

Number of moles of solute Volume of the solution in liters

7. When a solution is diluted N 1 ´ V1 (before dilution)

= N 2 ´ V2 (after dilution)

8. Common acid- base indicators

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9

MOLE CONCEPT 1.Mole concept GAM º 1gm atom º 6.02 ´ 1023 atom. 23

GAM º 1gm molecule º 6.02 ´ 10 molecules. NA =6.02 ´ 10 23 2.Moles (gases)at NTP=

volume (L ) 22.4

3.Molecular mass=2 ´ vapour density

s s la

CHEMICAL ENERGETICS 1. First Law: DE= Q + W Expression for pressure volume work W = -P DV Maximum work in a reversible expansion: W = -2.303n RT log

V2 P = - 2.303nRT log 1 V1 P2

C

2. Enthalpy and heat content: DH = DE + PDV [q(p) =q(v) +Dn g RT]

DH = D E + Dn g RT

[Dn g = n p ( g ) - nr ( g ) ] 3.Kirchoff's equation: DE T2 = D E T1 + DCv (T2 - T1 )[cons tan tV ] DHT2 = DHT1 + D Cp (T2 - T1 )[cons tan tP] 4. Entropy(s): Measure of disorder or randomness DS= å S p - å S R DS =

qrev V P = 2.303nr log = 2 = 2.303nr log 1 T V1 P2

5. free energy change: DG=D H-T DS DG < 0(Spontaneous) [-ve]D G = 0(equilibrium ) DG > 0(non-spontaneous) [+ve] -DG = W(maximum) -PD V

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Class

10

s s la

C

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Class

11

ELECTRO CHEMISTRY 1. M = Z. I.t 2. Degree of dissociation: a =

l eq Equivalent conductance at given concentration = l eq¥ equivalent conductance at infinite dilution

3. Kohlrausch ' slaw : D 0m = x l 0A + yl B0 4.Nernst Equation E = E0 -

0.0591 [Pr oducts] é nFE 0 ù log10 & E0 cell =E 0anode +E 0 cathode & Keq = antilog ê ú n [Re ac tan ts] ë 0.0591 û 0

DG = -nFE cell & D G = -nFE

s s la

0 cell

¶D G ö -DG0 = 2.303RT log Kc & Wma x = + nFE 0 & DG = DH + T æç ÷ è ¶T ø p

C

5. Calculation of pH of an electrolyte by using a calomel electrode: pH =

E cell - 0.2415 0.0591

SOLUTION AND COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 1. Raoult's law p = p A + pB = p0 A X A + p 0 B X B = (1 - XB ) p0 A + p 0 B X B = ( p 0 B - P 0 A ) X B + p0 A P0 - PS n P - PS w.m = & 0 = P0 n+N P0 W .M

2. Colligative a Number of particles Properties a Number of molecules (in case of nonelectrolytes) a Number of ions (in case of electrolytes) a Number of moles of solute a Mole fraction of solute 3. Depression of freezing point, DT f = K f m

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Class

12

4. Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour pressure DTb =

0 1000 Kb æ p - p ö ç ÷ (M1 = mol .wt.ofsolvent ) 0 M1 è p ø

5. Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point fTD dRT 1000 K f Normal molar mass Observed colligative property 6. i = Observed molar mass = Normal colligative property Observed osmotic pressure Actual number of particles i= = Normal osmotic pressure No. of particles for no. ionisation n i -1 degree of association(a) = (1-i) & degree of dissociation(a )= n -1 n -1 P = DTf ´

s s la

C

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 1. Radius of the nucleus: R = R 0 A 1/3

2. The amount N of the radioactive substance left after 'n' half lives =

N 0 (initial amount) 2n

0.693 l 4. Rate of disintegration: dN 2.303 N = l .N & l = log10 0 orN = N 0e - lt dt t N

3. Half-life period t1/2 =

Average life (t AV ) =

5.

Total life time of all the atoms Total number of atoms

¥

ò tdn =

0

N0

=

1 = 1.44t1/ 2 l

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Class

13

GASEOUS STATE 1. Ideal gas equation: PV = nRT (i) R = 0.0821 litre atm. K-1 mole-1 (ii) R = 62.4 liters mm Hg K-1 mole-1 (iii) R = 8.314 * 107 ergs K-1 mole-1 (iv) R =2 cals K-1 mole-1 (v) R =8.314 J K-1 mole-1 2. Velocities related to gaseous state RMS velocity C =

3 PV 3RT 3P = = M M d

s s la

Average speed = 8RT & Most probable speed = 2RT M

pM

C

Average speed = 0.9213 * RMS speed MPS = .816 * RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS MPS : A. V. speed : RMS = 1: 1.128 : 1.224 3. Rate of diffusiona

1 density of gas

4. Vander Wall's equation n 2a ö æ ç P + V 2 ÷ (V - nb ) = nRT for n moles è ø

5. Z (compressibility factor)=

PV ; Z = 1for ideal gas nRT

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Class

14

SOLID AND LIQUID STATE 1. Available space filled up by hard spheres (packing fraction): Simple cubic =

p = 0.52 6

bcc =

p 3 = 0.68 8

fcc. =

p 2 =0.74 6

hcp =

p 2 =0.74 6

diamond =

p 3 =0.34 6

2. Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)

s s la

C

3. Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell: Pure elements:a Simple cubic =r = bcc r =

3a 4

2

fcc =

2a 4

4. Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius of the sphere (R ): r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R; r(octahedral) = 0.414 R 5. Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by magnetic field] 6. Ferromagnetic: Permanent magnetism [­­­­] 7. Antiferromagnetic: net magnetic moment is zero [­¯­¯] 8. Ferrimagnetic: net magnetic moment is there[­¯¯­­]

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Class

15

SURFACE CHEMISTRY & COLLOIDAL STATE 1.

Higher is the valency of active ion, the greater is its coagulating power.

2.

Emulsion: Colloidal soln. of two immiscible liquids [O/ Wemulsion, W / O emulsion]

3.

Emulsifier: Long chain hydrocarbons are added to stabilize emulsion.

4.

Lyophilic colloid: Starchy gum, gelatin have greater affinity for solvent. Solution Can be easily prepared by bringing in contact with solvent and warming.

5.

Lyophobic colloid: No affinity for solvent, special methods are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]

6.

Preparation of colloidal solution: (i) Dipersion methods (ii) Condensation method.

7.

Properties of colloidal solution: (i) Tyndall effect (ii) Brownian movement (iii) Coagulation (iv) Filtrability

s s la

C

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Class

16

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY PERIODIC TABLE 1. General electronic configuration (of outer orbits) s- block p- block d-block f- block

ns1-2 ns2np1-61-10 1-2 (n -1)d ns (n-2)s2p6d10f1-14 (n-1)s2p6d0 or 1 ns2

s s la

C 3.

IP a

1 1 1 1 a a a Metallic character Reducing character Basic Nature of oxide Basic nature of hydroxide

1

4. EA a size a neclear charge Second electron affinity is always positive. Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine. 5. The first element of a group has similar properties with the second element of the next group. This is called diagonal relationship.

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Class

17

EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY 1. Floatation is a physical method of separating a mineral from the gangue depending on differences in their wettabilities by a liquid 2. Roasting is the process of heating a mineral in the presence of air. 3. Calcination is the process of heating the ore in the absence of air. 4. Electrolytic reduction: Highly electropositive metals are extracted by the electrolysis of their oxides and hydroxides.

s s la

s- BLOCK ELEMENTS 1. Atomic radii: Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs 2. Ionic radii: Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+

C

3. Electronegativity: Li > Na > K > Rb < Cs

4. First ionization potential: Li > Na > > K > Rb > Cs 5. Melting point: Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs' 6. Density: Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs 7. Colour of the flame Li- red, Na- Golden, K- Violet, Rb- Red, Cs- Blue, CaBrick Red, Sr- Blood red, Ba- Apple green 8. Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. 9. Stability of hydrides: LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH 10. Basic nature of hydroxides: [LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH]

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Class

18

BORON FAMILY 1. 2. 3. 4.

Stability of +3 oxidation state: B > Al > Ga > In > Tl Stability of +1 oxidation state: Ga < In < TI Reducing nature: Al > Ga > In > Tl Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides: B < Al < Ga < In < TI 5. Relative strength of Lewis acid : BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3

CARBON FAMILY

s s la

1. Reactivity: C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb 2. Metallic character: C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb

C

3. Acidic character of the oxides: CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2 Weaker acidic (amphoteric)

4. Thermal stability and volatility of hydrides: CH4 > SiH4 > GeH4 > SnH4 < PbH4 5. Reducing nature of hydrides: CH4 < SiH4 > geH4 > SnH4 > PbCl4 6. Reducing power , covalent nature of Hydrides: NH3 < PH3 NCl3 > NBr3 8. Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides NCl3 > PCL3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3 9. Lewis and strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3 10. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > Pi3 11. Bond angle, among the halides of phosphorus PF3 < PCl3 < PBr3 < PI3

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Class

19

OXYGEN FAMILY 1. Melting and boiling point of hydrides H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S 2. Volatility of hydrides H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S 3. Thermal stability of hydrides H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te 4. Reducing nature of hydrides H2S < H2Se < H2Te 5. Covalent character of hydrides H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te

s s la

C

6. Bond angle & dipole moment of hydrides H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te (1040) (920) (910) (900)

7. Ease of hydrolysis of hexahalides: SF6 > SeF6 > TeF6 8. The acidic character of oxides (element in the same oxidation state) 9. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element(e.g. S) AO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 So3 > SeO3 > TeO3 10. Stability of dioxides SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2

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Class

20

HALOGEN FAMILY 1. Bond energy of halogens: Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2 2. Bond length in x2 molecule: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 3. Solubility of halogen in water: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 4. Oxidizing power: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 5. Enthalpy of hydration of X- ion: F- > Cl- >Br- > I-

s s la

6. Reactivity of halogens: F > Cl > Br > I 7. Ionic character of M – X bond in halide M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I

C

8. Reducing character of X- ion: I - > Br- > CI- > F-

9. Thermal stability of hydrides: HF > HCI > HBr > HI 10. Acidic strength of halogen acids: HI > HBr > HCI > HF 11. Conjugate base strength of halogen acids I-< Br- < CI- < F12. Reducing power of hydrogen halides HF < HCI < HBr < HI 13.Dipole moment of hydrogen halides HF > HCI > HBr > HI 14.Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl2O6 > Cl2O7 15.Acidic character of oxyacids of chloride HCIO < HCIO2 CIO2- > CIO3- > CIO4-

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Class

21

HALOGEN FAMILY 17. Oxidizing power of oxyacids of chlorine HCIO < HCIO2 < HCIO3 < HCIO4 18. Thermal stability of oxyacids of chlorine HCIO < HCIO2 < HCIO3 < HCIO4 19. Stability of anions of oxyacids of chlorine CIO- > CIO2- > CIO3- > CIO4-

TRANSITION ELEMENTS (D-BLOCK ELEMENTS)

s s la

1. The element with exceptional configuration are 24 5 1 29 10 1 Cr [Ar] 3d 4s , Cu [Ar] 3d 4s Mo4742 [Kr] 4d1055s11, Pd7846 [Kr] 4d1410 5s100 0 Ag [Kr] 4d 5s , Pt [Xe] 4f 5d 6s Au79 [Xe] 4f145d106s1

C

2. Ferromagnetic substances are those in which there are large number of electrons with unpaired spins and whose magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction.

COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 1. Coordination number is the number of the nearest atoms or groups in the coordination sphere. 2. Ligand is a Lewis base donor of electrons that bonds to a central metal atom in a coordination compound. 3. Paramagnetic substance is one that is attracted to the magnetic field, this result on account of unpaired electrons present in the atom/molecule/ion. 4. Effective atomic number EAN = (Z – Oxidation number) + (2 * Coordination number) 5. Factors affecting stability of complex (i) Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater is the stability. (ii) Greater the ability of the ligand to donate electron pair (basic strength) greater is the stability. (iii) Formation of chelate rings increases the stability.

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Class

22

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY GOC 1. The order of decreasing electro negativity of hybrid orbital's is sp > sp2 > sp3 2. Conformational isomers are those isomers which arise due to rotation around a single bond. 3. A meso compound is optically inactive, even though it has asymmetric centers (due to internal compensation of rotation of plane polarized light)

s s la

4. An equimolar mixture of enantiomers is called racemic mixture, which is optically inactive 5. Tautomerism is the type of isomerism arising by the migration of hydrogen.

C

6. Reaction intermediates and reagents: Homolytic fission ® Free radicals Hetrolytic fission ® Carbocation and carbanion

7. Nucleophiles – electro rich Two types : 1. Anions 2. Neutral molecules With lone pair of electrons(Lewis bases) Electrophiles: electron deficient. Two types : 1. Cations 2. Neutral molecules with vacant orbitals (Lewis acids) 8. Inductive effect is due to s 9. electron displacement along a chain and is permanent effect. 9. +I (inductive effect) increase basicity, - I effect increases acidity of compounds. 10. Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures can be written for the same compound but none of them actually exists.

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Class

23

ALKANES 1. Pyrolytic cracking is a process in which alkane decomposes to a mixture of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is heated strongly, in the absence of oxygen. 2. Combustion is a process in which hydrocarbons from carbon dioxide and H2O (l) when they are completely burnt in air/O2.

ALKENES

s s la

1. In dehydration and dehydro halogenations the order for removal of hydrogen is 30 > 20 > 10 (Saytzeff's rule) 2. The lower the Dhh (heat of dehydrogenation) the more stable the alkene is.

C

3. Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov addition only with HBr in the presence of peroxides.

ALKYNES

1. All o and p-directing groups ring activating groups (expect – X) They are: -OH, -NH2, -X, R, -OR etc. 2. All m-directing groups are ring deactivating groups. They are: -CHO, -COOH, -NO2, -CN, -NR3 etc.

HALOGEN COMPOUNDS 1. The order of reactivity is (a)RI > RBr > RCl > RF (b)Ally halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl halide (c) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide 2. SN1 reaction: mainly 30 alkyl halides undergo this reaction and form racemic mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent and low concentration of nuclephile. 3. SN2 reaction:Mainly 10 alkyl halides undergo this substitution. SN2 reaction is preferred by non-polar solvents and high concentration of nucleophile.

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Class

24

ALCOHOLS 1. Alkenes are converted to alcohol in different ways as follows Reagent dil H2SO4 B2H6 and H2O2 Oxymercuration demercuration

Types of addition - Markovnikov - Anti- Markovnikov - Markovnikov

2. Oxidation of 10 alcohol ® aldehyde ® carboxylic acid (with same (with same no. of C atom) no. of C atom)

s s la

20 alcohol ketone carboxylic acid (with same (with less no. of C atom) no. of C atom) 30 alcohol

C

ketone carboxylic acid (with less (with less no. of C atom) no. of C atom)

PHENOLS 1.

Phenol

2.

Phenol

CHCl3/OH Salicyaldehyde (Reimer- Tieman reaction) CO2 D

Salicyclic acid (Kolbe reaction)

3. Acidity of phenols (a) Increase by electron withdrawing substituents like -NO2, -CN, -CHO, -COOH, -X, -NR 3

(b)

Decrease by electron releasing substituent's like -R , -OH, -NH2, -NR2, OR

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Class

25

ETHERS Al 2O3

1.

2ROH

2.

RONa + X – R'

3.

ROR + 2 H2 SO 4

4.

ROR + H2 O

R - O - R + H2 O

2500 c

ROR' + NaX (Williamson's synthesis) D

(conc.) dil. H2 SO4

D

2RHSO 4 + H 2O

2ROH

s s la

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS 1. Formation of alcohols using RMgX (a) Formaldehyde + RMgX

Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

(b) Aldehyde + RMgX (other than HCHO) Hydrolysis (c)Ketone + RMgX

C

1 0 alcohol

20 alcohol

3 0 alcohol

2. Cannizzaro reaction (disproportionation) Aldehyde

Hot conc. Alkali

Alcohol + salt of acid

no a H-atom

Crossed- cannizzaro reaction gives alcohol with aryl group or bigger alkyl group. 3. Aldol condensation:

Carbonyl compound +dil. alkali (Witha H-atom) 4. Benzoin condensation ethanolic Benzaldehyde NaCN

b - hydroxy carbonyl compound

Benzoin

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Class

26

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 1. The rate of esterification decrease when alcohol, acid or both have branched substitutents. 2. Ortho effect: All ortho substituted benzoic acids (irrespective of type of substitutent) are stronger than benzoic acid. As this group decrease outer resonance of ring towards acid which increase acidic nature.

NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

s s la

1. Order of basicity: (R = -CH3 or C2H5) 20 > 10 > 30 > NH3 2. Hofmann degradation Amides

Br2 /KOH

10 amine

C

3. The basicity of amines is (a) Decreased by electron withdrawing groups (b) Increased by electron releasing groups 4. Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different products Medium Acidic Basic Neutral

Product Aniline Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene Phenyl hydroxyl amine

CARBOHYHYDRATES, AMINO ACIDS AND POLYMERS 1. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketenes. 2. Oligosaccharides are simple sugars, containing three to nine carbon atoms. 3. Polymer is a chemical species of high molecular weight made up from repeating units of low molecular weight.

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Class

27

CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Homologous series (a) Alkanes

Type of reactions Substitution (Mostly free radical)

(b) Alkenes and alkynes

Electrophilic addition

(c) Arenes

Electrophilic substitution

(d) Alkyl halides

Neucleophilic Substitution

s s la

(e) Aldehyde and ketones Test to differentiate: 10, 20, and 30 alcohols

Nucleophilic addition

C

Lucas test Victormayer's test

10, 20, and 30 amines

Hinsberg test

10, 20, and 30 nitro compounds

Test with HNO2 and KOH

Aryl halides and alkyl halides

Test with AgNO3 solution

Aldehydes and ketones aromatic

Tollen's test/ Fehling's test

Aldehydes and aliphatic aldehydes

Fehling's test

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Class

28

IMPORTANT REAGENT 1. D iH2 SO4 [or Cons. H2 SO4 + H2 O Dehydrating agent (+ HOH)

U se

(a) CH 2

CH 2

(b) C2 H5 OC2 H5

dil. H2 SO4

dil. H2SO4

10 alc

"

ald, 20 alc

OH

-Hx

alc. KOH -HCl

3. Cu or ZnO / 3000C

CH2

2C2 H5 OH

2. Alc. KOH or Nanh2 (Use CH 3CH 2Cl

CH3

CH 2

"

CH 2

s s la

ketone, 30 alc

"

C

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alkene (exception)

Class

C6 H5 NO2

SnCl2 / HCl 6H

29

C6H5NH2

10. Lindlar's catalyst = pd / CaCO3 + in small quantity(CH3COO)2Pb 2 - butyne + H2

"

Cis - 2 - butene (main product)

s s la

11. Ziegler- Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4 Use – In additional polymerization Propene

"

Poly prope ne

C

MAIN USE OF COMPOUNDS

SMELL OF SOME COMPOUNDS

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Class

30

IDENTIFICATION TESTS (a) Unsaturated compound (Bayer's reagent) Decolorizing the reagent (b) Alcohols (Ceric Ammonium nitrate solution) Red coloration. (c) Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution) violet/deep blue coloration. (d) Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.) orange Precipitate (e) Acids (NaHCO3 solution) Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)

s s la

(f) 10 amine (CHCl3 + KOH) Foul smell (isocyanide)

(g)20 amine (NaNO2 + HCI) yellowoily liquid (Nitrosoamine)

C

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