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Marine Analyst Service Handbook

Caterpillar Service Training

January 2004 - 6th Edition

January 2004 LEBV4830-05

This book contains a list of formulas and terms for use by a qualified Caterpillar Marine Analyst. Many of the formulas are “Rules of Thumb” but they do provide guidance in their respective areas. These formulas are generally accepted in the marine field. This book is intended as an aid to the Marine Analyst and NOT a replacement for professional ship design personnel.

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Table of Contents Engine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 Boat Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 Lubrication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 Fuel Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 Driveline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 Mounting and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22 Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-90 Marine Engines Sea Trial Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-87

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Engine Performance Application Guidelines Knowledge of the engine’s operating requirements is essential to establish a proper match of engine rating to boat operating requirements. To help determine the acceptability of a rating for a particular boat’s application, the following parameters should be considered: 1. Time at full throttle 2. Annual operating hours 3. Propeller match

Time at Full Throttle Time at full throttle is the amount of time the engine is operated at rated rpm without load cycling during a normal duty cycle. This is normally specified in terms of percent of total cycle time or in minutes per hour.

Annual Operating Hours The annual operation hours are based on the accumulated service meter units* during a 12-month period.

Propeller Match The propeller must be sized to allow the engine to operate slightly above rated rpm under the boat’s most severe load conditions: full fuel and water tanks, stores aboard for extended voyaging, and adverse sea conditions. *Clock hours are the same as Service Meter Units on all Caterpillar Engines using electric service meters. Some Caterpillar Engines (D399, D398, D379 and earlier engines) used service meters which “counted” engine revolutions. One service meter unit on those engines, corresponds to a clock hour only when the engine is operating at rated speed (rpm). The ratio between clock hours and service meter units is proportional to engine speed.

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Ratings Ratings are statements of the engines’ power and speed capability under specified load conditions. The Caterpillar rating system simply matches engines to particular applications. It consists of the following standard ratings.

Continuous A Rating For heavy-duty service in ocean-going displacement hulls such as freighters, tugboats, bottom-drag trawlers, and deep river towboats when the engine is operated at rated load and speed up to 100% of the time without interruption or load cycling. Expected usage should be from 5000 to 8000 hours per year.

Medium Duty B Rating For use in midwater and shrimp trawlers, purse seiners, crew and supply boats, ferry boats with trips longer than one hour, and towboats in rivers where locks, sandbars, curves, or traffic dictate frequent slowing and engine load is constant with some cycling. Full power operation to be limited to 80% of operation time. Expected usage should be from 3000 to 5000 hours per year.

Intermittent C Rating For use in yachts with displacement hulls as well as ferries with trips of less than one hour, fishing boats moving at higher speed out and back (e.g. lobster, crayfish, and tuna), and short trip coastal freighters where engine load and speed are cyclical. Full power operation to be limited to 50% of operation time. Expected usage should be from 2000 to 4000 hours per year.

Patrol Craft D Rating Continuous power for use in patrol, customs, police, and some fire boats. Full power limited to 16% of operation. Expected usage should be from 1000 to 3000 hours per year.

High Performance E Rating For use in pleasure craft with planing hulls as well as for pilot, harbor patrol, and harbormaster boats. Full power operation to be limited to 8% of operation time. Expected usage should be from 200 to 1000 hours per year.

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Rating Conditions Ratings are based on SAE J1128/ISO 8665 standard ambient conditions of 29.61 in. of Hg (100 kPa) and 77° F (25° C). Ratings also apply at AS1501, BS5514, DIN6271 and ISO 3046/1 standard conditions of 29.61 in. of Hg (100 kPa), 81° F (27° C) and 60% relative humidity. Power is based on a 35° API [60° F (16° C)] fuel having a LHV of 18,390 B/lb (42,780 kJ/kg) used at 85° F (29° C) with a density of 7.001 lb/U.S. gal (838.9 g/L). Ratings are gross output ratings: i.e., total output capability of the engine equipped with standard accessories: lube oil, fuel oil and jacket water pumps. Power to drive auxiliaries must be deducted from the gross output to arrive at the net power available for the external (flywheel) load. Typical auxiliaries include cooling fans, air compressors, charging alternators, marine gears, and sea water pumps.

Marine Engine Ratings to DIN Standards The DIN (Deutsche Industrie Norme) 6270 Standard covers rated output data for internal combustion engines in general applications. When required, DIN 6270 main propulsion ratings can be quoted according to the following stipulations. Continuous Output A This is the published Caterpillar “Continuous ‘A’ Rating” rating in kW units. No additional reference is necessary*. Output B Output B is defined as the maximum useful output that the engine can deliver for a definite time limit corresponding to the engine application. The fuel setting is pre-set such that output B cannot be exceeded, so no overload capability need be demonstrated. On the basis of this definition, we can offer two output B ratings with kW values corresponding to Caterpillar’s Medium Duty B Rating or Caterpillar’s Intermittent C Rating. In each case, it is mandatory that reference be made to the applicable rating definitions.

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General Comments DIN 6270 conditions are slightly different from the SAE conditions used in the U.S. We believe that they are virtually equivalent for all practical purposes. No correction to ratings should be made to account for the slightly different reference conditions. Useful output as described under DIN 6270 is defined as the output available to drive the load after suitable deductions are made for engine driven accessories. This is equivalent to the net rating. Caterpillar ratings indicate gross output. At the kW requirement to drive such accessories as charging alternator and sea water pump are low and well within our rating tolerance, no deductions for main propulsion engine driven accessory loads need to be made. *A condition in the “Continuous Output A” definition is that the output limiting device must be set to provide a margin of extra capacity. This overload capability can be demonstrated, if required, by increasing the fuel setting from the factory-set continuous output value to the value corresponding to our “B” rating level. With a few exceptions, this increased fuel setting will correspond to an overload capability of approximately 10%. The propeller should be sized for the continuous rating with the appropriate safety margins the Technical Marketing Information File (TMI). The fuel setting must be readjusted to the name-plate value upon completion of the demonstration test.

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Performance Curve Format Caterpillar Performance Curves follow the following format:

Engine Performance – MAR – C Rating 3406 DITA DM6120-00 600

29 26

500

24

Fuel Rate - gal/hr

Engine Power - bhp

21 400 18 16

300

13

M 3,4 200

2 1

11

100 8

P

5 900

1100

1300

1500

1700

1900

2100

2300

2500

Engine Speed - rpm

ZONE LIMIT DATA

Curve 1

Curve 2

Curve 3

Curve 4

Engine Speed Power rpm bhp 1800 398 1600 267 1400 211 1200 177 1000 147 1800 473 1600 300 1400 229 1200 189 1000 155 2100 599 1900 598 1700 456 1500 287 1300 226 1100 183 2100 599 1900 598 1700 456 1500 287 1300 226 1100 183

Fuel Cons lb/ hp-hr 0.334 0.347 0.354 0.354 0.359 0.329 0.344 0.352 0.354 0.359 0.342 0.339 0.334 0.346 0.352 0.355 0.342 0.339 0.334 0.346 0.352 0.355

Fuel Rate gal/ hr 19.0 13.4 10.7 9.0 7.6 22.3 14.7 11.5 9.5 8.0 29.4 29.0 21.8 14.2 11.4 9.4 29.4 29.0 21.8 14.2 11.4 9.4

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Boost Press in. HgGauge 276.7 134.4 78.2 53.2 38.4 36.2 16.0 9.0 6.0 4.4 59.6 56.2 32.9 14.1 8.6 5.9 59.6 56.2 32.9 14.1 8.6 5.9

Air Flow cfm 809 544 417 332 265 937 576 431 339 269 1446 1262 845 523 392 307 1446 1262 845 523 392 307

Exh Temp F 735 759 761 757 763 746 791 795 793 799 648 708 804 838 835 836 648 708 804 838 835 836

Exh Flow cfm 1894 1301 1000 788 633 2202 1414 1060 827 661 3121 2905 2071 1325 1004 785 3121 2905 2071 1325 1004 785

MAXIMUM POWER DATA Engine Speed Power rpm bhp 2100 599 1900 599 1700 599 1500 598 1300 441 1100 292

Fuel Cons lb/ hp-hr 0.342 0.339 0.334 0.336 0.352 0.380

Fuel Rate gal/ hr 29.4 29.0 28.6 28.7 22.3 15.9

Boost Press in. HgGauge 59.6 56.2 53.9 48.2 31.1 16.3

Air Flow cfm 1446 1262 1124 930 636 403

Exh Temp F 648 708 799 966 1208 1181

Exh Flow cfm 3121 2909 2743 2594 2011 1301

Exh Temp F 648 697 752 748 625 486

Exh Flow cfm 3121 2152 1534 1078 725 488

PROPELLER DEMAND DATA Engine Speed Power rpm bhp 2100 599 1900 443 1700 317 1500 218 1300 142 1100 86

Fuel Cons lb/ hp-hr 0.342 0.334 0.342 0.354 0.364 0.375

Fuel Rate gal/ hr 29.4 21.2 15.5 11.1 7.4 4.6

Boost Press in. HgGauge 59.6 34.2 18.7 8.8 3.6 1.0

Air Flow cfm 1446 951 647 459 343 265

Brake Mean Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 kPa Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 293 kW

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500 450

110 100

400

80

Fuel Rate - L/hr

Engine Power - bkW

90 350 300 70 250 60 200 150

M 3,4 2 1

50 40

100 50

P

30 20

900

1100

1300

1500

1700

1900

2100

2300

2500

Engine Speed - rpm

ZONE LIMIT DATA

Curve 1

Curve 2

Curve 3

Curve 4

Engine Speed Power rpm bkW 1800 298 1600 200 1400 158 1200 132 1000 110 1800 354 1600 224 1400 171 1200 141 1000 116 2100 448 1900 447 1700 341 1500 215 1300 169 1100 137 2100 448 1900 447 1700 341 1500 215 1300 169 1100 137

Fuel Cons g/ kW-hr 203 211 215 215 218 200 209 214 215 218 208 206 203 210 214 216 208 206 203 210 214 216

Fuel Rate L/hr 71.9 50.5 40.4 33.9 28.6 84.3 55.7 43.6 36.1 30.2 111.1 109.7 82.5 53.7 43.0 35.4 111.1 109.7 82.5 53.7 43.0 35.4

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Boost Press kPa Gauge 934.8 453.9 264.2 179.6 129.9 122.3 54.0 30.5 20.4 14.7 201.3 189.7 111.0 47.5 29.0 20.0 201.3 189.7 111.0 47.5 29.0 20.0

Air Flow cu m/ min 22.9 15.4 11.8 9.4 7.5 26.5 16.3 12.2 9.6 7.6 40.9 35.7 23.9 14.8 11.1 8.7 40.9 35.7 23.9 14.8 11.1 8.7

Exh Temp C 390 403 404 402 405 396 420 422 421 424 344 376 427 445 443 444 344 376 427 445 443 444

Exh Flow cu m/ min 53.6 36.8 28.3 22.3 17.9 62.3 40.0 30.0 23.4 18.7 88.3 82.2 58.6 37.5 28.4 22.2 88.3 82.2 58.6 37.5 28.4 22.2

MAXIMUM POWER DATA Engine Speed Power rpm bkW 2100 448 1900 448 1700 448 1500 447 1300 330 1100 218

Fuel Cons g/ kW-hr 208 206 203 204 214 231

Fuel Rate L/hr 111.1 109.8 108.3 108.7 84.3 60.1

Boost Press kPa Gauge 201.3 189.7 182.2 162.7 105.2 55.1

Air Flow cu m/ min 40.9 35.7 31.8 26.3 18.0 11.4

Exh Temp C 344 376 424 513 641 627

Exh Flow cu m/ min 88.3 82.3 77.6 73.4 56.9 36.8

Exh Temp C 344 370 399 397 332 258

Exh Flow cu m/ min 88.3 60.9 43.4 30.5 20.5 13.8

PROPELLER DEMAND DATA Engine Speed Power rpm bkW 2100 448 1900 331 1700 237 1500 163 1300 106 1100 64

Fuel Cons g/ kW-hr 208 203 208 215 221 228

Fuel Rate L/hr 111.1 80.1 58.7 41.9 27.9 17.5

Boost Press kPa Gauge 201.3 115.7 63.3 29.8 12.0 3.3

Air Flow cu m/ min 40.9 26.9 18.3 13.0 9.7 7.5

Brake Mean Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 kPa Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1746 kW

Features of the Performance Curve: Vertical Axis [left side] . . . Graduated in units of Power [Brake kW or Brake Horsepower] Horizontal Axis . . . Graduated in units of Engine Speed [Revolutions per Minute] Curve P . . . Propeller Demand Curve, describes the power demanded by a fixed pitch propeller used in a displacement hull. Semi-displacement and planing hulls will have higher load demand than shown in the “P” curve. Each semi-displacement and planing hull has different demand, which makes it impossible to show the load demand for each hull. Semi-displacement and planing hulls will need to be sea trialed with fuel measurements taken at different engine speeds to determine actual fuel and load demand. Curve 1 . . . Continuous Limit Line, describes the upper limit of continuous operation, without interruption or load cycling. Zone 1-2 . . . Zone 1-2 is located between Curve 1 and Curve 2. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 4 hours, followed by a one hour period at combination of power and speed on or under Line 1. 1-8

Zone 2-3 . . . Zone 2-3 is located between Curve 2 and Curve 3. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 1 hour, followed by a one hour period at combinations of power and speed on or under Line 1. Zone 3-4 . . . Zone 3-4 is located between Curve 3 and Curve 4. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to five (5) minutes, followed by a one hour period at combinations of power and speed on or under Line 1. Curve 4…Maximum Limit Curve, the maximum power available within the rating development limits (cylinder pressure, turbo speed, exhaust temperature). Curve M…Maximum Power Data, the maximum power capability of the engine without regard to the rating development limits. Fuel Rate Lines . . . Parallel, slightly curving, dotted lines, with graduations on their right ends, are lines of constant fuel rate. [gal/hr or L/hr] The most efficient engine rpm to generate any given amount of power will be found directly under the high point of the fuel rate line nearest the required power. This will be most useful in those applications which can vary the engine speed at which power is extracted, such as controllable pitch propellers. The graphical representation of the engine performance is accompanied by a full set of tabular information. Included is intake manifold pressure, exhaust stack temperature, combustion air flow, exhaust gas flow, fuel rate, engine power and engine speed, and fuel efficiency for all the curves shown. Each standard rating of the engines will have its performance documented as shown above. There can be a delay of the formal version of the data in the case of new ratings or engine configurations.

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Engine Configuration Effects on Ratings Engine configurations can be altered to allow efficient use of larger amounts of fuel. This is done by increasing the amount of air which can be utilized in an engine. Air flow through an engine is called aspiration. Caterpillar engines have one of the following methods of aspiration:

Naturally Aspirated In a naturally aspirated engine, the volume of air drawn into each cylinder is moderate, since only atmospheric pressure is forcing air through the cylinder’s intake valve. There is no pressurization of the engine’s intake manifold by an external device and engine intake manifold pressure is always a partial vacuum.

Turbocharged Greater amounts of air can be forced into an engine’s cylinders by installing a turbocharger. Turbochargers are turbine-like devices which use exhaust energy (which naturally aspirated engines waste) to compress outside air and force it into the intake manifold. The increased amount of air flowing through turbocharged engines does two good things: 1. The greater flow of air cools the valves, piston crowns and cylinder walls, making them better able to resist the firing forces. 2. Fuel can be burned more efficiently, due to the increased amount of air for combustion. This makes the engine more powerful. Compression does increase the temperature of the intake air, however. It is very useful to remove the heat-of-compression from the intake air, upstream of the combustion chambers. Cooling the air before it enters the combustion chambers makes the air more dense and increases cooling of the combustion chamber components.

Turbocharged/Aftercooled An air-cooling heat exchanger (aftercooler) is installed between the turbocharger and the combustion chamber on Turbocharged/Aftercooled engines. The aftercooler cools the incoming air, carrying the heat away with a flow of water. The water can come from two sources. If jacket water (the same water that cools the cylinder head and block) is used in the aftercooler, then the air can only be cooled to approximately 200° F (93° C). Jacket water temperature is thermostatically controlled at approximately 180° F (82° C). Even cooler air can be obtained by cooling the aftercooler with water from a separate circuit, such as sea water or some other circuit, with colder water than the engine jacket water. 1-10

Lower aftercooler water temperatures permit higher engine ratings because cooler, denser air permits burning more fuel.

Extended Periods of Low Load Prolonged low load operation should be followed by periodic operation at higher load to consume exhaust deposits. Low load operation is defined as below approximately 20% load. The engine should be operated above 40% load periodically to consume the exhaust deposits. Caterpillar engines can be run well over 24 hours before exhaust slobber becomes significant. The amount of additional time depends upon the engine configuration, water temperature to the aftercooler, inlet air temperature to the engine and type of fuel.

Auxiliary Engine Ratings Marine engines used for auxiliary power are of the same general configuration as propulsion engines. Their power output is limited by the same design factors. Horsepower ratings are also determined by the type of aspiration, the aftercooling system and by engine application. Caterpillar prime power ratings are used for marine generator sets when applied as ship-board power and as emergency power at both 60 Hz and 50 Hz. The engine is set at the factory to provide 110% of rated output as required by Marine Classification Societies (MCS). Normally, other auxiliary power requirements, such as hydraulic pumps, winches, fire and cargo pumps, and compressors, are applied at a rating based on their duty cycle and load factor.

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Boat Performance The performance of the boat is the result of a complex interaction of all three aspects of the installation; the engine, the hull, and the propeller.

Tolerances on Hull, Propeller and Engine Proper component sizing is very important to the life and performance of the entire propulsion system. There are tolerances in several aspects of the propulsion system. In worst-case conditions, the result can be short life and/or unsatisfactory performance. For example: the effect of these tolerances is shown below in Figure 1.1:

Hull – Propeller – Engine (+20%) Hull Demand (-20%)

)

Propeller Match Line

5%

160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

(

Percent Engine Power

Tolerances on Power

Engine Power (3%)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Percent Design Hull Speed FIGURE 1.1 The engine power may be expected to vary due to manufacturing tolerance by as much as 3% on either side of its rated or 100% power. The propeller power absorption may be as much as 5% higher, or lower, than originally expected. This could result from manufacturing tolerance in pitch, surface finish, and blade profile. The hull resistance may vary as much as 20% from calculated values or previous experience due to inevitable differences in weight and shape.

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Propeller Sizing The propeller is as important as the hull or the engine to the performance of the boat. The propeller directly influences: top speed, fuel efficiency, and engine life.

General Information While many operators will choose to operate at reduced throttle settings while cruising, the engine must be able to reach its rated speed (rpm) when the boat is ready for sea; fully loaded with fuel, water, and stores. For the ultimate in engine life and economy, expected engine operating speeds during sea trials should be approximately 1-3% over full load rated engine speed (rpm). This is done to compensate for anticipated boat loading and hull fouling.

Table of Engine rpm at Sea Trials Rated Speed (rpm)

Expected Engine Speed During Sea Trials (rpm)

2800

2820-2850

2500

2520-2550

2400

2420-2450

2300

2320-2350

2100

2120-2150

1925

1945-1980

1800

1820-1850

Eliminating Engine Overloading on Overwheeled Vessels When the engine speed (rpm) measured during the sea trial of a vessel fails to attain the required sea trial speed, the reason generally is one of the following: Excessive hull fouling – Solvable by cleaning the hull and re-running the sea trial. Low engine power – Resolved by measuring and recording engine performance parameters such as inlet, exhaust and fuel rate. Incorrect transmission or propeller – A detailed discussion of the resolution of this condition follows: Simply, this discussion will be restricted to fixed pitch propellers. 1-13

Engine fuel setting adjustment – Many vessel operators and shipyards want to increase the engine fuel (rack) setting when their engine does not reach rated speed during sea trials. At first glance, this seems to be the easiest and least costly remedy. However, in such a situation, this solution is incorrect, even if the engine speed (rpm) does increase to the expected rated rpm. Increasing the fuel (rack) setting will result in reduced engine life, increased wear, or in worst case, early engine failure. The vessel operators engine repair and maintenance costs will likely far exceed the cost of replacing or modifying the existing transmission or propeller. High idle adjustment – Another often considered alternative is increasing high idle engine speed to the specified free running speed. This will not provide the desired results since the fuel stop is already at the maximum fuel position, and an increase in high idle will not result in any appreciable speed change. Properly sized propeller and/or reduction ratio – The correct, but more costly, remedy is to install a properly matched propeller and/or transmission ratio to allow the engine to operate within its rating guidelines. Avoiding driveline component changes – There is another alternative which we will consider in cases where driveline component changes cannot or will not be considered. This method consists of a reduction of both the engine fuel setting and the high idle speed. Of course, the engine power and rated speed are reduced in the process; however, we are taking advantage of the fact that the propellers power demand drops off much faster than the engine power capability when engine and propeller speed is reduced (refer to Figure 1.2).

Marine Engine Performance Curve 3412 TA (520 hp (388 kw) at 1800 rpm) 500

400

Propeller hp Demand

300

hp Capability 200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 Engine Speed (rpm) FIGURE 1.2 1-14

The net result is that the engine will perform within its application limits and the engine/propeller match have been optimized. The following formula generally applies for a standard fixed pitch propeller: hp ___1 = hp2

[ ]

3

N __1 N2

or by rewriting the equation hp2 = hp1 

[ ] N __2 N1

3

Where: hp1 = Engine power produced at the full throttle speed recorded during the sea trial. This power level is determined by referring to the appropriate marine engine performance curve corresponding to the original engine rating sold by the dealer and reading the power on the curve at the recorded speed. hp2 = Calculated propeller power demand at the new reduced engine speed (rpm) proposed for this application. N1 = Engine speed (rpm) observed and recorded during the original sea trial – prior to fuel setting and high idle modifications. (This speed should always be measured with a precision tachometer.) N2 = New, reduced engine speed (rpm) which must be determined in order to provide an acceptable engine, transmission, and propeller match. For example: Consider a 3408B DITA engine, sold at a continuous rating of 365 hp at 1800 rpm. During the sea trial, the maximum attainable engine speed was only 1620 rpm. This engine was operating in an unacceptable overload (or lug) condition. The Marine Engine Performance Curve (for a continuous rating of 365 hp (272 kw) at 1800 rpm) indicates that the engine was producing (and the propeller was demanding) 344 hp at the limited speed of 1620 rpm. This power requirement exceeds the approved continuous rating of 330 hp at 1620 rpm. The solution is to further reduce the rpm until the approved engine rating, as shown on the 3408B marine engine rating curve, exceeds the propeller demand. For this example we will calculate the power required if the rated engine rpm was reduced to 1550. hp2 = 334 

[ ] 1550 ____ 1620

1-15

3

= 301 hp

Reducing the engine speed by 70 rpm has resulted in a decrease in propeller demand of 43 hp. The approved engine continuous rating at 1550 rpm is 314 hp and the propeller demand has been reduced to 301 hp. At the initial trials, the recorded vessel speed was 10.2 knots for this 21 m long seiner. Resetting the engine from 344 hp @ 1620 rpm to 314 hp @ 1550 rpm would decrease the vessel speed to 9.7 knots, a relatively insignificant difference, especially considering the gain in engine life.

Propeller Pitch Correction An overpitched propeller must have its pitch reduced to allow the engine to reach rated rpm. The pitch must be reduced by an amount proportional to the engine rpm ratio. The following formula defines this relationship: Engine rpm while over loaded P required = P present  __________________________ Desired Engine rpm Where: P required = pitch the propeller must have to allow the engine to run at rated rpm P present = pitch of the propeller which is preventing the engine from reaching its rated rpm Engine rpm while overloaded = engine rpm under normal working conditions when equipped with the propeller whose pitch is too great Desired Engine rpm = desired expected engine speed during Sea Trial (see Table on p. 14)

Propeller Errors and Propeller Measurement Fast boats need more precise propellers than slow speed workboats. Propeller pitch errors which would be insignificant on a 10 knot river towboat, will cost a high speed patrolboat or yacht 2 or 3 knots of its top speed. Propellers on fast boats must be precisely manufactured if design performance is to be attained and they must remain within nearly new specifications to prevent severe performance deterioration. This is particularly true of propellers’ leading and trailing edges. Tiny errors in profile, almost too small to be detected by feel, can constitute sites for initiation of cavitation. In severe cases, this can result in blade failure or loss after as little as 24 hours of high speed running.

1-16

Most industry professionals can relate instances where new propellers have been found to be several inches out of the specified pitch. When propellers are repaired or repitched, it is even more difficult to restore the necessary precision for highest performance vessels. The problem usually is the tooling. Most propeller pitch measurement machines can not resolve or detect the small errors which prevent a boat from attaining first-class performance. All other things being equal, the skill of the propeller finishing machinist will make the difference between barely-adequate and first-class boat performance. Propeller Measurement Tools There are several basic types of tools commonly used for propeller pitch measurement: Swing Arm Type This machine generally consists of: a stand which supports the propeller in a horizontal position, a vertical column which passes through the center of the propeller’s hub, a swing arm which rotates around the vertical column, and a vertical measuring rod which can slide in and out on the swing arm.

FIGURE 1.3

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This machine reaches down from a horizontally mounted swing arm and “touches” the blade at several radial locations, at some standard increments of angle. The difference in elevation, the radial position, and the angular increment between readings allow pitch to be calculated between any two locations. The accuracy of this device is related to the rigidity of the swing arm and the degree of looseness in the required bearings. The potential accuracy of the propellers measured will be directly proportional to the number of measurements on each blade (places at which it touches each blade). For commercial (workboat) propellers, it is common to examine the blade at six (6) to nine (9) places per blade. On high-performance civilian propellers, it is common to examine each blade at twenty-five (25) to fifty (50) places while military propellers may be examined at several hundred places per blade. The skill of the machinist is applied in smoothing or “fairing” the areas between the measurements. Pitch Blocks Pitch blocks are precisely shaped anvils, against which individual propeller blades are hammered to repair or correct their shape. They can be used to measure propellers by comparing the shape of an unknown propeller to a set of incremental pitch blocks until a match is found. Angle-Measuring Type Angle-Measuring Devices relate the angle of a circumferential line on the blade to a horizontal reference plane and calculate the pitch from the angle and the radial position. Caterpillar markets an angle-measuring pitch measuring tool – Part Number 8T5322.

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Ducted Propellers (Kort Nozzles) The Propeller Duct, sometimes called a Kort nozzle is a ring, wrapped around a generally square-tipped, propeller. The ring has an airfoilshaped cross section. The ducted propeller is best used on vessels such as trawlers, tugs, and towboats with towing speeds of 3-10 knots. Ducted propellers should not be used on relatively fast vessels. To aid in selection, perform the following calculation. If the result is less than 30, the use of the ducted propeller should not be considered as it may result in a net loss of vessel performance.

( shp ) Bp = (srpm) _______ (Va)2.5 Where: Bp = Basic Propeller Design Variable srpm = Propeller Shaft Speed (rpm) shp = Shaft Horsepower (shp) Va = Velocity of Advance of the Propeller (knots) generally equals 0.7 to 0.9 times boat speed

FIGURE 1.4

1-19

The nozzle configuration or profile most often used is a No. 19A nozzle although a No. 37 specifically designed for backing is obtainable. Nozzles are made of mild steel with a stainless steel liner to stand up to erosion. They may be mounted to steel, wood or fiberglass hulls. A comparison of bollard pull ahead and astern for the open water propeller versus the No. 19A (taken as 100% in ahead) and the No. 37 nozzle follows. Ahead

Astern

Nozzle No. 19A

100%

59%

Nozzle No. 37

99%

82%

Open Propeller (B4.70 Type)

69%

55%

These are actual figures for a 2000 hp (1491 kW) installation with 79 inch (2007 mm) diameter propellers. A larger diameter open propeller would show up somewhat better, though not as good as the nozzles. More specific information on ducted propeller systems generally can be obtained from propeller manufacturers, many of which also manufacture propeller ducts.

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Hull Types All hull types discussed here refer only to the portion of the hull below the waterline. What is above the waterline concerns seaworthiness, seakindliness, stability, comfort, and eye appeal, but has little impact on the propulsion machinery. There are two basic types of hulls: Displacement Hulls and Planing Hulls. There are also some special types of hulls. These include the Semi-Displacement Hull, Catamaran, Wave-Piercing Catamaran, Hydrofoil, Surface Effects Ship (with both flexible skirts and rigid sidewalls), and the Small-Waterplane-Area-Twin-Hull (SWATH) Ship.

Displacement Hull A displacement hull can be described in most basic terms as a block, with tapered ends. Displacement Hull’s Most Basic Form To illustrate the basic shapes this allows, five blocks in what are rearranged to form four simple, but fundamental forms which cover most all displacement hull forms.

1

3

2

1

4

4

3

4 1

4

5

1

2

3

5

3 2

4

5 1

2

FIGURE 1.5

1-21

5

3 2

5

Keep in mind that this discussion concerns only the portion of the hull below the waterline and that the blocks represent only the submerged part of the hull. When any one of the hulls shown above moves through the water, waves are formed. The bow pushes the water aside, forming a bow wave. The momentum imparted to the water carries it beyond the boundaries of the hull, leaving a hollow behind it. The wave surges back, into the hollow. At slow speeds, this causes the return surge to bounce off the hull, starting the familiar diverging pattern of troughs and crests originating with the bow wave. Relation of Hull Length to Boat Speed The length of a displacement hull determines its eventual top speed. It is literally possible to measure the length of a displacement hull and calculate its highest practical top speed based on this measurement. This is due to the relationship of boat speed, boat length and wave length. Boat Length and Wave Length Wave length and wave speed are directly proportional: the faster a wave, the longer its length. Since the movement of the hull causes the bow wave, the faster the hull moves, the faster the speed of the bow wave . . . and the longer its length. As the boat increases its speed, the length of the bow wave will eventually approach the length of the hull. The speed at which the length of the bow wave equals the hull length is called the Hull Speed Limit. Further increases in hull speed, beyond the Hull Speed Limit will cause the stern of the hull to drop into the trough of the bow wave. This has the following bad effects: • air can enter the displacement hull’s propeller/s (reducing propeller thrust) • the belly of the hull is exposed to the oncoming waves (increasing hull resistance) • the increased incline of the propeller shaft/s reduces the amount of shaft thrust for forward motion (part of the forward component of propeller thrust is wasted in holding up the stern of the boat). This greatly increases the hull’s resistance-to-further-speed-increase. To go faster, the displacement hull must climb the crest of its own bow wave. For example, the last 10% of a displacement hull’s top speed costs 27% of its engine power (and fuel consumption).

1-22

Mathematical Representation of Hull Speed Ratio This relationship can be described mathematically. It is called the Hull Speed Ratio. Boat Speed Hull Speed Ratio (SLR) = ______________  Hull Length When the bow wave length is equal to the hull length, the speed length ratio formula can be expressed as follows: ________________ 1.34 (Hull Length feet) = (Boat Speed knots) or __________________ 4.5 (Hull Length meters) = (Boat Speed km/hr)

Planing Hull The planing hull skims over the surface of the water with relatively little disturbance of the water. The main resistance to planing hull speed is the skin friction. Hulls of this type are very sensitive to the smoothness of the hull, making good hull maintenance essential for top performance. Planing hulls are very sensitive to boat weight.

FIGURE 1.6

Semi-Displacement Hull The semi-displacement hull looks very much like the planing hull and is easily mistaken for the planing hull. Semi-displacement hulls can be described as having characteristics of both planing and displacement hulls, but are not one or the other. Displacement hulls have trouble with speed length ratios above 1.34 (4.5) due to their hull shape. The planing hulls have difficulties below speed length ratios of approximately 2.5 (8.4) because of their straight fore-and-aft lines.

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FIGURE 1.7 Semi-displacement hulls are designed to operate well in this speed range. Semi-displacement hulls are characterized by the angle of the quarter-beam afterbody buttock line. Visualize a pair of vertical, parallel planes intersecting the hull – midway from the longitudinal center of the hull – to the waterline at the side of the boat. The intersection of the planes – with the bottom of the hull near the stern – form the quarterbeam afterbody buttock line (there are two, one on each side, but they have the same shape). The angle of the quarter-beam buttock line is formed between it and a line parallel to the at-rest waterline, Fig. 1.8. C L 1/4 W.L. Beam

Measure This Angle WL

1/2 W.L. Beam

1/4 Beam Buttock

FIGURE 1.8 If the angle of the quarter-beam buttock line is very small (less than 2 degrees), the hull is capable of planing performance. At an angle of 4 degrees, the limiting speed length ratio will be around 2.0. An angle of 7 degrees will limit the speed to speed length ratios of 1.5, or just above displacement hull speeds. These angles should be measured relative to the hull’s waterline at rest.

1-24

Rules of Thumb Power to Reach Hull Speed A useful rule of thumb for vessels below 100 tons displacement is: Power to Reach Hull Speed horsepower = 5  [Displacement long tons]

Fuel Consumption A useful rule of thumb for basic budgetary purposes is: Fuel Consumption = 1 Liter per hour per 5 horsepower

1-25

Formula for Calculating Horsepower 2 πr  TORQUE  RPM Horsepower = ______________________ 33000 This formula was established by James Watt in the 1800’s and requires some known values: Average horse walks at 2–21 MPH Average horse pulls with a force of 150 pounds 1 mile = 5,280 feet r = distance from center line of shaft, usually 1 foot With this background, we will be able to establish the Horsepower formulas used today. 5,280 feet  2–21 MPH = 13,200 FEET per HOUR 13200 FT/HR ____________ = 220 FEET per MINUTE 60 Minutes 220 FT/MIN  150 POUNDS = 33,000 FT LBS per MINUTE 2πr = 6.2831853 33000 __________ = 5252 6.2831853 Thus we get the familiar formula used today in calculating Hp. Torque  RPM Hp = _____________ or expressed another way as 5252 Hp  5252 Torque = __________ RPM

1-26

Displacement Hull Calculation If a vessel’s displacement is not known, it can be determined from the dimensions of the vessel, using the following formula. L  B  D  Cb W = ________________ M Where: W = The vessel’s displacement expressed in long tons L = The length of the vessel, in feet, measured at the actual or designed load waterline (LWL) B = The extreme width or beam of the vessel, in feet, at the designed load waterline D = The vessel’s molded draft, in feet, measured at its midship section, exclusive of appendages or projections such as the keel Cb = The block coefficient for the vessel Light Cargo, Fishing Vessels and Sailing yachts

0.40 – 0.55

Heavy Cargo, Fishing and Tugs

0.50 – 0.65

River Tow Boats

0.55 – 0.70

Self-propelled Barges

0.70 – 0.90

Barges

0.85 – 0.90

M = The volume of water (cubic feet) per long ton 35 for sea water 36 for fresh water

1-27

Horsepower Requirements for Displacement Hulls A displacement hull is define by having a taper at the bow, a taper at the stern, and a –41 beam buttock angle of 8 degrees or greater. The speed which corresponds to SL = 1.34 is referred to as the displacement hull limiting speed. Attempting to power a displacement hull above this speed will cause the stern of the vessel to “drop” into its own bow wave trough, exposing the oncoming water to the underside of the vessel and entraining air in the propeller. This will effectively cause the vessel to “climb uphill” and reduce the amount of power the propeller is capable of absorbing. This occurs at an SL = 1.34 for a pure displacement vessel, and any attempt to power a displacement vessel in excess of this speed would be considered a waste of fuel and money. Now that the limiting speed of a displacement hull is defined, we can predict the power requirements to propel displacement hulls at different speeds. The amount of power required to drive a displacement or a semi-displacement hull of a given weight at a given speed can be approximated by the relationship of the weight to the horsepower (Lbs/Hp). This is expressed as the formula: 10.665 SL = ______ 3  Lbs ____ Hp



SL = Speed – Length Ratio Hp = Horsepower Delivered to the Propeller Lbs = Vessel Displacement in Pounds This formula can be rewritten as: ______ 3 = Lbs/Hp ( 10.665 SL ) Due to the bow wave limitation discussed earlier, only the portion of the SL versus Lbs/Hp relationship below 1.34 applies to displacement hulls. This implies that it would not be appropriate to power a displacement hull with more than 1 horsepower delivered to the propeller for each 504 pounds of vessel displacement.

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An example of how to apply this relationship will help clear this up. Consider a pure displacement hull with the following characteristics: Waterline length = 200 feet Vessel displacement = 440,000 pounds loaded Desired speed = 18 knots 1 4

– beam buttock angle = 9 degrees With a –41 beam buttock angle of 9 degrees (greater than 8°), it can be assumed that this vessel will be subject to the speed limit of 1.34. The next step is to see if the designed SL is within the limits established for a displacement hull, using the formula: Speed SL = ______  WL

18 SL = _____  200

SL = 1.27

Since the 1.27 calculated SL is below the limit of 1.34 the speed of 18 knots for this vessel is attainable. The next step is to determine the Lbs/Hp relationship for this boat using the design SL of 1.27. This is done using the following formula: ______ 3 = Lbs/Hp ( 10.665 SL )

______ 3 = 592 Lbs/Hp (10.665 1.27 )

The power required to drive this vessel at 18 knots would then be: 440000 Lbs Hp = ___________ 592 Lbs/Hp Hp = 743 This horsepower requirement seems low, but it must be considered that this is the required horsepower delivered to the propeller, and it does not account for losses in the shafting, marine gear, and engine. It also does not allow for reserve horsepower to allow for added resistance due to wind and waves, towing, dragging nets, power takeoffs, or other load increases, which may occur. In actuality, the installed horsepower of this vessel may be higher than the 743 Hp requirement just calculated.

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Horsepower Requirements for Semi-Displacement Hulls Because of the way these hulls ride in the water, the calculations of required horsepower uses a different formula. A semi-displacement hull is defined as having a point at the bow and tapers to a full beam at the mid-section and then partially tapers to a narrow section at its stern. A semi-displacement hull can be described as a displacement hull with a portion of its after body cut off, or a planing hull with a portion of a tapered after body added on. Semi-displacement hulls can be expected to have a –41 beam buttock angle of between 2° and 8°. Semi-displacement vessels have displacement hull characteristics in that they are somewhat limited in attainable speed by the bow wave phenomenon. However, semi-displacement hulls also have some planing hull characteristics, which allow them to partially “climb” or plane out of the water at higher speeds. This partial planing characteristic causes the bow wave limitation to occur at higher speed length ratios. In general, speedlength ratios fall between roughly 1.4 and 2.9 for semi-displacement vessels. Effectively, semi-displacement hulls operate at higher speeds than displacement hulls because of their partial planing characteristics, yet are not as sensitive to weight addition as a planing hull, due to their partial displacement hull characteristics. These combined characteristics allow for relatively large cargo or passenger carrying capacity at speeds higher than displacement vessels of similar size. To determine the power requirements for a semi-displacement hull, the SL versus Lbs/Hp relationship is utilized in the same manner as with displacement hulls. The problem in applying this relationship to semi-displacement hulls, however, lies in the fact that the limiting speed-length ratios can vary between 1.4 and 2.9 for different hulls. Before attempting a power requirement calculation for a semi-displacement hull at a given speed, it is first necessary to determine the SL ratio limit for the vessel to ensure that no attempt is made to power the vessel to speeds higher than this limit. The limiting SL ratio for a semi-displacement hull is determined by evaluating a factor referred to as the Displacement Length Ratio (DL). The DL ratio can be defined by using the following formula: disp T DL = __________3 (0.01XWL)

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Where: DL = Displacement-length ratio disp T = displacement in long tons (1 long ton = 2240 pounds) WL = Waterline length in feet Once the DL ratio has been calculated for a semi-displacement hull, the SL to DL relationship can be applied to determine the limiting SL ratio. This SL ratio will then define the maximum attainable speed of the semidisplacement hull. No attempt should be made to power a vessel over this maximum attainable speed, as this is the point where the bow wave limitation occurs on a semi-displacement hull. The limiting SL can be defined using the following formula: 8.26 SL ratio = _____ DL.311 Where: SL ratio = Speed-length ratio DL ratio = Displacement-length ratio 8.26 = constant used by Caterpillar for this calculation The following example will help explain how to apply the formulas for calculating the horsepower required for a semi-displacement hull. Let’s use the following for boat characteristics: WL = 62 feet 1 4

– beam buttock angle = 3° Displacement tons = 44 Long tons (98,560 pounds) Designed speed = 11.5 knots Beam width = 18 feet at mid-section, tapering to 15 feet at the stern. Based on this information (3° and slight taper) we can recognize a semi-displacement hull. Since this is a semi-displacement vessel and the DL ratio applies, the DL ratio must first be calculated in order to determine the limiting SL ratio for this vessel. The DL ratio is calculated in the following formula: 44 DL = ___________3 (0.01  62) 1-31

DL = 184.6 ≈ 185 8.26 SL = _______ (185).311 SL = 1.628 ≈ 1.63 Any speed used in predicting a power requirement for this vessel must correspond to an SL less than 1.63. 1.63 SL ratio corresponds to the maximum possible speed of this vessel due to bow wave limitation. Since the maximum SL ratio of 1.63 has been calculated, the next step is to determine the power required to drive the vessel 11.5 knots. As a check before proceeding, the SL ratio corresponding to the design speed of the boat should be calculated to ensure that it is less than the maximum attainable SL of 1.63. 11.5 SL = _____  62 SL = 1.46 Since 1.46 is less than 1.63, it is appropriate to try to power this vessel for 11.5 knots. If the SL had been greater than the 1.63 maximum attainable SL then the design speed of the vessel would have to be reduced before attempting a power prediction. Now that we have the design SL (1.46), we can go to the formula used in the displacement hull problem. That formula was:

( ) 10.665 LB/Hp = (______) 1.46 10.665 LB/Hp = ______ SL

3

3

LB/Hp = 389.8 ≈ 390 98560 Lbs for vessel HP = ___________________ 390 LB/Hp Hp = 252.7 ≈ 253 Hp So to power this vessel to the 11.5 knots design speed, it would need 253 Hp to the propeller. This is only for the movement of the vessel through the water and does not take into account auxiliary driven equipment, rough seas, or strong currents. Therefore the actual Hp of the engine in the boat may be larger than this calculation, due to the reserve Hp requirements. 1-32

Horsepower Requirements for Planing Hulls A planing hull is a hull of a form which allows it to climb up on a full plane at high speeds. When up on a full plane, the reduced draft of the vessel causes the bow wave to become very small, and they do not limit the speed of the boat as with displacement and semi-displacement hulls. Because of the reduced draft and lack of a bow wave limitation while up on plane, planing hulls can achieve very high speeds. However, their performance is very sensitive to the addition of weight to the boat. A planing hull begins with a point at its bow, and tapers to full beam at its midsection, then continues aft with no taper or at most a slight taper. The planing hull also has a –41 beam buttock angle 2° or less. Very few accurate methods exist for determining power requirements and speed predictions on full planing hulls. Often times, planing hulls are equipped with engines based on past experience and tested during sea trials to determine their level of performance. One simple method in existence for estimating planing hull speed potential is referred to as Crouch’s Planing Speed Formula. The formula is: C Speed = _______  Lbs/Hp Speed = Boat speed in knots C = Coefficient Defining Hull Speed Lbs = Vessel Weight in Pounds Hp = Horsepower Delivered to the Propeller This formula develops a power to speed relationship for planing hulls, and experimentation has determined which coefficients should be utilized to obtain acceptable results. The typical coefficients used at Caterpillar are: 150 = average runabouts, cruisers, passenger vessels 190 = high speed runabouts, light high-speed cruisers 210 = race boats

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The following example will help explain how all of this works. Let’s use a boat with a displacement of 14,000 pounds. The boat has a narrow beam, deep vee planing hull powered by two (2) 435 Hp diesels. The boat is equipped with performance propellers and low drag stern drives, so we can consider the boat a race type. It will therefore have a “C” coefficient of 210. First let’s take the Hp of the engines 435  2 = 870. Then we must take into account the reduction gear efficiency, typically 3%. 870 Hp 0.97 = Lbs 844 Hp available to the propellers. Then we determine the ____ by Hp dividing the boat displacement by the horsepower available. 14000 Lbs In our case Lbs/Hp = _________ or Lbs/Hp = 16.59. Now that we have 844 Hp our Lbs/Hp we can calculate the speed of the boat using Crouch’s Planing Speed Formula. 210 Speed = _______ Speed = 51.56 Knots  16.59 Let’s say this customer wants 60 knots. We can calculate the needed Hp by using the information from the previous formula and working out the C = X. Then Lbs/Hp = X2 answer. The formula for this would be ______ Speed Putting the data in from the previous formula we get the following: 210 ____ = 3.502 60 Lbs/Hp = 12.25 Since the weight of the boat is 14,000 pounds, we can divide the weight of the boat by the Lbs/Hp ratio of 12.25 to get the Hp needed to operate the vessel at the 60 knot speed. 14000 Pounds _____________ = 1,143 Hp required. 12.25 Lbs/Hp Demand Horsepower, for a hull of the propulsion system on an engine is in a cubic relationship with the speed of the boat.

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Example: A vessel is cruising at 20 knots. The demand horsepower on the engine is 500 Hp. The captain now wants to go 25 knots. How much horsepower will it take? 25 knts _______ = 1.25 20 knts

1.253 = 1.953125

500 Hp  1.953125 = 976.5625 Hp Boat Speed(1) = 20 Knts Act. Hp = 500 Hp

New Hp = 977 Hp

What is the new boat speed?

(

Speed2 = 3  New Hp _______  Boat Speed(1) Act Hp

(

)

Speed2 = 3  977 Hp 3 _______  20 Knts =  1.954  20 500 Hp

)

1.250  20 = 25 Knts

1-35

Hull Speed vs Wave Pattern Miles per Hour  1.15 = Knots Knots  101.3 = Feet per Minute Miles per Hour  88 = Feet per Minute V SPEED LENGTH RATIO (SLR) = ______  LWL Where: V = Vessel Speed LWL = Loaded waterline length The generally accepted SLR limits are as follows: Displacement type hulls = SLR 1.34 Semi-displacement type hulls = SLR 2.3 – 2.5 Planing hulls = No specific high limit, but not good below an SLR of 2.0 The maximum vessel speed can be calculated using the following formula: V = SLR   LWL The maximum vessel speed can also be estimated by watching the wave action along a displacement hull type of the vessel. When the crest to crest distance of the bow wave is equal to the LWL of the vessel, the hull is at its optimum speed. If the bow wave crest to crest distance is equal to –21 the LWL then the vessel is at approximately –21 the optimum hull speed. Economical speed for displacement type vessels is in the SLR range of 1.0 to 1.2. The crest to crest distance for an SLR of 1.0 is (0.56)(LWL). The crest to crest distance for an SLR of 1.2 is (0.8)(LWL).

1-36

Basic Propulsion Theory The essence of marine propulsion is the conversion of engine power into thrust through some type of propulsion device. Because of its simplicity and efficiency, the screw propeller – basically an axial flow pump – has become the most widely used propulsive device.

Propellers The ability of a propeller to move a vessel forward, through the water, depends upon several factors: 1. The rotational speed of the propeller, which corresponds to the propeller shaft RPM; 2. The angle or pitch of the propeller blades; 3. The diameter and blade area. These factors, in combination impose a thrust force on the propeller shaft. This thrust is transmitted through the shaft to the thrust bearing, the principle point where the forces generated by the rotating propeller act upon the hull, and cause forward motion. Pitch Angle Boss Tip

Hub Blade

Blade

Bore

Keyway

Diameter Hub

Hub Diameter Right Hand Left Hand

FIGURE 1.9

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Figure 1.9 shows a typical 3-bladed propeller. To more intelligently understand the operation of a screw propeller, it is necessary to define the parts of a propeller: • The blade does the work; it pulls water. Naturally, the wider the blade face, the more water it can pull. The more water that can be pulled, the stronger the thrust on the vessel and therefore, a greater amount of work can be done. • Propeller diameter is the diameter of the circle described by the tips of the rotating propeller blades. • Blade Angle is the angle the blade makes in relation to the center line of the hub. It is normally expressed as the distance, in inches. Pitch is the distance the blade would advance in one revolution, if it were a screw working in a solid substance. An important concept in understanding propellers is the pitch ratio. The pitch ratio expresses the relation between the pitch and the diameter of the propeller; often it is referred to as the pitch/diameter ratio. It is obtained by dividing the pitch by the diameter. For example, if a propeller is 60 inches in diameter and has 42 inches of pitch (written as 60"  42") then the pitch ratio is 42/60 = 0.70. A general guide for the selection of approximate pitch ratio values is shown, by vessel application, in Figure 1.10. PITCH RATIO BY VESSEL APPLICATION Deep water tug boat

0.50 – 0.55

River towboat

0.55 – 0.60

Heavy round bottom work boat

0.60 – 0.70

Medium wt. round bottom work boat

0.80 – 0.90

Planing hull

0.90 – 1.2 FIGURE 1.10

The propeller may be viewed as an axial pump that is delivering a stream of water aft of the vessel. It is this stream of water, equivalent in size to the diameter of the propeller, that is the power that provides thrust to move the vessel through the water. However, to produce thrust, the propeller must accelerate the mass of water it pulls against. In so doing, a portion of the pitch advance is lost to the work of accelerating the water mass. This is known as propeller slip; Figure 1.11 illustrates this concept.

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FIGURE 1.11 A propeller with a fixed pitch theoretically has a pitch velocity or linear speed it would travel in the absence of slip. However, because of the work needed to accelerate a mass of water, slip manifests itself as the difference between the pitch velocity and the velocity of the propeller through the vessel’s wake or speed of advance. As a vessel moves through the water, hull resistance, wave formation and converging water at the stern have a tendency to follow the hull. This results in a movement of water under the stern in a forward direction known as wake. The added factor of wake reduces slip to what is known as apparent slip. It also adds to the speed of advance to produce the actual vessel speed. It is obvious from this that propellers function in a very complex manner. There are many factors to be considered when selecting a propeller. The point to realize is that there is no formula that will automatically provide the ideal propeller size for a given vessel and application. This can only be approximated to various degrees of accuracy. The only true test is trial and error under actual operating conditions. Remember, all propellers are a compromise. The general practice is to use the largest diameter propeller turning at the best speed for the vessel’s application within practical limits. These limitations are: 1. The size of the aperture in which the propeller is to be installed. 2. The application or type of work the vessel will be doing – towboat, crew boat, pleasure craft, and so forth. 3. Excessive shaft installation angles that may be required when using large diameter propellers.

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4. The size of shafting that can be accommodated by the structural members of the hull where the shaft passes through. 5. Comparative weight of propellers, shafts and marine gears with respect to the size of the vessel. 6. The size of marine gears which the hull can accommodate without causing an inordinate degree of shaft angularity. 7. The vessel’s inherent ability to absorb the high torque that results from the use of large slow turning propellers. 8. Comparing the cost of using large diameter propellers against any increases in efficiency or performance.

Number Of Propeller Blades In theory, the propeller with the smallest number of blades (i.e. two) is the most efficient. However, in most cases, diameter and technical limitations necessitate the use of a greater number of blades. Three-bladed propellers are more efficient over a wider range of applications than any other propeller. Four and sometimes five-bladed propellers are used in cases where objectionable vibrations develop when using a three-bladed propeller. Four-bladed propellers are often used to increase blade area on tow boats operating with limited draft. They are also used on wooden vessels where deadwood ahead of the propeller restricts water flow. However, two blades passing deadwood at the same time can cause objectionable hull vibration. All other conditions being equal, the efficiency of a four-blade propeller is approximately 96% that of a three-blade propeller having the same pitch ratio and blades of the same proportion and shape. A “rule of thumb” method for estimating four-blade propeller requirements is to select a proper three-blade propeller from propeller selection charts, then multiply pitch for the three-blade propeller by 0.914. Maximum diameter of a four-blade propeller should not exceed 94% of the recommended three-blade propeller’s diameter. Therefore, we multiply diameter by 0.94 to obtain the diameter of a four-blade propeller. For example, if a three-blade recommendation is: 48  34 Multiply pitch (34") by 0.914 = 31" Multiply diameter (48") by 0.94 = 45" Four-blade recommendation 45"  31"

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As a word of caution, remember that this is a general rule...for estimating only. Due to the wide variation in blade area and contours from different propeller manufacturers, consult your particular manufacturer before final specifications are decided upon. A “Rule of the Thumb” for all propeller selection is: “Towboats – big wheel, small pitch” “Speedboats – little wheel, big pitch” All other applications can be shaded between these two statements of extremes.

Propeller Tip Speed Tip speed, as the name implies, is the speed at which the tips of a rotating propeller travel in miles per hour (MPH). The greater the tip speed, the more power consumed in pure turning. As an example, a 30 inch propeller with a tip speed of 60 MPH absorbs approximately 12 horsepower in pure turning effort. This is a net horsepower loss because it contributes nothing to the forward thrust generated by the propeller. The following formula can be used to calculate tip speed: D  SHAFT RPM  60  π T = _________________________ 12  5280 Where: T = Tip speed in MPH D = Propeller diameter in inches

Cavitation When propeller RPM is increased to a point where suction ahead of the propeller reduces the water pressure below its vapor pressure, vapor pockets form, interrupting the solid flow of water to the propeller. This condition is known as cavitation.

1-41

One of the more common causes of cavitation is excessive tip speed, a propeller turning too fast for water to follow the blade contour. Cavitation can usually be expected to occur at propeller tip speeds exceeding 130 MPH. Cavitation results in a loss of thrust and damaging erosion of the propeller blades.

Reduction Gears The reduction gear enables the propulsion engine and propeller to be matched so they both operate at their most efficient speeds. The proper selection of the reduction gear ratio is an important decision in preparing a marine propulsion system. There is a range of commercially available reduction ratios that can help assure optimum vessel performance under a given set of operating conditions. It is difficult to discuss the selection of reduction gear ratios without mentioning some of the other factors that can influence the selection. The major influencing factors are: • Expected vessel speed

• Type of vessel

• Vessel duty cycle

• Pitch Ratio

• Propeller tip speed

• Engine horsepower

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Propeller Overhang The maximum distance from the stern bearing to the propeller should be limited to no more than one shaft diameter. Propeller shafts are apt to vibrate and produce a whip action if these limits are exceeded. This condition is greatly accelerated when a propeller is out of balance due to faulty machining or damage.

Propeller Rotation Propeller rotation is determined from behind the vessel, facing forward. The starboard side is on the right and the port side on the left. Rotation of the propeller is determined by the direction of the wheel when the vessel is in forward motion. Thus, a clockwise rotation would describe a right-hand propeller and a counter-clockwise rotation would be a lefthand propeller. Right-hand propellers are most frequently used in single screw installations. Twin screw vessels in the U.S. are normally equipped with outboard turning wheels. However, there are some installations where inboard turning wheels will be found. A rotating propeller tends to drift sideways in the direction of the rotation. In a single screw vessel this can be partially offset by the design of the sternpost and the rudder. In a twin screw vessel this can be completely eliminated by using counterrotating propellers. Although the question of inboard and outboard rotating propellers has been debated many times, authorities on the subject agree that there are no adverse effects on maneuverability with either 1-43

rotation. In fact, there are those who feel that a gain in maneuverability is obtained with outboard rotating propellers. One point in favor of inboard rotation is a decreased tendency for the propellers to pick-up debris off the bottom in shallow water.

Multiple Propellers The most efficient method of propelling a vessel is by the use of a single screw. However, there are other factors which, when taken into consideration, make the use of a single propeller impossible. If a vessel has to operate in shallow water, the diameter of the propeller is limited. Therefore, it may be necessary to install two and sometimes three propellers to permit a proper pitch ratio for efficient propulsion. Another condition requiring multiple propellers is encountered when higher speed yachts need more horsepower than a single engine can develop and still be accommodated in the engine space. As a general rule to follow for calculations in this text, the total SHP of all engines is used when making estimated speed calculations. For calculating propeller size, SHP of each individual engine is used.

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Propeller Pitch Correction An overpitched propeller will overload the engine. To permit the engine to reach its Full power and speed the load must be removed. The load must be reduced by amount proportional to the engine RPM ratio. This can be defined by the following formula: RPM1 LF = ______ RPM2 Where: LF = % of Load RPM1 = The engine RPM while overloaded “What you have.” RPM2 = The anticipated engine RPM “What you want to have.” EXAMPLE FORMULA The M/V Cat has an engine that produces Full power at 1800 engine RPM. While being tested the engine would only turn to 1750 RPM. Applying the above formula we get the following equation: 1750 LF = _____ 1800 LF = 0.97  100 LF = 97% This means to get the engine to turn the correct RPM we would have to reduce the load by 3%. If the overload is due to an overpitched propeller then the amount of pitch to be taken out of the current propeller can be determined using the following formula: RPM1 Pr = Pp  ______ RPM2 Where: Pr = Propeller pitch required Pp = Present propeller pitch RPM1 = The engine RPM while overloaded “What you have.” RPM2 = The anticipated engine RPM “What you want to have.”

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Ducted Propellers Ducted propellers are best used on vessels such as trawlers, tugs, and towboats with towing speeds of 3-10 knots. Ducted propellers should not be used on vessels with relative high speeds. To help assist in the selection of a ducted propeller, you can perform the following calculation. If the resultant Bp is