• Author / Uploaded
• Muhammad Faraz Imam

Citation preview

STERLING PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED Regd. Office: A-59, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Delhi-110020. Cin: U22110PB1964PTC002569 Tel: 26387070, 26386209; Fax: 91-11-26383788 E-mail: [email protected] www.sterlingpublishers.com

History of the Modern World © 2014, B V Rao ISBN 978 81 207 7776 7 First Edition 2013 Reprint 2014 Revised Edition October 2014

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the original publisher.

Preface to the First Revised Edition

T

he purpose of revising this book History of the Modern World is twofold. The first involved in going through the contents of all the chapters in a meticulous manner, and correcting mistakes, if any. The second is far more important in the sense that more information has been added to make some chapters comprehensive. Some of the other chapters have been revised to include events up to 2013. To be specific, discerning students may find these in chapters on The American Revolution and the Constitution (Chapter 6), The French Revolution of 1789 and the Aftermath, 1789-1815 (Chapter 7), The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921 (Chapter 21), UNO and Global Disputes (Chapter 29), The European Union (Chapter 36) and Post Cold War Era: The Dawning of ‘New Europe’ (Chapter 44). Hope the candidates and students find the contents of this book more useful and interesting. Bengaluru 3/10/2014

B.V.Rao email: [email protected]

Preface

T

his book covers the syllabus of History Main (World History of UPSC Civil Services Exam). It includes all the topics from the Period of Renaissance to Modern Globalisation, and also incorporates Current History. Candidates appearing for the Civil Services Exam will find it useful and interesting. They should not only master the subject and update their knowledge, but also develop ability to analyse questions raised in the competitive exam. The students studying Contemporary World may also find it helpful in preparing for the exam. Those reading this book may send their feedback to the author.

Bengaluru

B V Rao [email protected]

Contents Part I: Enlightenment and Modern Ideas 1. Renaissance as Historical Background Characteristics of the Renaissance • Factors aiding the flowering of Renaissance • Florence: the first home of Renaissance • High Renaissance paintings • Venetian school of painting • Architecture and sculpture • Renaissance literature • The spread of Renaissance • Renaissance paintings in Europe • Modern Music • Renaissance in Science • Scientific Inventions • Philosophy • Geography • Social sciences 2. Major Ideas of Enlightenment: Kant and Rousseau Impact on Science and Religion • Leibniz • Deism • Pietism • Quakers • Jansenist Movement • Atheism • Religious Tolerance • Emancipation of Jews • Impact of Social Science • History: Giovanni-Battista Vico (1668-1744) • Helvetius (1715-71) • Marquis de Condorcet (1743-94) • Scientific Materialism • Sovereignty and Social Contract • Legal and Constitutional Studies • Joseph II of Austria, the Last Enlightened Despot (1765-90) • Enlightened Monarchy in France Declines • Petticoat Government • Arbitrary Nature of Bourbon Monarchy • Age of Enlightenment: Supplementary notes • Influence of Enlightenment 3. Enlightenment in the Colonies The United States • India • China • Japan 4. Rise of Socialist Ideas Historical Background • Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) • Francois Marie Charles Fourier (1772-1837) • Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) • Robert Owen (1771-1858) • Louis Blanc (1811-1882) • Karl Marx (1818-1883) • Marxism • Criticism of Marx’s theories • Spread of Marxian Socialism • The Second International (1889) • Socialism in Germany • Marxism-Leninism

Part II: Origins of Modern Politics 5. European States System England, the First Nation-State in Europe • France • Spain • Switzerland • Prussia • Austria • Russia • Peter the Great (1682-1725) • Catherine II or Catherine the Great 6. The American Revolution and the Constitution Development of Thirteen English Colonies • British Mercantilist Policy • Townshend Acts (1767) • Boston Tea Party (16 December, 1773) • The First Continental Congress (1774) • Declaration of Independence (4 July, 1776) • The War • Results of the War • The Constitution of the United States • Features of the American Constitution • Some Important Amendments and Acts 7. The French Revolution of 1789 and the Aftermath, 1789-1815 Ancién Regime • The Role of Philosophers: Voltaire (1694-1778) • The Example of American Revolution • Financial Crisis • King Louis XVI • Siege of the Bastille, 14 July, 1789 • Peasants’ Revolt • The Constitution • King Flees to Varennes • The Revolutionary Wars • The National Convention (1792-95) • Reign of Terror • The Directory (1795-99) • Aftermath of the Revolution • Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte • Egyptian Campaign • The Coup d’etat • Reconquest of Italy (1800) • The Treaty of Amiens • Continental System • Napoleon’s ‘Hundred Days’ • Causes of Napoleon’s Downfall • Civilian Work of Napoleon • The Code of Napoleon • Bank of France • Legion of Honour • Public Works • Education • Reorganisation of Administration • Colonisation 8. American Civil War (1861-65) with Reference to Abraham Lincoln and the Abolition of Slavery Economic Sectionalism • The Question of Slavery • Abraham Lincoln (18091865) • The Course of the Civil War • Causes for the South’s defeat • Results of the Civil War 9. British Democratic Politics, 1815-1850; Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists Historical Background • British Liberalism • Parliamentary Reformers • Reform Act of 1832 • Free Traders • The Chartist Agitation • Factory Acts

Part III: Industrialisation 10. English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society Reasons for the revolution • The New Factory System • Improvement in the Means of Transport and Communication • General effects of the Industrial Revolution • Social consequences of Industrial Revolution • Rural Consequences of Industrialisation • Legislative Remedies 11. Industrialisation in Other Countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan Transportation Revolution • Industrialisation of the USA • Industrialisation of Germany • Industrialisation of Russia • Industrialisation of Japan 12. Globalisation Introduction • Globalisation • Globalisation in India • Liberalisation and Privatisation

Part IV: Nation-State System 13. Rise of Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century Congress of Vienna • Congress System Under Metternich • Failure of the Congress System 14. Nationalism: State Building in Germany and Italy July Revolution of 1830 • Bismarck and the Unification of Germany (1851-71) • Foreign Policy • War with Denmark (1864) • Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) • Fall of the Second French Empire • Treaty of Frankfurt • Unification of Italy • Italian National Movement • Impact of 1830 Revolution • Uprisings in Italy (1846-48) • Cavour • Cavour’s Diplomacy • The Franco-Sardinian War with Austria • Garibaldi • Annexation of Venetia (1866) • Annexation of Rome (1870) 15. Nationalism: Disintegration of Empires Greek War of Independence • Syrian Question • The Crimean War (1854-56) • Belgian War of Independence

Part V: Imperialism and Colonialism

16. Imperialism and Colonialism: South and Southeast Asia Critique of Imperialism and Colonialism • British Rule In India • Sri Lanka • Impact of Colonial Rule in South Asia • Burma (Myanmar) • Thailand • Laos • The Philippines • Malaysia (Suvarnadvipa) • Indonesia • Revival and Fall of the Khmer Empire (Kampuchea) • China: The Advent of Europeans • The Opium Wars in China • The Second Opium War • The T’aiping Rebellion (1850-64) • Dismemberment of China • The Japanese Feudal Society • Commodare Perry’s Visit • Treaties with Other Powers • Fall of the Shogunate 17. Latin America and South Africa Imperialism and Latin America • Latin America: Mexico • Brazil • Chile • Argentina • Cuba • Other Latin American States • Dollar Imperialism • Western Imperialism in Africa • Partition of Africa • South Africa • Apartheid Policy 18. Colonisation of Australia 19. Imperialism and Free Trade: Rise of New Imperialism New Imperialism • Demand for Raw Materials and Food grains • Free Trade • Features of New Imperialism

Part VI: Revolution and Counter-Revolution 20. Nineteenth Century European Revolutions • French Monarchy after 1815 • July Ordinances • Orleans Monarchy in France (1830-48) • Foreign Policy • Electoral and Parliamentary Reforms • Revolts in Central Europe • Hungarian Revolution • Poland • Second Republic and Second Empire • Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-73) • The Constitution of the Second Empire • Court Life • Foreign Policy • Intervention in Italy • France and the Polish Insurrection (1863) • Napoleon III and the Austro-Prussian War • The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) 21. The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921 Anti-semitic Policy • Foreign Policy Setbacks • The 1905 Revolution • Russia and World War I • Abdication of the Czar • Menshevik Government • Rise of the Bolsheviks • Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) (1870-1924) • Dictatorship of the Proletariat • Radical Reforms Fail • The New Economic Programme (NEP) • Foreign Policy: Counter Revolution Fails • The USSR • Dictatorship in the Soviet Union

22. Fascist Counter-Revolution: Italy and Germany Fascist Italy • Career of Mussolini • Fascist Party • Fascist Dictatorship • Benefits of Fascist Rule in Italy • Mussolini’s Economic Policy • Mussolini’s Foreign Policy • Treaty of Versailles (1919) • The Weimar Government • Rise of Dictatorship • The League’s Failures • Disarmament Conference Fails • AngloFrench Policy of Appeasement • The Rise of Nazi Germany under Hitler • Germany’s Rearmament • Austria Forcibly United • The Munich Pact • Germany’s Attack on Poland 23. The Chinese Revolution of 1949 Life-sketch of Mao • The Long March (1934-35) • The Work of the Communists During the Yenan Period • Japanese Invasion of Manchuria • United Front against Japan • The Course of the Sino-Japanese War • Rivalry Between CCP and the Nationalist Government • The Civil War (1946-49) • Causes of Communist Victory

Part VII: World Wars 24. First and Second World Wars as Total Wars: Societal Implications World wars • Societal Implications 25. World War I: Causes and Consequences Extreme Nationalism • Hostile Military Alliances • Dual Alliance • Triple Entente • Colonial Rivalries in Africa • Armament Race • Economic Nationalism • Tensions in Africa • Balkan Crises • Ferdinand Assassinated • German Offensive • Russia Routed • Naval Battles • German Defeat • Results of the War • Peace Treaties after the War • The Treaty of Versailles • The Treaty of St. Germain • The Treaty of Trianon • The Treaty of Neuilly • Treaties of Sevres and Lausanne with Turkey • Post-war Germany • Collapse of the Austrian Empire • National Republic of Turkey • The Search for Security in Europe • Locarno Pact • Kellog-Briand Pact • League of Nations • Organs of the League of Nations • Other Major Agencies of the League • Achievements of the League of Nations • Causes of the Failure of the League of Nations 26. World War II: Causes and Consequences Course of the World War • France Surrenders • Battle of Britain • North African Front • Invasion of Russia • Japanese Offensives • Invasion of Normandy • Hiroshima And Nagasaki Bombed • Peace Treaties after World War II • Results

of World War II • Peace Plans of the Allies During the War • Post-War Era in Europe • Germany • Japan

Part VIII: The World after World War II 27. Emergence of Two Power Blocs 28. Emergence of The Third World and Non-Alignment The Third World • The North South Dialogue • Brandt Commission Report • Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) • Purposes 29. UNO and Global Disputes The United Nations • UN Charter • General Assembly • Security Council • The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) • The Trusteeship Council • The Secretariat • The International Court of Justice • Specialised Agencies • The Achievements of the United Nations • Non-political Achievements • The UN’s Failures • The Challenges Facing The United Nations • An Evaluation of The United Nations • Human Rights • Gender Issues

Part IX: Liberation From Colonial Rule 30. Latin America-Bolivar Causes of Revolts in Latin America • Course of Revolutions • Jose de San Martin • The Monroe Doctrine • Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) 31. Arab World-Egypt Arab Nationalism • Egypt 32. Africa - Apartheid to Democracy Decolonisation of Africa • North Africa: Independence of Tunisia • Morocco • Algeria • West Africa • Ghana • Nigeria and Other Colonies • French West Africa • French (Central) Equatorial Africa • Belgian Congo • East Africa • Kenya • Uganda • Tanganyika (Tanzania) • Somalia • Republic of Madagascar (Formerly Malagasy Republic) • The Republic of South Africa • Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia) • The Republic of Zambia • Malawi (Originally Known as Nyasaland) • Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) • Republic of Congo • Rwanda • United Republic of Tanzania • Contemporary North Africa: Egypt •

Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011) • Algeria • Tunisia • Sudan • Ethiopia (Abyssinia) • Libya 33. Southeast Asia-Vietnam Burma: Origins of the Burmese National Movement • Burmese National Movement • The Japanese Occupation of Burma • Burmese Independence • Laos • Anti-colonial Movements in Laos • Constitutional Concessions to Laos • Geneva Conference, 1954 • The Philippines: Early Rebellions Against Spanish Rule • Japanese Occupation • Malaysia: Malayan Insurgency (1948) • Malaya’s Independence • Singapore • Malaysia and Singapore • Indonesia: The Sarekat Islam • The Communist Party • The New National Party (PNI) • The Partindo • The Japanese Occupation • The Indonesian Revolution (1945-49) • Kampuchea: Hostility Towards French Rule • Total Independence (1953) • Vietnam: Origins of the Vietnamese National Movement • Nationalist Leaders • Birth of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDD) • The Revolt of 1930-31 • The Aftermath of Japanese Surrender • Vietnam Partitioned • The Indochina War (1946-54) • The Recognition of DRV • The Course of the War • Geneva Agreement Violated • The Fall of Diem • The US Involvement in the Vietnamese War

Part X: Decolonisation and Underdevelopment 34. Factors Constraining Development: Latin America, Africa Latin America • Africa (Sub-Saharan Region)

Part XI: Unification of Europe 35. Post-War Foundations: NATO and European Community North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) • Marshall Plan 36. The European Union The European Community • The Maastricht Treaty • The Constitution • The Advent of the Euro • The European Central Bank • The Lisbon Treaty (December 13, 2007) • The EU in the age of globalisation • Achievements So Far • Greece • Ireland • Portugal • Spain and Italy

Part XII: Disintegration of the Soviet Union and the Rise of Unipolar World 37. Disintegration and fall of the Soviet Union Gorbachev and the Crumbling of the Soviet Empire • Gorbachev’s Vision • Perestroika • Soviet Foreign Policy • Gorbachev’s Failure • Boris Yeltsin (19911999) 38. Political Changes in Eastern Europe (1989-2001) Poland • Czechoslovakia • Hungary • The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) • Romania • Bulgaria • Yugoslavia 39. Cold War Cold War • The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) • End of the Cold War • Unipolar World • Disarmament • Emergence of the US as the Lone Superpower

Part XIII: Science, Technology and Environment 40. Science and Technology in the Modern World Terms of Science and Technology Defined • Geology • Astronomy—Halley’s Discoveries • Development of the Science of Physics • Modern Physics • Development in Chemistry • Progress in Biology • Progress in Medical Field • Technological Innovations • Motion Picture • Technological Innovations in the Means of Transport • Motor Vehicles • Revolution in the Communication System 41. Environmental Challenges Global Warming • Copenhagen Summit (2009) • Cancun Summit (2010) • Pollution • Land Pollution • Radioactive Pollution • The Earth Summit • The Stockholm Conference — 1972 • The Rio Summit–June 1992

Part XIV: Current History 42. Towards The New Millennium The Fall of the Soviet Empire • Rise of Communist China • China’s Foreign Relations • The Role of the UN • The US after 9/11 (2001) • Regional Groups •

Globalisation • Human Sufferings • Terrorism • Violation of Human Rights • Expanding Frontiers of Knowledge • Medical Science • Information Technology 43. From The Afghan Civil War to Arab Spring The Civil War • The Rise of Taliban • Afghan War • Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) • The Gulf War (1991) • Ceasefire Agreement (1991) • Plight of Iraq • Oil for Food Programme • The Threat of War • The Second Gulf War • Financial Aspects of the War • Iraq Today • Illegality of the Iraq War • Iraq’s Economy • Dawn of The Twenty-first Century • Sri Lanka • Japan • The Chinese Dragon • Thailand • Nepal • North and South Korea • The Arab Spring: Revival of PanArabism • Tunisia • Egypt • Algeria • Yemen • Bahrain • Libya • Jordan • Syria 44. Post Cold War Era: The Dawning of ‘New Europe’ • The Federal Republic of Germany • Schroder’s re-election • Mrs. Angela Merkel (2005-) • The United Kingdom • Tony Blair • Foreign Relations • Gordon Brown • France: Francois Mitterrand • Foreign Relations • Jacques Chirac (1995-2007) • Nicolas Sarkozy • Italy • Poland • Spain • The Czech Republic • Serbia & Montenegro • Romania • Bulgaria • Hungary • Bosnia & Herzegovina • Turkey • Russia Bibliography

PART I

Enlightenment and Modern Ideas Chapter 1 Renaissance as a Historical Background Chapter 2 Major Ideas of Enlightenment: Kant and Rousseau Chapter 3 Enlightenment in the Colonies Chapter 4 Rise of Socialist Ideas

1 Renaissance as Historical Background

T

he term ‘Renaissance’ is French and derived from the Latin word, renascor, meaning rebirth. Historians used this term as a concept to describe the revival of Graeco-Roman spirit of scientific enquiry and humanism which began in the early 14th century and lasted till the beginning of the 17th century in Europe. One would say that during this period the so-called medievalism ended and modern times began. Carlton Hayes, adds that the word ‘Renaissance’ should be used in a restricted manner, because many other characteristics during this period of transition manifested which were not due to the revival of ancient Greek and Roman classics. They were incidental and independent. What marked the renewed interest in the new learning was humanism and secular spirit. The ‘Renaissance’ was an intellectual movement and in the course of time developed many characteristics of its own.

Characteristics of the Renaissance The foremost among the characteristics of the Renaissance was the vogue of ‘classicism’, which meant the admiration and adoption of all the best features of the classical civilisations of Greece and Rome. To put it in other words, one may say that Renaissance art and literature were deeply influenced by ancient classical civilisations. Humanism was another interesting characteristic of Renaissance. Scholars and artists paid attention to human interest and human values. The great humanist scholar, Erasmus, laid emphasis on human values and criticised the Church for ignoring them. The study of old classics fostered human values, and appreciation of human nature, interest and values. Even the medieval universities spread the gospel of humanism through its subjects (today classified as

humanities). Primarily interested in classical literature and profane history, the humanist scholars eulogised “the natural, the human, and the sensual” instead of what was ascetical, supernatural and theological. Renaissance introduced a new type of thinking in which achievements of the Middle Ages hardly merited attention. For example, some renaissance artists considered Gothic style of architecture as barbaric. Their contempt for the Middle Ages was so great they considered it the “Dark Ages”. Intellectual curiosity and criticism marked the “New Learning” and those who pursued their studies relentlessly searched for the lost manuscripts of classical writers. They went and ransacked all the old libraries and monasteries and finally succeeded in discovering some of the works of Roman historians, mathematical works of Firmicus, Cicero’s oration on Caecina and so on. Thus collection of old classical works became a fad or passion among research scholars. These works were considered treasures to be preserved for the posterity. Thus classical scholarship was enriched by newly discovered source materials which were supposedly lost forever. The humanist scholars and artists indulged in self-glorification and wide publicity in contrast with “self abnegation of the medieval monk”, who lived in humility and obscurity. This self-assertive individualism was a marked trait found among all the scholars, poets and artists of Renaissance. They became free from restraints and placed man on the highest pedestal in the universal scheme of things. The “New Learning” replaced the medieval scholastic learning. Learning of Greek and Latin assumed importance throughout the Christendom. Even if an artist or scholar desired to attain fame, learning of Greek and Latin took precedence over the vernacular language. Pagan literature and profane history were studied by one and all, and subsequently patronised by the Popes and rulers of the Sixteenth century.

Factors aiding the flowering of Renaissance A succession of events in the year 1453, led to most significant results in European history. It was during that year that the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire, thus bringing about its downfall. Christian scholars fled the capital carrying classical works and many took refuge in Italy. The Italian city states—especially Florence and Venice received them. Even before their arrival, the humanist scholar, Francesco Petrarch, with his writings, opened the eyes and minds of his men to the glories

of Greek and Roman civilisation. He was relentlessly searching for old manuscripts which would familiarise him with the wisdom of ancient Greeks and Romans. Petrarch discovered copies of Cicero’s orations and his joy knew no bounds. He impressed upon his followers to carry out an intensive search for old manuscripts. He was a well known scholar of his times enjoying patronage of European rulers and the Pope. The scholars who settled in Italy—most of them settled in Florence—spread love for classical learning among their students. Chrysoloras, a Greek scholar and teacher, who had fled Constantinople, started a school in Florence for classical Greek studies and lectured on Homer to a large number of students. Similarly the Greek scholars and teachers opened academies on the model of Plato in important centres of Italy. The patronage of great and eminent persons in power was also responsible for the growth of Renaissance. In Italy, the Medicis and the Pope, in France it was King Francis I, in England the famous Queen Elizabeth I and Emperor Charles V all helped the cause of “New Learning”. What is more interesting is that even the Popes like Nicholas V, Pius II and Leo X became votaries of New Learning which was considered pagan classics. It did not arouse any opposition from the Church. There was a notion in Italy that one need not be born into the family of a noble to become a noble. True nobility can be acquired by patronising classical learning and art. Therefore the merchants in Italy, who vied with the nobles for power and glory, easily took up the cause of “New Learning”. Hundreds of teachers, scholars, and artists were patronised by these opulent merchants who expected them to produce great works in literature and art. Since Italy became the centre of all trade routes, the spirit of Renaissance spread to the rest of Europe quickly. Kings and merchants of Europe could invite Renaissance scholars or artists to work in their places. Among them was the famous French King, Francis I, and King Henry VIII of England. The invention of the printing press in the middle of the Fifteenth century in Europe may be regarded as the most momentous. Had it not been for the printing press, the Renaissance would not have spread so quickly to the rest of Europe. Many religious (including the Holy Bible) and classical works came to be printed on the movable type of printing press in Germany and England, and copies of these works were available everywhere. The cost of the books was reduced to one-eighth and all European countries had the moveable type printing press by 1470. It may be no exaggeration to say that the printing press more than anything else brought about the intellectual awakening in Europe.

Florence: the first home of Renaissance Florence got fame and distinction as the first city of Renaissance. Here the guildsmen and merchants replaced the nobles and formed a Republic in 1293. With their money, they hired soldiers to protect them from other greedy city states. They wanted to prove that their city was in no way inferior in education, art, and literature to other cities. For this purpose they hired the services of the best scholars, poets and artists. They built beautiful churches, palaces, and collected ancient manuscripts. In 1330, the merchant rulers employed Giotto da Bondone to paint portraits and lovely scenes. He broke the old rules and made his paintings look real and lively. In fact, he began the Renaissance painting movement and made Florence, the city of artists. Giotto produced a marvellous fresco called “Lamentation over the Dead Christ” in the Arena Chapel at Padua. Fra Angelico and Masaccio were the painters who added much to finding and perfection of Christian art after being influenced by the spirit of classicism. For his paintings, he chose subjects like Birth of Venus, Spring, and Mars and Venus, all from Greek mythology. The above mentioned painters—all belonging to early Renaissance period—retained the church-prescribed form to their themes but modified the characters with secular interest. Another gifted painter in Florence was Benezzo Gozzoli (1420-97) whose painting, “Adoration of the Magi”, depicted panoramic life in Florence.

High Renaissance paintings The geniuses of the age of Renaissance in Europe were Michelangelo (14751564), Raphael (1483-1520), and Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Both Michelangelo and Leonardo belonged to Florence, and Raphael spent most of his life in Rome. The first two not only excelled in painting, but also in other pursuits of art. Leonardo da Vinci: Leonardo da Vinci did not take the usual twelve years in learning crafts as other apprentices did, because the art of painting was already in his blood. He left the town of Vinci and reached Florence where he became an apprentice of Verrocchio, a master artist, patronised by Lorenzo de Medici. When Lorenzo did not show much interest in Leonardo’s work, Leonardo packed his tools and went to Milan. It was here that he was patronised by the Sforza family. Leonardo was an artist with a scientific temper. His great paintings reflect not only his exceptional mastery over light, shade and colour but a careful study of human anatomy and problems of perspective.

His paintings, the Last Supper, a fresco, and Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda) are everlasting masterpieces. He spent the last years of his life in France where he was patronised by King Francis I. About his work, Will Durant says, “With all his limitations and incompleteness he was the fullest man of the Renaissance, perhaps of all time.” The Last Supper depicts Jesus Christ announcing at his last supper meeting that one of them was going to betray him. Mona Lisa is the painting of a merchant’s wife, Madonna Elisabetta, with a most enigmatic smile which has kept all the art-lovers wondering for centuries. Leonardo’s other two paintings which evoke great admiration are The Virgin of the Rocks and The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne. Michelangelo: He was a contemporary of Leonardo and Raphael. Like Leonardo, he was a Florentine and a versatile genius. He rose to prominence as a celebrated sculptor but by no means less great in other fields such as painting, architecture, engineering, and poetry. He was always in need of money, and therefore shuttled between Florence and Rome to carry out the projects of the Medici family and the successive Popes of his time. Pope Julius II preferred this great artist to Raphael to paint the curved ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the papal palace at the Vatican. Michelangelo wanted to turn down this papal request for he believed he was not a good painter, but then the Pope forced him to accept the offer. The fresco on the ceiling, when completed after four years of hard work, unfolded the biblical drama of the story of God, creation of man, the great prophets and the flood. At any rate it was the most superhuman and marvellous work, ever accomplished by a single artist. Michelangelo executed another fresco, the Last Judgment which may be considered another immortal work. Raphael Sanzio: Raphael belonged to the Florentine school of painting. He was an architect too. He was employed in the service of Popes Julius II and Leo X. Raphael had become famous for his lovely paintings of Madonna. His most celebrated painting was Sistine Madonna. He surpassed Michelangelo in painting by creating dimensions (width, height and distance) to all his works. Pope Julius employed him to paint the walls and ceilings of his room. In the signature-room of the Pope he created four masterpieces which represent the glory of Renaissance painting. He was employed as an architect at the time of the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.

Venetian school of painting Titian (1488-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-94) were great painters who belonged to the Venetian school of painting. Their paintings reflected the pleasure,

pageantry, voluptuous beauty and strong secular spirit. Titian produced oil paintings with mythological and pastoral themes. His skill in colouring and shading can be seen in one of his most famous paintings, the Assumption of the Virgin. Titian was patronised by the Emperor Charles V and Philip II of Spain.

Architecture and sculpture Although Italian states quarrelled among themselves and fell prey to foreign conquerors, nevertheless, they remained unsurpassed in art and architecture. Western Europeans were eager to follow the trend set by Italian states. Gothic architecture was discarded and it was replaced by Renaissance architecture, that is the revival of ancient Greek and Roman types. One can see the rounded-arch and “severely plain line of ancient Greek temple or the Roman dome” replacing the pointed and “fanciful lofty gothic” one. The St. Peter’s Church at Rome offers a typical Renaissance style. Brunelleschi (1377-1446) evinced keen interest in the early Roman architecture. He designed the Pitti palace and the dome of the Cathedral at Florence. But Rome excelled Florence in the matter of architecture. When Pope Julius II received news from his engineers that the ancient basilica of St. Peter’s (highly venerated by the Christians) was in bad shape, he decided to build a new one, this time the largest and most magnificent. To design this new church, Pope Julius chose Donato Bramante. Bramante was very much influenced by old Greek and Roman architecture. He had built ‘Belvedere’, the summer palace of the Pope known for its great beauty. Bramante laid out the ground plans (which resembled a Latin Cross). The work went on very slowly, and both Pope Julius and Bramante died. Now it was left to Pope Leo X to collect more funds to complete the construction work. Raphael did some work as an architect, but the lion’s share of the credit went to Michelangelo who designed and built the dome. The peak of the dome rose to 400 feet in height when measured from the ground. The design and grandeur of the church has remained unsurpassed even to this day. Renaissance architecture found expression in some of the palaces built in Italy such as the Farnese in Rome and Piccolomini in Siena. They represent the secular spirit of Renaissance architecture. Similarly Andrea Palladio, a great architect of Venice, built elegant villas for rich merchants, after the models of Ancient Rome. The age of Renaissance in Italy produced a large number of sculptors. Hundreds of them were employed by the Popes and wealthy merchants to decorate their gardens, palaces and churches with sculptural works. Florence

became a great centre of the art of sculpture and her example was followed by others. The famous Medici family pioneered scientific study of sculpture, and the new sculptors followed “closely the Greek and Roman traditions in form and often in subject as well”. The first master-sculptor of Renaissance in Italy was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455). He was a Florentine who worked for twenty years to make two pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence. They were so magnificent in design, and perfect in workmanship, that Michelangelo exclaimed that they were “worthy of being placed at the entrance of paradise”. Ghiberti included his own portrait on one of the bronze doors. He carved the life-like figures on the metal panel which came to be emulated by other sculptors. Donatello (1386-1466) was another Florentine, younger to Ghiberti, who went to Rome to study the old statues and ruins. On his return to Florence he became the greatest sculptor of early renaissance period. His best known works are the statues of St. Mark in Venice and St. George in Florence. His lesser known works include the equestrian, “Gattamelata” at Padua, and decorative reliefs for the singing gallery at the Cathedral in Florence. Another prominent sculptor was Luca della Robbia (1399-1482). He founded a school which specialised work in glazed terracotta. He became famous for “classic purity and simplicity of style”. Luca sketched fine figures and decorations on pottery glazed in white and blue which fetched great amounts of money to him, and his family. The High Renaissance period witnessed the sculptural works of great men like Michelangelo, Leonardo and Cellini. Michelangelo was better known for his work of sculptures than as an artist and architect. Michelangelo became famous as a sculptor when he made a statue in Rome at the instance of the French ambassador. It is called the ‘Pieta’, and it showed the body of Christ carried by His mother. It was the finest showpiece evoking deep emotions. When he went to Florence, his home town in 1501, he carved another great masterpiece, ‘David’, for the Council of the Republic. He took two and half years to complete this statue which is known all over the world as a “masterpiece of classical dignity.” Another great masterpiece by Michelangelo was the colossal “Moses” which was placed in the tomb of his patron, Pope Julius II. Michelangelo’s statues of ‘David’ and ‘Moses’ show the glorification of the human body and deep anatomical study. Benvenuto Cellini made the bust of Cosimo de Medici, the great merchantprince of Florence, which showed great anatomical accuracy and perfection. Leonardo da Vinci was also a great sculptor whose horses in relief have evoked great admiration.

Renaissance literature As mentioned earlier, the Renaissance period ushered a new era in literature. Scholastic education of the Middle Ages which emphasised the importance of grammar and rhetoric on the one hand and professionalism in law, medicine and theology on the other began to decline rapidly with the revival of ancient classics. Emphasis was placed on the study of humanities and the scholars of the Renaissance period called themselves “humanists”. Humanists tried to bring joy to millions by taking interest in the human problems, human nature and human values. They stimulated men’s interest in such disciplines as pagan literature (ancient Greek and Roman literature), history, poetry and philosophy. The humanists began an intellectual movement which had two objectives, namely, the revival of the study of ancient classics (which had been totally neglected during the Middle Ages), many of which had been lost, and on the basis of their knowledge tried to build a bright future. They wished to accomplish this through a searching enquiry of all the values that classical civilisation stood for. Their fresh look at the classical past promoted secular spirit. Italy produced the greatest humanist scholar in the person of Petrarch (1304-74). As mentioned earlier, it was he who promoted the cause of Latin and Greek study and for this purpose initiated a great search for finding manuscripts belonging to the classical past. He was highly influential not only in Italy but all over Europe and even enjoyed the patronage of Pope Clement VI, Emperor Charles IV and the King of Naples. Contemporary scholars admired him more for writing Latin letters—especially his Letters to Ancient Authors—than his finest sonnet (Laura) in Italian. In his Latin letters, he shared his thoughts by addressing ancient Greek and Roman writers such as Homer, Plato, Cicero and others. The writings of this great “father of humanism” in Italy profoundly influenced the scholars and writers of his times. Unfortunately, he could not develop a sound knowledge of Greek. One of the triumvirates of Italy’s early literary Renaissance was Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). He was one of those who preferred to write in Italian to Latin in expressing his passionate feelings, and paved the way for the rise of national literature. His magnum opus was Divina Commedia (Divine Comedy). Dante describes an imaginative journey of a religious pilgrim who goes through hell, purgatory and paradise with such an intense feeling that it set standards for Italian classics. He wrote another book Vita Nuova in which he tells the story of his love for Beatrice who died a premature death. He entered politics, but as illluck would have it, his career ended with his exile.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-75) wrote stories in Italian. He wrote about worldly pleasures and his novel Decameron known for bawdy tales made him extremely popular and set trends for other Romantic novelists. The tales in the celebrated novel are satires on medieval customs and traditions. It ridiculed the existing feudal society. His Latin work was De Claris Mulleribus. Lorenzo de Medici himself wrote Italian verses. The other celebrated poets of Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1553) and Torquato Tasso (1544-96). Ludovico Ariosto was a young lawyer who hated law but loved poetry. He wrote a very long poem consisting of 39,000 lines in ten years and called it Orlando Furioso (Orlando, out of his mind). When it was published, Italians read it, laughed and loved it. The long poem narrated a most adventurous story going back to the age of medieval knights and chivalry. Tasso earned immortal fame by writing a lyrical poem, Jerusalem. A young nobleman at Urbino named Baldassare Castiglione spent eleven years at the court. In his book entitled The Book of the Courtier he wrote about the qualities that make a gentleman. His view of a gentleman was that he should be noble by birth and show sufficient qualities of sportsmanship, and have the skills of fencing, horse-riding, swimming, jumping and playing tennis. Of course, he must know Greek, Latin and history. Wars, feuds, factional politics and immorality which disturbed the stability of many an Italian state attracted the attention of an officer of the Republic of Florence named Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Machiavelli travelled widely and visited many courts of the most powerful kings of his time. He came to know of many secrets and plots hatched to overthrow governments. He used his knowledge and experience by writing a wonderful book, Il Principe (The Prince). This book contained guidelines for most ambitious rulers who wanted to succeed always. Machiavelli wrote, “It is not necessary for a prince to be merciful, faithful, sincere or religious, for that would make him dangerously weak. But it is most necessary for him to seem to be these things.” A good prince should “know how to do wrong when circumstances demand”. He must be like a lion and a fox in order to destroy his enemies who will always be making attempts to destroy him. To Machiavelli, a prince should be merciless, cunning, selfish and deceitful for these qualities will enable him to succeed. Machiavelli probably had in mind Cesare Borgia, a brilliant and successful general of his time. Machiavelli’s other works are History of Florence and Discourses. Francesco Guicciardini, another personage whose work is the History of Italy. The writings of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, unfortunately, do not portray a true picture of what Italy had gone through during those years. They were

obsessed by the ugly and violent incidents which broke out sporadically in Italy and drew hasty conclusions as if they were very common. An important literary figure was Vasari who wrote Lives of Italian Artists. Cosimo de Medici, who became the leader of Florence, maintained Europe’s first public library which included books in Greek. There was hardly any one who knew anything about Greek. Cosimo appointed a young Florentine, Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) who knew Greek, and asked him to translate the Greek works of Plato into Latin. This was how he encouraged the study of Greek philosophy. Ficino introduced his philosophy to his followers which synthesised Platonism and Christianity and called it “Platonic love”. Religion and philosophy should go hand in hand if ignorance of mankind is to be removed and this would achieve highest spiritual goals. Ficino opened an academy for the study of Plato’s philosophy which received patronage from the burghers and churchmen.

The spread of Renaissance From Italy, Renaissance spread to western Europe. The neighbour France was deeply affected since the days of King Francis I (1515-47). He attracted Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci and scholars to his court to “infuse new learning” into his country. For this purpose he established College de France to train the French. No less than the foremost humanist and intellectual, Erasmus, was employed as President of the new College de France. The earliest humanist scholars of France were Lefevre d’ Etaples and Guillaume Bude. France produced two of the greatest humanist scholars in the sixteenth century, namely, Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) and Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592). Rabelais’ famous work was entitled Gargantua and Pantagruel. In this work, Rabelais narrated the adventurous story of father (Gargantua) and son (Pantagruel). He ridiculed the educational methods and abuses of the church of his times. He indirectly revealed in his work that man was capable of solving his own problems by rational thinking. Montaigne may be described as the first writer of modern essays. It was he who gave the essays its present form. His Essais (ninety-four in number) touch every subject “in a direct and lucid style”. He was “self-centred” and a serious person. He preached objectivity, detachment and tolerance and became “a model of seventeenth century free thinkers”. Being a sceptic throughout his life he hoped for a future when reason will yield place to experience. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536): Erasmus of Rotterdam (Holland) is

hailed as the greatest humanist scholar. He studied in a Church school and at a young age entered the monastery. He mastered the Greek and Latin classics and moved about freely in Europe and England. During his tour he met all those who were considered great scholars (Sir Thomas More, John Colet, Bude). He enjoyed the patronage of Pope Leo X, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the Kings of France and England. But his chief title to fame rested upon Greek text of the New Testament and Praise of Folly. In the first named scholarly work he tried to restore the purity of the scripture by removing the cobwebs of Church ignorance, and the second poured ridicule on the follies and superstitions of the Church. He hoped that by his Greek text of the scripture, and its Latin translation (1516) he would settle the religious dispute (see chapter on Reformation). Till the last day of his life he remained a true catholic. He produced his famous works with the hope of reforming the Church from within. Sir Thomas More (1478-1535): Thomas More, the son of London’s prominent barrister, studied at Oxford and became a votary of the “New Learning”. His friendship with the Dutch scholar Erasmus, and “Oxford Reformer” John Colet, turned him into a humanist philosopher. But before he became one, he had his stint in the British Parliament. His great learning and wit made him extremely popular, and King Henry VIII chose him to be the Lord Chancellor of the Realm after Cardinal Wolsey’s infamous exit in 1529. It must be remembered that the “New Learning” was patronised by Humphrey, the Duke of Gloucester, William Grocyn (who started Greek studies at Oxford), and Cardinal Wolsey (who built the Christ Church College at Oxford), in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. While Wolsey’s career ended in misery under King Henry VIII, that of Sir Thomas More’s ended in tragedy. He was beheaded for not recognising the king as the supreme head of the Church in England. More’s Utopia in Latin in 1516, resembled Plato’s work Republic. Thomas More had faith that men and women could build better future and serve what is known as “commonwealth”. His work described such ideals as communal ownership of land, religious tolerance and education of men and women. No man remains in poverty and every one will work for the benefit of society and state (commonwealth). It may be described that Sir Thomas More was the forerunner of Marxian Communism in a way. More became a martyr and was posthumously elevated to sainthood in 1935. The other humanist of the time was Francis Bacon (1561-1626). He advocated scientific methods in his Latin works, Novum Organum (1620) and The New Atlantis (1627). But these Latin works could be read only by the highly educated and therefore people in England began to read only translations. This gave encouragement to the development of vernacular literature. So translation

of Latin works like Thomas North’s version of Plutarch’s Lives paved the way for the flowering of English literature. The golden age of English literature was witnessed during the days of Queen Elizabeth I. Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey followed the example of Italian poets like Petrarch and produced sonnets in English in the sixteenth century and this was continued in the seventeenth century by Spenser, Sidney and Shakespeare. Shakespeare towered above all in the sixteenth century and elevated English literature to world status through his invaluable contributions. Born at Stratfordupon-Avon, Shakespeare (1564-1616) joined the stage as an actor and eventually became the greatest playwright (with 39 plays to his credit) and poet England ever produced. Of him Ben Jonson once wrote that “he was not of an age but for all time”. His thirty nine plays were classified into tragedies (Macbeth and Hamlet), comedies (As you like it), romances (The Tempest), and historical (Julius Caesar, Richard III). In all his plays, Shakespeare portrayed human nature, human sensibilities and emotions at their best through his dramatis personae. Shakespeare also copied the iambic pentametre and wrote more than one hundred and fifty sonnets for which he is little known. Next in importance was John Milton (1608-74), a puritan and classicist, whose epic poetry Paradise Lost (struggle between forces of good and bad) made him a most distinguished figure in English literature. Next to Milton in importance was Edmund Spenser whose great allegorical poem (in praise of Queen Elizabeth I) The Faerie Queen written in a sensuous style remained a milestone in the progress of English literature. Ben Jonson succeeded Shakespeare in writing plays and his great work Volpone portrayed great characters. Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) was one of those who influenced Shakespeare to some extent. His three great tragedies, Tamburlaine the Great, Doctor Faustus and The Rich Jew of Malta elevated him in the realm of English literature. He was Cambridge-educated and the creator of iambic pentametre and blank verse. One of his famous lyrical poems includes The Passionate Shepherd to his Love. Among the metaphysical poets in England, the most noteworthy figures are John Donne, Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace and Andrew Marvell. They dealt with subjects like piety, philosophy, religion and love. In religion, England produced King James’ version of the Holy Bible in 1611 which may be regarded as a great piece of English literature. Richard Hakluyt wrote a work on travel, namely, Principal Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation.

Spanish literature

Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) excelled in prose writing with his rollicking satire, Don Quixote, published in two parts in 1605 and 1615. It became universally popular and set a trend for other satirists. In this work, Cervantes sketches the story of Don Quixote (the land-lord) and Sancho Panza who go on a tour like the brave knights and meet with many comic situations. Here, Cervantes ridiculed the customs and chivalry of the Middle Ages which had become outmoded during his days. The Spanish rulers, Isabella of Castile and Charles I extended liberal patronage to Spanish writers. Comic and religious plays of Lope de Vega (15621635) numbering more than one thousand enriched Spanish literature. They were “witty, emotional and realistic.” The History of Spain was enriched by Bartolome de las Casas when he wrote History of the Indies, and Juan de Mariana with his History of Spain.

German literature Germany was one of those countries where a large number of classics were printed, thanks to the invention of moveable type of printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century. The writer of great consequence in Germany was Martin Luther, the Protestant reformer. His translation of the Bible into German marked the advent of a new era in religious history. Konrad Von Gesner was another prominent German humanist whose works, mostly relating to philology and religion in Latin, encouraged the publication of vernacular works on grammar dictionaries and so on in several countries.

Renaissance paintings in Europe Although the Spanish architecture in the south was influenced by the Moors in Spain, the paintings came under the influence of Italian artists. Many Spanish artists studied paintings in Italy and their skill was imported. The foremost among Spanish painters in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were El Greco (1541-1614), Velasquez (1599-1660), Murillo (1617-82), and the eighteenth century, there was Goya (1746-1828). El Greco began the mannerist style of painting in Spain after living in Toledo for many years. He painted on canvas and was known for his method called “modelling by light”. His well known works are “Christ in the Garden”, “Crucifixion”, and “Burial of Count Orgaz”, Probably his best work is “View of Toledo”. The Spaniards considered Velasquez their greatest painter. His portraits

included those of great personalities of the age, humble peasants, and most important of them all, the charming landscapes. One can hardly forget his portrait of King Philip IV of Spain, “Don Balthasar Carlos on Horseback”, and “The Maids of Honour”. It may be remembered that baroque art found its way into Renaissance painting because of the patronage extended by kings of Europe. Bartolome Esteban Murillo founded the Sevilla Academy and became its president. His works were characterised by “tender sentiment and romantic naturalness” and they included the portrait of “The Virgin”, “Immaculate Conception”, “St. Anthony” and some others at the Alms house at St. Jorge. Wood carvers, silversmiths and iron workers made crucifixes and other carvings to decorate the church in Spain. Obviously they were influenced by the artists of Italy and countries lower down in Europe. The Dutch provinces which broke away from Spain in the middle of sixteenth century produced great artists in painting. The Flemish province in the South remained loyal to Spain and the Catholic Church. Antwerp and Amsterdam became quite prosperous on account of being great trade centres and naturally the bourgeoisie class patronised the artists. Some of the most aristocratic desired self-portraits, some important meetings and banquets and domestic scenes to be painted. The others preferred scenes of natural beauty from artists’ brush to decorate their luxurious homes.

Flemish paintings Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) was a native of Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) and came to be known as a baroque artist. He made painting a most flourishing business and became the most celebrated painter of his time. His customers or clients included King Henry IV, Marie de Medici of France, and James I of England. Thousands of portraits came out of his workshop which represent the most animated, sensuous, colourful and vigourous scenes of men, women and angels. Some of his great paintings are “The Rape of the Sabine Women”, “Descent from the Cross”, and “Judgement of Paris”. Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641) was one of the most celebrated painters of the Flemish school. He was a pupil of Rubens and “developed a distinctive touch and elegant presentation flattering to his courtier patrous”. In 1632, he was appointed the official court painter by King Charles I of England whose portrait the artist painted. Another famous work was “The Children of Charles I”. One of the most noted Dutch painters of the seventeenth century was Rembrandt (1606-69). The Republic of “The United Provinces” as Holland was

known, was the first to become free from the fetters of Spain and the Catholic Church. There was no royal patronage to art as in other countries and the portraits were confined to “realism”. Rembrandt was born at Leyden, and in the course of time became a great artist along with Frans Hals (1581-1666). Rembrandt painted canvases showing women alone, or women singing, or some ordinary scenes with a magic touch of light and shade. Some of his great portraits are “Christ Healing the Sick”, “Supper at Emmaus”, “Portrait of an Old Woman” and many portraits of himself. Rembrandt spent a miserable life in Amsterdam and Leyden and some of his moods are reflected in his paintings such as “Lesson in Anatomy” and “Night Watch”.

English artists Similarly there was reaction against “classicism” in painting in England which in turn resulted in a reaction towards “realism”. William Hogarth, a satirist and moralist expressed his feelings in his paintings such as “Rake’s Progress”, “Marriage a la mode” and “Parliamentary Election”. Reynolds and Gainsbourough were painters who painted the seamy side of life, fashionable courtiers, ladies and gentlemen.

German painters German art was patronised by the wealthy middle class burghers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A few church frescoes in Southern Germany was all that was known in painting. However, it was in the sixteenth century that art of painting reached its peak and due to great artists like Grunewald. Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), Lucas Cranach, and Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) Durer was both a painter and an engraver. He achieved his popularity for his matchless wood and copper engravings. He was a native of Nuremberg and influenced by Italian artists. He was patronised by the Holy Roman Emperor and the Dutch scholar, Erasmus. His famous engravings include “St. Jerome in His study” and “The Knight, Death and Devil”. Holbein belonged to a famous family of painters of Augsburg. He worked at Basel and became famous as a portrait painter. It is said that he infused the spirit of Italian humanism into the traditional art of Germany and the Netherlands. He spent the last few years of his life in England receiving the patronage of King Henry VIII. It was there that he set up the tradition of miniature portrait painting. His style became extremely popular and some of his portraits include those of

Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, Princess Christina, Henry VIII, King’s several wives. George Gisze and Melanchthon were other artists who were known for realism and vivacity.

Modern Music Music in the Middle Ages was religious and it originated from the ancient Greeks, Romans and Hebrews in character. But renaissance music (or modern music) originated from the sixteenth century and it imbibed little of medieval music. It may be due to the influence of religious upheaval which took place in the sixteenth century under the leadership of Martin Luther. Among the important developments one observes is the systemisation of earlier “modes” into “major” and “minor”. Similarly “counterpoint” and “polyphony” became new features. Martin Luther encouraged congregational singing of people in contrast to medieval catholic style and selected “Latin Chants”, “hymns”, and Moravian religious songs. The dominant features of the new music were “harmony, rhythm, and symmetry”. Besides vocal music, instrumental music was encouraged. For achieving this, musical instruments had to be improved. The stringed rebec of medieval times was replaced by the fiddle. Similarly the medieval clavichord was replaced by harpsichord which became the forerunner of the modern piano. Modern violin was in the making. Other instruments included the lute and the organ. It must be remembered that a small country like Flanders led other countries in musical talents and compositions. Flemish singers were always welcome in all palaces and courts, and the most famous of them was Orlando di Lasso (153294). As if to challenge the protestant music, the Roman Catholic Cardinals chose Palestrina (1525-94), one of Italy’s greatest composers, “to provide musical setting for the Mass”. The result was the “Mass of Pope Marcellus”, a dedication to Pope Marcellus II. Palestrina composed a hundred masses and hymns and became the greatest musical composer of the century. Many musicians in Italy produced “Oratories”. Italy also became the centre of great vocal and instrumental music. Giovanni Gabrieli served as an organist at St. Mark’s Cathedral at Venice and subsequently became the founder of orchestral music (different voices combining with a variety of instrumental music). The opera was in the making. The first shop which printed musical compositions started in 1501 at Venice. In England, William Byrd (1539/40-1623) became a noted composer and

subsequently one of the pioneers of “keyboard music”.

Renaissance in Science In the Middle Ages, Europe made progress in science due to her contact with the Arabs, who in turn learnt many things from the Indians. However, pure science could not develop until the advent of the sixteenth century. In the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon rejected scholasticism for its basic weakness and advocated learning through first-hand knowledge. He rejected the findings of Aristotle and insisted on methods of observation, experimentation and reasoning. The first break through in the knowledge of modern science was made in astronomy. With the discovery of new continents and sea-routes, it became imperative to make a new thrust in the study of heavenly bodies and universe of matter. The age of renaissance not only produced great humanist scholars, and artists but also men of science. Renaissance promoted spirit of enquiry and enabled Europe to take giant steps towards scientific and technological progress. Astronomy: For well over thirteen centuries, Europeans never questioned the geocentric theory of Ptolemy, the Greek scientist of the second century AD. This was so because his scheme or theory was in agreement with the “cosmology of the Bible”. Explicitly, the theory explained that the earth remains stationary and at the centre of the universe, and all heavenly bodies go round once every twenty-four hours. The Pythagoreans (followers of Greek scientists, Pythagoros) did not agree with this and advocated heliocentric theory (the sun and not the earth was at the centre of the universe). However, it was not until the discovery of classical works, it came to be known. But the credit of refuting the theory of Ptolemy went to Copernicus, a Polish priest and astronomer (1473-1543). For a number of years, Copernicus watched the sky, the stars, the comets, other celestial bodies and prepared charts and notes. Before this, he spent some years in Italy and studied canon-law, medicine and some findings of ancient Greek astronomers. Just before his death, the results of his labour were published in a book form in Latin called De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (Revolutions of Celestial Bodies) which rejected Ptolemaic theory and proved heliocentric theory to be correct. This book aroused great curiosity and controversy, for the reason that the earth no longer held a pre-eminent position in the solar system. The cosmology of Bible was being challenged. During the time of Copernicus there were hardly any physical instruments to check his theory which was based on mathematical calculations. After his death, his theory was put to severe test by scientists like Tycho

Brahe, Kepler and Galileo. The first named was a Dane who was patronised by King Frederick II. He set up a laboratory on an island and tested Copernican theory and made several observations. His assistant, Johannes Kepler (15711630), a German professor, benefited by these observations and included slight improvement upon the Copernican theory. He said that planets moved in elliptical orbits around the sun and not in a circle as Copernicus said. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) of Italy was a great astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. He used a telescope to study the movements of heavenly bodies for the first time and proved beyond doubt the validity of Copernican theory. He got into trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. He was given the option to recant his statement or suffer the fate of countless heretics. Galileo wisely decided to stay alive but was convinced of the validity of heliocentric theory. Three years later (in 1600) Giordano Bruno was declared heretic by the inquisition and burnt at the stake for agreeing with the Copernican system. Scientific Methods: In Britain, Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) advocated that knowledge should be tested through verification, that is, by empirical methods. He stressed new ideals for education in his Novum Organum in 1620 and also urged the use of empirical methods to test hypothesis. In the New Atlantis he said that man can harness nature through use of scientific knowledge. Mathematics: Allied with astronomy was mathematics—a science which registered considerable progress. A sound knowledge of mathematics proved to be useful either for calendar reform (Pope Gregory XIII reformed the Julian Calendar in 1582) or to test Copernican theory or for modernised warfare or for that matter for keeping accounts. In the sixteenth century, mathematicians made rapid improvements over what they inherited from the ancient Greeks Romans, and the Arabs of the Middle Ages. In Italy, Tartaglia wrote scientific works on mathematics of fortifications and gunnery and solved the cubic equation. Cardan who competed with him in solving the cubic equation was a physician by profession and helped the Pope and King of Denmark by giving his “mathematical advice”. While Ferrari solved quartic equations, Vieta (a French mathematician) used letters like x and y as variables in place of unknown quantities (in algebra and trigonometry) to speed up calculations. His method removed many ambiguities. Kepler (1571-1630) “established the principle of continuity of conic sections”. Descartes (1596-1650), the famous French philosopher, tried to give mathematical validity or foundation to both religion and science. He became the founder of co-ordinate geometry. Simon Stevin introduced decimals for his mathematical calculations in physics. He wrote a treatise on decimal fractions. He recommended the use of decimal system of coinage, weights and measures. He was a pioneer in the field of book-keeping

and his practical advice was followed by governments of France and Netherlands regarding the manner in which government accounts are to be maintained. John Napier (1550-1617) introduced logarithms in 1614 and logarithm tables were prepared by Henry Briggs. Napier became the first man to use the decimal point. Many mathematicians of Europe were finding out symbols for arithmetical and algebraic calculations such as +, ×, ÷, –, =. The great genius of the seventeenth century was undoubtedly Sir Isaac Newton, whose Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was hailed as the greatest work in modern science. He invented the infinitesimal calculus (a German philosopher had also invented it at the same time) and the binomial theorem. Physics: Newton (1643-1727) contributed much to mathematical physics which helped the growth of astronomy. Hydrodynamics and hydrostatics owes much to him. In optics, he proved that rainbow was nothing but decomposition of white light. In other words the structure of light is atomic. Perhaps his greatest contribution was “the law of gravitation” which he put forth in his Principia in 1687. His law of gravitation proved beyond doubt the validity of the Copernican heliocentric system. Edmund Halley, the celebrated astronomer, was a close friend of Newton. Newton is called “the father of modern physics”. Optics: In optics, Willibrord Snell established the law of refraction of light. Christiaan Huygens made use of this knowledge to improve telescopes. It may be remembered that the invention of telescope by the Dutchman Hans Lippershey (1608) enabled scientists to observe the mountain on the moon, solar spots, and satellites of Jupiter. In 1675, the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded and it was designed by Christopher Wren. Metallurgy: In the science of metallurgy, the pioneer was Agricola. He was a student of “New Learning” but as time passed he took more interest in modern medicine, physics and chemistry. After receiving his medical degree, he started practising. He spent liberally from the income derived from his profession on experiments in metallurgy. He lived in Bohemia and Bavaria and after much research in mining produced his magnum opus, Twelve Books on Metals. Progress in Medicine. The “New Learning” revived the study of medicine and anatomy. The great works of Hippocrates and Galen were carefully studied by Vesalius (1514-64), a Dane, who was appointed professor of medicine at Padua. While practicing dissection he found many mistakes in Galen’s works and therefore decided to study anatomy free of Galen’s influence. He condemned the practice of allowing barbers to carry out surgery which was the practice in those days and urged physicians to take scientific training. His greatest treatise on human anatomy was De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543). He started dissecting the corpses which shocked and angered the Church. But Emperor

Charles V appointed him the court physician. Vesalius was succeeded (at Padua University) by Bartolomeo Eustachio (1520-74) who discovered the tubes in the human ears named after him (Eustachian tubes). Similarly Falloppio discovered tubes connecting ovary to the uterus which were named after him the fallopian tubes. William Harvey, the famous English Physician (1578-1657) discovered the circulation of blood (1628) from the heart to the arteries, then to the veins, and thereafter back to the heart. Chemistry: J.B. Van Helmont, a contemporary of William Harvey, discovered gases in the air. He invented the word “gas”. He knew of the existence of carbon dioxide. He held that hyperacidity in a person can be neutralised with alkalies. Botany and Zoology: Konrad Von Gesner, a Swiss-German wrote Catalogue of Plants and enriched the subject of botany. The History of Animals started a new discipline called zoology.

Scientific Inventions As mentioned, one of the most important scientific inventions was the moveable printing press which had far reaching consequences during the renaissance period. Mariners used many instruments which the Chinese had earlier used. The destructive use of gun powder was discovered and the European rulers held monopoly in this field. Another important invention which helped astronomers was the telescope (1608). How it was improved by Galileo and how he could prove Copernican system to be accurate is not known to all. Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock (1656). The invention of microscope (single lens) by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek with which he discovered protozoa, helped the growth of the knowledge of medicine and biology. Thermometer was used to take body’s temperature and it was invented in 1714, by Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German physicist. Thomas Savery invented the first practical steam engine.

Philosophy Renaissance and reformation in Europe created a new ferment, and many thinkers and philosophers rapidly surveyed the world they lived in. They also contributed their might to make the world a better place to live. Thomas More’s Utopia was a necessary thrust in this field. Francis Bacon went a step further with his Novum Organum, The New Atlantis and the Essays. Giordano Bruno, a

very provocative Dominican monk, supported the Copernican system and believed in a supernatural force or divine force by which the universe is controlled. He was declared a heretic for his support extended to Copernican theory and was burnt at the stake. The French philosopher, Rene Descartes, said “I think, therefore I exist” and this symbolised his persisting doubt about everything and therefore inaugurated a new era of science. He tried to find roots of religion and science.

Geography Sailors, merchants, and European rulers evinced keen interest in the development of geography during the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The discovery of the new continent, the new sea-routes, the development of navigational science led to the growth of scientific geography. The most famous among the geographers was Gerhard Kremer, a Dane. He was better known by his Latin name, Mercator. The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, and other German princes employed him for preparing maps and sketches which they needed to conduct wars against their enemies. However, Mercator became wellknown for the invention of projection named after him, the globe, and other instruments. He dispelled many doubts, and rejected many notions about the earth entertained by the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Social sciences With the revival of the classics, ‘scientific history’ took giant strides. Leonardo Bruni wrote the History of the Florentine People and coined the word humanitas. History attained scientific status when “collecting, criticizing and editing of manuscripts and source materials” became a part of the duty of the historian. Political science attained a status with the contributions of Machiavelli and Jean Bodin. At the end of the sixteenth century interest in the theory of national wealth increased leading to the growth of modern economics.

2 Major Ideas of Enlightenment: Kant and Rousseau Impact on Science and Religion

I

n the chapter on Renaissance, it has been emphasised that in the realm of science, great progress was achieved due to the discoveries and inventions. A giant among the scientists was Newton whose law of gravitation “marked the closing of one epoch in the history of human thought and the beginning of another”. It was proved that the universe was based on some order and that celestial phenomena occur at regular intervals. Even clocks are set to time based on the precise motion of celestial bodies. The scientific revolutions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had great impact on people’s minds. It dispelled religious superstitions and introduced secular thoughts. One of the important things in society which came to be seriously affected was traditional Christianity. Protestant Reformation followed by Catholic Counter-Reformation, which was in turn, followed by religious wars in Europe, all led to the evolution of “natural religion”. The natural laws of the universe came to be applied to religion also. It was then that a conflict arose between those who believed in traditional Christianity and the supporters of natural religion. One of the great supporters of natural religion was Baruch Spinoza who said God and universe are one and the same. But the Jews and Christians attacked him for expressing atheistic views. Thus he became the most misunderstood man during the seventeenth century.

Leibniz Apart from Baruch Spinoza, the other person to make an attempt to reconcile

religion with science was Leibniz (1646-1716). He rejected Spinoza’s theory and said that substance was the ultimate reality, and it can be perceived only as a force. The universe is made up of many centres of force, that is, monads (or atoms of nature). Leibniz tried to prove the existence of God in terms of scientific formula. He tried “to throw the light of reason on old theological concepts”.

Deism A group of rationalists known as Deists came into prominence. They rejected traditional Christianity of mysticism, prayers and rituals. The only thing they liked in Christianity was the ethical teachings of Christ. They believed that God was an impersonal force and He created this universe. Immutable laws operate in this universe. What he expected from people was ethical conduct and human perfection based on reason. One of those who belonged to the Deist group was Voltaire, the famous French philosopher, who attacked Christianity for all its “absurdities”. Diderot also ridiculed the Christian doctrines. Rousseau belonged to the Deist group but he was not so vehement in his attacks on Christianity as others were. He proposed the establishment of a civil religion. With the support of great rational thinkers like Immanuel Kant, Reimarus (both German), Tom Paine, Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, Deism became something like a revolutionary movement and threatened orthodox Christianity. Thomas Paine (1737-1809) whose influence was felt both in the American and French Revolutions, became the typical representative of the Age of Enlightenment.

Pietism Another remarkable religious development was Pietism. It emerged on account of the sectarian feelings developed among Christians. Their constant bickering and intolerance gave rise to disgust among intellectuals who believed in pure and simple teachings of Christ. Foremost among its leaders was Philip Spener, a German Lutheran pastor. He urged his fellow Lutheran and Calvinist Protestants to avoid controversies on dogmas and become “practical mystics”. In the eighteenth century, Pietism received its impetus from Emanuel Swedenborg of Sweden whose mystical works made him extremely popular.

Quakers

George Fox, an Englishman and a contemporary of Spencer, founded a sect called “Quakers” or “Friends”. Fox was not an intellectual as the others were. However, he was self-educated, well-opinionated and a sincere pietist. He despised outward forms of orthodox Christianity and insisted upon inward spiritual experience with simple living and high thinking. He preached his principles in England, Scotland and America. He detested wars and urged his followers to depend on the guidance of the “inner light”. Although the sect did not become popular, it counted among its votaries great men like William Penn and other radical Protestants of the time. One of the great followers of Pietism was Wesley. He founded a “Club” called “Holy Club” in Oxford University in 1729, which consisted mostly of his college mates. The members of this club avoided a gay and easy-going life and developed spiritual fervour and piety. They came to be known as Methodists because they scrupulously followed certain principles in life. Wesley made the Methodist movement extremely popular by his lectures and sermons which he delivered during his travels. He had a most fruitful preaching career spanning over fifty years during which he delivered about 40,000 sermons. According to him anyone could be a Christian if he lived according to the Christian principles, and accepted Christ as his saviour.

Jansenist Movement Turning towards the Catholic church, one perceives a progressive movement or a Pietist movement growing within. It was led by Cornelius Jansen, a bishop living in the Spanish Netherlands. He believed not only in the outward forms of Catholic religion but urged his followers to experience a “conversion”—a path leading to spiritual perfection and holiness. His disciples in France made PortRoyal near Paris a centre of Jansenist movement, and one of the great supporters of this movement was Blaise Pascal, the celebrated mathematician. Jansenist movement received a setback when King Louis XIV, urged by Jesuits, declared it as heretical. Though it was cut off from the Catholic Church (on account of the Pope’s Bull), it has survived to this day in Dutch Netherlands.

Pietism in Russian Orthodox Church Pietism appeared even in the Russian Eastern Orthodox Church in the middle of the seventeenth century. It appeared once again in the eighteenth century with some dissenting peasants forming a sect called Doukhobors. The Doukhobors

believed in the “inner light”, like the Quakers to guide them. They regarded military service as unchristian.

Atheism While Pietism and Deism may be regarded as the first and second development respectively, towards the path of enlightenment (or Age of Reason), there was one more in the offing. It was Atheism. Atheism got its support from the French encyclopaedists. Foremost among them was Holbach (a German by birth). His home was visited by noted intellectuals of the time. In two of his noted works, Christianity Unveiled and System of Nature, published in 1767 and 1770 respectively, he repudiated the existence of God and attacked Christianity for being the root cause of all evils. Holbach’s writings took many Pietists and Deists by surprise. Catholics and Protestants felt outraged. They attempted to refute Holbach’s thesis. The rise of Free Masonry in England and other European countries was one more religious development which took place in the eighteenth century.

Religious Tolerance One of the most important results of the “novel religious developments” of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was the spread of religious tolerance in many parts of Europe. The Pietists made it clear that religion was a matter concerned with inner feelings of individuals and individual conscience. External observance was not enough and had no meaning. The Deists emphasised that religion as existing was all superstitious and ritualistic and therefore the real religion was natural religion which they envisaged. In view of these circumstances it was hoped that politicians, statesmen and rulers would take note of these and evolve religious policies in tune with the times. During the second half of eighteenth century, Europe witnessed a kind of religious liberalism. Anti-Catholic laws were not strictly enforced. Similarly in France, anti-Protestant laws remained dormant. Charles III of Spain restrained inquisition and extended religious tolerance. Pope Benedict XIV also did not press for the trial and punishment of heretics. Being an intellectual and liberal he was praised by no less a person than Voltaire, the French philosopher. The Jesuits who had whipped up Catholic fanaticism in many countries of Europe invited the wrath of many rulers, including the Pope. The king of Portugal expelled the Jesuits from Portuguese dominions and the same policy was

followed by the Spanish and French kings. The most distinguished rulers of Europe in the eighteenth century, namely, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia and Joseph II of Austria practised religious tolerance. Frederick the Great was prepared to extend religious tolerance as a state policy. Similarly, Catherine the Great extended religious tolerance even to the Muslims and Jesuits and allowed them to settle in a corner of her empire. She conformed, herself to the precepts of the Orthodox Church but detested its clergy. The property of the church was secularised. Joseph II of Austria became a great champion of religious tolerance. His Austrian Empire comprised polyglots, people belonging to various races and creeds. In an attempt to bring about a proper cohesion and solidarity in his Empire he was prepared to tolerate all creeds—even the Jews and Moslems.

Emancipation of Jews In this age of reason and religious liberalism Europe witnessed the emancipation of Jews. They were found wandering all over Europe and many governments were not prepared to give them shelter. In some states they were allowed to settle on the condition that they would not have any rights. Thus Jews were ill-treated (Christians had not forgotten about what they did to Jesus Christ and the Gentiles) and they were segregated from the rest of the population. Under these conditions the Jews pined for their promised land. In the eighteenth century, the Jews came under the influence of Moses Mendelssohn, a German Jewish philosopher and scientist. He advised the Jews to avoid seclusion and segregation and mingle freely with the rest of the people. He pleaded for reforms in education and enjoyment of full civil rights by Jews. Their emancipation began in Prussia under Frederick the Great who was out to prove that he was the most enlightened despot. His policy of religious tolerance was followed by others. Joseph II advised Christians to treat Jews “in a friendly manner”.

Impact of Social Science While attitudes of enlightened rulers towards religion and religious practises were undergoing gradual change in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, there developed a growing concern about man’s place and function in society. As natural religion made progress, similarly, a rationalist study of man also made some advances. This study attained the status of a science and was called Social Science. Critical study of man was undertaken which was devoid of religious

influence.

History: Giovanni-Battista Vico (1668-1744) During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, history—the study of man’s past—entered a crucial phase of development. For the first time attention was paid to the development of critical historical scholarship which was totally objective and natural in spirit and devoid of religious influence or what was known as ‘miracles’. Foremost among the historians who developed this kind of scholarship was Vico, an Italian professor. He subjected the sources of ancient Greek and Roman history to severe tests and proved that some of them were ‘unreliable’. Changes in political institutions and works of art were the outcome of changes in the circumstances and environment of a country, he said. But more important was when he declared “Each society carried within it seeds of dissolution”. Montesquieu was very much influenced by the writings of Vico and some of them were adopted in his Spirit of the Laws. The concept of social progress became an essential element in the writings of Vico whose prominent work was The Story of Civilisation Science Nuova, or New Science, 1725.

Helvetius (1715-71) Helvetius was another French rationalist who laid emphasis on the possibility and desirability of social progress in human society. He pleaded for equal rights and opportunities for all men so that there could be a better society.

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-94) The idea of social progress found a great champion in Marquis de Condorcet (1743-94), a French philosopher, mathematician and free thinker. He declared that the human race was advancing rapidly towards perfection. He divided the history of mankind into several periods and showed how in each period progress was achieved. He outlined the need for popular education as that would act as an instrument by which progress could be achieved.

Scientific Materialism In tune with the development of physical and mathematical sciences of the day,

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) tried to develop a model or system by which human actions in society could be explained in the manner natural phenomenon was explained by scientists. In other words, he wanted to build such a science which would explain human nature after observing and analysing processes of human thoughts. Hobbes believed that man, like the universe, was like a machine and functioned like a machine—he called it matter in motion. Man’s sense organs come into contact with this motion which leads to “certain sensations”. Knowledge is derived out of these sensations. This was his famous theory of sensationalism. Hobbes justified absolute monarchy on the ground that it was the only rational means by which selfish human nature could be dealt with. This theory was propounded in his book Leviathan (1651). His further speculations led others to think about the need for a rational form of government. John Locke (1632-1704) acknowledged the theory of sensationalism by Hobbes as a great contribution and adopted it in his work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. On the basis of Hobbes’ theory of sensationalism, Locke founded the school of empiricism. It believes that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. This school advocated that knowledge should be based upon experience and reason. The empiricists discredited the theory of innate ideas of Plato.

Sovereignty and Social Contract Hobbes advocated absolute monarchy, as mentioned before, because he thought that it was a dire political necessity, and hardly cared for the right to revolt against tyranny. He detested the 1648 revolution in England. In contrast Locke justified the Glorious Revolution in England (1688) on grounds of violation of social contract and popular sovereignty. But Rousseau went one step ahead by saying that government should exist and continue only by popular consent. Thus popular sovereignty theory found a doughty champion in the person of Rousseau. Rousseau appealed to emotions rather than reason and rational thinking and Hayes says that he “possessed the soul of a poet”. Whereas Hobbes described the “natural man” as a selfish and dangerous brute, Rousseau called him “noble savage”. As against the wickedness and greedy civilised men of contemporary times of Hobbes, Rousseau painted the picture of “natural man” with inherent goodness. In the state of nature all men were free and equal and there were no quarrels, no oppressive taxes and no wars. In the Origin of Inequality Among Men, Rousseau narrated how all this changed for the worse. In his Social Contract (1762) he explained how governments came to be set up

by people on the basis of contract. Locke’s popular sovereignty theory was given a new colour and glorified by Rousseau for which he was both condemned and eulogised. Some of his admirers included David Hume, Thomas Paine, Herder and Kant. Kant borrowed ideas of Rousseau and spread them through his writings in Germany. Rousseau’s call for “Back to nature” found numerous followers.

Legal and Constitutional Studies In legal and constitutional studies one comes across great jurists like Blackstone (Commentaries, 1765), Montesquieu (Spirit of the Laws) and Beccaria (On Crimes and Punishments – 1761). Another great jurist of the time was Jeremy Bentham who, based on his researches in law, politics, economics, ethics and religion, propounded the “Benthamite philosophy”. His utilitarian philosophy urged “the greatest good of the greatest number”. His doctrine in terms of economics implied free trade, low taxes, efficient government, unrestricted competition and abolition of monopoly. In terms of politics, it implied civil liberty, individual liberty and constitutional government with emphasis on individual liberty. The Benthamite philosophy found staunch advocates in James Mill (1773-1836) and his son, John Stuart Mill (1806-73). Through his great works, namely, Fragment on Government and Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham advocated political and utilitarian reforms respectively. In keeping with Benthamite philosophy Adam Smith propounded ‘laissez faire’ in his Wealth of Nations.

Joseph II of Austria, the Last Enlightened Despot (1765-90) Emperor Joseph II of Austria may be reckoned as the last great and enlightened despot of the eighteenth century. He absorbed fully the great ideas emanating from philosophers, and his reign witnessed many beneficial reforms. Son of Maria Theresa and Francis of Lorraine, Joseph II was a great admirer of Voltaire and Rousseau. He declared, “I have made philosophy the legislator of my empire; its logical principles shall transform Austria.”

His Reforms His religious reforms were aimed at purging the Catholic church of its

“superstition” and “unreason” and establishing state control over it. He confiscated church lands, nominated bishops, abolished many monasteries, and extended his control over papal decrees in his dominions. Jews and Protestants were accorded equal rights with Catholics, and the clergy received training in state-run schools. His political reforms aimed at welding his heterogeneous dominions with polyglot population, diverse races and different creeds, into a nation. He introduced administrative reforms by dividing his empire into thirteen provinces, each under a military commander. The keynote of his administrative policy was centralisation and everything was managed from the capital at Vienna. He did not allow local privileges, and in pursuance of his policy, abolished the Hungarian Diet. German became the official language of the empire. He reformed the judicial administration by introducing a uniform code of justice. He removed all privileges including those of the nobles and clergy, and compelled them to share the burden of taxes like the rest in the society. The clergy no longer controlled the education of children and it came under state control. All children received education. His greatest act was to abolish serfdom in his empire. He allowed serfs to marry without the lord’s consent. They enjoyed the right to sell lands, and in return for their services to the lord, they were to pay rent. He made his subjects happy and prosperous by paying attention to agriculture, industry and free education. He received full support for his reforms from Chancellor Kaunitz. But the clergy and nobles hated him and the conservative public did not show sympathy for his ideals. Hungarians protested loudly for they lost local autonomy. Their constitution had to be restored finally. Joseph II died a disappointed man after seeing that all his reforms were being nullified.

Other Despots King Charles III of Spain initiated political, economic and religious reforms. He suppressed the Jesuits and abolished inquisitions. He improved economic conditions by encouraging scientific farming. King Joseph I of Portugal too worked hard to improve the material well-being of his subjects. King Gustavus III of Sweden was well spoken of as an enlightened despot.

Enlightened Monarchy in France Declines On his deathbed, Louis XIV called his great grandson and heir, Louis XV (1715-

74) to his bedside and cautioned thus: “My child, you will soon be sovereign of a great kingdom. Do not forget your obligations to God; remember that it is to Him you owe all that you are. Endeavour to live at peace with your neighbours; do not imitate me in my fondness for war, nor in the exorbitant expenditure which I have incurred. Take counsel in all your actions. Endeavour to relieve the people at the earliest possible moment, and thus to accomplish what, unfortunately, I am unable to do myself.” (Hayes, Modern Europe to 1870) Although it was a good and timely advice, Louis XV and his ministers hardly heeded it. During his long reign France was involved in at least three conflicts—Polish Election, Austrian Succession and the Seven Years’ War— which entailed heavy expenditure in terms of men and money. The only gain which accrued to France was the acquisition of Corsica and Lorraine. But these wars permanently damaged her reputation as a great maritime and colonial power. Britain usurped her place after the peace of Paris in 1763, and the glory of France began to decline rapidly. Her fortunes were at the lowest ebb due to the misrule of King Louis XV.

Petticoat Government Louis XV was endowed with intelligence and ability, and he could sense the impending doom. But he was not prepared to stem the rot that had crept into his administration. It must be remembered that his government was highly autocratic and he alone could have saved France from impending danger. But he loathed serious work and shamelessly led a life of debauchery. He spent money like water to satisfy his many mistresses, chief among them being Madam de Pompadour and Madam du Barry. These “putty-headed mistresses” often influenced him in vital political matters of the state. After the death of Cardinal Fleury (Principal Minister) in 1743 there was virtual chaos in France. France, enjoying a highly centralised administration required the necessary advice and direction from the head of the state and that was not forthcoming. Choiseul, the new chief minister (1764-70), tried to stem the rot but he was swept aside by Madam du Barry, the new mistress of the King.

Arbitrary Nature of Bourbon Monarchy The disastrous wars of Louis XV undermined his popularity and prestige, and the loyalty of the people to Bourbon monarchy was shaken. All policies of the king came to be severely criticised. King Louis XV tried to crush opposition to

him through the infamous letters de cachet (letters bearing the royal seal used by officials to arrest persons in France). These letters were issued in blanks for use by privileged orders or petty officials by which enemies of the King were arrested and sent to prison. Many a time these blank orders were misused by nobles and administrative officials to crush their own enemies. Louis XV abolished the Parliament of Paris and other local Parliaments which began to criticise him on matters of taxation and foreign policy issues. In their place he set up courts and strictly confined their activities to judicial work. Realising the impending storm that was gathering in France, the king declared, “Apres moi, le deluge” (After me the deluge).

Age of Enlightenment: Supplementary notes The term “enlightenment” in modern world history refers to a European intellectual movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In fact it constitutes the last phase of the period of Renaissance. As already mentioned Renaissance acted as a transition from the medieval times to the modern period. German Philosopher Immanuel Kant referred to Enlightenment as: “Mankind’s final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance and error.” While earlier period of Renaissance laid emphasis on cultural revival, the last phase stressed on the intellectual movement. Philosophers of the age of enlightenment introduced great ideas about God, Nature, Reason and Man on the basis of reason. Their discussions led to new vistas in science and mathematics, humanities and the art of governance. Their unfettered thinking led to the formation of Deism and endowed man with his natural religion. Their literary and philosophical contributions began to focus on authoritarian governments, and also on the necessity of introducing reforms. Morality and ethics formed the core of their arguments in the evolving critique of tyrannical governments. The thinkers and philosophers of the period of enlightenment rejected blind faith and religious dogmas, and laid emphasis on logic and reason.

Voltaire (1694-1778) The age of enlightenment is closely associated with Voltaire, the greatest among the literary figures of Europe in the eighteenth century. Throughout his life Voltaire remained free and fearless and became quite popular among the

European masses. In those days the French began to describe the eighteenth century as the age of Voltaire. Voltaire was at ease while writing on subjects like History, Drama, Ethics and even Science. What made him famous even more was the manner in which he mocked at the nobles and the clergy for their eccentricities and corruption. He had harsh things to say about the Church. In many of his satires he launched tirades against the Church for its pretensions and corruption. He did not even spare the state for its corrupt bureaucracy and high handedness. He took up the cause of the aggrieved who were denied justice at hands of the mighty. His mockery at the existing systems invited the wrath of the government. France became quite unsafe for him, and he had to go into exile. In England he continued to write many articles which championed the cause of freedom of the individual. On his return to France he was sent to prison. After his release, he went to Prussia on the invitation of Frederick the Great. The latter made him a courtier and patronized his free and fearless writings. Among his prolific contributions to French literature, the most famous is The Candide. It is a “satire on philosophical optimism”. The next important work, Lettres Philosophiques, was another satire against the church and the State. Other works include Contes, Micromegas, and Zadig. All relate to philosophical and moral issues. It is necessary to stress that Voltaire dedicated his entire life to expose “the abuses and inequities of the laws and the judicial system, of arbitrary imprisonment, of torture”. With his biting sarcasm and vitriolic comments, he exposed hypocrisies, bigotry and cruelties of the age in which he lived. He died at the age of 84 in France. It was an irony of fate that even after his death, that the abbot who performed his last rites was dismissed from his post.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Rousseau was born in Geneva to poor parents. His father was a watch maker. At the age of sisteen, he left his native place for Savoy. It was there that he fell in love with Baroness de Warens who helped him to pursue his studies. He went to Paris at the age of thirty, and joined the Centre of Philosophes headed by Denis Diderot. At that time Diderot was working on his famous Encyclopedie. Rousseau made his mark as a lyricist and economist. In 1750, he published Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. In this book he explained that “Man is good in nature but has been corrupted by society and civilization…”. In 1754. he published a Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men.

In this book he differed from the opinion of British philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, by saying that in the state of nature, man’s life was happy and healthy. However, after the formation of society and the introduction of private property, his life became miserable. In his Social Contract (1762), he declared that “Man was born free but he is everywhere in chains”. This book became quite popular and influential. It moulded the thinking of many revolutionaries and philosophers of his age. Many say that the theory enunciated in the Social Contract laid the cornerstones of democracy. He published another book titled Emile which was about the education system in France. It became quite controversial. This book argued for educational reforms. In pursuit of excellence children were encouraged to express their emotions and thoughts freely. He discouraged religious education for young children. He also opposed the introduction of ancient languages, Greek and Latin, in the school curricula as he thought that these languages may not prove helpful while seeking employment. His view enraged the Church, and he was forced to leave Paris. He spent the rest of his life in Switzerland. During the last years of his life he became mentally unstable. His last work Confessions is an autobiography. Historian C.D.M. Ketelbey says that “Rousseau began where Voltaire left off; the latter harnessed the horses of reason, the former unchained the tigers of emotion”. Rousseau’s Social Contract made a deep impact on the intellectuals of France and the US. During the French Revolution of 1789, the revolutionaries adopted a resolution in the national assembly which said: “Men are born free and equal in rights”. It reiterated Rousseau’s idea of liberty and equality. Again the spirit of the Social Contract was reflected in the drafting of the declaration of American War of Independence in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration states that “All men are created equal: that they endowed by their creators with certain inalienable rights….” Rousseau denounced the divine right of kingship, class privileges, and introduced principles of democracy. He laid emphasis on sovereignty of the people (“General Will”) over and above the legal sovereignty. He fought for political and social equality of all citizens. Together with Montesquieu, he laid the cornerstone of modern democracy in which the individual citizen enjoys liberty, equality and fraternity.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Immanuel Kant is regarded as front ranking philosopher of the age of enlightenment. He was born in a poor family at Konigsberg, Prussia. He studied Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Konigsberg where he become professor in 1770. He led a disciplined life and was known for his punctilious habits. He became a prolific writer during his academic life. His first important work was Critique of Pure Reason (1781) which dealt with the nature of knowledge in mathematics and physics. The next important work was the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Another important work of Kant was the Critique of Practical Reason (1788) wherein he explains the elements of ethics. His last work, the Critique of Judgment (1790), relates to “the nature of aesthetic judgment and the existence of teleology, or purposiveness, in nature”. All these works represent his great contributions to the history of philosophy. The system of philosophy that he created, and the system of philosophy which “have arisen from the study of his writings are known by the name of Kantianism”. His contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and ethics were substantial, and influenced many philosophers of his time. He gave the idea of universal moral law and freedom. He rejected extreme materialism arising out of the philosophy of individualism. He became ardent advocate of liberalism and nationalism. He prescribed a moral code of conduct for rulers and statesman to follow. He believed in a strong monarchy, but at the same time expected the monarch to respect the rights of peace loving subjects. He believed that the State is a necessary evil, because without it there can be no law and order. He wanted men to develop the power of reasoning, and decide what’s right and wrong. Along with other great men of his time, he held that God was an impersonal force, and supported the cause of a natural religion like Deism. Kant had something to say about history and geography. He mentioned that “history and geography (time and space) were the two cornerstones for understanding the philosophy of knowledge”. He said that both these subjects are integrating sciences that fill up the “entire circumference of our perception”. Furthermore, he said that moral laws determine human acts. He justified the study of history saying that “man is a rational being, and the full development of his potentialities therefore requires an historical process”. A logical understanding of history is a must. Through history one can perceive the planned march of divine providence. But he held dismal view about the lessons to be drawn from history for guiding the future. Kant conceived of a world state devoid of international conflicts. He wanted the governments to fulfil the aspirations of the people. Some of his great ideas promoted nationalism and emotional integration of the people. He gave

importance to moral progress of man and discarded hankering after material possessions. He was very much influenced by the works of David Hume, the Scottish philosopher. In a tribute to Hume, Kant said that he (Hume) awakened him from his “dogmatic slumbers”.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) Born in Thetford (Norfolk, England), he met Benjamin Franklin who advised him to immigrate to America. Paine became famous as an English American writer and political pamphleteer. He settled in Philadelphia in 1774 and edited the Pennsylvania Magazine. He wrote a fifty-page pamphlet titled Common Sense wherein he fervently argued for the independence of America. It is said that nearly 500,000 copies of this pamphlet were quickly sold at a time when the colonies were demanding independence. He joined as a volunteer during the War of American Independence. In yet another pamphlet, Crisis, he inspired American soldiers to fight for the freedom of their country. General Washington was deeply moved after reading this pamphlet (16 papers), that he advised his soldiers at Valley Forge to read the same. Paine returned to England in 1787, where he supported the cause of the French Revolution. He welcomed the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789 and defended the formation of the French Republic in his famous book, The Rights of Man. The British Government banned this book for it attacked the monarchy in general, and declared him an outlaw. He fled to France in 1792 where he was welcomed by the leaders of the revolution. He got elected as a member of the National Convention. During the course of the violent revolution (the reign of terror) he criticized its leaders. He was imprisoned at the orders of Robespierre, the leader of the revolution. It was in prison that he wrote The Age of Reason. This book earned him great reputation. He was declared an atheist, but in fact he advocated Deism. This book earned him great reputation. After the fall of Robespierre, and with the help from the new American Minister to France, James Monroe, Paine was released from prison in 1794. He returned to the US in 1802, where he was ignored despite his services to the cause of American Revolution. He died a poor man in New York in 1809.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) Thomas Jefferson is known to all of us as the one who drafted the Declaration of Independence of the United States in 1776. He started his career as a planter in

Virginia, and thereafter became a lawyer and a slave holder. He reached the acme of his political career after he got elected as the third president of the US. He wrote the Summary View of the Rights of British America, an influential document, which declared that the British Parliament had no authority to pass laws for the colonies. Soon after the declaration of independence, he became the Governor of Virginia. He also drafted the first of the Northwest Ordinances which related to the demarcation and settlement of the borders. Subsequently, he replaced Benjamin Franklin as Minister to France in 1785. George Washington appointed him as the Secretary of State (1790-93). It was during this time that Jefferson opposed Alexander Hamilton (Finance Secretary) about the country’s foreign policy and about the interpretation of the American constitution. He became vice-president during the administration of President John Adams. He later resigned for he did not like President Adams signing the Alien and Sedition Acts. Along with James Madison he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. As the third President of the US (1801-09), Jefferson was responsible for the purchase of Louisiana territory from the French Emperor Napoleon in 1803. This purchase resulted in doubling the area of the US territory. Though he was a slave holder, he opposed slavery. It was due to his efforts that two great institutions were founded in America, namely, the American Philosophical Society and the University of Virginia. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson spent the last years of their lives in intimate contact forgetting their feud. As fate had it, both died on the same day, 4th July 1826 (50th anniversary of American Independence).

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Benjamin Franklin was born 17 January, 1706 in Boston, Massachusetts. He worked with his brother, a local printer, for a few years. In the course of time, he taught himself how to write effectively. He left Boston in the year 1723 and settled in Philadelphia. It was there that he became a successful news editor. Along with his partners, he published The Pennsylvania Chronicle which criticized the British Monarchy and aroused revolutionary sentiments. His another publication Poor Richard’s Almanack made him extremely popular and wealthy because of its proverbs, aphorisms and maxims which all emphasised prudence, industry and honesty among American citizens. He also published The Pennsylvania Gazette. Benjamin Franklin became popular for some of his philanthropic activities

like opening a hospital, an insurance company to help the poor, a library and an academy. The latter turned into the University of Pennsylvania. He was also one of the founders of the American Philosophical Society, of which he became the first president. In the long list of illustrious public figures in the history of the US, he is considered as a most extraordinary and brilliant statesman, philosopher, publisher, philanthropist and scientist.

Franklin’s Public Service Benjamin Franklin rendered great public service not only for the cause of American Independence but also in the drafting of the American Constitution. Prior to American Independence, he represented his colony in the colonial legislature for about fifteen years. He went to England as a representative of the British colonies for the repeal of the Stamp Act. When the British government decided to continue its imposition of taxes on the colonists, he joined the other revolutionaries. He represented the state of Pennsylvania in the Second Continental Congress. Along with others, he joined Thomas Jefferson in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. He went to France to seek the support of the French government during the war of independence. He took active part at the time of negotiations for concluding a peace treaty with Britain in 1783. He played a major role at the Constitutional Convention which met for the purpose of framing the American Constitution (1787-89).

Franklin’s Inventions Benjamin Franklin was well known for his inventions which included the lightening rod, bifocal glasses, Franklin stove, flexible urinary catheter and the glass armonica. His scientific inquiries included various fields like Electricity, Oceanography, Meteorology, Optics and Economics.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Thomas Hobbes was born on 5 April 1588 at Westport, England. In his early life he was looked after by his uncle. He graduated from the University of Oxford. Thereafter he became a tutor. He travelled widely in Europe and held philosophical discussions with Galileo. He concentrated his attention on developing political theories. It was in the midst of civil war in England that he

wrote his famous work Leviathan, in which he strongly supported royal absolutism. His support for a strong monarchy in England, especially when there was a rising anti-royal sentiment provoked the public. He fled to Paris in 1640. Leviathan makes a reference to a hypothetical social contract in which citizens receive protection from the monarch in return for the maintenance of law and order. According to Hobbes, man in the state of nature was both brutish and cruel, and therefore needed to be tamed by a strong monarch. However, he wanted the strong monarch to respect the will of the people. He returned to England in 1651, i.e. after the death of King Charles I. The British Parliament was angry with him and even threatened to declare him an atheist. Hobbes may be considered as one of the supporters of liberalism although he favoured royal absolutism.

John Locke (1632-1704) John Locke was born on 29 August, 1632, at Wrington, Somerset. He was educated at Oxford in medicine and science and thereafter became a physician. Due to certain compulsions, he went to the Netherlands where he supported the future British King William III. He returned to England after the bloodless Glorious Revolution of 1688. He became the Commissioner of Appeals for the rest of his life. His first philosophical work was Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). In this book he argued that knowledge is derived from sensation or introspection, which was in total deviation from the view held by rationalist philosophers. Locke said that mind receives ideas from sensation and reflection. These ideas provide inputs for knowledge. In yet another important publication, Two Treatises of Government (1690), he advocated the doctrine of natural rights. He also said that political authority should be made “limited and conditional on the ruler’s fulfilment of his obligation to serve the public good”. In other words, Locke advocated the theory of legal sovereignty and constitutional rule. He may be regarded as a great follower of political liberalism, and his works influenced both American and French revolutionaries. His ideas also influenced the framers of the American Constitution. He can be credited with having laid the foundation of British Empiricism.

Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755) Montesquieu belonged to a French noble family in Bordeaux and studied law. He began his political career as a Member of Parliament at Bordeaux. He went

on study tours and examined a number of political institutions in Europe and England. After twenty years of hard study, he produced his magnum opus, Spirit de Lois (1750), a work on political philosophy and classification of governments. This work became so popular in France that it saw twenty-two editions within eighteen months. The most important contribution made in this book refers to the idea of separation of powers. Although this idea was not new, Montesquieu gave them best exposition. He said: “when the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehension may arise lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws and execute them in tyrannical manner…. “. So Montesquieu tried to establish that all the three powers of the government should not rest in the same person or the same body. He felt that the British Government was the best because its three organs, namely, the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary are separated, and thereby ensuring the liberty of the individual. The writings of Montesquieu and his spirit of laws influenced the framers of American constitution. The separation of powers was embedded in the American constitutional system by its founding fathers. Montesquieu indirectly criticized the French monarchy of his time for its autocratic regime. He wrote Persian Letters in 1721, which are satirical in nature. Another important work of his, titled, Causes of the Greatness and Decadence of the Romans (1734), is historical in nature.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) Jeremy Bentham, a British philosopher and legal theorist, was born in Houndsditch, London. He graduated from Oxford University at the age of fifteen. He expounded the doctrine of utilitarianism. He became an ardent advocate of laissez faire economics (free trade) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo. In his most important work, An Introduction of Morals and Legislation, he explained about the pain and pleasure experienced by mankind. He felt that the purpose of all legislation should bring about “greatest happiness of the greatest number”. He believed punishment involved pain, and is therefore an evil. Hence punishment should be inflicted sparingly. His work influenced the law makers of his time, who carried out prison reforms. Bentham was one of the founders of a radical journal titled, Westminster Review (1823).

Adam Smith (1723-1790) Adam Smith was born on 5 June, 1723 at Kirkcaldy, Scotland. He was a son of a customs official. He studied at the Universities of Glasgow and Oxford. He developed close friendship with David Hume, another great philosopher. Adam Smith became a lecturer at the Glasgow University in 1751. During his academic career, he produced two important works, namely, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). It took nine years to produce the latter. It became the first comprehensive work on political economy. It brought him great reputation and is considered as a classic. It is described as the Bible of Capitalism and opposed the theory of mercantilism which was practiced by the British government. Adam Smith proposed an economic system based on free trade that promoted individual self-interest that would ultimately create greater prosperity. He advocated free trade among nations (free of tariff barriers). It promotes division of labour and specialization. He was appointed as Commissioner of Customs in Scotland in 1777. In 1787 he became the rector at the University of Glasgow. He realised the evils of capitalism that would emanate from free enterprise and monopoly. He advocated free market economy wherein the government will have minimal role to play. The price of commodities is determined by market forces (supply, demand and competition).

Influence of Enlightenment One of the rulers of Europe who was influenced by the great ideas of philosophers was Emperor Joseph II of Austria. The impact of enlightenment was felt in evolving his administrative system. He was a great admirer of Voltaire and Rousseau. He declared, “I have made philosophy the legislator of my empire; its logical principles shall transform Austria”. His religious reforms were based on his secular attitude. Jews and Protestants were accorded equal rights with Catholics. He removed all privileges enjoyed by the nobles and the clergy, and compelled them to share the burden of taxes like the rest in the society. His greatest act was abolition of serfdom in his empire. Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-96) was also influenced by the ideas of enlightenment. She considered herself as an enlightened despot. She declared that she was a student of the works of Montesquieu and Blackstone. She was influenced by the writings of Voltaire. She invited Diderot, the famous author of French Encyclopedia, to visit her court. During her time Russia witnessed the

birth of an intellectual class. She founded the famous Smolny Institute in St Petersburg. The influence of enlightenment was felt upon Frederick II the Great of Prussia (1740-1786). He earned fame not only as a great ruler but also as a great intellectual. He was fond of poets, artists and philosophers, and some of these men visited his court. He was immensely influenced by Voltaire and French literature. The former visited his court and received handsome tributes for his literary achievements. Frederick restored the glory of the Berlin Academy of Science. He extended religious tolerance despite being a protestant. He said, “If Turks should come to populate the land, I myself shall build them mosques”.

3 Enlightenment in the Colonies The United States

T

he European Enlightenment spread to the thirteen British colonies in America, India, China and Japan. One of the great thinkers in American colonies was William Penn (1644-1718). He was an Englishman who founded the colony of Pennsylvania for the Quakers in 1682. He was expelled from Oxford for his puritanical beliefs. He went to Ireland to look after his father’s estates. It was there that he founded the Society of Friends in 1677. Some of his ideas, speeches and writings got him into trouble, and he had to suffer imprisonment. He wrote a book titled The Great Liberty of Conscience in 1670, which visualized the establishment of a colony based on religious tolerance and political freedom. His dream was realised with the establishment of the colony of Pennsylvania for the Quakers. In 1699 he drafted the Charter of Privileges which promoted self-rule in Pennsylvania. In 1682, he signed peace treaties on behalf of his colony with the Native Indians who were living adjacent to his settlement. Illness and penury dogged the last years of his life that he spent in England.

India Impact of Enlightenment was felt on India in the late eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries. The rulers of the East India Company desired that the people of India should also imbibe western ideas of science and rationalism. It was during the administration of Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) that Britain initiated the reform movements in India. The reform movements embraced Hindu religion and society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, for instance, believed that religious reform should precede the demand for social reform. It

was modern western ideas that compelled Roy to establish the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj restored the Hindu religion to its pristine glory after purging it from superstitions and evils. He was greatly influenced by western philosophers of enlightenment. He “sought to effect a cultural synthesis between the east and the west”. He encouraged a spirit of inquiry, and the spread of humanism. The socioreligious reform movement in India gained momentum with the establishment of the Arya Samaj, Prarthna Samaj, and the Theosophical Society. The ideas of enlightenment were spread throughout India following the introduction of Western education during the time of Lord Bentinck. The western influence was felt on the Muslim intellectuals also. The Aligarh Movement, founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, was direct result of western influence. In his Commentaries on The Koran, Sir Syed “criticized the narrow outlook of traditional interpreters, and gave his own views in the light of contemporary rationalism and scientific knowledge”. He wanted Muslim students to study the Koran along with the arts and sciences in his M.A.O College at Aligarh (founded in 1875).

China The European enlightenment made its mark on China during the period 18601900. As a result of the humiliation suffered at the hands of the British and other European powers, a few Chinese intellectuals set themselves to the task of selfstrengthening exercises. These thinkers believed that a harmonious combination of Confucian and western learning would enable the Chinese to meet the challenges posed by the western powers. Wang-T’ao, known as the ‘father of Chinese journalism’, wanted China to adopt western science and technology to modernise itself. He wanted the Confucian scholars to shed their orthodoxy and develop a new mindset. Another great writer was Yen Fu. A widely travelled scholar, he urged the Chinese to give up their old sense of superiority while dealing with Westerners. He tried to show that the Westerners were in no way ‘inferior’ to them by translating several English books into Chinese, notably, Darwin’s Origin of the Species, John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty, Herbert Spencer’s The Principles of Sociology, Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, and Montesquieu’s De L’Esprit des Lois. He spread the ideas of enlightenment among the Chinese youth through translation of important works of western thinkers. Some of the translated works were later banned by an imperial edict. The Fourth May Movement (1919) was an intellectual movement in China, and its leaders were very much influenced by the European Enlightenment. It

began at The National Peking University which comprised of eminent scholars such as Ch’en Tu-hsiu, Dr Hu Shih and Li Ta-chao. The first named scholar advocated the cause of science and democracy after rejecting the glorious Confucian past as outdated. Dr Hu Shih launched a new literary movement after returning from Cornell University. His objective was to evolve a language from mandarin which could be understood both by the elite and the commoners. This new language was made popular through the medium of newspapers, books and magazines. Li Ta-chao worked as a professor of History and also as librarian of the university. One of his assistants was Mao Tse Tung. These intellectuals discussed western thoughts of John Stuart Mill, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith, and Darwin. While the writings of Kant and Hegel influenced Li Ta-chao, Ch’en Tu-hsiu was influenced by western scientists like Darwin.

Japan During the Meiji period of Japanese history, a group of Japanese intellectuals led by Mori Arinori (a statesman) established an intellectual organisation called Meirokusha (1 February, 1874) for the purpose of promoting enlightenment, and western ethics and civilization. Meirokusha consisted of bureaucrats, educationists, and philosophers. This organisation started a journal titled Meiroku Zasshi for spreading progressive western ideas. One of the leading figures of this organisation was Nishimura Shigeki who stressed on the importance of morality and self-sufficiency. He translated Samuel Smile’s Self Help and John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty into Japanese. Another co-founder of Meirokusha was Fukuzawa Yukichi who established the Keio University. It was due to the intellectual movement in Japan that a large number of students went to western universities for completing their education.

4 Rise of Socialist Ideas

I

n political economy, socialism is referred to as a “system of social organisation in which private property and the distribution of income are subject to social control”. To explain further, socialism establishes the community’s control over land, transport, natural resources and industries in a state. The concept of social control has been explained and interpreted in various ways by the votaries of socialism. Socialism as a political philosophy arose out of the evils of industrial revolution in Western Europe. The term first came into use to “describe the doctrines of Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint-Simon and Robert Owen.”

Historical Background The industrial revolution in England which began during the last quarter of the eighteenth century created miserable conditions for the working class people. The outbreak of French Revolution of 1789 was a direct consequence of political, social and economic inequities. The French philosopher, Rousseau had earlier pointed out the origins of inequality, and explained how property became source of discontent. It was during this time that Babeuf appealed to the rulers to abolish the right to property. He desired an equitable distribution of wealth in the society. The privileged sections of the French society were outraged at his suggestions. He was subjected to great humiliation and sentenced to death. Babeuf may be considered as a forerunner of Karl Marx since he envisaged the rise of a communist state. Some French scholars called Babeuf the ‘father of socialism’.

Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

Next in the line of the founders of socialism was Henri de Saint-Simon. He established Christian Socialism with his followers. At the age of seventeen, he joined the French volunteer force to help the American colonists to achieve independence. After his return to France in 1783, he was joined by Augustus Comte, a French philosopher, in a socialist movement. They wrote two books titled The Reorganisation of European Society and Industry. These two works reflected their thinking on the necessity of establishing a socialist society. In yet another important work titled New Christianity, he wanted the religious leaders to help the poor who had suffered much due to the ill-effects of industrial revolution. He attracted a large number of followers during his lifetime and later founded an organisation called Christian Socialism. It is said that Saint-Simon envisioned “a socialistic scheme for the reorganisation of society in the interest of the most numerous class. He believed that the State should own the means of production and should organise industry on the principle of ‘labour according to capacity and reward according to services’ “. Saint-Simon’s ideas on Christian Socialism had made a deep impact on contemporary philosophers and writers.

Francois Marie Charles Fourier (1772-1837) Charles Fourier, a French social theorist, was born in Besancon, France, whose ideas on socialism were well received by the working class and the intellectuals. In his French works, especially, Theory of the Four Movements and the Generally Destinies, he desired to reorganise the society on the basis of cooperative settlements for reducing the plight of the poor workers. These cooperative settlements were organised by associations of producers known as Phalanges. He was convinced that the Phalanges would distribute wealth among the poor in a more equitable manner than the capitalists in an industrial society. The Phalanges would further satisfy the needs of workers on the basis of cooperation. He began refining his socialist theory through his writings. His socialist philosophy is known as Fourierism. Based on his philosophy, cooperative settlements came up in France and the US. In one of these settlements, started by Fourier, there were 1800 workers who received a fixed pay.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) After working as a printer for some time, Proudhon moved to Paris in 1838. He joined the socialists and published articles in the newspapers propagating the

ideas of socialism. One of the most popular articles that he published was What is property? (1840). It created a sensation because it contained such phrases as “property is theft”. He moved to Lyon and met members of a weavers’ anarchist society. It was thereafter that he gave a new twist to some of his socialist ideas. In fact, Proudhon advocated anarchism. Another important article was System of Economic Contradictions (1846). His contemporary, Karl Marx, did not like this article, and subsequently the split between the anarchists and Marxists took place. Proudhon published radical newspapers with his anarchist ideas which got him into trouble with the French police. He was in prison from 1849 to 1852. After he was released, he was forced to flee the country due to the harassment from the police. He returned to Paris in 1862 and gained popularity among the French workers. Some of his followers founded the First International (communist movement). Michael Bakunin was one among them.

Robert Owen (1771-1858) Robert Owen was born in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales in 1771. He was one of the founders of Utopian Socialism. He also co-founded the cooperative movement along with others. He set up an ideal community for workers and their families at New Lanark, Scotland. Earlier Robert Owen was very much influenced by Bentham’s philosophy of utilitarianism. However, he turned into a socialist in due course of time. He supported labour reforms, and his Pamphlets became quite influential in achieving his objective. It was due to his strenuous efforts along with others that the Factory Act of 1833 was passed by the British Parliament. Owen’s philosophy was based on three important tenets: • Individuals are not responsible for their actions (good or bad) as they are influenced by their heredity and environment. • Religion makes a man weak and turns him into a fanatic or a hypocrite. • Support for factory system rather than the putting-out system or the workshop system. He founded a nursery school, and established a model factory in Scotland which was based on his above mentioned beliefs or philosophy. Many thinkers of his time described him as the founder of British Socialism.

Louis Blanc (1811-1882) Blanc was born in Madrid, Spain on 29 October, 1811. He became a journalist as well as a socialist in France. His passion for socialism led him to found a

newspaper called Revue du Progres. He published a series of articles under the title The Organisation of Labour in which he advocated worker-controlled “social workshops”. Social workshops would, he thought, eventually pave the way for the birth of socialist society. In other words, production in the social workshops would be controlled by labour and not by a capitalist. When he was chosen as a minister in the provisional government of the Second French Republic (1848), he put into practice his ideas by introducing “National Workshops” to be run by the State. These workshops created employment opportunities for the unemployed poor. Blanc believed in the right of every man to get employed, and he felt that it was the duty of the State to provide it. His scheme of running the “National Workshops” ended in disastrous failure. He became very unpopular, and he was forced to flee France. During his exile in Britain, he wrote a book on French Revolution titled Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise. The failure of the working class to establish a government of their own in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1848 had lessons for Karl Marx, the founder of scientific socialism.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Karl Marx was born to Jewish parents in Trier, Germany, in 1818. He may be regarded as the greatest philosopher of the nineteenth century. His field of study included political philosophy and economic theories. He studied humanities at the University of Bonn. Thereafter he went to the University of Berlin (18361841) for studying law and philosophy. It was in Berlin that he was very much influenced by the works of another great German philosopher, GWF Hegel. The University of Jena awarded him the doctorate degree in philosophy. He began his career as a writer during the period, 1842-1845, and thereafter became active in socialist politics. He met Friedrich Engels in Paris who became his lifelong friend and partner. He fled France due to his secret political activities which were considered undesirable by the French authorities. He went to Brussels along with Engels and became a member of The League of the Just. A secret left-wing group in London invited both of them to attend their meetings, and it was there that they wrote Communist Manifesto (1848). Marx was forced to flee Brussels and thereafter settled in London in 1849. He spent the rest of his life in London with his family and his dear friend, Engels. He spent all his time in reading, writing, and research at the British Museum Library. As he was not well off he had to earn his livelihood by becoming a parttime correspondent of the New York Tribune (1851-1862). Out of his research

came the Das Kapital, a critique on capitalism. From 1864 to 1872, he became an important figure in deliberations of the First International (socialist youth movement).

Marxism Marx’s political and social philosophy rests on three basic principles, namely, historical materialism (economic conditions determine the course of history), a class struggle (a struggle between the haves and the have-nots), and the theory of surplus value. Taking the first principle, the system of production and exchange of goods “at any given time in any society determined the structure of that society, its form of government, its laws, its institutions generally, and its culture, including even religion.” When this system changes, society also undergoes transformation, i.e. from slavery to feudal, and feudal to bourgeoisie. As for the second principle, Marx stated in the Communist Manifesto that the “history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” In other words there is a continuous fight between the haves and the have-nots. This fight will cease only after a political revolution and not by gradual change. In the third principle, Marx talks about the worker in an industrial society not being paid “the full value of his labour.” The capitalist pays him just enough which is not the full value of his labour or services rendered. The difference between the value of labour and the wages paid is considered surplus, and this surplus is retained by the capitalist himself. Marx considered this situation as gross injustice to the wage earner. Therefore in a capitalist society the rich become richer and the poor poorer. While pointing out the inadequacies of capitalism, Marx prophesied that it “produces, above all its own grave diggers.” In the end, the proletariat (working class) would establish dictatorship after destroying capitalism. It goes to credit of Marx for having organised the First International in 1864. After the death of his wife Jenny in 1881, he kept ill health (bronchitis and pleurisy) for nearly 15 months. He breathed his last on fourteenth March, 1883 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery, London. There were not many mourners who attended his funeral. After Marx’s death, his lifelong friend and partner, Engels, completed the two other volumes of Das Kapital on the basis of notes and manuscripts left behind by Marx. Marx’s Das Kapital was published in 1867 and it contained about 500 articles. Some of them appeared in the New York Tribune. A few articles relate to the British rule in India. The writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels spread across Europe, and

particularly in France and Germany. The First International which was organised by Marx in 1864 in London was attended by leaders of the working class movements from a few countries in Europe. In their deliberations, they discussed labour problems, and prepared a blueprint on how to solve the same. Marx presented a plan on how to bring about the dissolution of the capitalist system with help of the labour class. He provided a slogan for workers “Workers of the world, unite!” The First International took the form of a worldwide movement of the working class. The main objective of the First International was to strengthen the labour class movement and establish a classless society. Marx believed that socialism would act as a transition to communism. In communism, the state withers and a workers society is established. The labour class movements in France and Germany became so strong that it opposed the decision of their respective governments to wage the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. The workers in Germany lodged a serious protest when their government annexed the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine into Germany. In 1872 the First International split due to a quarrel between Marx and Michael Bakunin (anarchist).

Criticism of Marx’s theories Marx’s socialism has been hailed and also criticized by many. It was Karl Marx, who more than any other political economist, brought into focus the plight of millions of workers in the European industrial society. It was he who gave hope to those millions of exploited workers by promising them a classless society if they remained united (Communist Manifesto begins with the sentence: “Workers of the world, unite.”) He made them conscious of their rights and their strength. He gave them the right to revolt. He criticized the other philosophers of socialism as Utopian. While they had no plan of action to help the workers, he showed how the labour class could establish their own government. Marx’s revolutionary socialism put the capitalists on guard, and forced them to introduce reforms. England was the first country to introduce labour reforms, which was followed by others. Marxian Communism is not without critics. After the fall of the Soviet Union (1991), it became apparent that Marxian Communism had failed to deliver its promise of a classless society. Critics punched holes into Marx’s theory of economic determinism. Secondly, they pointed out that his theory of class war is full of errors, and is misleading. Thirdly, his theory of surplus value has been criticized for attaching too much importance to labour and neglects other factors such as the intelligence and hard work of the entrepreneurs, and the

capital invested by the capitalist. Risk involved in starting an enterprise by the capitalist was ignored. Marx had given the impression that all states are oppressive and served as handmaids of the capitalists. Finally, Marx’s prophecy that the State would wither away, and the workers society would emerge was belied.

Spread of Marxian Socialism After the disastrous failure of the socialist experiment carried out by Louis Blanc, the succeeding French government followed anti-labour policies. The national workshops were dissolved and the labour movement was crushed. However, the French workers continued their activities clandestinely and socialism was revived. The Parisian workers got another chance to stage a revolt against the government in 1871 i.e. immediately after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war. The workers in Paris did not allow the new government to function in Paris, and therefore the seat of the French government was shifted to Versailles. They established the Paris commune (local self-government of workers) and wanted the new republican government to set up such communes in all towns and cities. The new republican government remained helpless. In a desperate move it appealed to Germany for help in restoring law and order. Taking courage into its hands the republican government sent troops to crush the Paris commune. It took nearly two months for suppressing the ugly revolt of the Paris commune. The result was that thousands of workers died, and a third of the city was burned down or destroyed. Some of the workers fled France. Under the republican government, the activities of the socialists were watched. Socialism in France was revived by Jules Guesde in 1875. He spread Marxian socialism among the workers in general, and the miners of Northern France in particular. In the course of time, a joint Socialist Party was founded in Paris by Jean Jaures. France witnessed six rival socialist groups, and therefore required outside mediation for uniting all these parties. Subsequently, all the six groups got united and formed the United Socialist Party.

The Second International (1889) The Second International of all socialist parties in Europe took place in Paris in July, 1889. The main objective of The Second International was to bring about the unity of all the socialist parties under banner. About 400 delegates from nearly twenty countries attended this conference. A few decisions taken by The

Second International related to the celebration of Workers Day on 1st of May annually. A second decision related to its opposition to wars. It said that the capitalists were behind all the wars taking place in Europe. The Second International condemned colonisation of weak countries by the imperialists. In 1904, the Second International was attended by Dadabhai Naoroji, a great Indian leader. Unfortunately, the Second International suffered from internal rivalries which finally led to its extinction before the outbreak of the First World War. The split became open between the moderate socialists (Mensheviks) and the extreme socialists (Marxists). Jean Jaures, the famous French socialist was assassinated in France for his Condemnation against the outbreak of World War I.

Socialism in Germany One of the prominent personalities of German socialism was Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864). He founded the German labour party and took active part in the 1848-49 revolution in his country. He was in constant touch with Marx and Engels, but differed from their doctrines in so far as solving the problems of labour class in Germany. Lassalle organised the labour movement in Berlin and the pleaded with his co-workers for evolutionary approach to socialism. He wanted socialism to adapt itself to the democratic state system, as was happening in Britain. His methods of bringing socialism to Germany by stages caused great disappointment to Marx and Engels. Marx believed in scientific or revolutionary socialism, which meant the violent overthrow of Bourgeoisie governments by workers. Lassalle became the president of the General German Workers’ Association. In 1869, the Social Democratic Labour Party was established by Wilhelm Liebknecht and Augustus Bebel. Both of them were great followers of Karl Marx. The rise of socialism in Germany caused great headache to Bismarck, the German statesman. Despite his best efforts to crush socialism, the latter continued to gain popularity among the German masses. Bismarck tried to reduce the importance of the Socialist Labour Party by introducing a kind of state socialism (state initiatives). He adopted populist measures to keep the German workers happy. Eventually, the Democratic Labour Party turned into Social Democratic Party. In the 1920s, i.e. after the end of the First World War, there emerged the National Socialist Party (Nazis) which was led by Adolf Hitler.

Marxism-Leninism Lenin, who led the Russian Revolution of October, 1917, was a great follower of Plekhanov. The latter was a great admirer of Karl Marx. It was through Plekhanov that Lenin imbibed revolutionary zeal. It was this passion along with his intention of avenging the death of his brother at the hands of the Russian Czar that compelled him to bring about a communist revolution in Russia. The Russian Social Democratic Party suffered from split in 1903. The Bolsheviks (majority), led by Lenin, brought about a violent overthrow of Menshevik government (see chapter on Russian Revolution). Lenin believed that capitalism was going through its final phase. He wrote a book on this subject. He gave a new twist to the Marxist ideology by saying that a violent revolution has to be organised. The role of organizing such a violent revolution should be handled by professional revolutionaries. The ideology of Marxism-Leninism became popular in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. In order to achieve this, Lenin had earlier set up Soviet Councils secretly which gave the final push to the outbreak of Bolshevik Revolution (see chapter on Russian Revolution).

PART II

Origins of Modern Politics Chapter 5 European States System Chapter 6 The American Revolution and the Constitution Chapter 7 The French Revolution of 1789 and the Aftermath, 1789-1815 Chapter 8 American Civil War (1861-65) with Reference to Abraham Lincoln and the Abolition of Slavery Chapter 9 British Democratic Politics, 1815-1850; Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists

5 European States System

T

he concept of Nation-State is of modern origin. It developed probably in the late Middle Ages. Prior to this, people of a particular country thought not in terms of having belonged to a particular country but as a citizen of a particular town or a city. A man who lived in London did not consider himself an Englishman but as a Londoner. Then how did the Nation-States emerge? When feudalism thrived in Europe, the people’s loyalty was directed towards their liege-lords. But when any of their lords did not return from the crusades, the kings of Europe began to establish their contacts with their respective subjects. They put an end to the power of the nobles. They used gun-powder (a state monopoly) to destroy castles of the nobles. So by the late Middle Ages the kings of Europe became undisputed masters of their kingdoms. However, their struggle did not end after crushing the power of the nobles. The Church became a serious rival. Its authority began to increase and sometimes encroach on the jurisdiction of the State. The kings did not like the international connection and loyalty of their respective state churches. A few of them supported anti-church movements. Conditions began to change by the middle of the fourteenth century. The power of the Church declined. Growth of trade and commerce resulted in the birth of a new middle-class which became a staunch supporter of an enlightened monarchy. Medieval ideas and notions were swept away after the discovery of new lands. Europe witnessed the revival of strong monarchies everywhere which worked for nationalist self-interest.

England, the First Nation-State in Europe The earliest nation-state to emerge on the European continent was England. The most important factor which gave a sense of identity to the original inhabitants of this island—Britons—was the geographical contiguity. Between 450 BC and

43 AD, the Celts migrated from Central Europe and settled in Britain and Ireland. In 54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain and exacted tributes. The Romans again conquered this island and ruled her from the first century to the early fifth century AD. When the barbarians invaded the Roman Empire, the Roman army was withdrawn from England. Then followed the invasions of Germanic, Angles, Saxons and Jutes who occupied a part of this island. During the late eighth and early ninth centuries the Danes, who were adventurous seafaring men, attacked this island. Alfred the Great (849 AD-899 AD), the famous Anglo-Saxon king of England, was able to drive them out. After his death, England came under the rule of King Canute of Denmark (1016 -1035). After Canute’s death, the Anglo-Saxons in England recovered their independence. But their independence proved to be short-lived as William, Duke of Normandy (France), invaded England in 1066 AD. He defeated and killed the Saxon King, Harold, at Hastings and became the master of the island for about two decades. In the course of time, the cultures of the two—Anglo-Saxon and the NormanFrench—came to have harmonious blending and thereby producing the present English culture. King William ordered the survey of all land-holdings in England for tax purpose which was recorded in the Domesday Book. His successors were weak, and in 1154 King Henry II ascended the English throne.

Royal Absolutism Under King Henry II of England, royal power increased by leaps and bounds and included the appointment of church officials. He established the common law, appointed itinerant judges, and introduced the jury system. All these were done in order to protect the people of the land from tyrannical rulers. King Henry also made an attempt to gain control over the faction-ridden Ireland, and for that purpose sent his son, John. But John failed because his attitude alienated the sympathy of many chieftains there. Henry’s successor was Richard I (the Lionheart) who remained mostly away from England because of his participation in the third crusade. In order to collect money from the people for the crusade he sold charters of freedom to many towns and cities. Eventually this innocent act paved the way not only for the self-government of the towns and cities but also promoted the spirit of liberty.

Limitations on Royal Power The next important phase in the development of British political system was the

evolution of parliament. When King Richard I was away, his younger brother John tried to seize control of England. A war broke out between John’s forces and those loyal to the king. John was compelled to accept a truce. The king returned to England in 1194, and John was banished. The latter was deprived of all his possessions. Subsequently, the king forgave John and restored some of his lands in Ireland. On Richard’s death in 1199, John succeeded him. King John (1199-1216) lost his French possession Normandy following a war with the French monarch Philip II in 1204. To raise revenue for reclaiming Normandy, he resorted to harsh economic measures― heavy taxes on estates and castles inherited by barons, frequent imposition of scutage payments and increased duties on imports and exports―which made him extremely unpopular. His defiance of Pope Innocent III in not recognizing Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury resulted in his excommunication in 1209. John’s excommunication was revoked in 1213 following his recognition of Stephen Langton in 1212. King John made a futile attempt to regain Normandy in 1214. The nobles and barons rose in revolt and forced him to sign the Magna Carta in 1215 at Runnymede. This document secured for them the royal guarantee that their ancient rights and privileges would not be violated. It included (a) freedom from arbitrary arrest and confiscation of property, (b) trial by jury and (c) levy of new taxes only with the consent of the Great Council. The importance of the Great Council which was to become parliament in the later days was recognised by King John. His successor was Henry III, who was also a weak ruler. He became unpopular like his father after his intervention in Italian politics. The nobles opposed the king and forced him to sign the Provisions of Oxford. It was later followed by the imprisonment of the king in the Tower of London. The leader of the nobles Simon de Montfort convened the meeting of the Great Council in 1265, which included, among others, two knights from each shire and two citizens from each town. In the true sense this was the first Parliament England had (1265). The next ruler was Edward I, who needed money for the conquest of Wales and Scotland. So he required the support of all the four groups—the nobles, clergy, townsmen and representatives of shires—for the imposition of new taxes.

Model Parliament (1295) So he summoned what is now known as the Model Parliament in 1295 which also included representatives of the last two groups. He succeeded in conquering Wales but not Scotland. Scots under King Robert Bruce defeated the English at

Bannockburn in 1314 and remained free for the next three centuries. The reign of Edward III (1327-1377) witnessed the commencement of England’s Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) with France (cause being Edward’s claim to the French throne), the Black Death (1348-50) and the strengthening of the constitutional position of the Parliament vis-a-vis the King. Soon after the conclusion of the Hundred Years’ War, England witnessed a civil war. The House of York (with its White Rose as its badge) and the House of Lancaster (with Red Rose as its badge) fought against each other for the English throne. Therefore this civil war came to be known as the War of the Roses (1455-1485). This thirty years war ended in the victory of Henry the Tudor who belonged to the House of Lancaster.

Tudor Rulers of England With popular support King Henry VII (1485-1509) suppressed the rebellious nobles and revived strong monarchy in England. He founded a special court called the Star Chamber which was used against the seditious barons. He lowered the expenses of the government and at the same time avoided the waging of foreign wars. He encouraged England’s trade and commerce with Europe and laid the foundation of a strong navy. When he died, England could boast of her political and economic stability. His son and successor, King Henry VIII (1509-1547), led the Reformation movement by severing his connection with Rome (see Chapter on Reformation). He founded the Anglican Church and became its champion. The British Parliament showed its subservience to royal interests and policies. The short reign of Edward VI (1547-1553) witnessed the acceptance of Protestant doctrine by a majority of the English. His successor was Queen Mary I (1553-1558) who was a devout Catholic. She married an equally devout Catholic, King Philip of Spain, and tried to revive Catholicism in England. The persecutions of Protestants and the execution of 300 of its leaders earned her the title “Blood Mary”. Her successor, Queen Elizabeth I (15581603), avoided the extremes and established Anglicanism as the official religion of England. The Elizabethan Age is rightly considered as the ‘Golden Age’ in the history of England since it ensured religious harmony, made England an unrivalled sea-power after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, encouraged overseas trade, and encouraged the birth of the Renaissance.

Stuart Rulers

After Elizabeth’s death, England came to be ruled by the Stuart rulers. As the first Stuart ruler, James I (1603-1625) united the kingdoms of England and Scotland. He fancied himself as the divine representative of God as often expressed in the Latin phrase, a deo rex, a rege lex (meaning “the king is from God, and the law from the King”). His absolute despotism alienated the sympathies of the common people. His religious and foreign polices provoked the Puritans (English Protestant-Extremists). A long dispute between the king and the Parliament ensued. His son Charles the First ascended the throne in 1625 and made things worse by imprisoning the opposition members of the House of Commons for opposing him. However, the members of the Parliament asserted their position by forcing the king to accept the Petition of Right (1628). Nevertheless, the bitter dispute between the King and the Parliament plunged the country into a civil war. It was fought between the Cavaliers (supporters of the King) and the Roundheads (supporters of the Parliament). Oliver Cromwell’s Ironsides finally defeated the royal forces at Marston Moor and Naseby. King Charles was taken captive and executed for treason in 1649. Oliver Cromwell ruled as the 1st Lord Protector of the newly formed Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 until his death in 1658. The Long Parliament invited Charles II (1660-1685), son of the executed Charles I, to return to England and rule as King. He treated the Puritans with contempt and drove them out of office. The Parliament tried to restrain his power by forcing him to sign the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, which provided for the right of the accused to demand a trial in a court as to why he is being held in prison. The successor of Charles II was his brother James the Second. His short reign (1685-1688) was marked by disputes between the King and the Parliament on the one hand and the king and the Anglicans on the other. When he baptised his newly -born son in 1688, as a Catholic, the Parliament decided to invite the king’s Protestant daughter, Mary (who had married William, King of Holland) to assume power in England. William and Mary accepted the invitation. James II fled, and England achieved the “Glorious Revolution” (sometimes called as the “bloodless revolution”) in 1688. Parliamentary control over the King and the Queen was established after the Bill of Rights (1689) was passed. Some of the achievements of the “Glorious Revolution” included the end of absolute monarchy, the supremacy of the Parliament, the rise of the middle class and the establishment of a protestant State.

France

With the disintegration of Charlemagne’s empire, France was split up into small kingdoms each ruled by a powerful noble. Feudalism took deep roots, and therefore it took a long time before a strong monarchy could emerge. The powers of the central government began to increase gradually under King Hugh Capet and his successors. The most outstanding among them were Philip II Augustus, Louis IX, Philip IV and Louis XI. King Philip II Augustus (11801223) decided to augment his power at any cost. He found that King John of England owned nearly half of France. As a feudal chief, Philip called John who was his vassal to his court. But John did not oblige him thereby providing an excuse to Philip to conquer most of the English possessions in France. Furthermore, Philip drove out the Albigensians from Toulouse and gained control over it. King Louis IX (1226-1270) extended his power over the nobles by various means and introduced currency and legal reforms. King Philip IV (1285-1314) augmented the royal power further by taxing the Church lands, forcing Pope Clement V to withdraw Pope Boniface VIII’s bulls Clericis Laicos (papal order that forbade the clergy from paying taxes to rulers without the Pope’s consent), seizing the properties of the Knights Templars and calling the first Estates-General to support his policies and actions. During the time of Louis XI (1461-1483) the whole of France except Brittany came under royal control and the nobles could hardly challenge the power of the king. France fared badly in the Hundred Years’ War with England on account of the series of defeats she suffered at the hands of the latter. Her weakness was due to the absence of a strong central government. It was during this time of national crisis that a young peasant girl, Joan of Arc, appeared on the scene. She believed that she was ordained by God to lead the French army to victory. So she coaxed the disowned French King Charles VII to let her command the French army. Under her command the French army won resounding victories against the English and they lifted their siege of the city of Orleans. Her victories paved the way for the establishment of strong monarchy in France under Charles VII (1422-1461) who was crowned King of France at Reims Cathedral in 1429. In the end, Joan was captured by the English and tried for witchcraft and heresy in a Church court at Rouen. She was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431. The French king and soldiers were highly inspired by her great heroism and sacrifice. National feelings ran high and the French drove the English out of their country. Only Calais remained in the hands of the English. France was deeply disturbed by the religious wars between the Catholics and the Huguenots (French Protestants) in the sixteenth century. However, the political situation improved after King Henry IV of Navarre, a Protestant, ascended the throne of France as the first monarch of the Bourbon dynasty in

1589. He converted to Catholicism in 1593 to thwart Catholic opposition to his rule. He issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 which granted religious freedom to the Huguenots―ending all internal conflicts. His prosperous rule ended with his assassination by a Catholic fanatic in 1610.

Bourbon Monarchy of France King Henry IV founded the Bourbon Dynasty whose descendents ruled France until monarchy was overthrown in 1792 (during the first French Revolution). He made France powerful and wealthy. His Finance Minister, the Duke of Sully, averted a possible bankruptcy by introducing necessary reforms. Agriculture, textile industry and the manufacture of silks and linen were encouraged. France sent explorers in search of new lands. French settlements were established in Nova Scotia. Henry IV was succeeded by Louis XIII in 1610. He was eight years old then and so the entire task of administering France fell upon the shoulders of the Prime Minister, Cardinal Richelieu. Besides his contribution to the cause of improving French culture, Cardinal Richelieu worked hard for making France the leader of Europe and the French monarchy supreme. He achieved the first by curbing the power of the Habsburgs (Austrian rulers) in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), and the second by destroying the power of the nobles and the Huguenots in France. The king appointed intendents to govern the provinces and look after the local governments. Louis XIV (1643-1715) succeeded Louis XIII after the latter’s death in 1643, and under his leadership France reached the height of its glory. All powers were concentrated in the hands of one man, and that was Louis XIV who declared “I am the State”. The French capital, Versailles (Paris), became the centre of gaiety and culture. He revoked the Edict of Nantes and persecuted the Huguenots. Thousands of them fled to England and other European countries. His famous minister Colbert put the finances of the state in a sound state and encouraged colonisation. But King Louis XIV involved the nation in a number of costly wars with the purpose of extending her natural boundaries. At the time of his death France was heading towards bankruptcy.

Spain Conquests and occupation marked the early history of Spain. The earliest to settle there were the Iberians. Then Carthaginians invaded and settled in Spain

during the third century BC. From the third century BC, to the middle of the sixth century AD, Spain became a part of the Roman Empire. After that the Visigoths invaded Spain and ruled her up to the early eighth century ad. The Mohammedans invaded Spain and ruled her from the early eighth century to 1462. Subsequently the Christian kingdoms grew stronger and the Moors (Mohammedans in Spain) were pushed back. When Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile in 1469, Spain witnessed the unity of two most powerful Christian kingdoms. All of Spain was liberated from the Moors in 1492. It was under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella that Spain witnessed the rise of royal powers, discovery of new lands by Columbus and others and the persecution of non-Christians. They forbade wars among nobles and crushed all opposition to their reign. They kept the Church under their control. During the first half of the sixteenth century Spain was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. Philip II, son of Charles V, ascended the Spanish throne soon after his father’s retirement in 1556. Spain had become the wealthiest nation in Europe due to the inflow of gold and silver from the new world. She became the leading nation in Europe, and her king tried to restore “Catholic unity through the inquisitions”. Philip II married the English Queen, Mary. He failed to force the Dutch to accept the Catholic faith. They revolted and became a free nation.

Switzerland In the thirteenth century, Switzerland constituted a part of the duchy of Swabia. It was then a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Some of the Swiss Cantons formed a league to resist the attempts of the Holy Roman Emperor to suppress them. They succeeded in defeating the Austrians at Morgarten in 1315. In the course of time, the Swiss cantons grew from strength to strength. They won their independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1648. Since then they have maintained their fierce independence and strict neutrality in the affairs of Europe.

Prussia The Rise of Prussia Under Hohenzollerns In the Middle Ages, Prussia (which is now a part of Germany) was a petty state occupied by the Teutonic knights. Over a period of several centuries a number of

principalities or duchies grew up around it. Each duchy was ruled by a Duke. The famous Hohenzollerns ruled the Duchy of Prussia from 1618. Earlier they were rulers of Brandenburg, another German duchy. Each Hohenzollern ruler added some bit of territory or the other and thus Prussia expanded to become the strongest state in the whole of Germany. The first famous Hohenzollern ruler who made Prussia strong was Frederick William (1640-88). He was called ‘The Great Elector’ on account of position and influence in the Holy Roman Empire. He enlarged his kingdom, centralised the government, and built a strong army and navy. His son Frederick I (1688-1713) was accorded recognition as ‘King’ by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1701. So Prussian kingdom included Prussia as well as Brandenburg. Frederick’s son, Frederick William I (1713-1740) succeeded to the throne in 1713 and ruled Prussia for the next twenty-seven years. He introduced compulsory education for all children and built a strong army. He added Swedish Pomerania to Prussia.

Frederick II the Great (1740-86) The greatest among the Hohenzollern dynasty of rulers was Frederick II the ‘Great’ (1740-86). From early life Frederick II developed a taste for poetry, drama, music and painting. He admired the French language and French writer Voltaire. Naturally his father thought him unfit to rule the country. But Frederick II proved to be ruthless and autocratic. He took full advantage of the chaotic conditions prevailing in other European states to expand his dominion. He revoked the recognition given to Pragmatic Sanction (a declaration issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1713 that recognized the right of his daughter to Habsburg’s possessions which included Austria), and invaded Silesia, a part of Austrian Empire, in December 1740. With this began the War of the Austrian Succession. It ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aixla-Chapelle by the competing powers. This war did not achieve its purpose and Frederick the Great retained Silesia. This war of course spread to other continents such as America and India because France and England were rivals there. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, brought an uneasy peace among the belligerents. So Archduchess Maria Theresa (1740-1780) of Austria began to prepare for another European war, this time seeking the help of the French for her cause instead of the English. Thereupon, the English switched their support to the side of Frederick the Great of Prussia. The Seven Years War began in 1756, on the European continent and spread to America and India since Britain and France were rivals there. The war came to an end by the treaty of Paris

which was signed in 1763 by all the participants. The war resulted in the recognition and approval of Prussia’s claim and annexation of Silesia. Austria felt very much humiliated. Prussia became a great power in Europe. The power of the French began to decline rapidly both in America and India. The English victory in this war was due to the leadership displayed by her War Minister, William Pitt, the Elder. The English Generals Robert Clive and James Wolfe played an important role in the victories achieved in India and Canada respectively. Taking advantage of the weakness of Poland, several European powers were eager to bring about its disintegration. Frederick the Great of Prussia played a dynamic role in the first partition of Poland in 1772. He took the western half of that unfortunate country.

Enlightened Despotism As an enlightened despot, Frederick the Great encouraged agriculture, commerce and industries. He welcomed the Huguenots of France who fled their country to escape persecution. In fact, it was due to their labour that Prussia’s industries flourished. What France lost Prussia gained. He codified the laws of the country and gave a clean and efficient administration. He took special interest in maintaining a strong and efficient army. He granted full religious toleration to his subjects and patronised art, literature and music. Voltaire, the French philosopher and writer, became a great favourite of Frederick the Great. To sum up, Prussia under Frederick became a model state in Europe.

Austria The Habsburgs of Austria The Habsburgs who ruled Austria for centuries belonged to a very old and wealthy family. Due to a series of marriage alliances they could add vast territories to their dominion. In 1273, one of their family members by the name Rudolph was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolph became the ruler of Austria. The power and prestige of the Habsburgs increased when Charles V became the Holy Roman Emperor. He not only ruled Austria, but also Spain and her overseas empire. With the outbreak of Protestant revolt, his position became shaky, and he finally abdicated his throne in favour of his two sons, Philip II and

Ferdinand. Philip II ruled Spain and her empire and Ferdinand ruled Austria. The former lost much territory, wealth, and influence due to his Catholic outlook. The Austrian Habsburgs also lost much prestige during the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which ended this war resulted in the Habsburg recognition of the independence of Switzerland. The power of Austrian Emperor came to be very much reduced. Frederick the Great of Prussia took full advantage of the weakness of the Habsburgs of Austria and snatched away the rich province of Silesia from the Austrian Empire.

Russia Geographical Factors Most of European Russia is situated on the great plain spreading from Central Europe in the West to the Ural Mountains in the east. Much of this plain in the north is in the Tundra region which experiences long and extreme winter and a very short summer. Therefore, human habitation in this region had become impossible. But the southern part of the Russian plain enjoyed a fair climate and became suitable for human habitation. Thus, geographical factors such as the extreme climates and barren lands of the North kept Russia isolated. The South enjoyed a mild climate and had black fertile soil. Therefore, many Slavic tribes settled in this region during the time of the decline of the Roman Empire. Since the Russian rivers such as the Dnieper, the Don and the Volga all flow towards the south, many village communities of the Eastern Slavs settled on their banks. When the Norsemen invaded Russia, they set up the kingdom of Novgorod. They expanded their dominions to the south, but in the long run they were absorbed by the Slavic subjects. During the tenth century the Christian missionaries from Constantinople spread Christianity in and around a flourishing town, Kiev. Since then the southern subjects of Russia kept in close touch with Constantinople. During the middle of the thirteenth century, Russia witnessed the invasions and occupation of her territory by the Mongols, a nomadic tribesmen from the steppes of Central Asia. It may be remembered that under their great and mighty ruler, Chenghis Khan, they had overrun China, Turkestan, Persia and Mesopotamia earlier. The Russians suffered untold miseries at the hands of the invaders who occupied their land for several centuries.

Russia Under Czars When the Mongol hold over Russia weakened on account of their internal troubles, a prince of Moscow called Ivan III (1462-1505) refused to pay tributes and declared his independence. He annexed Novgorod and its neighbouring states into his kingdom. He was also known as Ivan the Great. During the second half of the sixteenth century, Russia was further expanded by Ivan IV (1547-84), the first Czar of Russia. He was also known as Ivan the Terrible. He began his career as a good ruler but later became a tyrant. He was known for his frayed tempers, madness and merciless killings of innocent people. He drove his peasants to serfdom by giving more powers to the Boyars (landlords). Russian peasants were not allowed to leave their homeland. Ivan’s successors were weak and so the country passed through difficult times. Finally the national assembly elected Michael Romanov (1613-1645), a grand-nephew of Ivan the Terrible, as the new Czar of Russia in 1613. He was the founder of the Romanov dynasty which ruled Russia till the outbreak of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917.

Peter the Great (1682-1725) One of the greatest rulers of this dynasty was Peter I or Peter the Great. He ascended the throne when he was ten years old. He grew to be sensitive, intelligent and hardworking. He despised the backwardness of his country and the attitude of the people. Determined to uplift his country from terrible backwardness, he undertook a journey to learn about the progress made in Western Europe. On his return (which was precipitated by the revolt of his palace guards), he introduced several reforms. He struck terror into the hearts of his subjects by summarily executing those rebellious guards. None had the temerity to challenge his authority since that time.

Westernisation of Russia Under Peter Foreign engineers, ship-builders and artisans were invited to construct schools, hospitals, dams, dockyards and factories in Russia. He compelled the Russian nobles to adopt western style of dress, manners and etiquette. He compelled Russian women to overcome their shyness and appear in public. He simplified the Russian alphabet and introduced a uniform currency. Furthermore, he raised a large standing army and built a powerful navy. To bring about rapid westernisation, Peter founded a new capital city called St. Petersburg in 1703. It

served as Russia’s “window on Europe.”

Foreign Policy The main thrust of Peter’s foreign policy was to secure for Russia the ice-free ports in the north and the south. Joining the side of Denmark and Poland, he fought a long and bloody war against Sweden (The Great Northern War, 17001721) and succeeded in securing the sea-coast lying between Prussia and Finland. It was on the marshy lands of the Baltic Sea coast that he built his new capital. Peter also fought against the Ottoman Empire and captured Azov (a town near Sea of Azov) in 1696. He had to cede this town to the Turks after his defeat in the Turkish War (1710-1713). His victorious military campaign against the Persians (1722-23) secured for him the southern and western coasts of the Caspian Sea. The other changes Peter introduced were the introduction of a new calendar, western system of counting, establishment of printing press and bringing the Greek Orthodox Church under his personal control. Subsequently the Greek Orthodox Church came to be known as the Russian Orthodox Church.

Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Thirty-seven years after the death of Peter the Great, Russia witnessed the accession of Queen Catherine II or Catherine the Great whose rule proved to be most momentous. She was a German princess who married Peter III. When he turned insane, Catherine got him murdered so that she could rule the country. Her rule proved to be more autocratic than that of Peter the Great although she considered herself to be an enlightened despot. Some of her internal reforms included the revised code of laws, construction of hospitals and orphanages, patronage to artists and writers, opening of schools and academies and the adoption of French language and manners for her court. However, all her reforms came to mean nothing to the teeming millions of Russian peasants and serfs. She kept the Church firmly under her control.

Foreign Policy Under her able leadership Russia followed an aggressive foreign policy. It yielded rich dividends as Russia gained territories from both Poland and Turkey.

Quick in grasping the political situation in these two countries, she decided to strike. Poland was Russia’s western neighbour, and the situation there was chaotic after the death of her king, Augustus III. So, Catherine lost no time in persuading the nobles there to elect one of her own courtiers Stanisław II August Poniatowski (1764-1795) to the Polish throne. When the people of Poland revolted against her interference she got the revolt crushed. She later joined Prussia and Austria in bringing about Poland’s partition. The three partitions of Poland (in 1772, 1793 and 1795 respectively) reduced the size and wealth of that country to such an extent that she no longer existed. Russia under Catherine the Great received more than half of the territories of Poland, and her borders touched the frontiers of Austria and Prussia.

War With the Turks While attacking the insurgent Poles, Russian troops violated the borders of Turkey. It led to a war between these two great powers. Catherine succeeded in defeating the war-weary Turks. The Turks signed the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in 1774 and surrendered to the Russians Azov and its adjacent territory. In 1784, she got from the Turks, the Crimean peninsula. Again in 1792, the Turks ceded to her the lands along the Black Sea and the right to protect the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Russia also got the right to free navigation through the Straits of Dardanelles. It is no wonder that she was called by many historians as Catherine the Great.

6 The American Revolution and the Constitution

A

fter the discovery of the new continent, colonies of different European powers such as Spain, England, France, the Netherlands and Sweden had sprung up everywhere. For example, Spain had established her colony in Florida. French settlers established colonies in Northern America which were called as New France (Canada) and Louisiana (USA). The British colonies—in all thirteen in number—sprang up on eastern sea-coast of the present USA. These British settlements were promoted by chartered companies and were approved by the British Crown. Jamestown in Virginia became the first British settlement in 1607. The main reasons for the peoples of Europe and Britain to emigrate were trade and religion. For example, the Jamestown settlement was started as a commercial venture by the Virginia Company. Religious enthusiasm of the Pilgrim Fathers who fled persecution in England was also responsible for the spread of a number of settlements. Fifty years after the foundation of Jamestown, the English established a number of colonies.

Development of Thirteen English Colonies The Pilgrim Fathers came to America and established colonies (in the New England area). They sought civil and religious autonomy from their mothercountry, and made the Mayflower compact as the basis of their new government. The southern colonies such as Virginia and Georgia developed due to the rapid spread of tobacco and cotton cultivation. The landlords there were typical English Squires who employed slaves. The Quakers and Catholics developed Pennsylvania and Maryland colonies respectively. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn (a quaker) where the residents were “free to worship as they

pleased”. Lord Baltimore who set up the colony of Maryland exclusively for Catholics also allowed Protestants to settle there. The Dutch set up New Amsterdam as a trading post. When the English defeated the Dutch in 1664 and captured New Amsterdam, they renamed it as New York. Part of the colony of New York became New Jersey. The colony of Delaware was founded by a Swedish company and ultimately fell into the hands of the English. The colony of Connecticut was founded by some people of Massachusetts who desired more religious freedom and political voice than they were getting in their own colony. Men from Boston founded the colony of New Hampshire. With the exception of Connecticut and the Rhode Island, all other colonies had governors who were appointed by the king or proprietors. Each governor was assisted by a council. Each colony had an assembly consisting of elected representatives which voted for approving local taxes and local laws. All the colonies required British protection as the French across the northern border, and the Native Indians from the West, constantly posed a threat. The British governors could afford to give that protection to the natives of the thirteen colonies. By the middle of the eighteenth century the thirteen colonies had a population of about one and half million. The natives of the thirteen colonies had no reason to complain because their representatives voted to levy taxes without outside interference.

British Mercantilist Policy When the colonies grew in size and importance, the British government felt keen on establishing control over them. Firstly, the British King appointed governors to rule over them. The salary of the governor was to be borne by the colonial exchequer. Secondly, the British merchants were interested in deriving benefits from a policy which Britain was to adopt arbitrarily and implement it in her colonies in America. This policy was called the mercantilist policy. A series of mercantilist regulations were passed by the British Parliament which restricted the scope of colonial exports and imports. For example, the colonists were made to sell their goods only to the English merchants and to buy foreign goods after paying duty at an English port. Furthermore, the colonists were not to compete with the English manufacturers. Opposition to these mercantilist regulations was widespread and the colonists resorted to smuggling of goods. Taxes were also evaded by the colonists. Some of the merchants in the colonies maintained their trade contacts with the enemies of Britain. It was this measure of political and economic independence enjoyed by the

colonists which Britain sought to curb, not for selfish reasons, but out of dire economic compulsion. The change in English colonial policy took place in 1763, that was after the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) in Europe. Britain finally achieved victory over France and her allies, and from the former she received Canada after signing the treaty of Paris. However, the long war strained her slender resources to such an extent that her government started imposing heavy duties on her manufactured goods. It was this domestic constraint that compelled her to change from the lenient policy she was pursuing towards her colonies to a somewhat severe one. When the French lost Canada to Britain after the Seven Years’ War, the colonists heaved a sigh of relief. They no longer feared a French attack on their colonies. It was this change in the situation which gave them courage and selfconfidence. They began to boldly articulate their view. However, the British government under King George III, was not prepared to give them a large measure of independence. On the other hand, it tried to exploit the colonies in order to save itself from a financial bankruptcy. Conflicting views arose when Britain tried to make good her financial deficit by levying taxes on the colonies. It was argued that since Britain protected the colonies during the Seven Years War, she felt it justified that the colonies should share a part of the financial burden. But the colonists replied that the war on the continent had been fought and financed by them and therefore the mother country should not impose taxes. Furthermore, they argued that their colonial assemblies alone had the right to tax them.

Enforcement of Mercantilist Regulations King George III began to assert his position and forced the cabinet to secure parliamentary sanction for imposing new taxes on the colonists. The royal officials in the colonies were ordered to strictly enforce the mercantilist trade regulations. For proper enforcement of trade regulations the British government sent troops to America. British agents were authorised to check smuggling and search private residences on suspicion. Britain also ordered settlers not to move beyond the traditional border on the western side lest they provoke the Native Indians. This order made the fur traders and small farmers in the colonies angry. Businessmen also became disturbed as they hoped to buy western lands at a cheap price.

Sugar Act (1764) The British Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764, by which duty was imposed on molasses imported by the colonists. The colonists tried to smuggle molasses but their activities were curbed. There was considerable resentment since the tax was imposed by the British government. Its objective was to compel the colonists to contribute towards meeting the expenses of British troops stationed in the colonies.

Stamp Act (1765) and Its Repeal During the next year, George Grenville (the British Prime Minister), introduced a new measure, the Stamp Act, by which the colonists were required to register various legal documents, wills and licences by affixing revenue stamps. The British Parliament gave its consent as the amount of revenue to be raised was not big, but the colonists reacted very strongly. They raised a storm of protest. Heaps of stamps and the effigies of stamp collectors were burnt, and there were riots in New England and New York. The Stamps Act Congress which was composed of the representatives of nine colonies met at New York and passed a resolution stating that British Parliament had no right to tax the colonies without their consent. The British government made a hasty retreat and repealed it. However, it insisted on its right to tax the colonies. On hearing that the Stamp Act had been repealed, mobs in the colonies became overjoyed and ceased their agitation. In fact, the agitation was mainly directed not so much against the revenue to be raised through the purchase of stamps as on the right of the British government to tax them. Secondly, the agitation brought about the unity of all the nine colonies as apparent from the meeting of the Stamp Act Congress.

Townshend Acts (1767) The Grenville ministry yielded place to Pitt’s ministry. Its Chancellor of Exchequer Charles Townshend passed a series of acts, which included the Townshend duties act that proposed duties on colonial imports of glass, lead, paint, paper and tea. By another act called New York Restraining Act, the New York assembly was forbidden from passing any new laws before complying with the terms of the Quartering Act of 1765. The Quartering Act required the colonies to provide food, shelter and meet other expenses of the British troops stationed there. Besides raising a storm of protest, the merchants of Boston,

Philadelphia and New York resorted to the boycott of British goods. It may be remembered that the non-importation agreement of colonial merchants, and the activities of the Sons of Liberty (a group of American patriots), had compelled the English merchants to ask their government to repeal the Stamp Act earlier. Some colonial enthusiasts advocated home-made manufactures of all kinds so as not to rely on Britain for imports. Townshend died and his place was taken by Lord North. To break the unity of the colonists, Lord North repealed all Townshend duties except on tea. The presence of the British customs commissioner in Boston enraged the colonists. In 1770, an altercation between a mob and the British soldiers resulted in the latter firing at the former, killing five and injuring many. Samuel Adams, an American politician and revolutionary, described this incident as the “Boston Massacre.”

Boston Tea Party (16 December, 1773) The tax on tea was retained for two reasons. Firstly, the British government wanted to retain its right to tax the colonies despite constant opposition from the colonists who raised slogans like “No taxation without representation”, and “taxation without representation is tyranny”. Secondly, Lord North tried to help the East India Company to dispose of its large stock of tea by selling them to the colonists. As usual there was popular opposition to this move and leaders in the colonies tried to prevent the unloading of tea at the colonial ports. At Boston harbour, the activists of the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians and stealthily made entry into the East India Company ships and threw all the chests of tea into the water. The news of the ‘Boston Tea Party’ spread like wild fire, and under pressure from the American patriots the consignees in Charleston, Philadelphia and New York refused to receive their tea shipments. King George III and his prime minister, Lord North, took retaliatory steps. By a series of acts (Coercive Acts of 1774) they withdrew the charter granted to Massachusetts colony, put Boston harbour under quarantine, and banned political meetings there. Colonists accused of crimes were to be tried in England. The Quebec Act (1774), passed by the British Parliament, recognized the Catholic religion in Canada and brought territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi under the governor of Quebec. This act was therefore viewed as a coercive act by the American colonists as it checked their westward expansion. It proved to be one of the major causes for the outbreak of the American Revolution (1775-1783).

The First Continental Congress (1774) British retaliation roused the anger of the colonists. The colonial assembly of Virginia took the first step in issuing a call for a Continental Congress to deal with the intolerable acts of the British government which endangered the liberties of every colony. Accordingly, the First Continental Congress met in September, 1774, in Philadelphia. It included delegates from all the colonies except Georgia. George Washington, John and Samuel Adams, and John Jay, who were to play an important role in the early history of the United States of America, were among those who participated in the Congress. They sent a petition to King George III to redress their grievances, formed a “Continental Association,” with the purpose of stopping all trade with Britain, and agreed to meet again during the next spring. In Britain, leaders like Lord Chatham and Edmund Burke, who were sympathetic to the American colonists, appealed to their government to repeal the Coercive Acts. But King George III’s government remained adamant.

Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775) The First Continental Congress had approved steps to be taken to prepare for war. The people of Massachusetts gathered arms and ammunition and trained “minutemen” (American militiamen ready to fight at a moment’s notice) to fight. In Boston, British General Thomas Gage sent troops to seize ammunition stored by minutemen at Concord. When the troops arrived at Lexington, conflict ensued resulting in the death of eight minutemen. British troops advanced towards Concord and destroyed what little military supplies they found. On their way back to Boston, the British troops were fired upon by the minutemen resulting in over 250 British casualties. Tales of British atrocities spread and soon the war broke out.

Declaration of Independence (4 July, 1776) A few weeks after the battles of Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia (May 1775). The Congress included delegates from all the colonies except Georgia. They adopted the Olive Branch Petition on July 5, 1775, and sent it to Britain on July 8, 1775. It asserted loyalty of the colonists to the British crown in a final attempt to avert war. The Congress also released a document titled, Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking

Up Arms (July 6, 1775), which described the reasons for the colonists taking up arms. Britain answered the Olive Branch Petition with the Prohibitory Act (1775) which closed the colonies to international trade. The Second Continental Congress, which first met in May 1775, approved the invasion of Quebec province. The Battle of Quebec (December 31, 1775) ended disastrously for the colonists. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense, published in January 1776, advocated independence for the colonies from the corrupt British monarchy. The Second Continental Congress decided to sever relations with the mother country by appointing a committee to draft a formal declaration of American Independence. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence which was proclaimed on 4th July, 1776. It included, among other things, a list of omissions and commissions of the government of King George III, and asserted the colonists’ “certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”. In the end the solemn declaration mentioned, “we therefore…solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States…”

The War

Washington

The Second Continental Congress appointed General Washington as the commander of the Continental Army and began to raise necessary resources for the continuation of war. Washington commanded ill-equipped and poorly trained soldiers numbering 19,000 and was pitted against 32,000 trained British soldiers led by William Howe. Howe defeated Washington at the Long Island and

captured New York. But Washington did not lose his courage. He recrossed the icy river of Delaware on a snowstorm-struck Christmas-night and captured Trenton from the Hessians. He followed up this victory with another at Princeton. The war entered a new phase when Lord George Germain accepted a plan to isolate the New England by sending a force of 8,000 soldiers under the command of General Burgoyne who was to come down from the Hudson Valley to New York to join Gen. Howe. This plan did not work out the way it was intended. Firstly, Burgoyne found it difficult to reach the south because of the difficult terrain and weary soldiers. Secondly, Gen. Howe left New York for the south not knowing that he was to meet Burgoyne. He went southwards, defeated Washington again at Brandywine Creek and Germantown, and occupied Philadelphia. In the meanwhile, Gen. Burgoyne was defeated at the battle of Saratoga and finally surrendered in October 1777. The defeat of the British at Saratoga proved to be a turning point in favour of the colonists. The French foreign minister believed that the American colonists deserved assistance from a friendly country. So France joined the war on the American side in 1778, to help them in winning the war, and at the same time derive satisfaction of avenging her defeat in the Seven Years’ War. France lent money and sent her volunteers to America. The French navy also played a decisive role during the crucial stages of the war. Soon Spain and the Netherlands were also at war with Britain as allies of France. The League of Armed Neutrals (Russia, Denmark and Sweden) assumed hostile attitude towards Britain. Thus, Britain was alone in her fight against the rebellious colonists who were thousands of miles away from her. Lack of communication and fresh reinforcements weakened the British army which had the problem of effectively controlling the territories it had conquered. In Britain, the Whigs condemned the attitude of King George III towards the colonies. General Washington spent the most bitter winter at Valley Forge. His army starved and its morale was very low. The British won several victories in the south in 1780. But in October 1781, the British army in the south led by General Cornwallis was surrounded by the American and the French armies. Unable to extricate himself from this predicament, Cornwallis with his soldiers surrendered to Washington at Yorktown. It was the most important event in the course of the war. The war continued till 1783 even though Britain was weary. Britain lost the war because her leaders were unable to direct it efficiently. Secondly, she had lost her supremacy on the seas due to French intervention. Thirdly, she was fighting on the foreign soil which lay thousand of miles away. Fourthly, her commanders committed many blunders. In the end, one must also give due credit to General Washington for having ably led the colonial forces to victory.

Results of the War In 1783, the British signed the Treaty of Paris (1783) by which she recognised the independence of the thirteen colonies. The treaty included the delimitation of territory (“from the southern boundary of Canada to the northern boundary of Florida and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi”). One may say that American War of Independence was an event of great importance in the history of mankind. The long struggle of the colonists against the royal tyranny ended. Ideals enshrined in the Declaration of Independence were put into practice. The Americans chose a republic in the place of monarchy and built a truly democratic state. Thirdly, the American Revolution had its impact on the French who groaned under tyrannical monarchy. When the French volunteers led by General La Fayette returned to France from the colonies they sowed the seeds of revolution on their native soil, thus, paving the way for the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. King George III and his government stood very much discredited in the eyes of the people. Despite the advice given to King George III about following a policy of restraint towards the colonies, he remained adamant (he was mentally deranged). So royal interference was kept at a low level henceforth. In the end, the mercantilist theory, that colonies exist for the benefit of the mother-country, came to be very much criticised. Britain changed her policies towards the other colonies considerably.

The Constitution of the United States Before the American Constitution came into force in 1789, the thirteen British colonies had become practically independent states and sovereign following the declaration of independence in 1776. There was the Continental Congress which enjoyed only limited powers since it was bound by the Articles of Confederation. Each state contributed funds, arms, volunteers, and also raised taxes for meeting the expenses. Unfortunately, the Congress remained ineffective after the war. Things began to worsen when the thirteen independent states began to quarrel among themselves over issues like the demarcation of the borders, payment to soldiers, and so on. Some of the states which had borrowed money from British creditors started defaulting. In the meantime, a leader of the peasants by name Daniel Shays led a revolt in 1786 in Massachusetts and tried take control of the State House. His revolt was crushed, but there was a feeling

that the Congress needed more powers to deal with such situations. The need of the hour was to have a strong Central Government. Lack of cooperation from among the independent states became a curse. The Congress faced bleak prospects and the unity of the country was in danger. The weakened Congress could not deal effectively on such issues like slavery, inflated economy and foreign policy matters. It was in these circumstances that James Madison with few followers convened the Annapolis Convention. Delegates from all the states attended this convention where they discussed the amendments to be introduced to the Articles of Confederation. Unfortunately the delegates did not come to any conclusion on serious concerns, but agreed to meet again in May, 1787 in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Convention was composed of 55 members, some of them being soldiers, diplomats, and judges. The convention chose General Washington as its Chairman. The drafting of the constitution began in 1787 and completed in 1789. In the meantime, there grew two political parties, the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson respectively. The Federalists desired a strong Central Government so as to enable it to take timely and important decisions, whereas the AntiFederalists wanted more powers to the state governments. The two political parties began to press their points of view during the meetings of the constitutional convention. The convention discussed various plans on the basis of which the constitution could be drafted. Edmund Randolph proposed the Virginia Plan which envisaged a constitution that was already in vogue in the state of Virginia. However, there were objections raised against the Virginia Plan because large states and small states will have to send representatives more on the basis of population. Therefore it was rejected and the New Jersey Plan was discussed. Unfortunately the New Jersey Plan favoured smaller states vis-a-vis bigger states. On 20 June, 1787, the Connecticut delegation proposed that representation in the senate be equal for all the states whereas the representation in the House of Representatives based on population of free inhabitants. It was indeed a “great compromise”. The founding fathers of the constitution were influenced by the writings of great philosophers like Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke and Montesquieu. Rousseau’s declaration of the rights of man came to be reflected in the preamble of the American Constitution. Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers wielded great influence on the founding fathers. The first draft of the Constitution was carried out by a committee appointed by the convention. In the draft certain words were introduced such as

“President”, “Congress”, “Senate”, “House of Representatives” and “Supreme Court”. The Constitution became ready for debate, and it was proposed that a four year term for the office of the President be agreed upon. On 15 September, 1787, the convention met for the last time to approve the draft of the Constitution. It was here that Benjamin Franklin played an important role by asking the delegates to sink their differences. Out of the fifty-five delegates, there were only forty-two present, and all those present signed except Randolph, Mason and Gerry. The Constitution was printed and presented to the Congress for ratification. Before the Constitution was ratified by the Congress, a few states, including Virginia, had certain reservations. In New York City a number of essays appeared in the newspapers which argued for the ratification of the Constitution that was before the Congress. The most prominent among the writers advocating the ratification were Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison. Their brilliant articles appearing in the newspapers were known as the Federalist papers. The Federalist Papers influenced the state of New York to ratify the Constitution. A few other states such as North Carolina and Rhode Island finally agreed to approve the Constitution after extracting certain promises from the Congress. The Federalists and the Anti-Federalists arrived at a compromise regarding the amendments to be made to the Constitution before the approval of the Congress. These amendments came in the form of the Bill of Rights.

Features of the American Constitution One of the prominent features of the American Constitution is that it envisages the State to be a Republic, with the President heading the Executive Branch, the Congress (The Senate and The House of Representatives) representing the legislative branch and the Supreme Court along with lower courts constituting the judiciary. These three branches are separated and vested with appropriate powers. However, the founding fathers desired that these three branches of the government though separated and endowed with powers, should work in unison on the basis of checks and balance system. In other words, the check and balance system was another important feature of the American Constitution. For example, bills passed by the Congress come into effect as laws only after the signature of the President. Sometimes a law may be challenged in a court for its constitutional validity. It is here that the Supreme Court will have its final say. The Supreme Court will strike out law if it violates the constitution. One must remember that the judicial review is considered as the soul of the US

Constitution. The judicial review became an important feature ever since the judgment delivered by the Supreme Court Chief Justice Marshall in the case of Marbury vs. Madison (1803). An arbitrary exercise of power by one branch of government could be checked by either of the two other branches of the government. The President enjoys enormous powers as the Chief of the Executive Branch in various ways. He appoints important officials to assist him in the task of running the government, for conducting foreign affairs, and looking after Defence in his capacity as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. Despite these powers enjoyed by the President, he is hampered by certain restraints imposed upon him by the Congress. He has to seek the approval of the Senate with regards to appointments to top posts such as ambassadors, secretaries, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and other federal judges. Even the treaties signed by him with foreign governments need ratification of the Senate (remember that the Versailles treaty signed by President Wilson was not approved by the Senate). Any declaration of war by the President needs the backing of the Congress. The Constitution is not a lengthy document, but remains precise and simple, with seven articles and thirteen sections. Since the Constitution came into force, there have been twenty-seven amendments. It testifies the wisdom of the founding fathers for their vision of the future. The amending procedure as laid down in the Constitution is somewhat complex. All amendments will have to be approved by the Congress as well as the states. The Constitution envisages a federal structure, and assigns specific powers to the Union as well as the states. Any residual power is to be enjoyed by the states. Each of the fifty states will have a bicameral legislature, like in the Union. The Governor acts as the head of the state and approves (or rejects) the acts passed by the legislature. The Constitution provides for dual citizenship (citizen of the country and the state). The Constitution expects the President to play a leading role in all the affairs of the nation including making laws, conduct of foreign policy, and matters of defence. In other words the Constitution envisages the country to remain as a republic with President as the head of the government and the nation. In the long history of the US there have been strong and dynamic presidents, and also presidents who were weak and vacillating. It all depends upon what kind of men had been chosen to lead the country. The Constitution includes the ten amendments which are known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights guarantee the American citizens free speech, freedom of the press and religion, the right to petition the government for redress of grievances, freedom from oppression, freedom of assembly, the right to trial by jury, and fair compensation for property taken away by the government for

public good. The Bill of Rights came into force in December, 1791, and conferred on citizens the fundamental rights. There can be no amendment or abrogation or reduction of rights enjoyed by citizens. This is in variance with the Bill of Rights which was passed by the British Parliament way back in 1689.

Some Important Amendments and Acts The sixteenth President, Abraham Lincoln, declared all slaves living in the Confederacy free by his emancipation proclamation (1863). After the civil war, this proclamation had to be confirmed in the form of the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) to the Constitution. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in the US, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments (1868,1870) guaranteed all citizens basic civil liberties. They extended suffrage to former male slaves. The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) mentioned: the right of citizens of the US to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the US or by any state on account of sex. By this amendment women were given voting rights. By the Twenty-Second Amendment (1951), a law was passed limiting the presidency to no more than two terms. The Twenty-Fourth Amendment of 1964, brought the blacks one step further towards universal suffrage. The Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971) lowered the voting age to 18. Reverend Martin Luther King junior started his campaign in August 1963 for eradication of racial discrimination. In response to his campaign the Congress joined the Supreme Court in getting the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 passed. The Constitution gives a free rein to the philosophy of individualism by giving the right to property. In other words, it favours the growth of the American economy through means of capitalism. It has remained as a “document that has revolved and changed dramatically over 200 years, one that remains vital, alive and still controversial today.” The US Constitution has been one of the most enduring successes in the world’s constitutional history. The Constitution of the US had borrowed many benign aspects from the Articles of Confederation. It has also borrowed many features from state constitutions at the time of its drafting. It has incorporated the political philosophies of the British and the French writers. The British Constitution had wielded considerable influence at the time of the drafting of the American Constitution. The constitutions of Australia, Canada, Japan and India borrowed many features from the American Constitution. As far as India is concerned, the American Bill of Rights had its great impact on our Constitution.

7 The French Revolution of 1789 and the Aftermath, 1789-1815

T

he French Revolution of 1789, is considered by many historians as an important landmark in the history of mankind. A total rejection of the old system of government followed by an attempt to build a new society characterised the revolution. The new society was to be based on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. In its process of promising a new life for the common people, the revolution resulted in violence and massacres. Even the king and the queen were not spared from being executed.

Ancién Regime Although feudalism had disappeared in France, its vestiges continued to dominate the French life. For example, the maxim that ‘nobles fight, clergy pray and people pay’, no longer held valid. The nobles surrendered their power to the king but retained their fiefs. They enjoyed a new status—as courtiers—and enjoyed all the old privileges. Similarly, the church owned one-fifth of the land in France and enjoyed its revenues. There were about a few hundred higher clergy—men who had easy access to the king. Like the nobles, the church hardly paid taxes to the state. Whenever proposal was put forward to the king for taxing the church, the church dignitaries threatened, “Do not make us choose between God and the King, for you know what our answer will be.” The conduct of the church was most reprehensible and its corruption was disgusting. A majority of the bishops and archbishops lived in luxury. Except for their dress which symbolised their profession, their daily life was anything but simple and chaste. It is not to be mistaken that all clergymen lived like this. A large number of lower clergy lived in simplicity and poverty. They carried on

their pious profession in spite of the moral degeneration of their superiors. At the time of revolution many of them threw in their lot with the Third Estate while their superiors stood solidly behind the despotic king. The church formed the First Estate, and nobles the Second Estate. The bulk of the population of France constituted the Third Estate. The cream of the Third Estate was the upper middle class which was composed of lawyers, physicians, teachers, writers and merchants. It was this class which agitated for the abolition of privileges, and after having failed to achieve this through constitutional means, they had recourse to revolution. Unfortunately, the upper echelons of the society regarded this class anything but important. Abbé Sieyès aptly remarked, “What is the Third Estate?” “Everything.” “What has it being in politics until now?” “Nothing.” “What does it desire?” “To become something.” The upper middle class resented being left out from occupying suitable positions in the civilian and military administration. They were talented, capable and intelligent. But they were denied their share in the political life of the country. They envied the hold of the privileged class on the monarch. They were worried about the financial bankruptcy facing the country. This disgruntled lot produced fiery politicians who played an important role during the revolution. The bulk of the rural population was composed of ordinary peasants who bore a crushing burden of many taxes. They paid taxes in cash and kind to the state, their landlord and the church. For example, the peasants were humiliated when they were asked to work on construction of roads for a certain number of days for their noble. They had to buy some amount of salt. They had to grind their corn at the landlord’s mill. In all they paid 86 per cent of their income in the form of taxes to the state, nobles and the church. Whenever they could not meet the demands of these institutions they were punished. They were sent to prison and they did not have a fair trial. Their wretched conditions made them angry but they did not go to the extent of revolting in the early years of the revolution. During 1788-89 drought conditions prevailed in many parts of France. Unable to bear the pangs of hunger, many peasants drifted towards the cities hoping to get some relief. A loaf of bread which cost 50 per cent of his daily income earlier cost a full day’s wage on the eve of the revolution. What made conditions of the peasants miserable in France was the uncertainty of the taxes imposed upon them. A royal council presided over by the king had the right to secretly decide on the enhancement of land tax against which a peasant had no opportunity to seek redressal. When the demand was put up the peasants had no money to pay and appealed to courts. But the courts decided in favour of the government and invariably it resulted in the

imprisonment of peasants. Thousands of them thus spent their time in gaol. The spirit of rebellion was not in their blood and they meekly submitted themselves to all kinds of humiliations. But the drought of 1788-89 broke the peasant’s back and drove him to lose his cool. It is clear that the French society was ridden by discriminations and social inequalities. Two and a half million artisans working mostly in cities were generally organised into guilds. But the rules prescribed were not conducive to industrial growth.

The Role of Philosophers Voltaire (1694-1778) The chaotic conditions of France attracted the attention of the French philosophers, namely, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and others. The most celebrated among them was Voltaire. He held the attention of the educated French, as no one had, by his prolific writings. As critic, poet, scholar, historian, lampoonist and dramatist he highlighted in his themes the prevailing injustices. In his inimitable style of writing—for which he became famous all over Europe —he ridiculed many institutions, not sparing even the monarchy. His vitriolic attack was specially directed against the church for its corruption and pretensions. He was neither an atheist nor an anarchist but what he desired most was that society should be purged of its evils and based on just principles. Since he was a rebel he was driven out of the country. Even the most powerful rulers of Europe trembled at the whisper of his name. They hated him for his courage and persecuted him for his name. It was an irony of fate that even after his death, the Abbé who performed his last rites was dismissed from his post. The only important person who admired his writings and fearlessness was King Frederick the Great of Prussia who honoured him in his court.

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Montesquieu was an eminent lawyer and a political scientist. Being endowed with a scientific temper, he observed the maladies affecting the French society and political system. He traced the causes and put forward his ideas in his book, De l’esprit des lois (The Spirit of Laws), a product of great labour. In this work he examined the merits and defects of various constitutions of the world, and felt that the British model was the best. He thought highly of its separation of powers

which resulted in the protection of fundamental rights of the people. The separation of powers provided for in the constitution would eliminate autocratic rule. He envisaged a government working by checks and balance system. Montesquieu was not a radical. He did not even think of a possible overthrow of French monarchy as a solution to the prevailing political condition in France. His writings, along with those of the English writers, Locke and Hobbes, went a long way in influencing the founding fathers of the American Constitution.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) Unlike the above philosophers whose impact had been anything but marginal on society, Rousseau’s contribution to the outbreak of the French Revolution was direct and positive. Although he did not live to see this great upheaval, he had been its founding father. Rousseau was born in Geneva and had a stormy career. He was driven out of his native place and therefore settled in France. He led an unconventional life and the spirit of revolt was very much within him. He was highly emotional by temperament, and injustice and cruelty stirred him deeply. He became a philosopher and visionary. His Contract Social (Social Contract) “struck France with a force of a new gospel”. He began the book with a stirring slogan, “Man is born free but is everywhere in chains”. He found a sovereign remedy to the ills of humanity in the establishment of an ideal state (with virtuous citizens) obeying the general will of the people. He visualised the establishment of a direct democracy where all the people would express their opinions freely and frankly and decide many issues. His writings evoked necessary passion and zeal and prepared them for a revolution. Rousseau believed in popular sovereignty. If the king does not obey the general will of the people he was breaking the contract, and the people have every right to choose a new government. Liberty, equality and fraternity became the watchwords and they were being heard at the time of the revolution in 1789.

Encyclopaedists and Physiocrats Led by Diderot, the encyclopaedists published thirty-four volumes of encyclopaedia between 1751 and 1772 which were a mine of information. They critically examined the deteriorating situation in France in many fields. To the revolutionaries, the volumes rendered a great service by indicating the morass into which the country had fallen. The French school of physiocrats explained the causes of the bewildering economic situation in the country and a drift

towards bankruptcy. They suggested certain reforms to be carried out. One of the reforms was the abolition of all taxes except on land. They advocated a free flow of trade by eliminating octroi levied on goods at each provincial border.

The Example of American Revolution The people living in the 13 British colonies in America overthrew the rule of the British government by waging a war of independence between 1775 and 1783. The example of the American colonists inspired the French. It was an irony of fate that France, which took revenge upon the British by lending support to the colonists, was herself affected by it. If American colonists waged a war of independence because they did not like being imposed a few pence taxes, then it would be all the more justified that the French should rise in revolt for all kinds of tyranny inflicted on them by the king. For example, the king enjoyed power over life and death by issuing the notorious lettre de cachet by which persons were imprisoned without any trial. Hundreds of political prisoners were held in dark dungeons of the Bastille Fort and similarly thousands of peasants were arrested and imprisoned since they could not pay the increased land tax.

Financial Crisis Far more serious and direct threat to the French Government was that of the impending financial crisis. Its origin can be traced to the reckless expenditure incurred for waging wars by the French king, Louis XIV. His successor, Louis XV, was warned of the consequences but he simply ignored it by saying “After me the deluge”. The situation became worse when France, with its meagre resources, decided to lend assistance to the American colonists. The expenses of the royal household went on increasing with the arrival of Queen Marie Antoinette. The French government resorted to borrowing money from the public to meet the mounting expenditure. It may be of interest to note that the prices rose steadily during the eighteenth century due to population growth (fifty per cent) on the one hand, and the general decline in agricultural and industrial products on the other. The government’s income was around 472 million livres, half of which went towards meeting the debts. The government sometimes defaulted on its debt payments. Rising prices diminished the people’s buying power, and thus added to their misery. At the same time the privileged sections, oblivious of the sufferings of the common people, held on to their special rights. The bad harvests of 1788 and

1789, further pushed up the price of a loaf of bread. Compelled by these circumstances, the peasants left their villages and moved towards cities. To their dismay they found that in a city like Paris conditions were no better.

King Louis XVI King Louis XVI ascended the throne in 1774. Although he was young, sincere and honest, his fickle-mindedness disabled him to meet the challenge of his time. He had neither the capacity nor the will to carry the heavy burden of responsibility. His marriage to Marie Antoinette, the Austrian princess, proved ruinous for him. She was a foreigner and therefore the French disliked her. She lived in luxury unaware of the plight of the common people. Her influence and vested interests spelt disaster for the king who was seriously engaged in repairing the financial situation. So the king “instead of directing events … drifted with the tide”. Turgot was appointed the Comptroller General of Finance (1774–76), and after seeing the balance-sheet suggested drastic cut in the expenditure. But the nobles found it galling and they worked to get him dismissed. Jacques Necker, a Geneva banker, was appointed the Director General of Finance in June 1777. He suggested that taxing the nobles was the only remedy to overcome the financial problems plaguing France. He put an end to the practice of perpetual ownership of real-estate by institutions and corporations (mortmain). He established assemblies with executive powers for the provinces of Berry and Haute-Guyenne in which representation for the Third Estate (commoners) was brought on par with that of the other two estates put together. Voting in these assemblies was by head (one vote per deputy or representative) rather than by order (one collective vote per estate) which was the existing norm in the rest of the country. Necker’s reforms made him powerful enemies from among the nobility. He annoyed the privileged section by publishing a balance-sheet showing income and expenditure of the state. The report infuriated the revolutionaries since it revealed the enormous sums wasted on the privileged sections. However, Necker’s decision to borrow huge amounts of money to finance French participation in America’s war of independence proved to be his undoing. It worsened France’s already precarious financial situation. He had to resign from his post in May 1781. The next to come was Calonne who believed in pleasing all by overcoming the situation by means of borrowing heavily. To sum up his philosophy in his own words, “A man who wishes to borrow must appear to be rich, and to appear

rich he must dazzle by spending freely”. He borrowed a sum of $300,000,000 within three years. But people got wise after a few years and stopped buying government bonds with the result the treasury became empty in 1786. He advised the king to tax the nobles to save the state from bankruptcy. He was forced to resign like his predecessors. Necker was recalled as Finance Minister on August 26, 1788, and it was not long before a decision was taken to summon the Estates-General or the States-General (Parliament), which had not met since 1614. The main purpose for summoning the States-General was to get its consent for a fresh dose of taxes to be levied upon the people.

Estates-General (May-June 1789) Amidst great excitement elections were held and the common people drew up cahiers (a list of demands or grievances to be redressed) and presented it to the members elected to the Third Estate. The people’s demands mostly related to the stopping of arbitrary arrests, abolition of corvee (forced labour) and prior consent of the people before fresh taxes were to be levied. The king and the finance minister were unable to deal with the new States-General, particularly the Third Estate being very assertive and vocal in its demands. For more than a month since the commencement of the Estates-General, the first two estates― the First Estate (the clergy) and the Second Estate (the nobles)―had not agreed with the Third Estate (commoners) regarding various issues, including on the right to vote per head and uniting of all the three estates to form a single body. On June 17, 1789, the members of the Third Estate decided to break away from the Estates-General and form the National Assembly.

Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) On June 20, 1789, the members of the National Assembly arrived at their regular meeting hall only to see it locked. The reason given was that it was being renovated for the upcoming séance royale (royal session). The representatives left in a huff and assembled in the nearby royal tennis court. They (576 of the 577 members) took a pledge on June 20, 1789, that they would continue to meet till they draft and promulgate a new constitution. In the royal session of June 23, 1789, the king expressed his displeasure at the turn of events. In his address to all the estates he said what the Third Estate had done was unconstitutional. He ordered that the three Estates should meet separately. While the members of the first two estates dispersed cheerfully, the members of the Third Estate did not

leave the chamber. When the grandmaster of the ceremonies de Breze announced to them to clear the Hall, Mirabeau (a rebel noble) stood up and declared, “Sir, go tell your master that we are here by the will of the people and nothing but bayonet shall drive us out.” Two days later a large number of clergymen and some nobles joined the National Assembly. The king finally yielded, and on June 27, 1789, asked the rest of the nobles and clergy too to join the National Assembly. Thus, legitimacy was conferred on the National Assembly.

Siege of the Bastille, 14 July, 1789 The situation seemed to have been resolved, but only superficially. The king was smarting at the humiliation meted out to him. There were rumours that he was bringing troops from the provinces to control the mob violence in Paris. Heeding the advice of his close advisers he dismissed Necker from the finance ministry and ordered him to leave the country. The dismissal of Necker and the subsequent order to expel him brought about instantaneous and violent reaction from the Paris mob which had already come under the influence of great demagogues. The unruly mob collected arms and attacked the Fortress Prison of Bastille, a symbol of royal despotism, on 14 July, 1789. When the Swiss guards tried to prevent their entry, the unruly mob chopped off their heads, entered the prison and released the prisoners. The capture of Bastille was momentous signifying the beginning of the revolution. When the king heard the news of the fall of Bastille, he said, “This is a great revolt.” But the Duc de Liancourt replied, “No, Sir, it is a great revolution.” The significance of the siege of Bastille should not be lost sight of. The king recognised the National Assembly and reinstated Necker on July 16, 1789. The bourgeoisie of Paris formed a city-government called the Paris Commune. Similarly towns and cities had their own municipal governments. The members of the Court Party consisting of the Duke of Artois, Conde and Polignac fled France. Some of the liberal-minded nobles and clergy came forward to renounce their rights and privileges voluntarily. The National Guards was formed, commanded by General Lafayette, the Bourbon flag was discarded and the flag of the revolution—the Tricolore—was adopted. Three days later the king had to acknowledge whatever had happened as fait accompli and accept the new flag.

Peasants’ Revolt In the provinces, the peasants rose against the nobles and burnt their castles, and

also records mentioning feudal dues. There was excitement and violence. Municipal governments and National Guards were formed on the Paris model in all towns. On 4 August, a report on the state of the nation was submitted to the Assembly. The report talked about outbreaks of violence against feudal dues everywhere, and on the same evening the Assembly witnessed nobles surrendering their rights and privileges. The Bishop of Nancy gave up the privileges of his order. Feudalism was abolished. So also serfdom. Feudal dues, titles and guilds were decimated. The principle of equality was established and class distinction eradicated. Louis XVI was hailed the “Restorer of French liberty” by the Assembly. The price of bread rose and many suggestions were put forward to bring it down but the king rejected all of them. In the meantime, there was a plot by the counter-revolutionaries led by the king’s brother, Count of Artois, to save the country from the revolution. The queen also wanted the revolution to come to an end. The decree of 4 August was not yet ratified by the king, thus confirming the suspicion that he too was plotting against the revolution. The famine was spreading fast and rumours went round in Paris that the king had given a banquet to honour the crack army regiments. On that occasion the revolutionary flag was trampled upon in the presence of the queen, and the Assembly was threatened. On 5 October, thousands of women marched from Paris to Versailles drawing cannons with them to demand bread, and punishment for those who had insulted the ‘tricolore flag’ of the revolution. Expecting trouble, the National Guards led by Lafayette also followed the procession at a safe distance. Standing near the closed gates of the place they demanded bread and when the queen came to know of it she said, “If they don’t have bread, let them eat cakes”. The crowd broke open the gates, killed some guards, and entered the queen’s apartment. The queen fled to the king’s apartment with her children. It was at this time that Lafayette intervened to save the royal family from the fury of the mob. But the king had to yield to the demands of the demonstrators, that he should leave his palace with his family and live in the Tuileries (in Paris). The royal family meekly submitted and on their return to Paris the women shouted, “We are bringing back the baker, the baker’s wife, and the baker’s son”. The Assembly too followed suit, and thenceforth, the king and the Assembly were watched by the Parisian mob. Amidst shouts of approval and disapproval by the mob the Assembly began to function, and the representatives could not express their views freely.

The Constitution

The Constitution, when drafted in 1791, had a preamble like that of the American preamble. It included the “Declaration of the Rights of Man” echoing the aspirations of Rousseau. It asserted that all men, “are free and equal, that people are sovereign, that law is an expression of the popular will, and that in making of it the people may participate directly, or indirectly through their representatives”. The first Constitution of France was thus drafted. A constitutional monarchy was established with the provision of a veto to be exercised by the king. A single assembly was established instead of bicameral legislature. Suffrage was restricted to those who paid certain amount of taxes to the state. An elective judiciary was established. To evolve a new political system the thirty-two old provinces were abolished, and in their place eighty-three departments (of uniform size) were established. Each department was subdivided into arrondissements and cantons. A decentralised system of administration was introduced where the role of the central government was subjected to certain restrictions. Central government officials hardly found a place in the local set-up, but the local government were to carry out the orders of the central government. On many counts, the proposed constitution suffered from inherent defects. The separation of powers in the three branches of government seemed to have left no scope for inter-communication. The king’s veto was not final since the constitution provided a solution for overcoming it. The efficiency of national government suffered a setback as it was split into eighty-three departments, the centre having little control over them due to the absence of its deputed officials there. The church property was nationalised. Henceforth all church officials were to be appointed by the central government. The church lands which constituted a fifth of all cultivable lands were sold to tide over the immediate financial crisis. As lands could not be sold immediately, the government issued assignats or paper currency with church property as its security. These assignats could not be used to demand gold but could be used to purchase lands. More than forty-five million assignats were issued between 1789 and 1796. The civil constitution of the clergy turned the officials of the church into officials of the state, with fixed salaries. The number of dioceses was reduced to eighty-three, one each to serve a department. The higher officials of the church came to be elected by those who elected civil officials also. The salaries of the higher church officials were reduced and that of the lower order slightly increased. The civil constitution of the clergy hurt the feelings of devout Catholics since it transferred the control of the church from the hands of the Pope to the hands of the state. The Pope condemned the civil constitution and

thereupon the assembly insisted on all the church officials to take an oath of loyalty to the state. It split the clergy into two groups, juring and non-juring clergy. The State supported the former and devout Catholics the latter. Thus, there was a confrontation between the church and the state.

King Flees to Varennes (June 1791) Being a devout Catholic, the king felt deeply anguished at the inclusion of the civil constitution of the clergy into the constitution. His conscience was deeply disturbed but he was helpless. He was forced to sign the constitution. In the meanwhile, the country was facing chaos with a large number of shops and factories closing down. In the provinces, people protested against the abolition of their provincial Parliaments. Similarly, the officials of the church staged a revolt against the civil constitution of the clergy. Mirabeau, advocate of a strong executive, died amidst crises. Had he lived on, things might have been different. With his passing away “Old France was buried”, and “new France lost a farseeing pilot”. Everybody thought that he would have saved France from total anarchy. He would have established a stable constitutional monarchy in France. These dark forebodings left the king with no alternative other than to plan for leaving the country in secrecy. He was also thinking of securing assistance from a neighbouring country like Austria. His brother-in-law was the Austrian emperor who was ready to help him. Dressed as a valet, the king and his family fled Paris in a coach. But before the coach reached the borders they were apprehended at the border town of Varennes. The king and his family were brought back to the Tuileries like prisoners, the crowd hurling abuses at them. His powers remained suspended. Even the extremists whose goal was constitutional monarchy now lost their faith in the king. In these circumstances a republican party was founded. The national assembly was dissolved and the representatives agreed not to contest the ensuing elections.

Political Clubs Since the outbreak of the revolution, Paris witnessed the birth of a few political clubs. The most prominent among them were the Jacobin and Cordelier. The Jacobin Club was composed of many assembly members and local politicians who discussed the problems confronting the nation. The most influential leader of this club was Robespierre, a radical democrat and an opponent of the republican party. The radical democrats gained more power and influence than

the conservatives. In all, the branches of Jacobin club numbered more than 2,000. They were existing in all towns and villages of France. The Jacobin Club maintained good discipline among its members and its orders were obeyed by one and all. Its members gained great hold over the Assembly in the course of time. At times they compelled the Assembly to obey their wishes. More radical in outlook and character was the Cordelier Club whose members were mostly from the lower strata of society. Ever since the unsuccessful flight of the king, the Cordeliers thought of establishing a republic with the workers’ support. Danton, a lawyer of great repute, became its popular leader. The club operated in Paris only and did not have branches elsewhere in the country. The members of the Cordelier Club brought their influence and will on the government. The Girondists were a group of Assembly members who hailed from a part of France called Gironde. Some of their great leaders were Pierre Vergniaud, Isnard and Buzot. The Girondins were great admirers of the glories of ancient Greece and Rome. They were very much inspired by Madam Roland. The Girondins longed to establish a republic. They clashed with the Jacobins during the dark days of the French Revolution.

The Revolutionary Wars When the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II came to know of his brother-inlaw’s futile attempt to flee from France and his subsequent humiliation at the hand of the Paris mob, he was angry. Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia issued a joint statement called the Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) that expressed solidarity with Louis XVI. They also urged the other European rulers to help Louis XVI regain the French crown. It posed a serious threat to the success of the revolution. Following the Declaration of Pillnitz, the revolution witnessed its darkest period. The émigrés of Coblenz and Worms were grouping themselves on the French border to invade France. They were being supported by a few rulers of Europe who were afraid of the spread of the French Revolution beyond its borders. They felt that their own positions were being seriously threatened by the excesses of the revolution. The action of the émigrés brought a reprisal. The French assembly declared war on them on April 20, 1792. Both the supporters and opponents wanted this war to go on for their own reasons. The former expected that the king would get an opportunity to recover his power and glory and the latter an opportunity to test the loyalty of the king for the cause of the revolution. The coming of the war on the border

changed the very character of the revolution. It led to dangerous situation and culminated in the execution of the king and the queen.

The reverses experienced on the borders, especially the capture of Verdun leaving the route to Paris wide open to the enemies caused great alarm in France. The Parliament came under increasing pressure of the Paris Commune. The people turned against the king, when the Duke of Brunswick, the commander of the allied armies (of Prussia and Austria), issued a manifesto ordering the people of France to restore power to Louis XVI. It said that if the subjects try to punish him and his family they would “exact an exemplary and ever memorable vengeance”. The manifesto raised doubts in the minds of the people of France about the loyalty of the king to the revolution. It endangered his position. The French decided to avenge the insult. The direct outcome of this manifesto was the outbreak of an insurrection (10 August, 1792) in France. The king and his family fled the Tuileries which was besieged by the mob and took shelter in the assembly itself. There was large scale violence which resulted in the death of

eight hundred soldiers and five thousand people. The Jacobins masterminded the attack on the Tuileries. They overthrew the municipal government of Paris with the intention of directing the affairs of the country. To achieve this, they suspended the king, forced the legislative assembly to obey its orders, and ordered the framing of a new constitution. Intimidated, the legislative assembly called for a convention for this purpose. Under orders of the commune it issued a declaration about the ensuing elections which were to be based on universal suffrage. After the ouster of the king, France became a truly democratic country. The approach of the allied armies towards France had a terrible impact on her affairs. What followed in September, 1792, was ruthless massacre of the royalist supporters. Marat, a Jacobin leader, proved himself to be the most bloodthirsty monster by killing hundreds of nobles, non-jurors and the royalists. The ‘September massacres’ caused a deep cleavage between the Girondists who wished to punish Marat and the Jacobins who remained indifferent. The convention met on 20 September, 1792, the day on which the revolutionaries inflicted a humiliating defeat upon the allied armies at the French border town of Valmy. The progress of the invading foreign troops was thus halted.

The National Convention (1792-95) The National Convention, on being summoned after the suspension of the king for treason, unanimously voted for the abolition of monarchy in France on 21 September, 1792. It ordered that all public events should henceforth be dated from the first year of the republic. It appointed a committee to draft a new constitution for the republic. The Girondins and Jacobins entered into a protracted struggle for power, the former having its political base in the countryside and the latter in the capital itself. Their differences arose over the outbreak of ‘September massacres’ perpetrated by Marat. While both the Girondins and Jacobins wanted republican form of government, they were at variance over its functioning. The former desired constitutional approach to solve issues while the latter believed in applying brute force. The Girondins hated the Jacobin leaders, namely, Robespierre, Marat and Danton. The last named showed his anxiety to bridge the gulf between the Girondins and Jacobins for which he incurred the wrath of his friends. The king was tried for treason, found guilty and sent to the guillotine on 21 January, 1793. The Girondins pleaded for leniency but to no avail. The king proved to be “greater on the scaffold than he had been upon the throne”.

The king’s execution led to much turmoil in the country. The enemies increased in number both inside and outside the country. Austria and Prussia were not alone in opposing the French revolution. A few other countries such as England, Russia, Spain, Holland and German states also joined to put down the revolution. Civil war broke out inside the country. The peasants of La Vendee known for their loyalty to the church and the nobles staged a revolt against the republic. Charles Dumouriez, one of the able commanders of the French army, became a traitor by joining the enemies. The odds facing the National Convention proved to be crucial to its very survival. Therefore it had to take drastic steps to meet the external and internal threats. It formed three committees, namely, a Committee of General Security, Committee of Public Safety, and a Revolutionary Tribunal. It voted to raise the strength of the French army by half-a-million soldiers to meet the threat of internal and external dangers. The National Convention adopted the means of militarism and terrorism to overawe its enemies. Unfortunately, both the Jacobins and the Girondists could not unite, for, the Marat affair continued to divide them. His case was sent to the Revolutionary Tribunal which finally exonerated him. Being a great leader of the Paris Commune, his release was widely acclaimed. The Paris Commune turned its hostility towards the Girondists. It organised a revolt against the Girondists who were in majority (200 members as against 100 Jacobins) in the National Convention. The members of the Paris Commune with a large force surrounded the building that housed the National Convention, and demanded the expulsion of the Girondin leaders. Despite protests from that body, 24 Girondins were arrested. Thus the Paris Commune became a virtual dictator after taking over the National Convention. The Girondists called upon the people of the country to rebel against the tyranny of the Paris Commune. Revolts occurred in Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux and Caen.

Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793-July 27, 1794) The National Convention which believed in militarism and terrorism, first turned its attention towards meeting the crisis which had arisen in 60 of the 83 departments in France. A provisional government was immediately set up and its supreme executive authority was vested in the Committee of Public Safety which consisted of nine members (later increased to 11). It was entrusted with discharging manifold duties such as the conduct of foreign policy, supervision of the army and securing the support of the people. But soon the Committee of the

Public Safety became a virtual dictator over the affairs of the nation. It passed orders for guillotining thousands of enemies of the Republic which included many Girondins. The Committee’s Revolutionary Tribunal committed travesty of justice by passing orders of execution even on those who were patriotic but unfortunate enough to incur the wrath of the members. It was Madam Roland, who on reaching the scaffold exclaimed, “Oh liberty, what crimes have been committed in thy name.” A few months earlier, the queen had been also tried and guillotined. On the borders, the revolutionary army led by Carnot was able to defeat a coalition of European powers and thereby extend the borders of France. The ease with which the Revolutionary Army won its victory emboldened the National Convention to make a declaration to the effect that the peoples of Europe groaning under the tyranny of kings shall be helped to overthrow their governments.

Reforms of National Convention Among other measures the National Convention tried to implement, were the establishment of the National School, compulsory military service, a code of law for the whole country, and the introduction of certain social reforms. Imprisonment for not paying debts was abolished. Slavery in the colonies was eradicated. The law of primogeniture was discontinued and replaced by equal division of property among all male children. A uniform system of weights and measures was introduced. The metric system was introduced (which was later copied by other European nations).

Religion The National Convention introduced several experiments in the field of religion under the influence of the Paris Commune. It suppressed the clergy and monasteries during its Reign of Terror. Afterwards it tried some novel experiments. It adopted a revolutionary calendar dating from 22 September, 1792, which was based on scientific reasons and secularism. The churches were converted into temples of Reason during the Reign of Terror. The Atheistic Religion of Reason became official. However, after the fall of Robespierre, the National Convention declared that religion was a private thing which was concerned with the individual, and where the State would not interfere. Tolerance of all religions became a policy of the state and the church worship

was resumed.

Socialist Experiments The properties of the émigrés, nobles and landlords were confiscated and sold to the poor peasants. No compensation was paid to the owners. Forced loans and capital levies were imposed upon the wealthy to meet the financial crisis. The “laws of maximum” fixed the ceiling on prices of food grains, consumer goods and wages. Political and social equalities were achieved through certain reforms, such as the abolition of the feudal customs and manners. Everybody was addressed as ‘citizen’. The National Convention lost much of its fanaticism after the death of some Jacobin leaders. It tried to adopt the principles of republicanism and democracy. A new constitution was drawn up (the attempt made before the Reign of Terror having been given up) which was implemented in 1795. This constitution (also called Constitution of the Year III) was entrusted to two chambers, namely, a lower house with 500 elected members, and a Council of the Ancients composed of 250 members. A committee of five directors was appointed to execute the laws passed by the legislature. The directorate was assisted by a cabinet composed of ministers.

Two Decrees National Convention issued two decrees partly to stem the revolt in the offing by the royalists against its tyrannical rule, and partly to secure the support of the people for its government. These two decrees provided that two-thirds of the members of each house would be chosen from among those who were present at the National Convention. Although the new constitution was overwhelmingly approved by the populace, the two decrees attached to it aroused suspicion and opposition. In the end, the decrees were ratified with slender majorities everywhere except in Paris.

The Insurrection of Paris (October 5, 1795) The city of Paris refused to ratify the constitution and also the supplementary decrees. It rose in revolt against the National Convention. The revolt was supported by the royalists, the bourgeoisie and others. The National

Convention’s protection (against the fury of the royalist mob of Paris) was entrusted to Barras, the commander-in-chief of the French army. Barras remembered a brave artillery officer who had saved Toulon from the British naval attack. His name was Napoleon, and to this young man was given the job of saving the National Convention from a mob attack. The Corsican artillery officer was immediately called to assist Barras to disperse the mob. Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then almost an unknown artillery officer, carried out this job in an excellent manner with a “whiff of grapeshot.” Thus he saved the Republic which he was destined to overthrow in a few years, time.

The Directory (1795-99) The Directory was an executive body carrying out the laws passed by two elective councils, namely, the Council of the Ancients and the Council of 500. The Directory was composed of five directors—namely Carnot, Letourneur, La Révellière-Lépeaux, Rewbell and Barras. Carnot, the Director, has been described as the Organiser of Victory after his success in destroying a coalition of European powers against the French in the battle of Valmy. The directors were all not above board, since they always resorted to intrigues, plots and evil machinations to keep themselves in power. The most corrupt, immoral and unscrupulous among them was Barras who was responsible for bringing Napoleon into the limelight. It was at his instance that Napoleon married a beautiful widow, Josephine Beauharnais, and was given the command of the Italian expedition.

Conspiracy against the Directory During five years of its tenure (1795-99) the Directory was subjected to frequent attempts of overthrow. Plots and intrigues to overthrow them were all staged by the reactionaries and the royalists. The most important among them was the Babeuf plot of 1796 which was hatched by a young fanatical Jacobin orator, Babeuf. His aim was to revive the still-born constitution of 1793, which was drafted during the Jacobin years. He wanted to proclaim a ‘Republic of Equals’. The agents of this plot instigated many sections of Parisians including the army to revolt. But the revolt was suppressed and Babeuf was arrested and executed. Many admired his sincerity of purpose and endowed him the credit for attempting to found modern communism. The Directory was confronted with a financial crisis due to corruption and

wasteful expenditure at all levels of administration. To ensure the success at the battlefield, a million men were recruited to fight at the borders. This government of the Directory was also faced with the problem of giving free food to the hungry population of Paris. Payment of national debt remained suspended. The loans taken by the government earlier from the public were repudiated. The credibility of the Directory was at stake. During the 1797 elections, one-third of the members of the assembly turned out to be hostile towards the Directory. The Directory cancelled the election of many deputies and got them arrested. Carnot, one of the Directors, was also dismissed.

Foreign Policy Although the National Convention had been successful in expanding the northern boundaries of France after defeating three of her neighbours, Britain, Austria and Piedmont remained steadfast in its antagonism to the Republic. The Directory was in a state of war with these countries despite the withdrawal of Prussia, Spain and Holland from the coalition. So the Directory was compelled to carry on the war. The success of the Directory depended upon the success of the war. France had annexed Belgium after pushing back the invaders. However, she faced a great difficulty in defeating Austria. It must be remembered that Austria was the principal enemy of the French Revolution from the very beginning. Therefore, the Directory planned to send two military expeditions to defeat her. The first military expedition consisted of a large body of troops led by experienced commanders who were to march along the Danube, and the second was to be a small expedition against Austrian-Italy. Napoleon who was chosen to command the Italian expedition later, ruled France from 1799 to 1815.

Aftermath of the Revolution The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of mankind. Although it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France, nevertheless it marked the end of the ancién regime. The Bourbon monarchy came to an ignominious end with the execution of King Louis XVI. The revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism, and feudal vestiges associated with Bourbon rule in France. The new constitution, after the fall of Bourbon monarchy, proclaimed the doctrine of popular sovereignty as enshrined in Rousseau’s Social Contract. The revolution stood for the establishment of a new society based on liberty, equality

and fraternity. They were to be the guiding spirit of the nation. Since the revolution desired to establish an egalitarian society, it rejected the privileges enjoyed by the nobles and the church. The new republican constitution brought about the total separation of the state and church in 1794. The church was made subordinate to the state and church lands were distributed among the poor peasants. The influence of religion on education was considerably reduced. The educational system was built on secular foundations. To the long-oppressed peoples of Europe, the outbreak of the French Revolution came like manna from heaven. The triumph of the French Revolution ushered in an era of nationalism and liberalism and thus paved the way for revolutions in other parts of Europe during the nineteenth century. The cries for constitution and Parliament rent the air and the kings were forced to grant them. Finally, the French Revolution caused great political turbulence which could not be controlled except by one great man, and he was Napoleon Bonaparte. Thus the French Revolution, after a violent turn, led to the emergence of a great dictator, Napoleon.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte, who guided the destiny of Europe for nearly 15 years, was born at Ajaccio in the island of Corsica in 1769. His parents, Charles Bonaparte and Laetitia Ramolino, belonged to a family of lesser nobility and were in poor circumstances. His father died when Napoleon was young. Napoleon was sent to military schools at Brienne and Paris. He took his training seriously and showed keen interest in learning mathematics. He excelled in history and geography. He felt unhappy at his poverty because he was surrounded by children belonging to the nobility of France. They despised him for his Italian accent. He developed a hostile attitude towards the privileged classes of France and became an ardent admirer of Rousseau. He witnessed the famous days of the French Revolution but got disgusted with mob violence. He had also seen the attack on the Tuileries Palace, from where the king was forced to flee with his family and take shelter in the Legislative Assembly. He returned to Corsica and tried to write the history of that island. In the meantime, he lost his job as an artillery officer due to his frequent absence from the army. He spent some days as a penniless wanderer. He thought of joining the British East India Company. In August, 1792, he was taken back into the Army and in 1793, he inflicted a crushing defeat upon the invading British fleet which had attacked Toulon. His clever strategy to drive out the English attracted the attention of some of the important members of the

National Convention. In 1795, a royalist mob in Paris tried to attack the National Convention which was in session. The leader of the National Convention, Paul Barras, sought Napoleon’s help to save the National Convention. Napoleon arrived to meet the attack of the menacing mob and with a ‘whiff of grapeshot’ he dispersed it. Barras commended his achievement. He encouraged Napoleon to marry a charming widow, Josephine Beauharnais. She was a member of high society, through whom he came in contact with important officials of the French government.

Italian Expedition (1796-97) The conquest of Italy, which was under control of Austria, became an important goal for the directors. Therefore, they planned simultaneous attack to engage Austria on both sides, that is, across her border, as well as in Italy. Napoleon was given the command of the Italian expedition while the French army was to attack Austria along the Danube. Napoleon crossed the Alps with an ill-clad and inadequately equipped French company of soldiers. Under his command this motley crowd of soldiers became a highly efficient fighting machine. His inspiration enabled them to fight bravely. He engaged the enemies after brilliant marches and gained lightning victories. His soldiers greatly admired his qualities of mind and heart and called him ‘the little corporal’. Austrian Italy soon succumbed to Napoleonic tactics. Some of his daring exploits included the crossing of the Bridge of Lodi, the siege of Mantua, the battle at Arcola and the defence of Mantua. In all, he fought eighteen big battles and was involved in sixty-five skirmishes. He carried away the booty which included famous works of Italian art. With the fall of Mantua, Austria lost her hold over Italy. Piedmont surrendered Nice and Savoy. Lombardy was taken by the French army. Genoa was converted into Ligurian Republic. The small states of Parma and Modena were also subdued. Napoleon conducted negotiations with the enemies and sometimes turned the tables on them. He exhibited a flair for diplomacy and statecraft. In Italy he was hailed the ‘liberator’. He defied the Pope in Italy and forced him to conclude an agreement with him. The Pope surrendered a small town, Avignon, and rare statues and manuscripts to Napoleon. In the meantime, he concluded the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 17, 1797) with the Austrian emperor. He bargained heavily and finally Austria was forced to surrender the Italian province of Lombardy, Genoa and part of Netherlands. Lombardy, parts of Venetia, Switzerland and adjoining territories were united into a republic called the Cisalpine Republic. When he returned to France, he was hailed by the

public as the Hero of France.

Egyptian Campaign Now the only enemy left to be dealt with was Britain. Britain lay formidable across the British Channel. But this Channel which Napoleon described as a ‘ditch’ remained impassable on account of the supremacy of the British navy. Napoleon suggested to the directorate that the sensitive nerve-spot of the enemy lay in her trade with the east. So the conquest of Egypt became imperative to throttle British economy as it would seriously affect British trade. In the meanwhile, Tipu Sultan of Mysore appealed for French assistance to drive out the English from India. Taking all these into consideration, the directors appointed Napoleon commander of the Egyptian expedition. Napoleon set sail for Egypt. On his way he avoided confronting the British ships. On his landing in Egypt he encountered the Mamelukes. He fought the Mamelukes in the Battle of the Pyramids (July 21, 1798) and defeated them. Egypt lay prostrate at his feet. Napoleon exclaimed to his soldiers, “Soldiers, from the summit of these Pyramids 40 centuries look down upon you”. Subsequently he entered Cairo. Napoleon and his soldiers began to enjoy their glorious victory, hardly knowing that Lord Nelson, the famous British admiral, was fast reaching Aboukir Bay. Napoleon’s dream of taking Europe in the rear or helping Tipu Sultan to expel the British from India was shattered. His fleet, stationed at Aboukir Bay, was almost destroyed by the British fleet led by Lord Nelson in the Battle of the Nile (August 1, 1798). Napoleon humoured the disgruntled soldiers by engaging them in fruitful endeavours. Egyptology owes much to his great efforts. Napoleon marched his army into Syria where he had an alternative plan of defeating Turkey, since the latter had declared war on France. Although his army reached Syria amidst thirst and heat and captured forts of Gaza and Jaffa, he was far from achieving his final objective. The British fleet led by Sydney Smith supported the Turks, and the progress of the French army was checked at Acre. By forced marches Napoleon’s army reached Cairo. Although he did not achieve anything, he still boasted, and to lend support to his view, the Turks were badly beaten at Aboukir Bay in July 1799. Fearing another British attack, Napoleon beat a hasty retreat without his army and reached Paris. The French hailed him as the conqueror of Egypt. Napoleon had heard in Egypt that the directorate had become unpopular and his presence in Paris would turn the situation to his advantage. He secretly planned to overthrow the Directory by a coup and come to power.

The Coup d’etat Abbé Sieyès, a priest-cum-politician, always believed that the anarchy facing France could be overcome if an enlightened dictator came to power. He looked to Napoleon to take the cue, and accordingly, Napoleon overthrew the Directory with the help of his brother and a few loyal soldiers on 9 November, 1799. Had it not been for Napoleon’s brother, Lucien Bonaparte, who was the President of the Council of Five Hundred, the Coup of the eighteenth and nineteenth Brumaire would have failed miserably. Lucien connived for his brother’s attempt and brought about his success. In the evening, the conspirators met and declared that the Directory was abolished. In its place they appointed three Consuls – Sieyès, Ducos and General Bonaparte – to lead the nation. The three Consuls declared loyalty to the Republic and the members started drafting the new Constitution of the Year VIII. The Consulate was to rule France for the next ten years. The Republican government continued, and the first consul, Napoleon, could bring about the fruits of the revolution after signing the Peace of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon appointed Talleyrand to the foreign office and Fouche in the police department. Even reputed scientists were given portfolios and a body of experts sat in the Council of State. Napoleon permitted the émigrés to return to France. But amidst this facade of republican form of government, Napoleon assumed power as equal to that of King Louis XIV. No bill could be passed without his sanction. Even if a Bill was voted, it could not become a law until it obtained his signature. Napoleon gave France a strong centre and appointed his followers as prefects and sub-prefects for each department and arrondissement respectively. The local citizens lost their effective voice in the local councils. Napoleon set many things right to pacify the French. He suppressed revolts in La Vendee and Brittany. He improved the finances of the country and gave religious freedom to the people. He devoted his entire energy to heal the wounds of the French people inflicted during the revolution.

Reconquest of Italy (1800) While Napoleon was in Egypt, a coalition of powers consisting of England, Russia and Austria had become active. Russia withdrew from the coalition as a protest against the British naval supremacy and followed armed neutrality. Austria recovered her territories in Italy by driving out the French, due to the ineptitude of the directors. Britain remained a supreme sea power. Napoleon turned his attention to the reconquest of Italy in 1800. In one of the most daring

exploits of his career, Napoleon marched his army of 40,000 across the snowcovered Alps through the famous St. Bernard Pass, repeating the feat of the famous Carthaginian General, Hannibal. Cannons hidden in troughs of hollowed logs were dragged across the Pass. He challenged the Austrians at Marengo (June 14, 1800). He had almost lost the battle but for the providential appearance of his General, Louis Desaix. The Austrian commander left the field thinking that he had won, but the rout of his army came after his departure. On December 3, 1800, the Austrian army was again defeated at Hohenlinden (Germany). Austria finally accepted the Treaty of Lunéville (February 9, 1801). The result was that France regained a major part of northern Italy.

The Treaty of Amiens Britain remained supreme. Therefore Napoleon proposed a peace treaty to Britain which was readily accepted by her in 1802. Hostilities between the two powers ceased. Napoleon turned his attention to improving domestic conditions. In Britain, the inferior Addington ministry which succeeded Pitt’s had no strength left to continue the war. The Englishmen remarked after the treaty, “everybody was glad and nobody was proud.” Except Trinidad and Ceylon, Britain surrendered all her colonial conquests. She gave up her royal title to France, returned Malta to the Knights of St. John, and Minorca to Spain. Napoleon agreed to evacuate the French army from Egypt, Naples and Portugal. The British tourists began to visit Paris to see how France was rebuilding herself after the revolution. The French empire stretched to the Rhine, Piedmont, Parma and Elba. Holland, Switzerland and Spain remained as subsidiary states. Portugal and Naples were too weak to resist French domination. France acquired Louisiania and West Indies.

The Renewal of War: Third Coalition After a brief respite hostilities commenced between Britain and France. Napoleon considered improving shipbuilding and development of ports and dockyards with a view to meet the challenge of British sea power. Colonial expeditions were undertaken and satellite republics were set up in Europe. For example, the Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy, Batavian in Holland, and Helvetian in Switzerland. With the consent of Russia, Napoleon reorganised the 300 odd German states into 38 states. He became the consul for life in 1802. In 1804, he became the emperor of France. The Pope himself came to Paris to

perform the crowning ceremony. The war with England was renewed in May 1803, and this time he drew all major powers of Europe into the vortex of war. The cause was Napoleon’s provocative act aimed at undermining English interests everywhere and the refusal to cede Malta. Napoleon accused Britain of violating the Treaty of Amiens and giving shelter to the émigrés and the Bourbon family. He made elaborate preparations for invading Britain herself. Although the British and the French fleets stood face to face for nearly 18 months, the French could hardly make any progress to cross the ‘Ditch’. He finally abandoned the invasion of England. Napoleon was not sure about the success of his enterprise, particularly when the British navy was commanded by none other than Admiral Nelson. The French fleet was defeated a few miles off Cadiz. When Pitt resumed office as prime minister of Britain, in 1804, he formed the third coalition which included Austria and Russia with the backing of Sweden and Naples. However, Napoleon was determined to smash this coalition. He defeated the Austrians at Ulm and forced them to surrender (October 20, 1805). Similarly, another Austrian army in Naples was overcome and it capitulated. The Austrian emperor fled the capital, Vienna, and joined the Russian emperor. A day after the French victory at Ulm, the British, under Nelson’s leadership, won a splendid naval victory against the combined French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar. This great British naval commander lost his life during the action. The victory at Trafalgar made the Russian emperor happy. The Russians, after joining the Austrians, moved towards meeting the French army. Napoleon engaged them at Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, and won a splendid victory. It was a glorious day in his career. Austria signed the Peace of Pressburg (December 26, 1805) and the Russians retreated. Subsequently, Napoleon met the Russian Czar at Tilsit and came to an understanding. By the Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon received a few German states. He included them in the Confederation of the Rhine. The grand French victory at Austerlitz made Pitt remark, “Roll up that map of Europe, it will not be wanted these 10 years.” Thus Napoleon brought about the subjugation of Europe under his leadership. He wanted Prussia’s support but she always remained neutral. In the meantime, Napoleon sought her support for the continental system which he was to propose. When Napoleon imposed the continental system, Prussia had to support him. But when the Prussian merchant navy ships were seized by Britain, she was annoyed. Prussia quarreled with France over the promised ceding of Hanover. She declared war on France. Fighting a lone battle, she was beaten by the French at Jena and Auerstadt (October 14, 1806). Napoleon reached Berlin and issued decrees to all the countries of Europe to obey the continental blockade of Britain.

Continental System After the defeat of Austria, Russia and Prussia, there was no one to oppose the dictates of the French emperor in Europe. The only exception was Britain. Napoleon issued Berlin and Milan decrees for imposing continental blockade of the British Isles. He did not like any European country to disobey his orders. No British ship or ships would be allowed to enter European ports, and similarly, all countries of Europe should stop their trade with England. The purpose of continental blockade was to force Britain to come to terms with France. The means adopted was to throttle this ‘nation of shopkeepers’. However, Britain was equally prepared to meet the challenge posed by Napoleon. The British government issued Orders in Council (1807) which amounted to the blockade of all European ports by the British navy. If countries stopped their trade with Britain under French threat, then they would be unable to continue sea-borne trade with the other countries. The British navy would not allow it. So to all intents and purposes, the confrontation between France and England became one of land power versus sea power. Understanding the secret clauses of the Treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) between France and Russia, Britain attacked the Danish fleet and captured it before it could fall into the hands of her enemies. Thus the only hope of France to meet the threat of the British navy was lost. To ensure the working of the continental system, France had to exercise her political control over European countries. Italy was the first to disobey, but she was subdued by the French army. Similarly, the Pope refused to obey the continental system and suffered imprisonment. But, the French army encountered much hostility from the people of Spain. Spain revolted against Napoleon and his continental system. Her subjects were prepared to fight the French. The French army crossed the borders and entered into Spain to subdue the revolt. It encountered innumerable difficulties and finally gave up. The Spanish carried on their guerilla warfare. In the meanwhile, the British cabinet passed orders for supporting Portugal and Spain with money, materials and soldiers to win their freedom from Napoleon. The Peninsular War (1808–14), as it was known, gave Arthur Wellesley a wonderful opportunity to go to the assistance of Spain and Portugal. The war resulted in heavy casualties for the French. The Peninsular War ended in tragedy and Napoleon was to later complain of the “Spanish ulcer which killed him”. Following the Spanish revolt, other European countries revolted. When Austria revolted, Napoleon despatched a battalion of the French army which defeated them at Wagram (July, 1809). It was not an easy victory. He married the

niece of Marie Antoinette named Marie Louise. His other allies began deserting him. The most important ally was Prince Bernadotte of Sweden (at one time the French commander working under Napoleon). Russia also revolted against the continental system. Her economy had suffered terribly and she could not import coffee, tea, sugar and tobacco. The Russian Czar was also angry with Napoleon because of the latter’s marriage with an Austrian princess. Napoleon had failed to do anything to fulfil the ambition of the Czar regarding the Balkans. He was also annoyed at the French annexation of Oldenburg which belonged to his relative. On the Czar’s discontinuation of support to the continental system, Napoleon wanted to teach him a lesson. Napoleon marched at the head of the finest Grande Armée consisting of 610,000 soldiers, in 1812, to capture Moscow. He crossed the River Niemen and entered Russia. Unable to meet his threat, the Russians retreated. However, they adopted effective tactics by cutting off all supplies. The Grande Armée suffered from starvation and half of it perished. Afraid to go back, Napoleon marched on towards Moscow. He fought the Battle of Borodino (September 7, 1812). This battle cost him dearly as he lost 30,000 soldiers and several thousand horses. The casualties on the Russian side were even higher at 45,000. The Russians fled. Before leaving Moscow, they burnt it. When the Grande Armée entered the city it was totally deserted. There was no food, water or shelter for the soldiers. Napoleon realised his Himalayan blunder and ordered for retreat. On his homeward journey the Russian winter set in. The soldiers suffered misfortunes one after another. At one place soldiers and horses got drowned in the semifrozen river after the Cossacks’ attack. Napoleon deserted his army to reach the capital early. Out of 610,000 soldiers, only 20,000 returned. The Russian campaign proved to be one of the greatest disasters in the history of France. However, Napoleon remained unaffected; he described the battle of Borodino as “the most beautiful battlefield I have ever seen in my life”. Napoleon reached the capital in time to reorganise his army to meet the threat posed by the great powers of Europe, particularly Prussia. It must be remembered that Napoleon had hurt their feelings very much by inflicting a crushing defeat at the battles of Jena and Auerstadt. The German writers compared Napoleon to a tyrant. German nationalism began to revive. Similarly, Napoleon’s brother, being the ruler of the confederation of Rhine created trouble for the Germans. Russia, Prussia, and Austria joined together to overthrow Napoleon. Meanwhile Napoleon’s erstwhile commander, Prince Bernardotte, also joined the enemies. Britain supported Spain and Portugal to throw off their foreign yoke. Nevertheless, Napoleon remained undaunted. He raised an army of 200,000 new recruits to meet the threat. The new recruits were mostly boys who

did not know how to load a rifle. The Battle of Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations) was fought in the middle of October, 1813. The battle was furiously fought for three days and Napoleon’s thrust and attacks were blunted by his enemies. They enjoyed an overwhelming military superiority. The war spread to the interior of France leading to the retreat of the French army. The allies offered Napoleon lenient terms of peace if he surrendered. However, he foolishly declined. Now, the allies were determined to see the end of his career. Realising his imminent defeat, Napoleon resigned himself to the inevitable. He surrendered. The allies accepted it. By the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau (April 11, 1814), Napoleon was offered the Mediterranean island of Elba and an annual income of 2 million francs (to be paid by France), while retaining the title of ‘Emperor.’ He was also allowed to maintain 400 guards for his personal security.

Thus the allies got rid of the worst troublemaker modern Europe had ever known. They restored the old Bourbon monarchy by permitting King Louis XVIII to occupy the French throne. He was to rule France according to a charter.

Napoleon’s ‘Hundred Days’ (March 20, 1815 - July 8, 1815) Napoleon spent the next ten months on the island of Elba. However, he was also watching the reactions of his enemies when the spoils were to be shared. He knew that they would quarrel. When they quarrelled, he and his followers left the island of Elba secretly (February 26, 1815) and reached the coastal town of Cannes (March 1, 1815). His Hundred Days constituted one of the most

important events of his life. On his landing at the French town he encountered the royalist army. However, Napoleon showed his uncanny skill in disarming his opponents. He told the soldiers, who were sent to shoot him, that the allied powers had invited him to their parleys. He made a special appeal to the French army. Under his inspiration, it switched over its loyalty from the king to the emperor. He marched triumphantly with his army and reached the French capital, Paris, on March 20, 1815. King Louis XVIII fled. The allies, who were negotiating at that time, were much disturbed by the news of Napoleon’s takeover of France. They sank their differences to meet the threat he posed. Their armies gathered to confront Napoleon. The final battle was fought at Waterloo (in Belgium) on June 18, 1815. Napoleon fought with admirable courage but the curtain was pulled down on his fantastic military career. The English defeated him and he was forced to surrender again. He was stripped of all powers and titles. He was taken prisoner by the English and sent to the island of St. Helena. He spent the rest of his days writing his memoirs. He died in 1821.

Causes of Napoleon’s Downfall Many traits of Napoleon’s character began to manifest themselves during his career. He was inordinately ambitious and self-centred as is evident from his own statements. To remain in power and glory he always wanted to succeed, and when his plans turned sour, he lost his balance. He probably did not realise the limitations imposed by God on what man can do. He wanted to achieve the impossible. The foundation of the Napoleonic empire was based on his military organisation, control and command. The kingdoms which he built out of the conquered territories could not remain loyal to him. After all, he sent his brothers to rule over them and they were mostly inefficient. By his great wars Napoleon generated two great forces which had hitherto remained latent among the peoples, namely, nationalism and democracy. The people who were subjected to his oppressive rule were bound to revolt. Two examples are Italy and Germany. To begin with, Italy welcomed his governance, but subsequently got disgusted with his tyranny. In the case of Germany, it responded to the call given by Stein and Hardenberg. Germany was roused to a high pitch of national feelings following the writings of some of their greatest philosophers. It was this great spirit of nationalism in Europe which brought about the downfall of Napoleon. Napoleon’s continental system may be reckoned, as the greatest blunder and

may be described as a “monument of misdirected energy”. Since he could not defeat Britain—which remained his indomitable foe till the end—he resorted to throttling her economy by means of the continental blockade. He could hardly foresee the retaliatory action of Britain. Britain retaliated by her Orders-inCouncil which threatened all sea borne trade of European countries which were supporting Napoleon. One by one, the countries which had obeyed his command deserted him. Spain and Russia revolted against the continental system. The peninsular war proved disastrous to Napoleon. Subsequently, he said, that it was the “Spanish ulcer” which ruined him. Similarly, the Russian campaign of Napoleon destroyed his army. History has few parallels of this type of egregious blunders. The role of Britain in bringing about the downfall needs to be emphasised. Napoleon showed nothing but contempt for her. He called her a “nation of shopkeepers” and the British Channel which separated it from France as a “ditch”. Without her defeat, he thought, he could not realise his dreams. It was she who formed coalitions to destroy the French Revolution. Being the “child of Revolution” he defended his country to his utmost. The role of the British navy in causing havoc upon the French fleet everywhere hardly needs emphasis. Nelson’s victory (followed by his death) in the battle of Trafalgar left Napoleon in no doubt about the supremacy of the British on the high seas. Napoleon’s treatment of the Pope, after the latter’s refusal to obey the decrees introducing the continental system, alienated the sympathy of the Roman Catholics everywhere. They could not bear to see their spiritual leader being humiliated in such a fashion. Napoleon seized the papal territories and transferred the seat of the capital from the Vatican to Paris. In conclusion, forces far beyond his perception were at work and destroyed his plans for the birth of the united states of Europe.

Civilian Work of Napoleon In the words of H.A.L Fisher, “If the conquests of Napoleon were ephemeral, his civilian work in France was built upon granite.” Napoleon, after becoming the first consul, signed the peace of Amiens with Britain. It gave him some respite from wars. It was during this time that he introduced several reforms for which he is remembered to this day. As one may have noted that violence and disorder disturbed the political stability of France, Napoleon realised the need of the hour. He tried his best to stem this tide and establish political, social and economic stability in France. With his inexhaustible energy he set himself the task of

ushering in a new era in the history of France. His plan was to replace the old institutions with the new ones thus bringing the fruits of the revolution to the people. He wanted to accomplish this task without compromising his authority.

The Code of Napoleon The one that merits serious attention is his Code—popularly titled after his name. Napoleon himself seems to have claimed once at the island of St. Helena, “My real glory is not my having won 40 battles. What will never be affected, what will endure for ever, is my code”. France inherited several codes of laws that were prevailing in many provinces and the Bourbon rulers did not think it fit to bring about a uniform code. What was prevailing as law in one province was not so in the other with the result that there was terrible chaos. When the revolution broke out in 1789, all these codes were abolished and listless legislations were introduced. Thus France experienced confusion worse confounded. Napoleon appointed a committee of jurists who worked day and night to assist him in drafting what was probably the best civilian code for France. The greatness of his code lay in bringing about a “reconciliation between the old France and the new”. Respect for authority and social cohesion became the characteristic features of the code without affecting individual rights and equality. Although the civil code is not exhaustive in nature, nevertheless, it laid the foundation for a civilised and modern society. What was held good in old France was harmoniously blended with the new. The Code Napoleon provided for individual rights and duties and organised all spheres of social life and institutions. The duties of parents and children were defined. It granted religious tolerance, permitted divorce, brought about equity, provided for civil marriage, maintained sanctity of private property and subjection of women and so on. The relations between one citizen and another, and his community and a citizen towards the state were all defined clearly. The simple compact code explained the civil laws of France lucidly. What France could not achieve for centuries under Bourbon rulers, Napoleon accomplished it within a year. Thus a legal system was born in France which wielded great influence on legal systems of other European countries. Under orders of Napoleon, the Code of Civil Procedure was also drafted. The principle of conciliation was incorporated before having a recourse to law courts. But some amendments were soon introduced to bring about speedy settlements. In the wake of the Civil Procedure Code, others such as Criminal

Procedure, Penal and Commercial Codes were introduced. The last one offered many concessions to merchants and removed bottlenecks in the free flow of trade.

Bank of France To improve the French economy and also overcome the financial stringency resulting from his wars, Napoleon founded the Bank of France. The bank became a premier financial institution regulating the national finances. Business community felt relieved at the opening of the bank because it offered them credit facilities. The bank also served the purpose of the government. In the course of time Napoleon depended upon the rich business community for financing the wars which he had undertaken.

Legion of Honour One of the memorable institutions founded by Napoleon was the Legion of Honour. Napoleon realised that he rose to a very high position in France due to his own merit. Similarly, he wanted to recognise the merit of other persons who had contributed to the enrichment of French life. A large number of such people were waiting in the list. Therefore Napoleon instituted the Legion of Honour to reward such meritorious persons. This would encourage ‘career open to talent’. A large number of distinguished poets, writers, artists and scientists were awarded the Legion of Honour in the court by Napoleon himself. Napoleon pinned a red ribbon and gave them a cash award. Napoleon was criticised for undermining the revolutionary principle of bringing social equality. Nevertheless, he continued to honour talented men. Many Frenchmen had fled to England for fear of life during the French revolution. Napoleon permitted them to return to France on the condition that they remain loyal to his government and shed their sympathy for the royalist cause. Some of them, in fact, returned. Feeling jealous of his growing popularity, particularly after a plebiscite, some of the émigrés plotted to kill him. The plot failed and Napoleon had them kidnapped from Germany and killed.

Concordat (1801) Napoleon’s other reforms included the famous Concordat, an agreement with the

Pope. It may be said that Napoleon was eager to establish cordial relations with the Pope. The Pope was angry during the French revolution because all the church property came to be confiscated. For some time the revolutionaries established a new religion which denied a rightful place to Catholicism in France. When he defied the decrees of the continental system, Napoleon illtreated him. Therefore, the Pope severed his relations with the new government of France. Napoleon tried to repair the situation. He opened negotiations with the Pope. He was convinced that the people of France were staunchly Catholic, and particularly the peasants were loyal to the Pope. Napoleon realised that he would secure their loyalty if he established good relations with the Pope. Without sacrificing much on behalf of the state, he entered into the agreement with the Pope on matters such as investiture, payment of salaries to the clergy, appointment of bishops, church laws, and so on. He permitted the Pope to appoint bishops and allowed him the right to invest them. However, he devised a new method by which the state would also have some control over the church. For example, the state would choose bishops and the Pope could invest them with the offices. They would be paid salaries by the government. One of the hardest bargains he struck with the church was about the church lands. Those lands which had been sold at the time of the revolution to the peasants would be retained by them. However, church lands which were still under state control would be restored to the Catholic Church in France. Thus, Napoleon not only restored the peasants, their religion but also allowed them to retain their lands bought during the revolutionary days. The jurors and non-jurors in France who showed their hostility towards the church also came to be appeased. As for Napoleon himself, he had no liking for religion. But he described it as “the cement of the social order”. It created a sense of unity and served as a good subject of study by young women. He hoped it would turn them into obedient wives.

Trade and Commerce In the field of commerce and industry, France made rapid strides of progress. As already mentioned, the Bank of France regulated the national finance. To facilitate the smooth flow of trade and commerce all bottlenecks were removed. The chamber of commerce and commercial exchange were founded. They served the business community. An advisory board was also set up to encourage manufacturers of arts and crafts. The state provided protection to the French industries from foreign competition. The French government imposed tariffs and

other duties on the import of foreign goods. To encourage the sale of French products in other countries, exhibitions were held. A number of technical schools were founded in France to train students in certain crafts by offering them scholarships, prizes and loans. Due to the continental system remaining in force, France could not import many goods like sugar and coffee. But the country managed with some substitutes. France also witnessed the industrial revolution after the invention of new cotton machines. The emperor received full support for his policies from the business community, and also during the time of war. Despite some hardships, he improved the system of taxation in France.

Public Works Many public works in France stand today to remind the visitors of the achievements of Napoleon. Napoleon was fond of beautiful cities with palaces, gardens and roads. It is no surprise that he got the means of transport and communications improved through many canals, roads and bridges. He enriched the Louvre and Paris museums with rare works of art brought from Italy. The French capital received its utmost attention from the emperor. Napoleon planned a network of arterial roads radiating from the present Arc de Triomphe. He cleared the Tuileries of ugly bushes and beautified places like the Fontainebleau. It is no wonder that Paris became the most attractive and beautiful city with Napoleon’s magic touch.

Education Napoleon tinkered with the educational system of France. He was of the opinion that it should not be managed by private bodies such as the church. However, due to stress of war, the state allowed them to run the institutions but then it exercised control over them. He reorganised the educational system to suit the needs of time. While he neglected primary education, he patronised secondary education by allowing the communes to open secondary schools while the government ran Lycees (semi-military schools). The philosophy behind opening these schools was to inculcate in the young minds the loyalty to the state and also to the head of the state. Science and mathematics were also taught besides military-science. Napoleon’s name came to be closely associated with the development of the University of France which consisted of 17 academies scattered in different provinces of the country.

Reorganisation of Administration Napoleon left an indelible impression upon the administrative history of France by reorganising the French administrative system. Centralisation was the chief characteristic of his internal administration. A country seething with revolt and violence cannot afford to enjoy the luxury of unbridled freedom or autonomy. The efforts of previous governments had failed in curbing lawlessness and violence in the country. However, Napoleon, by successfully implementing reforms, checked the growth of violence and lawlessness. His plan of local government “became the basis of the modern French system”. France was divided into divisions, each having a number of departments. Napoleon introduced sub-divisions called arrondissements equivalent to old districts which had been abolished by the National Convention. In each of these units, Napoleon appointed his own officials. Thus the local council, which was constituted in each one of them after elections, had to obey the officials appointed by Napoleon. Therefore its main function became largely advisory. The prefects and sub-prefects in these units were directly controlled by Napoleon for all intents and purposes. On the one hand the facade of local autonomy was maintained, and on the other key officials administering these units were all appointed by Napoleon himself. Thus the local governments during the time of Napoleon simply became an appendage of the central government.

Colonisation Napoleon’s least noted achievement was in the sphere of colonisation. After the death of Louis XIV, France hardly made any attempt to establish colonies. Napoleon tried but could not follow it up. For example, he compelled Spain to cede Louisiana and then dreamed of establishing a French empire in North America. But he shelved this plan on account of his other commitments. As he was very badly in need of money to conduct his wars, he sold Louisiana territory in North America to the Government of the United States of America during the time of President Jefferson. France was able to acquire only a few islands.

8 American Civil War (1861-65) with Reference to Abraham Lincoln and the Abolition of Slavery

T

he US began to expand towards the west and south during the next seven decades (1789-1860). During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the Louisiana territory was purchased (1803) from the French Emperor Napoleon. With this, the area of the territory of the US almost doubled, and new states were formed particularly after dislodging the tribal Indians. The native Indians were removed from these territories and sent to the west of the Mississippi river. New settlements were started in the west. It was in 1819 that the territory constituting the present state of Florida was taken from Spain. The defeat of Mexico in the Mexican War (1846-48) extended the boundaries of the US further towards the west. The territory acquired from Mexico by the US after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) included the present states of Utah, Nevada, California, and parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Wyoming. The Oregon Treaty (1846) peacefully settled the Oregon boundary dispute between Britain and United States. By the Gadsden Purchase (1853) the US acquired present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico from the Government of Mexico. So by the middle of the nineteenth century, the United States had grown from the original thirteen states to nearly forty eight states, thereby stretching from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific sea coast. The westward expansion created serious problems. The American Civil War was undoubtedly one of them. Its study constitutes an important chapter in American History of the nineteenth century. In fact it marks as an important turning point in the political and economic development of the nation. The Civil War broke out over the issues like slavery, trade and tariff, and doctrine of state rights. These issues created heartburn between northern and southern states.

Therefore it becomes necessary for us to examine these issues in the context of territorial expansion of the United States. American historians have argued that two issues that caused this war relate to economic sectionalism and slavery.

Economic Sectionalism By 1860, the northern states had become industrialised. Its population was growing and its prosperity was spreading. The northern states received a large number of immigrants (1.7 million) coming from Europe. When we refer to the north we mean, the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa and Wisconsin. Many industries were started in the states of Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts. A majority of the 1200 cotton mills in the US were concentrated in the north by 1840. The starting of the textile industry brought about a chain reaction, in the sense it helped create ancillary industries. Business, Banking and Shipping sectors prospered. Cheap labour was available. With increasing prosperity, the northern states began to make progress in the field of education. The Universities of Harvard and Yale (founded in 1636 and 1701 respectively) began to attract a large number of students. Newspapers like the Baltimore Sun and New York Tribune were established in the 1840s. The north produced great writers and poets like Mark Twain, Walt Whitman and H W Longfellow. Construction of canals, railroads, and bridges enabled better connectivity between cities and villages. The common people in the north were liberal in their outlook and entertained progressive ideas. There was no slavery in the north, and people there abhorred it. By the term south, we mean all those states where slavery was legal. Almost all the people of southern states such as South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas began to depend upon agriculture. In most of these states farmers grew tobacco and sugarcane, but “cotton was king” (main crop). After the invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney, a majority of the farmers started growing cotton. By 1840, the south produced 320 million lbs of cotton. On the eve of the Civil War, the south was producing 2 billion lbs of cotton. There were nearly 350,000 plantation owners who employed slaves and white workers. Many plantation owners were aristocratic, haughty and hot-tempered, and the American Congress was greatly influenced by them. They felt, that without slavery their economy was doomed. They also felt that abolition of slavery would violate the rights of the states. The plantation owners were obsessed with the idea that northern businessmen and

bankers were growing rich mainly due to import of cotton from the south. The south had not developed economically as they depended mainly upon agriculture.

The Question of Slavery After the discovery of the West African coast in the fifteenth century, a large number of Europeans were engaged in slave trade. The blacks were captured and taken to far off countries like Britain and some countries in South America where they were sold. The thirteen colonies also received a number of such slaves. At the time of the Civil War there were more than 4.5 million slaves, and most of them were employed in the cotton and tobacco plantations in the south. The slaves were governed by “slave code”, and they were considered as property of the slave holders. They were denied personal freedom and treated harshly. Their condition was pitiable since they were illiterate, and strictly confined to the estate of the slave holder. They received punishments such as flogging, thrashing, and sometimes killing. The Fugitive Slave Act (1850) forced the northern states to arrest the escaped slaves and hand them back to the owner.

Anti-Slavery Arguments The northerners condemned slavery in the south for the simple reason that it went against their conscience. Britain had outlawed slavery in 1833. AntiSlavery societies were founded in few towns and cities with the hope that their strong views on slavery would influence the south. Unfortunately, their views evoked angry reaction in the south. The south regarded slavery as part of their economy. The slave owners reminded the north time and again that slavery was not only legal but also a source of their sustenance. In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison started a weekly anti-slavery newspaper called The Liberator. He founded the New-England Anti-Slavery Society in 1832, and this was followed by the establishment of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. The southern slave holders started blaming the northern abolitionists for encouraging the revolts of the slaves (Nat Turner’s insurrection of 1831). They appealed to Congress to refuse hearing of anti-slavery petitions submitted by the abolitionists. In the early years of the Republic, American statesmen like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and George Mason had doubted the economic value of slavery and feared its divisive influence in national affairs. The

northerners were also afraid that slavery would spread to the newly conquered territories. Way back in 1820 a compromise was arrived at by the Congress. To keep the balance between the anti-slavery north and pro-slavery south, the Congress brought about the Missouri Compromise. It admitted Missouri to the Union as a state where slavery could be practiced, and Maine as a state where slavery was prohibited. The Missouri Compromise stood the test of time for nearly thirty seven years, i.e. until the Dred Scott Case (1857) came up before the Supreme Court. When Mexico ceded large tracts of territories to the US after the Mexican War, the Free Soil Party in the north began to vehemently oppose the spread of slavery in these areas. The south remained adamant with the result that Senator Henry Clay got a few resolutions passed in the Congress to bring about a compromise. Despite the compromise, there were tensions between the north and the south arising out of the fugitive slave laws. Senator Stephen Douglas got the Kansas-Nebraska Bill into an act by Congress with the support of the southern democrats. The new act nullified the Missouri Compromise and kept the political situation simmering. The act created a near civil war like situation with freesoilers and pro-slavery men having their own governments. In Kansas, clashes took place between the two in 1856 (“Bleeding Kansas”). John Brown, a freestate leader, with his followers attacked and killed five pro-slavery men (Pottawatomie Massacre) in May, 1856. The Union troops remained mute spectators. James Buchanan, the American President, finally agreed to bring law and order in the Kansas settlement, and supported a pro-slavery biased constitution. The election of 1856 took place in the midst of the “Bleeding Kansas” situation, and it resulted in the rise of the Republican Party in the north. Many voters in the north were totally confused about views of the existing two political parties, the Whigs and the Democrats, on the issue of slavery. It was in these circumstances that a majority of members of both the political parties, along with members of anti-slavery societies, welcomed the rise of the Republican Party. The Republican Party was born to end slavery in the US. The new Republican Party condemned the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the policies of the Democrats. It blamed the Democrats for causing unemployment through its no-tariff policy which was adopted by the Congress. It must be noted that the Congress was dominated by members from the south. The Republican Party desired introduction of high tariffs on imported goods to protect business interests of the northern manufacturers. The Congress was seized of the matter concerning tariff, paper currency, federal and state assistance at this time. The Whigs and the Democrats in the Congress had their own opinions, and began to debate these issues involving constitutional interpretations. What the Whigs

wanted, the Democrats rejected them. It was in the midst of this wrangling in the Congress that the Dred Scott vs. Sandford case came up before the Supreme Court in 1857. Dred Scott, a slave, went to the north with his master and lived there for some time. After his return to the south, he petitioned the Supreme Court to make him a free citizen on the ground that he had lived in free states. The Supreme Court denied free citizenship to him for being a slave, despite having lived in free states. In other words, slaves who were of African descent were denied the right to sue in federal court. Chief Justice Roger Taney of the Supreme Court declared the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. Furthermore, it was declared null and void from the day the Congress enacted it. Justice Taney ruled that Congress had no power to decide on the issue of slavery or the extension of slavery in western territories. Unfortunately, this judgment came at a time when the Republican Party had decided to abolish slavery if it came to power.

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was born to a poor family living in a one-room log cabin in Hodgenville, Kentucky. He did not have a formal education. He went to Illinois in 1830 and started working as a store-keeper, postmaster, surveyor, and so on. In 1832 he participated in the Black Hawk War, and was promoted as captain. He taught himself to read and write. In the course of time, he passed bar examination. He started practicing as a lawyer in 1836. He impressed people with his “shrewdness, common sense, and honesty (earning the nickname Honest

Abe)”. He became a member of the House of Representatives, and impressed his colleagues with his wisdom and oratory. He joined the Republican Party in 1856. The party nominated him as its candidate in the 1858 senate election. He became a national figure after the seven debates he had with his opponent, Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln argued that slavery was morally wrong, and opposed its extension into the territories. He claimed that he was not an abolitionist, and did not favour political equality for the blacks. He lost the election, but the common people noticed his leadership qualities. The Republican Party nominated him as a candidate for presidential elections of 1860, and his opponent was Stephen Douglas again. Before Lincoln’s election to the presidency, he had argued that he would do everything possible to preserve the integrity of the union of states even though it would mean the continuation of slavery. But the people of the south believed that Lincoln was an abolitionist. He would endanger the economy of the south which depended upon slave labour. Before his inauguration as the sixteenth President of the United States, seven southern states (South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) seceded from the Union. At the time of the oath-taking ceremony, Lincoln pledged: “It I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.” He made a fervent appeal to the seceded states to return to the Union. Furthermore, he said states have no right to secede from the unbreakable union. By saying this he opposed John Calhoun’s theory that states have the right to secede from the union. Lincoln declared that the Union was older than the Constitution. In fact the Constitution was adopted “to form a more perfect union” and that “no state upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the union”. The ordinances of the southern states relating to the secession were legally null and void. He said that the Union still remained intact, and indissoluble. He declared his purpose of executing laws of the Union in all the states, and that the Union would defend and maintain itself. From his statements, it became clear that if the seceding states did not return to the Union, there would be war. Fortunately, the Democratic Party candidate, Stephen Douglas, pledged his support to President Lincoln. Thus the southern states’ expectation that the north would be divided at the time of the war did not materialize. The attack on Fort Sumter near Charleston Harbour (12 April, 1861) by the Confederate troops started the Civil war. The fall of Fort Sumter into the hands of the south had serious consequences. Four more southern states, namely, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee seceded from the Union, and joined the Confederate States. All the eleven

southern states which seceded from the Union formed the Confederacy, and appointed Jefferson Davis as its President. President Davis hoped that Britain and France would support him at the time of the war because of their economic relations with the Confederacy. In fact, the Confederacy had ordered two representatives, Mason and Slidell, to go to London and Paris to plead for help. They boarded a British ship, Trent, at Havana Harbour which was proceeding towards South Hampton. Trent was stopped by the Union forces, and the two men were taken away. It was then allowed to proceed. The British Government was provoked by this incident. The south expected that a war would break out between Britain and the Union. However, Lincoln’s Secretary of State, Seward, resolved the matter with Britain amicably by his astute diplomacy.

The Course of the Civil War On hearing about the attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln declared war on the Confederate States. He assumed enormous powers so as to carry on the war against the south. He declared a state of emergency, and suspended all civil liberties enjoyed by citizens. He imposed press censorship. These acts became unpopular. He raised a force of 30,000 thousand troops in July, 1861, and ordered them to march towards the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia. The Union troops were halted by the Confederate forces in the battle of Bull Run. The Union troops were forced to retreat to Washington DC. This defeat shocked President Lincoln who called for 500,000 more recruits. A major campaign was launched by Commander Ulysses S. Grant who successfully captured Confederate forts. This was followed by Union victories at the Battles of Shiloh and New Orleans. In the meantime, Robert E. Lee of the Confederate army won several victories in the east (Seven Days’ Battles). Encouraged by his victories, Lee invaded the north and fought the Union forces under George Meade in the famous Battle of Gettysburg (1863). In the meantime President Lincoln, by his emancipation proclamation, abolished slavery. The Battle of Gettysburg proved to be a turning point which changed the course of the Civil War. Grant’s victories brought the entire Mississippi Valley under Union control. General William T. Sherman of the Union forces captured Atlanta in September, 1864. On 3rd April, 1865, Lee’s Confederate troops were surrounded by Union forces led by Ulysses Grant. Grant accepted Lee’s surrender on 9th April, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. General Sherman of the Union army received the surrender of General Joseph Johnston of the Confederate army on 26th April, 1865, thereby ending the Civil War. The south

was devastated. President Lincoln preserved the Union. It must be remembered that a large number of liberated slaves helped the Union forces as volunteers during the course of the civil war. The civil war also saw some naval actions along the sea coast of the southern states, since the ships belonging to the Union tried to blockade the ports.

Causes for the South’s defeat While examining the causes of south’s defeat, one should note the advantages the north had over the south. The north had all its resources at its command like railroads, better communication system, and weapon systems. It had a wealthy population which stood at 22.7 million as against the south’s population of 8.7 million (including 3.5 million slaves). The industrial development in the northern states gave an edge over the south during the time of the war. The southern states, as explained earlier, remained economically and socially backward. They expected Britain to come to their rescue, since Britain depended upon cotton imports from the south. However, Britain remained neutral during the time of the war. The emancipation proclamation of Abraham Lincoln received warm welcome by Britain. All strained relations between the two countries eased to a great extent after several diplomatic overtures coming from the American President. Moreover, Britain imported sufficient quantity of cotton from India. Britain also depended upon wheat imports from the northern states. Militarily, the northern generals led by President Lincoln adopted better strategy during the course of the war. The main objective of the northern forces was to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederates, establish control over the Mississippi region, and prevent southern forces from receiving arms and ammunition from abroad by imposing naval blockades. The northern generals played an important role in the defeat of the southern forces. General Lee of the south proved no match to the tactics adopted by the northern generals, especially Ulysses Grant.

Results of the Civil War While the north remained almost unaffected, except for casualties, the south was devastated. Both the sides suffered heavy casualties, 620,000 deaths out of a total of 2.4 million soldiers. President Lincoln abolished slavery, and preserved and protected the Union. In the south, the people were demoralized because their farms were destroyed, and cotton planters became beggars. The war paralysed

the activities of people. Railway stations, bridges, and public buildings were destroyed. Many banks and insurance companies got liquidated. The economy of the southern states collapsed. The slaves became free after the passage of the Thirteenth Constitutional Amendment in 1865. As they could not get jobs, they asked their former masters to hire them as workers. The people of the south suffered great humiliation, and there was much bitterness and hatred towards the northerners. After Lincoln got re-elected as president in 1864, he started planning for the reconstruction of the south. His plan was known as the 10% plan, meaning that if ten per cent of the citizens of the seceded states took an oath of loyalty to the Union, those states could be re-admitted to the Union. He wanted to wipe out the bitterness of the southern states for the Union with this moderate plan. Unfortunately, he was assassinated on 14 April, 1865 (Good Friday) by John Wilkes Booth, a stage actor. Lincoln has gone down in American history as its greatest president. He had all the attributes of a great statesman. His correspondence with others exhibits his compassion and wisdom. His Gettysburg Address ending with “……. and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth” remains as one of the most memorable speeches delivered by an American President. The Republican Party which had made progress on the basis of its antislavery campaign remained popular, and swept the polls until 1912. It must be remembered that no Democratic president was elected until that year. The Black Code which perpetuated slavery in the south had to be repealed. During the period of reconstruction, the radical republicans brought about the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Constitutional Amendments (1868,1870) which extended basic civil liberties and suffrage to former male slaves. The Civil War acted as a catalyst for the rapid industrialisation of the US. By the end of the nineteenth century, the US became an industrial giant. It emerged as a world power by the end of the First World War. The Civil War brought about changes in social values. The white-dominated society had to accept the blacks as their equals in due course of time. In the far south, the hatred of the whites towards the blacks became manifest. Unlawful and antisocial organisations like the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia (white supremacist groups) put fear into the minds of black families by kidnaps and murders. It took a long time for the people of the southern states to give up their prejudice against the blacks. Women enjoyed greater amount of freedom in the society than before.

9 British Democratic Politics, 1815-1850; Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists Historical Background

F

or nearly four centuries, i.e. from thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, Britain witnessed a tussle between the monarchy and the parliament. During the first phase of the struggle, British monarchs were successful in establishing their absolutism. However, the Parliament tried to wrench some concessions from the absolute monarchs. Under King Henry II of England royal power increased by leaps and bounds. He appointed church officials and introduced the jury system. His successor was Richard I (the Lion Heart) who remained away from England because of his participation in the third Crusade. In order to collect money from the people for the crusade, he sold charters of freedom to many towns and cities. Eventually, this innocent act paved the way not only for the self-government of the towns and cities but also promoted the spirit of liberty. During the absence of King Richard, his youngest brother John declared himself as the heir to the throne. On his brother’s return from the European crusade, John imprisoned him. The nobles and barons, who were deprived of their powers due to John’s misrule, rose in revolt. King John was compelled by the revolting barons to sign the Magna Carta (charter of liberties) in 1215 at Runnymede. This document secured for the nobles and barons a royal guarantee to respect their ancient rights and privileges. It included (a) freedom from arbitrary arrest and confiscation of property, (b) trial by jury and (c) Levy of new taxes only with the consent of the Great Council. The Great Council eventually became the British Parliament. John’s successor was King Henry III who proved

to be a weak ruler. The nobles forced him to sign the Provisions of Oxford (popularly regarded as England’s first written constitution). Following a short civil war, the leader of the nobles named Simon de Montfort convened the meeting of the Great Council in 1265, which included among others, two knights from each shire and two citizens from each town. In the true sense, this was first parliament England had. The next ruler was Edward I who needed money for the conquest of Wales and Scotland. So he required the support of all the four groups- the nobles, the clergy, the townsmen and the representatives of shires for imposition of new taxes. The model parliament started functioning from 1295. It consisted of two houses, the first for barons and nobles, and the second for townsmen and representatives. Edward I succeeded in conquering Wales, but not Scotland. The reign of Edward III witnessed the commencement of England’s Hundred-Years War (1337-1453) with France (cause being Edward’s claim to the French throne), the Black Death (1348-50), and the strengthening of the position of the parliament vis-a-vis the King. A civil war in England ended in the defeat and death of King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in AD 1485 by Henry the Tudor. The Tudor rule witnessed royal despotism and subservient parliament. The last Tudor ruler Queen Elizabeth I founded the Anglican Church, and it became the official religion of England. Her reign is considered as ‘Golden Age’ in the history of England, since it ensured religious harmony, made England a great sea power (after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588), encouraged overseas trade, and gave birth to the renaissance. Following Elizabeth’s death, England came to be ruled by the Stuart Kings. King James I (1605-25) united the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and fancied himself to be the divine representative of God. He became quite unpopular because of his quarrel with the parliament, and also for his religious and foreign policies. He made things worse by imprisoning the opposition members of the House of Commons. He looked upon parliament with great contempt, but had to take its consent for imposition of taxes. The Parliament asserted its right to control elections, and also the right of its members to be free from arrest. In 1610, parliament refused the king’s request for imposing taxes. James I ruled the country without the parliament for seven years (1614-21). After the death of James I, his son Charles I ascended the English throne. Like his father he entertained the exalted notion of kingship (the king is not answerable to anyone but God only). Charles I became unpopular with the parliament for refusing to go to war with Spain despite the grant of two subsidies by it. The parliament demanded dismissal of the Duke of Buckingham who was his advisor. Charles became angry, and sent those MPs to the Tower of London

(prison). He began to face financial difficulties, and therefore summoned the parliament for the third time in 1628. Before he could ask for grant of subsidies, the members of parliament demanded their grievances to be redressed. They asked him to sign the Petition of Right which debarred the king from (1) Levying taxes without the approval of parliament; (2) billeting of soldiers in private houses; (3) introducing martial law in time of peace; (4) subject citizens to arbitrary arrest. As the king needed subsidies badly, he signed the Petition of Right (1628) although he had no intention of abiding by its terms. The third parliament was dissolved after it put forward some more demands. Charles became angry, and carried on his personal rule without a parliament (1629-40). During these eleven years he became more unpopular for taking action against his rebellious MPs by exercising his influence with the Court of Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission. Laws against the Catholics were relaxed, and those against Puritans tightened. The Puritans found it intolerable to stay in the country, and thousands migrated to the American Colonies. The Presbyterian Scots invaded England, and the king wanted subsidies from the Short Parliament (lasted for three weeks in 1640) which it refused. He dissolved the Short Parliament, but his difficulties did not end. His war with the Scots was not successful for want of money. The next parliament he summoned was called the Long Parliament because its life extended from 1640 to 1660. The Long Parliament proved to be stubborn, and tried to take advantage of the king’s predicament. It put forward several demands before the king for acceptance. The Long Parliament began impeachment proceedings against Strafford, the king’s advisor. When the impeachment proceedings failed, parliament passed a Bill of Attainder, and forced the king to sentence Strafford to death. Archbishop William Laud was impeached, imprisoned, and finally executed in 1645. The Long Parliament passed the Triennial Bill by which every parliament summoned by the king should have a term of three years. It abolished the Court of Star Chamber, the Court of High Commission, and the Council of the North for having become instruments of Charles’ oppression. It demanded that henceforth Parliament will appoint ministers. Radical members of the House of Commons criticized the king for his unjust acts. King Charles I made an audacious attempt by entering parliament to arrest five members, notably, Pym and Hampden. So began a civil war in England between the King and the Parliament (1642-48). It was fought between the Cavaliers (king’s supporters) and the Roundheads (supporters of parliament). Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Roundheads, with his Ironsides defeated the royal forces at Marston Moor and Naseby. King Charles I was taken captive and executed for treason in 1649. Oliver Cromwell and the ‘Rump Parliament’ declared England to be a

Commonwealth (1649). During Cromwell’s dictatorship, England conquered Ireland and Scotland. Two years after the death of Cromwell (1658), the Long Parliament invited Charles II to return to England to ascend the throne. His rule too became unpopular, and the parliament forced him to sign the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679. His successor, James II also quarrelled with the parliament. James II (1685-88), a staunch Catholic, tried to restore Catholicism in England, thereby inviting the wrath of the parliament. People rose in revolt, and the king fled to France. The Long Parliament invited the king’s Protestant daughter, Mary (who had married William, the Protestant King of Holland) to occupy the throne. William and Mary assumed power in England in 1688. This revolution is described as the ‘Bloodless Revolution’, or Glorious Revolution in British History. Parliamentary control over the king and the queen was established after they signed the Bill of Rights. Thus this ‘Glorious Revolution’ marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy, supremacy of the parliament, the rise of the middle class, and establishment of a Protestant State. The Bill of Rights ended the divine theory of kingship. It heralded a new era wherein the British monarchy developed harmonious relations with successive parliaments The passage of the Bill of Rights significantly changed the political system in the sense that, it enshrined the rights of the Parliament and its subjects. Popular sovereignty was thus established. During the time of Charles II, there was a Popish Plot (1678) for the revival of Catholicism in England. It was centred on the person of Prince James (king’s brother). The parliament came to know about, and there was a heated debate. It introduced the Exclusion Bill so as to prevent James from claiming the throne. This bill roused passions between two groups, known as ‘Tories’, an Irish term for conservatives, and the ‘Whigs’, a Scottish term for popular Protestants. The Tories upheld royal absolutism, hereditary succession and the Anglican Church. The Whigs desired a strong parliament, religious tolerance for all Protestants, and opposed royal absolutism. After ascension to the British throne by William and Mary, the British constitutional system saw the beginning of cabinet government. William found the Tories in the parliament opposing his wars in Europe, and therefore he selected the Whig party members, who were in majority, to become his ministers. Afterwards, it became a convention to select some members of the majority party in the House of Commons to form the cabinet. In 1707, the British Parliament passed the Act of Union by which the kingdoms of Scotland and England got united. The name, Great Britain, came

into vogue. Scotland sent 45 representatives to the House of Commons, and 16 to the House of Lords. The act recognized Presbyterianism as the established religion of Scotland. After Queen Anne’s death in 1714, the British Crown passed on to her cousin, George I (1714-27), the German Elector of Hanover. Thus the House of Hanover replaced the House of Orange in British history. King George I was German by birth, and did not know English. He did not know anything about British politics. The Whigs liked him, but they did not know German. Therefore the king did not attend the cabinet meetings, and freely gave his consent to all the parliamentary acts. In a way this situation helped in the development of parliamentary democracy and cabinet government. During the time of King George II (1727-60), the cabinet government assumed its present form, and the First Lord of the Treasury became its head, and served as a link between the king and the parliament. Sir Robert Walpole was appointed First Lord of the Treasury (1721), and hence regarded as the first prime minister of Britain. As a Whig leader of the cabinet, he tried to keep Britain out of war and win the sympathy of the new Hanoverian dynasty. He desired Britain to prosper through trade and commerce, and supported mercantilist policies. Unfortunately he became unpopular on account of his weak foreign policy. After Walpole resigned, England was led by a few mediocre prime ministers. King George III (1760-1820) was British by birth and upbringing. When he ascended the throne, he tried to direct the policies of the government. He desired ministers to carry out his policies. Lord North’s ministry (1770-82) became a tool in the hands of the king. Due to George Ill’s obstinacy, the colonists in America declared their independence. In 1782, Lord North and all his colleagues resigned. “This was the first time that an entire ministry had been overthrown”. During the long reign of King George III, Britain witnessed two great events, namely, the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1798-1815). James Cook, the celebrated navigator explored the coast of Australia. The industrial revolution in England made rapid strides of progress. Britain’s achievements during the reign of King George III were largely due to the efforts of William Pitt the younger (Prime Minister from 1783-1806 with a gap in between). King George III became insane during the last years of his life. While Britain lost its thirteen American colonies, its chartered East India Company in India got large chunks of territory from the native rulers.

British Liberalism There were many causes that brought about an era of British Liberalism in the

nineteenth century. Firstly, the industrial revolution had changed the demographic map of England due to large scale migration of villagers to the towns and cities. The migrants worked in big factories, and their wages remained low. They pleaded with the government that their unions be recognized. Secondly, the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789 had its effects on Britain. The Whigs welcomed the French Revolution for it heralded a new era of liberalism in Europe. However, after the excesses of the French Revolution came to be known in Britain, British politicians became cautious. They did not want a violent revolution like the French Revolution to be replicated in Britain. Therefore, liberal reforms in Britain were very much delayed. Thirdly, the influence of writers and philosophers had deep impact upon British politicians. Hobbes and Locke rejected the Divine Right Theory of kings, and insisted on the consent of the governed. Thomas Paine was in England at the time of the French Revolution. His speeches and writings eulogized the French Revolution for establishing political and social equality. Finally, some British politicians themselves realised the basic weaknesses existing in their political institutions, and the Whigs in particular demanded reform of the parliament itself. For instance, the Earl of Chatham demanded increased representation of the counties. Wilkes wanted representation for the towns in the House of Commons. The Duke of Richmond advocated adult franchise. Charles Fox pleaded for improvements in franchise and voting by ballot. Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Stuart Mill and Adam Smith all pleaded for reforming the political and economic systems prevailing in Britain. During the period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the British Parliament was controlled by the Tories. They were not prepared to bring about changes in the parliament. Therefore Britain continued to be the ‘Land of the Old Regime’. In other words, Britain continued to be a land of the privileged with its conspicuous inequalities. The House of Common as well as the House of Lords remained aristocratic in character. They were dominated by the nobles and the gentry. The nobles and the gentry developed vested interests, and remained totally conservative in their outlook. Even in the system of administration, there was a domination of landed proprietors. Therefore, the two houses of parliament did not represent the commoners of Britain. Of the 14 million people, only 400,000 were eligible to vote. In the composition of the House of Commons in 1815, one observes disproportionate representation. There were three kinds of constituencies, namely, the counties, the boroughs, and the universities. Representation of the counties and boroughs had no relation to the size of their population. It is said that all of Scotland was represented by a mere 45 members, whereas the single

English county of Cornwall (including its boroughs) sent 44 members. One should note that the population of Scotland was eight times that of Cornwall. The suffrage in the counties was restricted to those owning land which gave them a minimum annual income of 40 shillings. In some counties there were few voters, and they were influenced by the wealthy land-owning class. In the boroughs, the land owing and wealthy class enjoyed greater and decisive influence over the voters. The boroughs were of two kinds, namely, nomination boroughs and rotten or close boroughs. In the former, sending of two representatives each was influenced by the land-owning class despite a small population. In the latter, members were elected by the Mayor and the Aldermen. Sometimes the voters were few, and they were influenced by the land-owning class. Some of the large industrial towns such as Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham and Leeds in Britain did not send representatives at all even though they had a population of more than 75,000. For the above mentioned reasons, the House of Commons did not reflect the aspirations of the commoners. The British Government remained oligarchic and not democratic in composition and character. Although the British citizens enjoyed religious liberty in general, those who belonged to the Anglican Church were favoured. It must be noted that no Roman Catholic could become a member of parliament or hold any office of importance. Likewise, the Protestant dissenters were also excluded from holding office. Oxford and Cambridge Universities did not admit Catholics and other dissenters as students. Violent disturbances organised by the Luddites reminded the British politicians the need for carrying out reforms. The Luddites were against the use of textile machinery which they thought would replace the workers (1812).

Parliamentary Reformers The industrial revolution in Britain was followed by an era of liberalism. Among the outstanding British liberals of the nineteenth century, William Wilberforce (1759-1833) occupies a prominent place. He entered the House of Commons in 1780 as a member and advocated parliamentary reforms. It was due to the combined efforts of William Wilberforce and Zachary Macaulay (another slavery abolitionist) that the British Parliament abolished the slave trade in the West Indies in 1807. They founded the anti-slavery society in Britain, and worked hard to abolish slavery in the British territories. Their efforts were crowned with success when the parliament passed an act abolishing slavery in

1833. Nearly 750,000 slaves were set free in the colonies, and the government gave £20 million as compensation to the registered slave owners. Another important parliamentary measure Wilberforce supported was the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829. This act permitted elected representatives of the Catholics to sit in both houses of parliament and to hold public offices with a few exceptions. Thus Catholics and Protestants remained politically equal in many respects. A year earlier, the grievances of the Protestant dissenters were removed. Wilberforce and Macaulay were also members of the Clapham Sect of Christian evangelist reformers.

Reform Act of 1832 In the age of British parliamentary reforms, James Mill, a philosopher, historian and economist, played a prominent role. He was closely associated with Jeremy Bentham and the Utilitarian Society. His articles on utilitarianism were included in the supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica (fifth edition). He published three volumes on the History of British India. His ideas persuaded other parliamentary reformers to introduce necessary changes in British administration in India. He was able to influence parliamentarians for bringing about electoral reforms. John Stuart Mill, son of James Mill, is regarded as the founder of the philosophical radicalism. He championed the cause of liberal reforms based on Bentham’s philosophy (greatest good of the greatest number). His book On Liberty advocated freedom of speech as essential condition for achieving “intellectual and social progress”. His views on the tyrannical majority in a representative government gave much food for thought to the politicians of his time. He upheld the rule of law in a democratically elected government. He said that the best government was that which fulfilled the needs of people’s mental and moral development. Individual right to express free opinion should never be suppressed. He published a book in 1869, titled The Subjection of Women where he pleaded for the suffrage of women. In fact, at the time of the passing of the Reform Bill of 1867, he fervently appealed to the MPs to extend franchise to women. He wrote other books like A System of Logic, Principles of Political Economy and Utilitarianism. He worked as an assistant examiner at India House for nearly three decades, and formulated policies governing the East India Company’s relations with the Indian states. In the 1820s, the labourers were permitted to form trade unions for the purpose of increasing their bargaining strength against their employers in respect

of wages. Francis Place pleaded with the British Government to permit labourers to form trade unions. Another person who pleaded for the same was Joseph Hume. The government finally gave its permission, and a few trade unions were formed. In the Liverpool cabinet of the 1820s, Robert Peel (Home Secretary) reformed the penal code which reduced the severity of punishments awarded for various crimes. By another humanitarian act, he halved the cases that were liable for the award of death penalty. He founded the London Metropolitan Police following the passage of the Metropolitan Police Act in 1829. Since then the policemen in London are often referred to as “Bobbies” or “Peelers” (named after Robert Peel). In 1830, the Whigs, known for their liberalism, formed the government under the leadership of Lord Charles Grey. Grey had been pleading for parliamentary reforms during his entire political career. He wanted the House of Commons to represent the popular will of the people, and therefore demanded changes in its composition. Britain was virtually facing a civil war-like situation because of several agitations demanding parliamentary reforms. The earlier attempts of Lord Grey to introduce the reform bill did not succeed due to the vehement opposition from the House of Lords. However, after fifteen months of heated debates in both the houses, the Reform Bill was introduced in its final form in 1832. It was piloted by his colleague Lord John Russell who subsequently became prime minister of Britain for two terms (1846-52,1865-66). When the bill was finally passed into an act in June 1832, it aimed at the redistribution of seats in the House of Commons in a more equitable manner. The re-distribution of seats was done in the following manner: • Each of the 56 “rotten boroughs” (with population less than 2000) lost both the seats • Each of the 32 other “rotten boroughs” (with less than 4000 people) lost one seat • Of the seats gained from above, 22 large towns received 2 seats each, 20 smaller towns got 1 seat each, and the rest were distributed to the larger counties. The Reform Act provided for the enlargement of the suffrage. Earlier the county suffrage was restricted to those who owned land yielding 40 shillings and above. The act extended the suffrage to those who leased land. In other words, the suffrage of the counties was not only based on land ownership, but also to those who leased land to others. With regard to the boroughs, the franchise was extended not only to those who paid taxes of ten pounds and more, but also to those who paid rent to the landlords. While the franchise in the boroughs was

uniform, those of the counties was not so. As a result of the act, the number of voters in Britain increased from 400,000 to 650,000. One out of six male adults could now vote. Unfortunately, the reform act of 1832 excluded the majority of the common people, especially the lower middle class and the working class population. Therefore, the Chartists carried on their agitation and demanded universal franchise. Women’s suffrage had to wait until the early decades of the twentieth century. The act of 1832 reduced the influence of the members of the House of Lords, as it enfranchised the upper middle class whose representatives were immune to influence. The Reform Act of 1867 tried to resolve some of the limitations imposed by the act of 1832.

Free Traders The concept of free trade (laissez faire) came from Adam Smith’s magnum opus, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Adam Smith advocated a free trade policy meaning that government should refrain itself from regulating trade and commerce in the country. It should allow free competition in the market. This would enable traders to develop their own initiative for creating wealth in the country. In respect of foreign trade, the free trade policy would create a division of labour. Specialisation in a competitive world creates efficiency. This policy of free trade went against the government’s mercantilist theory. The mercantilist theory of the earlier days had advocated government regulation in respect of the ongoing trade. In England, for instance, the land owning class never allowed tariff to be lowered in order to safe guard their interests. As a result the price of food grains remained high. Those who advocated the free trade policy in England were called the free traders. Most prominent among the free traders were James Mill and John Stuart Mill (father-son duo), Richard Cobden, and John Bright. The free trade movement was based on the principles of Adam Smith’s above mentioned work, and it was carried on for about four decades (1830-1867) in spite of fierce resistance from the land owning class. This movement gained its first victory when the Corn Laws were repealed by the British Parliament in 1846. Adam Smith’s argument for free trade won him laurels, and attracted many influential followers including Jeremy Bentham. Bentham had earlier argued that the government was best when it governs the least. His utilitarian philosophy was consistent with Adam Smith’s idea of governance. Both promoted liberalism which became popular in England during the first half of the nineteenth century.

Due to the influence of the free traders, the British Parliament revoked the monopoly of East India Company’s Chinese trade in 1833. Import and export duties were liberalised or exempted. One of the great reformers of the liberal period was Robert Peel, a free trader, who became the Prime Minister of Britain (1834-35,1841-46). Among those who opposed the Corn Laws, which had been in force since the twelfth century, were Richard Cobden and John Bright. They formed the Anti-Corn Law League, and continuously campaigned for the repeal of Corn Laws. It must be noted that the Corn Laws favoured the British landowners who gained huge profits from corn exports. At the same time, imports were discouraged by increasing tariff. Those who suffered due to the prevalence of Corn Laws were poor workers. The failure of the potato crops in Ireland compelled the government to repeal the Corn Laws which resulted in increased imports of cheaper corn from other countries. The Anti-Corn Law League gained prominence, and the landlords lost their political influence. Cobden was a businessman engaged in the calico business. He served as a British MP, and studied foreign trade practices of businessmen in the US and Europe. He had been advocating free trade in international business and wrote a number of pamphlets in this connection. It was due to his efforts that France accorded Most Favoured Nation treatment to England after signing a commercial treaty. Cobden and John Bright (Liberal MP and great orator) started the AntiLaw Corn League in 1839. Bright had been an active free trader, and advocated parliamentary reforms. Subsequently he joined the Gladstone ministry. Known as a Quaker, he believed in removing economic and political inequalities existing in the British society.

The Chartist Agitation The Reform Bill of 1832 did not consider granting suffrage to the working class, even though the latter was responsible for getting the bill passed. Hence started a long and sometimes violent agitation to get this grievance redressed. William Lovett, a leader of the working class, authored a pamphlet entitled the Rotten House of Commons which highlighted the inadequacies and inequalities of the Reform Bill of 1832. He demanded universal franchise for all adult males. In 1838, the radicals drafted what is known as “The People’s Charter” to be presented to the Parliament which contained demand for six reforms: (1) Universal manhood suffrage, (2) vote by ballot, (3) annual Parliaments, (4) removal of property qualification for membership of Parliament, (5) equal

electoral constituencies and (6) payment for elected members. The main purpose of the Chartists who presented the charter as a petition to the Parliament was to make it a true representative of the people, and “not of a class”. As the Chartists had no influence, the petition was rejected. The Chartists carried on their agitations through the media, “monster meetings”, popular songs, and signaturecampaign (the 1839 petition contained signatures of “1,286,000 persons”). The Parliament scoffed at these petitions and rejected them. Petitions presented by the Chartists to the Parliament in 1842 and 1848 met the same fate. The Chartist movement petered out eventually due to many reasons. The significance of the Chartist movement (1838-48) should not be lost sight of. What the Chartists yearned for was a truly representative government reflecting the wishes of common people, and by sending popular representatives, they could secure the control of the legislature. Such a legislature would bring in favourable conditions through reforms. It was unfortunate that their desire or ideals were considered a ‘joke’ or impracticable at the time of the submission of petitions. But by the turn of the century, almost all their demands were met (except annual Parliament), thanks to the advent of Victorian era. During this era England built the largest empire, established a truly representative government with Parliament as the supreme body, introduced a number of reforms reflecting the wishes of the common people so as to make it a welfare state, and developed the party-system. Liberalism became a slogan or a watchword, and each elected government moved forward to achieve its objective.

Factory Acts The march towards improving the conditions of child labour was taken by Sir Robert Peel who got the ‘Health and Morals of Apprentices Act’ passed in 1902 whose main feature was limiting child’s working hours to twelve a day. The second Factory Act was passed at the instance of Robert Peel and Robert Owen in 1819 which prohibited children under the age of nine to work in Cotton Mills, and stipulated that children between age nine and thirteen to work not more than twelve hours a day. The main feature of the 1833 Act laid down the inspection of factories by government inspectors to ensure the compliance of the laws or rules. The Act extended the prohibition of employing children under the age of nine to all the textile factories. The Factory Act of 1844 prohibited night-working hours for women and fixed twelve hours during day time. The Act provided for compensation to injuries received while working with unguarded machines. As

the conditions of miners were miserable, the Parliament passed the ‘Coal Mines Regulation Act’ in 1842. Women, girls and boys (less than ten years of age) were not to be employed in mines. The Factory Act of 1847 fixed ten hours a day for women and ‘young persons’. The Factory Acts Extension Act was passed to define what a factory is, and organisations conforming to this to come under factory laws. The 1878 Act prescribed a Factory Code. The employers had to abide by the rules laid down in code. Parliamentary Acts pertaining to Workers’ compensation, old-age pension, and national unemployment and sickness insurance were all passed after the Victorian era, i.e., 1906, 1908 and 1911 respectively. The other reforms included the Elementary Education Act of 1870 which enabled all children to have their schooling in public-funded schools. The most important reforms cherishing the ideals of the Chartists were the Reform bills of 1867, 1884 and 1918 which extended the franchise to make English institutions highly democratic. In 1911, the members of the House of Commons were paid £400 annually. The Labour Party was founded in 1906. The Repeal of Corn Laws in 1846 under the stewardship of Sir Robert Peel paved the way for economic liberalism, because the next two decades witnessed many protective duties in the British tariff being removed. The significance of all the labour legislations and other reforms as mentioned above made the British democracy stable and progressive. They provided an example for other countries to follow. Womanhood suffrage came in 1918.

PART III

Industrialisation Chapter 10 English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society Chapter 11 Industrialisation in Other Countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan Chapter 12 Globalisation

10 English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society

A

new era in the history of mankind began when the newly invented machines began to produce consumer goods in abundance in England since the second half of the eighteenth century. This transformation in the method of production—from man-made to machine-made—is called the Industrial Revolution. In the last two centuries, the Industrial Revolution had undergone some phases. The earliest phase began in England around the middle of the eighteenth century.

Reasons for the revolution Many factors were responsible for the birth of Industrial Revolution in England. It may be remembered that England was principally an agricultural country before the advent of this Revolution. However, she had all the infrastructure necessary to set the country on the road to industrialisation. Some of them were the availability of raw materials, scarcity of labour, a fully developed banking system, the birth of entrepreneurial class, and great inventors. Fortunately the British goods enjoyed good reputation in international markets. Over a period of hundred years the Industrial Revolution changed the countryside so much as to cause much anguish to the nature poets of England. Britain had large amounts of coal and iron deposits. Also it had a large force of semi-skilled workers who were always eager to take up extra work. Raw materials were available cheaply. The Royal Society of London encouraged scientific discoveries and inventions. With potential markets at its disposal England went ahead with the new methods of production. The early phase of the Industrial Revolution was marked by a gradual change. It was confined to the

textile industry to start with. The Industrial Revolution was a silent one. In 1733, John Kay invented the “Flying Shuttle” which, when operated by hand, increased the speed of the weaving of cloth. It was followed by another invention in 1767 called. “The Spinning Jenny” by James Hargreaves. This machine spun eight threads simultaneously. Hargreaves kept his invention a secret for some time because he thought that it would cause retrenchment of workers if used. Two years later Richard Arkwright invented a spinning frame called “Waterframe” which used water power in place of manpower. As waterframe was too big to be run at home and since it required too much water, a factory had to be built. In 1779 Samuel Crompton invented his “Spinning Mule” which included good combination of both, the “Spinning Jenny” and the “Waterframe”. It spun hundreds of threads at one and the same time and produced either fine or coarse thread. In the course of time the new inventors were paying attention to the method of weaving which was not keeping pace with the manufacture of threads. Revered Edmund Cartwright invented the ‘Powerloom’ in 1785 which wove cloth very quickly. This invention was run by a big water-wheel. Subsequently, Eli-Whitney invented the ‘Cotton gin’, a machine which was used to separate the seeds from the hand-picked cotton from the fields. Over a span of fifty years the textilemanufacturing industry in Britain witnessed a transformation in the method of production—from hand-made to machine-made and the newly invented machiens enabled the factory owners to produce textile goods in large quantity. What hundreds of workers did in the course of a day in a textile mill a machine accomplished it within a few hours. During the first half of nineteenth century cloth with different colours was made since the new methods of bleaching, dyeing and printing were discovered. An American named Elias Howe invented the “sewing machine” in 1846 to stitch clothes. For making sturdy machines iron and steel were required. So the iron and steel industry had to make progress. In the olden days people were in the habit of smelting the iron ore in brick furnances and used charcoal as fuel. The dross of the iron was separated and iron was produced. But the iron produced through this process was brittle. So It had to be smelted again. Finally coke was used to produce iron. The blacksmiths hammered it into required shapes for their convenience. But this process was both laborious and costly. Finally, Henry Bessemer discovered a faster and cheaper method of producing steel in 1856. In the course of time iron and steel came to be used in making all machines. Textile and metal industries were started in British towns like Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and London. Thus the factory system came to say. Earlier, wood was used as a fuel in the place of coal. When coal was

required in abundant quantity to be used as fuel, coal mining industry became necessary. Fortunately. Britain had large reserves of coal deposits. When coal was mined and made available in plenty people used it for domestic purposes. Large industries used them as fuel. So coal replaced wood as fuel material. The story of the invention of steam engine is interesting. In the eighteenth century, British mine-owners were faced with the problem of water seeping into the mines. This water had to be removed if work undertaken had to make progress. So they employed labourers at a great cost to pump the water out. It was at this time a British Engineer named Thomas Newcomen invented the first stem engine which was used to pump the water out of the mines. However, this engine consumed too much fuel. A few years later a young Scottish inventor named James Watt redesigned the steam-engine which produced more power with less fuel. His invention was a great success and it was patented in 1769. This steam engine was used in the steel and textile industries. Thus steam power replaced water-power.

The New Factory System In Britain the household industry in towns and villages was replaced by the new factory system. Wealthy capitalists bought machines and large buildings and turned them into mills. Many workers were needed to operate the machines and they were recruited. They were paid meagre wages. People without jobs in the villages began to drift towards cities in search of factory jobs. They started living in huts or one tenement apartments near the factories where they worked the factory system totally replaced the guild system in the course of time. Towns, where big factories were located, became cities and their population increased. The factories produced far more goods than was necessary for mass consumption. So they had to be transported to other cities and towns for distribution. So came the age of steam-engine rail transport. An English engineer George Stephenson built the first public railway line, and with his son Robert Stephenson designed an advanced steam locomotive called Rocket. In 1830, it completed forty miles of journey from Manchester to Liverpool within an hour and half. During the next forty years Britain built a network of railway lines measuring 13,500 miles. In the United States of America, Robert Fulton invented a steamboat called Clermont in 1807. It covered a distance of nearly one hundred fifty miles from New York to Albany on the Hudson river in about thirty-two hours. After a few years, steamboats carrying cargo appeared shuttling on the rivers and coastline.

A trans-oceanic steam-boat ‘Sirius’ crossed the Atlantic in eighteen days in 1838. In the construction of roads and canals, France led the other countries. In the USA, canals were dug to link important rivers and lakes. There, river transport assumed great importance in the course of time. A British engineer named McAdam showed how smooth and hard-surfaced roads could be built on which vehicles moved without jerks and jolts. Such roads built according to his method were called macadamised roads. It was after the construction of these roads, stage-coaches carrying a few passengers were seen on the roads. They covered a distance of fourteen miles within an hour. Automobiles appeared much later.

Improvement in the Means of Communication The means of communication also improved much along with the quicker means of transport: An American named Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and sent a message in 1844. Messages were sent by means of telegraph wires connecting one station to the other. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. This new instrument carried human voice on wire from one end to the other. Cyrus W. Field laid the Trans-Atlantic undersea cable connecting the American continent with Europe in 1866. Guglielmo Marconi invented the Wireless Telegraph in 1896, and he succeeded in sending signals across the Atlantic for the first time in 1901. It was on the basis of this invention that radiobroadcasting and subsequently television came into being.

Spread of Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution spread from England to other European countries during the nineteenth century. France also witnessed this revolution till Napoleonic wars interrupted its progress briefly. However, after the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo, it was resumed with renewed vigour. Other countries which were affected by it were Germany, the Netherlands and Austria. During later half of the nineteenth century, Germany made rapid strides of progress, and by the end of the century, it had become a global power. India too made some progress since the advent of Lord Dalhousie. British capital investment was encouraged for the starting of railways and telegraphs. The earliest industry which made some progress was the cotton textile industry in Bombay and Ahmedabad. It was not until the 1920s that the British government

thought of industrialisation of this country. Jamshedji Tata opened a steel factory to make India self-sufficient in iron and steel in 1907. A few other industries like the jute, paper, glass made their appearance gradually. But colonial economy with its worst features impoverished this country despite some industrialisation. India subserved the interests of the capitalists of England. Among the Asian countries, Japan made marvellous progress in the field of industrialisation during the last few decades of the nineteenth century. Commodore Perry’s visit and subsequent treaties that Japan was forced to sign with western countries, made her realise that the real strength of the country lay in rapid industrialisation. The key to the West’s superiority and dominance lay in their industrial, technological and scientific progress. So Japan chose to industrialise herself with the assistance of western countries. Today it has surpassed them in her march towards rapid industrialisation. Ship building, electronics, automobile and textile industries have made remarkable progress in that country.

General effects of the Industrial Revolution In general, the Industrial Revolution produced both good and bad effects. Consumer goods were available in plenty and at reasonable rates. Factories provided employment to many. The general standard of living of the people improved. However, these good effects faded when some ugly aspects began to manifest. The capitalists and entrepreneurs invested their capital, purchased raw materials and machines, and ran the factories. They paid meagre wages to the workers and earned huge profits. They enjoyed all the luxuries of life and neglected the conditions of their employees. Men, women and children worked in factories for long hours. Work in mines was difficult. They could not complain of their difficulties for fear they would be retrenched. They lived in squalor. Charles Dickens has given apt descriptions of the pitiable conditions of the people affected by the Industrial Revolution. In villages, cottage industries suffered due to competition from machine-made goods. Many of them became unemployed and they had to go to cities in search of jobs in mills (see Social Consequences). The middle class (often described as the bourgeoisie class) became wealthy due to capital investment in trade and industries. The governments of the day were easily influenced by them since they constituted the majority of voting public. They held leverage over power. All legislations safeguarded their vested interests. The labourers were not permitted to form trade unions. It was in these

circumstances that socialism took its birth in Europe. Socialism advocated the bridging of the gulf between the rich and the poor by means of nationalisation of factors of production. However, it was not until Karl Marx, the German philosopher, came on the scene that doctrines of scientific socialism were enunciated and a programme of militant action by workers was undertaken to overthrow the bourgeoisie government.

Social consequences of Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution in Britain and subsequently elsewhere in Europe during the early nineteenth century had great impact on society over a span of nearly seventy years (1830-1900). The traditionally agricultural countries like Britain were transformed into a predominantly industrial nation during this period. England became the workshop of the world. In the wake of Industrial Revolution, this nation witnessed a great increase in population, new inventions, swift transport and communication, factories with labour saving machines belching out smoke and overcrowded towns and cities. To some extent, there was decline in agriculture. There was flow of population from villages to industrial towns. One of the conspicuous results of the Industrial Revolution was the growth of population in England. In 1760, it was six and three quarter millions, in 1800, nine million, in 1830, fourteen million, in 1870, twenty-two million, and in 1900, thirty-six million. Similarly, the population of Europe increased from around 187 million in 1800 to 305 million in 1870, and increased further to 440 million in 1910. Obviously there was decline of mortality rate with the discovery of life-saving drugs and practice of modern medicine and surgery. As the population grew so enormously that even the rapid expansion of agriculture was unable to absorb the unemployed. So unemployment in the rural areas led to the migration of a large number of families to industrial towns and cities. In England, for example, thirty-two per cent of the workers were employed in agriculture in 1801, and after one hundred years, it was reduced to six per cent. Economic circumstances compelled the rural population to drift towards industrial towns and cities in search of jobs in factories. With the constant flow of population from the rural parts, old cities like Glasgow and Bristol grew enormous in size and population. Some new towns like Liverpool, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds became thickly populated since many industries were located in these areas. Similarly European cities such as Paris, Brussels, Milan, Tille and Berlin grew beyond recognition. In 1800, there

were only fourteen European towns with a population of more than 100,000 but at the end of the century they rose to more than a hundred. Middles-borough was a tiny village with twenty-five inhabitants in 1801 but by 1901, it had a population of more than 90,000 after the opening of iron and steel industries. By the end of the eighteenth century, the city of London was receiving eight to twelve thousand immigrants annually. Industrial revolution in England disturbed the structure of English society. Agriculture and village handicrafts declined. The village artisans lost their jobs. In the place of tenant-farmers, the rich landlords became more influential. The landless labourers flocked to towns and cities in search of jobs. In urban towns and cities, two new classes emerged, namely, the industrial capitalists and the industrial working classes. Conditions in Industrial Towns: During the early stages of the industrial revolution in England, the lot of the worker was miserable. The employer hardly bothered about his housing and living conditions. He was simply a wage-earner and his job remained uncertain. Therefore he left his family in the village to fend for themselves. He lived in a tenanted apartment which was anything but clean. The close tenements lacked water and toilet facilities. He could not breathe fresh air due to the cramped “back to back” housing. At least in his village he had a home, freedom and some friendly people surrounding him. Here in the city he was living in the midst of penury and without friends. In the factory or a mill or a mine he worked for nearly twelve to fourteen hours with danger lurking in every corner. Accidents were common in factories, mills and mines. If he worked in a mine, he hardly saw the sunlight. Many a time his employer would dispense with his service and preferred to employ his wife and children because he would get more work done at less expense. So women and children were mostly employed in textile mills. Children below the age of twelve, clothed in rags, were found working in factories in miserable conditions. Since the workers’ families were crowded in cheap lodgings which lacked water and sanitation, young children often fell sick and died. Many a worker wanted his wife to work to supplement his meagre income. Due to the absence of parents, children became delinquents as their education was neglected. Juvenile delinquency became a common feature in urban societies. Cholera epidemics broke out in 1831-33, 1847-48, and 1865-66. It was unfortunate that the English parliament did not pay attention to the miserable condition of the working classes during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution. This was due to its aristocratic composition.

Rural Consequences of Industrialisation The pre-Victorian period in England did not witness much industrialisation in agriculture. However, afterwards machines began to replace manual labour on agricultural lands. Seed drills and threshing machines were introduced. Later, there came the use of traction engines for ploughing. Gradually machines on farms did all the chores of farmers on the land. It aroused resentment among the farmers and led to the disturbances of 1830-32. Even though there was increase in agriculture, it was unable to absorb the growing population. So economic conditions began to worsen leading to rural families migrating to industrial towns. Rural unemployment became a common feature and it led to lowering of farm-wage levels to subsistence level. The spread of industrial revolution to rural country-side marred its beauty and a few English poets lamented this. Labour Unrest and Movement: It was during the early decades of the nineteenth century that some labour unrest manifested itself due to extreme hardships. Luddite disturbances were an expression of protest against the apathy of the government to the worsening conditions. But they were suppressed. Combination laws of 1799, prevented the workers from forming any association. They were repealed in 1824, due to untiring efforts of Francis Place. Unions were allowed but efforts to form one single national union failed. When the Reform Bill of 1832 failed to give vote to the workers, there began the Chartist movement which remained popular till 1848. The Chartists incited violence and disorder to get their demands fulfilled. It was only in 1867, that a Royal Commission on Labour was set up on trade union. It recommended “putting trade unions upon a firm legal basis and allowing them to secure their funds”. The Trades Union Congress was founded in Manchester in 1868. In the United States, there were series of conflicts between the industrialist capitalists and workers during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. They led to the formation of two trade unions, namely, the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. The latter was a bigger union organised by Samuel Gompers. An organised labour movement in India was started by humanists and social workers during the late nineteenth century. After some time some philanthropists and political workers joined to make the movement a success. In India, Narayan Meghaji Lokhanday associated himself with Sathyasamaj of Mahatma Phule and worked for the uplift of the labour class during the late nineteenth century.

Legislative Remedies

Factory Acts were passed in England in 1833, 1844, 1847 and 1850 which mostly regulated the working hours of female and child labour. In 1842 the Mines Act prohibited women and children from working in the mines. Legislation on housing began during the second half of the nineteenth century. Free elementary education was provided under the Forster’s Education Act. In the early twentieth century, the state’s responsibility towards social welfare measures was recognised. Old-age Pensions Act and National Health Insurance Acts were passed in 1908 and 1911 respectively.

11 Industrialisation in Other Countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan

I

ndustrialisation of the United States constitutes a significant chapter in American History. A number of historians agree that over a period of 100 years (1815-1914) the US was transformed from an essentially agricultural country into an industrial giant. The acquisition of Trans-Mississippi region after the purchase of Louisiana territory as well as the regions that accrued from the Mexican War “opened up a treasure chest of natural resources. In that territory were to be found some of the richest wheat-and-bread-stuff-producing-lands of the New World; pasture lands of fabulous extent which would one day support a great cattle industry;…..”. These vast regions acquired from France and Mexico showered ‘gifts of nature’ on the Americans because it contained deposits of copper, silver, lead, zinc, and gold.

Transportation Revolution The Americans found it necessary to connect the vast expanse of their land through a network of improved roads and turnpikes. The territories of New England came to be connected to the interiors of the west through the construction of roads. The building of roads was financed by the state and local governments. The Federal Government assisted local governments in connecting the major east-west artery. Maryland, Cumberland and Illinois were connected by highways. The construction of canals began in the 1820s to connect the rivers and lakes, and also enable people to travel from the east to the west and vice-versa. The construction of the Erie Canal (363 miles) in New York State connected Albany on the upper Hudson River to Buffalo located on the eastern shore of

Lake Erie. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 encouraged construction of a number of canals linking the rivers and the lakes in the interiors to the ports of the Atlantic seaboard. By 1840, more than 3,300 miles of waterways were built connecting some important towns situated along the canals such as Syracuse, Buffalo, and Cleveland. Some of these small towns grew into booming industrial centres in the course of time. The canals provided cheap means of transportation with the advent of the steamboats. Farm and dairy products from the interior could be transported to major ports at a very low cost. The other important canals which came up were built in the state of Pennsylvania and also in the Illinois-Michigan area. The former connected Philadelphia with Pittsburg, and the latter linking Chicago with Mississippi River. By about 1860, the network of canals in the US covered a length of 4,250 miles. Fulton’s steamboat revolutionized the canal navigation system in the US (1807). Use of steam power by ships for inland water transportation became a great success in the early part of the nineteenth century. Its success made the riverboat an American innovation. Fulton’s steamboat was improved upon by Henry Shreve. He sailed the Enterprise (1815) and the Washington (1817) from New Orleans to Louisville within 25 days. The 1820s witnessed the beginning of railroad transportation, and by 1860, more than 30,000 miles of railroad tracks had been laid in the US. Needless to say that railroads cut costs of transportation, and enabled farmers to receive farm machinery from the eastern cities, and send farm products to them. In a similar way, packed meat was transported from Wyoming to the eastern towns and cities. By 1865 the railroad network was doubled, and by 1900 there were more than 200,000 miles of railroad network in the US. During the Civil War, the railroads helped to create a united north to fight the south. Most of the funding for railroad construction came from local communities, local and state governments. Subsequently business magnates like Vanderbilt entered railroad construction with huge funds. The Union Pacific and the Central Pacific railroad companies completed the first transcontinental railway line at Promontory Summit in 1869. By 1916, the US had a vast railroad network of 230,468 miles. Along with railroad construction, the communication revolution was kickstarted by Samuel Morse’s telegraphy. The Magnetic Telegraph Company founded by Morse and other investors laid the first commercial telegraph line between Washington, DC, and New York City (1846). Morse sold licenses for his patented technology, and as a result more than 50 companies started providing telegraphic services by 1851. More than 9.1 million messages were handled by these companies in 1870, and they increased to more than 63 million by 1900. The importance of telegraphy may be underlined by the fact that it

provided speedy means of communication at low costs. This resulted in increased productivity and volume of business in the country. The advent of the Factory System had its beginning soon after the war with Britain in 1812. Textile factories started functioning in north-eastern part of New England. Textile machineries were driven by water power, and hundreds of workers were employed for producing textile products. Nearly sisty-five percent of the 100,000 textile workers in the country happened to be female workers. It must be noted that the textile industry in US was started by a British pioneer named Samuel Slater. He brought modern British textile technology to America and introduced a factory system call ‘Rhode Island System’ which employed children. He is regarded as the ‘Father of the American Factory System’. In 1814, the Boston Manufacturing Company led by Francis Cabot Lowell devised an improved labour and production model called the Waltham System at Waltham, Massachusetts, which employed local farm girls known as ‘mill girls’. The Congress passed a Tariff Act to check many products coming from Britain to protect the local industries in general and textile industry in particular. It is said that more than 175 occupations in the US were being filled by women by 1850. In the course of time, a large number of factories were started in the states of Pennsylvania and New York. The Middle Atlantic States with 53,000 factories, employed more than half a million men and women by 1860. So at the beginning of the Civil War, there was a growing urban working class crowding the big cities. However, agriculture continued to hold its sway over the workforce till 1860. The map of the northern states at the time of the civil war was dotted with steel mills, machine shops, clothing factories and shipyards.

Industrialisation of the USA Between 1865 and 1914 America witnessed “one of the great industrial expansions of all time; America emerged from that period the arsenal of two world wars and the prime industrial power of the planet” (Carl Degler, Out of Our Past). America possessed vast mineral resources such as iron ore, coal, copper, minor metals, the black gold of oil and so on. Gold was discovered in California, and there was what was known as the ‘Gold Rush’ by miners and speculators. Oil was discovered in Texas. Mining companies were formed to extract these two important natural resources. The civil war gave great impetus for the second wave of industrialisation in the United States. Britain and few European countries provided funds totalling US $3.4 billion, and by 1914, around $7 billion for further development of

American industries. In the 1880s, more than five million immigrants arrived in the US, seeking employment. The early nineteenth century witnessed manufacture of iron and steel. The discovery of a new technique of making pure iron was made by one Frederick in 1833. Another inventor was William Kelly who produced the technique of making steel by melting iron using coal. In the course of time, the state of Pennsylvania became the main base for the iron and steel industry due to abundant availability of iron ore and coal. Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania came to be known as the ‘Steel City’ and “the City of Bridges”. Andrew Carnegie began his career as a bobbin boy, and eventually became most successful industrialist after founding the Edgar Thomson Steel Works in North Braddock (later became Carnegie Steel Company) in 1875. For producing steel, the companies adopted the Bessemer process, and subsequently Siemens-Martin Process which contributed in great measure to their success. More than a third of the country’s steel production came from Pittsburgh by 1911. The use of iron and steel enabled the US to increase its railway network, build bridges and ships, and manufacture water pipes, electric poles and Franklin’s stove. During the time of the civil war, production of arms and armaments increased by leaps and bounds. Agriculture and cattle breeding were the primitive occupations of the colonists during the early days of the republic. Subsequently, American agriculture concentrated on commercial crops like cotton, tobacco and hemp. The agriculturists adopted rotation of crops. Jethro Wood invented the Cast-Iron Plow (1817) for use in agricultural operations, and it was subsequently followed by the invention of the Steel Plow by John Deere (1837). Mechanization of agriculture on a large scale began in the 1860s following new inventions like Harvester and Thrasher. The American Middle Western states of Kansas and Nebraska produced enough food grains for the entire population of the US. The present state of Wyoming became the land of cattle. Animals here were driven in great herds by the cowboys. The railroads helped the shepherds and cowboys in sending cattle to the slaughter houses of Chicago. Chicago became a great centre for production of meat. The mining industry prospered after the discovery of gold in California, silver in the states of Arizona, Montana, and Wyoming. The discovery of gold at the Pikes Peak in Colorado attracted thousands of people who were in search of jobs. At the end of the nineteenth century, America witnessed the rise of large corporations headed by industrialists like Rockefeller (founder of Standard Oil Company), Edward Harriman (Railroad Executive), Cornelius Vanderbilt (Entrepreneur in the shipping and railroad industries), Andrew Carnegie (Steel

Industry), Henry Ford (Automobile Industry) and JP Morgan (Banking Industry). In the 1890s and the early part of the twentieth century, the industrialists began what is known as consolidation movements. To avoid competition, they formed trusts; and so began the era of trusts in the American business history. We see the emergence of the Sugar Trust, Oil Trust, Money Trust and Meat Trust. Sixty per cent of the iron and steel business was in the hands of the United States Steel Corporation (founded 1901). These trusts fixed the prices of their products in a way that proved harmful to the consumer in the years to come.

Industrialisation of Germany It was not until the rise of Bismarck (the Iron Chancellor) that Germany made sincere efforts to industrialise itself. It was after the unification of Germany that Bismarck realised the key to modernisation of the country lay in industrialisation. Prior to its unification (1870), Germany was a divided country with 38 states competing for supremacy. It was during this time that Prussia took the lead in uniting these states by forming a Customs Union (Zollverein). This union provided a base for the economic integration of the country by removing trade barriers. The Austrian Empire was kept out of this union. The Zollverein encouraged the states to develop their means of transport and communications systems. In 1839, the British Government gave financial assistance to the German states for construction of railways. By 1840, trunk lines linked major states. Friedrich List, a German economist, emphasised the importance of the railways in promoting nationalism and economic growth. Within a decade, railways connected Berlin with Hamburg. After the unification (1870), the German government established the Imperial Railway Bureau with the task of creating a network railway system for connecting towns of several states. Along with the development of railways followed the improvements in communication systems. In 1875, the Imperial Bank of Germany started functioning, and it offered loans to the industrialists to set up their factories. Fortunately, Germany had abundant mineral resources like coal and iron ore in the Ruhr and the Saar regions. The conquered French provinces like Alsace and Lorraine also provided rich mineral resources to Germany. It enabled the country to start iron and steel companies. Bismarck persuaded the German Parliament to pass a tariff act so that German industries would get protection from foreign competition. In the course of time, Germany set up a number of

factories for producing iron and steel, chemicals, dyes, textiles, electrical goods, and so on. Germany stood second in terms of the production of iron and steel after the United States. By the end of the nineteenth century, German chemical industry led by BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst dominated the world market in producing several synthetic dyes. On the eve of the First World War, they produced 90% of the dyestuffs produced in the world. They also diversified industries for the production of pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, photographic films and so on. With the use of fertilizers and modern tools, German agricultural output increased by leaps and bounds. Karl Benz and Nikolaus Otto developed the four-stroke internal combustion engine in the 1870s which led to the birth of the automobile industry. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Germany was producing 900 cars per year. Steel giant Krupp, started by Friedrich Krupp in the early nineteenth century at Essen, also produced arms and ammunition which played a major role in Prussia’s victory over France (1870). Germany began to build its battleships to counter the threat of the powerful British fleet during the first decade of the twentieth century. It deepened the Kiel Canal for the easy sail of its battleships. The German navy played an important role during the time of colonisation of Africa.

Industrialisation of Russia Compared to Western Europe, Russia remained backward politically, economically and socially. The Czarist autocracy remained totally conservative in its outlook. The 140,000 families of nobles remained privileged. There were more than half a million serfs working in the fields. They were extremely poor and illiterate. In spite of vast resources available in the country, the Czarist government was not interested in bringing about industrialisation for fear that it would lose its power. Unfortunately there was no middle class in Russia to demand reforms. With its primitive agriculture as the mainstay of its economy, Russia was wholly dependent upon the west for importing modern machines. Although a few industries existed in some towns and cities, they were small scale in nature, and produced goods for the household. There was conspicuous absence of capital for setting up large scale industries. However, historians ascribe two reasons that triggered the advent of industrial revolution in backward Russia. Russia suffered its worst defeat in the Crimean War (1854-56), and also a serious diplomatic setback at the Congress of Berlin (1878). Russian aristocracy became aware of the lack of industrialisation as a curse. One redeeming feature in an otherwise backward Russia was the

emancipation of the serfs by Czar Alexander II in 1861. Those who were liberated from serfdom subsequently formed the bulk of the working population. In the meantime the population of Russia began to grow rapidly. The Russian Czar realised that it was necessary to create conditions for industries to grow. It was during Czar Alexander III’s reign (1881-94) that Sergei de Witte was appointed minister of finance and commerce (1892-1903). He had joined the imperial service in 1871, and by dint of merit rose to a very high position. He was of the opinion that Russia, being a large and populous country with rich mineral resources, had the potential to become an industrial power like the western countries. Being practical minded, he sought foreign assistance to kick start the industrial development of the country. Countries like Britain, France and Germany invested heavy capital in Russia’s railroad, coal, iron and steel, chemical and oil industries. Witte’s crowning achievement was the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway connecting European Russia to the Pacific coast. He realised that the greatest drawback of a vast subcontinent like Russia was a good means of transport and communication. Before he assumed office as finance minister, Russia’s railway construction was sluggish, and did not extend more than 400 miles per year. However, with Trans-Siberian railway, the railroad transport industry grew to a great size. By 1909, Russia had a vast railway network measuring 41,000 miles. Out of this, nearly two-thirds was owned and operated by the government which received financial assistance from France and a few other European countries. Witte realised the importance of protecting the local industries from foreign competition. Tariff acts were passed. But Russia remained backward in the area of road construction. It had about 30,000 km of roads, and only 5,000 remained asphalted. Small scale industries in Russia employed nearly 5 million workers during the first decade of the twentieth century. It contributed a third of the total industrial output. By 1900, Russia’s steel production improved substantially. The discovery of oil in the Baku region triggered the growth of Russia’s petroleum and refining industries. Its textile industries made considerable progress. It also excelled in the production of pig iron. The growth of the Russian banking industry was heavily dependent upon foreign capital. The Russian Government gave sufficient guarantees to the western powers for the protection of their capital invested in various sectors of the economy. In the meantime, Russia witnessed the rise of the middle class. It became politically conscious and demanded radical reforms. The defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) caused great disappointment, and highlighted Russia’s relative economic backwardness. The main obstacle to

further progressive reforms lay centred in the Czarist autocracy.

Industrialisation of Japan The Meiji era (1868-1912) may be regarded as epoch making in the history of Japan. It was during this period that modernisation of the country took place. There was a drastic change in the political system due to the restoration of the Japanese Emperor to his former power and glory. After the downfall of Shogunate, the young emperor Mutsuhito introduced a series of reforms for the purpose of modernising the country. The Japanese Shogun received a veiled threat from the American navy commander Commodore Perry after he was denied permission to meet the Emperor. Japan was forced to submit itself to the Americans by keeping its ports open for trade. The Japanese were convinced that the western powers were militarily superior. Therefore they countered this threat with great levels of discretion. They realised that their method of warfare was feudal, and their weapons system obsolete compared to that of the technologically advanced western powers. It was time for Japan to industrialise itself on the model of western powers. The beginnings of modern industrialisation had already taken place during the period of the Tokugawa Shogunate in fields like textile and arms and ammunition manufacture, with government subsidies. However, Japan lagged far behind the western countries in large scale industrialisation. The Meiji emperor sent the lwakura Mission (world tour by Japanese diplomats) to gather information for taking the right steps towards modernisation of Japan. On its return, the chairman of the mission submitted a lengthy report which recommended educational and economic reforms. By nature, the Japanese are considered well disciplined, hard working and intelligent. Their loyalty to the country could be counted as a great asset. Therefore it did not take long before Japan emerged from its feudal setup into a highly industrialised country. The western powers were surprised at the rapid strides of progress made by Japan within a short period. H.G. Wells commented that the Japanese industrial growth “made all European progress seem sluggish and tentative in comparison”. This island nation—almost unknown and insignificant to the rest of the world till American Commodore Perry’s visit (1853)—witnessed high economic growth through industrialisation thanks to state patronage. Initially, the representatives of Britain and Germany came to advise the government on the steps it should take to achieve its goals. To enable rapid industrialisation, Japan employed thousands of foreign experts in the fields

of science and engineering. The Japanese Government gave great importance to the growth of the nation’s infrastructure. The first railroad was completed in 1872, which connected the imperial capital Tokyo with the sea port of Yokohama, a distance of 19 miles. In 1874, railroad connected Osaka to Kobe. In the meantime a few private companies started functioning which developed a network of railway system. The introduction of a modern postal system followed. Telegraph lines were laid connecting all important towns by 1894. The government undertook construction of roads, bridges and public buildings on a massive scale. Lighthouses, dockyards and piers came up. Small businessmen set up bicycle and textile factories. They also entered into printing and foundry business. Japanese shipping lines played a remarkable role in the growth of international trade and commerce. Mitsubishi Shokai and Osaka Shosen Kaisha were the prominent shipping companies founded during this era. In the meantime, a group of twenty big industrialists (Zaibatsu) came forward to finance industrial development. Their financial assistance was sought for the import of sophisticated machines from western countries. With cheap labour, Japan was able to achieve rapid progress in areas like manufacture of silk, glass, tiles, cement, and bleaching power. Industrial workshops were set up to train workers. Japan established a stock exchange and a chamber of commerce for stimulating trade and commerce. But what was more important for the country’s overall economic growth was the development of a sound banking system. National credit banks were set up to meet the needs of industry and currency system. The Central Bank of Japan was established with the full backing of the government. It introduced a uniform currency (yen) throughout the country which replaced the paper currency issued by feudal lords earlier. In order to finance foreign trade, the Yokohama Specie Bank was founded. To encourage public savings, the government opened postal savings banks. Japan’s stunning economic growth achieved within a short period caused great envy among the western powers.

12 Globalisation Introduction

A

ll the advanced countries of the world have already gone through the process of industrialisation and globalisation during the last century. Industrialisation expedites the process of globalisation. Each complements the other, and aims at increasing the consumer and material needs of the people across the world. The western countries, thanks to the advent of industrial revolution in the nineteenth century, had a head start in the process of industrialisation and globalisation. During the era of new imperialism, the western countries not only colonised Afro-Asian countries but also exploited them for maximising their prosperity through trade and commerce. In this way, the industrialised west became rich. The colonies were not allowed to industrialise except for meeting some of their basic consumer needs. The west feared competition. In this unequal globalised world, the third world countries started knocking at the doors of their erstwhile colonial masters for direct financial assistance, investments, supply of capital goods and so on to enable them to industrialise. At this juncture, the strong players set the rules of the game through organisations like GATT and WTO. When the developing world desired to enter into the global markets, they were already facing adverse balance of payments. In the early stages of industrialisation, a majority of the developing nations followed the Soviet model of economic development. This model was more “inward-looking”, indicating self-sufficiency as the main goal. But a handful of Asian countries like Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong (during British control) and Taiwan opted for export-oriented economic growth. They became wealthy within a few decades, thanks to infusion of capital from the west. While a majority of the third world countries faced economic stagnation at the end of the 1980s, the four Asian Tigers (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong

Kong) continued to make rapid economic progress. This stark contrast indicates the extent of globalisation. Therefore, it should be noted that industrialisation by itself cannot bring about prosperity; but globalisation too is necessary.

Globalisation In economic terms, globalisation refers to the integration of national economy with world economy by means of trade. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) with a large number of developed and developing countries coming under its ambit for the purpose of maximising profits through international trade came into being after the war. Richard Gardner says, “globalisation as a phenomenon has altered human society drastically”. This saying epitomises what globalisation is. In recent years globalisation has accelerated its pace due to scientific and technological revolutions in the field of transport and communication. The world has become a global village now. People of the world have easy access to what is happening or taking place by using such instruments like TV, cell phones, laptops and so on. Business magnates have easy access to world markets because of this. Video conferencing enables business tycoons to interact with one another freely saving their time and travel. A glimpse of what is globalisation is described by Thomas Friedman in his book, The World is Flat. Globalisation as a mantra has been encouraged by international financial institutions like IMF, World Bank and World Trade Organisation as a panacea for alleviating the poverty existing in many under developed counties. The domination of the US after the World War II extended to economic aspects such as trade and commerce. Globalisation was confined to western countries, because all of them were capitalist countries. During the 1970s and 80s, US started advising all the poor countries of the third world to adopt the capitalists system of economic growth as a means to achieve poverty eradication. Its economists in the international institutions recommended economic reforms such as liberalisation and privatisation as a means to achieve export-led growth. Many third world countries suffered from balance of payments problem with respect to world trade. Globalisation implies free trade, competition, and finances. These three features have to be incorporated in each nation’s economy so as to reap benefits. They said free trade improves efficiency, attracts foreign investments, factor-incomes and gains from migration of skilled workers. The last three decades of globalisation has resulted in reverse growth for many countries. As such, liberalisation and globalisation have been severely criticised

by present day economists and intellectuals like Joseph Stiglitz and Arundhati Roy. The Third World Trade Organisation Ministerial Conference, held in Seattle between 30th November and 3rd December 1999, was disturbed by protests. The Asian-Social Forum held in Hyderabad (India) organised protests against globalisation a few years ago.

Globalisation In India India became one of the most impressive emerging markets in the world because of globalisation. Skilled managerial and technical manpower that was available in our country gave an added advantage. After the 1991 economic reforms, globalisation has played a major role in export-led growth and brought about the expansion of job market in India. It must be remembered that India’s major source of income comes from outsourced IT, and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) services. India has opened its market to the world, and therefore we see a multinational companies setting up shops in India. These multinational companies manufacture products that are sold to consumers all over the world. Globalisation is not only confined to products, finances and services, but also influenced ideas and cultures. Some of the advantages India derived from globalisation are (1) increase in flow of investments, (2) faster flow of information between countries, and subsequent cultural interaction, (3) technology transfer from the western countries, which has in turn resulted in reversal of brain-drain. The demerits of globalisation have been loss of jobs in developed countries (the US President Obama has talked about this), the threat of multinational corporations using their immense power to influence policy decisions of developing countries (neocolonialism) and the increase in social and economic gaps between countries. Rich countries have reaped great benefits due to globalisation by bending the rules of the WTO in their favour. In other words, globalisation tends to “favour the privileged and further marginalise the already disadvantaged”. Today the world is more interdependent than ever before, and competition between economies has become common in the world market. The governments of developing countries have to be wary of the evil effects of globalisation because it has no human face. The Human Development Report (1999) published by the UN Development Programme (UNDP) states: “The top fifth of the world’s people in the richest countries enjoy 82 percent of the expanding export trade and 68 percent of foreign direct investment—the bottom fifth, barely more than 1 percent.” According to the World Bank’s estimate of

2008, about 1.3 billion people in the developing countries lived on less than $1.25 a day. Therefore the prescriptions of the IMF, the World Bank, and the WTO for the ailing economies of the Third World have not gone down well, and people are protesting everywhere.

Liberalisation and Privatisation The World Bank and the IMF have been advising the third world countries to integrate their economies with those of the rich countries by means of economic reforms, such as liberalisation and privatisation. They were assured of fund/bank loans if they do so. By liberalisation, we mean liberalisation of trade and licensing system in a country. For example, India adopted an import substitution policy earlier in tune with planned economic development. As a result, imports were discouraged, and there were not many products which India exported. This “inward looking policy of the government of India” had to be changed. The industrial policy of resolution of 1948 had to be replaced. Similarly, policy concerning foreign investments too had to change. The new industrial policy of 1991 brought about changes in Indian economy. The economic policy of government of India adopted fund/bank prescriptions of structural adjustments and reforms in a phased manner following the stabilisation programme. In tune with the new policy, the industrial licensing system, with few exceptions, was virtually abolished. “Similarly, the MRTP Act placing restrictions on law of the business houses was scrapped. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was amended to allow foreign investments in larger equity (51%) in a large number of industries. Approval procedures in foreign collaborations were liberalised. Exports were encouraged through incentives. In the second budget presented by Dr. Manmohan Singh, steps were taken for de-subsidisation, government disinvestments in public sector, partial convertibility of the Rupee, reduction of customs duties and so on”. Government’s philosophy behind privatisation policy was to reduce the role of the state in investments and manufactures in public sector so as to make room for market forces to operate. Industrialists and businessmen in India appreciated the privatisation policy because private entrepreneurs were allowed a greater role in the economic progress of the country. Government subsidies were also reduced to some extent. Private Banks and Insurance companies were allowed entry. Some reforms introduced in the labour market were criticised. Thus India is at present implementing the policy of liberalisation and privatisation as advised by the international financial institutions. After two decades of reforms,

India has emerged as the one of the fastest growing economies of the world.

PART IV

Nation-State System Chapter 13 Rise of Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century Chapter 14 Nationalism: State Building in Germany and Italy Chapter 15 Nationalism: Disintegration of Empires

13 Rise of Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

T

he term ‘nationalism’ comes from the word nation. It means people having emotional and psychological attachment towards a region or territory. There are other traits that develop with this attachment, namely, common ancestry, culture, history and ethnicity. The nation state is one where people cherish the values of togetherness. Nationalism represents the spirit of unity among people. Political, cultural, and emotional integrity together make a nation strong. National feelings rise when a nation is threatened by foreign invasion or serious internal troubles. People’s unity is tested at the time of dangers, both external and internal. For example, the heroic act of Joan of Arc to save her country, France, aroused national feelings. Alan Bullock, a British historian, says that nationalism represents “feeling of belonging to a group united by common racial, linguistic and historical ties, and usually identified with a particular territory”. British philosopher, Roger Scruton, explains the concept of nationalism as “a sentiment and ideology of attachment to a nation and its interests”. From a traditional perspective, nationalism is identified with spiritual character. Eminent historian C.J.H Hayes goes to the extent of classifying nationalism into six categories, namely, humanitarian, Jacobin, traditional, liberal, integral and economic. Nationalism had its origin during the birth of Israel i.e. when Moses asked his followers to go to the ‘Promised Land’. Greek philosophers like Socrates also made reference to the rise of nationalism among the Athenians and the Spartans. During the time of the Roman Empire, the Roman citizens spoke about their empire with a sense of pride. In modern times, nationalism came to the fore during monarchical tyranny. For example, the English and the French overthrew their tyrannical rulers in the 1648 and the 1789 revolutions respectively. C.J.H. Hayes referred to the French Revolution of 1789 as an outcome of Jacobin

Nationalism. Napoleon’s victories in Europe gave the French a sense of national pride. The countries defeated by Napoleon felt humiliated. For instance, Napoleon’s ill-treatment of the Prussians, Pope, Spaniards, Italians and Russians rebounded on him in the course of time. They all conspired with Britain to bring about his downfall in the final Battle of Waterloo. They had all suffered from Napoleon’s oppressive rule. It is no exaggeration to say that Napoleon, by his conquests, roused feelings of nationalism. Egoistic and greedy, Napoleon “reversed the aims and principles of the movement from which he sprang”. He invaded countries which were under despotic rule, and assumed the role of a saviour. But he turned out to be the worst dictator. He conquered the Papal States and carried away priceless treasures and work of art. After freeing small kingdoms of Italy from their oppressive rulers, he imposed his despotism on them. His conquest of Italy, followed by the appointment of his incompetent brother as its governor, proved to be his great undoing. Therefore, Napoleon no longer represented the objectives and principles of the French Revolution of 1789. In the midst of the dark cloud of Napoleonic tyranny, there was a silver lining; he roused the spirit of nationalism among the oppressed people. At the Congress of Vienna of 1815, the Austrian Chancellor, Metternich, tried to turn the clock back by restoring the kingdoms to their former rulers.

Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815) After the downfall of Napoleon, the European statesmen were confronted with complex problems created by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic conquests. Kings who had lost their thrones put forward their claims. Similarly, those countries which were responsible for the defeat of Napoleon submitted their claims for compensation. National boundaries which were disturbed by Napoleon had to be set right. Also arose the problems of punishing France and her allies for causing havoc. After sending Napoleon to the island of Elba, the victorious allies started negotiations in Vienna in September, 1814. Amidst great pomp and celebrations, the decorated Austrian capital received statesmen of Europe. Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain, Prince Von Hardenburg of Prussia, and Count Nesselrode of Russia were the first to arrive at Vienna. A few days later representatives of other nations arrived. In the course of time, Talleyrand of France too gained prominence despite France being a defeated nation. After a few days came the great monarchs, Czar Alexander I of Russia and Frederick

William III of Prussia. Prince Metternich of Austria offered them wonderful hospitality and the Congress became a most glittering event in the history of Europe. In the words of C.D. Hazen, the Congress of Vienna remained as “one of the most important diplomatic gatherings in the history of Europe”. Amidst scenes of social gaiety and personal intrigues, the deliberations started. Within a few days, there arose serious differences over the demands put forward by Russia and Prussia and it looked as though war was round the corner. Russia demanded large territorial gains in Poland, and similarly, Prussia claimed Saxony. However, after cooling their frayed tempers, these countries arrived at a compromise. News reached that Napoleon had left the island of Elba and might reach the French shores. After defeating Napoleon once again in the Battle of Waterloo, the allies commenced their deliberations. It was Prince Metternich who guided the discussions during the early stages regarding territorial settlements. It was he who prescribed that two principles should govern their action in the redistribution of territories in Europe, namely, the principles of legitimacy and compensation. The rulers who had lost their kingdoms because of Napoleonic conquest should be restored to their power. Again, those nations which had been mainly instrumental in bringing about the downfall of Napoleon should be amply rewarded for their labour. Similarly, those who had helped Napoleon should be punished and their territories should be distributed among the victorious allies. Napoleon and France were accused of causing the greatest political turmoil ever witnessed in the history of Europe. However, Talleyrand, being a wily French diplomat, ably argued in defence of his country by stating that France did not cause wars, but Napoleon did. Therefore France was not the culprit and doesn’t deserve punishment. Since Napoleon had been punished already, France was at peace with the rest of the world. His convincing argument overwhelmed the allies, and they agreed to restore France’s old borders of 1792. Thus France was let off leniently but on condition that King Louis XVIII would govern the people of France according to a charter of freedoms. So King Louis XVIII came back to France after his short sojourn during the Hundred Days of Napoleon. The allies hoped to check any ambition on the part of France (or any possible expansionist schemes of persons like Napoleon in future) by surrounding her with sufficiently powerful kingdoms. The peacemakers of the Congress of Vienna then turned their attention to examining the claims of many powers and kings affected by Napoleonic wars. Russia claimed a major part of the reward for her active participation in bringing about the defeat of Napoleon. Czar Alexander I was undoubtedly a great personage in the order of merit and he claimed the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. It may be remembered that this Duchy was

created out of the parts of Poland held by Austria and Prussia (after three partitions) before Napoleon conquered it. Czar Alexander hoped to unite the Duchy of Warsaw with the part of Poland he held and rule it himself, not as emperor of Russia but as a king of Poland. In other words, the united Poland would not be merged with Russia. Russia was eager to take Finland from Sweden and Bessarabia from the Turks. With this Russia hoped to expand her dominions on both sides, westwards and southeastwards. However, Prussia was not willing to part with her slice of Poland unless she was compensated elsewhere. She cast her covetous glance on the rich Kingdom of Saxony in the south with its chief cities of Leipzig and Dresden. What would happen to the king of Saxony? It was decided that he should be treated as a traitor because he stood by “his treaty obligation with Napoleon down to the battle of Leipzig”. These demands of Russia and Prussia provoked Austria and Britain and it looked as though the rival parties would settle their dispute by means of war. It was this possible flare-up which made Napoleon to return from Elba. His triumphant return to France compelled his opponents to sink their differences and form the united front for his defeat. A compromise was brought about by which Russia received a major part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and Prussia the province of Posen and the city of Cracow. The king of Saxony retained his kingdom along with Leipzig and Dresden, but on the condition that he would part with two-fifths of his kingdom to the allies. Prussia received territories on both the banks of the River Rhine, and also Pomerania from Sweden. Austria retained her Polish possessions. She acquired northern Italy (Lombardy and Venetia) as compensation for her loss of the Netherlands to Holland. She also got the Illyrian province along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Again, she was to look after the union of German states—the German Diet. Thus Austria’s population and influence grew in central Europe. By any standard it was no mean achievement on the part of Prince Metternich. Britain, which was mainly responsible for the downfall of Napoleon, retained what she had conquered from France and her dependency, Holland. She got Malta, Ionian Islands, Cape Colony, Ceylon and a part of West Indies. With this her empire expanded overseas. She also got Heligoland (in the North Sea). In fact, she became the mistress of the Mediterranean Sea. Holland, which had lost Ceylon, was compensated with the acquisition of Belgium, a country which had supported Napoleon. Prince Metternich envisaged Italy to remain as a mere ‘geographic expression’. Her states were parcelled out among powers with the exception of the kingdom of Piedmont and the Papal States. The northern states, Lombardy

and Venetia, were handed over to Austria, and the Duchies of Tuscany and Modena to the princes of Austrian imperial family. The Duchy of Parma was given to Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon. The Papal States came under the control of the Pope. The southern states, Naples and Sicily, were assigned to the Spanish Bourbon monarchy. The other changes included the annexation of Norway (which belonged to Denmark) to Sweden. It was a prize offered to Prince Bernardotte (the rebel commander of Napoleon) for his co-operation in switching over his loyalty from his master to the allied cause. Switzerland increased in size due to the addition of three more cantons, taken out from the territory of France. The borders of Spain and Portugal remained the same. Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine was disbanded but the Holy Roman Empire was not revived. Instead, the peacemakers created a loose confederation of thirty-eight states. They called it the German confederation and set up a Diet. The thirty-eight German rulers sent their personal representatives to the German Diet which was presided over by the Austrian representative. There, they discussed their common problems. Thus, Austria was left in charge of looking after all the German states. As a result she became very powerful in central Europe.

A Critical Appraisal The reconstruction of the map of Europe based on the principles of legitimacy and compensation was set at nought by force of circumstances before the end of the nineteenth century. The territorial settlements made by the Congress of Vienna could not remain permanent. Firstly, the peacemakers committed the same blunder as Napoleon by creating those very forces which brought about his downfall. Those forces were nationalism and democracy. Since the revolution of 1789 in France, the people of Europe looked forward to the days of constitutional monarchy. So long as a constitution, a parliament and voting rights were denied to them, they were to take up the cudgels against tyrannical rules.

Secondly, the peacemakers ignored the sentiments of the people living in Belgium, Norway, Italy and the German states. These unfortunate states became mere pawns in the hands of diplomats. How could a Catholic Belgium tolerate the rule of the Protestant Dutch king? Similarly, how could Lombards (Italians) subject themselves to the rule of Austria? How could Norway agree to its merger with Sweden? About the Poles, the less said, the better. Their country had been partitioned thrice during the eighteenth century. The Russian Czar was dreaming of ruling her as king. The statesmen who reshaped the map of Europe used lofty phrases and ideas to sway the sensibilities of the people of Europe such as “the reconstruction of the social order”, “the regeneration of the political system of Europe”, “a durable peace based upon a just division of power”. However, the liberals in Europe could see through the vicious minds of the so-called statesmen who were determined to enslave the peoples of Europe with their new philosophy. Therefore, the territorial settlement did not last for more than half a century. Cracks began to appear in the fabric of the Vienna settlement as early as 1821, with the Greek War of Independence. Similarly, the subjects in Italy and

Germany rose frequently in revolt to liberate their countries from the domination of Austria. Although, the victorious allies established the concert of Europe with the purpose of safeguarding the Vienna settlement, nevertheless, national movements broke out everywhere to destroy it. The statesmen who met at Vienna were taught a lesson not to trample upon the legitimate aspirations of the peoples of Europe. Lastly, the peacemakers at Vienna were no more than the “Congress of aristocrats”. An aristocrat among aristocrats was Metternich to whom democracy and nationalism appeared to be anathema. He considered it dangerous to grant freedom to the people. To him, revolutions were synonymous with evil that had to be wiped out mercilessly. He launched a crusade against all liberal tendencies with the help of other reactionary rulers of Europe. He oppressed the liberals who were demanding constitutions and parliaments. Ultimately, Metternich declared that democracy could only “change daylight into darkest night”, and the ideas of the French Revolution as “the volcano which must be extinguished”. This staunch reactionary was himself swept away by the torrents of the 1848 revolution. While the peacemakers were bent upon reinstating former reactionary rulers to their respective positions, and compensating themselves with some territories here and there, they did not lose sight of the most pressing problem—the maintenance of peace. They accomplished that object admirably well. They sustained peace for nearly half a century. With the exception of the Crimean War, Europe was not disturbed for the next sixty years. The Concert of Europe was the first major attempt made by European statesmen to establish an international organisation for maintenance of peace and security. The big four (Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain) established the Concert of Europe which offered protection to the rulers of Europe from the revolts and revolutions. It may be said that the Concert of Europe was the forerunner of the League of Nations which was established in the early part of the twentieth century. It was their earnest desire to maintain peace and not the means they adopted, which should sway our judgement of their actions.

Congress System Under Metternich Prince Metternich dominated the political scene of Europe for the next thirtyfive years (1815-1848). Called the ‘The Era of Metternich’, the system he founded also came to be known by his name. Prince Clemens Von Metternich came from a respectable noble family. He was born in 1773, and at a very young

age joined the diplomatic service. He gained valuable experience during this time which involved his transfer from one capital to another. He became a master in political intrigues; and after noting his brilliant qualities the Austrian Emperor appointed him the foreign minister in 1809. To many liberals of Europe, he became a symbol and champion of “autocracy, reaction and the police state”. To Metternich, the outbreak of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic era meant shaking the very foundation of monarchies of Europe— the Austrian Empire, being particularly vulnerable due to its multiracial and multinational composition—and unless this drift was stemmed in time, the whole of Europe would face endless anarchy. It was to safeguard the interests of not only his country and its ruling monarchy but also of others, that he worked hard towards restoring the status quo. In the art of diplomacy he had no equal. His vanity and intrigues perplexed many. He once declared, “My position has this peculiarity . . . that all eyes, all expectations, are directed to precisely that point where I happen to be”. With a very strong conviction that monarchies should be saved from the impending dangers of revolts and revolutions, he convened a European Congress of diplomats in Vienna. It was in the famous Congress of Vienna that he played a dynamic role of a mediator because claims by rulers conflicted with one another. It was he who persuaded the diplomats assembled at the Congress of Vienna to accept the principles of legitimacy and compensation, on the basis of which claims could be settled. Many disputes and conflicting claims came to be settled through his subtle give and take. Once the settlements were reached, he paid attention to the safeguarding of Europe from further political turmoils. Hence the evolution of the Congress System. Its origin began with the Holy and Quadruple Alliances. The former was not a military alliance but a league of sovereigns wedded to the principle of Christian ethic, that was, to treat the subjects with love and kindness. As Christian rulers, they had obligations to discharge for the welfare of their respective subjects. The father of the Holy Alliance was Czar Alexander I who had strong religious impulses. He was influenced to a certain extent by Jeremy Bentham, the famous English reformer, who introduced the idea of ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’. Until 1819, Czar Alexander was also much influenced by his Swiss tutor, Laharpe, a disciple of Rousseau. Although the Holy Alliance was taken up seriously by the Czar, it had nothing tangible to offer. Out of respect for the Czar, many diplomats signed, with few exceptions. British statesman, Castlereagh, contemptuously termed it a “piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense”. Metternich described it as “a loud sounding nothing”. Castlereagh did not approve of the Holy Alliance because accepting it would

mean a crusade against liberalism; or implied intervention in the domestic affairs of the countries. The Holy Alliance is sometimes confused with having brought into being the ‘Concert of Europe’. It was not so. It was in fact founded by the Quadruple Alliance signed on November 20, 1815, by Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain. The contracting parties agreed to hold congresses from time to time during the next twenty years to discuss problems of common interests and needs of European rulers. The members agreed to act jointly, if necessary, in defence of the settlements made at the Congress of Vienna. Although the idea of four sovereigns of Europe coming together to maintain peace (smacked of dictatorial tendencies) was originally that of British Foreign Minister, Lord Castlereagh, it was subsequently used as a tool of oppression by Prince Metternich. Castlereagh hoped that through this alliance he could maintain the balance of power in Europe, but unfortunately, it was misused by the shrewd Austrian Chancellor. Subsequently, Britain was to disclaim her part in it and leave it for ever.

Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) In 1818, France had discharged her obligations by paying the indemnity imposed on her fully, and therefore sought a new status. Accordingly, the Congress met at Aix-la-Chapelle and decided to withdraw the army from France. The powers agreed to extend invitation to France to join them in their endeavour to maintain peace in Europe. Accordingly, France joined the Concert of Europe. The other agreements concerned with the Swedish debt to Denmark, on the treatment to be meted out to Napoleon Bonaparte in St. Helena, the British claim to a salute on the British Channel. The Congress powers could not agree on other items on the agenda such as the joint expedition to be launched against the Barbary pirates. Russia and Prussia insisted on other powers of the Quadruple Alliance to extend a guarantee for protection of the Quadruple Alliance to extend a guarantee for protection of not only the borders established by the Congress of Vienna but also of the existing governments. In other words, the members of the Quadruple Alliance would have to intervene if any of those governments were toppled. There was considerable disagreement on this issue because Castlereagh argued that it would be immoral to extend support to existing governments if they abused their powers. Prussia even went to the extent of demanding the maintenance of an international force at Brussels for the purpose of offering protection to the existing governments against internal revolts and revolutions. Castlereagh, coming under the influence of Canning, made it clear that Carlsbad decree was calculated to interfere in the internal affairs of German states by

Austria and therefore, he would have nothing to do with it. In the case of former Spanish American colonies, Castlereagh did not like the power’s proposal to bring about their reunion with Spain for commercial reasons. Britain had established close trade links with South American colonies and was not prepared to see their union with the former master unless the power of the Alliance gave clear guarantee of safeguarding her interests. The British Government led by Canning was equally eager not to commit itself or embroil itself in the affairs of the continent unnecessarily. The era of “splendid isolationism” was being ushered in. The Congress broke up to meet again when circumstances warranted.

Political Unrest in Europe Although the peacemakers eagerly looked forward to a period of tranquillity, their hopes were belied. In 1820, they were rudely disturbed by revolts in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany and even in Britain. In Spain, the people revolted against the tyranny of the Bourbon ruler. They succeeded in forcing their ruler to grant the same constitution which had been withdrawn in 1812. Portugal witnessed another revolution. The Spanish colonies in South America also, after a comparative peace, revolted at the attempts of the Spanish king to foist his rule again. The Spanish Bourbon ruler, who was ruling Naples and Sicily in Italy, found himself unable to contain the revolution in his territory. Other parts of Italy were also affected due to the outbreak of revolutions. These revolutions alarmed Metternich and the Czar, the former, especially with revolutions in Italy which seemed to threaten Austrian domination, and the latter with ‘Jacobinism’ in Spain. Therefore, the second congress of the powers was held at Troppau in 1820.

Congress of Troppau (1820) and Laibach (1821) All the representatives of Quadruple Alliance (now Quintuple) condemned the revolutions with one voice. However, they did not arrive at a common decision regarding the steps to be taken to contain them. Russia offered her services by sending troops to Spain to suppress the Spanish ‘Jacobinism’ and restore full authority to the king. But Metternich was suspicious of the intentions of Russia, despite his hatred towards revolutions. He thought that Russia, if allowed to send her troops, would take advantage of this opportunity to aggrandise herself. Similarly, France was afraid of Russian demonstration of power in a neighbouring country, Spain. The Congress of Troppau was convened to deal

with the Italian revolution in Naples. But France and Russia did not like Austria to interfere in Naples alone. The Congress powers discussed the general principles that should guide their action if revolutions broke out in member countries or country and also the duties of other members. All these principles were embodied in the Troppau Protocol which was signed by the three Eastern powers (Prussia, Austria and Russia). They openly justified the interventionist policy of the Congress. Castlereagh tried to reduce the scope of intervention by laying down certain stipulations. The outcome of the Laibach Congress was that Austria was allowed to take deterrent action against the people of Naples by sending her troops. The revolt was put down mercilessly and the king was restored to his full authority after the withdrawal of the constitution. In the meantime, Czar Alexander I, a liberal, was converted into an arch reactionary, due to the influence of Metternich. The ‘Liberal phase’ of his career ended when he upheld Metternich’s policy of intervention. When the Austrian troops marched towards Naples to put down the revolt, some liberals in Piedmont tried to attack from the rear. But the plan did not succeed and the liberal phase in Piedmont ended. King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia had to abdicate his throne in favour of Charles Felix. It may be said that in the Congress at Laibach, Metternich reached the acme of glory due to his diplomatic skill par excellence. With the exception of Britain, he had persuaded all the diplomats to agree to his point of view. He brazenly advocated a policy of intervention, even by the use of force, to stem the tide of revolutions and revolts. However, a serious crack appeared in the Congress system with Britain withdrawing herself from active support to the Quadruple (now Quintuple) Alliance. Britain drove the first nail into the coffin of the Congress system.

Congress of Verona (1822) The last Congress was held at Verona where the powers were confronted by two serious issues—the Greek War of Independence and the Spanish revolt. Before the Congress of Verona met, the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, who had overstrained himself with heavy work, committed suicide. Before his tragic death he had left “instructions”, and George Canning who succeeded him, was able to carry them out. Britain did not intend to send any representative to the Congress, but on the advice of the king, revised her stand. King George IV was interested in the Greek question, which was coming up before the Congress of Verona.

The Greeks revolted against their Turkish master in 1821, and the Turkish troops ruthlessly put it down. Russia, which always considered any Balkan issue as a part of her politics, immediately proposed that her troops should be sent to intervene. But the shrewd Metternich was not prepared to allow her since Russia was always a rival of Austria in the Balkans. Britain, represented by Wellington, also resented Russia’s proposal for the same reason. Riddled with so many enigmas, the Greek question was adroitly dropped from the agenda and the next issue, the Spanish Revolution was taken up. The crunch came when France, after receiving a distress signal from King Ferdinand IV, troubled by the revolt in his kingdom, proposed that her army be despatched to help the Spanish king. Her proposal was supported by Austria, Russia and Prussia. Under instructions from Canning, the Duke of Wellington insisted upon “a rigid abstinence from any interference in the internal affairs of Spain to suppress the revolt.” Upon the rejection of her point of view, Britain withdrew from the Concert of Europe, thereby driving the final nail into the coffin of the Congress system. Thus there remained only the ‘Three Gentlemen of Verona’ who tried to preserve peace to subserve their interests.

Failure of the Congress System It is not difficult to trace the causes which brought about the failure of the Concert of Europe. It may be said that the intention of the powers joining the Quadruple Alliance was to create a front against the old enemy, France. They were afraid that France might rise once again and threaten the peace of Europe by destroying the settlements they had brought about in the Congress of Vienna. Since there was no possibility of such things happening again, the alliance weakened with the absence of a strong motive. The principle of allied intervention in the domestic affairs of countries other than France was a deviation from its original pact. Although Britain gave its tacit consent to the protocol of the Congress of Troppau, she never meant that the Congress system should suppress the legitimate aspirations of peace-loving people. She agreed only for its limited application. However, Metternich adroitly used the Congress system to subserve the selfish interests of the members. Britain’s vehement stand in contrast to Metternich’s views in the Congress of Troppau, to some extent, brought about its decline. Lord Canning, who had none of the enthusiasm of Castlereagh for the Congress system undoubtedly brought about its extinction. The issue was clinched when Wellington stoutly opposed in the Congress of Verona (1822) a

Russian proposal to send her troops to the Balkans to settle the Greek question, as well as France offering her services to the Spanish king to suppress the revolt in his kingdom. On the latter issue, Britain’s stand remained firm. When her contention was rejected, Canning pulled Britain out of the Alliance. It is also true that mutual jealousies among the powers brought about the downfall of the Congress system. For example, while Russia was prepared to send troops to Spain to quell the revolt, Austria staved off the issue. Similarly, when Naples revolted, Austria was very much concerned. She wanted a free hand to suppress the revolt there. Again, when Russia was ready to send troops to the Balkans on the Greek question, Austria would have none of it. Finally, events in Europe cast a shadow on the success of the Congress system. The success of revolutions destroyed the very fabric the Congress of Vienna had woven. Among the points in favour of Congress, one can say that an early attempt was made to create an international organisation to maintain peace, despite its failure.

14 Nationalism: State Building in Germany and Italy

G

erman national unity was achieved in 1871 after a slow and tortuous process because of the obstacles placed before it by Prince Metternich. The need for achieving German unity was stressed by great German liberals and scholars. It was they who sowed the seeds of nationalism when Napoleon conquered and oppressed them. Surprisingly, the first step towards the unification of Germany was taken by Napoleon himself! He converted the erstwhile 300 or so German states into 38 states in 1806 and named it the Confederation of the Rhine. Representatives of the 38 rulers met at the Diet in Frankfurt to discuss common matters concerning them. After the overthrow of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna did not disturb the political setup in Germany and therefore the confederation continued to exist as before, but now under the leadership of Austria. Austria was made the president of the German Diet. It may be noted that the German Diet at Frankfurt came to have an international character since the rulers of Britain, Denmark and Netherlands sent their representatives to it by virtue of their possessions in Germany. Unfortunately, the German Diet did not represent the aspirations of the people since it consisted of the representatives of many rulers, who were jealous and suspicious of one another. The road towards achieving German unity was paved with great difficulties. The main obstacle was the attitude of Prince Metternich who considered it as an “infamous object”. The German ruling princes could hardly be expected to realise the ideal. They were selfish and jealous, and were not prepared to sacrifice their authority for common good. Again, the spirit of nationalism in Germany was not deep-rooted. During the early years, it was confined to a small section of the population, namely, philosophers, poets, writers, university professors and students. Even the liberals who desired the unification of

Germany were split into groups and they could not see eye to eye regarding the means to be adopted for achieving it. Agents of foreign rulers ruling over Holstein, Hanover and Luxembourg were not keen on seeing German unity. Finally, the Napoleonic wars had disturbed the Germans to such an extent that they could not think constructively regarding the future course of action in order to liberate their country. Looking at these conditions Karl Marx wrote, “Thus German unity was in itself a big question with disunion, discord and, in the case of certain eventualities, even civil war.” Since the liberals themselves were divided into groups and did not work in unison, it was left to the intellectuals—teachers and students—to spearhead the national movement. The origin of the national movement therefore could be traced to Burschenschaft (societies of students). The credit for founding its first branch goes to the students of the University of Jena. Subsequently, similar branches were opened in sisteen other German universities. These societies tried to achieve their goal by organising cultural activities in which the university teachers and students participated. One such festival was organised on a big scale to celebrate the anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig and the tercentenary of the Reformation. It was held at Wartburg (1817). This grand occasion was marked by speeches delivered by teachers and students and aimed at rousing national feelings. After condemning the reactionaries, the students concluded their activities by having a bonfire of emblems identified with dictatorship, militarism, and oppression. Metternich came to know of this outburst of national feelings by the intellectuals and considered it unbecoming. In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, he impressed upon his allies, particularly the Russian Czar, about the need to nip this movement in the bud. The Wartburg Festival was followed by some disturbances. On 23 March, 1819, Kotzebue, a German by birth but a Russian spy, was murdered by Karl Sand, a patriotic student, at Mannheim. To Metternich this incident gave an excuse to deal sternly with the patriotic elements which were spreading political unrest. With the consent of the Prussian king, he summoned delegates from eight important states to a meeting at Karlsbad in August 1819. It was there that he convinced them of the need for taking steps to stem the political unrest. The delegates passed necessary resolutions and they were submitted to the German Diet. This body passed laws by which the whole educational system in Germany came under police vigilance. The press was gagged. A commission was set up to watch all disturbances created by mischievous elements. In effect, Prince Metternich was becoming a dictator at the expense of the numerous German rulers. Metternich would have gone a little further, had it not been for some objections raised by a few minor states. Armed with necessary powers, Metternich suppressed all student

societies, gagged the press, appointed curators to watch classroom lectures in German universities, and persecuted German liberals. His dictatorial behaviour provoked German writers, philosophers, historians and poets. The liberal Duke of Saxe-Weimar protested but in vain. While the Karlsbad decrees brought about the iron rule of Austria and stamped out nationalism, Germany witnessed the birth of economic nationalism in the form of custom’s union called Zollverein. Prussia, one of the largest German states, was the founder of this organisation, which aimed at free flow of trade inside her territory. It may be remembered that Prussia was the most backward state both economically and commercially, and to a great extent this was caused by no less than sisty-seven different tariffs imposed on 3,800 items of goods coming from 228 different states. She could not export anything except some agricultural raw products. The first step taken towards easing the stagnant situation was the passing of Tariff Reform Law in 1818. The law allowed import of raw material without any tariff. It permitted a uniform ten per cent duty on all imported manufactured goods, and a 20 per cent duty on colonial goods. Again, all internal customs duties were abolished. Thus Prussia became an economic entity with most liberal economic policies. The first to join the customs union was Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. She signed a treaty by which she handed over her administration of customs to Prussia in return for free commercial intercourse and a proportional share in the customs revenue. In 1822, some more German states joined the customs union. As against Prussia’s customs union, there came another which was formed by the southern states. In the course of time, Prussia’s customs union became popular and states automatically joined it. Holland, Belgium and Britain signed treaties with Prussia’s customs union by which they extended certain facilities to its members. The customs union or Zollverein thus converted Germany into a commercial unit and brought about rapid economic and commercial transformation. With the accrued profits derived out of this venture, the members of this union constructed railways and opened new banks. The Zollverein brought about the unity of the Germans, although it was economic in character. Austria did not join the Zollverein.

July Revolution of 1830 The July Revolution of 1830 in France had its impact upon Germany. Although Prussia and Austria were little affected, there was much enthusiasm and political unrest in the rest of the German states. Their kings were confronted with the demands for granting constitutions. The southern states of Germany appealed to

Prussia and not to Austria or the Diet, to render protection from the danger lurking across the border. Unfortunately, the Prussian king, Frederick William III, did not take advantage of this opportunity for his kingdom’s aggrandisement or bringing about German unity for fear of reprisals from Metternich. Therefore, he did not grant a liberal constitution to his own subjects although he had promised them. From 1840, conditions began to change in both Austria and Prussia. For the first time, Metternich found himself in a difficult position because he could not get all his plans approved by the new emperor, Ferdinand. Similarly, in Prussia, the accession of Frederick William IV (1840-1861) to the throne inaugurated a limited era of liberalism with the granting of a constitution which provided for a parliament. Patriotic songs were heard everywhere, and particularly ‘The Watch on the Rhine’. But this spell of liberalism ended suddenly with the king reversing his original stand. He was not prepared to go a step further than what he had granted earlier. He stuck to his point of divine right theory of kingship and considered any encroachment on his powers as sacrilege. He dissolved the Parliament because it provoked him with more demands for political reforms. It was in these circumstances that news reached Germany about the fall of the Orleans Monarchy in 1848 which resulted in a chain of revolutions in most parts of central Europe. In Germany, the French Revolution of 1830 had caused great political tremors. In many states the people revolted against the rulers and got liberal constitutions. The liberals of southern states met and planned to summon representatives of the people for the Parliament to be held at Frankfurt. Taking advantage of the confused situation prevailing in Austria, the people of Germany elected their representatives to the Vorparliament. The Vorparliament met on 31 March at Frankfurt (1848). In Berlin, the capital of Prussia, there was a great uprising which was suppressed. However, the king agreed to grant a liberal constitution and a Parliament for the whole country. He withdrew his troops and appointed a liberal ministry to govern the kingdom to appease his rebellious subjects and issued a proclamation which included the famous clause, “henceforth Prussia is merged in Germany”. The Vorparliament at Frankfurt consisted of 146 members representing Prussia. It ordered elections for the new National Assembly. The new National Assembly which met at Frankfurt had highly talented members. It set to itself the task of framing a liberal constitution which would be acceptable to all the state governments. However, the issue of the Schleswig and Holstein states placed it in an awkward position. The Prussian king withdrew his support to those German states which were fighting against the incorporation of these two

duchies into the kingdom of Denmark. The National Assembly also dithered on the issue of who should be the leader of the new German nation, Prussia or Austria. The question of offering the leadership of the new German nation to Austria was beset with a number of difficulties since she was mainly composed of thirteen races. Therefore, the National Assembly offered the crown of new Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia in March, 1849. The delegation sent to offer the crown to the Prussian king came back terribly disappointed. The Prussian king exhibited his vanity and rejected it, for in his opinion, the crown should have been offered to him by the German princes and not by a revolutionary assembly. Thus the great efforts of the Frankfurt assembly ended in failure. The Republican Party in Prussia was ruthlessly suppressed by the Prussian troops in May, 1849. Many German liberals found the situation intolerable and left the country. In the meantime Austria recovered from the effects of revolution and re-established the old German Confederation. An examination of the 1848 revolution in Germany shows that Prussia was the only state which had granted a liberal constitution in 1850. In the course of time she was becoming a serious rival to Austria for the leadership of united Germany. It was unfortunate that the efforts of the Frankfurt assembly to restore German unity ended in failure. However, the Germans knew that their goal was not too far.

Bismarck and the Unification of Germany (1851-71) Although the efforts of the Frankfurt Parliament to unite Germany under the leadership of the Prussian king failed in 1848, it was nevertheless achieved by Bismarck, an outstanding diplomat and statesman of Prussia during the nineteenth century. In the course of twenty years (1851-71), he relentlessly pursued his most desired objective—the unification of Germany—with the combination of diplomacy and wars. No other statesman, save Napoleon, had used these two means to achieve the desired objective. His brilliant strokes of diplomacy coupled with the planning and execution of wars to fulfil his objective reminded one of Machiavelli’s strategy. Otto von Bismarck Schonhausen (1815-98) hailed from a wealthy Junker estate-owning family in Brandenburg. After his birth, his parents moved to their old estates where the boy developed country-tastes, love of hunting, riding and shooting. He spent three years of his academic life in Gottingen and Berlin where he became notorious for his quarrels, beer drinking, and such other riotous features. He went back to his home to manage his estate. After eight years of

rural life, he returned to take active part in the local politics. Subsequently, he became a staunch conservative and devout royalist. He was convinced that Prussia’s future greatness depended upon a strong monarchy and not on democracy. He married in 1847, which changed him completely. He began to think seriously about the problems confronting the German states. He joined the civil service but was bored. He left it and entered the Prussian Diet which, until 1851, witnessed “Constitutional crisis, revolution, the rejection of the imperial crown. . . “Bismarck made his mark in the Prussian Diet with his speeches in which he condemned the liberals for their numerous demands.

To many he became an anti-democrat and a ‘royalist hotspur.’ He was not happy when the Prussian king granted a constitution for his subjects. His

outright condemnation of the Prussian liberals attracted the attention of the Prussian king, Frederick William IV. The king felt proud of him for his loyalty to the crown but found him ill-fitted to serve in the Prussian Diet. Therefore, the Prussian king appointed him minister of the crown in Berlin and subsequently sent him to Frankfurt as the representative of the Prussian government. During the next eleven years Bismarck served as a diplomat. He learned many things which served him well later in his capacity as chancellor. His diplomatic career took him to Frankfurt, St. Petersburg, Paris, Vienna and London. He came in contact with a large number of diplomats at these places. He realised that Austria was hell-bent on preventing the unity of German states under Prussia’s leadership. He also knew that Austria should be eliminated in order to bring about the unification of Germany. Bismarck’s hatred towards Austria began as early as 1853, when he informed his government that “there was no room in Germany for both Prussia and Austria, that one or the other must bend.” At Frankfurt, Bismarck tried to show off that Prussia was in no way inferior to Austria by playing pranks with the Austrian delegate. It was here that Bismarck foiled Austria’s attempt to destroy the Zollverein. This highly controversial figure was appointed Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862 to the surprise of many diplomats of Europe. Frederick William IV died in 1861 and was succeeded by his brother, William I (1862-1888), who had a successful career in the army. His army career had made him practical and he was known for his orderly and disciplined habits. He believed that Prussia’s future greatness depended upon her military strength. His idea was shared by von Roon and Moltke, the Prussian war minister and general respectively. King William I decided to increase the strength of the Prussian army and impart training along modern lines. However, his enthusiasm was not shared by a majority of liberal members in the Prussian Parliament. They believed that a lot of money would be required to add thirty-nine new regiments to the infantry and ten to cavalry as demanded by the king. Therefore, the Prussian king’s appeal to approve the new military bills went unheeded. However, the king went ahead with his military plans and clashed with the majority of the Prussian members of Parliament. The Parliament was adamant and the king made up his mind to abdicate his throne. It was at this critical juncture, Roon and Moltke, advised the king to call Bismarck. Bismarck was in Paris when he received the message from the Prussian king to return to the capital immediately. On his return, he was appointed Chancellor of Prussia. Bismarck’s appointment enraged the liberals in the Prussian Parliament. Bismarck appeared before the members of the Parliament and delivered his ‘blood and iron’ speech. He said that all

German states looked to Prussia with great respect not because of her democratic set-up but for her strength. “The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority resolutions. . . but by blood and iron.” Bismarck’s appeal went in vain. However, he was not disappointed. He ordered the arrest of all opposition leaders. He advised the king to carry out his plan through ordinances. Taxes were collected forcibly and new regiments were added to the Prussian army. The Parliament became ineffective since many leaders were imprisoned.

Foreign Policy The first task carried out by Bismarck was to establish friendship with Russia. It was a time when Russia and France were coming closer. But Bismarck created a wedge between them and made the Russians support Prussia. This he achieved by his open support to Russia when the Poles revolted against the former in 1863. Bismarck was afraid that if the Polish revolt became successful, the Poles in Prussia would also revolt. Since Russia and Prussia became friendly and the former suppressed the Polish revolt easily, France lost its credibility over this issue in Europe. She could not render effective help to the Poles in their revolt against Russia. Bismarck came to an understanding with Russia, that if a war broke out between Prussia and Austria in the near future, he could count upon Russia’s neutrality.

War with Denmark (1864) Bismarck calculated that, for bringing about German unification, the defeat of Denmark constituted the first phase. Questions hovered over the two duchies of the German Confederation, namely, Schleswig and Holstein, which were ruled by the king of Denmark, who ruled these two duchies not in his capacity as king of Denmark, but as the duke of these two German states. There was a great demand in Denmark for the merger of these two German states into the Kingdom of Denmark. The king yielded to the pressure and accordingly merged these two states into his kingdom. By doing so, he violated an earlier settlement reached at London. This act provoked Bismarck and he planned to bring about the military defeat of Denmark and restore the status of the two German states to their original position. The Danish king imposed a new constitution upon these two duchies in violation of the London protocol. The Holsteiners protested at the separation of

Schleswig and Bismarck proposed to Austria that their countries should send combined troops to defeat the Danish king and restore the status quo ante. He had a motive in dragging Austria into a war. He wanted to quarrel with Austria over the spoils soon after the defeat of the king of Denmark. In the meantime, Bismarck made vague promises to the French king to ensure his neutrality in the event of war with Denmark. Accordingly, both Austria and Prussia together sent troops to attack the Danish kingdom and forced the king to surrender. Denmark surrendered the two duchies and they were jointly administered by Prussia and Austria. Within a year, serious differences arose between the two. Austria recognised the claims of Prince Augustenburg. However, Bismarck agreed to recognise the claims of Augustenburg only on certain conditions. If those conditions had been accepted, the duchies would have come under the complete control of the Prussian government. Therefore the claims of Augustenburg created a rift between Prussia and Austria and it looked as though war would break out between the two. However, war was averted, and the convention of Gastein was concluded on 14 August, 1865, by which Austria was to temporarily look after Holstein and Prussia, Schleswig and Lauenburg with certain rights. The convention mainly intended “to paper over the cracks”. It gave Bismarck enough time to prepare his country diplomatically and militarily to wage another war in order to end Austria’s hegemony over German states. By brilliant strokes of diplomacy, Bismarck befriended Napoleon III at Biarritz with a promise of compensation if France remained neutral in case of war breaking out between Prussia and Austria. Emperor Napoleon III of France imagined that the war would be prolonged and both these countries would seek his mediation to settle the dispute. In this process he hoped to secure territorial compensation. Bismarck relied upon Russia’s friendship and hoped that she would remain neutral if there was a war. He believed that Britain would not be interested in any European war so long as it did not adversely affect her interests. Bismarck proposed to King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy that he should help him by attacking Austria in the south. In the event of Prussian victory, he would compensate Italy’s efforts by securing Venice for her.

Seven Weeks’ War with Austria (1866) It was now left to him to start border skirmishes to provoke Austria to declare war on Prussia. It should appear as though Prussia was defending herself from the brutal attack of Austria. With this plan in mind, Bismarck picked up a quarrel with Austria by proposing a scheme of reform for the German Confederation in

which Austria would not have any place. His proposal submitted to the Diet was objected to by Austria. Austria proposed to the Diet that all German states should join her in attacking Prussia and teach her a lesson. Many German states joined Austria and war was declared on Prussia. In the meantime, Bismarck convinced his ruler that Prussia was fighting purely to defend herself from the attacks of the German states led by Austria. The Prussian troops led by Moltke marched towards the Austrian borders and engaged the enemies at several places. The Prussian infantry and cavalry moved swiftly towards the targets and fought bravely. The Prussian troops fought with the breach-loading needle gun which wrought havoc upon the Austrian troops. During the first week itself, Austria witnessed the occupation of northwestern part of Germany by the Prussian troops. In the third week the most decisive battle was fought at Sadowa (also called Battle of Königgrätz). It was here that the Prussian troops inflicted a crushing defeat upon Austria. The Austrian surrender became imminent, despite the fact that the Italians were beaten badly by the Austrians elsewhere. The Prussian military training, the military manoeuvres of generals, and the effective use of breach-loading needle gun may be counted upon as the factors for the success of the Prussians in the Austro-Prussian war (1866). The whole of Europe was surprised at the defeat of the mighty Austrian empire at the hands of Prussia. For Napoleon, it came as a rude shock because he had underestimated the might of Prussia. It was a mark of Bismarck’s statesmanship that he restrained the Prussian king from ordering his troops to capture the Austrian capital, Vienna. He prevailed upon the king to offer Austria the most generous terms. Bismarck did not want to alienate the sympathies of Austria by inflicting harsh terms. He was already scheming for another war with France and therefore needed Austria’s neutrality.

Outcome of the War The Treaty of Prague was signed between Prussia and Austria. As per the terms of the treaty, Austria admitted that she was guilty of causing war. Firstly, she agreed to withdraw from the supervision of the German states and pay a war indemnity of $3,000,000 to Prussia. Secondly, Austria agreed to annex Schleswig and Holstein into the Prussian kingdom. Thirdly, she permitted the formation of the North German Confederation (consisting of German states lying north of the River Maine) to come under the leadership of Prussia. Fourthly, she ceded Venice to Sardinia. As a result of this treaty, Austria did not lose much of

her territory. Prussia enlarged her own kingdom with the annexation of the kingdom of Hanover, the duchies of Nassau and Hesse Cassel and the free city of Frankfurt. With these additions, Prussia’s population increased by four and a half million subjects. The Old German Confederation was abolished, and in its place, Bismarck established the North German Confederation under the leadership of the king of Prussia. The North German Confederation was mainly composed of all German states lying north of the River Maine. There were a few southern German states like Bavaria, Baden, Wurtenberg which did not join the North German Confederation out of respect for their subjects’ local sentiments. Therefore, Bismarck did not force them to join his organisation. He knew that there would come a time when these states would want to merge themselves with the North German Confederation. However, these southern states signed military agreements with Prussia for their protection in case of a war breaking out with neighbouring powers. The Prussian king who became the President of the North German Confederation appointed Bismarck as the Chancellor in 1871. Bismarck’s spectacular diplomatic and military victories silenced the protests of his opponents at home forever. Bismarck achieved his first goal by eliminating Austria from the leadership of the German states. But his work still remained incomplete. Some of the southern German states were yet to make up their minds to join the North German Confederation. To accomplish this task he decided to wage war against France.

Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) When Austria was beaten at Sadowa in 1866, a French Marshal named Randon exclaimed, “It is France that is beaten at Sadowa.” His statement needs elaboration. It must be remembered that Napoleon had his own plan for expansion at the cost of the two belligerents, Prussia and Austria. When the Austro-Prussian war broke out, he thought that it would be a long war. He expected that both would be exhausted in the end and would to request him to mediate in their dispute. At that time he thought he would ask Bismarck to fulfil his promise of future compensation. However, all his plans came to nothing when he heard that Prussia had easily beaten Austria within seven weeks. His expected role did not materialise. Prussia had suddenly become a big power. It was this fact which made the French emperor jealous and suspicious. Bismarck did not write to him or offer to give compensation. Therefore, he felt very much humiliated. Bismarck outwitting Napoleon III deeply hurt the feeling of French

citizens who now cried for revenge. The relations between Prussia and France touched its lowest ebb, and even more so due to jealousy and suspicion on the part of the French politicians. Bismarck did nothing to improve the relations because he desired that the state of things should be in flux. He did not offer the promised compensation to the French Emperor after the Austro-Prussian war. However, he received letters from the French emperor demanding compensation. He kept those letters with him to use them at an opportune moment. The war with France was essential in that, it would create necessary conditions for the southern German states to join the North German Confederation and thus bring about the total unification of Germany. He was waiting for an opportunity to create these conditions whereby France would be compelled to declare war upon Prussia. The quarrel between France and Prussia arose over the issue of Spanish succession. The Spanish throne fell vacant and it was offered to a relative of the king of Prussia at the instance of Bismarck. After rejecting the Crown twice, Prince Leopold accepted it finally. His action provoked France since she did not like to see Prussia becoming dangerously strong on both sides of her borders. Therefore, a strongly worded note was sent to the Prussian king stating that the acceptance of the Spanish crown by his relative would in all probability cause war. The Prussian king urged his relative not to accept the Spanish crown. Accordingly, Prince Leopold declined the offer. The French were overjoyed at their diplomatic victory. Bismarck, who was working behind the scene, was disappointed at the turn of events. However, his luck did not desert him, as proved by future events. The Duc de Gramont, the French foreign minister, was not satisfied. What would happen if another relative of the Prussian king accepted the Spanish crown? Therefore, he sent a wire to his ambassador Benedetti at Ems to see the Prussian king immediately and get a proper assurance. Accordingly, Benedetti met the Prussian king there to seek reassurance, but the king politely declined to meet the French ambassador on this issue. The topic of their discussion was sent to Bismarck in the famous ‘Ems Telegram’. Bismarck received it when he was dining with Roon and Moltke. He found an opportunity to twist the meaning of the telegram to suit his objective to bring about a war between Prussia and France. He informed the press that the Prussian king, on hearing about the demand of the French ambassador, had decided not to receive him to discuss the issue. In other words, the Prussian king, by not seeing the ambassador on the issue of Spanish crown, had insulted France. Thus Bismarck succeeded in provoking France to declare war on Prussia.

Fall of the Second French Empire After two days of heated discussion in the French ministry, the French emperor declared war. The remarkable striking power of the Prussian army led by Roon and Moltke and the excellent Bismarckian diplomacy astonished Europe. Almost all the major powers in Europe, including Austria, remained neutral when the war broke out, thus leaving Bismarck to carry on his war with France without any interference. Bismarck humoured the Russian Czar by giving him a hint that he could violate the irritant clauses of the Black Sea Treaty signed in Paris. He revealed the evil designs of the French emperor to the neighbouring small states by publishing the Napoleonic letters addressed to him. Thus he achieved his objective of isolating France from the rest of Europe on the eve of the FrancoPrussian war. When the war broke out, the southern German states joined the North German Confederation, thus bringing about the total unification of Germany. With clockwork precision, the German troops crossed the French borders and engaged the disorganised French army at several places. The Prussian army consisting of 4,50,000 soldiers split into three groups and engaged the French at several places and inflicted crushing blows. The French lost Alsace to the invading Prussian forces. The French commanders committed blunders, one after another which resulted in routs. They were forced to retreat to Metz. They also withdrew their troops to the Lorraine fortress. The French General, MacMahon was sent along with the emperor for the relief of Metz. His attempt to offer relief to Metz was foiled by General Moltke. MacMahon was driven to the northern border. Unfortunately his forces were surrounded on all sides by the German troops at Sedan on 1 September, 1870. The French emperor who had followed him was also forced to surrender to the German troops. With his surrender, the second French empire fell. The German troops moved on to capture the French capital, Paris, where spirited resistance was offered to the invading German troops for nearly four months. However, their efforts were in vain. In the meantime, the German troops captured Metz in October, 1870. The capitulation of Metz was followed by the capitulation of the French capital, Paris, despite the heroic resistance offered by brave French citizens like Gambetta.

Treaty of Frankfurt The leader of the provisional government of France, Thiers, negotiated the peace terms. The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed on 10 May, 1871. According to the

terms of the treaty, France had to cede Alsace and a part of Lorraine including Metz and Strasburg. Furthermore, she agreed to pay a war indemnity of $200,000,000 over a period of three years. The German troops would stay on at French expense till the amount was paid fully.

Results of Franco-Prussian War The direct outcome of the war was the unification of Germany. “Germany became the mistress of Europe and Bismarck master of Germany.” In the wake of the unification of Germany, the unification of Italy was also achieved at the same time. The French garrison guarding Rome was withdrawn by the French emperor when the Franco-Prussian war broke out. On hearing of the fall of the Second French empire, the Italian army entered papal territory and occupied Rome (11 September, 1870). Subsequently, a plebiscite was held which showed that the people desired merger with the rest of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel II entered the capital in July 1872. The final act of the Franco-Prussian episode ended with Bismarck crowning the Prussian king, William, as Emperor of Germany, in the famous Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles on 18 January, 1871. The birth of the German empire heralded a new era in the history of modern Europe.

Unification of Italy Prince Metternich referred to Italy in a most contemptible phrase, “mere geographic expression”. Ever since the fall of the Roman empire, her territory was subjected to a series of invasions by barbarians. The Ostrogoths, the Lombards, and the Papacy destroyed her sense of unity. Italy witnessed the worst treatment at the hands of King Charles VIII. Her native princes being too busy with their quarrels, neglected the protection of the national borders. It was this fact which made Machiavelli record his observations in his famous book, The Prince. Italy “became cockpit of Europe, where foreign powers contended for mastery”. With the invasion of Italy by Napoleon, her subjects, for the first time witnessed a semblance of national unity and enlightened government. Her hopes of achieving unification seemed possible in the not too distant future. When Napoleon imposed heavy taxes and snatched away most of her art treasures, the Italians were provoked. His fall and the subsequent division of the state of Italy attracted the attention of great powers at the Congress of Vienna.

Austria gained Lombardy and Venetia, situated in northern Italy. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were handed over to the Habsburg princes. The Pope controlled all the states of central Italy, namely, Romagna and the Marches. The Spanish Bourbon monarchy gained the two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). The Italian ruler of Piedmont was restored to his original position. He gained control over Sardinia, Nice and Savoy. The latter two were mainly inhabited by the French. From the above, Metternich’s description of Italy seemed appropriate. Besides her truncated position, her subjects were also found to be lacking in political consciousness. They did not have the will to forge unity. Italy did not produce great leaders worth mentioning till the middle of the nineteenth century. The country was extremely backward in all respects. The Austrian rule over northern Italy was characterised by eternal vigilance and ruthless suppression of the subjects. So the Austrian government became very unpopular. The people did not enjoy basic freedoms and the press was gagged. All liberal opinions were totally put down. Tyranny of the worst type was witnessed in the north. The only department which functioned most efficiently was of the police. In the central Italian states, the rule of the Pope became unpopular. He maintained medieval institutions which did not serve the people well. The Papal administration was found to be most inefficient. Brigandage and social anarchy prevailed. In the Austrian-held provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, the administration was totally centralised. A large number of spies kept watch over the people. An old woman there complained that her daughter was afraid to sneeze because Metternich would come to know of it!

Italian National Movement The earliest movement directed towards achieving freedom from foreign rule was confined to a small section, the Carbonaris (meaning charcoal-burners). They organised secret societies in important towns and encouraged people to revolt against the tyranny of foreign rulers. Encouraged by the success of the revolution in Spain, the Carbonaris staged a revolt against King Ferdinand of Naples. The revolt succeeded and the king was forced to grant a liberal constitution. After taking his oath of loyalty to the new constitution, the king went to attend the Laibach Congress. He went there seemingly to secure the approval of the European statesman for his action. But on reaching there, he begged Prince Metternich to restore him to his full authority over his kingdom.

Metternich was able to assist him by punishing the rebellious subjects. So the Carbonari revolt at Naples in 1820, met with temporary success. This revolt was followed by two others. The kingdoms of Piedmont and Lombardy also witnessed revolts staged by their subjects in 1821. The Carbonaris were also behind this movement. In the former kingdom, its ruler Victor Emmanuel I abdicated his throne since he did not wish to alienate his subjects on the one hand and wage war with Austria on the other. During the time of the regency of Charles Albert, the kingdom of Sardinia received a liberal constitution. However it was withdrawn during the time of his successor. A civil war broke out on this issue and Austria helped in suppressing the people’s revolt. The liberals were defeated in the Battle of Novara (1821). Thus Austria proved to be the arch enemy of political reforms in Italy.

Impact of 1830 Revolution In 1830, a revolution broke out in France which affected Belgium and also Italian states. Under the influence of Carbonaris, the peoples of Modena, Parma and the Papal states rose in rebellion. Their purpose was to secure liberal constitutions and other political reforms. The Pope appealed to the Austrian chancellor for help and the Austrian Whitecoats arrived in the Papal states and ruthlessly suppressed the revolts. The expectations of the rebels of French assistance was belied since Metternich prevented the French king from going to the help of the rebels. So, early attempts of the Italian patriots to overthrow Austrian regime proved disastrous. However, their failures were not without lessons for others. The Italians realised that they had a long way to go to achieve freedom. It became clear that Austria was the principal enemy and only her defeat would ensure the unification of Italy. The Carbonaris also did not have the backing of the masses, hence, they failed. Mazzini (1805-72) Guiseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa, a town which had joined Piedmont. He was the son of a physician. Even during his childhood days he began to brood over the ills affecting his country, and to his sensitive mind nothing seemed more repugnant than the foreign rule in his country. In his writings he often expressed his unhappiness over this situation. It is said that he wore a black dress to express his sorrow for the bondage of his country. He became an ascetic and plunged into the freedom struggle. He joined the Carbonaris and participated in their secret activities. In 1830, he was arrested and sent to the Savona prison for

six months. Subsequently, he was exiled for his conspiracy to establish the society of Young Italy. It was during his prison days that Mazzini planned to involve the youth of Italy into the mainstream of patriotic struggle for achieving national unity. He declared “place youth at the head of the insurgent multitude, you know not the secret of the power hidden in those youthful hearts”. Mazzini established a number of branches of Young Italy all over the country. Through speeches and writings he inspired the youth. He asked them to climb mountains and meet shepherds to convince them of the need for unity of the country. He further appealed to them to visit factories and explain to the workers the evils of the foreign rule. He wanted to make them aware of their rights which were denied to them by foreign governments. He made a fervent appeal to the king of Sardinia, Charles Albert, to take over the leadership and said, All Italy waits for one word, one only, to make herself yours … place yourself at the head of the nation and write on your banners ‘Union, liberty, independence’, proclaim the liberty of thought, liberate Italy from the barbarians, on this condition we bind ourselves round you, we proffer you our lives, we will lead to your banner the little states of Italy, we will preach the world that creates armies. Unite us sire, and we shall conquer. As he did not get any response to his fervent appeal, Mazzini continued to strengthen the society of Young Italy as vanguard for the national movement. The Young Italy worked as a secret organisation and its members took an oath of loyalty to serve the nation. “God, the people and Italy” were to be the watchwords of this great organisation. The youth were motivated to struggle for the liberation of the country. Through the means of secret propaganda, Mazzini awakened the masses from its lethargy and directed it to struggle for unity and independence.

Uprisings in Italy (1846-48) In 1846, Pius IX occupied the Papal chair, and thousands of Italians looked forward eagerly for his support to the national movement. The Pope also encouraged the people by announcing several reforms in his dominion which included amnesty, free press, elections, constructions of railways and so on. Prince Metternich himself confessed: “We were prepared for everything …

except for liberal Pope; now we have got one, there is no answering for anything”. Gioberti, an Italian patriot, even prophesied that it would be the Pope who would liberate the country and not Sardinia. However, the Pope’s enthusiasm for liberal reforms began to wane after a few concessions, and the hopes of millions of Italians were belied. On the eve of the 1848 revolutions, there was no doubt that nationalism in Italy had become widespread. The year 1848 brought about many upheavals in the Italian states following the outbreaks of revolutions in France and other countries. The Sicilians were the first to stage a revolt against oppression. The ruler fled to Naples where he granted a liberal constitution. The Pope too had to yield to the popular clamour and granted a liberal constitution. King Charles Albert of Sardinia respected people’s sentiments and granted them a liberal constitution. Similarly, Tuscany received a new constitution. The fall of Metternich, following a revolution in Austria (1848), had its immediate impact on Austrian-held provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. The Austrian government there collapsed in March, 1848 and fierce fighting broke out in Milan and the Austrian Commander-inChief Marshal Radetzky, was forced to retreat to the “Quadrilateral”. Venice followed the example of Milan by expelling the Austrian army and proclaiming herself a Republic. The rulers of Parma and Modena fled. There was a popular demand in all states of Italy for the end of Austrian rule. It was upon King Charles Albert of Sardinia that all eyes now fell on, to accomplish this great mission. He wore the mantle of leadership to fulfil his “historic mission”. The people of Milan beckoned him to intervene in their war with Austria and punish her for committing the sacrilege of occupying Ferrara which belonged to the Pope. Count Cavour, who was then the editor of a paper, Risorgimento, urged him that, “The hour of fate has struck for the Sardinian Monarchy. One road only is open, that of immediate war.” Popular enthusiasm forced the Pope, the Duke of Tuscany, and even Ferdinand of Naples to join Charles in his struggle against Austria. The Italian forces won a victory over the Austrian troops led by Radetzky. Unfortunately, the Italian forces failed to take advantage of this victory and pursue the enemies. As a result, the Austrian troops got themselves reorganised and captured a few towns in Venetia. To the disappointment of all Italians, the Pope made the announcement of his decision to withdraw support to the nationalist cause. Similarly, the king of Naples withdrew the armed forces from the battlefield as well as the constitution granted to the people. With these defections, Sardinia was left alone in the battlefield to engage the enemy. Had Charles Albert displayed his irrevocable resolution and pursued the enemy, he could have saved the situation from getting worse. Unfortunately,

he could not do so. Despite the Pope’s injunction, the states of central and northern Italy (Venetia, Lombardy, Parma, Piacenza and Modena) decided through plebiscites for union of their kingdoms with Sardinia. Charles Albert was defeated by Austrian troops at Custozza in July, 1848 and was forced to surrender. He concluded the Salasco armistice by which northern Italy was restored to Austria. His failure to set up a monarchy in northern Italy disappointed many, and revolutionaries in Rome proclaimed a republic under Mazzini’s leadership. The Pope was forced to go into exile. Charles Albert felt humiliated and made another attempt to defeat the enemy. He failed because his troops were defeated in the battle of Novara. Unable to bear further humiliation, he abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. France supported the cause of the restoration of the Pope despite Garibaldi’s attempt to protect the Roman Republic. Subsequently, the Austrian forces recovered from her indisposition and riveted its yoke on the Italian states.

Cavour (1810-61) No one could grasp the political situation prevailing in Italy in 1848, better than Count Cavour. Born in Turin in 1810, he belonged to an aristocratic family. After completing his university education, he joined the army as an engineer. He was bored with the routine military training and saw no future in it. He got into trouble for openly supporting the French Revolution of 1830. His superiors watched his activities with concern. Cavour resigned his army commission in 1831 and devoted his time to the improvements of his landed estate. He gained knowledge of agriculture which was to become handy when he became a minister. He took interest in the political affairs of his state and became a good student of the study of the British parliamentary government and process. He toured Europe and Britain, and watched the proceedings of the House of Commons from the strangers’ gallery. He acquainted himself with the economic problems facing Britain. In 1847, he founded a journal, Il Resorgimento (meaning rebirth), in Piedmont, to awaken the Italians and direct them to carry on the struggle for achieving unity, independence and constitutional reforms. In 1848, almost all the rulers of Italy granted constitutions. In Piedmont, the ruler granted a liberal constitution, and elections to the Assembly were held. Count Cavour got elected and made his mark as a farsighted politician and statesman. His speeches in the assembly impressed the king and he was taken into the Cabinet. After a short interval, the king was pleased to appoint him as prime minister of Piedmont

(1851-59, 1860-62). Count Cavour had already pondered over the problem facing the country, and he was convinced that the kingdom of Piedmont alone would not be in a position to liberate the country. Austria was too strong an enemy to contend with. Mazzini’s plan and Garibaldi’s adventures would come to nothing unless properly supplemented with diplomacy. Therefore, the wisdom lay in securing the help of a powerful country such as Britain or France. Since the fate of his country had already been settled by the Congress of Vienna, they would not want to reopen the issue unless it was imperative. Therefore, Cavour waited for a golden opportunity, which came in the form of the Crimean war. Before he could take advantage of it, he left no stone unturned to make his states, Piedmont and Sardinia, models, worthy of being emulated by others. He introduced several reforms which transformed the backward kingdom into a modern State. Cavour tried to draw the loyalty of the people of Italy to the House of Savoy by introducing several major reforms for the prosperity of the kingdom of Sardinia. He encouraged trade and commerce, built railways, introduced a modern postal system and banking, patronised shipping, organised a new taxation system, curbed the power of the church and reorganised the army on modern lines. He introduced the Atlantic Mail service. He spread news about the prosperous conditions prevailing in his kingdom. He sought sympathy through propaganda literature for the cause of Italian freedom from foreign rule. The king was persuaded to adopt stern measures against the Catholic Church by passing necessary measures, namely, the Siccardia and Ratazzi laws.

Cavour’s Diplomacy As mentioned earlier, the outbreak of the Crimean War gave an opportunity to Cavour to internationalise the issue of Italian unification. Hoping that Britain and France would win this war against Russia, he threw in his lot with these two countries in spite of opposition from his colleagues. He wrote to the Sardinian General, La Mormora, “You have the future of the country in your haversack”. Cavour was taking a political gamble in forcing his kingdom to join the war on the side of Britain and France. If Britain and France won the war with Sardinian help, he hoped that she would find a legitimate place. His gamble yielded rich dividends. The war ended with the defeat of Russia. Britain and France praised the Sardinian army for their courage and bravery, particularly in the Battle of Tchernaya. The stigma caused by their humiliating defeat at the hands of the Austrians earlier in the battle of Novara was removed and the Sardinian soldiers

covered themselves with glory. At the time of the signing of peace treaty, Piedmont was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference. The prestige of Cavour increased when he attended the conference and addressed the assembly in Paris in 1856. He raised the Italian issue which he declared “has become for the future a European question”. Emperor Napoleon III of France showed great sympathy and asked Cavour as to what he could do for Italy. It was then, that Cavour convinced Napoleon how he could help Piedmont in liberating the rest of the country from foreign yoke. For Cavour the Paris Peace Conference proved to be his “finest hour”. He raised the issue of Italian freedom at the right place and right time and succeeded in striking a chord of sympathy with the French emperor. Britain also expressed her sympathy for the cause. However, she did not take any positive steps towards helping Piedmont. It was not until Orsini, an Italian bandit, made an attempt to kill the French emperor, that steps were taken to give positive help to Sardinia. The French emperor, sent a secret message to Count Cavour to meet him at Plombieres during the summer of 1858. Cavour and Napoleon III secretly met there and both agreed to take steps towards expelling Austria from northern and central Italy. In return for the French assistance, France would get Savoy from Piedmont. It was also agreed that King Victor Emmanuel II should give his daughter in marriage to Prince Jerone, a cousin of the French emperor. On the New Year’s day, the French emperor startled the Austrian ambassador by saying, “I regret that our relations with your government are not as good as formerly.” Similarly, King Victor Emmanuel II opened the Parliament at Turin,” “… while we respect treaties, we cannot be insensible to the cry of anguish which comes to us from many parts of Italy.” The significance of these statements coming from two statesmen left Austria in doubt about the impending war with Sardinia. Britain tried its best to bring the disputed parties to the negotiating table but failed. Cavour was in need of casus belli and therefore provoked Austria by creating incidents on their common border. He was afraid that the French emperor might waver and might change his mind if war did not break out. Austria demanded the demobilisation of Sardinian troops across the border which was not conceded by Sardinia. Therefore, Austria declared war. Cavour exclaimed with joy, “The die is cast, and we have made history.”

The Franco-Sardinian War with Austria (April-July, 1859) To many European statesmen, the action of Austria was clearly in the wrong

since efforts were being made to avert it. On hearing the news, France sent troops to help Sardinia to defeat the Austrians. The French troops were commanded by none less than the emperor himself. The Austrians were defeated at Montebello, Palestros and Magenta. These victories were followed by another magnificent one at Solferino. The Austrians were forced to evacuate from the state of Lombardy. They retreated to the nearby forts. If the war had continued with the same tempo, Austria would have been driven out of Venice. However, the French emperor suddenly developed cold feet and withdrew his forces from northern Italy. Napoleon III personally met the Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph I at Villafranca and concluded a peace agreement with him on July 11, 1859. Cavour was shocked at the behaviour of the French emperor. He felt very much humiliated at this unfavourable turn of events in the midst of victories, all because of the volte face of Emperor Napoleon III. He submitted his resignation to the king immediately. By the Treaty of Zurich (November 10, 1859), Austria gave Lombardy to Sardinia but retained Venetia. Despite this serious setback, the efforts of the Italian statesman had not been in vain. The Sardinian forces gained confidence in themselves since they had achieved several victories. The people living in the Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany rose in revolt against their rulers. They desired that their state should merge with the enlarged kingdom of Sardinia. In the meantime, by the Treaty of Zurich, the French emperor hoped to receive Nice and Savoy from Piedmont. Therefore, he provided for a clause whereby the subjects of the above three states could decide their future by having plebiscites. Similarly, he desired plebiscites in the small states of Nice and Savoy, so that their political future could be settled. Cavour was reappointed prime minister in 1860, and he agreed with the proposals of the French emperor. The people of the three Duchies and Romagna desired annexation with Piedmont when the results of plebiscites were announced. Similarly, the people of Nice and Savoy showed willingness for the merger of their states with France. By April 1860, King Victor Emmanuel II ruled a bigger kingdom than before, whose borders stretched from the Alps to the Papal states. He gave away Nice and Savoy to the French emperor. Venetia remained in the hands of Austria, but the process of unification of Italy had already begun. Mazzini and Garibaldi did not like the way the unification process was going on in Italy under the Sardinian monarchy. The latter bemoaned the loss of his native place, Nice, to the French, and cursed Cavour’s bargain with the French emperor.

Garibaldi

During the next few years the Italian struggle for freedom centred on the exploits of Garibaldi (1807-82). One of the most romantic figures in the making of Italy, Garibaldi, was born at Nice in 1807. Although his parents wanted him to become a priest, he became a great sailor and an intrepid soldier. Early in his life he was captured by pirates but was lucky enough to escape. His voyages gave him an opportunity to meet some of the Italian exiles and patriots whose love for their country made deep impressions on his sensitive mind. In the course of time, none could better him in the art of guerilla warfare and his spirit of adventure. Every drop of his blood yearned for the unity and freedom of his motherland. He joined the Young Italy movement led by Mazzini and played an important role in the 1834 uprising in Savoy which unfortunately failed. He had to go into voluntary exile. Between 1836 and 1848, Garibaldi spent his time in South America, mostly participating in the liberation movements. He fought for Uruguay against the Brazilian empire and Argentina. He led the dangerous life of a seasoned guerilla fighter in the wilds of South America and acquired his life-partner, Anita, after a daring exploit. He collected a large number of followers who were prepared to lay down their lives for his sake. Called Redshirts, they followed Garibaldi to Italy in 1848, to share the thrills of their master’s exploits. Garibaldi returned to Italy in 1848 to place his services at the disposal of Charles Albert who, unfortunately, spurned it. Then Garibaldi went to Milan where the people enthusiastically welcomed him and collected an army of 30,000 men. With their support he harassed the Austrians and then proceeded to Rome to save the Republic established by Mazzini which was threatened by the invasion of King Bomba of Naples. In the meantime, the Austrian army arrived with reinforcements from the French and they attacked Rome. His position became untenable and he had to flee with his wife and followers in 1849. Chased by the Austrian and French troops, and losing some of his best men, he proceeded to Venice to assist her in a heroic struggle. On his journey, his wife, who had shared his dangerous life throughout, fell ill and died in his arms. Italy being too hot for his dangerous pursuits, he left the country with a heavy heart. He wandered here and there along the coast of Sardinia. He met Cavour in 1858 and announced his loyalty to the House of Savoy. When Piedmont waged war with Austria in 1859, Garibaldi participated and earned for himself glory for his daring exploits. He became a legend in Italy. The adulation he received from his people made him resolve that he would achieve the unification and freedom of Italy before he died. In 1860, the Sicilians sought his help in their uprising against the Bourbon tyranny and Garibaldi let them know that he would help them if they themselves

took the initiative. He secretly met Cavour to get blessings and support for his enterprise in private, although the government publicly denounced it. It may be remembered that conditions in Sicily and Naples under the Spanish Bourbon monarch, Ferdinand II, had turned from bad to worse. In the words of Gladstone, who happened to visit the Neapolitan prisons in 1850-51, the Bourbon rule appeared to be “an outrage upon religion, upon humanity and upon decency”. Over 20,000 political prisoners, many of them highly educated, suffered untold miseries after being chained as dangerous criminals in dark dungeons. In 1859, King Ferdinand II died leaving his successor to face the wrath of the people. Financed secretly by the king and his prime minister, Garibaldi embarked with his troops at Genoa (comprising 1000 volunteers) to help the Sicilians in their struggle to uproot the hated Bourbon rule. Garibaldi’s conquest of Sicily was accomplished within two months. His small ships carrying volunteers took shelter behind the British ships moving towards Marsala (Sicily) and landed safely. The government troops hardly noticed their landing, having confused them with the British sailors. Before they realised their mistake, Garibaldi’s Thousand attacked them. With no loss of life on his side, Garibaldi achieved the impossible—the defeat of 20,000 Neapolitan troops—with the help of the local rebels within two months. This most daring episode was followed by another equally daring exploit, the conquest of Naples. The next adventurous move on the part of Garibaldi lay in crossing the straits of Messina which separated Sicily from the mainland. Everything now depended upon Britain since her battleships were there around the corner. The French emperor was frightened at the progress made by Garibaldi and suggested to Britain that an Anglo-French force should close the Straits. Cavour also requested Britain and France to do the same thing, but simultaneously sent a special messenger to the British Foreign Ministry requesting not to do such a thing. Britain communicated to France that the presence of French ships in the Straits of Messina would be resented and thus paved the way for Garibaldi’s invasion of Naples. He reached the mainland safely, and the resistance of the Neapolitan troops was easily overcome when thousands of natives joined his triumphal march. It was then that both the king of Sardinia and Cavour began to doubt the intentions of Garibaldi. Would he remain loyal to the Sardinian monarchy or to his republican ideals like Mazzini? What if he tried to attack Rome (where the Pope ruled with French army support)? How can he be restrained? Cavour was obsessed by these thoughts and finally took a big gamble in his life. He sent the Piedmontese army across the Papal states to forestall Garibaldi’s attack on Rome. Cavour succeeded in his plan in ensuring the support of Garibaldi to the cause of monarchy on the one

hand and avoid falling out with France by preventing Garibaldi’s attack on Rome. Plebiscites held in Sicily, Naples and the Papal states showed the people’s desire for merger with Piedmont. King Victor Emmanuel II arrived in Naples and Garibaldi was left with no choice other than surrendering to him. Refusing all honours, this great patriot left for his home, the island of Caprera, with “only a few hundred francs of borrowed money and a bag of seed corn”. After expressing hope that Rome and Venice would ultimately unite with the rest of Italy, Cavour died in 1861. During the same year the Parliament met at Turin, the capital of Piedmont.

In 1862, Garibaldi became impatient because Rome was still being held by the Pope. Moreover, Victor Emmanuel and Cavour had denied him the chance of conquering it. Therefore he rushed with his volunteers to capture it. He was stopped by the Piedmontese army, and during the fight he was shot in the foot. His cup of humiliation was filled to the brim. He retired from active service and

spent the rest of his life in peace. Incidentally, Mazzini continued to pine away as he could not establish the Italian Republic. When the Parliament met at Turin, Victor Emmanuel was declared ‘King of Italy’.

Annexation of Venetia (1866) At the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, King Victor Emmanuel proposed a military alliance with Austria in exchange for the return of Venetia. The Austrian Emperor turned down the offer. It was about this time that Bismarck sought an alliance with Italy in his war with Austria. He promised to procure for her Venice from Austria if he won the war. All Italy had to do was to invade Austria from the south. When the war broke out (1866), Italy created a diversion by attacking Austria in the south. Although the Italian troops were badly beaten, Prussia won the war within seven weeks. As promised, Bismarck compelled the defeated Austria to cede Venetia to Italy.

Annexation of Rome (1870) The unification of Italy was completed in 1870, with the annexation of Rome, a kingdom belonging to the Pope. French troops guarded this kingdom. However, the troops were withdrawn by Emperor Napoleon III when he declared war on Prussia in 1870. The appeal of King Victor Emmanuel II to the Pope to respect the people’s desire for the merger of his state with the rest of Italy went in vain. The Italian troops marched into Rome and occupied it. The Pope was allowed to rule over the Vatican city as sovereign. He did not reconcile himself to the loss of his temporal power over Rome, and therefore the rupture continued till Benito Mussolini set it right in 1929, by signing the Lateran Treaty. A plebiscite was held in Rome, in which the people overwhelmingly voted in favour of a merger with the rest of Italy. On 2 June, 1871, Rome became the capital of Italy after King Victor Emmanuel II entered it with all grandeur. Thus Rome regained its status as the seat of the capital after a lapse of 1,395 years.

15 Nationalism: Disintegration of Empires

T

he Eastern Question haunted the minds of European statesmen from the early nineteenth century to the Great War. They were concerned about the decay of the Ottoman empire. The decline of the Ottoman empire was creating many problems in terms of balance of power in Europe and the rise of Christian Balkan nationalities. Interspersed with this situation were the conflicting ambitions of rival powers in Europe to share the spoils of the tottering empire. The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, in 1453. In their new zeal to spread Islam to every nook and corner of the world, they embarked upon a career of conquests. Their empire extended from southern Spain in the west to India in the east and included the Balkan countries and a major part of Austria and Hungary. However, after the initial tide of success, their power began to decline due to weak successors ascending the throne. Also, the conquered races in the Balkans, being mainly Slavs and Christians, were not absorbed into the mainstream of Turkish national life. The Turks remained masters, and behaved in an insolent and cruel manner with the Balkan Christians. Since none of the European nations came to their rescue, these Christian countries were resigned to their fate. Meanwhile, Russia expanded her empire towards the south under Peter the Great and Catherine the Great and her border came close to the Turkish borders. By the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, the Turks not only pacified the Russians but also offered many concessions to the Christian subjects. After this treaty the Russians withdrew from Turkish provinces, but the whole episode exposed the cracks appearing in the Ottoman empire. Russia was the first country to observe the decline of this once great empire and was quite concerned about it. To the European powers, the weakness of the Ottoman empire became visible in 1821, which was the starting point in the Greek War of Independence. Even before the outbreak of this war, the Serbians were the first to stage a revolt in 1804, and by 1817, obtained autonomy from the Turkish master under a hereditary prince of

native Obrenovitch dynasty. Ten years later, the Ottoman empire was placed under the protection of Russia.

Greek War of Independence (1821–32) The Greeks were fortunate among all the Balkan nationalities in being treated more kindly by their master. They even occupied some important positions in the civil administration, the Turkish foreign office and in the Turkish navy. They were allowed some measure of autonomy on the condition of payment of tribute to the Turkish emperor. The patriarch of their church was recognised. Despite these concessions, the Greeks were influenced by events taking place in the western part of Europe, namely, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna did not do much to recognise their separate identity from the rest of the Turkish empire. However, by the end of the eighteenth century, the Greeks became conscious of their ancient glory and resented the foreign yoke. They came to be influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution spread by a secret society. Philike Hetairia was another organisation which was founded to spread their Hellenic glory and aimed at the expulsion of the Turks from their native land. When there was dispute between the Porte (Turkish emperor) and his vassal, Ali Pasha, the Greeks took advantage of the situation and rose in revolt in 1821. Depending upon Russian support, Prince Alexander Ypsilantis raised a banner of revolt in Moldavia. Although he was an officer in the Russian army and as such expected Russian help, he could not get any. Even the subjects were not enthusiastic in making the revolt successful. As such the revolt was brutally suppressed and he fled. Though this first attempt ended in disaster, nevertheless, the revolt spread to other areas, particularly to the district of Morea. Here the Greeks killed the Moslems which rebounded in the massacres of Greeks in Macedonia and Thessaly. The Turks sold Christian women to slavery and executed the Greek patriarch of Constantinople and three archbishops on Easter Day. The senseless massacres carried on by both sides only exacerbated the feelings of hatred, and the tyranny of the Turks attracted the attention of the Christian west. The war went on till 1824, and the Sultan requested his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, to help him to put down the revolt of the Greeks. Accordingly, the Egyptian governor sent his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to restore Turkish authority in Greece. Ibrahim’s savagery knew no bounds. The Christians were butchered and their homes burnt. The Greek resistance failed. Missolonghi and Athens were

captured one after another in 1826 and 1827, respectively. Lord Byron (the famous English poet) participated in the Greek revolt and subsequently died of fever. Philhellenic clubs were founded in Britain, France, Germany and Switzerland for espousing the cause of Greek independence. The Greek defeats followed by the wanton brutality of the Turks created an international problem. Czar Alexander proposed that Russia should intervene to bring about some settlement, but Metternich and Castlereagh restrained him at the Congress of Verona. France, Britain and Russia decided to intervene to save Greece from further Turkish barbarity. They sent a note to the Sultan that Greece be accorded autonomous status within the Turkish sovereignty. When the Sultan refused to comply with their demands, a joint naval force was despatched which destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets after a confrontation at Navarino Bay (1827). Sultan Ibrahim agreed to evacuate the Turkish troops from Morea and thus the Greeks won the first round. It was not until Russia hit hard that the Sultan agreed to recognise the independence of Greece by the treaty of Adrianople (1829). According to this treaty, Greece became independent but was to remain under nominal Turkish overlordship. In 1832, a final treaty was concluded by which Greece came to have an independent monarchy. The Prince of Bavaria, named Otto, was chosen king of Greece and “the first great hole had been made in the rotting fabric of the Ottoman empire”. The first phase of the Eastern Question thus came to an end.

Syrian Question The second phase of the Eastern Question was centred upon the Syrian question. Mehemet Ali of Egypt did not get anything for his assistance rendered to the Turkish master over the Greek issue. The province of Syria was promised to him at the time of the Greek War of Independence in exchange for his assistance. However, since the Sultan kept quiet afterwards, Mehemet Ali launched an expedition to conquer Syria. The Sultan resisted his attempts by sending his forces, but in vain. The Egyptian forces not only conquered the province of Syria but proceeded towards the Turkish capital, Constantinople. The Sultan was terribly frightened and turned towards his European neighbours. Only Russia was prepared to help him and a Turkish minister described this situation as “a drowning man will clutch at serpent”(sic). With Russia’s offer of help, the other European powers became suspicious and joined in to help the Sultan. But the Sultan thought of abandoning the defence of Syria on account of the pressure

from Britain, France and Austria. In 1833, the claim of Mehemet Ali to Syria was conceded. Russia ordered Turkey to conclude a treaty of friendship with her. The Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi was signed in 1833, which contained a secret clause, that on Russia’s demand, Turkey would close the Dardanelles to the warships of other nations. The leakage of the secret clause by an enraged Turkish diplomat led to international repercussions. Russia’s diplomatic victory and deception hurt Britain. She waited for an opportunity to settle her score with Russia. In 1839, the Sultan backed by Russia, invaded Syria to take revenge upon his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt. Unfortunately his adventure did not succeed. The Turkish fleet surrendered to Mehemet Ali without fighting. The European powers once again intervened to bring about a compromise between Turkey and Egypt. They failed in their efforts due to the defiance of Mehemet Ali. Mehemet Ali was not satisfied with merely the Pashalik of Egypt and half of Syria that was offered to him, as terms of the treaty. France was also backing him in his rigid stand. So the allied forces fought and defeated him. He was brought to his senses and Syria was handed over to the Sultan. It was not until 1840, that Britain turned the tables against Russia and France. The straits convention was signed during that year for the pacification of the Levant among Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria. The four powers agreed that Mehemet Ali should regain the hereditary Pashalik of Egypt. Furthermore, the straits should be closed to the ships of all nations during the time of peace. The treaty aimed at checking the growing ambitions of Russia and France in the Turkish-Egyptian conflict. France under Thiers fretted and fumed for she considered Mehemet Ali as her protégé, but wisely decided not to go to war with Britain on this issue.

The Crimean War (1854-56) The Eastern Question entered into a most crucial phase with the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854, between Russia on one side and France, Britain and Turkey on the other. The main cause for the outbreak of this war was the distrust of the Russian intention towards Turkey. Russia had been very close to Turkey since the signing of the Straits Convention and the European powers were feeling uncomfortable after the Czar’s proposal. The Czar’s proposal was submitted to Britain twice, in 1844 and 1853, for the partition of the decaying Turkish empire among themselves. This proposal did not find favourable response from Britain since she considered that ‘the sickman of Europe’, as the

Czar often described the Ottoman empire, was not actually sick. Distrust and suspicion about Russia’s intention further separated the two powers on many matters. The Russian Czar again proposed to Britain that he would take Constantinople, and Britain could take Egypt and Crete. Earlier, neither Prince Metternich nor Lord Palmerstone evinced keen interest in these bargains since both desired the continuation of the Ottoman empire as a bulwark against future Russian expansionism.

Causes of the Crimean War It was around 1850, that France under Emperor Napoleon III stirred the hornet’s nest by reviving the claim of the French to the guardianship of the holy Christian places in the Turkish empire. It may be remembered that this privilege was enjoyed by Charlemagne long ago, but after his death, the French rulers neglected to renew their claims. Therefore, the actual guardianship of the holy places fell into the hands of the Greek Orthodox Church. The Ottoman emperor in his usual manner agreed to restore the claims of the French for the protection of the holy places of Christianity within his empire. The Turkish recognition to French claims caused great anxiety to the Russians. They protested loudly at the counter-claims of France and the consent given by the Turkish emperor. They put pressure on the Porte to withdraw his consent given to France. Russia put forward another proposal for the Porte’s acceptance by which Russia would be given the right to protect all the orthodox Christians in the Ottoman empire. The Sultan was in a dilemma. He tried to please both Russia and France. But Russia was not ready to accept the substantial concession offered to the French. The Russian Czar sent Prince Menshikov on a mission to Istanbul to get a treaty signed by which the Turkish Emperor would concede the right of the Czar to protect all orthodox Christian subjects in his empire. The demand of Russia appeared to Britain as extravagant and her ambassador to Turkey, Straford de Radcliffe, advised the Porte to accept the demand of the protection of holy places but reject the demand of the protection of orthodox subjects in his empire. Prince Menshikov’s mission did not succeed and he returned home. On 2 July, 1853, the Russian army crossed the river Pruth and occupied the Turkish principalities. Russia declared that her action was not an act of war but as a guarantee for seeking subsequent acceptance of her just demands by the Porte. While the situation got worse, the Sultan received some encouraging response. France and Britain ordered their fleets to rush to the Dardanelles. To gain certain advantages over these powerful adversaries, the Czar ordered the

Russian fleet to destroy the Turkish squadron on the Black Sea. The Russian fleet accordingly brought about the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope— often called ‘the Sinope massacre’. The Sinope massacre turned a small naval battle into an all-out war after Russia’s refusal to withdraw her forces from the Turkish principalities and the Black Sea. The allies won a victory at Alma, north of Sebastopol, where 40,000 Russian soldiers led by Prince Menshikov offered stiff resistance. Had the Allies, despite heavy losses, carried on their attack of Sebastopol vigorously, it would have fallen. However, the French commander had his say, thereby giving much valuable time to the Russians to regain their strength. The long siege of Sebastopol continued without avail. The Allies won two small battles at Balaclava and Inkerman. But the key to success lay in the capture of Sebastopol. The victory was nowhere in sight since the Russians had entrenched themselves in an impregnable position. The Allied armies, which included an army of Piedmont, made vain efforts to capture the stronghold. The allied commanders did not co-ordinate their plans and committed many blunders and so did the Russians. In the end, the Allied armies captured Sebastopol in September, 1855 and it was followed by the fall of Kars. The Russians agreed for peace on the basis of four points. In the meantime Czar Nicholas I died leaving his more liberal son, Alexander II to bring about the conclusion of the war. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March, 1856, by all the concerned parties. The terms of the Treaty of Paris (1856) were as follows: (a) All the powers, signatories to the treaty, agreed to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Turkish empire under the Sultan. (b) The Sultan agreed to improve the conditions of his subjects, particularly the Christian subjects living in his empire. The powers agreed not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Turkish empire. (c) Russia got back Crimea but the Black Sea was neutralised. Turkey received the Kars. (d) The navigation in the Danube was kept open to all ships of other nations. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were to remain under the control of the Turkish emperor. Bessarabia was merged with Moldavia so that it would act as a buffer state between Russia and Turkey. In a separate treaty (15 April, 1856) Britain, Austria and France undertook to maintain the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman empire individually and collectively. This was followed by ‘the Declaration of Paris’ which prescribed a code of conduct for all the belligerents in case of a naval war.

Results Whatever may be the terms of the Treaty of Paris, they proved to be transient in character. Russia was deeply disappointed after signing the treaty, and therefore had no intention of respecting its terms. The Russian emperor waited for an opportunity to repudiate the terms of this treaty. He got this much awaited opportunity on the eve of the Franco-Prussian war (1870). Bismarck permitted Russia (in exchange for her help) to repudiate the terms of the Treaty of Paris. For example, Russia no longer recognised those terms which referred to the neutralisation of the Black Sea. She asserted her right to send warships to that region. The signatories of the Treaty of London in 1871 allowed Russia’s claim and therefore Britain’s victory at the Crimean war proved to be transient. Not lagging behind in many respects, the Sultan hardly cared for the wellbeing of his Christian subjects. He had no intention of implementing his promise given to the treaty powers. Atrocities came to be perpetrated by his officials on the Christian subjects. Thus, the Treaty of Paris was no longer held valid as none of the powers were prepared to respect its terms. The powers which gained anything at all from this war were Sardinia and France. Cavour represented Sardinia in the Paris meeting held at the conclusion of the Crimean war. He was able to help Piedmont take its legitimate place in the Council of Nations. It was in this conference of Paris, that Cavour sought help from big powers to bring about the unification of Italy. The French emperor, Napoleon III, was highly pleased with the outcome of the war. He had taught a lesson to the Russian Czar not to be insolent. The French were pleased with their emperor’s victory. The Czar of Russia felt humiliated. The war cost him dearly in terms of men and money. His reputation suffered. At home, he was forced to yield to the demands of reforms put forward by his subjects. The results of the war were not tangible. The settlements made remained temporary since all the powers concerned only paid lip sympathy to the terms of the treaty. Nevertheless, apart from war and peace, people all over the world warmly appreciated the glorious services rendered by Florence Nightingale to the wounded and dying soldiers in the hospital at Scutari. The Crimean war had taught a lesson to the statesmen of the time, that war “is a risky instrument of foreign policy”.

Belgian War of Independence (1830-31)

One such opportunity was lost when the Belgians revolted against the Dutch rule. The Congress of Vienna had, through its decision, brought about the merger of Belgium with Holland. The Belgians and the Dutch differed in their religion and language. The Dutch occupied all important positions in the administration. Six out of seven cabinet ministers were Dutch. Similarly, out of thirty-nine ambassadors, thirty, were Dutch. All military generals in the army were Dutch. Many Belgian members of Parliament were also acting as officials, and therefore did not speak boldly about their grievances for fear of losing their jobs. Many laws which were passed favoured the Dutch. The Dutch preferred free trade. In the course of time, the Belgians put out petitions revealing Dutch injustice in Belgium. Press-censorship imposed on the Belgians added insult to injury. What prompted the Belgians to revolt was the July revolution in France and a few instances of high-handed actions by the Dutch king. The revolt began in Brussels, which soon spread to other Belgian towns and the Dutch army was unable to contain this situation. A National Congress was set up in Belgium which declared independence from Dutch control and voted for the election of a new constitutional monarch and two houses of Parliament. The problem which confronted the French King Louis Philippe was whether he would accept the fait accompli or not. In his country there was tremendous enthusiasm on the part of the people, urging his government to go to the support of Belgians in their hour of crisis. The king had some awkward moments. However, the situation eased when, in the conference in London, the other powers agreed to recognise Belgian independence and neutrality on certain conditions. These conditions were wholly unacceptable to the Belgians, therefore they rejected them. They offered the crown of Belgium to the second son of King Louis Philippe. Unfortunately, King Louis Philippe could not rise to the occasion. He knew very well that if his son accepted the crown, there would be a war. France was not yet prepared for such an eventuality. Therefore, he promptly rejected the Belgian offer and defused the tense situation. Britain then came forward with her candidate, namely, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The Belgians, therefore, left with no choice, agreed to make him their ruler. The whole affair made the French bitter. They felt that Britain’s Palmerston had played a trick or outmanoeuvred their king into accepting a compromise. Similarly, in Poland, there was a revolt, and the Poles expected the French to assist them to throw off their foreign yoke. Though the French people were sympathetic, their government did nothing and the Polish revolt was brutally suppressed by Russia. To the French, who were brought up on Napoleonic glory, the pacifist policy followed by their king appeared subservient to the cause of British interests.

PART V

Imperialism and Colonialism Chapter 16 Imperialism and Colonialism: South and Southeast Asia Chapter 17 Latin America and South Africa Chapter 18 Colonization of Australia Chapter 19 Imperialism and Free Trade: Rise of New Imperialism

16 Imperialism and Colonialism: South and Southeast Asia

I

mperialism is defined as “state’s policy, practice or advocacy of extending power and dominion”. In yet another definition, it is mentioned as “imperialism is a policy of a nation to extend its control outside its own boundaries, by acquisition of colonies or dependencies or by jurisdiction over other races”. Therefore imperialism is closely associated with empire building, along with the acquisition of colonies. The principle of ‘might is right’ becomes a key component of imperialism. The policy adopted by an imperialist power to acquire colonies implies the exercise of military force or coercion. In early world history, great kingdoms like Ancient Egypt, Sumerian, Chinese, Indian, Greek and Roman kingdoms turned into empires after the acquisition of colonies. The main motivation for the acquisition of colonies happened to be collecting annual tributes, religious conversion, and the spread of culture. A large number of natives from the conquered regions were taken as captives, and turned into slaves. In medieval times, the world witnessed the emergence of large empires built by the Chinese, the Muslims, and the Christians. The large empires acted as a bulwark against the threat of foreign invaders. In modern times, we see that imperial powers gained advantages by colonial exploitation. By colonialism, we mean a control by “one power over dependent area or people”. Imperial powers subjected their colonies to economic exploitation of natural resources, for providing markets, and spread of culture. Imperial powers like Spain and Portugal established colonies from the early sixteenth century in the new world after the discovery of the American Continent. The other European powers joined the race, and colonised large parts of North America, Asia, Africa and Australia. Therefore, historian C.D.M. Ketelbey called it “Europeanization of the world”. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, European colonial powers

began to acquire more and more colonies in Asia and Africa for securing raw materials for their industries, and find markets for their industrial products. This category of imperialism is termed as “Neo-Imperialism”. It began during the 1880s, and created a kind of “parasitical symbiosis” between the coloniser and the colonised. Colonies were treated not as integral parts, but as dependencies. They were developed only to the extent of serving the interests of the colonial masters. The colonisers coerced the colonists into adopting their politics, language, their system of education, and so on. The imperial masters justified colonization on grounds of better governance, and for ‘civilizing’ the primitive natives. They also defended their policy by calling it “a white man’s burden”. Let us examine the means adopted by the imperial powers, namely, Britain, France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Russia, United States and Japan, for the acquisition of colonies in the continents of Asia and Africa. The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese gained their foothold in India through their settlements which were obtained from the Mughal Emperors. Similarly the Chinese emperors gave lease holds to imperial powers for the purposes of trade after the Opium Wars. Russia got the Manchurian ports, Britain obtained Weihai-wei, and Japan, Port Arthur and Darien. In the course of time, the imperial powers converted these lease holds into colonies. Little knowing the wily ways of the imperial powers, the native rulers tried to secure their support for their own internal conflicts. For example, the British East India Company followed the policy of Divide and Rule in dealing with the native rulers, and eventually conquered the whole country. In regions like Persia and China, imperial powers carved out spheres of influence for the purpose of serving their colonial interests. Both the countries had to yield to the demands of imperial powers due to the sheer number of their internal conflicts. For example, Russia and Britain developed spheres of influence in Persia after signing an agreement in 1907. Mainland China also permitted imperial powers (including Japan) to carve out spheres of influence on its soil. In the late nineteenth century, the United States government was engaged in Dollar Diplomacy to overcome the resistance of the poor countries of central and south America. Always in need of money, these countries borrowed large amounts from American businessmen and bankers, and when they did not repay these loans, they were blackmailed into offering trade concessions. With the backing of the American government, businessmen and bankers extracted their pounds of flesh from these helpless countries. Britain, France and the US established protectorates over weak countries before the outbreak of the First World War. For example, Britain established

protectorates over Nigeria (1900) and Egypt (1922); France set up its protectorate over Morocco (1922; and USA over Cuba (1899-1902) and Haiti (1915-1934). The imperialist countries fully subjected these protectorates to economic exploitation. Extra-territorial agreements were another form of imperialism. For example, Mainland China was forced to sign extra-territorial agreements by the western powers for the purpose of enjoying certain rights and privileges (such as exemptions from local taxes and freedom from persecution of its citizens). Soon after the First World War, the League of Nations allowed a few western powers to rule over colonies of defeated countries. This was the mandate system. The western powers which got these mandates were allowed to develop these colonies so as to make them free after a particular period. They used the mandate system to exploit these helpless countries.

Critique of Imperialism and Colonialism Political theorists and economists have always doubted the accrual benefits derived by imperial powers by subjecting colonies to economic exploitation. It must be noted that imperial rivalries among European powers caused two world wars with the result that the world economy crashed. Despite these criticisms, there were a few theorists who have tried to justify imperialist policies. Machiavelli, the renowned Italian author of The Prince argued that imperialism constitutes a national struggle for the survival of people. Imperialist policy is justified as a national impulse. It provides a stimulus for patriotic pride. Military interventions became a part of the imperial policy of the US government for justifying its security concerns. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the US militarily intervened to isolate Cuba. The NATO supported by the US government intervened in the Kosovo Crisis and Afghanistan on the grounds of promising “the blessings of a superior way of life”.

British Rule In India The rise of modern imperialism began in the nineteenth century. The European powers extended their control over the countries of Asia and Africa after defeating the respective native powers. The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, and its subsequent spread in western Europe, resulted in the growing demands for raw materials and new markets. It was to meet these twin demands, and also to achieve political prestige, that the European powers eagerly looked

forward to acquiring colonies in Asia and Africa. European merchants of the early centuries had come to Asiatic countries particularly for trade. The native powers allowed them to carry on trade on their soil. However, subsequent events provided ample opportunities to these foreigners to establish their sway over the natives. Political disunity of the country and internal rivalry among the native states attracted the attention of the foreign powers. Adept in political machinations and intrigues, the foreign merchants sought to take advantage of the political turmoil. They finally managed to subjugate the native powers and build empires. Among the many Asian countries which came to be dominated by the European imperialists in general and the British in particular, mention must be made of India and China.

British East India Company’s Wars After the decline of the Mughal empire, there was a political vacuum and the Marathas struggled to fill this void. They did not succeed and so the country, consisting of big and small sovereign states, lacked political unity and a strong leader. The Mughal empire continued to exist as a shadow of its former self. While the Portuguese were satisfied with establishing small colonies in Goa, Diu and Daman, Dupleix, the Governor of the French East India Company, dreamt of establishing a French empire in India. The Anglo-French rivalry of the early eighteenth century resulted in the three Carnatic wars. Dupleix’s dream vanished and the French in India were totally defeated by the British. The Siege of Arcot (1751) by Robert Clive marked a turning point in the military fortunes of the British. The three Carnatic wars, not only resulted in the defeat and ignominy of the French, but paved the way for the English to have sway over the Carnatic region. After his victory over the French, Robert Clive became a hero. He was sent to Bengal to deal with Nawab Siraj-ud-daula, who according to some English writers, had caused the so-called “Black Hole tragedy.” Clive hatched a plot to dethrone him and finally forced him into a battle — the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Clive won the battle easily as Mir Jafar, the Comander-in-Chief of Siraj-ud-daula, betrayed his Nawab by changing sides soon after the Battle began. Siraj-ud-daula fled the battlefield but he was subsequently caught and killed. Clive rewarded Mir Jafar with the nawabship of Bengal. The new Nawab soon learnt to regret this, since the company officials were making too frequent a demand for money for him to satisfy. Finding Mir Jafar to be not good enough, the company officials made his son-in-law, Mir Kasim, take over the nawabship.

Mir Jafar was forced to retire. Mir Kasim, the new Nawab, discovered that the British company officials were secretly engaged in dubious trade practices by misusing the dastaks and causing heavy drain to his treasury. He desired to put a stop to it by catching the culprits. It became the main cause of another war — the Battle of Buxar. The Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Oudh went to the rescue of Nawab Mir Kasim, but the British led by Major Munro inflicted a crushing defeat upon the allies at Buxar in October, 1764. Mir Kasim became a fugitive, the Nawab of Oudh fled to the Rohilla country, and the Mughal Emperor came over to the side of the English. In the meanwhile, Clive was raised to the peership and sent to Bengal to deal with the political situation. According to the treaty of Allahabad, the Nawab of Oudh was restored to his position on the condition that he cede Kora and Allahabad. These territories were given to the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam, to maintain his royal dignity. In August, 1765, the Mughal Emperor issued a farman granting to the company the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In return for this favour, the Mughal Emperor was promised an annual sum of rupees twenty-six lakhs. Thus, the English Company became the virtual master of the largest province in India. Lord Clive established a double government which was later abolished and Warren Hastings set up a new system of administration in India. The Regulating Act of 1773 vested authority in the hands of the Governor-General and his Council and set up a Supreme Court at Calcutta. The new Governor-General made an attempt to codify the Hindu and Muslim laws. The Company thereafter stood forth as the Diwan and took charge of the responsibility of collecting land revenue through its own collectors.

Wars in the South The governors of Bombay and Madras embroiled the company in wars with the Marathas and the Mysore ruler respectively. As things were not going in favour of the company, the Governor-General felt inclined to take the matter into his own hands. It was due to his effective intervention that the prestige of the company was saved. It may be remembered that Hyder Ali of Mysore had almost succeeded in expelling the English from the Carnatic but the English bought some more time by concluding a humiliating treaty with him.

Expansion of the British Empire Lord Cornwallis defeated Tipu Sultan of Mysore in the third Anglo-Mysore war

and inflicted a humiliating treaty. He took the Sultan’s sons hostage. Cornwallis entered into a new treaty with the ruler of Oudh. Lord Wellesley aimed at establishing British paramountcy over India and for this purpose prepared a plan – the subsidiary system of alliances – to coax native powers to get British protection. The Nizam, followed by the Peshwa and the ruler of Tanjavur joined this alliance. Tipu refused to sign the treaty and so a war – the fourth AngloMysore war – was forced on him. He fought the English bravely but perished in 1799. Thus, the company established its sway over Mysore, Malabar and the Canara districts. Wellesley’s rule witnessed enormous expansion of British power. The Maratha leaders Holkar, and Sindhe, were forced to sign the subsidiary treaty after the second Anglo-Maratha war. Lord Hastings fought the Marathas, and put an end to their power. The Rajput rulers were forced to acknowledge the paramountcy of the British. The rulers of Malwa, Bhopal and Bundelkhand also became allies of the British company by signing the subsidiary treaty.

William Bentinck [Governor-General of Bengal (1828–33) and Governor-General of India (1833–35)] The ‘Forward policy’ of the British had its respite during the GovernorGeneralship of Lord William Bentinck. Being a staunch liberal, he made British rule popular with his reforms. The most radical change that he brought about was the introduction of the Western system of education. The Persian and Sanskrit languages lost their position of pre-eminence and that place was taken over by English. The other reform was the suppression of sati by law.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) and Annexations The power of the British East India Company reached its pinnacle during the time of Lord Dalhousie. The second Anglo-Sikh war was fought (1848-49) and Punjab was annexed to the British territory in March, 1849. The second AngloBurmese war was fought in 1852, and the British annexed Pegu. To bring Indian territories belonging to the native rulers under British control, Lord Dalhousie enforced a doctrine called the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. By the application of this doctrine, he annexed states like Satara, Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambalpur into the British dominions for the sole reason that the rulers of these states had no natural heirs to succeed to the respective thrones. He annexed others too but

they were not approved by the company authorities. Peshwa Nanasaheb lost his pension and title soon after the death of his father, former Peshwa, Baji Rao II. Even the Mughal Emperor would have lost his title had not the company authorities intervened. Dalhousie’s treatment of the ruler of Oudh has no parallel. Oudh was taken over by the British on account of misgovernment even though it was not a dependent state like others. So in a moral sense, the use of the doctrine of Lapse was wrong and roused the indignation of many rulers like Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi and Nana Saheb who staged a revolt in 1857. One may say that the Great Uprising of 1857 was the direct outcome of Dalhousie’s policy towards the native states. In 1885-86, the British waged the third Burmese war and annexed Upper Burma. Britain also got Malaya with its capital, Singapore. Britain fought the Afghan wars to safeguard her interests in India from a likely danger posed by Russia. Finally, Britain and Russia came to an agreement on their spheres of influence in South Asia before the First World War broke out.

Sri Lanka Advent of Portuguese The Portuguese entered Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1505, for the purpose of establishing their trade. At the end of the century they acquired the southwestern districts of Ceylon. They captured Jaffna in 1619. But they met with stiff resistance while attempting to conquer the central kingdom of Kandy. The Sinhalese kings sought the support of the Dutch to expel the Portuguese. In the meantime, the Portuguese established their main settlements in southern and western parts of Ceylon. They remained there for nearly 150 years till the Dutch drove them out.

The Dutch Conquest of Ceylon The decline of Portuguese power in Southeast Asia during the last decade of the fifteenth century paved the way for the other European powers to enter the arena. The most notable among them was the Dutch who captured the monopoly over the spice and pepper trade. They were able to accomplish this task after eliminating the Portuguese control over Malacca and Ceylon. After losing their foothold in India, the Dutch began to establish their commercial empire in Southeast Asia, particularly Ceylon. The Dutch established their monopoly over

spice trade and made huge profits by selling it to European countries. The Dutch traveller, Linschoten, has given a graphic account of his voyages in Southeast Asia. He visited many ports of Southeast Asia and India. The Dutch merchants were able to prosper mainly because of the pepper trade. It was during one of their visits to Southeast Asia, that they established contacts with Ceylon. Prospects for trade appeared very bright in this region, and, therefore, they formed the East India Company in 1602 on the model of the British one. The Dutch ships passed through Portuguese Goa, Ceylon and Malacca to reach the ports of Southeast Asia. The natives of these regions disliked the Portuguese so much so, that they welcomed the entry of the Dutch. The Dutch were prepared to meet any threat posed by the Portuguese, whose main centres happened to be Malacca and Colombo. It must be remembered that Ceylon offered to the Europeans some of its valuable products like spices, tea, rubber and cinnamon. The Portuguese made their impact upon the Ceylonese in many respects. For example, the Ceylonese capital, Colombo, is a Portuguese name. Similarly, many Christians living in Ceylon have Portuguese names. King Raja Sinha II of Kandy sought Dutch support in 1638, to overthrow the Portuguese domination. The Dutch resorted to deceit and dubious diplomacy and occupied the Ceylonese ports of Galle and Negombo. In the meantime, the Portuguese lost Malacca to the Dutch, and in the hope of recovering the territories they had lost, signed a treaty with the Dutch in June 1641 regarding acquisitions in Ceylon. But, the treaty became infructuous, since its ratification was delayed by the Dutch Government. Consequently, the Portuguese strongholds were blockaded by the Dutch. The Dutch fought the Portuguese off the coast of Nagapatnam in 1644. Though the Portuguese recovered from these setbacks, they were unable to hold on to their settlements in Ceylon due to the resistance of King Raja Sinha II of Kandy. The Dutch rule in Ceylon could not continue for a long time. The central kingdom of Kandy established its contact with the British East India Company through an agreement made for the purpose of driving out the Dutch (1795). Rajadhi Rajasinha (1780-1798) offered friendly terms to the British. During the Napoleonic era, France conquered Holland, and the British took advantage of this situation and expelled the Dutch. In 1796, the Dutch had to transfer their power and possessions in Ceylon to the British East India Company. Ceylon was constituted as a part of the Madras Presidency in 1796. Accordingly, many districts taken over from the Dutch were administered by the British East India Company. However, a revolt of the natives against the British in late 1796, resulted in the establishment of a dual government in 1798. Since this system did not work well, the British Crown took over the maritime

provinces under its direct control in January, 1802. The British Government tried to take over the central kingdom of Kandy by launching military expeditions. The first expedition failed. However, the second succeeded mainly because the subordinate chiefs of the Raja of Kandy helped the British. It must be remembered that they had nursed their grievances against their Malabari King, Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha. The chiefs of the central kingdom of Kandy signed a convention in 1815, by which the British guaranteed their “Right, Privileges and Power” – and also agreed to respect the ancient laws and customs – and protect the religion of the Buddha.

Towards Self-government The British Government appointed the Colebrooke-Cameron Royal Commission of Enquiry in 1831, to recommend reforms necessary for an efficient administration of Ceylon. This commission recommended unified administration for all the British-held territories in Ceylon. Accordingly legislative measures were passed to implement the recommendations. Legislative and executive councils were set up in 1833. A few Ceylonese were nominated to these councils. The British Government also set up the required Civil Service for the purpose of administration. The central kingdom of Kandy which had existed for more than 2000 years, was integrated with the rest of the territories.

Rise of Political Consciousness In the early years of British rule, the Ceylonese did not entertain the thought of liberation. This was mainly because the new administration provided a number of jobs to the educated middle class. The Ceylonese began to enjoy the benefits of the British rule and the British Government gave wide publicity to the welfare measures they were implementing. There were also the Sinhala-Tamil differences which came in the way of political consciousness. However, the above statements need not rule out resistance to the continuation of the British rule. Sporadic rebellions or revolts marked the early era of the British rule in Ceylon. For example, a great rebellion broke out in Kandy in 1817-1818, which was directed against the British rule. The British Government suppressed this rebellion mercilessly. There was another revolt in 1848, but this was also crushed.

The Role of the Middle Class One of the great benefits of the British administration was the introduction of the Western system of education. A large number of Ceylonese took advantage of this opportunity and in the course of time, developed political consciousness. They constituted what is known as the educated middle class. They became fully aware of the exploitative nature of the British rule by the end of the nineteenth century. They formed many associations, political and professional, and began to represent their grievances to the British. As in India, the British did not bother to redress their grievances. One of the foremost organisations that tried to mitigate the sufferings of the Ceylonese was the Ceylonese National Congress. It was founded in December, 1919. Unfortunately, this organisation became sectarian and championed the cause of Sinhalese nationalism, treating the Tamil minority with derision. It advocated the promotion of Buddhist interests to the exclusion of others. Thus, this communal organisation could not achieve its objectives. The Sinhala Maha Sabha was formed in 1937 and it was founded by S.W.R.D.Bandaranaike. By 1944, the All-Ceylon Tamil Congress was founded, naturally by the Tamilians. There were other associations, but all of them had a sectarian outlook.

Communal Politics In fact, communal tensions blocked the progress of many of these associations in the first half of the twentieth century. Communal tensions rose to a high pitch “during the period of Donoughmore constitution.” This was a new constitution established to provide self-government to the Ceylonese. Ultimately it was D.S.Senanayake’s secular United National Party (UNP) which secured the largest number of seats in the House of Representatives in the August-September 1947 general election. The British Parliament passed the Ceylonese Independence Act in December, 1947. The war-weary British Government granted independence to Ceylon on February 4, 1948. D.S.Senanayake became the first prime minister in 1948, leading the UNP, which included Ceylonese Tamils and Muslims (minorities). Under his leadership, Ceylon began moving towards a real emotional integration—all ethnic and minority groups joined hands to work for the progress of the country. Unfortunately, he died in 1952. His son, Dudley Senanayake succeeded him. Dudley continued his father’s policy till he was removed from office over the rice subsidy issue in 1953. The next prime minister was Sir John Kotelawala,

who was a good administrator.

Impact of Colonial Rule in South Asia British rule in India and the neighbouring countries witnessed the worst features of colonialism. It never offered opportunities to the colonised to improve themelves politically and economically. During the rule of the East India Company, the colonial masters followed the policy of divide and rule. They encouraged native rulers to quarrel among themselves so that they could intervene. They offered military alliance to native rulers, and when Tipu Sultan refused to join, they considered him as their enemy number one. The Kingdom of Mysore was annexed to the British dominion after the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. During the time of Lord Dalhousie, native kingdoms were annexed to the British territories on the grounds of the Doctrine of Lapse. Thus, the British rulers devised ways and means to keep the people strictly under their control. British colonial rule developed racial characteristics. Lord Macaulay gave importance to the British system of education in preference to the native system by arguing “that English is better worth knowing than Sanskrit or Arabic”. His racist comments included: “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”. During the First War of Indian Independence (1857), the British despised Indian traditions and customs, displayed racial superiority in dealing with native soldiers, and did not give any credit to the Indian intellectuals. They believed in the theory of “white man’s burden”. Lord Curzon extolled the virtues of British administration in India claiming that it was a divine blessing upon the natives. Through western system of education, Indian students were exposed to the values and facets of western civilization, including their progress in science and technology. In the course of time, India witnessed the rise of the middle class which was well-versed in western literature. It imbibed western ideas of democracy and liberalism. Western education constituted “a major force in the acculturating South Asians to the values of the West” (Myron Weiner, Politics of South Asia). The British administration created a new class of big landlords known as Zamindars. The Zamindars enjoyed some privileges in the rural parts of India, and they collected rent from poor farmers. In the course of time, the Zamindars became greedy, and made the lives of peasants miserable. The Zamindars demanded huge rents from poor farmers, but paid less to their British masters.

They became staunch supporters of British rule in India. As a result of the revenue policy of the British, many marginal farmers became landless labourers after becoming indebted to the money lenders. They were employed by peasant proprietors to work in lands that earlier belonged to them. It is said that indebtedness of the farmers amounted to Rs. 900 crores according to the Central Banking Committee report. The nineteenth century India witnessed a number of famines in rural India. It took a heavy toll of lives, and the British were not adept at handling the crises. The worst famine in the history of India took place in Bengal (1943), killing approximately 7 million people due to starvation. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen says that the famine was caused by inflation, and not due to food shortage. This situation exposed the ineptitude and inefficiency of the British Government in India. In the Pre-British era, village life happened to peaceful, and communities lived in harmony. The villages were self-sufficient and autonomous. This peaceful village life was disturbed and ruined with the advent of the British rule. Prior to the British rule, India was reasonably prosperous, thanks to the enlightened native rulers. However, the British policies resulted in the destruction of village industries, resulting in large scale unemployment. All this was due to the introduction of free trade policy pursued by the British. The British administration took away all the raw materials from the villagers in order to cater to the needs of the British mill owners. Sometimes food grains were exported to feed the British while Indians were left starving. Due to the free trade policy, the British-manufactured goods were dumped into India. Indian manufacturers could not get enough protection for their products from foreign competition. Thus the free trade policy worked in favour of the British manufacturers and led to destruction of the village handicrafts. The British rulers were afraid of starting major industries in India in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries for fear of competition. This lack of industrialisation in India coupled with the destruction of the village handicraft caused widespread poverty. Dadabhai Naoroji was the first to point out the causes of widespread poverty in his book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901). The British rulers realized their serious mistake after the outbreak of the First World War. India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) provided huge markets for British products. India also exported tea, cotton and jute while Ceylon sent coconuts, tea, coffee and rubber. Due to economic exploitation of India for more than 170 years, Britain grew into a prosperous country.

Growth of Communalism

Prior to the British rule, there existed relative communal harmony both in India and Ceylon. With the advent of British rule, the policy of Divide and Rule gained momentum. It was not only confined to political aspects, but also cause communal disharmony in a pluralistic society. Inter-caste and inter-religious conflicts increased. For example, the British began to identify people by their religion, caste and language, and mentioned all these in their gazetteers. They created separate electorates for the Muslims to appease them. Their policy of appeasement encouraged the Muslims to demand a separate state. On a positive note though, one could say that the British rule brought about the unification of the country through a large railway network, maintained law and order by means of efficient civil service (“steel-frame”), and imparted English education.

Burma (Myanmar) Introduction (Geographical Setting) The term, Southeast Asia, refers to countries, south of China bound by two oceans, the Indian and the Pacific. In other words, it includes two geographical regions, namely the mainland nations such as Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia (Kampuchea) and Vietnam, and the insular nations such as Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. The factors that are common to most of these nations are the tropical monsoons (south-west and north-east) and rice production through irrigation agriculture. The rivers which flow in the mainland are the Irrawaddy, the Chindwin and the Salween in Burma; Chao Phraya in Thailand, the Red River (Song Koi) and Black River (Song Bo) in Vietnam. The Mekong River passes through Laos, Thailand, Kampuchea and South Vietnam. These rivers bring alluvial soil and form deltas. These deltas in Lower Burma, Central Thailand, Kampuchea and Central Vietnam attracted immigrants in search of food and shelter from the northern parts since centuries ago. A long time ago, people migrated from southern China and eastern Tibet to these regions, and these migrations had been continuous. For example, the Malays came from the southern part of China during the earliest phase of history. Racially the mainland countries belong to the Mongoloid groups. The Southeast Asian countries had come under Sino-Indian influence since a long time. Their national cultures became more apparent from the sixteenth century AD with the advent of Islam and the Europeans.

Early Migrations to Burma At least six ethnic groups entered Burma at different times from Tibet and South China. They were known as Mons, Shans, Karens, Chins, Kachins and Burmans. The last name is in majority in today’s Myanmar (i.e. Burma) and the rest are the Chinese. Being closest to India, Burma was probably the first to imbibe the elements of Indian culture, particularly religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) and Sanskrit literature. Indian traders were the first to enter the land of Suvarnabhumi (lower Burma and Malay Peninsula) and transplanted Indian culture to the Mons before the advent of the Christian era. Emperor Ashoka sent Dhamma mahamatras to spread Buddhism and the Mons learnt Sanskrit and Pali. They evolved their script similar to the South-Indian languages. Around the third century AD, the Pyus (Tibeto-Burman group) migrated from south-west China to Burma and built their capital at Sri Kshetra (near modern Pyay or Prome). They became adherents of Hinduism and Buddhism

and the monks of the latter, established schools for children. They were found to be the most peace-loving people in the world and very few crimes were recorded during this time. They left a rich legacy in the form of Buddhist Stupascylindrical, pointed domes, much like Orissan style of architecture found in Bhubaneswar. It was during this time that Buddha Ghosha (Theravadin Buddhist scholar) visited Thaton (southern Myanmar). The remains of these Buddhist Stupas and monasteries can be seen near the town of Pyay. Again the Pyus introduced the Vikrama Era, named after their Vikrama dynasty beginning in 638 AD. This Vikrama Samvat legacy spread to the nearby countries of Thailand and Kampuchea. Pyus civilization declined after the invasions of the Thais in 832 AD.

Pagon Kingdom of Burma, 1044-1287 AD

The Burmans probably migrated from China via Tibet around the second century of the Christian era and conquered the Pyus kingdom. They embraced Mahayana Buddhism and built their capital, Pagan, around 849 AD. However after sometime, Hinayana Buddhism was adopted as the official religion. Among the Burman kings, the greatest was King Anawrahta or Aniruddha (1044-77 AD). He may be regarded as the founder of the State of Burma. Incidentally, the boundaries of his large empire, which he built after several conquests fit with the present boundaries of the State of Burma (renamed as

Myanmar in 1988) Among the non-Burman kingdoms which he conquered, the most important was the culturally advanced Kingdom of the Mons in the South. This conquest of Anawrahta had great impact on the political and cultural history of his country. It was after his contact with the famous Mon-Monk Shin Arahan, that King Anawrahta changed his religious leanings towards Hinayana Buddhism. His interest in spreading Hinayana Buddhism compelled him to plunder the kingdom of another Mon king of Thaton from where he snatched away thirty seats of Buddhist canons, and thousands of priests and artisans. He took a large number of the subjects of Thaton as prisoners including the king. The subjects of King Anawrahta got converted from Mahayana Buddhism to Hinayana Buddhism. In fact, Hinayana Buddhism had been flourishing in South India and Ceylon in those times, from where it spread to the Mon kingdoms in Burma. Like Emperor Ashoka in the olden days, King Anawrahta spread the Hinayana faith to the mainland of Southeast Asia. Only Vietnam remained an exception. He maintained good relations with Ceylon and got a replica of the Buddha Tooth which was consecrated in the newly built Pagoda in Pagan. The culturally advanced Mons dominated the Pagan court. The Mons never forgave the Burmans for conquering their kingdom, and all attempts to pacify them by the descendants of King Anawrahta did not meet with success. In the meantime, the Burman kings adopted Indian political traditions and practices in their Imperial court. The Pagan kingdom of Burmans was attacked and broken up by the Mongols in 1287, which subsequently paved the way for the rise of Thai power in the mainland of Southeast Asia. The Mons of Pegu declared themselves independent of Burman control.

The Toungoo Dynasty (AD 1531 – 1732) The Burmans were successful in uniting their country with the establishment of the Toungoo dynasty. The Toungoo kings, namely, Tabinshweti (1531-50) and thereafter, his brother-in-law, Bayinnaung (1550-81) reunited and expanded the country after a series of battles with Ayutthaya (Thailand). The main reason for the outbreak of the war between the two kingdoms was the Burmese King’s request for white elephants which was turned down by the King of Ayutthaya. Secondly, there was a dispute between these two kingdoms over the possession of a small kingdom named Chiengmai. But Tabinshweti’s failure to capture Ayutthaya resulted in the revolt of the Mon minority against him. Subsequently, Tabinshweti was assassinated by the Mons in 1551. His brother-in-law Bayinnaung, continued the imperial policy and finally conquered Chiengmai.

The Laotion King Settatirat who opposed the claim of Bayinnaung over Chiengmai, sent his forces to resist the Burman army, but it failed. The Burman King then turned his forces against Ayutthaya and its king, Chakrapath surrendered. Chakrapath and his family members were taken as hostages to Burma. Prince Mahin, son of Chakrapath succeeded to the throne and pledged his loyalty to the Burmese King. A second war became inevitable when Chakrapath (who became a monk) joined his son in Ayutthaya and revolted against the Burmese suzerainty. The Burmese forces defeated and killed Chakrapath, and Chakrapath’s son was taken captive. Ayutthaya was occupied for the next fifteen years. It was not long before the people of Ayutthaya came under the dynamic leadership of “The Black Prince”, Pra Naret who, not only liberated Ayutthaya, but also invaded Burma five times. He was successful in conquering the southern parts of Moulmein and Tavoy. The Burmese empire was shaken up by the Mon and Shan rebellions. It was not until the seventeenth century, that the war between Burma and Ayutthaya came to an end, with the result that the Burmese capital was shifted to Ava in the North. Both these kingdoms were constantly engrossed in checking the influence of foreigners, i.e., Burma, in conflict with China, and Ayutthaya, in trouble with the Dutch and the French. The Chinese army invaded Burma in 1658, to capture the last Ming Emperor, Yung Li, who had taken refuge there. It was during this time that the Mons raised the banner of revolt against Burma and declared their independence in 1740. In 1752, the Mons captured the Burmese capital Ava which led to the fall of the Toungoo dynasty.

The Konbaung Dynasty (1752 – 1885) The next dynasty to rule over Burma was that of the Konbaung whose leader Alaungpaya was responsible for the liberation of his kingdom and also the capital, Ava, from the tutelage of the Mons. With the assistance of the other Burmese chiefs, he drove the Mons to the South. Subsequently, central Burma and Pegu were liberated right up to the point, Dagoon, which was renamed as Rangoon. The forces of Alaungpaya laid a siege to Ayutthaya, which was met with stout resistance from the Thais. In the long run, this war resulted in his defeat and death. His forces retreated. The Burmese-Thai conflict continued during the time of Hsinbyushin (second son of Alaungpaya). After a long siege, Ayutthaya was captured. It was plundered and devastated, and its inhabitants were taken to Burma as slaves. In the meantime, China under the Manchu emperors attacked Burma four

times during the period 1766-69, but all of them were repulsed. Subsequently, Hsinbyushin continued his attack on Ayutthaya (Thailand) and the imperial policy continued even during the time of his brother. However, the Thais under the new Chakri dynasty of Bangkok were successful in defending their country. The Burmese, thereafter moved their forces beyond their borders along the western side for the conquest of Manipur, Assam and Kachar which precipitated a conflict with the British East India Company.

The British Conquest of Burma: First Burmese War (1824 – 26) The Burmese put forward their demand that the British East India Company cede Chittagong, Murshidabad, Kasim Bazaar, etc, but could not pursue the matter due to pre-occupation with the war with Siam (Thailand). After Siam’s defeat, the Burmese renewed the demand on the British and followed it up by an attack on Shahpuri, an island near Chittagong. The British East India Company under the Governor-General, Lord Amherst, declared war on Burma. Unfortunately, the military expeditions could not achieve their objective since the British company was unable to take effective steps. Hence, the war dragged on for nearly two years but in the end, the Burmese forces surrendered. The Burmese Government signed the Treaty of Yandaboo. According to this treaty, the Burmese king agreed to cede Arakan and Tenasserim. He agreed to pay the war indemnity of one million pounds to the British company in four instalments and also signed a commercial treaty. He agreed to receive a British resident in his court. For the British East India Company, the war proved to be very expensive in terms of money and casualties. As the treaty contained loopholes, it led to misunderstanding and bad faith between the two parties. The Burmese began to hate the British because the latter’s resident in their court acted like a spy. The British did not return Arakan and Tenasserim, but converted them into British colonies. The King’s brother, Therawaddy who headed a nationalist party, succeeded to the throne after a coup. In the meantime, the British were preparing an estimate of the Burmese natural resources with a view to promoting trade not only with Burma but also China (through Burma). They were also looking forward to the construction of a road leading to China via Burma. The British textile manufacturers were very excited at the prospect of a thriving trade with the Burmese and the Chinese after the completion of this road. The new king was not happy with the machinations of the British officials in Burma and put a stop to all foreign explorations in 1897. He was prepared to risk a war. In 1840, the British Resident, Major

Burney, became disappointed at the unfriendly attitude, of the Burmese Government and returned to India. Thus relations between Burma and the British East India Company turned sour.

Historical Development in Burma

Second Burmese War (1852) The Burmese Government took drastic steps to check the goods coming from India to the British firms in Rangoon, particularly the bullion. It considered the

bullion trade with foreigners as contraband. The British merchants trading in teak, complained to the Indian Governor-General about a new order of the Burmese Government which included the teak trade as a royal monopoly. The complaints of the British traders of Burma lodged with the commissioner became frequent and sometimes misrepresented as the Burmese Government’s policy of repression. The merchants in Rangoon also wrote to the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce to pursue the matter with the British East India Company for redressing their grievances. When Lord Dalhousie heard these complaints from the two British captains who were fined by the Burmese Government for their indiscretions, he ordered Commodore Lambert to go to Rangoon to investigate. Lambert’s battleships reached the Burmese coast and captured a Burmese royal ship which was patrolling the area. Naturally the Burmese Government was provoked. Dalhousie and Lambert needed an excuse to provoke the Burmese into declaring a war. The second Burmese war was fought and the Burmese forces were defeated for the second time, resulting in the British forces occupying Rangoon and Lower Burma (up to Toungoo). Burma sued for peace and offered all concessions. The war resulted in annexation of lower Burma (Pegu) to the Company territories. There was trouble in the Burmese court which made the British extend their border to another fifty miles to include the most coveted teak forests of Toungoo. The leader who opposed the Burmese King was MindonMin who finally replaced the Burmese King. He started fresh negotiations with Lord Dalhousie without giving up hope of receiving the lost territories. King Mindon tried to check the growing ambitions of the British company by denying a full-fledged treaty which the British demanded. Ultimately, it was Phayre, the British envoy, who succeeded in securing a treaty from Mindon in 1862, regarding trade with China via Burma. This treaty expired in 1866.

Third Burmese War (1885) In 1866-67, King Mindon faced rebellions in Upper Burma, which were followed by personal tragedies, i.e., the murders of many of his relatives and friends committed by his rebellious sons. He needed British help badly. The British took advantage of this situation and demanded several concessions that would have affected the sovereign status of Burma. In spite of this, the Burmese King signed the treaty in 1867 with the British. When he found in due course of time, that the British created problems for him, he cultivated the friendship of France, by offering a commercial treaty on highly favourable terms. The British

were jealous and felt cheated. They were also furious. When a consul named Augustus Margary was killed on the Burma-Chinese border, the British accused the Burmese government of complicity. In the meantime King Mindon died and Anglo-Burmese relations reached their lowest ebb. Prince Theebaw succeeded King Mindon and signed the treaty with the French, which the British considered as having compromised their position in Burma. Eventually France received preferential treatment which provoked the British. The main reason for the war with Burma was that a British trading company, namely, the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation, was found guilty by the Burmese council and had to lose its prized possession-the royal teak forests to the French syndicate. The French Syndicate was very eager to take over the royal teak forests from British control in Burma. The British Government was provoked and sent an ultimatum to the Burmese government to rescind the order passed on the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation or face war. The Burmese reply did not satisfy the British Government. Therefore, the latter declared war. The Burmese were defeated, with the result that Upper Burma was annexed to the British-Indian Dominions in 1885. The King and his family were taken prisoners and sent to western India. The treatment given by the British Government to the Burmese monarch provoked the Burmese to revolt and it took nearly five years for the British to totally suppress the revolt.

Thailand Foreign Relations The western nations had no difficulty in establishing rapport with King Mangkhut’s government and signed treaties of trade and friendship. In the meantime, reforms were introduced in banking, currency, communication and transport systems and so on, as a prelude to a treaty with the British, namely the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1855. This Anglo-Siamese Treaty provided for extraterritoriality and tariff control. Thus Britain enjoyed a status of most favored nation. Other western nations also demanded similar treatment from the Government of Thailand. Therefore, the King had to offer similar concessions to many, including the United States. In the meantime, the US sent Townsend Harris as an emissary to Thailand and he received a warm reception on his arrival. Other western nations, which received liberal commercial concessions, were France, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, Prussia, Belgium, Italy, Norway, and

Sweden, during the period 1856-68. King Mangkhut sought guarantees from these western powers to assist Thailand in preserving her independence. The treaty with France provided for the acceptance of Christian missionaries and their work of conversion in Thailand.

Modernisation The process of modernisation of Thailand was facilitated by King Mangkhut’s efforts. During King Mangkhut’s time, a network of road and communication systems helped to knit several parts of Thailand into one nation. A printing press was established for the publication of books, both native and western. The educational system in Thailand was revamped. Several programmes concerning health and public works were undertaken by the government. The banking system was modernised along with foreign trade, and several British firms were permitted to be established in Bangkok. The British influence, rather than the French, predominated the modernisation of the country. Before Mangkhut died, he signed the treaty with the French whereby the latter recognised Thailand’s control over two former Cambodian provinces, Siam Reap and Battambong.

King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910) The process of modernisation was further accelerated by Mangkhut’s Britisheducated son, Chulalongkorn (Rama V). Although the British and the French applied pressure on him to offer more and more concessions, it was this King who tactfully avoided conflicts with them. He tried his best to maintain the integrity and sovereignty of his country. He gained rich experience from his foreign travels (Java and India) and introduced several reforms. These reforms tried to bring about changes in the judicial system, revenue administration, taxation and trade (including opium trade). He abolished the age-old practice of prostration before the royal presence at the time of his coronation ceremony (1873). He introduced measures which aimed at abolishing slavery in gradual phases. He discontinued the practice of compelling members of certain classes from joining the army and police forces. The railways and telegraphs made their appearance in Thailand in 1875 and 1893, respectively. English medium schools and colleges were set up in the country and the government did not neglect elementary education of children. The rest of his reforms pertained to the administrative system which was to be based on the model of western nations. Several experts helped the King to

restructure the administrative system. As regards the political system, Thailand maintained a benevolent monarchy with a Privy Council which was to act in an advisory capacity. Besides this, there was a small Council of State. The King, being the head of the state, became the Chief Executive, and also acted as chairman of the Council of State. The government was not accountable to the people, but to the monarch who enjoyed absolute powers until the outbreak of the revolution of 1932.

Foreign Relations During the 1880s, Britain and France extended their control over Southeast Asia in general. France was eager to extend her control over Indochina including control over Laos. The French felt that Vietnam had a better claim over Laos than Thailand. It was this ambition of the French that caused anxiety to King Chulalongkorn and he decided to see that the volatile situation in Indochina did not go out of control. He did not want his country to become a colony of the French or the English. He initiated the desired diplomatic moves in this respect. Fortunately, it resulted in an understanding with the British on the French possessions in Indochina. It was at his instance, that Britain rejected the French proposal to serve the ends of both (Britain and France). But his negotiations with Britain and France brought about a marginal loss of Thai territories. France succeeded in snatching away Laos from Thailand (1893). Britain signed a treaty with France by which Thailand was to remain a buffer zone between the two. Britain signed a convention in 1909, with Thailand, by which the latter agreed not to offer concessions or rights south of the 11th Parallel to any power. Britain, in return, agreed to protect the rights of Thailand. She further agreed to help Thailand to construct its railways by offering a soft loan. Thailand agreed to cede some of her territories in the Malay States, namely, Kelantan, Terengannu, Kedah and Perlis in reciprocity. To sum up, the King gave peripheral areas as a bargaining point, in order to protect the core of his kingdom. The two sons of Chulalongkorn, namely, Vajiravudh (1910-25) and Prajadhipok (1925-35) succeeded one after the other as Rama VI and Rama VII respectively. Both had been highly westernised and therefore, tried to introduce radical reforms in the economic and social spheres. Rama VI introduced compulsory education and established a university named after his father in 1917. He also introduced public schools and encouraged the scout movement. He encouraged the Thai women to imitate western women in their dress, customs and manners. His bodyguards wore colourful uniforms. Thailand could

boast of a club and a rugby football team which were started by the king. His eagerness to westernise the Thai traditional society provoked the orthodox elements to rebel. Two attempts were made by these sections to assassinate him and both failed. During the Great War, Thailand declared her hostility towards Germany in order to please the Allies. Her government was eager to acquire German shipping and railway interests during the course of the war. It was at this time that the Western powers, led by the United States, voluntarily gave up their extra-territorial rights over Thailand. Thailand was made a member of the League of Nations. The Government of Thailand brought about a legislation by which slavery was abolished. Many Thai students started going abroad for higher studies.

Rama VII (Prajadhipok) He continued to carry forward the democratic reform process with a liberal outlook. Unfortunately, the conservative-minded Thai aristocracy and also members of the princely families were not happy. They resisted his attempts to democratise the Privy Council and the Supreme Council of the state by converting them into a bicameral legislature. In this struggle, the Thai aristocrats succeeded in securing some rights and privileges for themselves in Parliament and also in the civil service. The reforms of Prajadhipok could not satisfy the demands of the educated middle class, because they did not go far enough. In the meantime, Thailand witnessed several modern features of public utilities such as the airport, hospitals, banking system, the opening of libraries and museums, and the establishment of royal institutes for literature and architecture.

The Bloodless Revolution of 1932 The worldwide economic depression hit Thailand hard. In 1932, the Thai Government was compelled to introduce heavy cuts in the budget, resulting in reduction of the salaries of civil servants with no prospect of further promotions. Thailand’s economic problems began to increase because of her determination to stick to the gold standard at a time, when several countries had abandoned it. As a result, the exports of Thailand, particularly those of rice and teak, began to decline sharply. With government revenues falling, there were further cuts in the budget. As a results the educated unemployed and the disgruntled army officials hatched a plot and overthrew the government on 24 June, 1932 (when the King

was away in New York). This revolution was known as the Bloodless Revolution because the coup leaders did not want any outside interference in the internal affairs of their country. After the revolution, the army played an important role in Thai politics. For a few years, Thailand witnessed a struggle for power between two parties, namely the middle class led by Pridi Phanomyong (a leftist and university professor) and Phibun Songkhram, an ultra-nationalist army colonel with military support. The latter had the support of the rightists. While these factions fought for power, there were others such as Prince Boworadej and Sri Sitthi Songkhram (a royalist general) who also staged a counter coup. After fierce fighting, Phibun Songkhram of the people’s army smashed the counter coup. The struggle ultimately resulted in the abdication of King Prajadhipok in 1935, in favour of his ten-year-old son, Ananda. A constitutional monarchy along the British model was established.

Laos Laos is a land-locked country in Southeast Asia with its boundaries touching several of her neighbours such as China, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. In her early history, she was deeply influenced by Indian culture, although ethnically, Laotians are divided into four major groups, namely Lao Lum (C Valley Lao), Lao Tai (Tribal Thai), Lao Theng (Lao of Mountain sides) and Lao Sung (Lao of Mountain tops). Indian culture spread to Laos through the Chinese, Khmers and Thais, and probably from the time of Emperor Ashoka. Originally, Laotians lived in small principalities along the border of south China from the first century AD, and one of the kings, Luang Limao was influenced by Mahayana Buddhism in the first century AD. In the course of time, the Tai peoples (of whom today’s Laotians are a branch) migrated to present-day Yunnan province (southwestern China) and built the powerful Nanzhao kingdom which ruled over southern China and Southeast Asia during the eighth and ninth centuries. Thereafter, the kingdom of Chenla and its successor the Khmer Empire ruled Laos. It was not until the middle of the fourteenth century that Laos emerged as a unified state. The credit for this goes to King Fa Ngum who founded the Lan Xang (meaning million elephants) which included Luang Prabang and presentday Vientiane in 1353. After marrying the daughter of the King of Ayutthaya, Fa Ngum’s control and influence extended to the upper Mekong region. He was very ambitious and fought many battles with the neighbouring kingdoms in

order to expand his small kingdom into an empire. The seat of his capital was Luang Prabang. His successors maintained good relations with the powerful kingdoms of Thailand and Annam. Another Laotian King, Photisarath (1520-47) became famous after he built Wat Visoun. He became a Buddhist monk in 1525 AD. His son Setathirath shifted the capital from Luang Prabang to Vian-Chang (Vientiane) in order to improve commercial relations with the kingdoms of Thailand and Annam. Laos was fortunate enough to be free from the incursions of the Europeans in Southeast Asia for a long time. This was probably due to its peculiar geographical position. Laos came to be profoundly influenced by Hindu culture as reflected in her literature, religion and art.

French Colonial Rule French Premier Jules Ferry advocated aggressive imperialism in the Far East as well as in Southeast Asia. He enunciated this forward policy for the main reason that it would improve French trade with Southeast Asian countries. France continued to extend her colonial rule in the Tongking delta. It was soon followed by Annam after signing a treaty with France in 1873, thereby accepting the French protectorate. By 1885, the French empire included Cochinchina and Kampuchea. Thailand was feeling the thrust of French imperialism on the one side and British pressure on the other. Her fate as an independent country hung in the balance. To save herself from French subjugation, she had to cede control over Laos, which was her province at that time. France put forward her claim as overlord of Annam, since the latter had more legitimate claims over Laos than Thailand. In 1889, the French Ambassador to Britain, Wadington, suggested to the British Government the division of Thailand along the Mekong River and the ceding of Laos to France. The proposal was rejected, but because of certain geopolitical implications, it was agreed in 1893, that Thailand would remain a buffer state. France put pressure on Thailand by a show of force and the latter had to cede Laos which became a French protectorate from 1893.

Indirect Rule of the French The French Government was of the opinion that French culture “was of universal value and superiority”. Therefore, they forced all high level Laotian officials to imbibe French culture. The native officials continued to function under the king with the headquarters at Luang Prabang. The native courts, councils and assemblies also continued to function in a routine manner but with

a difference. The difference was that the French official known as ResidentSuperieur was at the helm, directing, superintending and controlling the levers of administration through the native officials. In other words, the native people, bureaucrats and even the king had little influence over many policy matters. The French officials enjoyed all key positions in the administrative hierarchy and remained proud of the fact that they had brought about political modernisation of the country based on French culture. Unfortunately, the French policies led to harmful effects on the “rice-farming economy”, leading to poverty with attendant social evils. The age-old political and social institutions in Laos began to decline. Only the landlords, moneylenders and corrupt bureaucrats began to derive benefits from French rule. In the course of time, the educated middle class became assertive and took up the cause of liberating the country from the shackles of colonial rule.

The Philippines The modern Philippines, with its capital seat at Manila, has an area of 2,99,404 sq kms, comprising more than 7,107 islands and a population of 92.3 million. Philippines had no regular history to boast of, until the arrival of the Spaniards in 1570. The principal religions are Christianity and Islam and the people speak Filipino and English. Situated at a distance of 600 miles across the South-China Sea from the coast of Vietnam, the Philippines, in prehistoric times, was inhabited by a race of Aetas. Archaeologists have traced Neolithic, Bronze age settlements (Bato caves) in Samar and early iron age and urn burial sites in Masbate. We also observe cultural influence of Hinduism in the Philippines, since people in the early ages had come into contact with the Sri Vijaya kingdom. About ten per cent of the Negrito population of the present day Philippines claimed their ancestry to Indonesia. In other words, Indonesian emigrants must have settled in the south coast of the Philippines before the advent of the Christian era. A big group of Malay immigrants arrived in the fifteenth century bringing Islam with them. It must be remembered that the Malays of Mindanao and South Palawan had embraced Islam earlier. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Philippines, Islam had spread to many parts of the southern Philippines. During the thirteenth century, people living in Luzon island worshipped idols. The chiefs used white umbrellas. In the course of time, the people of Luzon received merchandise from Chinese and Japanese traders. Their influence was also felt on the Filipinos because many of them began to worship the spirits

of the ancestors represented by figures of animals.

The Spanish Conquest Following the decision of the Council of Trent (European Reformation period) it was decided by the Catholic Church to refurbish its image all over the world. King Philip II of Spain acted as the Champion-agent of the spread of Catholicism all over Europe and the rest of the world. This missionary zeal motivated the Spanish explorers to spread the Catholic faith among the heathens of Asia. After Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage (1521-22), Spain put forward her claim to the spice islands, but after the Treaty of Sargossa in 1529, the Portuguese Government permitted Spain to conquer the Philippines. It was not until 1565, that the Spaniards established their first settlement in Cebu which was followed by the conquest of Luzon in 1566. In 1567, the Spaniards occupied a small town called Manila. In the beginning, the Spanish conquest of the Philippines was opposed by the Chinese of Taiwan, the Dutch, the British and also the Muslim inhabitants of the southern islands of Mindanao and Sulu (whom the Spaniards called Moros). They were all afraid that the Spaniards may create political and economic problems for them. However, it was in the first half of the nineteenth century, that their resistance to the Spanish rule was overcome by the Spanish Government.

The Catholic Church in the Philippines The Church propagated the Christian faith among the Filipinos and brought about large-scale conversions, but the converted Filipinos continued to practise their ancient rituals and also believed in animistic spirits. The Catholic Church somehow had to tolerate these practices. Every village in the Philippines had a church where a priest met the people regularly, learnt their language (Tagalog), and spread Christian faith. The Spaniards granted lands to individuals on certain conditions, particularly to those who got converted to Christianity, and these lands came to be known as Encomiendas. After a long time, the descendants of these landowners came to be known as Encomenderos and they became virtual landed proprietors. There were estates of the Friars which were given on lease to Filipino-Mestizos (mixed filipino and foreign anscestry) on a fifty-fifty basis. Then there were Pueblos, that is, lands owned by the common residents.

Spanish Trade The Spanish trade from Manila to their colony in Mexico continued with the export of items like silk, porcelain, spices and jewellery. These were all received from the Chinese merchants. The Chinese merchants of Manila had brisk trade with the natives of the Philippines. Since, the Philippines had nothing to import or export, the Spanish directed the trade of Manila-based Chinese merchants to other Spanish colonies. Thus the Mexican dollar reigned in Southeast Asia for nearly three centuries. Attempts of the Spaniards to gain a foothold in mainland China and Japan failed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In spite of the attacks of the locals like Moros, the Chinese, and the Dutch, the Spaniards were able to establish their administration on the model of Spanish-ruled Mexico. The Spaniards were able to establish their authority over many islands and brought about their integration in the administrative set-up. Forced labour of nonChristians was permitted in the Philippines. The attacks of the Dutch ceased after 1648, when Spain recognised the independence of the Netherlands. The Bishop of Manila exercised great influence and power over the people, since he was next in rank to the Spanish Governor-General. Then, there was the audience, the court of Governor General, under the treasury office, all situated at Manila.

Early Rebellions Against Spanish Rule In the course of time, Spanish rule became very oppressive due to forced labour, loss of lands, and tribute payments. All these atrocities resulted in a number of rebellions during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the beginning, it was easy to rebel since Spain had not fully succeeded in establishing her control over the hundreds of islands scattered everywhere. Leaders of non-Christian subjects often found it easy to organise revolts against Spanish rule in the name of religion. In 1621, there were revolts in Bohol and Leyte, which were easily crushed by the Spanish Government because they were not properly coordinated. Then there was the serious revolt at Luzon in 1649, by the Visayan labourers in the Manila shipyard. But this was also crushed. Another revolt in the Pampanga section of Luzon in 1660-61, also did not succeed, although it spread widely.

British Occupation of Manila The revolts against Spanish rule became frequent in the eighteenth century, since

the Filipinos no longer tolerated the Spanish atrocities. However, the third in the series of revolts, which occurred in the eighteenth century coincided with the British-Indian occupation of Manila, which lasted twenty months. This occupation ended after signing the Paris Treaty (1763) between Britain and Spain.

Secularisation Programme It was then that the Spanish King, Charles III, seriously considered introducing reforms in the much distressed colony of the Philippines. The first of these reforms was introduced by Governor de La Torre, which aimed at eliminating the hold of the dominant clergy over the subjects. The Jesuit Society was expelled from the Philippines in 1768, and further denunciation of the role of the friars by the government continued. Then, the Spanish Government in the Philippines began to blame the Church for interfering in state matters and causing great suffering to the Filipinos. The government began recruiting secular-minded priests for the church-posts. But this secularisation programme did not achieve its objective.

Economic Reforms The Spanish Governor attempted to introduce economic reforms so as to make the Philippines self-sufficient. The government encouraged the natives to cultivate cotton, sugarcane, mulberry trees, tobacco, indigo and hemp. At the same time, the government encouraged the growth of industries and commerce. The Spanish Governor founded the “Economic Society of the Friends of the Country” for the purpose of encouraging industry and commerce. A new commercial code in 1769, provided for the establishment of the Chamber of Commerce. But in the middle of the nineteenth century, Manila’s foreign trade and business showed sharp decline, and this was due to the opening of Chinese ports, including the port of Hong Kong, to British trade. However, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 gave stimulus to Filipino trade.

Malaysia (Suvarnadvipa) Today’s Malaysia in Southeast Asia occupies an area of 330,434 sq kms with a population of about 28.3 million. A majority of Malaysians speak Bahasa-

Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is the capital of the country. Malaysia’s ethnic population includes Malays, Chinese and Indians and they are spread all over her thirteen states. Malaysia produces the largest quantity of rubber and tin in the world today. The ancestors of the people of Malaysia may have migrated from southern parts of China around 2500 BC. Today’s ethnic element in Southeast Asia in general, and Malaysia in particular, is composed of brown-skinned Malays. The proto-Malays, who came from China earlier, brought with them the Neolithic culture. The Bueteor-Malays who came to Malaysia in 300 BC introduced the bronze culture and spread a common language.

Hindu Kingdoms and Buddhist Elements In the early centuries of the Christian era, India and China were having brisk maritime trade, with the result that a few Hindu colonies took birth in Malaysia. The Sanskrit inscriptions of the fourth century AD suggest the existence of the Hindu colonies of Langkasuka and Tambralinga, among several others, which played an important role in the spread of Hindu culture. In the kingdom of Ch’ih-tu, the king became a Saivite and his court was graced by several hundred Brahmins. The small kingdom of Tun Sun came to be known for its trade and was inhabited by a large Brahmin population according to Chinese sources. Another Hindu kingdom known as Pan Pan sent its ambassadors to China in 527, 530 and 536 AD and one of them carried the supposed tooth of the Buddha as a gift to the Chinese emperor. Another important settlement was Nakhon Sri Dhammarat, which was situated on the bay of Bandon which turned into a Buddhist colony. This colony contained a stupa surrounded by a number of temples. Similarly, another settlement, Caiya, was originally Brahminical but turned into a Buddhist one. It must not be forgotten that the Sri Vijaya and Sailendra empires included large parts of the Malay peninsula. The Sailendras called Malaysia, Kalinga, thereby suggesting that people there might have been the emigrants of the kingdom of Kalinga (India). The Hindu and Buddhist influence on the Malay population continued till the advent of Islam.

The Spread of Islam The spread of Islam was the work of the newly converted Muslims who came to trade in this region during the late thirteenth century. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Islam spread to Southeast Asia in a peaceful manner, unlike in

India. Malacca became a great centre for the propagation of Islam and surprisingly, it also permitted the new converts to follow the age-old Hindu customs and traditions and also the Keramat (an object inherited by spirits). Parameshwara, the exiled prince of Palembang of the fifteenth century, decided to make Malacca a great port city. He established a close relationship with the Muslim kingdoms of Sumatra. His son Magadh, who came to power, got himself converted to Islam in order to oblige his Muslim father-in-law, the Sultan of Pasai. Subsequently, mass conversions of merchants, soldiers, and slaves took place in the neighbouring islands emulating the example of Malacca. It must be remembered that Islamisation had nothing to do with day-to-day business of the merchants, and Malacca soon became a great centre of learning. The kingdom of Malacca turned into an empire with a number of tin-producing states (Klang, Selangor and Bemam) paying annual tributes. Another king, Tun Perak, brought further glory by conquering Pahang, Johor, Benkalin, the Carimon islands, Bintang and several small Sumatran kingdoms in the second half of the fifteenth century.

The Portuguese Rule After Tun Perak’s death, a rival dynasty led by Tun Mutahir came to power in Malacca. His whimsical rule turned very arbitrary and corrupt, with the result that he was executed in 1510, and the next year witnessed the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese. The Portuguese ruled Malacca for nearly 130 years (1511-1641). They eventually lost control of Malacca to the Dutch due to the hostilities of the Muslim kingdoms of Johor, Achin and Java. A century and a half of Dutch rule over the East Indies came to an end due to the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in Europe. The British took over the Dutch interests in the Indian Archipelago at the specific request of King William V. Even after the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch interests continued due to the loss of Ceylon (1815) and subsequently the Malay peninsula (1824). A European agreement of 1824 carved out spheres of influence, leaving the Malay peninsula to the British, and Indonesian islands to the Dutch.

British Acquisition in the Straits The acquisition of the straits of Malacca and nearby islands was under consideration in the face of the Franco-Dutch rivalry. And in 1786, a British officer, Francis Light, negotiated with the Sultan of Kedah for the acquisition of

Penang island for the British. Subsequently, a coastal strip on the mainland of Malaya called Province Wellesley, was acquired. By a peculiar logic of circumstances, Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British Governor of Java (which was restored to the Dutch in 1818), prepared the necessary plan for the acquisition of the island of Singapore by outright purchase. The British had no use of Malacca, since it had lost its fort and harbour to the others. Raffles looked upon Singapore as a suitable alternative and cajoled the local chief and his overlord Rian Sultan to lease the present site of Singapore in 1823-24 By 1824-26, the British had acquired Penang, Wellesley, Malacca (received from the Dutch after ceding Benkulen) and Singapore, with the last serving as the main trading and administrative headquarters in the Straits. Britain’s trade with China flourished and Singapore served as a free port. Singapore attracted many big businessmen and traders from China, the United States, Britain and the nearby countries of Southeast Asia. The European powers, using the straits of Malacca, suppressed piracy in this region. In the course of time, the British acquired Labuan island with the help of the British adventurer, James Brooke, who enabled them to suppress piracy. The North Borneo Chartered Company, managed by the Dent brothers, obtained sovereign and territorial rights over North Borneo from the Sultan of Brunei in 1884. In 1888, North Borneo became a British protectorate.

Forward Policy of the British The British Government was not ready to accept full responsibility for the administration of the states acquired in the Malay peninsula till 1871, because of the continuous rivalry of the European powers on the one hand, and the troubles created by the influx of Chinese immigrants into this region, on the other. However, the situation changed after 1871, when the British got wind of the rumour that France or Germany might occupy Malaya.

Frequent British Intervention Political turmoil in Malaya compelled the British merchants to appeal to their government to intervene and restore order. The outgoing ministry of Gladstone appointed Sir Andrew Clarke to deal with the volatile political situation in Malaya. With his arrival, British intervention in the internal matters of the different sultanates of Malaya became the order of the day. Timely British intervention resulted in the ending of the disputed succession in Perak and also

prevented a likely civil war in Selangor. The British established what is known as the Resident systems in Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. Johor was turned into a British protectorate in 1895.

Birth of the Malay Federation The British created the Federation of the Malay States in 1895 by uniting four states― Perak, Selangor, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan. The latter was composed of nine Minangkabau districts including Sungai Ujong. This Federation was controlled by a British Resident-General whose headquarters was situated in Kuala Lumpur. The British Residents working in these states received necessary instructions from the Resident-General, Swettenham, from time to time. The rulers and the Residents of these states gathered periodically to discuss and solve individual and mutual problems facing their states. The British, thus carried on this type of indirect rule through the Resident system without disturbing the local institutions in Malaya. In 1909, Thailand ceded four states to the British, namely, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Terengganu as a part of their bargain of signing the Anglo-Thai convention. On the whole, the Malay peninsula came under British control, some administered as crown colonies, some others as protected states, and the rest as unfederated states with British Residents.

Impact of British Rule Decades of British rule over Malaya eventually led to the rise of political consciousness among the people. The reasons for this may be the unity of the country through administration and other features of modernisation, such as introduction of Postal and Telegraph systems, the Railroad system, application of scientific methods of cultivation of rubber, sugar cane, coconuts and coffee, and intense mining of tin. These features of British rule paved the way for a class system. The British also introduced their courts of law and system of administration which left little scope for the people to enjoy self-rule. In the meantime, Singapore was emerging as a great centre of trade and business by the middle of the twentieth century.

Malaya – A Multi-racial Society Malaya had a multi-racial society by the early nineteenth century. The immigration of Chinese in large numbers to this region began in the early nineteenth century, and in the course of time, the Chinese community owned tin mines in all the states. It was in the late nineteenth century that the British recruited Indian coolies who came to work in the rubber plantations and factories owned by the British. The British preferred Indian coolies to the local population, because the Malays preferred fishing and cultivation to “regimented employment”. The Indian coolies were also employed by the Chinese mineowning community and sugar-barons. Thus, the ethnic groups of Malaya, namely, Malays, Chinese, and Indians could not be integrated easily because they remained educationally backward. The British were also responsible for this heterogeneity, because they felt it was better to keep them segregated for their own good. Thus their policy ultimately resulted in the general neglect of the country. It was in 1920, that the British tried to change this policy through the decentralisation of administration.

Multi-racial Society Undergoing Strain During the periods, 1921-22 and 1930-32, the Chinese and Indian workers in Malaya faced unemployment. The unemployment figure rose to 60,000 by 192122, and two-thirds of those affected were Indians. Similarly, during the time of worldwide economic depression (1929-32), rubber prices fell sharply throwing many people out of work. Those who remained employed, had to suffer a decrease in wages (up to fifty per cent). As a result of this economic recession, there were serious strains in Malay’s multi-racial society. The Malays became apprehensive because they constituted only forty-four per cent of the population of the country by 1931 as compared to fifty-one per cent in 1911. This imbalance in the proportion of the population led to their hatred of Indian coolies (mainly Tamilians from South India). Furthermore, the Malays became aware of their increasing dependence on Chinese traders and moneylenders.

Increasing Communist Influence By 1920, the Chinese settlers in Malaya became politically conscious, more so with the visit of Sun Yat Sen on exile in Penang, and the establishment of the Kuomintang party. The Communist wing of this party led by Michael Borodin

wielded considerable influence over their comrades in Malaya. Malaya in the 1930s, witnessed strikes and boycotts in plantations, mines, transport system, and naval construction works by members of the Communist Party.

Japanese Occupation The Malay-Chinese began to extend support to the Communist Party when Japan conquered parts of China prior to and during the Second World War. Japan conquered Malaya after the surrender of British Governor-General, Percival in February, 1942, at Singapore. The Japanese who occupied Malaya discovered that the Malay-Chinese were a tough nut to crack. Many of these Malay-Chinese had suffered immensely during the period of economic depression. The unemployed squatted on government land, and thereafter, went underground, and subsequently joined the communist guerilla groups. In the meantime, the Malayan people’s anti-Japanese force launched its resistance movement directed against the Japanese occupation of their country. The Japanese army set up a military regime after disturbing the British political arrangements. Malaya was divided into eight provinces, and subsequently the island of Sumatra was also added. The four British protectorates in Malaya, taken from Thailand by the British earlier (1909) were returned to Thailand. At the end of the war, the Japanese became friendly and gave hints to the Malays, that they could have a new Malaya with some additional territories. However, their promises could not materialise because they were increasingly coming under the pressure of the Malay-Chinese communist guerilla groups who were helping the British with arms supplies in their jungle hideouts. Thus, the British could increase the pressure on the Japanese by a proper understanding with the communist guerilla groups. The communist guerilla groups began to destroy Japanese establishments till they surrendered in 1945.

Indonesia The Portuguese Rule (1511-1641) The collapse of the Majapahit empire (Hindu empire based in island of Java) in early 16th century led to the rise and spread of Islam in Indonesia, thanks to the Sultans of Malacca. Bantam, Moluccas, Borneo, Brunei and the Philippines too came under the influence of Islam in the early sixteenth century. In 1510, Tun

Mutahir, the bendahara (prime minister) of Malaccan Sultanate, was accused of conspiring to overthrow Sultan Mahmud Shah and therefore executed. The Portuguese troops commanded by Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque took advantage of the ensuing chaotic situation in Malacca and captured it in 1511. Sultan Mahmud Shah escaped to Pahang, a nearby island, and subsequently founded the kingdom of Johor. It was the city-state of Aceh, the northern-most part of Sumatra, which after the fall of Malacca, tried to imitate the culture of the Mughal empire. It copied some of the court-manners, dress, titles, laying of the gardens, art and architecture from the Mughal empire. This city-state maintained contacts with the Middle East countries, and extended all facilities to Muslim pilgrims going to Mecca. The numerous Muslim kingdoms in the Malay archipelago regarded the Portuguese as most uncivilised enemies. The Muslim merchants came to know that they no longer enjoyed the monopoly of spice trade that was being transacted from Cairo to the Moluccas. They regarded the Portuguese as the usurper who had snatched away the spice trade from them. They boycotted the Portuguese business in Malacca and gave much importance to the newly developed port of Aceh (north-east of Sumatra). The nearby Brunei was ruled by a Sultan. It was an important port of the island of Borneo, which received goods from Java, Moluccas and the Champa. The Portuguese got major trading concessions from the Sultan of Ternate in the Moluccas. However, the Portuguese monopoly over spice trade continued until 1641, when the Dutch captured Malacca. During their regime, the Portuguese had built a large number of trading stations at Ternate, Amboyna, Tidore, Borneo, Celebes, New Guinea and Timor. They also held trading posts in Ayudhya (Thailand), Burma and Khambuja.

The Dutch Monopoly The rise of the Anglo-Dutch combination against the Portuguese in Southeast Asia was the direct result of the attempt made by the Spanish King, Philip II (also ruling over Portugal) to stop the Dutch Protestants from trading with Lisbon. It must be remembered that the Dutch had been buying spices from the Portuguese ports and thereafter selling them to Europeans. The policy of King Philip II was aimed at compelling the Dutch Protestants to total submission to Spanish rule. Unfortunately, this attempt backfired. The Dutch thereafter decided to go after the main source, the East Indies, for procuring spices. Therefore,

Southeast Asia assumed great importance as a region for the development of spice-trade. The British and the Dutch established trading posts in almost all the places in Southeast Asia for the purpose of trade. Before a proper understanding could be reached, the Dutch governor-general of the United East India Company, signed treaties with the native rulers which ultimately resulted in the alienation of the British. To eliminate their trade rival, the Dutch brought about a horrendous massacre of the British at Amboyna (1619). Thereafter the British became more interested in developing their trade with India. It was this loss of interest on the part of the British and the Spanish which enabled the Dutch to establish a monopoly on the spice trade. Unfortunately, the Portuguese remained in the field and they had to be eliminated.

The Dutch Capture of Malacca (1641) The Dutch company prospered under the able leadership of General Jan Pieterszoon Coen, the Governor-General (1618, 1623, 1627-29), and this was partly due to the fall of the Portuguese trading posts, one by one, into the hands of the Dutch. However, the climax came, when in 1641, the Dutch succeeded in the capturing the Portuguese strategic and prosperous trading centre, Malacca. This victory of the Dutch enabled them to establish their control over the strategic straits of Malacca and Sunda. The Dutch followed a policy of nonintervention with regard to the culture and customs of the natives. However, they developed political ambitions whenever the native states experienced political instability. In the course of time, the Dutch conquered the principal Javanese states of Bantam and Mataram. Unlike the Portuguese, the Dutch set up indirect rule over the conquered native states. Their primary interest in the beginning was expansion of trade and profit. Through their local agents, they compelled the local peasants to grow more spices by extending cultivation. The peasants had to sell their produce to the agents at low price and in turn, paid low wages to the landless labourers working in their fields. The Dutch established their capital at Batavia (Jakarta) in 1619 and organised their administration to suit local conditions. It was mostly managed by Dutch administrators. The Governor-General established a Council of State which was composed of representatives of the government, namely the governors of provinces and numerous residents. This system of administration continued for a long time. However, when the profits of the Dutch company began to decline, the government resorted to employing the migrant Chinese

labourers to work on the land and in factories at incredibly low wages.

Direct Rule of Dutch Government Dutch rule had a serious impact on the local natives whose life had become miserable due to exploitation. Piracy and smuggling became the order of the day and this was due to mismanagement during the rule of the Dutch company. In Europe, the French Revolution ran its course, and was followed by Napoleonic rule. These events had some effect on the Dutch company over the East Indies in 1798, on grounds of mismanagement. At that time the rule of the Dutch company had spread to the nearby island, such as the Banda islands, the Moluccas, the Celebes, Java and Sumatra in Southeast Asia, besides Ceylon in South Asia. The Napoleonic wars in Europe and the subsequent settlement of the Congress of Vienna forced the Dutch to cede the Dutch Indies to the British. It was also in accordance with the wishes of King William V of the Netherlands who had sought British protection at the time when Holland was overrun by the French forces. The British forces occupied the Dutch Indies for a short period. After the settlement of the Congress of Vienna, the territories were returned to the Dutch, but Britain retained Ceylon for herself. During the years 1800-1820, the East Indies went through a series of reforms probably reflecting the liberal philosophy prevailing in Europe at that time. The reform of the Dutch Indies began during the Napoleonic rule in the Netherlands. It was introduced by a Dutch lawyer, Herman Daendals (18081810) in Java. His services were not very much appreciated even though he reduced corruption in the bureaucracy, and established an administration of justice in tune with the adat (local customs). Daendals encouraged the production of cash crops. He also tried to improve the means of transport and communication in Batavia and Surabaya.

British Reforms When the British took over the island of Java from the Dutch during the period 1811-1860, Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed Lt.Governor by Lord Minto, the then Governor-General of India. Raffles had earlier worked as a British agent in the Malay States, and therefore was well-versed with their language and culture. Raffles sincerely believed in improving the conditions of the people of Java. His radical reforms brought about all-round development. It

included the reorganisation of administration, the abolition of the old forced delivery system, tax restructuring, and revenue reassessment of agricultural lands. One of his most important reforms was the introduction of the Ryotwari systems by which the actual cultivator became the land owner, subject to the payment of land tax directly to the government. Raffles introduced courts of Justice on the model of the British system, which included trial by jury in three large ports, namely, Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya.

The Archipelago in AD 1400

Division of Malay Archipelago The British transferred their power to the Dutch in 1816. In 1824, the British and the Dutch signed a treaty which provided for the division of the Malay archipelago into two regions. The British gained control over the Malay States whereas the Dutch exercised their sovereignty over the East Indies (Indonesia). Britain developed Tumasik, the strategic centre of trade situated at the southern

tip of Malaya. Tumasik was renamed Singapore. The British also developed two other great centres, namely, Penang and Malacca. Penang was acquired in 1824, after giving compensation to Sultan Hussain and the Temenggong for their loss.

The Dutch Rule Continues The restoration of the Dutch reactionary rule in Indonesia soon after the liberal phase of British rule, was galling to the natives. Moreover, when the Dutch intervened in a dynastic dispute in the royal house of Jog-Jakarta, it provoked deep resentment. This resentment turned into a war known as the Java war. The decision of the Dutch Government to construct a road across Diponegoro’s (a Javanese prince) property, which was held sacred because of a sacred tomb, made conditions worse. The Muslim natives in this area declared a war against the Dutch government, which. Diponegoro was arrested and subsequently banished. Therefore, the war with the Dutch became inevitable with the result that the government lost 15,000 soldiers, mostly Europeans. A famine broke out in this region which resulted in the death of more that 200,000 people. This war with the natives had made the Dutch Government bankrupt.

‘The Culture System’ To explore avenues for raising money from the natives, the Dutch Government introduced what is known as the ‘Culture system’. The man chosen to carry out this task was Johannes van den Bosch, a repressive economic adviser. He was appointed Governor-General in 1830. Van den Bosch tried to complete the task by recourse to forced labour among the natives. According to his plan, the Javanese peasant was forced to raise cash crops for exports by working freely on one-fifth of his land in a year under the supervision of the native agents. As a result, the native cultivators were forced to neglect their own farm work so as to promote the Dutch venture. In the meantime, the Dutch set up a double government in Indonesia which separated power and responsibility. The responsibility for improving the production of cash crops fell on the shoulders of native supervisors and agents, while power was wielded by the Dutch Government. This government of Van den Bosch made Holland a prosperous country because of heavy exploitation of the natives and resources in Indonesia. He was rewarded with a baronetcy, and subsequently made a Count (1839). The Dutch economy showed great signs of progress because of the transfer of resources and wealth from Indonesia. The Culture system of Van den Bosch

resulted in widespread famines (1848-50) since land and labour were diverted from rice cultivation. The Dutch policy of exploiting the people of Indonesia engendered a sense of alienation. It was Eduard Douwes Dekker’s Max Havelaar, which brought to light the outrageous evils of Dutch rule, and their atrocities perpetrated on the Javanese community under the culture system. This book was widely read in the Netherlands, and the government was forced to take necessary steps to mitigate the harsh conditions prevailing in Indonesia due to public outcry. The new Constitution of 1848, of the Netherlands was liberal in character, and it assigned to Parliament the responsibility of looking after the Dutch colonies. Under the conservative rule, some major reforms were introduced which included the cancellation of the monopoly enjoyed by the Netherlands trading society, modifying the rigours of the repressive regime, and the removal of restraints on the production of rice (in order to prevent famines). Slavery was abolished in 1860. However, these reforms did not go far enough to improve the living conditions of the people. The Liberal Party came to power in the Netherlands in 1863, and continued the process of reforms. Van de Putte, the Minister of Colonies, abolished the Culture system in the cultivation of some cash crops in 1866, but sugar and coffee remained untouched until 1890 and 1917, respectively. The next dose of reforms tried to reduce the sufferings of the cultivators. It encouraged the process of privatisation, and gradually a large number of European entrepreneurs entered the production and marketing of commercial crops. As the Javanese population increased on a limited land, there was little prospect of further exploitation. Therefore, the European entrepreneurs ventured into the outer islands to increase the production of rubber, tobacco, oil and mining. They were allowed to exploit the leased lands and import capital and labour. The only relief felt by the Indonesian workers was that the wage contractors were afraid of breaking the new laws. The attempt of the Dutch to control the outer islands resulted in the outbreak of a war with a fanatical section of the Aceh. The war ended after thirty years (1873-1903) with disastrous results. Some powerful corporations in Indonesia gained huge profits but hardly cared for the welfare of the workers employed by them. Therefore, the government felt it necessary to intervene to remedy the situation.

The Ethical Programme It tried to improve the conditions of the people through what is called the Ethical

Programme, which had been advocated by a large number of intellectuals in Indonesia. The Ethical Programme aimed at mitigating the hard conditions prevailing in the country due to the alien rule. But the European business community opposed this scheme because of the enormous expenditure involved in carrying it out. They regarded this as unnecessary and wasteful. Despite their opposition, the Dutch Government inaugurated this programme in 1901, of course, with a lot of misgivings. Under this programme, the government tried to promote agriculture and industry. It offered protection to the native industries. The Factory Act was passed in 1903, which tried to improve the condition of the labour. It tried to modify the control of labour recruitment policy of the government. A number of irrigation projects were undertaken to bring more areas under cultivation. Public-credit facilities were extended to the poor peasants to wean them away from moneylenders. The government also introduced a health programme and extended educational facilities to the native children. In spite of these efforts, the Ethical Programme of the government did not bring much relief to the people of Indonesia. The economy of the country began to slide. The Muslim-majority Indonesian population did not extend full support to the Ethical Programme of the government because they thought that it was based on Christian Ethics. When the Ethical Programme failed to achieve its objective, it led to the rise of political consciousness among the middle-class Indonesians.

Revival and Fall of the Khmer Empire (Kampuchea) The Kambuja’s decline was halted by their last great ruler, King Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1280 AD). His vast empire included the whole of Indochina except southern Malaya, Tongking and upper Burma. He founded a new capital, the famous Angkor Thom, and surrounded it with a wall and a ditch. He built the famous temple of Bayon which is known for its architectural wonder. He built numerous temples, hospitals, and choultries(resting places with nominal fees) which resulted in a heavy drain on the royal treasury. It eventually led to the fall of the Khmer empire. The Chams and the Thais, particularly the latter, who were encouraged by the Mongols, were responsible for the breakup of the Khmer empire. Also, the decline of the Khmer empire was attributed to the rise of Theravada Buddhism which denied the concept of the divine origin of kingship. The shrunken Khmer kingdoms which existed acknowledged the authority of the Thai kings. The little Kampuchea had to satisfy the whims of the two powerful neighbouring

kingdoms—Thailand and Vietnam, by sending tributes to both from 1802 onwards. However, the succession dispute involving Kampuchea’s throne in 1812, invited the wrath of these two powerful neighbours. King Rama II of Thailand withdrew his troops from Kampuchea hoping that the King of Vietnam would do likewise. Unfortunately, this did not happen. The Thai King Rama III invaded Kampuchea in 1831, which forced the Khmer King to flee his country. He went to Vietnam for assistance. The Vietnamese army which supported the Khmer King defeated the Thai forces but made Kampuchea a province of Vietnam in 1834.

Kampuchea Turns into a French Protectorate The woes of Kampuchea are a never ending saga. When the patriotic Kampucheans unofficially recognised a pro-Thai prince of their own, Prince Ang Duong, it caused a war between Thailand and Vietnam. This war was waged on Kampuchean soil and caused terrible misery. King Ang Duong wrote a letter to the French Emperor, Napoleon III (1852) seeking his assistance to liberate his country from the clutches of his powerful neighbours. Little did he know that the French Emperor himself was ambitious and wanted to build a French empire in Indochina. After the King’s death, the French forces conquered Vietnam in 1862 and claimed their right over the kingdom of Kampuchea. Kampuchea became a French protectorate after King Norodom signed a treaty. After diplomatic tension between France and the Thai King, Mong Khut, during the next three years, the Thai Government gave up its claim of sovereignty over Kampuchea (1866) in return for the French recognition of Thailand’s right over the Kampuchean provinces of Battambang and Siam Reap. During the last decade of the nineteenth century, Britain and France were at loggerheads over Thailand’s role of a buffer zone between them. Finally, there was a settlement in 1907, wherein it was decided that Thailand cede to France the two Cambodian provinces of Battambang and Siam Reap.

The French Conquest of Indochina The persecution of French missionaries and converts in Vietnam began in the early nineteenth century by Emperor Minh Mang. It became the main reason for the intervention of the French Government in the internal affairs of Vietnam. The matter became worse when the Emperor prevented the entry of foreign missionaries, followed by the destruction of a few Catholic churches in Vietnam.

The lives of the Christian missionaries were in danger. The Emperor closed Vietnamese ports to all foreign merchants. In 1846, French ships went on the offensive and blockaded the port of Da Nang for nearly two weeks, following it up with continuous bombardment. This was done as a protest against the policy of the Vietnamese Government towards foreigners in general, and for passing the death sentence on a French priest in particular. The French Government expected the Vietnamese Government to grant pardon to the French priest. Unfortunately, the continuous bombardment resulted in the death of several hundred Vietnamese. In the meantime, the French Emperor, Napoleon III, who was waiting for an opportunity to improve his sagging popularity at home intervened in Vietnam on behalf of the French Catholic priests.

The French-Vietnamese Treaty The successors of Minh Mang namely, Thieu Tri (1841-47) and Tu Duc got into serious trouble because of the diplomatic pressure from France. After signing a treaty in 1862, Tu Duc ceded to France, the three provinces in Cochinchina, including Saigon. The treaty promised French merchants and missionaries commercial and religious freedoms respectively, and by another clause in the treaty, they promised a future French protectorate over Annam. The right to navigate on the Mekong River for trade purposes, further strengthened the French political and commercial control over Vietnam. While the French historians have attributed the easy success of the French to the inefficiency of the administration of the Vietnamese rulers, the historians of Vietnam have discarded this theory and blamed the backward looking mandarins of their country for bringing about this debacle. The defeat of Vietnam enabled France to put forward her claim over the kingdom of Kampuchea by virtue of replacing the Vietnamese overlordship. Eventually, the Franco-Khmer Treaty was signed. It took another eleven years for France to extend her control over the whole of North Vietnam, thanks to the ambitious and adventurous activities of her explorers, namely, Admiral Duprei, Francis Garnier, and Jean Dupuis. In the course of a perilous expedition aimed at discovering a new trade route to south China, Garnier’s partner, Doudard de Lagree lost his life. Garnier managed to return to Saigon safely via Hankow. He produced a voluminous report detailing how the Red River route (which he had explored) would be specially beneficial to France in the long run. It would secure commercial benefits and finally pave the way for acquiring the Tongking delta. In fact, the South Chinese trade in silk, tea and textiles passed through the Tongking delta and not through Canton as

believed earlier.

The Occupation of Tongking Delta After the fall of the second French empire, there was a hue and cry in France that she should make a very bold attempt to build an empire in Indochina. It was this ambition which compelled the French Government to explore the Mekong delta region under the leadership of Jean Dupuis. His efforts were supported by Garnier and blessed by the governor of Cochin-China, Admiral Duprei. The French explorations provoked Vietnamese Emperor Tu Duc, who lodged a serious protest. However, Admiral Duprei pretended as though he would punish the French explorers who were guilty of carrying out these expeditions into the Vietnamese territories. Whatever may be the case, the French ultimately occupied the Tongking delta. A few furious mandarins ultimately shot dead Garnier. The French Government continued to feign ignorance about the expedition and also incursions into the Vietnamese territories. The Vietnamese Emperor finally signed a treaty in 1873, with the French Government which provided three ports of Tongking for French commerce and also the stationing of French troops and consul.

North Vietnam Becomes a French Protectorate Within the next decade, the French Government under Jules Ferry, got an opportunity to extend further control over North Vietnam. The French Government blamed the Vietnamese Emperor for violating the treaty of 1873that the latter continued to send tribute to a Chinese emperor even though Vietnam had come under French control. Also, it was very annoyed when the Vietnamese mandarins obstructed the progress of the French expedition led by Henri Riviere at the Red River delta. The objective of the expedition was to get rid of the bandits operating there. China recognised the French control over North Vietnam after signing the Treaty of Tientsin in 1885. This treaty provided for many commercial and railway concessions to the French by China in preference to other Western nations in the south Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Vietnam. “The Treaty marked the extinction of the nearly two millennia old sub-ordinate relationship between Vietnam and China and completed the French domination over all of Vietnam.”

China: The Advent Of Europeans After considerable geographical exploration Europeans set foot on the soil of China. Among the first to arrive were the Portuguese in 1517 who, in the course of time, established their settlement in Macao in 1557 but under Chinese supervision. The mission of Jesuit pioneer, Matteo Ricci was successful in that he was able to convert about two hundred Chinese to Christianity. Subsequently, he also converted a few members of the Chinese royal family. The Portuguese spread the knowledge of Western sciences among Chinese scholars. They entered the Chinese court and served as interpreters, astronomers, cartographers, painters, engravers, architects and engineers. However, the success of the Jesuit mission did not last long. The Confucian scholars began to oppose the spread of Christianity, and the action of the Pope in challenging the order of the Chinese Emperor in 1715 over the ancient rites was persecuted. But the trade with the foreigners continued, though the Chinese Government reiterated that the foreign barbarians had nothing to offer that China did not possess. Other European powers like Spain (1575), Holland (1604), Britain (1637) and the USA (1784) tried to establish commercial contacts with China foreseeing the profits that would accrue. Out of these European powers, the one which was quite successful in establishing a rapport with the Chinese Government was Russia.

Sino-Russian Relations Russia’s relations with China were marked by border conflicts, boundary disputes and illegal immigration. To come to an amicable settlement, China signed the Treaty of Nertchinsk with Russia by which the latter extended her control over the Amur Valley. It paved the way for closer relations between the two, including the setting up of the Russian Embassy in the Chinese capital. The Russian Orthodox Church was opened in Peking by 1727. Chinese ports were opened for Russian trade in the same year. The two countries concluded a boundary settlement by which China gained control over the Mongols while Russia secured commercial concessions at Kiakhta and Nertchinsk. Russia got the right to establish educational institutions and religious missions in Peking. What is significant is that China treated Russia as an equal partner, which is quite in contrast to how she treated other European powers which were knocking at the gates of Canton. These foreign merchants were treated as ‘barbarians’ who left their homeland for the sake of money. They were treated as petitioners

begging China for trade concessions.

The Canton Trade The next to arrive on the Chinese coast were the Spaniards. They were allowed to trade at Canton. The Dutch settled in Taiwan in the 1660s which was not till then, occupied by the Chinese but served as their forward base for trade with the Japanese. However, they were ousted by the local officials of the Ming Emperor. In the course of time, the Dutch improved their relations with the Manchu Government which came to power subsequently. The English team arrived under the leadership of Captain Waddel to make an attempt to trade with the Chinese at Canton but the mission failed. In 1685, the Chinese opened the port of Canton for trade and issued the necessary licence to the European trading missions and the British East India Company. Subsequently another port, Ningpo, was also opened for trade for the Britishers. The Chinese Imperial Commissioner (Hoppo) at Canton allowed the British to set up a permanent factory at Canton and the ships of the British East India Company started arriving there quite regularly each year and trade was carried through the media of Hong merchants (selected group of Chinese merchants by the Government). What caused the disenchantment with the Hong merchants and the Chinese Government? At Canton the Western merchants met with several restrictions and hardships. The restrictions were as follows: a) Representation of grievances should be submitted to the Hong merchants. b) Chinese merchants were forbidden to teach the Chinese language to Western merchants and almost all of them did not know English. c) If Hong merchants refused to consider the grievances, only then should they be submitted to the Hoppo (Chinese Government official). He could not be contacted directly. The petition regarding grievances should be addressed to him and handed over to his guards standing outside his office compound. d) Foreigners were forbidden to use sedan-chairs and had to walk. e) Foreigners could not employ Chinese men or women as their servants. f) All Westerners accused of crime had to stand trial according to Chinese laws, to be tried by Chinese judges and undergo punishment, if sentenced. They were not to claim any immunity. g) But by far, the most humiliating condition was that Western

merchants were called “barbarians” who had deserted their homeland and ancestors in order to earn money in a foreign land and hence were treated in a most despicable manner. China tried to have contact with Western merchants on her own terms and in a contemptuous manner, according to the Western merchants. The Hong merchants with the connivance of the officials at the Hoppo aimed at creating conditions of uncertainty and there was no way to approach the imperial court or the Emperor himself. Thus, Western merchants who were eager to have trade with China had to counter innumerable obstacles. This situation changed with the advent of the “Opium Wars”.

The Opium Wars in China The bulk of China’s trade with the outside world through Canton was silk, tea, and porcelain products for which she received silver in exchange. China’s attitude towards the Western world was that she had everything and did not accept anything from the Western merchants. She treated Western merchants as “barbarians” living at her mercy. She viewed Western merchants with great suspicion. It was unfortunate that neither the Chinese policy-makers at the imperial court nor the local bureaucrats trained in Confucian ways knew how to handle difficult situations posed by Western merchants. Peking, the imperial capital, was far from the main port city of Canton where all the commercial activities were taking place. The mandarins underestimated the strength of the Western world and her superiority in science and technology. The Imperial Commissioner at Canton, named Lin Tse-hsu, was a typical mandarin who arrived at Canton in March, 1839. He was sent to deal with the deteriorating economic situation, vide, the unfavourable balance of trade resulting in the depletion of the inflow of silver. This was mainly caused by the illegal import of opium by Chinese merchants with the connivance of Western merchants, particularly the British. He addressed an appeal to Queen Victoria to impress upon her traders the ill-effects of opium consumption. The Chinese were addicted to opium as a result of its encouragement by her merchants. He wanted the Queen to realise that the import of opium had been banned in China much earlier through an imperial decree. Commissioner Lin took harsh steps when Western merchants still colluded with corrupt Chinese officials to continue the contraband trade. Cantonese merchants, both Chinese and foreign, were ordered to surrender all their stocks

of opium and assure the government that they would stop trading in this banned item. He took another step by ordering his men to surround foreign settlements with the intention of stopping all supplies to them: food, water and labour. It was this drastic step that forced British Captain Elliot to surrender 20,000 chests of opium, which Lin dumped into the sea “with great fanfare”. Although he pleased his Emperor with this precipitated action, he realised he was in trouble. As the British had not given a pledge that they would desist from this nefarious trade, he apprehended British retaliatory action. Hence he closed the river approach to Canton and strengthened the fortifications. Lin gave the Emperor the impression that he knew how to deal with the situation. Urged by British merchants, a British fleet approached Canton in June, 1840 and demanded from the Chinese Government compensation for the loss of opium and the necessary cost of the expedition. Expecting no response, the British fleet blockaded Canton, and subsequently a force of 2,000 troops sent from India occupied it. The said fleet moved along the Chinese coast and blockaded strategic points lying between Canton and Shanghai. In the meantime, Lin had been transferred and the new successor was trying his best to salvage the situation. However, he failed and was punished. His successor, a cousin of the Emperor, also failed to put up the desired resistance. The British were successful in forcing their terms on the unwilling Chinese Government in May, 1841. However, the British Government was not satisfied. The war continued with the British fleet attacking the Chinese ports of Amoy, Ningpo and Tinghai. The British forces entered Shanghai and proceeded towards Nanking. The Chinese troops were helpless both on land and the sea and were unable to resist the inroads on her territories. It all ended in the government coming to terms with the British on board the British ship Cornwallis—by signing the Treaty of Nanking (29 August, 1842). The Terms of the Treaty of Nanking: a) Protection of the British subjects in China. b) The British to trade in four important ports, namely, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai which was to be supervised by consular authorities and superintendents of trade. c) Cession of the island of Hong Kong in perpetuity. d) Compensation of twenty-one million dollars to be paid in four instalments (six million for the loss of opium, twelve million for the cost of the war and three million for the debts owed by the Chinese authorities). e) The Cohong stood to be abolished.

f) Easy communications through diplomatic channels. g) Tariff regulation regulating foreign trade. In 1843, the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, granted the most favoured nation treatment which included: a) Limited right to travel for the British in and around the ports, b) extra-territoriality. Naturally the other Western nations too clamoured for such a treaty and they got it. It must be remembered that the British shook the tree, the others came quickly to help pick up the fruit. Thus, France and the USA became beneficiaries, thanks to the early lead given by the British. The treaty entered into with the US (Caleb Cushing signed it on behalf of the USA) for was for a period of twelve years, was called Treaty of Wanghia, and was subject to renewal. It provided for extra-territorial jurisdiction, i.e., US citizens accused of crime would be tried by American judges according to American laws. The Treaty with France (Whampoa, October, 1844) granted Catholic missionaries the permission to build churches at the treaty ports. Subsequently, the Portuguese, the Belgians, the Norwegians and the Swedes also signed treaties with China with many concessions. Canton and other treaty ports along the Chinese coast became the hub of commercial activity. The significance of the Nanking Treaty need not be overstressed at this point since it did not mention anything about the opium trade (except for compensation). The Western powers let go of the control of this illicit trade. It was now under Chinese statutes. It was a pity that this trade did not stop. In fact, it increased, and Canton alone, accounted for nearly six hundred shops for the sale of this dangerous commodity. The export of opium rose from seventeen million pounds in 1843, to 130 million pounds by 1857, indicating that the Chinese were helpless victims of the circumstances. Naturally the demand for opium increased resulting in an adverse balance of trade for China. In the meantime, British goods such as cotton and steel found a ready market in China.

The Second Opium War (1856-60) Unfortunately for China, as she had agreed to revise the treaties, the British and the Americans pressed for it in 1856. The Chinese Commissioner considered their demands with great indifference for he did not want to compromise with Western nations further, and a show of strength became necessary. Why did the Western nations insist on browbeating China? Firstly, China had signed all the treaties under duress, and therefore had no intention of compromising her

position further by agreeing for renewal. Secondly, the Western powers were eager to have the treaties renewed at any cost, suspecting that if there was delay, they may not achieve their goal. Thirdly, the official policy of China appeared to deny and delay to a maximum extent, causing great anxiety to Western merchants about the bona fides of the government. It was in these circumstances, the Western nations, specially Britain and France, found excuses to go to war with China. The USA gave moral support but was not belligerent herself. War was forced on China when a Chinese vessel named Lorcha Arrow flying a British flag was seized by a Chinese police patrol at Canton on charges of smuggling and piracy. The British Captain of the vessel protested and the vessel was returned, though not the crew, by Commissioner Yeh. It must be remembered that the registration of the ship had expired and the Chinese had every right to seize it. Since the return of the crew was not followed by an apology, the British gun boats went into action against Canton. The people there were provoked with the result that foreign settlements outside Canton were razed to the ground. A full scale war was in the offing. The French had their reasons too for joining the British in a joint expedition. A French missionary, Abbe Chapdelaine, had strayed into the restricted area for carrying out his missionary work. He was found guilty by a magistrate and sentenced to death. His death was considered by the French a “judicial murder”, and Emperor Napoleon III of France took advantage of the opportunity by declaring war on China so as to retrieve his sagging popularity at home.

Anglo-French Joint Expedition While Russian and American ministers were interested in the revision of the treaty, they agreed not to participate in the joint expedition launched by Britain and France. The Anglo-French naval force blockaded Canton for a while, moved over to Shanghai and forced the Chinese officials to agree for the revision. When the expedition was asked to go back to Canton for negotiations, the force moved further and surrounded Tientsin. The gravity of the situation was realised, and the Chinese Government signed the Treaty of Tientsin on 26 June, 1858, which contained the following provisions: a) Diplomatic relations on the footing of equality were to be established between Britain and China with the former’s minister residing at Peking. b) China agreed to open ten more ports for British trade. c) The British were to enjoy the freedom of travel and conduct

missionary activity. d) The idea of extra-territoriality was clearly defined. e) British vessels were to have access to all treaty ports. f) An indemnity of four million silver dollars was to be paid to the British Lord Elgin who successfully carried out the expedition as well as secured this treaty. He was definitely elated at his achievement. Unfortunately the treaty was made effective for only one year, and was subject to ratification. The Chinese Government was not happy with the clause which included foreign residents residing in Peking. It must be noted that China had signed similar treaties with the USA and Russia after the conclusion of the Tientsin Treaty. When the British found that the Chinese Government was wavering to ratify the treaty the following year, the continuation of the war became inevitable. The expedition was led by Lord Elgin’s brother, Bruce. The British expedition suffered heavy losses near Taku forts (expedition mounted by 200 warships, 10,000 British and 6,000 French troops), and Lord Elgin who returned to take command finally succeeded in destroying the forts and captured Tientsin. In the meantime, the summer palace of the Chinese Emperor was razed to the ground by the British to show their indignation at having suffered heavy losses in the previous engagement. Also their delegates who had gone to meet the Chinese counterparts for negotiations had been taken captive near Tientsin. The Chinese Imperial Government got scared at the presence of belligerent foreigners in its own capital and agreed to approve the Treaty of Tientsin and Peking conventions. As the Emperor and his court had fled to Sianfu before the arrival of the British, it was Prince Kung, the Emperor’s brother, who approved the newly imposed conditions in the Peking Treaty (October, 1860). They included heavier war indemnity (sixteen million dollars), opening of Tientsin for foreign trade, allowing Chinese labour to work abroad and permitting missionaries to move about freely in China and build churches, and ceding the Kowloon peninsula (situated opposite to Hong Kong) to the British in perpetuity. China’s earlier treaties with Russia at Aigun and Tientsin were now ratified in November 1860, ceding the Trans-Ussuri territory. Thus Western nations inflicted the most humiliating conditions on China whose Emperor was living in a fool’s paradise. The outbreak of the T’aiping rebellion at home had sapped all her energies and China could not meet the challenge posed by foreign nations. It was Russia which had taken maximum advantage of China’s weakness as evidenced by the expansion of her territories at the cost of the latter. Russia’s diplomatic triumph

resulting in the acquisition of vast Chinese territories surpassed the victory of other Western nations, thanks to the services of her diplomats—Muraviev and General Nikolai Ignatiev. In the course of time, Russia extended her empire to the Pacific coastline which enabled her to build the naval base and city, Vladivostok. It is time to know what had happened in the imperial palace during the first half of the nineteenth century, because the decline of the Manchus had begun and the future appeared bleak in the wake of rebellions, costly wars, palace intrigues and the doubling of population. The early Manchu emperors, though foreigners, were men of integrity and ability and the Ching(Manchu) power reached its zenith of glory under Emperor Ch’ien-lung. His conquests included Dzungaria, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal but during his last years the administration had become intolerably corrupt. During his successors’ time the White Lotus Rebellion took place.

Why Were Rebellions So Common in China? It must be remembered that the Manchus were foreigners and constituted only two per cent of the Chinese population. Conscious of their drawback they adopted the culture of the Chinese, and recruited a large number of the Chinese into the administration. They were friendly and obliging in the eyes of the northern Chinese and what was interesting was that these foreigners adopted Confucian traditions and customs. However, the southerners treated them with contempt. They were not given representation in the civil service, nor treated with respect. What was galling to the southerners was that they were paying most of the taxes even in times of distress while the northerners were let off. The Manchu administration was corrupt to the core in the south. Therefore, the south became a breeding ground for all rebellions and revolutions. It was in 1821, that Emperor Tao Kuang succeeded to the Dragon Throne and his regime witnessed widespread drought which wrought great havoc on central and northern China, and also had the first opium war with its disastrous consequences as mentioned earlier. To make matters worse, droughts and floods (1847 and 1849) ravaged the country followed by the death of the Emperor (1850). His successor, Hsien Feng (1851-61), chose a debauched career, and the actual power was wielded by his concubine who later became the Empress Dowager Tzu-Hsi (also known as Yehonala and the Old Buddha) in 1861. It was during this time of great agrarian distress that rich landlords were let off with light taxes and the crushing tax burden fell on the poor peasants. The need of the

hour was relief and reforms, but neither the Emperor nor the administration was able to do anything since they were busy dealing with the foreigners, who were becoming a nuisance. In the meantime, the Chinese army had lost its valour and morale after being defeated in the first opium war. Their salaries were not paid and the prices of the essential commodities began to rise alarmingly. Corruption among the senior officers of the army was rampant. It appeared as though “Heaven had withdrawn its Mandate from the Manchus”.

The T’aiping Rebellion (1850-64) During this period, China was deeply convulsed by a serious rebellion of such great magnitude that left nearly twenty-five million dead. This rebellion was called T’aiping, meaning paradoxically ‘great peace’, but characterised by great violence and recurrent tragedies on account of the struggle carried on against the continuance of the weak and corrupt Manchu (Ching) dynasty. Rural misery in China had many tales to narrate all proving how corrupt and inefficient the alien dynasty had been and how impervious it was to the plight of millions of Chinese living in thousands of villages in the south. During the period, the rebels controlled half of China and mainly in the valley of the Yangtze. It was with great difficulty and with the assistance of foreigners that this rebellion could be suppressed. The leader of the rebels was a Christian fanatic named Hung HsiuChuan (1814-64) whose movement was to bring about the collapse of the ruthless, inefficient and corrupt Manchu Government and establish “a society based on justice, in which the strong shall not oppress the weak, the wise exploit the ignorant, the brave impose upon the timid.” Hung belonged to a peasant community called the Hakka, which migrated from northern China long time ago. He was born near Canton in a prosperous family and decided to be a scholar and a bureaucrat. Unfortunately he failed frequently to pass the higher examinations and suffered from mental depression. After a couple of years, Hung began to experience some visions where God appeared to have assigned him the mission to destroy Manchu rule and reconstruct Chinese society based on social and economic justice. It was in 1843, that he came to be influenced by Christianity, and became a convert and set up a secret society, called the ‘Society of God’. Joined by his friend, Feng Yun-shan, he spread his new religion to the people of Kwangsi, a province which the Manchus found difficult to govern. The movement of Hung first began with the breaking of the Buddhist and

Taoist idols and it got a fresh momentum with the joining of Yang Hsies-chang, a charcoal burner. The movement called ‘Shang Ti Hui’, got the support of the members of the White Lotus Society (a secret society founded in 380 AD by a Buddhist monk named Hua Yiu). Internally the movement was well-organised to launch an attack against the Manchu imperial army after the appointment of princes governing north, south, east and west with the Lord of the Princes being Hung himself. A new dynasty was ushered in called T’aiping T’ien-kuo, with Hung becoming the ‘Heavenly Prince’, after the seizure of a hilly town called Yongan The idea of universal brotherhood was spread, and the movement became quite popular with millions of poor peasants who were against the continuance of Manchu rule. Who were the main pillars of support to the T’aiping rebellion? It was the poor peasants and artisans who were oppressed by the corrupt Manchu officials. These peasants lent liberal support to the movement. Increased population and mismanagement of the economy, especially on the food front, had made the regime of the Manchus unbearable. Cottage industry had suffered badly due to the import of foreign goods, including the banned opium. Tax was calculated in terms of silver but paid in copper. What was the immediate cause which led to the outbreak of the rebellion? The Chinese troops forced the charcoal workers belonging to the Society of God to give some contributions which they refused. This led to a serious quarrel and rioting took place. The Emperor sent two commissioners to quell the riots. Hung became very annoyed and declared his revolt with the slogan, “Exterminate the Manchus”. Hung built a powerful military force commanded by great generals to defend the movement against the Chinese imperial army which had been ordered to go into action. The highly disciplined T’aiping army controlled some parts of China, mainly the Yangtze Valley and others, and in 1853, captured Nanking itself. The dazzling victories of the T’aiping unnerved the Manchus and paved the way for other rebellions in China. For example, the Nien rebellion broke out in 1853, in the area west of the Grand Canal. Protestant missionaries who came into contact with the T’aiping welcomed the inauguration of the new dynasty. However, the situation suddenly changed from one of warmth to hostility, thanks to the opposition of the Catholic missionaries and Western merchants. The Westerners saw through Hung’s pretensions of being the ‘Son of God’ or ‘Brother of Jesus Christ’ and raised a hue and cry against him. In the midst of the victories of Hung, the West concluded the treaties of T’ientsin and Peking with the Manchus setting at rest the rumour of likely Western support to the T’aiping rebels.

Modern Reforms of Hung During the course of the rebellion, Hung tried to introduce some modern reforms in the region temporarily controlled by him. They included: a) His followers were forbidden from consuming opium, alcoholic drinks and committing adultery. Slavery, witchcraft, gambling, tobacco smoking and chewing were also banned. b) They were to obey the Ten Commandments. c) Women were to enjoy equal rights and their foot-binding was abolished. They were recruited into the army and their labour was properly organised. d) A programme of land reforms was chalked out which envisaged distribution of the land to the landless. Land-holdings were divided into nine grades according to productivity. Every landless family was given a piece of land commensurate with the size of the family. The new society’s basic unit was fixed at twenty-five families, and one officer was appointed to look after this community, with special emphasis on education, social welfare and religion. Every peasant who had joined his movement had to become a soldier and Hung’s government assumed a civil and military character. The new political, social and economic order which he envisaged was tried at Nanking during the formative period. However, it did not spread to the countryside he controlled. Hung’s control over his assistants who commanded different regions as princes ran into trouble and many assassinations of leaders followed. Only Li HsiCh’eng survived his purge and continued to command T’aiping forces till the last years. The mediocres remained in charge and they quarrelled among themselves making Hung’s control over his region weak. Hung’s loosely knit organisation began to crack as the scholar-class was disgusted and stopped intellectual and moral support. In fact, great scholars felt that Manchu rule was better. In the midst of campaigns, Hung had no time to give a concrete shape to many of his new ideas and failed to stem the rot in time. His decline became imminent when the Emperor assigned the task of crushing the rebellion to Tseng Kuo-Fan, a famous Confucian scholar and soldier of Hunan, stationed at Peking. Hung’s shortcomings were many. After his dazzling victories against the Manchus, he should have marched to Peking instead of capturing the opulent Nanking. He and his soldiers wasted too much time indulging in all kinds of pleasures and gave up all the principles which forged them into a united front. Hung’s pleasure-loving life set a bad example to the others. He soon forgot about the land reforms he had promised to the peasants. Hung’s failings made the task

of Tseng easy. His newly created imperial army crushed the strongholds of the T’aipings, drove them out of central Yangtze Valley and finally captured Nanking. Hung committed suicide by drinking poison and his followers were defeated one by one. By July, 1864, this great rebellion (modern communists and even Sun Yat Sen believed so) was crushed. A few rebellions of the Muslim minorities living in the north-west and south-western parts of China petered out mainly because they had no local support like the T’aipings. However, they underlined the fact that the Manchus had failed to assert their authority in those regions. The suppression of the rebellion owes its success to three great Chinese statesmen, namely, Tseng Kuo-Fan, Tso Tsung-Tang and Li-Hung-Chang. In fact, during the next few decades these three figures along with the Empress Dowager, Tzu-Hsi, play a predominant role. A little known story about the suppression includes the role of an American adventurer and a British, namely Ward and Major Charles Gordon. It must be remembered that Tseng took LiHung-Chang into confidence, and the latter took the assistance of the American adventurer, Ward, to create a small force of 4,000 Chinese soldiers, trained in Western methods of warfare. This force gained resounding victories. After Ward’s death, Major Charles Gordon, helped the Chinese army to capture Soochow from the hands of the rebels. With French assistance, another Chinese contingent captured Hangchow before Nanking fell.

Significance of the Rebellion The underlying significance of the rebellion was that the ideals cherished by Hung endeared him to a large populace which had undergone untold sufferings due to the misrule and oppression of the Manchus. Reform was the need of the hour and the Manchus had not learnt any lessons at all. Therefore, the future for the Manchus was bleak as long as they opposed reforms. The superiority of Western methods of warfare and weaponry manifested itself during the course of the suppression of this rebellion. Ward and Gordon did their bit to help Tseng and Li-Hung-Chang to suppress this rebellion without much difficulty during the last stages of the war. But what became evident was that the claim of the Emperor that he was the “Son of Heaven” was no longer valid. The imperial government became vulnerable to the inroads of the West. That the ancient wisdom of China was sufficient to counteract the superiority of Western science and technology fooled no one. China learnt these bitter lessons

the hard way (unlike the Japanese) during the next few decades. Modern communists regard the T’aiping rebellion as the forerunner of the Chinese Revolution of 1949. Sun Yat Sen considered it a great event and Communists like Mao considered it an event of great significance. This was because Hung prepared a blueprint for a new Chinese society based on social and economic justice. His plan to introduce land reforms in an elaborate manner, to bring about a just rural society and usher in peace was hailed by modern communists.

Dismemberment Of China The Tung Chih Restoration The Chinese term Tung Chih means “Union for Order”. In Chinese history, a restoration of the dynastic leadership of the Ching occurred at the time of the T’aiping rebellion. In fact, it was the revival of the Ching (Manchu) dynasty with effective leadership in the 1860s and to some it indicated that, the empire need not fear internal rebellions and foreign interference any more. Fortunately, the revived imperial government got the assistance of great leaders who were votaries of the Confucian traditions. They were great scholars who could visualise what changes China must undergo in order to survive in the new situation. The greatest among them was Tseng Kuo-Fan, the scholar-general who came to the rescue of the imperial government when the T’aipings had conquered a part of China. Tseng’s followers were all Chinese scholar-soldiers like him and with a mission to help restore order. Tseng advocated the spread of Western education as a panacea for the ills facing China. His follower, Li-HungChang, also stressed the same kind of education. In 1861, the Emperor died, and in a coup organised by his brother, Prince Kung, and Empress Dowager, Tzu-Hsi (Cixi), a boy Emperor was nominated. Prince Kung played an important role in not only saving the empire but also reviving it.

Partition of Chinese Empire

The period, 1860-1900, marked the beginning of a new era in Chinese history in the sense that the Ching dynasty set to itself the task of selfstrengthening exercises so as to meet the challenges posed by internal and external threats. China had already been humiliated enough by the foreigners including the Japanese. China’s great thinkers, moulded on Confucian traditions, believed that she should adopt Western languages and science. Feng Kuei-Fen was one such votary who wished a harmonious combination of Confucian and Western learning. He believed that if China adopted western technology, many of her problems could be overcome. Wang-T’ao also thought of desirable changes which China should undergo

in view of the changed situation. He was impressed by the Japanese achievements after she adopted western science and technology to help modernise herself. Being a journalist known as the ‘father of Chinese journalism’, his writings reflected the necessity of reforms. The old examination system and certain laws had to be given up. He called for a new mindset to be developed among Confucian scholars. Another great writer was Yen Fu. He was widely travelled and a scholar of repute. He urged the Chinese to give up their old sense of superiority while dealing with Westerners, since the latter was in no way ‘inferior’. He translated several English books, spread Western ideas, and underlined the need for a democratic system of government to replace an authoritarian one. Some of his books were banned by an imperial edict since many young men were influenced by his writings and translations (translations included the books of Montesquieu, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, and Adam Smith). Among those who were strongly influenced by Yen’s writings was reformer, named K’ang Yu-wei, who was to play a leading role in bringing about what is known as the Hundred Days Reforms. Being a highly educated landlord, he devoted all energies to the service of society. He was highly impressed by the orderliness and prosperity of Hong Kong, then under British control, and began studying many translations in Shanghai. He subsequently published two good books, titled, The Grand Unity, and Confucius as Reformer. His reinterpretation of Confucius impressed many because he said Confucius envisaged the unity of mankind and the commonwealth of nations as the last stage of progress. According to K’ang Yu-wei that stage had arrived. He addressed a few letters to the Emperor and to the court about the need for reforms to save China from humiliation at the hands of the Western nations and Japan. But his advice went unheeded. This led to terrible consequences and K’ang advocated a constitutional monarchy similar to that of Japan. K’ang’s fervent appeals for reform struck a chord of sympathy with Emperor Kuang who appointed him as his chief adviser to carry out the necessary reforms, called the Hundred Days Reforms (1898). The object of K’ang reforms was to transform China from a feudal set-up into a modern industrial state, with a modern bureaucracy and a modern system of education. But before we study about these reforms, let us examine the foreign policy pursued by China after the treaties of Tientsin and Peking.

China’s Foreign Relations

In keeping with its philosophy of self-strengthening, it became necessary that China’s relations with the Western nations undergo a change for the better. So it changed its policy from one of hostile indifference to a policy of cooperation. China gave up her traditional stance of superiority and allowed the Western nations to participate in the maintenance of the treaty system. The new British minister, Rutherford Alcock, realised that in view of the changed situation, British merchants in the treaty ports should not make aggressive demands on China. She had the potential and inclination to modernise herself and the minister no doubt anticipated “a revolution as has been never seen since the world began”(sic). The new foreign policy of China was working towards achieving that objective. Co-operation with foreigners could not be achieved until China took them into confidence. Therefore, Chinese diplomats sought foreign help in training themselves in the art of modern diplomacy. It was in these circumstances that a new organisation called “Tsungli Yamen”, the embryonic form of the Foreign Office, was set up in 1861 in Peking with Prince Kung playing an important role. The new organisation was a Grand Council with the Emperor presiding over it in order to arrive at foreign policy decisions. The trained Chinese diplomats of this office handled many important matters in foreign relations. There were two other commissioners working in this field based at Nanking and Tientsin who were directly responsible to the Chinese Emperor. The T’aiping rebellion accelerated the decentralisation process in the foreign policy decision-making. As the Chinese diplomats did not know Western languages, they had to join an Interpreter’s College, known as Tung Wen Kuan, in Peking for learning, not only Western languages, but also the techniques of conducting diplomacy. Schools of Western culture were set up in Tientsin and Shanghai for the young Chinese officials to absorb Western ideals and culture.

The Maritime Customs Service A modernised Maritime Customs Service organisation came into being thanks to the efforts of a British diplomat, Horatio Nelson Lay. He had worked as a foreign inspector in charge of assessment of duties at Shanghai since 1855 and his salary was paid from the imperial treasury. Knowing the Chinese language and culture, he was able to organise things to suit the provisions of the Tientsin Treaty. It was he who expanded the Customs Service for the Chinese and his services were very much appreciated by the government. Subsequently he was promoted as the Inspector General of the Customs Service. He was also

nominated as a member of the Tsungli Yamen. However, he fell into disrepute when he purchased a fleet of eight British ships with British crewmen and desired to retain his control over them as against the wishes of the Chinese Government. Lay was succeeded by Robert Hart. During his time, many foreigners were recruited into the organisation. They all worked under Chinese superintendents. By 1875, the foreign staff included 252 British employees and another 156 drawn from sixteen other Western nations. The maritime customs service served as an important organisation which helped in maintaining friendly relations with foreign merchants. Hart was also instrumental in setting up the Interpreter’s College (Tung Wen Kuan) in Peking, as mentioned earlier.

Arsenals and Shipyards Tseng Kuo-Fan and Li-Hung-Chang advocated a scientific and technological base for Chinese industries. In the course of time, arsenals and shipyards were set up on modern lines. Their efforts bore fruit when the Kiangnan arsenal at Shanghai was established. In due course, the Chinese built their first steamship with a foreign engine in 1866. Foochow also had another arsenal and shipyard. Railroads and telegraph made a beginning and Hankow could boast of a modern steel factory. There was an increasing demand by Chinese scholars for access to scientific treatises and manuals produced by the West. Around 1870, the activities of the Christian missions, both Catholic and Protestant, began to increase.

Chinese Response to the Christian Missions The increased activities of the Christian missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, had a controversial effect upon the local Chinese masses who were wedded to Confucianism. They treated the Chinese as heathens and their society as perverted with its odd customs and habits. By 1870, there were 250 European Jesuits and also, many Chinese Christian priests carrying on missionary propaganda and proselytising activity. The convention of 1860 allowed the French to buy land, construct churches and buildings, and rent out their property. There were more than 350 Protestant missionaries with their families who were all sent by an English man named Hudson Taylor in 1866. Those sent by Taylor wore the Chinese dress and propagated Christianity, sometimes deriding Chinese religion and culture. Native Chinese who got converted to Christianity got

special protection from their church, a thing envied by the non-Christian Chinese. This was bound to create communal disharmony by sowing seeds of discontent. Petty quarrels between the Christians and Chinese sometimes assumed serious proportions requiring the intervention of Chinese officials. During the period between 1860-99, riots broke out against the Christian missionaries but the government took steps to defuse the tension. Christianity began to make steady progress as if to challenge those who chose “Confucian scholarship as a path of advancement”. Propaganda literature especially appealing to the poor Chinese was being distributed. The Chinese lost their fortitude and their indignation against the missionaries culminated in the massacre at Tientsin in 1870. Let us examine the events which led to this upsurge.

The Tientsin Massacre The common Chinese began to treat the spread of Christianity as a great threat, next only to that of the T’aiping rebellion. The protection and privileges enjoyed by the foreign missionaries and converted Chinese created jealousy and hatred, and a feeling spread that their religion and society was no longer safe. The Catholic Sisters of Charity started its activity by founding an orphanage for the poor Chinese children. Since it could not attract many people, the society began to accept even sick children and this was viewed by the Chinese with great suspicion. Many rumours were afloat about this organisation and it was believed that the children were enticed to the orphanage for heinous purposes. A furious Chinese mob attacked the orphanage church and the French Consulate. The Consul asked the mob to disperse, but when it did not, gunshots were fired to disperse it. Fortunately it missed the Chinese magistrate who had come there to make enquiries. The unruly mob was enraged by this act and killed twenty foreigners, which included ten nuns. Furthermore, a number of Chinese Christians were killed and the French Consulate was burnt. This incident soured relations between the Chinese Government and the French and therefore the situation had to be defused. It was Tseng who dealt with the situation which culminated in the punishment of the culprits, and substantial compensation and an apology from the Chinese Government to the French Government. Were it not for Tseng Kuo-Fan’s deft diplomacy during the negotiations, the image of the Chinese Government would have suffered immensely.

Further Inroads into Chinese Sovereignty It may be remembered that the British representative, Rutherford Alcock, forced the Chinese Government to agree to the British terms in 1869 and a convention was signed which provided for a “limited right of a most favoured treatment for the British in China…” Other foreign nations—after the Tientsin Massacre — also demanded similar treatment. They pressed for these demands. By 1870, foreigners were enjoying security and comforts in all the fifteen port towns where they had their own settlements. They collected taxes within their jurisdiction and looked after the Customs Services on behalf of the imperial government of China. They did not adapt themselves to the ways of the Chinese but always exhibited an air of superiority and a nonchalant attitude. The foreign merchants put pressure on their governments to exert pressure on China for more trade concessions, facilities and privileges. They hardly bothered whether this would encroach on the sovereignty of China. Incidentally, the Western nations too competed with each other in exerting their pressure on China directly and sometimes indirectly, that is through China’s vassal states, namely, Li Ch’iu islands, Korea, Annam, Laos, Siam and so on. Though all of them acknowledged Chinese sovereignty, they enjoyed full autonomy. How did the Western nations establish their spheres of influence over China’s autonomous or tributary states?

The Chinese Turkestan This north-western province of China provides a classic example of Russian interference. Being a Muslim-populated region and prone to frequent revolts, China was fast losing control over it. Of particular importance in this region was Kashgaria, where all the trade routes of Central Asia meet. Unfortunately, due to difficult terrain, the Chinese army had no control over the local Muslims called Khojas. When they revolted, they were driven out from the area. All of them settled in Khokand. The Chinese governors eventually allowed the Muslim chieftains to control Kashgaria but their loyalty was always suspect. Again this region was in trouble when Yakub, a Khokandian general, seized it and started independent rule. The Russians did not like the British support to Yakub and feared their interference in the Russia-China border region. The Russians responded to this situation by moving their troops into the Ili River Valley region and occupied the commercial centre of Kuldja. The Russians promised the Chinese Government (the Sino-Russian agreement of 1851) that they would vacate when the situation became normal.

Thus the Central Asian region of China was susceptible to local revolts and foreign interference. Finally, China decided to regain its authority. What caused this swift response was the revolt of the Muslims in the 1870s. Tso Tsung-tang, an able Chinese general, led an attack and mercilessly slaughtered the Muslim rebels in Urumchi (1876-78). His troops marched further to the Tarim basin and crushed Yakub’s revolt resulting in his death in 1877. Thus the entire region of Turkestan, except the Ili region where the Russians were camping, was regained by the Chinese Government. The Chinese Government decided to recover the Ili region too and hence, opened negotiations. Chung Ho, the leader of the Chinese team, signed the Treaty of Livadia with the Russians which, however, highly compromised Chinese interests. When he returned to the capital, he was tried and faced punishment. He was saved because Queen Victoria intervened on his behalf. Subsequently, the Russians signed the Treaty of St. Petersburg in 1881 resulting in the evacuation of their troops. The Chinese Government converted their north-western region of Turkestan into the province of Sinkiang (meaning “The New Dominion”). The Russians were permitted to open their consulate, buy land, set up factories, and trade with the local people right up to the Great Wall of China. China’s political and military strategists were satisfied with the results brought about by this treaty.

The French Conquer Indochina France, which could not get many advantages from China like the British, planned to make spiritual and political conquests over China’s vassal states like Vietnam (known as Annam to the Chinese). Hundreds of French Catholic missionaries started arriving there to carry on their activities since the people were divided over social and religious adherence because of peculiar geographical incongruity (for example, the Hanoi and Mekong deltas divided it.) The Nguyen rulers, specially Minh Mang (1820-41), Thieu Tri (1841-47), and Tu Duc (1848-83) struggled hard to bring unity between the people of these two regions but with limited success. This was because they were faced with formidable problems like natural disasters, inflation, rebel movements and so on. (This is elaborated upon in another chapter). These rulers desired to establish a Chinese model of bureaucracy. The eastern coastline of Vietnam became vulnerable to foreign influence, more so from the French Catholic missionaries during the previous two centuries. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the French Catholic Church became a force to be reckoned with, in Vietnam. However, during the period 1848-60, a violent reaction to foreign influence set

in, resulting in the death of thousands of converted Vietnamese, including some European missionaries. This violent outburst against foreigners gave an opportunity to the French Emperor, Napoleon III (whose penchant for publicity about his foreign exploits is well known), to intervene. In 1859, the French army captured Saigon and subsequently conquered three provinces surrounding it. Unfortunately, for Vietnam a rebellion had broken out in Tongking at that time which demanded utmost attention and effective response. Under these compelling circumstances the helpless Vietnamese monarch, Tu Duc, signed a treaty with France in 1862 ceding the three provinces. By this treaty, the monarch promised to open his country for French trade, grant liberties to Catholic missionaries, and allow a “vague control over Vietnam’s foreign relations.” Troubles were not over for this unfortunate monarch, as yet another rebellion broke out, this time against the French. Unable to suppress this rebellion, he sought help from the French forces. The French not only succeeded in suppressing this rebellion but also established their control over what was then known as Cochinchina. More surprisingly, this situation enabled the French to establish a protectorate over nearby Cambodia (1863-64). King Norodom (18601904) of Cambodia accepted the French offer of assistance to suppress a rebellion in his country and this led to the development of a French colony in Cambodia. Nearby Siam became another target for the French to extend its control and this was achieved by a treaty with that country’s monarch in 1867. Cambodia’s dependence on Siam ended. The French ambition of establishing its colony, known as Indochina, had almost succeeded but the goal of opening up trade links with China from the south, through the Mekong and Red Rivers, had not yet been achieved. The French continued to explore the Mekong River region further and one of their expeditions resulted in the discovery of Angkor Vat. Subsequently, they shifted attention to the Red River region hoping to discover a new route to south-west China through Tongking.

The Sino-French War The French conquest of Indochina was bound to provoke China into a full-scale war with France as China’s sovereignty over her vassal states was endangered. It must be remembered that China had claimed her sovereignty over these states since 1664. The Vietnamese ruler, obviously harassed by the French, appealed to the Chinese Government to come to his rescue. The Sino-French war began, resulting in the French capture of Hanoi. It was converted into a French

protectorate. Hostilities continued since the French ably defended their strategic posts. In 1884, the French forces got resounding victories against the Chinese which led to the dismissal of Prince Kung. After a tiresome vacillation, China agreed to the Li-Fournier convention in 1885, after the mediation of Robert Hart. China lost control over the vassal states after this war. France converted Cochinchina into her colony and continued indirect rule over Cambodia, Annam and Tongking. France called her empire Indochina in 1887. In 1893, France added Laos which Siam ceded. Only Siam remained independent thanks to the Anglo-French rivalry during this time. The French Government followed the policy of assimilation by imposing its culture on the local population. It introduced the Western system of administration and built roads and bridges. Explorations into the history and culture of the conquered territories were carried out successfully. China learnt some bitter lessons. It was probably the first modern war waged against a foreign power which she lost. She discovered that the use of modern weapons alone would not suffice to win a war. The need of the hour was “modern organisation and leadership”, which she lacked. The French victories demoralised her forces and exposed her to further exploitation by the Western nations and Japan. The most significant outcome of this war was the rise of nationalism, at least in the southern parts of China. Besides their obvious frustration at losing the war, the Chinese realised the necessity of rectifying several things in the country. Their hatred towards foreigners and foreign missionaries provided a breeding ground for new recruits into the upcoming Boxer Movement. Although this was a patriotic movement, it was dubbed xenophobic by the Westerners. With the gradual westernisation of China, hundreds of poor Chinese began to emigrate to other countries during the second half of the nineteenth century. The coolie trade became a common phenomenon, i.e., Chinese workers (coolies) began to emigrate to the coasts of California (US), Cuba and Peru to earn their daily bread. This large scale emigration was of two types, namely, free emigration and contract labour. Contract labourers suffered immensely due to the miserable conditions meted out to them by their employers. The coolie trade pursued by the Portuguese from their Chinese settlement at Macao was by far the most reprehensible act of perfidy. While Japan had become a modern nation during the last decade of the nineteenth century, thanks to the period of Meiji Restoration, China was still in a stage of transition. She was yet to come to terms with the modernised Western nations who were carving out the spheres of influence—euphemistically known as the “cutting of the Chinese melon”. She was without a dynamic leader who

could liberate her from the shackles of the Western nations—keep in mind, the unequal treaties imposed on her by them. In Napoleon’s words, she was still a sleeping dragon. This makes us turn our attention to her small, but dynamic neighbour, Japan. Japan’s experience with the West was different. We shall examine her story in another chapter.

Spheres of Influence; Cutting of the Chinese Melon China’s defeat at the hands of Japan had ominous portent. It let loose the greed of the Western powers to grab as much Chinese territory as possible by methods most unfair. Unequal treaties were imposed upon this hapless nation, and the first to take advantage was Russia. She put up a false show of friendship with China and persuaded France to give loans to China so as to enable the latter to pay compensation to Japan. Russia too gave some amount to help China for this purpose. In return China gave permission to Russia to build the Chinese Eastern Railway across Manchuria connecting Vladivostok. The Chinese statesman, LiHung-Chang, visited Russia and concluded a secret treaty directed against Japan. In furtherance of this friendship Russia stationed her naval squadron at Port Arthur. In addition, Russia got a twenty-five-year lease of the Liaotung peninsula (southern tip of Manchuria) with Port Arthur and Dalian, and also some railway concessions from China in 1898. Russia’s acquisitions in China made other European powers and Japan jealous. Therefore, these powers realised the weakness of China and put up their own demands for territorial and commercial concessions knowing full well that they were compromising her territorial integrity and sovereignty. An intense competition for dismembering China started due to the rivalry among European powers following the large concessions Russia got from China as cited above. Finally, a subtle understanding among these powers was reached on how they should ‘cut the Chinese melon’ (partition of China) and share it. For example, France and Russia, Russia and Germany, and Germany and Britain decided to carve out spheres of influence in the mainland of China with their bullying tactics, i.e., by forcing China to accept their illegal demands and seizures, and thereafter getting them legalised through what is known as unequal treaties. In 1897, a German fleet forcibly occupied the village of Tsing tao in the Kiaochow bay (Shantung). The Russian fleet seized Port Arthur (Liaotung peninsula). The French fleet took the Kwangchow harbour near Canton. Britain got leases opposite Hong Kong, and a naval base at Weihaiwai. Still not satisfied, the Western powers forcibly got mining, railway and

tariff concessions from China. France acquired mining concessions in southwestern China, and extended her railways from Tongking. The French railway constructions penetrated the Yunnan province in the early decade of the twentieth century. Britain carried out her projects deep in the valley of Yangtze. She was engaged in the construction of a railway line to Burma. She forced China to open a greater number of treaty ports for her trade and enjoyed a concession to extend the railway line, an additional 2,800 miles. So at the end of the nineteenth century, the Western powers brought about the disintegration of China into spheres of influence. In fact they would have brought about her actual partition, had it not been for the timely intervention of the United States which came forward with her ‘open door’ policy. To conclude, in the words of Clyde and Beers, “… her great Confucian society had suffered successive military defeats; she had been subjected to unequal treaty system; her influence and control over the tributary states had been destroyed; and as the century drew to a close her strategic harbours had become foreign naval bases.” At last the Manchu empire, which had survived for centuries, was tottering.

The Japanese Feudal Society The Tokugawa Shoguns in Feudal Japan, exercised enormous power as civil and military authority rested in their hands. The powerful feudal lords were kept under strict control and therefore, Japan remained united and peaceful. The Daimyos, who were territorial lords with administrative powers, constituted a class, next only to the shogun in the power structure. The shogun kept a strict vigil over this class through an espionage system. Next in importance was the samurai class, the warrior class (or caste), whose bravery and loyalty could be depended upon by the ruling elite to serve their purpose. The merchants, artisans and the peasants formed the lowest class. The Tokugawa Shoguns encouraged Confucian values of hierarchy among the members of all classes for the purpose of pre-empting any uprisings or revolts. The Tokugawa Shoguns ruled from their headquarters in Edo (Tokyo), strategically situated when viewed from military, political and economic angles. This class system took deep roots in Japanese society until the advent of the Meiji revolution (1868).

Commodore Perry’s Visit The United States Government was deeply influenced by the pervading spirit in its country known as the ‘Manifest Destiny’. The Americans believed that their

country was ordained by God or destiny to rule or influence the whole world. In tune with the prevailing mood of the country, the US Government deputed Commodore Perry of the naval squadron to explore ways and means to establish diplomatic contacts with the countries in the Far East. The underlying purpose was to open up these countries for trade, and Perry focussed his attention on Japan. It must be remembered that earlier two visits of American officials to the Japanese coast had failed to achieve the same purpose. Commodore Mathew C Perry was chosen by US President Fillimore to forcefully represent the US interests in Japan. Carrying a message to the Japanese Government from his President, he arrived at the Edo bay with a small fleet consisting of four ships (July, 1853). He impressed the Japanese officials about the purpose of his mission. He desired to see the Emperor to hand over the President’s message and wait for his response. He was hardly aware that it was the Shogun who was ruling the country. The Japanese officials satisfied him by promising to do the needful. They, however, told him that it would take time. Perry impressed the Japanese officials with his no nonsense attitude and assured them he would return next spring to receive the reply from the Japanese Government. Perry’s refusal to route his request to the Japanese through the Dutch, who had already established some relations with Japan, and also his demand for treatment as a representative of a great power had a telling effect. It made the Shogun government nervous because it was conscious of the might of the technologically and scientifically advanced countries. Perry’s show of strength, the seriousness of his purpose, and his veiled threat, compelled the Shogun to consult the assembly of elders for the first time. The opinion among them was divided, some were for opening the country for western trade while others were against it. The shogun was confused, but it was prevailed upon him to agree to the terms of the government of the United States. As promised, Perry’s second visit to Japan, this time leading a much bigger fleet was undertaken to show the might of the United States. After landing, he was received with honour and courtesy, and his presents (miniature models of railways and telegraph), books and liquor were gratefully accepted. Amidst rejoicing, Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa on 31 March, 1854. The treaty provided for the opening of the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate for some naval facilities. The US Government was given permission to appoint its consul at Shimoda and avail itself of certain facilities like going to the rescue of some ship-wrecked US sailors. Although the treaty by itself did not offer much, it led to momentous consequences. For the first time, after a gap of two and half centuries, Japan had come out of self-imposed isolation. Thus Perry’s visit became historic. It had far- reaching consequences for Japan and the shogunate

as following events were to prove. What is interesting is that Japan’s response to the West was totally different from that of China. Japan’s willingness to come out of her seclusion and accept the proposals of the West on her terms was in total contrast to the Chinese policy of vacillation and drift.

Treaties with Other Powers The other Western powers did not lose time in securing treaties. Sir James Stirling, a British Admiral, cajoled the Japanese to sign the treaty at Nagasaki in October, 1854. The Russians did not lag behind. Count Putiatin secured a treaty from the Japanese at Shimoda in February, 1855. The Dutch got theirs in January 1856 which permitted them to extend their activities beyond Nagasaki. The treaties permitted Western governments to station their consuls at Shimoda and Hakodate and enjoy limited extraterritorial rights in keeping with their status.

The Harris Treaty A New York merchant named Townsend Harris was appointed the first consul at Shimoda by the US Government. Although his stay there was lonely and made inhospitable by the Japanese, his tremendous patience paved the way for establishing a rapport with the Japanese Government. It was after this success that he impressed upon the Japanese Government the desirability of having a full-fledged commercial treaty with his government. The Japanese signed a treaty, named after him, on July 29, 1858. This treaty practically conceded most favourable terms to the US Government, which among others, included, the opening of new ports for trade, diplomatic representation, appointment of new consuls in the treaty-ports, extraterritorial rights and freedom of religious practice. Other European powers, namely, Britain, Russia and Holland also clamoured for the same concessions, and Japan accorded the same. These western powers were successful in totally ending her self-imposed isolation.

Fall of the Shogunate It was the decision to open the doors of the country to the West which brought the ignominious end of the shogunate. It must be remembered that this decision was taken at a time when anti-foreign feelings were running high in Japan. The enemies of the shogun decided to strike when the imperial court itself was in a

restless condition. To everyone in Japan it looked like a great betrayal. The ten ruling clans of Japan decided to save the country from the ignominious shogun by raising the cry “Exterminate the barbarians and bring the emperor.” From 1859 to 1868, the anti-foreign feelings ran very high. An American interpreter, Hensken, was murdered by a Japanese chauvinist. Richardson, a British visitor from Hong Kong, was killed by a samurai belonging to the Sastuma lord. The British and American legations became special targets of attack. The western powers demanded compensation and apology in the beginning but it did not bring any relief. Violence against foreigners continued unabated. It was under these circumstances that the British bombarded the town of Kagasuma in 1863, followed by an attack in the next year by the combined naval forces of the US, Britain, France and the Dutch on Shimonoseki. The attack had the desired effect on the Sastuma and Choshu clans which had earlier organised the attack of western ships. The Shogun had become most unpopular and the cry to the Emperor to take charge of running the government directly had its impact. The Emperor issued two edicts rescinding the earlier orders of the shogun compelling the Daimyos to stay at the court in Edo every other year, and holding members of their families hostage. Many ruling clans began to defy the authority of the shogun and he was not willing to surrender his power to ‘evil’ advisers of the Emperor. He later announced his intention to resign. The issue was forced upon him by the leaders of the Western clan by rising in rebellion. This enraged the Shogun who decided to crush it. A civil war appeared imminent. The Emperor realised that he should intervene. His court issued the “Restoration Rescript” announcing the abolition of the shogunate. Thus the last Shogun, Keiki, was stripped off his rank and his followers were ordered to go out of Edo. The Shogun’s palace was seized and he was ordered to retire. Some of his hot-tempered followers went berserk but their revolt was crushed. In 1868, the Meiji Emperor declared the Charter of Oath containing five articles to the nobles, the Daimyos and other officials present at the imperial palace in Kyoto. Japan was destined to become a power to be reckoned with after the Emperor took over charge as the proper Head of the State and Government.

17 Latin America and South Africa Imperialism and Latin America

I

mperialism refers to a policy of a powerful country, extending control and influence over its colonies. By means of establishing colonies, a powerful country enhanced its prestige and wealth. In ancient history, the Egyptians, Babylonians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Mauryans, the Guptas and the Chinese established their colonies in many parts of the world. Those powerful countries were called imperial powers, and the process of establishing colonies is called colonisation. The imperialist powers exercised their authority over their respective colonies, and subjected them to economic exploitation. With the onset of Industrial Revolution, the need of the European countries for more raw materials and markets all over the world gave rise to modern imperialism. The imperial powers adopted various means to subdue and colonised weak countries of Latin America, Africa and Asia. These included outright invasion, misuse of trade concessions (Bengal), getting lease holds (like in nineteenth century China), investing huge amounts of money in underdeveloped countries (dollar diplomacy adopted by the US), carving out spheres of influence (as in China under the Manchus), establishment of protectorates and mandate systems under the authority of League of Nations or UN (as in the case of the Middle East and Africa). The imperial powers also signed extra territorial agreements with China in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries so as to exercise their political and financial control. Imperialism as developed by the British in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries provided opportunities for economic exploitation of its colonies. Lenin explained this feature of imperialism as constituting the highest stage of capitalism. Leon Gambetta (a French statesman) believed that France should establish its colonies in Africa and Asia as a matter of national pride. Similarly, the Germans in the second half of the nineteenth century persuaded Bismarck to

acquire colonies for the Germans in Africa. Christian missionaries in the early days had done enough ground work which paved the way for European colonisation in many parts of the world. Kipling, the British poet, inspired Europeans to undertake the noble task of ‘civilising’ the tribal people of Africa and Asia, and termed it the “white man’s burden”. Explorer David Livingston undertook journeys in the remote regions of the interior Africa to carry out the above mentioned task. Between 1870 and 1910, the European nations became highly industrialised and were able to subjugate the native kingdoms of Africa and Asia. They were able to accomplish this with modern weapons and highly trained armies.

Latin America: Mexico The term ‘Latin America’ is used to refer to the Spanish speaking states of Northern, Central and South America. In the midst of the Spanish speaking American states, we see the Portuguese-speaking Brazil. Mexico is situated in the southern part of North America. It was once a home to great civilizations, namely, the Olmec, Toltec, Maya and the Aztecs. Hernando Cortez, the Spanish explorer conquered the Aztecs in 1521 and established Mexico City at their old capital Tenochtitlan. In 1526, Francisco de Montejo further added some more territories by defeating the subjects of Mayan civilization. All the above territories then belonged to the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Mexico is largely inhabited by the Mestizos (sixty per cent), Native Americans (thirty per cent) and the rest by European migrants. In 1821, the Mexicans declared their independence from Spanish rule, and after two years, declared their country as a republic. In 1845, the Mexicans fought the US over the latter’s annexation of Texas, which was a part of Mexico. Mexico was defeated in 1848, and lost huge tracts of territories to the US (which now forms the southern and south-western part of the US). In course of history, Mexico went through several civil wars, rebellions, and foreign interventions. In the course of time, the Mexican government was unable to clear its debt, with the result that the British, French and the Spanish sent their forces to recover the money. This was at a time when the US was going through a civil conflict. However, the British and Spanish forces withdrew after reaching a compromise, while the French forces continued to remain in Mexico. After the civil conflict, the US government gave a warning to European powers not to meddle in the politics of the American continent (Monroe Doctrine).

The Mexicans expelled the French forces led by the French nominee, Maximilian, and elected Juarez as their leader (1867-72). However, Juarez was unable to solve many problems of the Mexicans, and therefore had to resign. His successor also proved to be incompetent. The next successor was Porfirio Diaz (1877-1911). He was able to achieve political and economic stability for the country. But the poor people of Mexico began to suffer despite the efficient rule of Diaz, who unfortunately patronised local aristocrats and foreign investors. In 1911, Diaz was overthrown by the middle class that elected Madero as their new president. Subsequently, Madero was also overthrown by General Huerta.

Brazil Rio de Janeiro is the capital and port city of Brazil. Brazil was discovered by Pedro Alvarez de Cabral in 1500. It became the only Portuguese colony in South America with a large Mulatto population (mixed black and white ancestry) and also some expatriates, namely, African, European and Asian. The Portuguese rulers developed Brazil as their colony from 1530, and brought African slaves to improve agriculture. When Napoleon I conquered Portugal, the Portuguese king shifted his court to Brazil. A Portugese Prince, Pedro I, declared himself the Emperor of Brazil, sided with the Brazilians, and forced the Portuguese court to shift back to its original place. It was during the time of Pedro II (1831-89) that Brazil attained all round progress. The slave trade was abolished in 1853 and African slaves were set free in 1888. In 1889, Pedro II was deposed, and Marshal Fonseca, who succeeded him, declared Brazil, a republic. A new constitution was drafted, but Fonseca could not continue for a long time. He was overthrown and the military dictatorship came to an end by 1894. Brazil joined the side of the allies during the First World War and fought against Germany. Subsequently, this state became a member of the League of Nations.

Chile Chile is situated in the south western coast of South America. It is 2700 miles in length (north-south) and approximately 150 miles in width. It lies between the Andes Mountains in the east and the Pacific sea coast in the west. When the Spaniards came, they settled in Santiago which became their capital. Chile became an independent country in 1541, under the leadership of Jose de San Martin. It chose a republican form of government with a president as its head.

like other Latin American states, it had boundary disputes with its neighbours. These boundary disputes led to wars against Bolivia and Peru in 1879. Although Chile won the border wars, it suffered economically. In the First World War Chile remained neutral, but during the Second World War, it joined the Axes powers (for nearly 4 years). It switched sides in 1943. Chile elected Salvador Allende, a great Marxist, as its president in 1970. However, after a few years he was overthrown in a coup led by Augusto Pinochet. Pinochet’s harsh military regime will never be forgotten by the Chileans. His brutal suppression of revolts caused lot of bloodshed. He was accused of human rights violation. His military rule came to an end by 1988 and a civilian government was set up. Chile has posted a strong economic recovery in the 1990s. Pinochet was extradited from Britain by the Chilean government to enable him to stand trial for violation of human rights.

Argentina Argentina is the second largest state in South America. Amerigo Vespucci came to Argentina in 1502, and further human settlements appeared in the sixteenth century. Many of the early settlers were Spaniards who came here with Spanish navigator Juan de Solis (1516). It came under Spanish rule for the next couple of centuries. It was Don Jose de San Martin who led a revolt for the freedom of Argentineans in May, 1810. Argentina declared a new constitution in 1853. It declared the country as a Federal Republic with a President for a term of six years. It has a bicameral legislature. Its capital, Buenos Aires, became one of the most beautiful cities in South America. During the First World War, a majority of Latin American states broke off their relationship with Germany and joined the allies. These states later joined the League of Nations as members. Some of these states, including Argentina, suffered economically during the worldwide economic depression of 1929-1930. It was during this time that the US government declared its policy of ‘good neighbour’ in 1933, towards the Southern American countries. In 1933, the Southern American countries, held a conference in Montevideo where the US government declared its policy of noninterference with its neighbours. In 1936, a conference was held in Buenos Aires wherein many Latin American states declared the starting of a friendly policy of consulting each other on important and urgent matters. In 1938, a similar conference was held in Lima, where the Latin Americans states reiterated the same old policy of consulting each other on important and urgent matters. The US government was displeased with Argentina when it joined the side of the

Germans during the World War II. However, Argentina switched sides after that. Between 1946 and 1955, Juan Peron became President, and he proved to be a popular dictator. His wife, Eva Peron, was also known for exercising her influence on the President. Her interference in state matters provoked the army and the church, which forced President Peron to go into exile. He returned to Argentina after two decades and again became President in 1973. He died in 1974, and his second wife lsabel succeeded him. She was later deposed by the Army. Argentina fought Britain (during the time of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher) over the occupation of Falkland Islands in 1982. Britain declared that these islands belonged to it. Argentina was defeated and its military regime came to an end. A civilian government was set up under Raul Alfonsin. However, the country’s economic problems were such that Alfonin’s government was unable to solve them. He had to resign. In 1989, Carlos Menem with Peronist views became the President, and he encouraged a free trade policy.

Cuba Cuba is a big island situated near the southern tip of Florida (US). It was discovered by Columbus in 1492 and subsequently settled by the Spaniards. The native Indians hated the Spanish rule. They were employed by the Spaniards to work in sugar plantations under harsh conditions. As the natives turned rebellious, the Spanish Governor brought African slaves to work in these plantations. The natives rose against the Spanish Government during the period 1868-78 and also in 1895. Since the United States Government had invested heavily in the sugar plantations of Cuba, it sympathised with the natives. It took the side of the natives against the Spanish rule. In 1898, a US ship, Maine, docked in the Havana harbour, was blown up under mysterious circumstances. The US blamed the Spanish government for this incident, which resulted in the outbreak of the Spanish-American war. Spain was defeated, and Cuba was occupied by the US for about two years. Spain ceded Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the US by the Treaty of Paris. It was in 1899, that Cuba became independent. During the post-war period (1958-59) Cuba was ruled by Batista whose rule became most unpopular. His dictatorship was overthrown by a communist leader, Fidel Castro. Castro established his dictatorship over Cuba and formed a socialist state. He aligned himself with the Soviet Union much to the displeasure of the US. His policies, which included the nationalisation of the American

companies, angered the US so much that, President Kennedy ordered the US forces to carry out a secret invasion. This military expedition (Bay of Pigs war) ended in a disastrous failure. Fidel Castro entered into secret negotiations with the Soviet Government and allowed the latter to secretly move nuclear missiles to Cuba as a defensive measure. A US spy plane happened to detect the missile launching sites which provoked President Kennedy to threaten a nuclear war against the Soviet Union. He ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. This confrontation would have led to a nuclear war. However, the Soviet Union under Premier Khrushev realized his mistake and agreed to withdraw the missiles from Cuba on certain conditions. One of the main conditions was that the US should withdraw its missiles from Turkey which posed a serious threat to the Soviet Union, and a promise not to invade Cuba. Castro played a very important role in one of the NAM summits held in Havana. His name is closely associated with Che Guevara (a doctor, who became his minister for industries), who helped him in the spread of communism all over Latin America. Che Guevara’s book ‘Guerrilla Warfare’ became a bible for the underground communists all over the world. Eventually, he was caught somewhere in Bolivia and executed.

Other Latin American States Columbia:- It was discovered by Columbus which came to be called as New Grenda. It was ruled by the Spaniards from 1549, with Bogota as its capital. After a period of 260 years, the Spanish rule was overthrown and New Grenada was renamed as Columbia (in honour of Columbus). In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt of the US, encouraged the people of Panama (which was under Columbia) to revolt against Columbia. He wanted to build the Panama Canal, but Columbia had refused to accede to his request. Panama became an independent republic after its revolt against Columbia. The Panama Canal was built as a waterway connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, and the new government received compensation. Columbia is going through many economic troubles today, and like other Latin American states, often suffers from internal troubles. Another country, Costa Rica, was also discovered by Columbus. It is a small country, with San Jose as its capital. Along with other states like Ecuador, Haiti, Honduras, EI Salvador, Paraguay and Uruguay, it suffered from internal strifes. All these countries are classified as underdeveloped economies and eleven out of the twenty Latin American countries are classified as underdeveloped economies. In fact, eleven out of the twenty Latin American

countries have gone through a series of economic crises, the most important being the 1929-31 worldwide economic depression. It is considered that seven out of the twenty Latin American countries are economically and politically stable, with Brazil leading the pack.

US Interference After the civil war, there was a strong belief among the Americans that their country was destined to grow beyond the pacific seaboard. They called it “manifest-destiny”. Moreover, the American industrialists needed raw materials and markets for their industrial goods. These factors compelled the American policy makers to acquire more territories. Subsequently, the American government also felt that European countries frequently interfered in the internal affairs of Latin American states. Way back in 1823, President Monroe (Monroe Doctrine) had issued a warning to the European countries not to interfere in the affairs of Latin American states. This warning made many Latin American states happy, and they regarded the US as their big brother. But in the course of time, the “Big Brother” himself started taking too much interest in their internal affairs.

Dollar Imperialism Dollar imperialism and dollar diplomacy became an integral part of American imperialism. For example, Mexico lost large tracts of territories after signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the Mexican War (1845). Territories west of the River Grande had to be ceded to the US (it included Arizona, California, Texas, Nevada, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico). The American businessmen developed great interest in investing huge amounts of money in the sugar plantations of Cuba. After the Spanish-American war (1899), Spain lost Cuba, Philippines and few other islands to the US. The US government intervened as a ‘big brother’ in the affairs of the Dominican states, namely, Haiti, Guatemala, Panama, and so on. This frequent interference in the affairs of Latin American countries aroused their great suspicion about the intentions of the US government. However, the US also played a positive role in maintaining friendly relations with the Latin American countries. It invested money, encouraged growth of democracy, and helped the Latin American countries to introduce social and economic reforms. American government provided funds not only for developing infrastructure (roads, bridges, canals and railways) but also for the

mechanisation of industries.

Western Imperialism in Africa Africa is the second largest continent in the world with a total area of 11,700,000 square miles. This continent enjoys a wide variety of climate and soil. It is rich in mineral deposits such as diamonds, gold, copper and iron ore. Because of its immense size and hostile climate, its interiors remained unexplored for a very long time. During the late fifteenth century, the Portuguese established a few trading outposts along Africa’s west coast. Following the footsteps of the Portuguese, other European powers like Spain, Holland and others established their own trading posts. However, it was not until the middle of nineteenth century, that the interior lands of Africa came to be explored. The greatest among the early explorers was a British missionary, David Livingstone. Finding that the natives of Africa, mainly negroid in stock, were very backward and uncivilised, he made it his goal to bring them under the civilising influence of the West. The next great explorer was an American journalist, Henry M.Stanley who explored the Congo region. His thrilling adventures in Africa excited many merchants and businessmen who were eager to exploit the resources of that continent.

Partition of Africa Stanley’s exploration of the Congo basin impressed King Leopold II of Belgium. He was the first to take the initiative in organising an international conference for the purpose of civilising the people of the African continent. He appointed Stanley as his agent and promoted a company to acquire the Congo basin. But the French had laid their claims to a part of Congo and so they had to be satisfied. The land lying north of the river Congo was ceded to the French. The natives of Leopold’s Congo suffered a great deal as the population of each village had to pay heavy taxes. They groaned under his tyranny. His scandalous rule attracted the attention of the other European powers. They lost no time in condemning his atrocities. The king, who looked upon the Congo region as his personal property, was forced to hand over the same in 1908, to the Belgian Parliament. It was then, that reforms in Belgian Congo region were introduced. The success of Leopold’s venture in Congo encouraged other European trading companies like the British and the French to set up trading outposts in Africa. They put forward claims to the Niger valley. After a struggle, Britain

won. The French took the northern part of Africa. Britain also got the Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1815. But the Dutch farmers called the Boers did not like the British. They moved northwards and established two republics called Transvaal and the Orange Free State. They settled there, but when gold was discovered in Transvaal, the British also began to move there. The hostilities between the Boers and the British resulted in a war called the Boer War in 1899. The Boers were defeated. The British acquired some more territories in the course of time. All these lands conquered were grouped together and named as the Union of South Africa (1910). By about 1914, Britain emerged as the greatest imperialist power in the African continent. She realised the importance of acquiring Egypt soon after the construction of the Suez Canal (1869). The Egyptian ruler was encouraged to borrow money from Britain to improve the Egyptian economy. In the meanwhile, Britain bought a majority of the shares in the Suez Canal company and thus obtained control over its administration. The shrewd British prime minister at that time, Disraeli, gradually began to exert his pressure over the ruler of Egypt. The Egyptians resented the British influence and revolted in 1882. This revolt was put down and thereafter the British influence grew. On the eve of the First World War, Egypt became a British protectorate. After this, the British gradually moved southwards towards Sudan. The Muslim fanatics were defeated and Sudan became a part of British empire. But France also put forward its claim to Sudan. However, the differences between the British and the French were settled. The British “Empire builder”, Cecil Rhodes, thought of acquiring all the territories from Egypt in the north to the Cape Colony in the south. But the Germans upset his plans. However, the British extended their control over Uganda, British East Africa (Kenya) and a part of the Somaliland. Cecil Rhodes established a colony in South Africa which is named after him, i.e., Rhodesia. Britain also got the established colonies, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone, along the west coast of Africa. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the European powers were eager to establish their control over its satellite states in northern Africa. France took Algeria during the time of king Louis Philippe (1830-48) and later annexed it. It was from there, that France began extending her sway over other neighbouring territories like Tunisia, Morocco and west and equatorial Africa. France also set up her colonies in Senegal, Somaliland, Madagascar island and part of the Guinea coast. Spain acquired a part of Morocco, Canary islands, Rio De Oro and Rio de Muni. The Italians upheld the French claim over Morocco against that of the Germans and France allowed Italy to occupy Libya in return, following Italy’s

war with Turkey. Italy had earlier acquired part of Somaliland facing the Indian Ocean and Eritrea, facing the Red Sea. In 1896, Italy’s attempt to conquer Ethiopia failed miserably. Germany entered the race for colonies in Africa as the last-minute competitor. She could manage to acquire large chunks of territory in west Africa where she set up colonies like German South West Africa, German Cameroons and Togoland. On the eastern side, she acquired Tanganyika (German East Africa). She quarrelled with France twice over the latter’s attempt to establish her protectorate over Morocco, and on both occasions there might have been a war. However, these situations were averted. The Portuguese, who were the first to show interest in Africa, acquired Angola and Mozambique. The acquisitions of colonies in African continent was not without rivalry on the part of the European powers. All of them wanted to subjugate the natives of Africa and exploit the resources for their own selfish ends. The African continent offered mineral and natural resources to the European powers. Moreover, it had and has a wide variety of wildlife. It may be said that only Ethiopia and Liberia remained unsubdued by the European powers. Otherwise almost all the parts of Africa were colonised by European powers. It was only after World War II, that many of these colonies became independent.

South Africa Africa was called the Dark Continent, because it remained inaccessible for a long time. People speaking Bantu languages settled in the far south of the African continent in the fourteenth century. This region was called the Cape region. The Bantus were hard working, and they mined copper and gold in some of these areas. They developed trade relations with their immediate neighbours. The Dutch East India Company was the first to establish their trading settlement in the Cape region in 1652. Subsequently, the settlement turned into a colony with Dutch settlers known as Boers. The British conquered the Cape Colony in 1795, and the Boers left this region en masse. They moved towards the north and founded the Boer republics of Orange Free State and Transvaal (the present South Africa region). Gold and diamond mines were discovered in 1884, in the Rand, which attracted other European miners and speculators. The small town of Johannesburg became a city within a few years. There was mutual recrimination between the Boers of Transvaal led by its President, Paul Kruger, and the British over the demands of

Uitlanders (Outsiders). Both the parties were ready to fight. The Boers declared war against Britain. The Orange Free State also joined the war. The Boer War (1899-1902) ended in the victory of the British. The latter annexed these two Boer provinces to its empire. The British granted the Boer provinces a self government, and respected their language and customs. Following a convention in 1908, a new draft of the constitution of South Africa was prepared. It was ratified by all the four colonies in June, 1909. The birth of the Union of South Africa thus took place which included Cape Colony, Transvaal, Natal and Orange Free State following a British Parliamentary Act of 1910.

Apartheid Policy The Union of South Africa consisted of twenty per cent white and eighty per cent. non-white population which included natives, coloureds and Asians. The white minority government was formed which discriminated against the nonwhite population. In early twentieth century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, an Indian barrister from England, undertook Satyagraha (Non-violent movement) to fight for the rights of the non-white population. In the general elections held in May, 1948, General Smuts was defeated, and a new Nationalist Government led by Dr Daniel Malan was formed. The Nationalist Government enacted a series of laws to legally enforce racial segregation. These laws were called Apartheid laws which favoured the whites and proved harmful to the non-whites, namely, the natives, the coloureds and the Asians. The Apartheid laws remained in force until 1994. Dr. Malan ruled South Africa for nearly six years, and the natives and non-whites suffered great hardships. Racial animosity increased between the natives and the Whites which frequently led to protests and clashes. In 1949, an act was passed by which mixed marriages were prohibited. Malan’s Minister for Native Affairs, Hendrik Verwoered, became known as the “Architect of Apartheid”. Verwoerd introduced the Population Registration Act of 1950, which required each inhabitant to register himself or herself according to the racial group (Black, White, or Coloured) they belonged to. In 1953, the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, was passed by which, certain schools, beaches, hospitals, universities, clubs and so on were reserved for ‘whites only’. The non-white population had to be satisfied with inferior amenities. The Black Education Act of 1953, introduced a separate educational system for the blacks, and it was aimed at creating a labour class. In 1958, the government under Prime Minister Dr Hendrik Verwoerd,

pursued the Apartheid policy with greater fervour. His government enacted some laws by which the black people had to carry identity cards issued by it. In 1960, a referendum was held by which, South Africa was declared as a republic. The Apartheid policy of South Africa was condemned by the United Nations and the Third World countries. When sanctions were imposed, South Africa left the British Commonwealth in 1961. Verwoerd was assassinated by Dimitri Tsafendas (a man of mixed race ancestry) in September, 1966. Political representation for non-whites was abolished in 1970. The natives lost their South African citizenship as they legally became citizens of their respective Bantustan (Self-governing homelands created on the basis of ethnicity of the natives).

18 Colonisation of Australia

A

ustralia is the smallest among the six continents covering an area of 7.7 million sq. km. It is situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The aborigines are believed to have settled in this continent some 40,000 years ago. The first European explorer who reached Cape York, on the Peninsula of Queensland, Australia in 1606, was a Dutch named Willem Janszoon. In 1688, William Dampier, an English explorer also reached the Australian coast. Another Dutch explorer named Tasman sailed along the south east coast of Australia, and discovered an island, later named after him, Tasmania. It was in the 1770s, that Captain James Cook, a British explorer and scientist, sailed in his ship Endeavour along the east coast of Australia. Between 1768 and 1779, Captain James Cook continued his exploration, and discovered the region, known today as Botany Bay. While sailing along the south eastern coast, he came across a region which reminded him of his homeland Wales. It came to be called as New South Wales later. All the regions that he had discovered were claimed as British territories in the name of King George III. A number of British settlements came up after 1796. The earliest to arrive from Britain were convicts who landed in Port Jackson in 1788. Sydney became the capital of New South Wales. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the British created six colonies, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and the island of Tasmania. These colonies attracted a large number of British and European immigrants. Many of these immigrants came here to start a new life. Even British convicts were sent here for the purpose of serving out the rest of their prison terms. All the six colonies were granted self-government. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the free settlers displaced the aborigines from their settlements, and made a living through agriculture, cattle-rearing and so on. During this time, large deposits of gold and other minerals were discovered which attracted many more immigrants from Britain and other parts of Europe. The population of Australia reached nearly 4 million at the end of the nineteenth

century. The new settlers with progressive ideas changed the attitude of the British Government from treating Australia as a country fit for sending only convicts. In course of the time all these colonies became states, and bound by uniform legislation. The British Parliament passed the Common Wealth of Australia Constitution Act in 1900. The colonies came to be known as the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, and it consisted of a Union and six federating units. The Federal Parliament consisted of two houses, namely, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Constitution clearly defined the powers of the federal government and the six states. Thus the constitutional government came into force on 1 January, 1901. Since the 1960s, the Australian government has permitted immigrants from Asia and Africa to settle there. It checked the interference of the British Government in its internal affairs in 1968 by severing its constitutional links. Even today debates continue about its relations with the British Government, and also about forming a Republic. Australia sent its contingent force to help Britain and France in the First World War, and its army fought enemies at Gallipoli. During the Second World War, it joined the allies and fought the Japanese in Asia-Pacific region. It became a close ally of the US after signing the Anzus Pact for the purpose stemming the tide of communist expansion in South East Asia. The Australian Government supported the US in the Korea and Vietnam wars. It has also joined the West in its War on Terror since 11 September, 2001. Today Australia is a prosperous country with ninety-nine per cent literacy, and a life expectancy of eighty-one years. It is rich in minerals (coal, copper, nickel, gold, silver, iron ore, oil), and is also the largest producer and exporter of Uranium. It produces large quantities of wool, wheat and meat.

19 Imperialism and Free Trade: Rise of New Imperialism

D

uring the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the trading countries of Europe followed the policy of mercantilism. Mercantilism implied the implementation of government rules and regulations concerning trade matters. In the early phase of mercantilism, gold became the medium of exchange among countries trading with each other. However, when the European countries colonised Latin America, they got gold freely from countries like Mexico and Peru. Thus Spain, Portugal, Britain and the Netherlands became rich. Merchants saved enough money to start industries during the Industrial Revolution. With the availability of abundant natural resources, and the capital invested, the Industrial Revolution made substantial progress in Britain. Thereafter, the Industrial Revolution spread to other countries of Europe. The mercantilist policy of Britain in the eighteenth century came to be very much criticised. The thirteen British colonies vehemently opposed the mercantilist regulations, often leading to violence The outbreak of the American War of Independence was the direct outcome of this unpopular policy followed by Britain. Political economists like Adam Smith and Davis Ricardo urged the British Government to discard mercantilism and follow the laissez faire (free trade) policy. A few decades later, the British government was compelled to give up this mercantilist policy when a famine spread in Ireland. Robert Peel’s government repealed the Corn Laws and pursued the free trade policy. In the course of time, trade rivalries intensified among the European countries. As competition increased, these countries found it difficult to secure raw materials for their industries, and also find new markets for their finished goods. It was at this critical juncture that major European powers began to colonise Africa and Asia. The latter supplied much of the raw materials to the former, and also provided access to their markets. Hence, the nineteenth century

witnessed a race for colonies in Africa and Asia. Germany was the last European country to enter this race. It must be noted that Imperial rivalries in Africa and Asia became one of the causes for the outbreak of World War I.

New Imperialism The term ‘Imperialism’ simply means “the policy and practice of forming and maintaining an empire”. The European powers followed this concept from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. Britain followed by France, Portugal, Spain and Holland established trade connections with American and Asian countries. Merchants and businessmen considered it important to have colonies in order to gain immense profits. Thus, rivalry among the European powers to establish colonies and effectively control them for their own benefits, was not uncommon during those centuries. During the first half of the eighteenth century, several statesmen realised the futility of establishing colonies. It was during this time that old imperialism declined very rapidly. France lost her colonies in North America after the Seven Years War. Britain lost the thirteen American colonies after the latter won independence following a protracted struggle between 1776 and 1783. Spain too lost her colonies in South America during the early nineteenth century. The ‘white man’s burden’ became too heavy for maintaining colonial empires. In the course of time, the “trouble and expense of administering colonial empires outweighed any possible benefits”. In Britain there was the prevailing sentiment that her colonies would eventually become independent. Disraeli, the British Prime Minister, wrote in 1852, “These wretched colonies will all be independent in a few years and are millstones around our necks”. In France, Turgot said, “Colonies are like fruits that drop off when they are ripe”. So, by the first half of the nineteenth century, the European countries seemed to be tired of establishing new colonies. In Germany too, Bismarck did not pay much attention to establishing colonies. However, during the last two decades of the nineteenth century, there occurred the glorious revival of colonialism on the part of the Western powers. This is called ‘New Imperialism’. Many colonial societies were established in Europe to encourage the establishment of new colonies. Merchants, traders, adventurers, capitalists and industrialists all liked the establishment of colonies in Africa and Asia. In 1872, even Disraeli, who had earlier decried imperialism, began to evince a keen interest in reviving imperialism. In France, two men, Gambetta and Jules Ferry, came forward with some ideas about the likely benefits an imperialist country would derive from establishing new colonies. In

the course of time, Bismarck also bowed to the demands of his countrymen for establishing colonies in Africa and Asia. It was realised during the last quarter of the nineteenth century that the world was after all a small place. This idea became apparent after the improvements effected in the means of transport and communication. Steamships began to sail across from one continent to another. Similarly, the railways moved across desert land. New inventions and weapons made it possible for the Western powers to dominate over Afro-Asian countries which had not made much progress in these areas. The old laissez faire idea became unpopular as time passed. The mercantilist idea became popular once again. The 1870s witnessed the resurgence of imperialism on account of increasing competition among rival powers on one hand, and the imposition of tariffs on important goods on the other. Therefore, the European manufacturers who had produced goods far in excess of their own requirements, could only think of disposing them off in the newly established colonies. Thus from all these points of view, establishment of new colonies became an important facet of foreign policy of the industrialised countries of Europe. Also, the industrial capitalists thought in terms of investing their surplus capital in the newly established colonies for various reasons.

Demand for Raw Materials and Food grains Colonies served manifold purposes. They provided raw materials for the imperialist countries. It must be remembered that the Industrial Revolution was making rapid progress in almost all Western countries during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Industrial nations of the Western world required huge quantities of raw materials, not available in their own countries, which were very much required in order to keep their factories fully engaged. The Western powers naturally looked forward to establishing overseas colonies for exploitation. For example, India provided plenty of raw materials to her colonial master, Britain. When the civil war broke out in America, India started exporting cotton to British mills in Liverpool and Manchester to keep the textile mills busy. Similarly, the imperialist powers obtained rubber, hemp, coconuts, vegetable oils, tea, coffee, fruits, sugar, silk, petroleum, coal, iron, copper, zinc and other goods and metals from their respective colonies. They also got them at cheap prices.

Free Trade

The industrial nations of western Europe established new colonies which provided overseas markets. Trade rivalries in Europe brought about the introduction of the tariff system and therefore, the Western countries turned towards their respective colonies to dispose off the excess goods manufactured. For example, cotton was sent from India to feed the British textile mills, and the latter in exchange sent their manufactured goods to Indian markets. Thus the Western imperial powers gained two-fold profit, at the time of purchase of cheap raw materials in the colonies and also at the time of the sale of their manufactured goods. There came a time when the British industrialists thought in terms of investing their capital in the colonies. This would bring about more profits than what they could have imagined.

Features of New Imperialism The reasons above were, how industrial capitalism began to grow and subsequently, it spread to the colonies also. The industrial capitalists started investing their capital in the colonies. In India, the British capitalists started building railways. Their venture brought huge profit. Similarly other imperial powers started building railways, undertook mining and managed communication systems and so on, in the countries of Africa and Asia. In 1913, Britain’s overseas investments touched twenty billion dollars. Similarly, France and Germany invested eight billion and five billion dollars respectively in their colonies during the same year. The manifold profits derived by exploiting the colonies in Africa and Asia resulted in a headlong race for acquiring more colonies during the nineteenth century. “Trade follows the flag” became the maxim. The New Imperialism was similar to the old in many respects. The motives behind acquiring colonies were “gospel, gold, and glory”. Colonial rivalries characterised the age of the new imperialism. The imperialists did not look forward to the establishment of colonies in the new continent. This time they were bent on exploiting the colonies of Africa and Asia. Thanks to the advancement of science and technology, these Western powers were able to easily defeat the native rulers in Africa and Asia.

PART VI

Revolution and Counter-Revolution Chapter 20 Nineteenth Century European Revolutions Chapter 21 The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921 Chapter 22 Fascist Counter-Revolution: Italy and Germany Chapter 23 The Chinese Revolution of 1949

20 Nineteenth Century European Revolutions French Monarchy after 1815

T

he Allies enthroned the brother of the executed French king, Louis XVI, after Napoleon abdicated, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (April 11, 1814). The new ruler of France assumed the title of Louis XVIII and wisely decided to rule according to a constitutional charter which provided for a parliamentary government, personal liberty and equality, religious toleration and a free press. On May 30, 1814, the Treaty of Paris was signed by France and she gave up all the territories added by the Napoleonic conquests. Despite this loss France did not suffer as the allies left her with boundaries as existed in 1792. Even before the completion of a full year by the new French government, it was rudely interrupted by the sudden reappearance of Napoleon who returned from the island of Elba. The French king fled and Napoleon regained control of France and prepared to challenge his enemies in the Battle of Waterloo. With depleted military strength, Napoleon heroically fought his enemies but without success. He was defeated and surrendered to the English who sent him to the island of Saint Helena (1815) to spend the rest of his life as a British prisoner. The Allies restored King Louis XVIII to his throne and his reign concluded in 1824. During the nine years of his rule, the king tried to steer a middle course by avoiding the pitfalls. He found it difficult to bring about a compromise between opposing factions. The Ultra-royalists who dominated the first chamber urged him to return to the ancién regime hoping to regain their position and privileges. They were determined to persecute all the Bonapartists in the country. They organised a “White Terror” in 1816 and apprehended about 7,000 supporters of Napoleon. They were imprisoned and most of them were subsequently executed including Marshal Ney, the bravest of the brave. Except for this ruthless savagery, his reign was peaceful. His government did much to collect the war indemnity to pay off the Allies and thereby got rid of the foreign

troops occupying French soil. In the meanwhile, France was restored to its position and rank in the comity of nations of Europe, and her assistance was sought to restore the absolute rule of King Ferdinand of Spain. It may be said in conclusion that the reign of King Louis XVIII began with an emphasis on the policy of moderation but during the closing years, it deteriorated into a reactionary rule. With his death ended the short phase of moderate policy of the French government. As Louis XVIII was childless, his brother, the Count of Artois succeeded to the French throne with the title Charles X. The new king was strict and autocratic in contrast to “his pleasant, easygoing brother”. He favoured the influence of the clergy in political matters. Unfortunately, he lacked shrewdness and foresight, qualities which bring success to the ruler of a troubled State. Being a strong reactionary, he totally opposed the liberal tendencies of his brother. Declaring his contempt for the constitutional monarchy he said, “I would rather chop wood, than reign after the fashion of the King of England”. He sought to impose his will on the nation and worked for the restoration of ancién regime. The people of his country were greatly amused at the way their new king was “crowned after the ancient rites of Rheims”. While he lay prostrate, he was anointed—seven parts of his body were pricked with a golden needle which was dipped in sacred oil. Considering himself a holy person endowed with magical powers, he visited hospitals to heal the patients with his holy touch. His conservative attitude became evident as can be seen in his first few acts. Laws were passed making sacrilege punishable by death. Religious orders which ceased their activities during the revolution were encouraged to function. The new king was also often found taking part in religious processions, carrying a lighted candle like the rest. All these acts irritated his opponents. To top it all, the new king granted a billion francs as compensation to the nobles who suffered losses due to the revolution. In 1827, all books, journals and newspapers were asked to conform to the code of censorship. The National Guard was disbanded. When there was a storm of protest from the liberals and Bonapartists, he reacted sternly by dismissing his moderate councillors and appointing Prince de Polignac as his prime minister. People suspected that the king was thinking of attempting a coup to overthrow the constitution and restore the much hated ancién regime. Polignac represented the most reactionary group France had ever witnessed. On assuming office, he desired to reorganise the French society based on the model of ancién regime. Besides being an Ultra in the extreme, he was reportedly receiving direct instructions from the Virgin Mary herself. The

programme of the Ultras continued and the people were alarmed. These policies of the king and his Chief Minister, Polignac, provoked the Chamber of Deputies, who protested. The Chamber demanded the dismissal of Polignac’s ministry and the king obliged it and ordered elections. In this atmosphere of acrimony, France’s success in the Near East (1827) and her conquest of Algiers (1830) were relegated to the background. The king continued to ride roughshod by implementing the programme of the Ultras.

July Ordinances As per the advice of Polignac, he issued four ordinances from the Royal Palace of St. Cloud on 25 July, 1830. Among other things, the July Ordinances included the suspension of the liberty of the press, dissolution of the new Chamber of Deputies, even before it met, changed the electoral system (which reduced the strength of the voters from 100,000 to 25,000) and proclaimed an order for new elections. In other words, the king strongly desired the return of the royal absolutism of the pre-revolutionary days. So during the next two days, tension mounted, making it inevitable for the outbreak of another revolution. The king’s July Ordinances posed a challenge to the people of France in general, and to the citizens of Paris in particular. The lead to provide an effective response came from forty-one journalists led by Thiers and Mignet. They drafted a letter of protest and challenged the validity of ordinances. Furthermore, they appealed to the people of Paris to resist the attempts of the king to foist on them the old royal despotism. On 27 July, only two newspapers, National and Temps, dared to print the protest-letter. The citizens of Paris did not lag behind. Revolutionary committees were formed in many arrondissements and their members started collecting arms and erected barricades on the streets of Paris to fight the royal tyranny. Polignac entrusted the work of protecting the city to Marshal Marmont who deployed his troops to demolish the barricades. There was some street-fighting and bloodshed but the king was not alarmed. The next day, the Paris mob went on a rampage and shouted “down with Bourbon monarchy”. They raised the tricolour and laid siege to the Hotel de Ville. In the meanwhile, the old members of the National Guard joined the mob. Subsequently, the mob attacked the bakeries and the regular troops starved. They also mutinied. The king remained complacent because, his minister Polignac, had said that he had seen a vision that four men and one corporal would settle the whole thing. But when his regular troops mutinied and the vision of Polignac did not materialise, he became frightened. He remembered the warning of his

dying brother (King Louis XVIII), that was, “Do not forget that you must preserve the throne for your son and grandson”. To save his throne for his children, he offered to withdraw the obnoxious ordinances. It was too late and the Paris mob was not in a mood to accept this offer. In the face of this opposition, he abdicated his throne in favour of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord. It was about this time the mob attacked the Tuileries and the Louvre. The insurgents hoped to establish a Republic but Thiers and Talleyrand, an enlightened clergyman, felt that such a move would invite the wrath of reactionary states, and there would be military intervention. Hence, they put forward the name of Louis Philippe, the then Duke of Orleans (a collateral line of Bourbon House) as Charles’ successor. On the morning of 30 July, 1830, this announcement was made through banners and placards. Louis Philippe was invested with the title of Lieutenant General of the kingdom. When he reached the Hotel de Ville, he was warmly received by Laffitte, a banker. The Legislature met and formally confirmed his title, “King of the French by the will of the people”, in contrast to Charles’ title, “King of the French by the grace of God”. Many called him the ‘citizen king’ on account of the simple life he led. The divine right of kingship was totally rejected by the people. By giving consent to the offer made, Louis Philippe agreed to rule the kingdom according to the constitution. He also accepted the tricolour flag to indicate his rejection of royal absolutism. Louis Philippe was the son of Philippe Egalite. The latter belonged to the younger branch of Bourbon line and at the time of the French Revolution had given his consent to the execution of King Louis XVI. Thiers and Talleyrand hoped that Louis Philippe had enough credentials to occupy the French throne. His candidature would have special appeal to the wealthy middle-class sections of French society. He would also be acceptable to the common people since he did not have aristocratic habits like his predecessors. He accepted to rule according to a revised charter which abolished his powers to issue ordinances.

Orleans Monarchy in France (1830-48) Although the new king was “clever, sensible, kindly and well-intentioned”, he was yet to make a mark. His simple life style and habits did not impress many. On the other hand, he became a butt of ridicule. The royalists hated him because he had usurped the French throne from his Bourbon cousin. The Republicans were disenchanted because his government was not democratic in the strict sense of the term. A majority of French population was yet to secure the right to vote.

At the most, his government could be described as “an aristocratic creation with a democratic appearance”. The Bonapartists did not like him because his foreign policy had none of the trappings of the Napoleonic splendour. The Socialists too were unsympathetic because he had not made any effort to improve the conditions of the working class.

Foreign Policy The first problem King Louis Philippe faced in foreign relations was of securing recognition to his government from his European counterparts, who were not pleased with the French because they had dethroned Charles X and enthroned a new ruler. Czar Nicholas I was tempted to intervene on behalf of Charles X but then he was too busy suppressing the Polish revolt. King Louis Philippe made efforts to improve his image in the eyes of other European rulers by allaying their fears. He was successful in securing recognition for his government from the new British foreign secretary, Lord Palmerston. However, in accomplishing this task, he had to lose a few opportunities by which he would have secured a lot of goodwill from various sections of his own subjects. One such opportunity was lost when the Belgians revolted against the Dutch rule. The Congress of Vienna had, through its decision, brought about the merger of Belgium with Holland. The Belgians and the Dutch differed in their religion and language. The Dutch occupied all important positions in the administration. Six out of seven cabinet ministers were Dutch. Similarly, out of thirty-nine ambassadors, thirty, were Dutch. All military generals in the army were Dutch. Many Belgian members of Parliament were also acting as officials, and therefore did not speak boldly about their grievances for fear of losing their jobs. Many laws which were passed, favoured the Dutch. The Dutch also preferred free trade unlike the Belgians. In the course of time, the Belgians sent petitions revealing Dutch injustice in Belgium. Press-censorship was imposed on the Belgians, adding insult to injury. What prompted the Belgians to revolt was the July revolution in France and a few instances of high-handed actions by the Dutch king. The revolt began in Brussels which soon spread to other Belgian towns and the Dutch army was unable to contain this situation. A National Congress was set up in Belgium which declared independence from Dutch control and voted for the election of a new constitutional monarch and two houses of Parliament. The problem which confronted the French King Louis Philippe was whether he would accept the fait accompli or not. In his country, there was tremendous

enthusiasm on the part of the people in urging his government to go to the support of Belgians in their hour of crisis. The king was under a lot of pressure. However, the situation eased, when, in the conference in London, the other powers agreed to recognise Belgian independence and neutrality on certain conditions. These conditions were wholly unacceptable to the Belgians, therefore they rejected them. They offered the second son of King Louis Philippe the crown of Belgium. Unfortunately, King Louis Philippe could not rise to the occasion. He knew well that if his son accepted the crown there would be a war. France was not yet prepared for such an eventuality. Therefore he promptly rejected the Belgian offer and defused the tense situation. Britain then came forward with her candidate, namely, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The Belgians, therefore, left with no choice, agreed to make him their ruler. The whole affair made the French bitter. They felt that Britain’s Palmerston had played a trick or outmanoeuvred their king into accepting a compromise. Similarly, in Poland there was a revolt, and the Poles expected the French to assist them to throw off their foreign yoke. Though the French people were sympathetic, their government did nothing and the Polish revolt was brutally suppressed by Russia. To the French, who were brought up on Napoleonic glory, the pacifist policy followed by their king appeared subservient to the cause of British interests. In 1840, France was presented with another opportunity to play a role worthy of her status. Mehmet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, felt slighted when his overlord, the Sultan of Turkey, did not compensate him properly for his assistance rendered to him during the Greek War of Independence. He bore a grudge and so, conquered Syria. He even threatened to attack Constantinople. The enthusiasm of the French people regarding his great military achievements rose high. Even the king felt that he should help Mehmet Ali in all possible ways. Thiers was appointed head of the ministry to champion the cause of Mehmet Ali. But the king, himself in charge of foreign policy, did not give a free hand to Thiers for fear of embroiling France in another European war, since the other powers of Europe had warned Mehmet Ali to give up his hostile acts against the Sultan. When Thiers disagreed with the king, he was dismissed. Guizot was appointed in his place. The lacklustre foreign policy of the king disgusted many a politician. A deputy exclaimed in 1847, “What have they done for the past seven years? Nothing, nothing, nothing.” Lamartine complained that “France is becoming bored.” There are other factors, besides the foreign policy of the king, which precipitated the downfall of Orleans monarchy in 1848. The rise of socialism in the wake of Industrial Revolution in France created problems for the

government. Guizot’s ministry was conservative in character and the government rested on the bourgeoisie support for its survival. It resisted the progressive movements of the socialists which was directed to improve the conditions of workers, and thus, alienated the sympathy of the working class. The grievances of the workers also attracted the attention of the Republicans and they began to demand social, electoral and parliamentary reforms. It was on the issue of these demands that the Orleans monarchy met its doom.

Electoral and Parliamentary Reforms The demand for electoral reforms came from the working classes. It was they who had fought the soldiers of King Charles X and brought about a revolution. They now found that all the advantages were reaped by the rich middle class (bourgeoisie), and in the midst of prosperity, they had to live in poverty. With the exception of a few laws which referred to elementary education to be provided for children, and a factory act regulating child labour, Guizot’s ministry did not do much to mitigate the sufferings of labourers. France was undergoing the worst effects of Industrial Revolution. The workers formed trade unions and agitated for improving their conditions through strikes, which the government crushed. It suppressed trade unions and political clubs. It was in these circumstances, that a few intellectuals and writers argued for electoral, social and economic reforms. The Republicans and Socialists demanded universal suffrage. Louis Blanc, a socialist who wrote Organisation of Labour in 1839, advocated universal suffrage as a first step towards bringing about a socialist State. He also favoured the idea of having National Workshops to solve unemployment problem. The other socialist writers of the period were Saint Simon and Fourier who exercised some influence on the thoughts of the masses. As the king and his prime minister were totally opposed to any reform, the opposition parties got united for the first time and demanded for electoral reforms in 1847. In response to their clamour the king said, “There will be no reform; I do not wish it. If deputies vote it, the peers will veto it, and even if the peers should favour it my veto still remains”. Between July and December, 1847, a large number of banquets were held, giving opportunities to speakers to advocate reforms publicly. The opposition parties planned to hold a big banquet in Paris on 22 February, 1848 and invited 170,000 guests to participate. Guizot immediately took necessary steps and forbade the opposition parties from holding it. They agreed but the news of cancellation reached too late. As a result,

thousands came to Paris on 22 February, and crowds were seen on all the streets chanting, “Down with Guizot! Long live Reform!” The same evening, the situation became tense after mobs plundered gunshops and erected barricades. The National Guard was ordered to quell the revolt but they joined the insurgents. The next day, there was street fighting between mobs supported by National Guards and the regular troops. The king dismissed Guizot in order to pacify the mob of Paris. But in the evening the mob surrounded Guizot’s house. The guards protecting him fired at the crowd resulting in death and injury to fifty-two people. The crowd paraded the corpses on the streets inciting the people to take revenge. A large crowd collected at the Tuileries and the king could see clearly the writing on the wall. He abdicated the throne in favour of his grandson and secretly left France for England.

Revolts in Central Europe The news of the downfall of King Louis Philippe of France in 1848, sent tremors throughout Europe. His fall seemed to prophesy the end of an era and the beginning of another. A revolutionary spirit pervaded over the political firmament of Europe, like the one that was witnessed during the French Revolution of 1789, and the Napoleonic wars. Nationalism and liberalism triumphed everywhere and the Metternich era was coming to an end. Revolutions broke out in the regions lying between the Baltic Sea in the north and the Mediterranean in the south, and from the French borders to the Russian. Of all the political upheavals, the one in Austria seemed to be the most severe. Metternich, an arch reactionary, who dominated the political scene of Europe ever since the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, made good his escape from his native land. He fled and settled in England. Let us examine the factors which brought about a revolution in Austria. It may be remembered that Austria grew into congeries of states as it expanded with new acquisitions. It did not develop into a nation for her dominions comprised thirteen different races. Ever since its expansion under King Rudolf I during the thirteenth century, the multi-racial and multilingual people maintained their separate identities, and unfortunately, they were not welded into a homogeneous nation. With nationalism and liberalism sweeping over the continent during the nineteenth century, the centrifugal forces began to operate. Therefore, the Habsburg monarchy faced a threat to its very survival for the first time in the nineteenth century. Metternich realised how delicate the structure of the Austrian Empire was

and how it was threatened by waves of nationalism and liberalism let loose by the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. Therefore he came to the conclusion that his empire should stand as “the conservative barrier to all the progressive movements in Europe”. He could think of no other means by which he could save the Austrian Empire. Unfortunately, his conservative and reactionary policies built into a system known by his name could hardly stem the tide of revolutions breaking out everywhere. Intellectual unrest became endemic in the Austrian Empire on the eve of 1848 revolution. Karl Marx observed how this unrest was caused by the Austrian government who imposed censorship and banned foreign periodicals coming into the country. The University of Jena in Germany became a storm affected by it. The more Metternich tried to suppress it (using the Carlsbad decrees), the more it spread. The wealthy middle class in Austria did not join Metternich in stemming the tide of revolutions, especially at a time when the Industrial Revolution was in full swing in Austria. Agrarian unrest was also sweeping Austria. The peasants desired to throw off the feudal yoke and become free citizens. They claimed rights and privileges at par with the privileged class. The uncaring attitude of the government alienated their sympathies. In 1848, revolutions broke out everywhere in the Austrian Empire. It began in Palermo and the Spanish Bourbon ruler was forced to grant a constitution in January. Tuscany was affected next. Then the papal states followed suit. Germany was in a tumult and in many states, the rulers were forced to grant a constitution. Similarly, Prussia was in political turmoil and the ruler had to grant a new constitution. However, it was a revolt in Hungary led by Lord Kossuth which shook the Austrian capital, Vienna, to its very foundation.

Hungarian Revolution (1848-49) Students, peasants and workers of Vienna stormed into the Diet demanding the dismissal of Metternich. There was civil war. They were highly inspired by a speech delivered by Lord Kossuth (1802-94) which was translated into German. He condemned the reactionary policies of Austria and demanded equal status for Hungary. He demanded a new democratic constitution for Hungary with provision for freedom of the press, association, meeting, and abolition of the privileges of the nobles. In the Hungarian capital, Budapest, the people forced the nobles to accept a ‘People’s Charter’. Laws were passed in March and April by the Hungarian Diet which the democrats wanted Austria to accept so as to

enable their country to attain equal status with Austria in all respects. Unable to face the wrath of the people, Metternich fled and the Austrian Emperor received the deputation of the Hungarians led by Lord Kossuth and Arch Duke Stephen. He accepted all their demands. A constituent assembly met in Hungary which drafted a new constitution providing for a Parliament, elections once in three years, manhood suffrage, equity in taxation, a free press, and a ministry responsible to the Hungarian Diet. The Austrian Emperor approved the new constitution and it seemed that the Hungarian revolution had succeeded in getting her independent status recognised by Austria. In Italy, Austria faced a worse crisis. Her troops were driven out of Milan and Venice. The King of Piedmont was encouraged, by revolutions breaking out everywhere, to declare war on Austria in order to expel her from the Italian peninsula. Elsewhere, the Croats demanded that their ancient rights be restored. Similarly, the Czechs in Prague (Bohemia) demanded all those rights and privileges on par with the Hungarians. It was only in Galicia that the Poles were kept in check. Overwhelmed by these demands made by these several subject races, and unable to resist them at this juncture, the Austrian Emperor conceded a single liberal constitution for the whole empire. Hungary was to enjoy her special status. Thus Austria was facing adversities on account of the centrifugal forces operating in the empire. She was unable to take steps to avert the crisis of the greatest magnitude in her history. It was also an acute moment of her humiliation seeing the way Metternich had ruled the empire with an iron will and tenacity. The emperor left Vienna with his family to avoid witnessing frequent riots and settled in Innsbruck. In June, his Slav subjects arranged a Congress at Prague for which different sections of Slavs were invited to attend with the purpose of forging unity. In the meanwhile, the emperor heard some good news. The Austrian commander in Italy, Radetzky succeeded in quelling a revolt. Thereafter came another happy tiding, that Windischgratz, the Austrian governor of Vienna, had quelled a revolt by bombing Prague. From yet another quarter, news arrived that the Czechs of Bohemia had failed to forge a united front. One need not look far for the reasons that brought about the failure of revolutions in the Austrian empire. In each province of the empire, there were majority and minority sections of people who could not see eye to eye. For example, in Bohemia the minority section was composed of Germans who could not agree on issues with the majority, composed of Czechs. Similarly, the Croats and Romanians of Hungary felt unhappy at the rule of the majority, the Magyars. When the minorities demanded certain rights and safeguards, the Magyars

denied them. As a result, the Croats revolted against Magyar rule in Hungary. Their great leader was Jelacic who believed that he might secure more concessions from the Austrian emperor than the Magyars. The Austrian emperor watched the different sections of his subjects quarrelling among themselves with satisfaction and bided his time to suppress them. In the meantime, he received the news that the Austrian General in Italy, Radetzky, had routed the Italian army at Custozza in July, 1848. The emperor urged the Croats to invade Hungary. In October, he sought the help of Windischgratz in Prague to subdue the Austrian capital, Vienna. That city was bombarded and it submitted. Jelacic defeated a force of the Hungarians sent by Lord Kossuth to rescue the democrats of Vienna. For the first time, the Imperial Government of Austria re-established its control over the rebellious subjects. The Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, abdicated due to indisposition, leaving his successor, Francis Joseph (in his teens) free to do as he wished. As he was not party to all the concessions given by his predecessor, the new emperor viewed revolutions with disdain and decided to suppress them vigorously. Jelacic and Windischgratz marched their troops towards the Hungarian capital, Budapest. Kossuth fled and his government organised the resistance movement against the Austrian army in the outlying provinces. It was remarkably successful in compelling the Austrian army to withdraw from Budapest. After severing ties with Austria, Kossuth now declared Hungary an independent Republic in March, 1849. He became the ‘Governor President’. In these circumstances the Austrian emperor appealed for help from Russia where the Czar was too eager and willing to suppress revolutions and republics. British Foreign Secretary, Palmerstone, protested against Russian intervention but it went unheeded. The Russian troops marched from the east, the Austrians led by General Haynau from the south, and Jelacic from the west, all moved towards the Hungarian capital. Kossuth’s last minute concessions offered to the minorities went in vain. Kossuth and his generals quarrelled and Hungary’s defeat was certain. Kossuth fled to Turkey. The Hungarian army surrendered to the invading Russians. But it was left to the Austrian General Haynau (nicknamed Hyena), to perpetrate massacres of Hungarian soldiers which shocked the conscience of all the countries throughout Europe. By 1851, the Austrian government was in full control of the situation. Her iron rule had been clamped on all the provinces after withdrawing the constitutions given under duress in 1848. Only in Prussia, Bavaria, Piedmont and Hanover, the liberal constitutions continued to remain in force.

Poland One of the largest states of Europe during the seventeenth century was the ancient kingdom of Poland. The kingship there was elective and the nobles enjoyed many privileges. In the course of time, the kingdom became weak and the government inefficient. Internal dissensions in the kingdom attracted the attention of foreign powers. Like vultures waiting for carrion, they were eagerly waiting to despoil and snatch her territories. During a short period of seventythree years, this great kingdom was partitioned thrice (1722, 1793, 1795) by great European powers - Prussia, Austria and Russia, for their benefit. Thus, Poland disappeared from the map as her territories were annexed by the above mentioned powers. When Napoleon came to power, he conquered some parts of Poland and thereafter resurrected it by setting up the Grand Duchy to Warsaw. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was acquired by the Czar as per the decision of the peacemakers in the Congress of Vienna. Czar Alexander I was an enigmatic personality. He tried to revive the kingdom of Poland by demanding territories held by Prussia and Austria. They refused to consider his demands. But Poland was resurrected and the Czar went ahead by restoring all her rights under a constitutional monarchy with himself as her head. He introduced several reforms as per the charter and presided over the opening ceremony of the first Diet in 1818. Among the important reforms introduced were, the freedom of press, restoring the official status of the Polish language, new code of laws, foundation of the University of Warsaw, avenues of employment for Polish citizens, and so on. As a matter of fact Poland enjoyed better status as a free country than Russia herself. The liberal Czar promised to the Poles that he would soon include Lithuania into their kingdom. But this ‘liberal phase’ in the career of the Czar ended suddenly when interference by Metternich set everything at naught. His officials began to violate the constitutional laws of Poland in many respects. Press censorship was imposed. The Parliament was not summoned for the next five years. The promised merger with Lithuania did not take place. As a result of his reactionary policies, he alienated the sympathy of the Poles. There was no love lost between the Poles and the Russians with the accession of Czar Nicholas I (1825-55) to the throne of Russia following the death of Czar Alexander I. His regime witnessed the most reactionary policies as far as the Poles were concerned. Press censorship was tightened and the promised merger of Lithuania with the Polish kingdom did not materialise. The Polish officials were withdrawn from Lithuania and they were replaced by the Russians. Some Poles had to stand trial for their involvement in the Decembrist

revolt. The new Czar even thought of using Polish troops to suppress the French Revolution of 1830. His regime had made him most unpopular. Following the French Revolution of 1830, the Poles revolted. The Russian governor with his Lithuanian troops was exploited from the country and the polish Diet throned the Russian Czar. Czar Nicholas sent a force of 80,000 men to subdue Poland and it accomplished the task by September 1831. As a punishment, the Czar withdrew the old constitution granted to Poland. Elections were cancelled and the official Polish language was replaced by Russian. The Polish army was disbanded. The Czarist regime became brutally repressive. Thousands of Poles fled the country to avoid persecution. Poland ceased to exist and became a Russian province. The policy of ‘Russianisation’ in Poland was followed. The Poles failed despite their patriotic fervour. They expected that a European power would come to their help in their hour of crisis. But that was not to be. Following the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II, succeeded to the Russian throne. His reign witnessed some improvements in Poland. The universities were reopened. The Poles were granted some measure of autonomy, and religious persecutions were stopped. The serfs in Poland were emancipated. Despite these improvements, the Poles nursed a grievance because they did not like their Russian connection. When an agricultural institution, founded to improve the lot of the peasants was closed forcibly by the Russians, troubles started. Demonstrations against Russian rule were held and it was followed by firing on the Warsaw crowd. A full-scale revolt broke out in 1863 even though the Poles knew that it would not succeed. The revolt was brutally suppressed. The autonomy granted earlier was withdrawn. However the Polish peasants who did not participate in the revolt were given rewards “with a gift of the freehold of half their land”. Thus all the Polish revolts were snuffed out and the policy of Russianisation was followed by the rulers of Russia. Despite their brutal subjugation, Poland, nevertheless achieved rapid economic progress. Their national spirit remained invincible.

Second Republic and Second Empire After the fall of the Orleans monarchy in France, there was some confusion among the politicians regarding the form of government to be established. Lamartine, a popular representative of the intellectual middle class, showed his eagerness to form a republic for sentimental reasons. The working class of Paris, which suffered considerably under Louis Philippe’s monarchy, was represented

by Louis Blanc, a famous socialist, and he was also keen to see a republic established because it would be in a position to pass necessary measures to improve conditions of the labour class. Whatever may be the desire of the above classes, there was yet another class, the peasantry and small landowners, conservative in outlook, who were suspicious of the Republic, creating a climate of political instability. It was this class which had given support to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Subsequently, it would this class which would ultimately give overwhelming support to the rise of Louis Napoleon in 1848. After announcing that a Republic was formed, Lamartine, the poet, announced the names of liberal parliamentarians who would form a new provisional government. They included Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin and Dupont de l’eure. But subsequently, the Paris mob forced Lamartine to include the names of Louis Blanc, the famous socialist, and Albert L’Ouvrier, (‘the worker’). Thus the provisional government was composed of two elements—the moderate liberals and the radical democrats and socialists. Yielding to the pressure of the Paris mob, the new government released the extremists from prison. Again, due to the pressure of radical democrats and socialists on one side and the armed Paris mob on the other, the provisional government had to introduce social and political reforms. After recognising the ‘right to work’ the government set up national workshops to deal with the problem of unemployment in Paris. But it was not the type Louis Blanc had suggested. To pacify the working class, the government reduced the working hours. It set up a Permanent Commission under the presidency of Louis Blanc to devise schemes to solve the unemployment problem in the country. This commission went ahead with its task of finding jobs for thousands of unemployed by forming hundreds of co-operative societies. The provisional government removed restrictions on the press, and on the liberty of the individual citizen. It announced elections to a National Constituent Assembly. All Frenchmen above the age of twenty-one were made eligible to vote. By this last act, the strength of the electorate increased from a mere 200,000 to nearly 900,000. In the meanwhile, the Paris mob posed a great threat to the existence of the provisional government. A few attempts were made by the Socialist-led revolutionaries to overthrow it. However, these attempts proved futile. General elections were held on the 23rd and 24th of April, and the National Assembly met in May. The election results showed that moderate liberals and royalists gained an overwhelming lead, and the radicals and socialists could win only 100 seats. The peasants and small landowners had shown their antipathy towards the disorders and socialist experiments of Paris. The provisional government, after handing over its charge to the newly

elected National Assembly, resigned. The National Assembly met on 4 May and began to exercise its authority. It elected an executive committee to discharge the duties of the government. Louis Blanc and Albert the worker were excluded from the committee and this enraged the Paris mob. The new Assembly had to grapple with the problem of setting up of workshops to employ the jobless. As the doors of the workshops were opened, thousands of unemployed rushed to seek jobs. On two francs a day, numerous people were employed on jobs like paving roads, replanting trees, building of railway stations and the like. The Assembly realised that it would be unable to provide jobs for many who were coming to the city, and therefore, modified the scheme. It proposed to the workers who had already joined, and also to those job seekers, to join the army or clear the land in the provinces. The National Assembly was compelled to do this because the National Workshop Scheme was becoming too expensive for it to carry on. It was afraid of alienating the sympathies of the tax-paying middle classes, with whose financial support, the National Workshop Scheme was started. Therefore, the Government shelved this scheme, rendering thousands of workers jobless. The workers of Paris raised the banner of revolt. Bloody riots broke out in Paris and other important cities. The Assembly was invaded by the Paris mob and the workers tried to set up a new emergency government under Blanqui and Barbes. But this time, the National Guards supported the National Assembly. The Paris mob was cleared from the assembly premises and many of its leaders were thrown into prison. Louis Blanc fled France and Albert was arrested. Another thinker and politician, Proudhon was imprisoned. General Cavaignac was successful in quelling the revolt. It appeared as though socialism had been destroyed during the same year when the Communist Manifesto was being drafted by Marx and Engels. General Cavaignac was appointed President of the Council by the Assembly. A new commander was appointed to head the National Guards. Journals and clubs which were critical of the government’s attitude were closed down. In October, 1848, the National Assembly framed a new constitution providing for a unicameral legislature and a one-term presidency, both to be directly elected by universal suffrage. The president, so chosen was to enjoy his office for one term and was not eligible to run for the second term. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president of the French republic with 54,00,000 votes. His rivals Cavaignac and Lamartine trailed behind with 14,00,000 and 17,000 votes respectively.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-73)

The urban elites hardly expected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (as Emperor Napoleon III during the period 1852-70) to win the presidential race despite the fact that he was the nephew and heir of Napoleon the Great. To say the least he became the laughing stock of France by making ridiculous and futile attempts to overthrow the Orleans monarchy in 1836 and 1840. As heir of his uncle’s legacy, he firmly believed that he should carry out the unfinished task of his uncle to its logical end. His romantic career began in 1831, when he joined the Italian secret society, the Carbonari, and plotted to overthrow the papal rule in Rome. But it failed. He escaped prison disguised as a footman. In 1832, his brother, Napoleon II died, and Louis Napoleon made himself the heir of the Bonapartist legacy. He was generally not liked in France and therefore stayed in England. It was there that he began working towards a plan to overthrow the monarchy of Louis Philippe and revive his uncle’s empire in France. He made his first attempt to assert his claim in 1836 by stirring up the Bonapartist regiment at Strasburg to revolt. But the revolt was crushed easily and Louis Napoleon was arrested. King Louis Philippe did not take this as a serious threat and got him exiled to America. It was not long before he was recalled to Switzerland where his mother was on her deathbed. France demanded his expulsion and he was forced to stay in England. He attracted the attention of his compatriots when he released his book, Des Idees Napoleoniennes, wherein he declared that destiny had appointed him to resume the throne of France to complete the unfinished task of his uncle. In 1840, he made another attempt to conquer France with 50 men and a captive vulture by landing at Boulogne. His so-called invasion failed miserably and his boat capsized while he attempted to escape. He was arrested and impeached. During the trial he impressively argued that the mandate which confirmed his uncle to rule France as emperor had not been revoked and therefore he, as his uncle’s heir, should be ruling. Louis Philippe’s government treated his case leniently and confined him to the fortress of Ham. He spent the next six years by taking to writing. His work, Fragments Historiques, was written to “refute Guizot’s attempted parallel between the English Revolution of 1688 and the July Revolution in France”. He wrote a series of articles to make himself popular with certain classes of the French population. In 1844, he published another work, The Extinction of Pauperism, calculated to endear himself to the working class. In this work he explained how unemployment had become a bane of the nation and how it could be solved. Disguised as a workman, he escaped from prison in 1846. Safe in London, he showed his penchant for law and order by joining the police force during the Chartist movement. On hearing the news that revolution had broken out in 1848, he returned to France. He offered his co-

operation to the newly formed government but it ordered him to quit the country within twenty-four hours. He returned in June and got elected to the Assembly when by-elections were held. His opponents, including Thiers, did not consider him important enough and treated him with contempt. Due to their contemptous treatment, Louis Napoleon resigned his seat. But he believed he ought to be given duties as he knew how to fulfil them. In the by-election held during the month of September, Louis Napoleon was re-elected. He took his seat and subsequently contested the presidential election. He was elected to the presidency by more than 500,000 votes. More than anything else, the election result indicated the common people’s confidence and faith in the Napoleonic regime because it assured the political stability that the country so badly needed at this critical juncture. According to the republican constitution, the President was elected for a term of four years only and he was barred from seeking election for a second term. As head of the state, he was to exercise both civil and military authority. He had to nominate ministers who would serve in that capacity to the satisfaction of the President and their services could be dispensed with at any time. The provinces lost much of their autonomy since their prefects were all appointed by the president. All the mayors and presidents of municipalities were appointed by the president. The legislature consisting of the Council and the Senate was reduced to impotence. The judiciary too lost its importance and merely became an appendage of the state. Although armed with enormous powers, the President exercised caution lest his rule become arbitrary and unpopular. He was at his wit’s end in finding ways to overcome the constitutional restraint placed upon him towards his running for the second term. He carefully planned to overcome this impediment. It became necessary that he remain extremely popular during the tenure of his office. While his opponents were mocking at him that he would not last, Louis Napoleon aimed at keeping himself the focus of public attention by his itineraries. He visited almost every city or town in France and ensured that all slums were removed. He instructed the officers to mitigate the sufferings of the poor. He championed the cause of the enfranchisement of nearly 30,00,000 casual labourers in France who were denied this privilege by the assembly because they did not have permanent residence. He initiated many projects such as construction of railroads, harbours and canals. He introduced model-farming, sanitation and drainage systems to improve the conditions of the common people. His opponents considered all these reforms of the President as political stunts and Thiers declared at one time “before a month is up, we will have Louis

Bonaparte under lock and key”. But the President had other plans to keep them out of mischief. He carried out a brilliantly engineered coup in the early hours of 3 December, 1851, the day after the anniversary of Austerlitz, by ordering separately, seventy-eight police officers to arrest seventy-eight opposition leaders. On the same day, the newspapers carried two proclamations of Louis Napoleon addressed to the people and the army, of his wish to remain president for the next 10 years followed by a decree announcing the dissolution of the Assembly and the repeal of the May laws. He declared universal suffrage for the people of France and asked them to express their approval of his action through a plebiscite to be held shortly. Although there were some disturbances at some places resulting in the death of 600 soldiers, civilian law and order was restored soon. A plebiscite was held as promised in which 74,00,000 votes were cast, approving his action and 6,00,000 against. Overwhelmed with joy, the president declared that “France has realised that I broke the law only to do what was right. The votes of over 70,00,000 have just granted me absolution.” The president shifted his residence to the Tuileries and promulgated a new constitution. During the next year, France witnessed the ushering in of several reforms such as housing schemes for the poor, abolition of Sunday labour, and the construction of baths, washhouses, and so on. He attracted the attention of the common people by his famous tours and inspections. It was not long before many important bodies began to urge him to become an emperor. The president was too ready to fulfil their desire. Accordingly, on 2 December, 1852, the president, by a proclamation declared himself to be the emperor of France. He requested the people to approve his action in the ensuing plebiscite. Nearly 78,00,000 voted in his favour and 2,50,000 against him. The immediate impact was that the French Parliament became a mere consultative body without any real power to check the president.

The Constitution of the Second Empire Under the new constitution, all authority was vested in the hands of the emperor. He could make war and peace, sign treaties, initiate legislations and extend pardon. He appointed ministers who enjoyed office at his pleasure and they were individually responsible to him. The chamber of deputies consisted of the representatives of the common people, but here, the emperor managed to get his nominated candidates elected in the polls through political manoeuvres. The emperor ran the local governments in France through prefects appointed by him.

The mayors and deputy mayors were also nominated by the government to look after the communes. He restored the influence of the church on the educational system. Religious teaching was encouraged and grants were made by the state to the Catholic church. During all festivals organised by the Catholic church, the government was represented. Many of the old privileges enjoyed by the Catholic church were restored. Thus the alliance between the church and the state was established.

Court Life Reminiscent of the splendour of his uncle’s days, Napoleon III revived the court life. He married Eugenie, Contesse de Teba, a beautiful and charming Spanish lady of noble birth, to add to the grace of his court. The splendour of his court was enhanced by the presence of most eminent poets, littérateurs, academicians and scientists. The most prominent figures who flocked to his court included Pasteur, Verdi and Gautier. Operas and music performances kept the courtiers entertained and even the pleasure-loving Englishmen frequently visited France to enjoy their holidays.

Foreign Policy In spite of the emperor’s proclaimed policy of peace with the neighbours, everybody in France expected that he would carry out the foreign policy with vigour, initiative and drive so as to revive France’s glory. After the fall of his uncle, France had lost its position as the leader of Europe and it was hoped that he would repair this situation. Besides his own ambition to rise to great heights of power, he was encouraged to undertake adventurous pursuits like his uncle by the Bonapartists and army commanders. The first undertaking led by him was the Crimean War (1854-56), and it gave him the first taste of success. The Russian Czar, Nicholas I, had grievously wronged him by not addressing him ‘brother’ in the customary manner as prevailing among the European royalty. Since then, the French emperor had turned hostile towards Russia and had been waiting for an opportunity to settle his score. Wherever opportunities arose, he decided that France should put forward her claims and rights. In this frame of mind he now found an opportunity to put forward France’s right to the guardianship of the Holy Places in the Turkish empire. He was supported by various Catholic powers. The Sultan almost agreed since France had enjoyed this right since the days of Emperor Charlamagne. But his

acceptance irked the Czar since his country had also enjoyed this right all along. Now the Czar demanded not only the recognition of whatever right his country was enjoying—the guardianship of the Holy Places by the Greek monks—but extended this further to include the protection of all the Sultan’s Christian subjects. The Sultan was hardly in a position to oblige the Czar since it might mean recognising Russia’s right to interfere in her (Turkey) internal affairs. Prompted by Emperor Napoleon III and Britain, the Sultan expressed his unwillingness to the Czar. The Russian troops then crossed the Pruth and occupied the Danubian principalities. Russia refused to vacate the occupied lands despite Turkey’s demand. Hostilities broke out between the two and the Turkish fleet swung into action against Russia. However, in subsequent engagements, it met with disaster. The Russian fleet easily sunk the Turkish fleet —often called the Sinope massacre—and Turkish allies had to come to her rescue. The Crimean War broke out between Russia on the one side and Turkey supported by Britain, France and later Piedmont on the other. The allies committed many a blunder in the course of the war which demoralised their armies. After circumventing insurmountable odds, the allies finally succeeded in routing the Russians and captured Sebastopol with heavy casualties. They finally won the war and Russia sued for peace in 1856. She accepted the neutralisation of the Black Sea by signing the Treaty of Paris.

Intervention in Italy After having tasted victory in his first foreign venture, the French emperor entertained great ambitions of achieving personal glory through wars and further expansion of the empire. Although he lacked the capacity and tenacity of his uncle, he looked forward to the days when France would reign supreme over Europe. When Count Cavour, the prime minister of the kingdom of Piedmont in Italy, appealed to both the French emperor and the English, for assistance to liberate Italy, it struck a deep chord of sympathy in Napoleon III (being a Carbonari himself in his early career), for that unfortunate country. It was not until Orsini (an Italian bandit) made an attempt to assassinate him that the French emperor decided to render the required assistance. A secret meeting took place between him and the Piedmontese statesman at Plombieres, resulting in the former agreeing to assist the latter with a French army to liberate northern Italy. In return, Cavour promised to cede Nice and Savoy. Napoleon III was aware that he would be deeply offending the clerical party in his country which did not want the papal rule in Italy to be disturbed. But the emperor knew that the

liberals in France would support his action. Cavour arranged ‘border incidents’ which provoked Austria to declare war on Piedmont in 1859. He appealed to the French emperor to render the promised assistance. The French emperor personally commanded the French army and won two splendid victories over the Austrians in the battles at Magenta and Solferine. Lombardy was liberated but Venice remained in Austrian hands. It was then that the French emperor suddenly withdrew his army after concluding an armistice of Villafranca with the Austrians. The emperor’s action caused great disappointment to the Italians. For Cavour it was a stunning blow since he dreamed of unifying northern Italy at one stroke. Napoleon’s motives in concluding the armistice of Villafranca without giving notice to Cavour has been a subject of much speculation among historians. For the present, it may be said that the emperor was afraid of provoking the clerics at home who were anxious to see that the Pope’s hold over Italy was not endangered. Napoleon also feared that an outside intervention would make his position risky in France. In the end, his adventure in Italy disappointed many liberals since he could not bring about a logical conclusion to this affair, and caused great provocation to the clergy at home. They vehemently condemned his policy which was against the interests of the Pope. The only consolation the French derived was that they received Nice and Savoy.

The Mexican Imbroglio (1861-67) Plagued by a civil war in the 1850s, the Republic of Mexico defaulted on repayment of its debts and also the interest on bonds held by European powers, which provided them a good opportunity to interfere in its internal affairs. In 1861, the Republican leader of that country, Benito Juarez, defeated his rival, Miramon, who represented the clerics and monarchists. Miramon appealed to the European powers to come to his rescue. Napoleon III was quick to respond. He proposed to Britain and Spain that they send a joint expedition to subdue the Mexican Republic to enforce payment. These two powers agreed and a joint expedition was undertaken. It succeeded in achieving its objective. While the two powers pulled out their troops from Mexico, the French troops stayed on to carry out the grand design of their emperor. At the advice of Empress Eugenie, he desired to substitute the Republic in Mexico with a Catholic empire led by Maximilian, the brother of the Austrian emperor. Since the Mexican Republic was torn by political factions, it became easy for the French troops to subdue the revolt and enthrone Maximilian. This pleased the clergy and the Catholic

powers. After having overcome the local resistance in 1864, he did not foresee any danger other than the overthrow of Maximilian. For that purpose, he stationed French troops in Mexico to remain as standby. However, after the conclusion of the American Civil War (1865), the United States of America became aware of the violation of the Monroe Doctrine by France, and found it necessary to reiterate it. Taking the cue, the French emperor found an excuse to pull the French troops out of Mexico leaving Maximilian in the lurch. Without the French support, Maximilian had no chance of survival in a country where people had decided to overthrow him. He was captured by the enemies and shot dead. Thus Napoleon’s adventure in Mexico did not earn him plaudits either from the Catholics or the liberals. In the words of Lipson, “The Mexican incident, more than anything else in Napoleon’s reign, served to illustrate the unstable imagination of the emperor, his passion for grandiose and fantastic schemes, and lack of forethought and iron resolution to carry his schemes to a successful conclusion.”

France and the Polish Insurrection (1863) Unable to tolerate the tyranny of the Russian rule over their country, the Poles rose in revolt. It was here that the French emperor was provided with a wonderful opportunity to rally around all the political factions in his country to a cause—the liberation of Poland. But he could do no more than lodge protests at Russia’s tyranny. Russia supported by Prussia’s Bismarck hardly bothered to pay heed to these remonstrances. The French emperor lost the sympathy, not only of his countrymen but also caused a great deal of annoyance to Russia and Britain.

Napoleon III and the Austro-Prussian War While the Mexican episode left a bitter taste in the mouth of the French, their emperor sought to retrieve his prestige (lost in America) in Europe now. He got the opportunity at an interview with the Prussian Chancellor Bismarck, in 1865, at Biarritz. The Prussian chancellor told the French emperor of the impending war with Austria and sought the latter’s neutrality. As a price for this he was prepared to consider “the enlargement of France” with a promise of future compensation. Dazzled by this inducement, the French emperor gave his tacit consent. The flaw in the whole scheme was that Bismarck did not commit this promise to paper and Napoleon was subsequently fooled by this crafty Prussian

chancellor. The French emperor presumed that the war between these two powers would go on for months and it would give him an opportunity to mediate. When the Prussian army marched into Bohemia rapidly, Austria was scared and begged Napoleon to mediate. But the French emperor was too confused to act and let go of this opportunity. The result was that, Austria was defeated within seven weeks and forced to sign the treaty of Prague. Prussia’s victory over Austria roused “sentiments of rage, jealousy, and apprehension” in France, and French Marshal Randon said, “It is France who has been defeated at Sadowa.” With Austria giving up her control over the German states, and many of them joining Prussia, the whole balance of power in Europe tilted in favour of Prussia. The French began to blame their emperor for this costly diplomatic debacle. French animosity towards Prussia reached hysteric proportions as subsequent events were to prove. It now remained only appropriate for the emperor to put forward his demand in secrecy regarding the compensation the Prussian chancellor had promised. Unfortunately, the chancellor seemed to have forgotten his promise. During the last years of his career, the French emperor was in ill-health. He was fast losing his nerve and capacity to rise to the occasion. He turned himself into a constitutional monarch by granting all the concessions that the press and the public had demanded. He became a butt of ridicule and all the political parties took maximum advantage of his weakness. His empire collapsed after a final military disaster.

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) The war broke out on the issue of Spanish succession. In July, 1870, it was reported in the press that a distant relative of the king of Prussia, Prince Leopold, had accepted the offer of the crown of Spain. Before this reported incident, the same offer had been discussed in Berlin and the offer was rejected since France had objected. The offer was renewed and accepted and the French government believed that Bismarck must be “at the bottom of yet another plot to humiliate the French people”. The press and the public in France violently reacted to this outrage, and demanded that France declare war if the Prussian king did not decline this offer. To the great surprise of France, Prince Anthony, father of Prince Leopold, openly declined the offer of the vacant Spanish throne on behalf of his son. It seemed that the matter which bedevilled the relations between these two countries was at last settled. Unfortunately, this was not to be. There were at least two persons in France, namely, Empress Eugenie and the Duc de Gramont,

who were not at all satisfied and wanted a stronger stand. The latter demanded that the emperor should receive a definite guarantee from the Prussian king that his relative’s candidature for the Spanish throne would never be renewed again. Diplomatic moves were set afoot. The French ambassador in Prussia, Benedetti, was directed to meet the Prussian king, and get the required assurance. The ambassador met him on the Promenade at Ems and the king was polite enough to assure him that Prince Leopold had withdrawn his candidature and he had consented, but the king refused to say anything further. The Prussian king sent a telegram—the famous Ems telegram—to Bismarck about what transpired between him and the French ambassador. Bismarck, who was eager to fight the French, altered the message of the Ems telegram in such a way that it provoked the French to declare a war. When it was altered by Bismarck, the message implied that the Prussian king had deliberately insulted the French ambassador. After two days of parleys with his ministers, the French emperor declared war. On the eve of the war Bismarck released to the press, letters about Napoleon’s demand of compensation, that was the territory of Belgium, as a price of France’s neutrality on the eve of the Austro-Prussian war. The Prussian or German forces consisting of 4,50,000 men were divided into three groups, and each launched a swift offensive with ruthless efficiency. They swept away all the feeble resistance offered by the French army and inflicted crushing defeats at Strasbourg, Sedan and Metz. The second French empire ended in a tragic finale with the personal surrender of the emperor on 2 September, 1870, with 83,000 men under his command. The state of war continued till the final capitulation of French capital, Paris (January, 1871). Bismarck forced France to sign the treaty of Frankfurt (May, 1871) by which she was compelled to cede Alsace and part of Lorraine, and pay an indemnity of 5,000 million francs. To add insult to injury, Bismarck crowned his master, King William I, as Kaiser of Germany in the famous Hall of Mirrors at Versailles Palace. For France it was an unforgettable humiliation and her people cried for ravanche (revenge). The aftermath of the war was the unification of two countries in Europe— Germany and Italy. Before the Franco-Prussian war broke out, the southern German states, afraid of French menace, wisely decided to throw in their lot with their northern German counterparts under the leadership of Prussia. The unification of Italy was achieved when the French troops guarding the Papal states were withdrawn and the Pope was left defenceless. The people there desired a merger with the rest of liberated Italy. France stood isolated since Bismarck had revealed the grand design of the French emperor. It enraged Britain and she did not bother to stop the war in order to save Napoleon III. The

birth of the German Empire under the leadership of Bismarck heralded a new era in the art of modern war and diplomacy in Europe.

21 The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921

T

he Russian Revolution of 1917, ranks as one of the greatest revolutions in the history of mankind. The consequences of the revolution were far reaching. It affected at least two continents, Europe and Asia. The revolution brought about an end of an era and the beginning of another in the history of Russia. Russia had been the most backward country in all respects before the advent of the revolution. To a great extent this was so due to the Czarist autocracy prevailing in Russia for several centuries. While Europe came under the influence of the French Revolution during the early nineteenth century, Russia somehow remained unaffected by the course of events. The Russian Czars were despotic and their government, weak and inefficient. The nobles and the church gave support to the Czarist autocracy to benefits themselves. A large number of famines during the eighteenth and the early nineteenth century caused great suffering to the poor peasants. The lot of the serfs was pitiable. With the exception of Alexander I and Alexander II, the rest of them were known for their cruelty and oppression. All rights were denied to the common people. So, therefore, they had no alternative other than to show their anger through revolts. But the revolts which became increasingly frequent were suppressed with great vigour. However the people continued to resist the Czarist tyranny by starting revolutionary organisations. The most prominent being, the Nihilists and Anarchists, which carried on underground activities to put an end to the Czardom. The educated liberals of the Zemstvos (rural district councils) and students formed revolutionary organisations. They demanded early reforms and hoped to see better days. But their cry for reforms were a cry in the wilderness. The Czar did not to yield to their demands and described them as “senseless dreams”. It was only when the patience of the liberals began to wear out, that they founded the Russian Social Democratic Party in 1898. This party was mainly composed of members who were profoundly influenced by the writings of Karl Marx and

others. The Social Democratic Party had many “shades of left-wing opinion”. In 1903, a session of this party was held. It witnessed a split on the issue of admission of laymen into its fold. A majority of them (Bolsheviks) led by Lenin, were aggressive. They advocated that the party should admit only the most devoted workers. A minority of members (called Mensheviks) insisted that admission should be given to all those who wished to join the party. The two groups—Bolsheviks and Mensheviks—got formally separated in 1911. In the year 1907, the Social Democratic Party held its session wherein Lenin carried out his programme and prepared the Russian workers for the impending revolution. The Russian workers were indoctrinated with Marxist ideas and methods.

Anti-semitic Policy Like the vigorous repression of revolts, Jews were also persecuted by Czar Alexander III. This policy was continued with increasing vigour by Czar Nicholas II, partly because of his own antipathy and partly to divert the anger of the people from his failure to follow a successful foreign policy. A majority of the Jews belonged to the affluent section since they were engaged in trade and commerce. The corrupt police demanded protection money from them, and those who could not pay were subjected to torture. Many of them left the country.

Foreign Policy Setbacks Russian imperialism suffered serious setbacks during the early twentieth century. Russia looked forward to the east for expansion. She was tempted by the weakness of China and therefore coveted her territories, particularly the provinces of Manchuria and Korea. It was this ambition on her part that brought her into conflict with a tiny Asiatic country, Japan. The latter also became a great power during the early twentieth century. Her position and status was recognised by no less a power than Great Britain. Great Britain signed a defence treaty with Japan in 1902, which was aimed at checking the growing expansionism of Russia in the Far East. The bone of contention between these two powers, namely, Russia and Japan, was Port Arthur. Russia, along with France and Germany, denied this port to Japan, even though Japan received it from China after signing the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Now, Russia received this warm water seaport from China on a lease basis. Also, Japan was alarmed at the Russian influence in Manchuria and Korea. Therefore, she demanded the withdrawal of

Russian troops from Port Arthur. After failing to get a satisfactory response, Japan was left with no other choice than to declare war in 1904. The war exposed the utter inefficiency of the Czarist military system. Russia suffered a most humiliating defeat at the hands of the tiny country. The people of Russia were angry because their country, though supposedly big and powerful, could not defeat a small country like Japan. They were indignant at the Czar as he was responsible for the failure.

The 1905 Revolution As Russia made progress during the course of the industrial revolution, it faced a host of problems at the beginning of the twentieth century. The workers, the peasants and the middle class experienced extremely harsh rule during the tenure of Minister of Interior Vyacheslav Plehve (1902-04). Factory workers, who suffered the most, were denied the right to form trade unions. The demands of the middle class such as the freedoms of speech, press, conscience, and to form representative assembly were all ignored. A few hundred teachers, students, workers and peasants who protested against the tyrannical rule of Czar Nicholas II were sent to Siberia. The ever rising inflation resulted in decline of purchasing power of the people. While the war with Japan was continuing, revolutionary movements in Russia began to gain momentum. Plehve was assassinated when a bomb was hurled at his carriage in July 1904. Earlier in 1903, Georgy Gapon, a Russian orthodox priest, had set up the Assembly of Russian Workers whose strength grew to more than 9000 members within a year. When four members of this assembly were dismissed by the Putilov Iron Works, Gapon called upon the workers to strike. More than 80,000 workers responded to this call and went on strike in St. Petersburg in December 1904. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Gapon led a procession of thousands of workers to the Winter Palace to submit a petition to the Czar himself on January 22, 1905. The palace guards fired upon the protesters, killing and injuring hundreds of them. This incident, also termed as “Bloody Sunday”, triggered a wave of protests and strikes across the country. The strikes also spread to Poland and Finland. Universities and colleges were closed, and the middle class demanded their rights to be recognized. The Czar’s uncle Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich was assassinated on February 17, 1905, in Moscow. A series of setbacks, including the loss of Port Arthur, suffered by the Russian armed forces in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) caused deep resentment among the public. The sailors aboard the battleship Potemkin mutinied which

spread to other naval and army units. This chaotic state of affairs provided an opportunity for the socialists to establish Soviets (Workers’ Councils), chief among them being the St. Petersburg Soviet. The role of the Soviet was to organize and sustain strikes. The St Petersburg Soviet gave a call to its members to stop paying taxes. The railroad workers went on strike in October 1905 to make the situation worse. To deal with this highly explosive situation, Sergei Witte, the Chairman of the Committee of Ministers, advised the Czar to offer political and economic concessions to the people. The Czar released the “October Manifesto” (October 30, 1905) which promised freedom of speech, press and assembly, and the creation of the Duma (representative assembly), members of which were to be popularly elected. The Duma was to have the power to enact laws, and the government personnel were to be accountable to it. Nicholas II also promised to recognize trade unions and cancel arrears of land payments by the peasants. He appointed Sergei Witte as the new prime minister in November 1905. The radicals among the socialists and other revolutionaries were not satisfied with the manifesto as they demanded a republic rather than a constitutional monarchy. They continued with their rebellion. Soon after the royal troops―who had been loyal to the Czar throughout the uprising―returned from the Far East, he began his oppressive rule. The general strike of December 1905 was brutally put down by his troops. The crackdown resulted in the death of at least a thousand workers. The remaining agitators finally surrendered, marking the end of the 1905 revolution. During the course of the revolution thousands of people were imprisoned and executed. The new constitution (Fundamental Laws) was ratified in April 1906, and the First Duma met between May and July of the same year. The Czar went back on many of the promises made in the October Manifesto. He continued to have absolute control over the military, foreign policy, budget, government officials and the Church. He constituted the State Council to act as the upper house of the legislature to check the powers of the Duma which formed the lower house. More than half the members of the State Council were appointed by the Czar. Before any legislation could be passed into a law, it first had to be agreed upon by the two houses before being approved by the Czar. He had the power to dissolve the Duma itself. As the Duma had limited powers it could not usher in much needed reforms like the electoral and land reforms. It was dissolved by him in July for demanding liberal reforms and an end to royal tyranny. The Second Duma met for a few months in 1907 before it too suffered the same fate. The Third Duma survived for five years (1907–1912) because it took birth on a restricted franchise and was amenable to the wishes of the government. The

Fourth Duma was summoned in 1912, at a time when the country was heading towards chaos. The third and the fourth Dumas achieved very little as they only had the power to advise rather than legislate. Nicholas II continued to rule the people with a mailed fist driving all revolutionaries underground. Thus, the revolution of 1905 failed.

Russia and World War I While Germany, Austria and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, Britain and France entered into an understanding called Entente Cordiale. By a peculiar logic of circumstances, Russia also entered into a pact with Britain and France which was directed against Germany. The entry of Russia into this pact was caused by the rash behaviour of Germany in allowing the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse. The German emperor was not keen on friendship with Russia. Thus the Triple Entente was formed. In 1914, Austria attacked Serbia following the murder of her crown prince, Archduke Ferdinand. The war developed into a world war with Russia trying to help Serbia. The Russian entry into the First World War was a crowning act of folly on the part of Czar Nicholas II. The country was hardly prepared to launch such a big war at short notice. The consequences of the war proved disastrous.

Abdication of the Czar The Russians fared very badly on the war front. They were defeated in a series of battles. Thousands of ill-equipped and ill-trained Russian soldiers and peasants could not face the German troops on the borders. There were heavy casualties on the Russian side. “Russia paid a fearful price in human life for her incompetence in waging a long modern war.” About 1.7 million men perished and five million were wounded at the end of the war. The prices of food grains soared and the people were finding it difficult to get the necessities of life. Meanwhile, the war showed its effects on Russia herself. Rasputin, a controversial adviser, very close to the Czarina, was killed. A coalition was formed in the Duma which forced the Russian emperor to abdicate the throne. So on 15 March, 1917, Czar Nicholas II finally relinquished the throne. A provisional government was formed in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).

Menshevik Government

In the war, the Russians lost 65,000 square miles of their territory and the Germans captured the Latvian city of Riga. There was no purpose in continuing the fight after such disastrous events. The Mensheviks came to power led by Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerensky. Kerensky’s government introduced liberal reforms such as granting autonomy to Poland and restoring the constitution of Finland. The anti-Jewish laws were revoked. But Kerensky’s government was falling short of the expectations of the common people and workers. The war was continuing despite serious setbacks.

Rise of the Bolsheviks It was under these circumstances, that the Bolsheviks planned to bring about the downfall of the provisional government. Lenin, who was the leader of the Bolshevik Party, prepared the workers for bringing about another revolution. He had organised, secretly, the establishment of Soviet Councils in towns and cities. He arrived in Russia from Germany in a sealed train. Lenin believed in Marxian methods which included the use of violence. It was he who struck a deadly blow to the government led by Kerensky and the latter fled the country. The government was taken over by Lenin himself (7 October, 1917) and subsequently many towns and cities of Russia came under his control. Lenin succeeded because of the workers’ support who had formed Councils.

Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) (1870-1924) Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (popularly known as Lenin) was born in 1870 at Simbirsk on the Volga. He was the son of a school inspector. During his early life Lenin led a happy life. He studied law at the University of Kazan where he was exposed to the writings of Karl Marx. He received a rude shock in his life when his elder brother, whom he admired much, was arrested by the Russian police for plotting to assassinate the Czar. Subsequently, his brother was executed. This incident made a deep impression upon the life of Lenin who turned into a revolutionary. His activities were watched by the Russian police and he was caught and exiled to Siberia. During his imprisonment he spent his time in writing a book on Russian capitalism which attracted the attention of many socialists. Except for a short interval (1905-07), he remained in exile in Switzerland from 1900 to 1917. It was in the year 1916, that he wrote his famous book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. In 1905, there were serious disturbances in Russia, so Lenin returned home

and preached Marxism. He became the driving force behind organising Soviet Councils in many towns and cities. Later these Soviet Councils played an important role in the establishment of “the dictatorship of the proletariat” in Russia under the leadership of Lenin. Lenin’s right hand man was a Jew named Braunstein (Trotsky) and both returned to Russia in 1917 to lead the November (or rather October according to Russian calendar) revolution. Lenin passed through Germany where he got permission to travel secretly in a sealed train to Russia. The Western powers were not sympathetic towards the Bolsheviks since their government made peace with Germany by signing the Treaty of BrestLitovsk (March 3, 1918) and surrendered large tracts of territories. This treaty weakened the Western alliance as Russia no longer fought Germany. Thus the whole burden of carrying on the war with Germany fell on Britain. Had the USA not entered the war on the side of Britain, Germany would have been victorious.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat Lenin’s successful coup established the dictatorship of the proletariat. However, in effect, it brought about the personal dictatorship of Lenin himself. With Trotsky as his foreign minister, Lenin tried to implement the doctrines of Marxian communism. In the holocaust of the bloody revolution, the Czar and his family were executed and the nobles fled the country. The church was deprived of its land and privileges and its officials were killed or banished from the country. The Russian Revolution being violent in character caused shudders among the west European countries and their peoples were reminded of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution of 1789. Therefore, the Western countries supported the counter-revolutionary movement led by Kerensky, Kornilov, Denikin and others, with arms, money and men. However, their efforts failed miserably. Gradually the Western powers reconciled themselves to the fact that the communist government had come to stay. They recognised the communist government led by Lenin. Lenin launched a vigorous drive to extend the Soviet influence to the neighbouring states and established trade and diplomatic ties with all important countries in the world. He made efforts to build the communist party, established several cadres, and controlled the political and economic institutions of the country. To a great extent, the success of Lenin’s early economic reforms depended upon the policy of terrorisation. Rebellious elements were uprooted and the party officials forced the people to accept the new policies of the government. Criticism was

disallowed and democratic rights were taken away.

Radical Reforms Fail The early radical reforms of Lenin met with colossal failure. Partly this was due to mismanagement and partly due to the non-cooperation of millions of peasants. It was expected that the country’s economy would be managed well after the redistribution of lands, nationalisation of industries and resources, and efficient distribution of manufactured goods. None of these took place, with the result that, both towns and villages suffered from acute shortages of the necessities of life. During and after the revolution, imports of all materials coming from the West had stopped. Factories were starved and frequent strikes led to serious shortages of consumer goods. When consumer goods stopped flowing to villages, the villagers stopped supplying their surplus food grains. They resorted to hoarding and invited the wrath of the party officials. Agricultural production declined in 1920-21 due to non-import of fertilisers. The country experienced one of the worst famines in its history. Things would have reached a sorry state had it not been for the relief supplies sent by the USA. Compared to the 1913 figures, the agricultural and industrial production showed a steep decline (almost by two-thirds) in 1920-21. Russia was on the brink of disaster and the people were on the verge of a revolt. Sailors and soldiers at the naval fortress of Kronstadt mutinied and cries of “Down with the Soviet Government” were heard. Lenin realised the magnitude of his blunder. The Supreme Economic Council did not deliver the goods and made it necessary for Lenin to evolve a new strategy for overcoming the mounting economic problems overwhelming his government.

The New Economic Programme (NEP) Lenin’s New Economic Programme consisted of a series of reforms aimed at bringing political and economic stability to the country. It went a long way in pacifying various economic sections and interests. In fact, Lenin had to give up some of his original economic and social programmes for the country as he found them to be unrealisable. He had to allow some growth of private enterprise and capitalism to please the Russian peasants although they were an anathema to the doctrines of a socialist state. He went to the extent of permitting them to sell their products for profit, guaranteed their personal property, and allowed them to employ labour. He allowed private retail trade under certain conditions.

Similarly, private capitalists were allowed to open factories which employed less than twenty workers. Foreign investors were allowed to invest their capital in Russian industrial concerns provided they shared their profits with the state. Incentives such as higher wages for improved production were offered to the labourers. Strikes in factories were banned and strict discipline was imposed. A new currency was introduced on the basis of the gold standard.

Foreign Policy: Counter Revolution Fails Russia was able to defeat the western-supported anti-communist drive in 191920. Admiral Kolchak’s forces had to surrender at Omsk in November 1919, and Kolchak was captured and executed at Irkutsk in February 1920. Similarly, General Denikin fled after his forces suffered frequent reverses against the Red Armies. French- supported counter-revolutionaries tried to destroy the communist revolution but failed to achieve the desired results. The Frenchsupported Poles were defeated and Poland signed a peace treaty at Riga with Russia. Again, the Red Army defeated the forces of General Wrangel who retired to Constantinople. Similarly, the Red Army won a victory over the counter-revolutionary forces and put an end to the independence of Ukraine. Thus the Red Army of Russia saved the country from foreign invasions and thereby enabled the Bolsheviks to sit firmly on the saddle.

The USSR In a series of treaties signed during 1921-22, the Bolshevik government parted with European territories which originally belonged to the old Russian empire and recognised the independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. It formally lodged a protest regarding Romania’s annexation of Bessarabia. The new communist government renounced special privileges and “spheres of influence” enjoyed during the time of the Czarist regime in countries like Turkey, Persia and China. Certain political changes were brought about in communist Russia. The old empire of Russia was transformed into a federal “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” comprising four states. By 1936, it increased to eleven. A new constitution was adopted in 1918, which recognised the dictatorship of the proletariat. This constitution was amended in 1923 and 1936. The heavy pressure of work affected Lenin’s health. He suffered two strokes and later died in January, 1924. The people of Russia created a

mausoleum over his remains at the Red Square (Moscow).

Dictatorship in the Soviet Union The death of Lenin in 1924, sparked off rivalry between two great leaders, Stalin and Trotsky. Trotsky held that the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia was the first of its kind in the long chain of revolutions that were to break out all over the world. His theory was called “Permanent Revolution”. The theory envisaged that the Soviet Union should help other countries in this process. In opposition to his theory Stalin put forward his doctrine of “Socialism in a single country”. This doctrine implied that the Soviet Union should first reconstruct her own economy and “survive without revolutions in other lands”. The ideological conflict between the two intensified during the next few years. By virtue of his hold on the party, and by his skill in manoeuvring at various levels, Stalin was able to drive Trotsky into exile (1929) and eliminated all his followers. Stalin was the son of a Georgian shoemaker. He joined a seminary to become a priest but was rusticated for his radical views. He worked as an underground revolutionary from 1904 to the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolution in 1917. He was exiled several times for his dangerous activities by the Czarist rulers. In the course of time, he joined Lenin and subsequently became the secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a key post which enabled him to become the most powerful man in Russia next to Lenin only. The regime of Stalin in Russia accomplished four tasks, namely, (a) personality cult, (b) bureaucratic character of socialism, (c) Five-Year Economic Plans, and (d) the spread of the activities of the Comintern. In 1928, Stalin became the sole leader by virtue of his influence within the Communist Party and the government machinery. He remained an undisputed leader from that year till his death in 1953. During this period he brought about a rapid transformation to his country. His amazing success was not only due to his personal dictatorship but also to the implementation of the Five-Year Plans. Stalin did not like the NEP of Lenin because it was a result of a compromise with the kulaks (a class of rich farmers). He desired to replace it with his programme of Five-Year Plans to bring about a rapid rise in the standard of living of Soviet citizens. To achieve success he did not like any deviation from the set path or criticism. Therefore he eliminated all his opponents by getting them killed or sending them to concentration camps. No political party other than Communist Party existed and all members were subject to strict party

discipline. The Five-Year Plan was put into operation for the period 1928-32. The First Plan laid emphasis on heavy industrialisation and collectivisation of agriculture. The plan resulted in the increase of the production of coal from forty-two million tons to seventy-seven million tons. The production of pig-iron increased by 100 per cent, and petroleum production rose from 88 million barrels to 150 million barrels. The production of electricity trebled and the country came to have new furnaces, machine shops and automobile plants. Considerable progress was achieved in the mechanisation of agriculture. During the Second Five-Year Plan there was remarkable progress in the output of coal, steel, iron, power and plants. The Third Five-Year Plan was geared to meet the requirements of war. In spite of remarkable progress, it appeared that the classless society and equality could not be achieved. As a matter of fact the people who enjoyed all comforts were the government officials, party members and army officials. Production of consumer goods was not encouraged and the cry of equality was denounced by Stalin as a “petty bourgeois ideal”. True to the tenets of Karl Marx, religion was considered as an “opiate for the people”. The church was separated and its property confiscated. Religious preachings were forbidden. Communism itself was trying to usurp the place of religion. In the field of education, nearly 33,000,000 children were studying in schools and a million in higher institutions by the year, 1938. In 1939, it was declared that eighty-one per cent of the Russian population had become literate. The spread of communism became the last task of Communist Russia. For achieving this task, an international gathering of communists was held in Moscow in March, 1919. It got the support of the Bolshevik government and considered itself as the Third Comintern. It drew up a plan and elected Gregory Zenoviev as its President. This Comintern spread its activities to many countries and directed its efforts to disturb the capitalist countries of the West by organising workers and their union. From 1918 to 1921, Russia tried to export the idea of a proletarian revolution by organising a “crusade against capitalism and imperialism”. But from 1921, the communist propaganda in Western countries was reduced to a great extent for Russia required help from the West in the field of science and technology. The USA had not recognised the new communist government till 1933. It was during that year that, Moscow felt it needed the help of USA since her interests with Japan were clashing in Mongolia and Manchuria. At the invitation of President Roosevelt, Moscow’s envoy, Litvinov, held talks and established diplomatic relations with the USA in November, 1933.

During the last years of the twenties, the Soviet Union established good relations with its smaller neighbours, sent representatives to the preparatory disarmament meetings, and finally participated in the disarmament conference of 1932. Her active participation in peace efforts was appreciated and she was admitted to the League of Nations. She secured a permanent seat in the League’s Council in 1934. While Germany under Hitler rearmed herself, she felt it necessary to sign a pact with France in 1935. During the Spanish civil war, the Soviet Union sided with the leftist government of Spain as against the ItaloGerman support to General Franco to destabilise it. Stalin was angry with Britain, France and Italy because they did not consult him while signing the Munich Pact (1938) with Germany. It probably marked a turning point because the Soviet Union signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler on the eve of World War II.

22 Fascist Counter-Revolution: Italy and Germany Fascist Italy

I

taly followed a policy of neutrality during the first year of the First World War despite her being a member of the Triple Alliance. However, she changed her stance when the Allies sought her alliance with a promise to hand over two Austrian districts, Trentino and Trieste, after the conclusion of the war. She joined them but later began to repent. She suffered defeats and hardships during the war which made her bitter. The price she was paying through her sacrifices proved to be heavy but she hoped to reap rich rewards after the defeat of the central powers. At the Paris Peace Conference she put forward her claims, not only to the Austrian districts, which was conceded, but also to some German colonies in Africa and the port of Fiume. When her extra demands were rejected, her delegate walked out of the Conference in a huff. However, after some sobering up, her delegation returned to Paris to accept the original offer. Nevertheless, Italy showed her disappointment and resentment for having been deceived by the Allies. When their delegation returned to Italy, it was jeered by crowds. The denial of Port Fiume to Italy compelled the poet D’Annunzio to seize it with the help of a band of veterans. The crowds hailed him as a hero but he was forced to give it up for fear of retaliation by the Allies. The post-war conditions in Italy had turned from bad to worse. Her economy was in shambles. For example, the value of her currency had depreciated so much, that people were unable to buy even the bare necessities of life. Trade and commerce had stagnated and unemployment afflicted the youth. The nation was bedevilled by frequent strikes. Due to so much misery, the people lost their faith in the working of their democratic government. Poverty and anarchic conditions provided a breeding place for communism.

Against these odds, the government led by Giolitti (a middle class liberal) was hardly in a position to establish political stability. Furthermore, the government was opposed by a Catholic political party called the Popular Party, headed by a Sicilian priest, Luigi Sturzo. Neither the Popular Party nor the Socialists had capacity to form a government because they had no dynamic leaders. To prevent the forces of anarchy, revolution and communism from taking over the country, an association was formed which consisted mainly of exsoldiers and patriots. The Association of Combatants, as it was called, was joined by right-thinking and patriotic citizens from various walks of life to infuse new vigour and life among people at large and thereby put the nation back on the rails. This Association was developed into a highly disciplined and actionoriented political party—the Fascist (the full name being Fascio di Combattimento meaning ‘Union for Combat’) by Benito Mussolini, an exSocialist.

Career of Mussolini Benito Mussolini was born at Predappio in the Italian province of Forli-Cesena (region: Emilia-Romagna) in 1883. He was the son of a poor blacksmith and his mother worked as a school teacher. After a formal university education in Switzerland, he had a chequered career. He started as a teacher, then turned into a socialist, and finally became the editor of a socialist newspaper. His revolutionary activities in Switzerland offended the neutral country, and the government served him with a notice to quit. Mussolini returned to Italy but his activities were watched by the government. He was arrested in 1911 for agitating against the departure of Italian troops for Tripolitania. His speech at the Socialist Congress in 1912, attracted nationwide attention. He became editor of Avanti, a newspaper of the Italian Socialist Party. When the Great War broke out in 1914, he advocated Italy’s neutrality, but soon he deviated from this stand by urging his country to join the war. His volte-face(change of attitude) annoyed the party leaders and he was forced to resign. Subsequently, he founded Il Popolo d’ Italia, a newspaper advocating Italian intervention in the war. When the war was in full swing, Mussolini joined the Italian army as a private soldier and fought at the Isonzo front. His army career was cut short because he was wounded. After his recovery he was honourably discharged from the army. He continued to work for his newspaper. As the leader of the Milan Fascio, he convened a meeting of all members of the Association of Combatants where the Fascist Party was founded,

and Il Popolo d’Italia became its mouthpiece.

Fascist Party The main demands of the Fascist Party included a proportional representation, eight-hours work per day, a heavy capital levy and inheritance tax, dissolution of the Senate, nationalisation of certain industries, annexation of Fiume and Dalmatia, establishment of economic councils, and calling for a new National Assembly. The programme was drawn up to entice ex-soldiers into the party. Mussolini declared, “It is we who have the right to succeed this Government, for it was we who pushed the country into the war and led it to victory.” The next few years witnessed the rapid rise of the Fascist Party and the Fascists fought the “red menace” (communists). It was their fight with the reds coupled with militant nationalism which won the hearts of bourgeoisie class, the ex-soldiers, peasants and workers. All these sections were disgusted with the impotence of the Italian government and the communist takeover of factories. The twin aims of Fascism were to restore the full authority of the government and the advocacy of national syndicalism. Since the communists were divided, the Fascist Party was able to make rapid progress. Its weapons included vigorous propaganda campaigns through patriotic speeches, books, papers and pamphlets to convince the people of the dangers posed by communism and need for restoration of full authority of the state. The Fascists donned blackshirts and followed the rituals and customs of the old Romans. The Blackshirts trained even school-children and made them parade with the slogans, “Believe, Obey, and Fight”. They used castor oil, clubs and guns to torture their enemies. In 1921, thirty-five Fascists were elected to the Parliament, and their programme became more radical. Mussolini attacked the communists in many of his editorials which evoked sympathy from the middle-class industrialists and merchants, who liberally contributed funds to his party. The Blackshirts disturbed the meetings of leftist parties and fought pitched battles with them, despite the presence of the police. In October, 1922, Mussolini, addressing the Grand Fascist Congress at Naples, declared that he would overthrow the parliamentary government and establish a truly national government, and true to his word, he gave the clarion call to his followers “On to Rome”. The government treated his threat as a bluff, but when thousands of Blackshirts reached Rome in response to their leader’s call, the Italian government was frightened. The army could have been called in but the king, Victor Emmanuel III, refused to have a civil war. The Italian premier resigned and the king invited Mussolini, then in Milan, to come to Rome

and form a new government. Mussolini, then thirty-nine years old, became the youngest prime minister to assume office. He hardly expected that his bluff would bring down a government, but that showed the popularity he enjoyed with the masses.

Fascist Dictatorship Mussolini’s opponents were waiting for an opportunity to overthrow his government but they were soon disappointed. On assuming office, Mussolini demanded dictatorial powers for about a year to end disorder and violence in the country. Fearing that he would dissolve the Chamber of Deputies in case of noncompliance, its members readily voted to grant his request. Armed with extraordinary powers, Mussolini began to appoint his loyal supporters to key posts in the administration with a view to establish virtual control over the administrative machinery. He then concentrated on establishing his supreme control over the legislative wing of the government. He accomplished this task by getting the Acerbo Election Law passed by Parliament. He told the legislators that “the revolution has its rights” and he would use force, if necessary, to have his way. This law provided that, whichever party secured the largest number of votes in the national election was to fill two-thirds of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The remaining seats would be allocated to the other parties on the basis of the proportion of votes they had secured. In the 1924 national elections, the Fascists gained a majority of votes, mostly by adopting terror tactics and thereby occupied two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The opposition parties were cowed down and some of its leaders were either kidnapped or murdered. The Parliament became a docile body without any power, and the Fascists dominated the national scene. By 1928, there was hardly any opposition worth mentioning. In the 1929 elections, the Blackshirts frightened the voters with dire consequences if they did not vote for the Fascist Party candidates. So the next Parliament was practically dominated by the Fascists. As a next step towards establishing his control, the municipalities in towns and cities were deprived of their local autonomy and Podestas (local administrators) were appointed to look after them. The press was censored and the newspapers belonging to the opposition parties were totally suppressed. Mussolini became the supreme commander of all the armed forces, and for all his actions he was responsible to the king only. He came to be popularly known as Il Duce (the leader). He administered the country with the assistance of a Grand Council whose members were all members of the Fascist Party. They

occupied ministerial posts, drafted legislations, and discussed national and international issues. Subsequently, the legislature played second fiddle to the Grand Council. All educational institutions were brought under state control. The textbooks prescribed, contained the glorification of the state and advocated unflinching loyalty to the Il Duce. Fascist teachers and professors dominated all educational institutions. The Chamber of Deputies voted for its own dissolution in 1938. Death penalty, which had been abolished earlier, was revived to deal with traitors. A Secret Police Force came into being under the direct control of the Fascist dictator. Thus, in all respects Italy became a totalitarian state.

Benefits of Fascist Rule in Italy The Fascist rule in Italy brought about a total transformation in the political, economic and social life of the country. The first achievement was the maintenance of law and order. Large scale violence and strikes which bedevilled the country was stopped. Fascism advocated six doctrines, namely, totalitarianism, nationalism, idealism, authoritarianism, romanticism, and militarism, which should regulate the life of the people. These doctrines were to counteract the influence of communism. The second outstanding achievement of Fascist rule under Mussolini was the Concordat (formal agreement between the Pope and the State) which solved “the Roman question”. The conflict between the Catholic church and the State, which Mussolini described as a “thorn in the flesh”, began with the annexation of Rome by the ruling dynasty in 1870. All efforts to pacify the Pope for taking over this city held by him did not succeed. The relations between the two continued to deteriorate and the Catholics loyal to the Pope were naturally found lacking in their loyalty to the state. Mussolini decided to end this conflict by offering adequate compensation. Similarly, the Pope, Pius XI, was also eager to end the quarrel. After some negotiations, the Pope and the Italian leader signed a treaty—the Lateran Treaty—in 1929, which put an end to the strained relations between the Catholic church and the state. The Lateran treaty consisted of three documents, namely, a political treaty, a Concordat, and a financial settlement. By the first, the Pope recognised the House of Savoy as the legitimate dynasty ruling over the kingdom of Italy, and in return King Victor Emmanuel III recognised the Pope as the ruler of the Vatican City and supreme pontiff of the Catholic church. The state held the person of the Pope sacred and recognised his right to receive and send envoys. The second document—the Concordat— defined the future relations between the kingdom of Italy and the Papacy. Roman

Catholic faith was recognised as the sole religion of the state. In concurrence with the government, the Pope could appoint all his officials, and all the institutions of the Church were recognised. The last agreement was mainly financial in character. A sum of $39,375,000, was paid in cash and another sum $ 250,000 carrying 5 per cent interest in the form of bonds was given to the Pope to compensate him for the loss of Rome. After the Lateran treaty, Mussolini declared, “the citizen is Catholic and the Catholic is a citizen”, to which Pope remarked, “God has been restored to Italy and Italy has been restored to God”. Thus “the prisoner of the Vatican” was liberated. The Lateran accord removed a big threat to the wellbeing of a Fascist state.

Mussolini’s Economic Policy Mussolini firmly dealt with the economic ills facing the country. The keynote of his economic policy was to bring about self-sufficiency of the State in all aspects. He launched the “Battle of the Wheat” to bring about self-sufficiency in food production. He financed hydroelectric projects and encouraged merchant marines. He introduced high tariffs to discourage imports and at the same time, gave incentives to exports. He introduced economy in the administrative machinery of the state by retrenching hundreds of officials who were found to be redundant. He imposed higher taxes on the rich. Strikes and lockouts were banned. These drastic steps brought about a sound economy and balanced budgets. A variety of public works including repairing of ancient and historic monuments were undertaken. Marshy lands in the south were reclaimed and combats against malaria was undertaken. Transport and communication in the country were improved. The next important feature of Fascist administration was the imposition of government control over business and labour. He established a “Corporate State”. All trade unions and employers’ associations were made a part of it. A law in 1926 recognised thirteen confederated syndicates (six of employers, six of employees, and one of intellectuals). By the same law, all strikes and lockouts were prohibited, and all disputes were to be referred to 16 labour courts. Mussolini launched the scheme of National Council of Corporations consisting of representatives of thirteen syndicates, representatives of the government, and the Dopolavoro (leisure and recreational organisation for workers). The council’s aim was to promote production, job facilities and settlement of disputes. Subsequently, this council was divided into seven sections, and each was looking

after one particular field of production, such as building construction, mining, textiles and so on. In the course of time, each section’s responsibilities included fixing of wages, hours of work, settlement of industrial disputes, and regulation of quality and price of the goods. Mussolini became the president of all corporations. Mussolini promulgated a “Charter of Labour”, which, besides giving guarantees to workers, granted them some benefits such as extra-payment of wages, discharge compensation, and social insurance. The achievements of Mussolini impressed many. Trains ran on time. There were no strikes and violence. Begging was eradicated. The Tourist industry flourished. Education was made compulsory for children. The Italian lira (currency) became stable and the banking industry flourished. Airplanes were manufactured indigenously. New cables were laid. However, the worldwide economic depression of 1929, seriously damaged the sound economy built by Mussolini and left millions of people unemployed in Italy. His government was unable to cope with the economic problems. It was in these circumstances, that he tried to divert the attention of the people from the pressing problems at home to his adventures in foreign affairs.

Mussolini’s Foreign Policy The Fascists always admired the glories of the ancient Roman Empire and adopted their customs and rituals to some extent in their daily life. They “glorified war as a symbol of national virility”. Mussolini had once written, “Only war carries human energies to the highest level and puts the seal of nobility upon peoples who have the courage to undertake it.” The Fascist leaders outlined the necessity of encouraging population growth. Early marriages and large families were encouraged and bachelors were taxed. The purpose of increasing the population was to make Italy a strong country. The Fascist youth organisations imparted military training to all children above the age of six. The Italian army and navy were expanded. Mussolini declared that Italy would soon become a world power and the Mediterranean sea would become an Italian lake (Mare Nostrum). The rapid growth of the Italian population soon alarmed the Fascist leader because food production lagged behind. Therefore, he was left with no alternative other than to establish colonies. During the war with Turkey in 1912, Italy had occupied certain Greek islands. In 1919, a convention was signed according to which Italy was to return these islands to Greece. However, Italy refused to do so in view of the secret Treaty of London. Italy looked to Eastern

Europe for expansion. She acquired Fiume—the port which was denied to her by the Paris Peace Conference, in 1924. Italy and Yugoslavia quarrelled over the control of the Adriatic. Again, Italy had a rift with Greece. When some Italians were murdered on Greek soil, she retaliated by bombing the Corfu occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. A conflict seemed eminent but Greece ended up paying reparations. It may be remembered that Italy’s invasion of the Black-populated Abyssinia (Ethiopia) ended in disastrous defeat at Adowa in 1896. Mussolini decided to take revenge to efface this blot. On the pretext that Abyssinia had become unfriendly and aggressive, and coveting the territory of the Italian colony of Somaliland, Mussolini got ready to attack her. Britain and France tried to dissuade him but he rejected their attempts to settle the issue. In 1935, the invasion took place, despite the fact that Italy was one of the original members of the League which had signed the covenant and the Pact of Paris by which she had to renounce war. The irony of the situation was that Italy had sponsored the admission of Ethiopia into the League. Thus unprovoked aggression on a member country evoked loud protests following Ethiopia’s complaint to the League. France and Britain were forced to apply economic sanctions—a move supported by many nations. France which had been an ally of Italy, thought of overcoming her discomfiture by proposing a peace plan which would, in effect permit Italy to retain a part of Ethiopia. This nefarious plan was exposed and condemned. It led to the resignation of Sir Samuel Hoare. In the meantime, Italy annexed the whole country and Emperor Haile Selassie fled. Mussolini was angry with Britain and France for not supporting him, and therefore looked towards Germany for support. He signed a treaty of friendship with Germany in 1936 and Japan too joined this group in 1937. Mussolini intervened in the Spanish civil war and Italian troops were sent to enable General Franco to come to power. He provoked France by giving heed to the slogan, “Corsica, Tunis and Jibuti”. Following Hitler’s attack on Czechoslovakia in 1939, he invaded Albania and annexed it to Italy. During the same year, the friendship treaty with Germany turned into a military treaty. When Germany defeated most of Europe in 1940, he joined her with the purpose of sharing the spoils.

Treaty of Versailles (1919) It was an irony of fate that Germany, a nation mortified after the great war, rose from the ashes, to strike at her erstwhile tormentors within a short span of twenty

years. By any standard her revival was remarkable. It would be interesting to study how it plunged the world into another great catastrophe under the leadership of the Nazi dictator, Adolf Hitler. The Treaty of Versailles (28 June, 1919) imposed very harsh and humiliating conditions upon Germany. It was a festering wound that the Germans had to suffer. It was not a matter of their choice but an imposed one. It may be recalled that she could not even protest. When President Wilson proposed his peace terms, Germany believed that the peace treaty she would be signing would be based on those terms. However, after much discussion at the Paris Peace Conference, the allies drafted a new one which did not match with the spirit underlying Wilsonian terms. The allies threatened that if Germany did not accept it within a specified time, the war would be resumed. Under such hopeless conditions, the German delegates had to reluctantly sign the Treaty of Versailles. She was practically stripped of everything she had, i.e. loss of colonies and one-tenth of her territory and acceptance of military restrictions. The Allies said that they would disarm themselves only after Germany paid the full reparation amount (132 billion marks or $31.4 billion) to them, even if she had to borrow from her friendly countries. Therefore, Germany was not in a position to meet some impossible propositions or commitments thrust forcibly on her. She was only waiting for an early opportunity to revoke the treaty.

The Weimar Government Another factor which caused much distress to the Germans in general was that they were burdened with a democratic government set-up by the Allies (called Weimar government) which was hardly in a position to steer the nation clear from the perilous path of anarchy. The new government was unable to cope with the pressing problems such as unemployment, food-shortage, and inflation. Corruption and inefficiency of the government was appalling. In 1923, Germany faced a runaway inflation which caused miseries to her people. It looked as though communism with all its attendant evils was preferable. The Great Depression of 1929, totally effaced whatever she had gained during the brief period of prosperity (1924-29). The Germans lost their faith in democracy and looked forward to a saviour who would solve their problems. The post-war conditions in Europe definitely favoured the rise of dictatorship.

Rise of Dictatorship

Thus the war-torn countries became a breeding ground for the rise of dictatorship. In Italy, Mussolini came to power with promises to set things right. In Russia, Joseph Stalin launched five-year plans committing his subjects to achieve rapid strides of progress at the cost of their personal liberties. Out of the civil war in Spain emerged another dictator, General Franco. Similarly Portugal embraced a dictator. In the Far East, the military leaders of Japan foisted the dictatorship of the Japanese emperor upon the nation. The political scenario in Europe thus was fast changing with the emergence of ambitious dictators. It is no wonder that the Germans too awaited the emergence of a dictator for taking the country out of the woods.

The League’s Failures Had the League of Nations done its duty well, there would have been, in all probability, no outbreak of war. The League failed to come up to the expectations of the people of the world. Having no co-ordinated support from the big powers on crucial issues facing it, the League’s credibility as an international machinery for maintaining peace and security began to wane. Italy, Japan and subsequently, Germany defied the League by taking to the path of aggression. The League failed to achieve the much-desired disarmament due to the intransigence of big powers. Since the League took its birth from the much maligned Treaty of Versailles, it became a prime suspect in the eyes of the world. It was also a fact that since its inception, it was dominated by imperialist powers. The League’s effort to check the armament race failed. It was only in the Washington Conference that a broad agreement was reached by all important naval powers regarding the parity of naval strength to be maintained. However, as time passed, none of the big powers realised the dangers of this mad race. Not to be left behind, Germany too started secretly manufacturing weapons and built what is known as ‘pocket battleships’. By a 1935 treaty, Britain permitted Germany to increase the strength of her navy. It was a typical case of guilty conscience, since at the time of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles they had promised Germany that they would eventually disarm themselves. They had obviously not kept the promise.

Disarmament Conference Fails The failure of the disarmament conference in 1932, left Germany with no alternative other than rearming herself. The betrayal of the Allies became

apparent. It gave Adolf Hitler an excuse to defy the Treaty of Versailles.

Anglo-French Policy of Appeasement One of the key factors which gave rise to subsequent German imperialism was the policy of appeasement followed by Britain and France. While Hitler was violating the Treaty of Versailles, clause by clause, none of these powers had the temerity to deal adequately with the situations created by him. A joint armed intervention on their part would have been a sufficient deterrent. But their pusillanimity was conspicuous. Hitler’s acts of aggression, namely, the invasion and annexation of Austria, Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia, remained unchecked despite the signing of the Munich Pact.

The Rise of Nazi Germany under Hitler Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April, 1889, at Braunau am inn in Upper Austria. He belonged to a peasant family and his father was a customs official. After going through terrible hardships in his early life, he finally chose the profession of an artist. He could not secure admission to the Imperial Academy but eked out a living by becoming a house decorator. It was during his leisure time that he began to devote attention to the problems facing Austria and Germany. He developed a hatred towards the Jews for they controlled the levers of national economy. He went to Munich in 1912, and when the war broke out in 1914, he joined the Bavarian army. He was wounded in the war, and for his bravery, received an Iron Cross. The defeat of Germany and her subsequent revolution caused great bitterness while he remained unemployed. In 1923, he participated in a coup led by Ludendorff which failed. He was arrested and sentenced to five years imprisonment. He was released within a year. During his prison days he wrote his memories, Mein Kampf (first published in 1925). In this book Hitler revealed the working of his mind. It contained his deep-rooted prejudices on many issues, plans for expanding the German empire (Lebensraum), enlightened dictatorship, and hatred towards Jews and Germany’s tormentors. After his release from prison, Hitler revived the National Socialist German Worker’s Party with “Twenty-Five Points” programme. In the course of time, this party was converted into National Socialist Party (Nazi Party) with the Swastika emblem. He raised a body of storm troopers who disturbed the meetings of other political parties. The Nazi Party increased its strength from seven members in 1919 to 27,117 in 1925, and subsequently to 176,426 in 1929. In the 1924 general

elections, it secured thirty-two seats, and in 1932, won 230 seats. It became the single largest party in the Reichstag (German Parliament).

Hitler’s Rise to Power The Nazi Party’s spectacular victory at the polls was due to Hitler’s spellbinding oratory which played upon the deep discontent of the people to the prevailing situation in Germany. He promised food, employment to millions of unemployed, to fight inflation, and lebensraum (living space). His tirades against the Jews, Germany’s foreign oppressors, and the vindictive Treaty of Versailles secured millions of votes for the Nazi Party. He warned the Germans about the growing threat posed by communists and urged the banning of their newspapers. In January, 1933, President Hindenburg invited Hitler to act as the chancellor although the Nazi Party had no clear majority in the Reichstag. Hitler exercised his powers to crush all the opposition parties. On the eve of the March elections (1933), Hitler stage-managed the burning of the Reichstag building and accused the communists for this carnage, saying that they had no faith in democracy. The so-called betrayal of the communists had its impact on the polls. The Nazi Party won the election hands down and communists were arrested and killed. When Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler took over the charge of the presidency also with the self-styled title, Fuhrer (leader). Even before the death of Hindenburg, Hitler assumed dictatorial powers through the Enabling Act. With Hitler becoming Fuhrer in 1934, the Weimar Republic died a natural death, a fact confirmed subsequently by a plebiscite held in August, 1934. Sensing danger to his position coming from his own group, Hitler ordered a bloody purge in his party. Hitler’s secret police, the Gestapo, apprehended all opponents and eliminated them. Hitler appointed Dr Joseph Goebbels as his propaganda minister who effectively used the media (radio and the press) to develop the personality cult of Hitler. The educational system was used to create a Nazi mentality and absolute loyalty to the Fuhrer. The Nazis struck terror into the hearts of those who were not loyal to Hitler. People were made to understand that “To serve Hitler is to serve Germany, to serve Germany is to serve God”. Many intellectuals and scientists who could not tolerate the situation fled the country. The Nazis took effective steps to eliminate the Jews. The Nazis preached the superiority of the German race and therefore, the Jews had no place in Germany.

Germany’s Rearmament

The Third Reich was well on its way towards making remarkable progress under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Millions of Germans were recruited into the armed forces. He created a self-sufficient and balanced economy. Imports showed a marked decline and exports registered a rise. The tariffs increased and shipping lines were reorganised. Germany began to manufacture almost everything. From 1936 onwards, Germany moved on to a war economy and all the national resources were utilised to improve the country’s defence. It was after building a militarily-strong Germany that Hitler planned for the world conquest.

Germany’s Withdrawal from The League He launched a fusillade of verbal attack on the Allies for their betrayal (i.e. not disarming themselves as promised), while they humbled Germany after the Treaty of Versailles. The German delegate demanded that Germany be treated at par with the other big powers in manufacturing weapons. When this was refused by the Disarmament Conference (Geneva) in 1933, the German delegate withdrew. Similarly Germany also withdrew her delegation from the League of Nations as a protest. Hitler ordered the German army to occupy the Rhineland, and vigorously demanded from the Allies the return of German colonies. At the same time, Britain and France were worried not only on Hitler’s account, but about the aftermath of Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia. Looking at the hostile attitude of France and Britain exhibited towards her attack on Abyssinia, Italy signed a treaty with Nazi Germany in 1936. With Japan joining this group subsequently, the Axis was formed, i.e., Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis (1937). Germany and Italy gave ample support to General Franco to enable him to come to power in Spain.

Austria Forcibly United Hitler took the next step of wiping out Austria. He forced the Austrian chancellor to take a Nazi leader into his cabinet despite the 1931 treaty, which stipulated non-interference to be observed by both sides. When internal disturbances were started by Austrian Nazis, who demanded merger of Austria with Germany, the government was unable to contain it. Hitler sent German armies into Austria and brought about Anschluss (union with Germany) in March, 1938. The Nazi dictator turned his attention to the Sudetenland (northern,

southwest and western regions of Czechoslovakia) where a large number of Germans were living. He accused the Czech government of oppressing the German minority. The Czech government immediately replied that it had given all privileges and concessions to the concerned. Hitler was not satisfied and said that he would help the Sudetens. It was at this juncture that Britain and France were very much concerned about German expansion.

The Munich Pact To check the growing ambitions of the Nazi leader, the leaders of France, Britain and Italy (Daladier, Chamberlain and Mussolini respectively) signed the Munich Pact (30 September, 1938) with Hitler. The latter was permitted to annex Sudetenland to Germany, on the condition that in future, he should not covet any more territories. This policy of appeasement exposed the weakness of France and Britain. They were obviously not prepared for another European war or world war. Their weakness emboldened Hitler to conquer Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia in 1939. Hitler forced Lithuania to hand over the port of Memel to Germany. He put pressure on Poland to return the city of Danzig. The whole world was shocked at the bullying tactics of Hitler and his war-mania. Knowing that Hitler would turn his attention to Poland (despite Germany’s non-aggression pact with her), Britain and France gave her a guarantee of protection in case of German attack. Having the moral backing of both Britain and France, Poland refused to concede Hitler’s demands. Hitler concluded a non-aggression pact with Russia on 23 August, 1939 and secured Russia’s neutrality. Stalin was angry with Britain and France because Russia was ignored at the Munich Pact. He accused Western democracies for encouraging Germany to attack Russia.

Germany’s Attack on Poland When Poland refused to concede to the German demands, she was attacked by German troops on 1 September, 1939. The attack on Poland drew Britain and France into the vortex (3 September, 1939), thus engulfing the whole world into another long and nightmarish war (1939-1945).

23 The Chinese Revolution of 1949

W

hen there was no correct guidance from Moscow, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was left on its own. The persecution and execution of thousands of communists by the Nationalist Government in China seriously affected the very existence of the Chinese Communist Party. During this critical moment, one member rose to meet the challenge. He was Mao Tsetung. He displayed commendable qualities of leadership. He organised revolts within the Nationalist army on the one hand, and mobilised peasants against the government on the other (August-September, 1927). Unfortunately, both these attempts failed, resulting in the execution of all the rebels. Even at this critical juncture in his career, Mao did not lose hope and courage in spite of having lost many young leaders. It was during this time that Madam Sun Yat Sen gave a shot in the arm to the communist cause by criticising Chiang’s Government for getting support from the capitalist class consisting of merchants, traders, landlords, bankers and warlords. She also criticised Chiang’s Government for not improving the lot of the masses. The persecution as well as execution of the communists compelled Mao and his followers to take refuge in the mountainous Ching-Kang-Shan region, which eventually became his rebel base. From the time Mao submitted a report in 1927, on the peasant-movement, he was of the opinion that the poor Chinese peasants, and not the proletariat, could effectively act as vanguards for achieving the communist revolution. He proclaimed the emergence of the Chinese Soviet Republic at Juichin in the Kiangsi province in November, 1931. He hoped to further consolidate and expand his revolutionary base so as to pose a serious threat to the Nationalist Government. In order to establish a Soviet Republic in China and train the Red Guards to carry out this task, he needed a trustworthy military commander. He found Chu The suited for this purpose. Both Mao and Chu The began to secretly organise and lead the peasants revolt against the

Nationalist Government. The peasants of the Kiangsi region provided the necessary force to Mao and Chu The to carry out the great struggle. The Red Army led by them became a serious threat to Chiang’s Nationalist China. Mao and Chu The declared their personal and ideological differences from the Moscow-led Chinese Communist Central Committee. They desired to carry on the struggle without any guidance from Moscow. The poor peasants of the China region came under the strong influence of Mao, and volunteered to join the Red Army. Furthermore, they provided necessary material support, and arranged secret hideouts for the communist guerillas when the enemy approached. More importantly, the peasants gathered necessary information about the enemy movements and conveyed the same to Mao’s Red Army. The Red Army became the main bastion for peasant protection from the exploitation of the ruthless landlords and moneylenders. Land holdings of the big landlords were confiscated by the Red Army and redistributed among the poor peasants. The Red Army conquered extensive territories in the Kiangsi province and the surroundings of Hupeh, and foiled the attempts of the Nationalist Army to conquer this region. In addition, the Secretary General of the Communist Party, namely Li Lisan, ordered the Red Army to attack the cities where the Nationalist forces had strongly entrenched themselves. Mao, who had differences with Li Lisan, compelled the Communist Party’s central committee to shift its headquarters from Shanghai to the Kiangsi region which was controlled by him. It may be said that about this time (1932), power shifted from the Moscowinspired Central Committee to Mao himself.

Life-sketch of Mao Mao was born in a village called Shao-Shan in Hsiang-Tan district of Hunan province on 26 December, 1893. He was born in a poor peasant family and his father was in the grain business. Mao’s schooling began when he was eight years old. At the age of thirteen, he joined his father’s business. He had an academic bent of mind. He started reading a large number of novels and political works. The book which stimulated his interest in knowing about the conditions of China was Cheng Kuan-Ying’s Words of Warning to an Affluent Age. He was compelled to leave his home at the age of fifteen because of his scholastic interest. He joined a new school at Hsiang-Hsiang where he received Western education. In the course of time, he grew fond of the writings of the Chinese reformers like Kang Yu Wei and Liang Chi-Chao. Mao’s favourite personalities in history included General Washington, Napoleon, Peter the Great, Abraham

Lincoln and the Chinese emperors, Shi Wang Ti and Wu Ti. He developed a dislike for his fellow students because they did not like his rustic manners and dress. These students belonged to the rich landlord families and suffered from a superiority complex. He got admission in the Tungshan school at Changsha where he made in-depth studies on politics and economics. It was in Changsha that he came to know of the political developments in China after reading the newspapers. Subsequently, he joined the revolution started by Sun Yat Sen’s Tung Meng Hui. Mao became a great scholar and “developed new ideas and techniques”. He was a pragmatist and tried to apply his new ideas and techniques to the changing political situation. He met Li Lisan who eventually became the Secretary General of the Chinese Communist Party. However, Li Lisan did not make any deep impression on him. Mao married the daughter of his professor Yang Chang-Chi. This professor later joined Peking University. Mao got a job in the library of Peking University. He organised a union of Hunan’s students in June, 1919 and gave a call for a strike to protest against the handing over of the Shantung Peninsula to Japan following the Versailles settlement. Mao joined the Marxist study group founded by Li Ta-Chao in 1919. Subsequently, he started a branch of the Young Corps in Changsha. Eventually, Mao became one of the founders of the Chinese Communist Party which held its first session in Shanghai in July, 1921.

Nationalist Army Fails to Conquer Rebel Bases The Nationalist army made several attempts to destroy the communist bases in Kiangsi. The early attempts took place in 1932 and the rest in 1933, but all of them failed, thanks to the Red Army adopting the tactics of guerilla warfare under Mao’s dynamic leadership. It must be remembered that Mao wrote profusely on guerilla warfare after gaining considerable experience prior to and after the famous Long March.

The Long March (1934-35) In 1933, Chiang Kai Shek launched a large-scale attack on the Kiangsi region in general and the Soviet Republic at Juichin in particular to compel the Red Army to surrender. The Nationalist army under the command of Chiang scored spectacular victories against the communists and forced 100,000 communists to flee or surrender. Thousands of them were executed after being taken captive. It appeared certain that communism would be wiped out in China. At this critical

juncture, Mao rose to the occasion. His great leadership was put to a severe test. Leading his followers, Mao began the historic “Long March” (October, 1934 to October, 1935) to break the circle of the Kuomintang army by swift night movements. He was quite successful in delivering heavy blows on the enemy by adopting guerilla warfare. It took almost a year for his followers to cover a distance of 6,000 miles. They followed a circuitous route, and fought continuous battles, to reach the northern province of Shensi. A few divisions consisting of 20,000 communist troops finally reached the destination after passing through “sun dried dusty region of loess soil.” Yenan became the headquarters of the communists in 1936. Mao’s leadership remained unchallenged and Moscow’s guidance became unnecessary. Relations with Moscow came under severe strain.

The Work of the Communists During the Yenan Period During the Yenan period (1936-45), Mao forced the Moscow-oriented Chinese communists to accept his leadership. He discarded the Stalinist theory of bringing about a communist revolution backed by the proletariat (urban workers) and favoured rural-based peasant movements. During the next decade, Mao’s followers chalked out programmes for seeking peasant support to bring about a communist revolution. Free from the threats of the Kuomintang army, Mao’s followers inaugurated many programmes for rural upliftment. The reforms included reduction of rents payable by tenants to the landlords (instead of confiscation of lands) and introducing universal franchise for electing representatives to the local councils on the basis of two-thirds majority system. The people in general voted the communists to power. As for economic plans, the Communist Party laid emphasis on the increase in food production, land reclamation, labour exchange among farmers, and running of small-scale industrial cooperatives. The Red Army guards helped farmers to grow more food. Mao conducted political training camps for the farmers to impart ideological orientation, i.e., converting the free-thinking farmers into communists. He prepared the rural people to fight the Japanese aggressors by taking the assistance of the Red Army. The strength of the Chinese Communist Party rose from 40,000 members to 12,00,000 within eight years (1937-45). On 7 July, 1937 there occurred an incident near the Marco Polo bridge, which culminated in the Japanese invasion of northern China. This and other factors forced Chiang Kai Shek to seek the co-operation of the Chinese communists.

Japanese Invasion of Manchuria Chiang Kai Shek was under pressure to seek communist co-operation when the Japanese invaded Manchuria (1931). Chiang’s Nationalist Government felt despondent and helpless. It appealed to the League of Nations to do the needful. Unfortunately, the League was not strong enough to check the Japanese aggression. When the League’s Council accused Japan of being the aggressor, the Japanese delegate expressed his defiance by walking out. Being helpless, Chiang followed a policy of appeasement—that is “neither obstructing Japanese completely nor conceding all they asked”. The Nationalist Government under Chiang planned to destroy the communists at home first, before repulsing the aggression of the Japanese. In this predicament, the Kuomintang Party was unable to evolve a positive response to the Japanese threat. In fact, the party itself was facing dissension within its own rank and file. There was one section in the party which demanded that the Japanese aggression should be checked under any circumstances. They attacked Chiang’s policy of appeasement towards the Japanese aggressors. When Chiang was on a visit to Sian he was kidnapped and taken captive by the commander-in-chief, Chang Hsueh Liang. Chang objected to Chiang’s policy of fighting the communists at home when the Japanese were occupying Chinese territories. He advocated the importance of putting up a joint front consisting of communist and nationalist forces to meet the threat of the aggressor. Chiang was released from his captivity only when he agreed to take the help of the communists to face the Japanese menace.

United Front against Japan The communists also expressed their eagerness to join the proposed United Front and agreed on 22 September, 1937 to work with the Nationalist Party. In a resolution, the communists agreed to implement the three principles of Sun Yat Sen, stop their enmity towards the Kuomintang Government, and cease their propaganda war. They agreed to place the Red Army at the disposal of the Nationalist Government, disband the Chinese Soviet Republics, stop confiscation of lands from the landlords and so on. The Nationalist Government accepted all these terms and reached what is described as an “uneasy arms truce” with the communists. This was no genuine political settlement for the simple reason that both the parties viewed each other with mistrust.

The Course of the Sino-Japanese War Under Japanese pressure, the army of the Nationalist Government had to flee from its strong base in the east. It shifted its headquarters to the west where it had no roots. It was in these circumstances that the communists gained considerable advantages because the west and the north-west had come under their influence. They had established strong bases in this region from where they could launch repeated attacks to dislodge the Japanese forces. They were quite successful in this mission. They established what is called “liberated areas”. The Nationalist army could boast of no such achievement in spite of its best efforts. This situation proved that the communists had gained several advantages in rural areas with popular support. In fact, the communists were quite justified in taking credit for liberating the country from Japanese occupation. The Japanese were unable to make any headway with their conquest in north-western China, particularly in the Shensi region, since their attacks were blunted by the communists who adopted guerilla warfare. In December, 1931, the Japanese captured Nanking and the local Chinese population was butchered. The Japanese opened two more fronts in their war against China, namely the central and the southern. While they gained initial advantages, they suffered a series of setbacks due to stiff Chinese resistance during the period, 1938-41. The Nationalist Government, which had gone on the defensive, as mentioned earlier, shifted its headquarters to the west by making Chungking, the seat of their capital. Japan’s conquest included the Yangtze Valley in the south, and Peiping and Chahar regions in the north. Having failed to conquer the rest of China, and not having made progress in peace and diplomatic initiatives, the Japanese resorted to establishing puppet regimes as a propaganda ploy. For e.g., they established the State of Manchukuo in Manchuria, and crowned the last Manchu emperor, Pu Yi, to be its king. In the central part of China, Japan installed another puppet government with Nanking as its capital. When Canton and Hankow fell into the hands of the Japanese in 1938, the Japanese Prime Minister, Konoe, declared the establishment of the New Order in East Asia and offered its leadership to Chiang Kai Shek. But, this was to be under Japanese control and supervision. When there was no response, the Japanese tried to placate Chiang’s rival, Wang Ching-Wei (a close associate of Sun Yat Sen) by offering the leadership of the reorganised Nationalists Government with Nanking as the capital. The purpose of the new order in East Asia was to ensure Japan’s domination over China. Japan decided to establish her business monopoly and prevent foreign assistance from reaching China.

Japan used her propaganda machine to tell the Chinese people that she was the one who liberated her from Western domination.

Rivalry Between CCP and the Nationalist Government Deeply jealous of the growing success of the Communist Party, the Nationalist Government prevented the movements of the members of the Chinese Communist Party in its north-western base. The Nationalist Government made an attempt to organise and control the areas, which were not under Japanese occupation through its new administrative machinery. But it did not evoke any positive response from the people. However, this was not so in “liberated areas” which came under communist control. Chiang tried to evoke popular sympathy for his Government by publishing a book, China’s Destiny, in which he expressed his new ideas. However, the book did not evoke any positive reaction from the people since Chiang’s government was incompetent to change the volatile political situation in China. Moreover, Chiang’s failure may be attributed to the inefficiency of the Government manned by corrupt officials. It was quite disappointing to note that Chiang’s reforms did not ameliorate the conditions of the poor people in China because of the corrupt administration. In fact, these reforms were calculated to buttress his authority.

Mao’s Objectives The situation was in total contrast to Mao’s practical approach to China’s problems, particularly on the issue of rural poverty. The CCP organised and controlled peasant associations under its leadership. It encouraged selfsufficiency in food production by letting its soldiers work with the farmers in all the areas under its control. The CCP founded many small-scale industrial cooperatives for the purpose of employing the rural poor. One of Mao’s many goals was to keep the members of the CCP highly disciplined and motivated. They underwent training with the necessary ideological orientation. Mao attempted to raise a one million-men army, probably to match the strength of the army under the Nationalist Government. He also proposed to drive out the Japanese aggressors by using this new force. The common peasants who joined his party were called “rural proletarians”. Indeed, Mao may be credited with having created “a party, an army, and mass support in rural territorial base”. Mao used the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to accomplish many of his projected tasks during the period of “united front” directed against Japan. For Mao, the period of

the United Front was to act as a transition towards achieving the long-term goals of the CCP. The Kuomintang-CCP rivalry entered a new phase when Japan conquered the Hainan island. The strategies evolved by both for defeating Japan differed. The CCP believed in launching guerilla warfare as its main strategy to drive out the aggressors, whereas the Nationalist Government evolved a different strategy. Therefore, these two rivals could not see eye to eye about defeating the enemy although they kept up the pretence of being united. The incidents which occurred in 1941 and also at Anwei, made cooperation between the two impossible. Some political moves were initiated to bring about settlement between the two but these moves failed. There were suggestions that the two parties should form a coalition government but Chiang was not ready to accept this. He was afraid of provoking the right wing elements of his party. Renewed efforts were made by the United States Government through the mediation of US Ambassador George C Marshall after the Second World War for the establishment of a coalition government (Nationalists and Communists) in China. But this effort also failed. Civil war became inevitable in China after the Japanese surrendered to the Allied forces in 1945 bringing the Second World War to an end. Russia accepted Japan’s surrender of Manchuria, and it was taken over by the Nationalists Government. Large quantities of Japanese arms and equipment fell into the hands of the CCP.

The Civil War (1946-49) “The Chinese Civil War from 1946-49 was one of the big struggles of modern times” (Fairbank et al, East Asia Tradition and Transformation). Throwing away all the pretence of unity against the common enemy, the Nationalist and communist forces scrambled to gain control over the erstwhile Japaneseoccupied areas. Mao’s ideological reform movement called Cheng feng enabled the CCP to attain a vantage position in spite of its numerical inferiority compared to the strength of the Nationalist force. The Nationalist Government undoubtedly enjoyed superior military advantage i.e., three million men carrying American arms and equipment compared to a million men under the command of the CCP. Unfortunately, it had lost its revolutionary fervour or popular appeal due to “widespread corruption, spiralling inflation, and deteriorating morale among the military” (Clyde and Beers, The Far East). On the other hand, the peasants stood solidly behind the CCP in its military manoeuvres such as cutting the rail and road communications in the country and

so on which left the army of the Nationalist Government isolated and surrounded. In the course of time, the army under the CCP grew in size and power, and Mao (who incidentally wrote a book on guerilla warfare after his “Long March”) recommended guerilla tactics to attain political and military objectives. The army of the Nationalist Government suffered a series of defeats at the hands of the communists and left behind large quantities of arms and equipment. The CCP mounted several offensives with great vigour and confidence. Many small battles were fought, which spread over thousands of square miles. The Nationalist Government ultimately lost Manchuria to the communists. It could not get adequate support from the US. It was forced to surrender northern China, including Peking to the communists. Furthermore, the communists launched fresh offensives against the Nationalist army in the central and eastern Chinese regions which yielded positive results. Even in urban centres, the Nationalist army was unable to make any headway. The people lost sympathy for the government. This led to inflation and widespread corruption. Chiang’s Nationalist Government became highly demoralised. US assistance was of no use to him because it came too late. It was in these circumstances (1949) that Peking fell into the hands of the communists. Subsequently, the other cities like Tientsin, Nanking, Shanghai, Canton and Chunking were also taken over by the communists. Chiang’s army lost its morale and began to retreat from various places. In these circumstances, Chiang was left with no alternative but to negotiate. Subsequently, he resigned his Presidency and made good his escape with his forces to Taiwan (Formosa) in March, 1950. In the meantime, the CCP declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of China at Peking on 1 October, 1949.

Causes of Communist Victory A thorough examination of the causes which led to the victory of the communists in the Civil War would reveal many failures of the US-supported Chiang Government. While his Government continued to survive with the support of the urban middle class in China, he could not secure substantial support from the rural areas. The Nationalist Government under Chiang was more interested in pleasing the urban middle class than implementing a concrete programme of action to alleviate the sufferings of the rural masses. There were hardly any reforms introduced to improve their conditions. Millions of peasants, who had suffered untold misery due to droughts and

misrule, had no sympathy for Chiang’s Government. The economic depression of 1929, aggravated their conditions further. The government lost its main base of support when the rank and file of the rural areas joined the communists. Furthermore, the administration of the Kuomintang was beset with corruption. Thirdly, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria laid bare the utter incompetence and inefficiency of the government. To add insult to injury, Chiang was unwilling to seek the support of the communists in dealing with the Japanese menace. It became apparent that the communists proved more patriotic than the Nationalist Party in view of their offer of support in most adverse circumstances. Chiang Kai Shek had to pay a heavy price for many of his follies. On the communist side, Mao proved to be a great and charismatic leader of the masses. His great leadership and popularity prevailed even after the “Long March”. He symbolised the advent of New China, able and self-confident, to meet many challenges in the future. By sheer faith, ideology and will power, and with massive support from rural areas, Mao was able to dislodge Chiang’s Government in China. Compelled by circumstances, the Kuomintang army under Chiang had to flee the country.

PART VII

World Wars Chapter 24 First and Second World Wars as Total Wars: Societal Implications Chapter 25 World War I: Causes and Consequences Chapter 26 World War II: Causes and Consequences

24 First and Second World Wars as Total Wars: Societal Implications World wars

T

he twentieth century witnessed two horrendous world wars which left behind an unimaginable trail of destruction. The first resulted in loss of ten million lives and about twenty-one million wounded. More disastrous in character was the course of the Second World War which claimed more than thirty million lives (including seven million Jews) and a mindboggling scale of destruction. The war ended in August, 1945 after the dropping of atom bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The two world wars were fought in all the continents, with battles raging on land, air and sea. In between the two world wars, the world witnessed wide economic depression (1929-34). The plight of the European colonies in Africa and Asia was pitiable, as they were dragged into wars without their consent. The wars were fought of the basis of well-grounded ideologies, namely, democracy and dictatorship. Britain, France and the United States fought fiercely to make the world safe for democracy. The Second World war was fought to eliminate the scourge of war or to end all wars. People were made to believe that they would be safe, but the two world wars were fought without any ethics. More civilians died than the combatants. Before the wars began, there was a fear psychosis that developed among people due to the armament race. At the end of the Second World War, the people of the world became conscious of the dangers posed by a nuclear war. They became war weary and fervently hoped that their statesmen would prevent another world war.

Societal Implications

The participants of the wars had to make special efforts for large scale mobilisation of resources, i.e. men, materials and money. Young men below the age of forty had to be recruited and trained in warfare. All major industries had to be geared to meet the immediate needs of the war like the manufacture of arms and ammunition, and provide adequate transport to supply the same to the war front. Large amount of funds had to be allocated for the manufacture of tanks, trucks, planes, and ships, and therefore the governments had to borrow money from the United States to make these possible. The American Government provided $10 billion to the allies to meet the exigencies for pursuing the Second World War. At the initial stages, the US supplied $ 7 billion worth of armaments, military equipment, food, land vehicles, ships (destroyers), locomotives and so on to the allies (Britain, Russia, China, Brazil and other allies) under the basis of the Lend-Lease agreement. At the end of the war in 1945, this amount rose to more than $ 50 billion. Women were employed in many sectors of the economy in the absence of men who had gone to participate in the war. They had to work hard to make both ends meet. Some of them were employed in the peace zone as non-combatants (as clerks, nurses, drivers etc.). Due to prevailing poverty, women had to shed certain inhibitions. Members of the affluent society had to give up their luxurious lifestyle. They had to reduce the number of servants in their households. To feed the starving people and also the family of the soldiers, governments introduced rationing of food grains and other commodities (war-time socialism). The loss of dear ones during the wars traumatised the survivors. The wars created a feeling of despondency, and gave rise to nihilism. Growing number of intellectuals in each of the affected societies urged their governments to follow pacifist policies. The growing popularity of communism in Europe was the direct outcome of the spread of poverty. Communism gave hope and promise to the exploited, and blamed the capitalists for all the ills in the society. The labour unions became increasingly assertive by putting forward their demands for wage increase at a time when their nations were at war. Their method of collective bargaining began to yield results Democratic Socialism began to spread in Western Europe. Due to war efforts, nations could not pay much attention to education, healthcare and social security. Public pressure began to mount on the national leaders to introduce several relief measures to alleviate the sufferings of the poor.

25 World War I: Causes and Consequences Extreme Nationalism

T

he rising tide of nationalism swept across the European continent throughout the nineteenth century affecting almost all parts. The work of the Congress of Vienna was set at nought, and many monarchies perished by this sweeping gale. Every subject-nation liberated herself from the shackles of alien rule, most notably, Belgium, Italy and Germany. Similarly in the Balkans, many Christian countries became free from the tyranny of the Ottoman empire. It looked as though Europe went through a blaze, the incendiary material being nationalism. Everywhere, there was a pause after this holocaust, but not in Germany. There were still some subject nationalities, such as the Poles, Finns, Letts, Czechs, Yugoslavs and so on who struggled hard to become free. Thus it may be seen that on the eve of the Great War, aggressive nationalism continued to be a disturbing phenomenon. Born out of war, Germany pursued an aggressive career to fulfil her imperial ambitions. “Strong nations, rigidly and patriotically pursuing their own national desires, have inevitably clashed with one another.” It was unfortunate that, in the absence of an international peacekeeping machinery, these strong nations violated international laws with impunity. They vitiated the international atmosphere to such an extent that the last twenty-five years preceding the Great War came to be known as the era of armed peace.

Hostile Military Alliances One of the fundamental causes which brought about the Great War was the formation of two hostile alliances—the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The former was established by Bismarck mainly to isolate France from the rest of Europe with a view to protect the newly born German empire (1871). While

keeping France isolated, Bismarck was careful not to alienate the sympathies of the other great powers—Russia and Britain. However, his policy of relative restraint was thrown to the winds by the new German emperor, Kaiser William III, after 1890. After the old Chancellor’s exit (1890), the German emperor began to entertain a grandiose plan for world conquest. He designed a new policy—the Weltpolitik—which was to dominate the rest of his career. The new policy implied that Germany should no longer remain happy with her present position, but aim at world domination through means of conquests as well as expansion of trade and commerce. Already, Germany had progressed rapidly in the industrial field and looked forward to capturing world markets. Similarly, she hoped to establish a chain of colonies in Asia and Africa. Her entry into a race for colonies made the other powers jealous and heightened tensions. Germany allowed the Reinsurance treaty to lapse, and Russia was not keen to renew it.

Dual Alliance

It was not long before a new alliance was formed and it was directed against the Triple Alliance. While Russia was annoyed by Austro-German influence in the Near East, France too was not feeling safe. As the interests of both coincided, they came closer. France was prepared to supply armaments and offer loans to Russia to build her railways. In return, Russia was to help France to counteract the influence of Austria and Germany in Central Europe. The Franco-Russian friendship between 1891 and 1895, culminated in an alliance—the Dual Alliance —directed against Germany. When published in 1895, it declared each would come to the other’s rescue if Germany attacked any one of them. This defence treaty provided, among other things, mutual consultations by commanders from time to time if there was any threat from any one of the members of the Triple Alliance. The agreement mentioned even the strength of forces they should muster to fight Germany. The next logical step of including Britain into their fold was delayed on account of Franco-British rivalry. Both these countries were on bad terms because France regarded the British occupation of Egypt as an extremely hostile move. Similarly, England did not like French control of Tunis as well as her plans to take over Morocco. The ‘Fashoda’ incident in 1898 nearly brought these two countries to the brink of war. However, it was averted by Declasse, the French foreign minister, who shrewdly “calculated that English friendship might be more valuable to Fashoda or half a million miles of the Sudan” (sic). Again Britain could not be brought into the fold of the alliance because Lord Salisbury had kept her in “splendid isolation”. In the meantime, Britain made overtures of friendship to Germany (the German emperor being a grandson of Queen Victoria) but it was spurned. With the death of Salisbury, Britain broke off her splendid isolationism and moved towards establishing a close link with France (the new British king, Edward VII developed a contempt for his nephew, the German emperor). Britain signed a treaty with Japan, an Asiatic power, in 1902. She took the next step of arriving at an understanding with France (called the Entente Cordial) in 1904, over mutual spheres of influence in the African continent. While France permitted Britain to have a ‘free hand’ in Egypt and the Sudan, the latter recognised French claims over Morocco. The relations between these two countries became cordial and their respective generals discussed even the military and naval strategy to be adopted in the event of a German attack. Germany did not like Declasse’s role in forming this alliance and promptly threatened France. The French foreign minister was forced to resign to pacify Germany. At that time, Russia was busy fighting Japan.

Triple Entente The next logical step followed. Britain and Russia began to have parleys to end their quarrels, particularly in the Near East and South Asia. They came to an agreement over their mutual spheres of influence in Persia. Britain was to dominate over the northern part and Russia, the southern part, with a buffer zone in between. Thus, Russia no longer posed a threat to Afghanistan or India. Another broad agreement was reached over the Balkans between the two. It may be noted that Britain ceased to attach importance to this region because nationalism had reached its peak there, a clear indication that Russian influence would henceforth be minimal. With all obstacles removed, France, Britain and Russia established the Triple Entente in 1907, to meet the threat posed by the Triple Alliance. Thus Europe was divided into two military camps ready to fight.

Colonial Rivalries in Africa The nineteenth century witnessed the rapid colonisation of the African continent. For example, Britain established colonies in the south and dominated over Egypt and the Sudan. France focused her attention on colonising northern parts of Africa, namely, Morocco, Tunisia and the Sahara. The Belgians colonised the Congo region and the Portuguese, Mozambique and Angola. The Spaniards took the northwesterly coast of Africa and the Italians, Somalia and Eritrea. The last to enter into this race for colonies was Germany. She took south west Africa and east Africa. Although the partition was smooth, subsequently it led to clash of ambitions and intense rivalries. Italy cast its covetous eyes on Tunisia but it was occupied by France. Therefore she gave vent to her frustration by joining Germany and Austria to form the Triple Alliance. With the help of the latter countries, she hoped to obtain another independent kingdom of Africa namely, Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Between 1885 and 1892, she could add coastal strip territories of Somaliland and Eritrea. She made an attempt to conquer the whole of Abyssinia but her troops suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the natives at Adowa in 1896. In 1911, Italy declared war on Turkey and acquired Tripoli. The Turkish navy was not strong enough to resist the invasion. The Italian adventures in Africa caused alarm to Germany who had coveted Tripoli herself. Again she was not happy because Turkey had become her fast friend. It was also a fact that all political storms before the outbreak of the Great War were taking place in northern Africa.

Armament Race The international situation turned from bad to worse with the commencement of an armament race. The great powers were suspicious of one another and were haunted by the fear of a surprise attack. To ward off this danger they kept their army in a state of readiness. France was afraid of Germany and got ready to face the enemy at any time. For this purpose, she introduced conscription. Similarly, Germany was preparing herself for war. Her industries started manufacturing modern weapons. To ward off any threat to her shipping services, she began to build dreadnoughts—battleships. The construction of a powerful fleet by Germany alarmed Britain. A British admiral, John Fisher, talked about an impending war with Germany. He further said that Germany may take some more years to catch up with the pace with which Britain was building her own dreadnoughts. Unless the Kiel Canal was deepened, the German fleet would be vulnerable to British naval action. Britain organised an expeditionary force to serve on the continent. In the meantime, the idea of war gripped the minds of the Germans. Darwin’s theory of survival of the fittest became popular. Between 1909 and 1911, Germany constructed nine dreadnoughts while Britain built eighteen. Britain was taking steps to meet the naval threat posed by the German fleet in the North Sea region leaving the Mediterranean Sea to the French. A British admiral predicted that Britain would be waging war against Germany in October, 1914, and suggested to the king to launch a naval action, similar to the one Britain had taken against the Danish fleet during the Napoleonic time, to destroy the new German fleet. During 1912-13, Germany passed laws to raise the strength of her troops to the number of 870,000. France and Russia extended the term of compulsory military service to their new recruits.

Economic Nationalism Besides the armament race, what exacerbated the strained relations between nations was the economic competition. Britain and Germany entered into a competition to dispose of their manufactured goods all over the world in general, and in South American countries, in particular. Economic nationalism took deep roots in Britain and Germany. Both explored the possibility of finding new markets to remove their glut. Britain enjoyed a monopoly of trade in South America. The entry of German businessmen in this region disturbed her deeply. In the course of time, development of cut-throat competition strained their relations.

Tensions in Africa At the turn of the century, it may not be an exaggeration to say that the world was in a state of perpetual turmoil till the Great War broke out. The ambitions of the great powers belonging to rival alliances clashed. The storm signals came from north Africa and the Balkans. After the Fashoda incident, the next place of conflict was to be Morocco. Germany put forward her claims to Morocco despite the French control and demanded that the future of Morocco be settled by an international conference. The German emperor even paid a surprise visit to Tangier (1905) to buttress German claim over Morocco and promised protection to the Sultan from French interference. This issue was revolved at the Algeciras Conference held in 1906, in favour of France. Britain and Russia upheld the French claims over Morocco. The powers of the Triple Entente won their first diplomatic victory. Germany was not happy and therefore precipitated another crisis—the Agadir Crisis—in 1911, by sending gunboats to Agadir port (Morocco), supposedly to protect German interests due to violation of the Algeciras accord. The German violation provoked both France and Britain, and the latter warned Germany of the terrible consequences. It was then that Germany withdrew her gunboats. Similarly, when France occupied Tunis (North Africa), Italy was quite disappointed and looked towards Abyssinia as the next object of her colonial acquisition. Therefore, to ensure free access to this object, she joined the Austro-German Dual Alliance with a view to secure their support. However, her campaign to conquer Abyssinia turned out to be a tragic episode. Her troops suffered a disgraceful defeat at Adowa (1896). As already mentioned, Italy conquered Tripoli from Turkey which dealt a blow to Turkish-German friendship.

Balkan Crises The rise of the Young Turks and their subsequent action in deposing Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1909, resulted in fresh outbursts of revolts and the Balkan countries took full advantage of the chaos. Austria-Hungary declared the end of Turkish rule over the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and annexed them. Bulgaria declared herself totally independent from Turkish hold. The Italians took Tripoli in 1911. In 1912, the Balkan powers formed the Balkan League to attack Turkey. The Balkan Wars resulted in the shrinkage of the Turkish empire and heightened international tensions. Serbia became bold and desired to unite all territories inhabited by Serbs, including Bosnia and Herzegovina which had

been annexed by Austria-Hungary. Serbia encouraged the people there to agitate for their merger with herself. This was bound to complicate the situation. She received moral support for her stand from her big brother, Russia (the Serbs and Russians belong to Slav race). Serbia’s attempt to build a big kingdom out of Serb-populated areas looked as though it was an attempt to destroy the multiracial Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Ferdinand Assassinated On 28 June, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand (heir to the Austrian throne) and his wife were assassinated in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, by a group of fanatical Serbs. The news of this tragedy shocked many countries. Although the Serbian government had some vague idea about what was going to happen, it did not forewarn Austria. The murder of their Crown Prince and his wife resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate compliance of certain terms. Serbia’s polite reply containing refusal of these terms did not pacify AustriaHungary. Backed to the hilt by Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia mobilised her forces in support of Serbia. Germany entered the fray by demanding the demobilisation of Russian forces, and on failing to receive any reply, declared war on her. Therefore, Germany did not give an opportunity to Austria and Serbia to sort out their differences and precipitated the outbreak of the Great War. France received an ultimatum from Germany to remain neutral. On failing to receive a satisfactory reply, Germany declared war on France also. Italy remained aloof by declaring her neutrality. When German troops violated the Belgian borders and thereby broke the Belgian Neutrality treaty (1839), Britain declared war on Germany. By a secret treaty signed on 1 August, 1914, Bulgaria joined on the side of Germany in September, 1915. Italy forsook her allies and joined the war to help Britain, France and Russia in 1915. The war was fought in all the continents except Australia.

German Offensive Germany was always the first to strike, therefore, enjoyed the initial advantages. She wanted to gobble up France even before the Russians mobilised their entire forces against her. Finding that the French border was fortified, her forces launched an offensive against her from the Belgian side—Meuse Valley—and came close to the French capital, Paris. With the help of a British expeditionary force, the French troops stopped the Germans at the Marne River. Then followed

the famous trench warfare. Both sides dug up trenches in the northeastern France and fought. Germany sent a large contingent of her forces to fight the Russians in the east.

Russia Routed In the meantime, Russia came to the rescue of France by launching attacks on Germany and Austria-Hungary in the East. In Eastern Prussia, the Russian army was surrounded and defeated at Tannenburg. A second Russian army also met a similar fate but beat a hasty retreat. The third attacked Austria-Hungary but the German troops stopped their offensives. Turkey, Austria and Germany won a series of victories against Russia after inflicting heavy losses. When Bulgaria joined the central powers, together they crushed Russia’s protege, Serbia. By 1915, the central powers had dented all attacks of the Entente powers. The French and British attempts to help Russia in a big way were foiled. Italy left the Triple Alliance and joined on the side of the Allies when she was promised some territory after the war. Her offensive against the central powers too did not meet with any success. In 1916, the Germans concentrated their efforts to capture the strategic French fortress of Verdun to lower the morale of the French soldiers. Despite four months of repeated attacks resulting in terrible slaughter, the French held on to their fort. Germany had to give up her attempts. In the meantime, the Russians gained some time, regrouped their forces and attacked Austria-Hungary and gained some territories. Romania joined her but was defeated by Germans. The war exhausted Russia and her troops started deserting. France and Italy thought of surrendering and Britain alone remained unscathed. But her prime minister was forced to resign. Germany and her friends too were tired but the final victory seemed to be theirs. So they continued the fight.

Naval Battles A major naval action between the fleets of Britain and Germany took place at Jutland resulting in heavy losses on both sides but in the end, the British reigned supreme over the seas. Germany’s inability to challenge the British navy compelled her to start an unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant ships of neutral nations bringing supplies to the British Isles. The British fleet was also doing the same in the case of Germany. But Germany started sinking passenger liners also. The sinking of Lusitania enraged the Americans, and in March, 1917,

the USA declared war on Germany. In the war the Russians suffered much on account of their disgraceful defeats and internal conditions forced the people to overthrow the Czarist regime. When Bolsheviks came to power after a second revolution under the leadership of Lenin, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and ended her hostilities. With Russia out of the war, Germany concentrated her efforts on the defeat of the Western Allies. The Allies suffered heavy setbacks. French armies mutinied, and the British suffered the worst disaster at the Passchendaele, with casualties mounting to 300,000. In the wake of this great tragedy, came another. The Austrians inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italians at Caporetto. Thus the year of 1917 proved disastrous for the Western Allies with exceptions—Allemby’s North-Eastern ‘side-show’ and T.E. Lawrence’s (nicknamed ‘Lawrence of Arabia’) success in encouraging the Arabs to revolt against their Turkish overlords.

German Defeat The spring of 1918, witnessed the sagging morale of the Anglo-French troops, an advantage the Germans exploited by launching offensives. It was then realised by Britain and France that they should fight under one banner and a unified command; the combined armies were led by General Foch. The German advance however, met with spectacular success and they were almost within the striking distance of Paris. But their further advance was halted due to the timely help rendered by the American infantry and armaments. The Germans, who were totally exhausted after their brilliant advance in France, could not repel the counter-attacks of the Allies led by General Haig. The counter-attacks yielded rich dividends to the Allies, in which, the supposedly impregnable Hindenburg line was stormed. German defeat became imminent. In the meantime, the Allies succeeded in defeating Bulgaria (September, 1918), Turkey (October, 1918) and Austria (October-November, 1918). The British promised independence to all subject nations in Austria if they joined hands with them. On 11 November, 1918, the Germans signed the armistice agreement and ended hostilities. They sued for peace on the terms of President Wilson’s 14 Points. The German emperor and his family suddenly left for a safe place in Holland after the outbreak of mutinies.

Results of the War

The war waged by thirty nations came to a halt after four years (with the exception of Turkey). During this time, people all over the world suffered untold miseries. The war took a toll of eight and half a million lives. The wounded numbered nearly twenty-nine million. It was estimated that the direct cost of the war reached just over 200 billion dollars, and the indirect cost, more than a 150 billion dollars. The world economy was in shambles. Poverty, food-shortage, inflation and unemployment became endemic and the people lost their confidence in the ability of their respective governments to tackle these serious problems. Hence the unpopularity of Western democracies and the spread of communism. Britain and France were bitter since the war was forced upon them by Germany. Their politicians were obsessed with the feeling of revenge. In Britain the people’s pent-up anger burst forth and they shouted slogans like “Hang the Kaiser”, “Make Germans Pay”, and “Down with Germany”.

Peace Treaties after the War The Paris Peace Conference was inaugurated on 18 January, 1919 and representatives of thirty-two nations came to attend. They were mostly prime ministers, ruling heads, foreign ministers or ambassadors. The most celebrated among them were President Wilson (USA), Lloyd George (Britain), George Clemenceau (France), Orlando (Italy), Venizelos (Greece), Marquis Saionji (Japan) and Generals, Louis Botha and Jan Smuts. There were few princes from India and Arabia also attending the Conference. The defeated nations were not invited till the victorious Allies came to an understanding on how to deal with them and the terms to be offered. Protracted negotiations and diplomatic activities continued before a broad understanding could be reached by the representatives of thirty-two nations. Unfortunately, the Peace Programme envisaged by President Wilson of the USA on the basis of his famous 14 points came to be diluted to a considerable extent. The demands of France and Italy could not be met. Similarly, the demands of minor powers could not be considered without inviting further complications. In the end the big powers (France, Britain, USA and Italy) arrived at a consensus, drafted the Treaty of Versailles and submitted it to the admitted German delegates. The German delegates protested since the treaty was not based on the 14 points of President Wilson—an understanding on the basis of which they laid down their arms on 18 November, 1918. However, their protests were of no avail, and in Germany there were demonstrations and protests against this treaty. In the end, the German Constituent Assembly at Weimar voted to accept the treaty on 23 June, due to

persistent pressure brought upon it by the Allies. The Allies even threatened that if it was not accepted, war would commence. Germany was left with no alternative other than signing the treaty on 28 June in the famous Hall of Mirrors (Versailles), the same place where Bismarck proclaimed the birth of the German empire by crowning the Prussian King William I in 1871.

The Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919) Germany was stripped of large chunks of territories. France got back Alsace and Lorraine. Three small districts of Moresnet, Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium. The city of Memel was taken by Lithuania. Poland got Pesen and a strip through Western Prussia (called the Polish Corridor). Plebiscites were to be held to find out whether the people of Upper Silesia and southern part of East Prussia wished to join Poland. Similarly, a plebiscite was to be held in Schleswig to know whether she would like to join Denmark. Germany’s Baltic port of Danzig was converted into a “Free City”. The Saar region came under the control of the International Commission for the next fifteen years with France exercising her right to mine coal for her benefit. A plebiscite was to be held to decide its future after the stipulated period. Germany lost all her colonies in Africa and Asia, and they were transferred to the mandatories, subject to the supervision of the League of Nations. Japan received the lease of Kiaochow, the control over Shantung (all in China), and the Pacific islands north of the Equator. Similarly, a portion of Samoa went to New Zealand and other Pacific territories lying south of the Equator, to Australia. In Africa, Britain got large parts of German territories in south west Africa and east Africa; Belgium, a small portion; Cameroon and Togoland territories were shared between France and Britain. As per the terms of the treaty, Germany recognised the independence of Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia and German-Austria. She had to give consent to the invalidation of the treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest (signed with Russia and Romania in 1918) and permit the Allies to make new arrangements regarding the affairs to Eastern Europe. Germany was asked to disarm, maintain a small army of 100,000 men, and abolish conscription. She was to dismantle her fortifications along the River Rhine, reduce the size of her navy, and open the Kiel canal to all nations. She had to stop producing all war materials. Germany was compelled to accept her war-guilt and in consequence promised to make good “for all damage done to the civilian population of the

Allies and their property”. She accepted to make an initial payment of five billion dollars, and till its final settlement allowed the Allied armies to occupy the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads on the right bank of Cologne, Coblenz and Mainz. Thus, Germany was bled white territorially, militarily and economically by her conquerors. Of course, the latter promised Germany that they would eventually disarm like her.

The Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) The victorious Allies signed separate peace treaties with the wartime confederates of Germany. Austria signed the treaty of St. Germain and thereby recognised the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia and ceded large tracts of territories. She ceded Southern Tyrol, Trieste, Istria and some islands to Italy. She lost Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Dalmatian coast and islands to Yugoslavia. She ceded Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia and a part of the lower Austrian province to Czechoslovakia. Galicia was transferred to Poland and the Bukovina to Rumania. Thus her big empire was broken up and territories ceded. Her size shrunk with the result that her population was reduced from 31,000,000 inhabitants to a mere 6,000,000 German-speaking population. But to ensure her separate entity from the German Republic, a clause was inserted in the treaty by which her independence was to be preserved by the League of Nations. Her future union with Germany, if any, could be given effect to only by a unanimous vote in the League’s Council.

The Treaty of Trianon (June 4, 1920) By this treaty, Hungary was stripped of many of her districts and as a result her population was reduced from 21,000,000 to 8,000,000. She ceded Transylvania to Romania, Croatia to Yugoslavia, the Banat to Rumania and Yugoslavia, and the Slovak districts to Czechoslovakia.

The Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27, 1919) Bulgaria signed the Treaty of Neuilly by which she ceded her Aegean coast to Greece and some strategically important places in west Yugoslavia. The strength of her army was reduced to 33,000 men, and she agreed to pay half a billion dollars as war indemnity to the Allies.

Treaties of Sevres (Aug. 10, 1920) and Lausanne (July 24, 1923) with Turkey The fate of the Ottoman empire hung in balance due to the serious differences between the Allies on the one hand and the existence of rival Turkish governments, the Sultan’s at Constantinople and Mustafa Kemal’s at Ankara. The Allies came to an understanding and imposed the Treaty of Sevres on the Sultan. By this treaty, the Sultan would have lost Armenia, Smyrna and Khurdistan and many other provinces would have been detached from the Turkish empire. However, Mustafa Kemal Pasha who had established a rival government at Ankara was not prepared to ratify this suicidal treaty. Taking advantage of the war-weariness of the Allies, he struck with his forces to dislodge Italian troops from southern Anatolia, and the French from occupied Cilicia. Both France and Italy demanded the revision of the treaty since it was favouring only Britain and Greece. In the meantime, Mustapha Kemal Pasha received support from Russia which denounced the Treaty of Sevres. Britain was to lose the most if this were to take place, therefore, encouraged an attempt by Greek forces to suppress the Turkish nationalists. In July, 1921, a Greek Army under Constantine proceeded from Smyrna to launch offensives against the Turkish nationalists but were disastrously defeated. The Turkish nationalist forces led by Mustapha Kemal drove them out of Smyrna. The nationalist troops occupied the whole of Asia Minor and took the capital, Constantinople. All these events, in effect, invalidated the Treaty of Sevres. The allies concluded a new treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne, in Switzerland with the Nationalist Turkish government in July, 1923. Turkey gave up her claims to Hejaz, Palestine, Transjordania, Iraq and Syria. But she retained Anatolia, Cilicia, Adalia, Smyrna, Constantinople, and Eastern Thrace. She gave her consent to the freedom of the Straits but she did not permit foreign control over her internal affairs. As a result of the Treaty of Lausanne, Greece lost heavily. She had to surrender Smyrna, Gallipoli and Eastern Thrace to Turkey and also cede the Dodecanese islands to the Italians. She received the Christian-Greek inhabitants of Asia minor in exchange for her Moslem Turkish residents.

Post-war Germany The effects of the Great War were universally felt, particularly in Europe, where the fighting was widespread. After the surrender of Germany, the Kaiser fled to the Netherlands. Prince Maximilian opened negotiations with the Allies for a final peace treaty and at the same time, promised many reforms to the people who were on the verge of revolt. There was an overwhelming demand for the termination of the Hohenzollern monarchy and the establishment of a democratic republic. Prince Maximilian yielded place to Friedrich Ebert, a Socialist, who set up a “Council of People’s Commissars” in Berlin. A small group of German Socialists called the Spartacans, desired to establish a proletarian dictatorship in Germany, like Russia. However, a number of parties came together to help the Republicans who wished to elect a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution for establishing a democratic republic. The Spartacans revolted in Berlin but their revolt was suppressed in 1919. Fresh disorders followed the death of a radical socialist leader, Kurt Eisner, who happened to be the President

of Bavaria. But it subsided when the central government handled the situation well. A Constituent Assembly was elected by a secret ballot by all Germans above the age of twenty. Socialists, Centrists, and Democrats were elected in large numbers. They ratified the peace treaty with the Allies and drafted a new constitution—the Weimar Constitution. Friedrich Ebert was elected President of the Weimar Republic and another socialist, Scheidermann, was elected chancellor. Thus the Hohenzollern Empire came to an end after a democratic revolution.

Collapse of the Austrian Empire The Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed and broke up. The emperor tried in vain to set up the monarchy on federal principles by giving autonomy to all subject nationalities. But the leaders of the subject nationalities were adamant. A group of Czech patriots demanded the deposition of Charles of Habsburg as king of Bohemia, and the establishment of the Czechoslovakian Republic. While the Czechs were revolting in the north, the southern Slavs of AustriaHungary too overthrew the government and separated the “kingdom of Crotia and Dalmatia” from Hungary. All Slav territories were merged into one unified kingdom—the Yugoslavian kingdom. The Poles of Austria seceded from the Austro-Hungarian empire. They joined the Poles of other states, namely, Germany and Russia, and set up the Polish Republic. The triumph of the Allies and President Wilson’s 14 Points and the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty enabled the Poles to establish an independent kingdom. Austria was very much reduced in size and her borders confined to the German-populated areas only. Emperor Charles helped to prevent the inevitable break-up. He abdicated on 11 November, 1918. The next day, Austria was declared a Republic by the leaders of various political parties. A democratic constitution on the lines of the Weimar of Germany was drafted by a Constituent Assembly, whose members were elected on the basis of a universal suffrage. There was a silent revolution in Bulgaria. Monarchy remained despite the abdication and exile of King Ferdinand. Ferdinand’s son, Boris III became the ruler but transferred all his powers to a dynamic statesman, Alexander Stambulinsky.

National Republic of Turkey

One of the most startling results of the war was the rebirth of Turkey. Turkey was declining rapidly during the nineteenth century and was called the “sick man of Europe”. Its dissolution was eagerly awaited by some European powers, notably Russia. The Turkish rebirth was mainly due to the Greek occupation of Smyrna (May, 1919) and the humiliating Treaty of Sevres imposed upon her. The occupation of Smyrna by the Greeks with the support of the warships of Britain, France and the USA roused the ire of the Nationalists, a party led by a dynamic leader, Mustapha Kemal Pasha. He fled Constantinople and set up a rival government at Angora. He rejected the Treaty of Sevres. In due course of time, he was able to unify the country by deposing Sultan Mohammed VI. The Ottoman empire was converted into the National Republic of Turkey, with its capital at Ankara. This great leader inflicted a crushing defeat upon Greece in Smyrna and occupied it. The new situation compelled the Allies to treat the revived Turkey with great respect. The Allies offered more favourable terms to Turkey under the Treaty of Lausanne to which the Ataturk (Mustapha Kemal) agreed. Turkey got Constantinople and Eastern Thrace in Europe and Anatolia (with Smyrna) in Asia Minor. However, she was to give up her hold over Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia and Arabia. After this treaty, the Sultan was deposed, and on the debris of the Ottoman empire the modern state of Turkey was built by Mustapha Kemal Pasha. He was proclaimed the first President of the Turkish Republic under a new constitution. The Graeco-Turkish war resulted in great territorial losses for Greece. She lost Smyrna, Gallipoli and eastern Thrace to Turkey. She lost the Dodecanese Islands to Italy. She had to receive Christian-Greek inhabitants of Asia Minor.

The Search for Security in Europe Although Germany surrendered, signed the Treaty of Versailles, and was disarmed subsequently, France was not satisfied. What if Germany rose like Frankenstein and struck at her again? France was still weak, with a reduced population and meagre resources. But Britain and Italy did not share her anxiety. Therefore the French commander, Marshal Foch advocated that the League of Nations be provided with an international army to enforce the provisions of the peace treaties. Neither President Wilson nor, for that matter, Lloyd George, felt there that their countries should sign an agreement with France which would provide security in the event of a repeated attack by Germany. Their good intentions satisfied France and therefore she returned the territories taken from Germany. When the American Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles, there was

no further question of providing France with necessary security. Britain also was unable to help France. France’s fears aggravated. It was then, she felt that she should conclude defence treaties with smaller countries, who like her, entertained fears of German revival. She signed a defence pact with Belgium in 1920, with Poland in 1921, and with Czechoslovakia in 1924. Since Czechoslovakia had reached a defence agreement with Romania and Yugoslavia, France found it easy to sign a treaty with them. These alliances made Italy suspicious and she signed defence treaties with Hungary, Austria and Bulgaria. She encouraged them to seek a revision of the treaties already imposed on them after the Great War. France took other initiatives. She desired to know how the League’s covenant would provide protection to countries from aggression. She demanded the League to define ‘aggression’ and wanted to know how a member country attacked by an aggressor would be protected. She demanded that a conference of powers be convened by the League for drafting a treaty of mutual assistance by a commission appointed for that purpose. Accordingly, an international commission was appointed, and it submitted its report in 1924. to the League for its ratification. The draft titled “Geneva Protocol” made it binding on all members of the League to settle their disputes with others through arbitration or conciliation, and any country not accepting the “award” be declared as aggressor. Britain refused to sign this protocol. Under the Protocol, other members should jointly take action. In 1922, Germany was no longer able to meet its financial obligations to the Allies and therefore made a request for a two-year moratorium. While Britain was favourable, France threatened Germany and her troops occupied the Ruhr Valley. But it proved to be shortsighted. In 1924, the Dawes Plan was formulated by which Germany’s reparation debts were rearranged. Germany was to resume payments, now cut in half, immediately and she was to receive a large international loan to restore her own economy. As a result of this compromise, France agreed to withdraw her troops from the Ruhr.

Locarno Pact (December 1, 1925) During the next few years, the relations between France and Germany underwent a marked change, from downright hostility to friendship. It was not only due to the successful operation of Dawes Plan, but also the mutual friendship existing between their foreign ministers, Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand. Both believed in having direct negotiations, and Britain encouraged this approach.

This resulted in the signing of a group of treaties collectively called the Locarno Pact, named after the Swiss health resort, Locarno, where it was signed in 1925. According to the terms of the Locarno Pact, Germany would take its rightful place as a big power in the League of Nations and its Council. In return, she would refrain from seeking a revision of the Treaty of Versailles by force of arms. She was to give an assurance that she would settle disputes with others by arbitration or by conciliation. She would recognise the new western borders as permanent but would be given the right to seek peaceful modification about her eastern frontiers. The most important feature of the pact was that Germany, France and Belgium would respect each other’s borders and would not resort to war except in self-defence. Italy and Britain would ensure this provision of the enactment of the treaty. If it was violated by any of the three powers, they would provide military assistance to the affected. Although the extremists in France and Germany condemned this pact, it was nevertheless an important step taken in reducing the international tension, particularly between France (and her allies) and Germany.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (August 27, 1928) In the wake of the optimism engendered by the signing of the Locarno Pact, Frank Kellogg, then American Secretary of State, at the instance of Aristide Briand proposed to all the nations of the world to take a pledge to “renounce the use of war as an instrument of national policy”. Despite some reservations entertained by Briand on the nature of the pact, he gave his approval. The Pact known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed in Paris by many nations in 1928. To quote Gathorne Hardy, “As a gesture indicative of a new ethical attitude to war, it is undeniably impressive”. In the course of time, the Locarno and Kellogg-Briand Pacts proved no more than pious intentions on the part of the signatories. France and Germany interpreted the meanings of the agreements in their own way. For example, France thought she had made Germany respect the verdict of the Treaty of Versailles. On the other hand, Germany expected that with the coming into effect of the above pacts, the revision of the Treaty of Versailles was possible. She demanded the revocation of those clauses which imposed war-guilt, financial burden, limitations of armaments and the contraction of her eastern borders. But France was adamant and not ready for any revision of the Versailles Treaty. She strengthened military alliances with Czechoslovakia and Poland. She prevented Germany from admitting Austria into the Zollverein.

In the meantime, the Dawes Plan ran into serious trouble. Germany demanded that the reparation debts amounting to thirty-two billion dollars be reduced substantially, and if it is not complied with, Germany may be compelled to stop payments. While Britain and the USA were sympathetic to this demand, France and her allies were anxious to set things rights. The problem was referred to a Second Commission of economists headed by an American financier, Owen Young, in 1929. His committee recommended a revision of the Dawes Plan. One of the main recommendations included was that the amount Germany had to pay, was to be reduced by three-fourths (from thirty-two billion to eight billion dollars) and payment would have to be made in instalments running over a period of fifty-eight years, of course without foreign supervision. The Great Depression of 1929 clinched the whole issue. The creditors of Germany finally demanded a sum of $700 millions—a very modest figure—in 1932. if interAllied debts were reduced correspondingly by the USA. The USA did not agree and the Allies stopped paying her on the excuse that Germany did not pay them. Finally nobody owed anything to anyone. In 1935, France entered into a defence agreement with Russia which provided for non-aggression and mutual assistance in case of an attack by a third party (obviously Germany) on any one of them. This agreement was to remain in force for a period of five years.

League of Nations (1919-1946) The outbreak of the Great War in 1914 and its lengthy course awakened the conscience of mankind to the necessity of founding an international organisation for preventing future catastrophes. The birth of such an international machinery was incorporated in the form of a covenant in all the major peace treaties signed in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The founder of this organisation was President Wilson of the United States and it was he, who realised the necessity of such an organisation to act as a panacea for all ills that afflict mankind. The last point, in his programme of 14 Points, refers to “A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity”. It is no exaggeration to say that he “insisted upon its acceptance by the Allies and by Germany as a condition of armistice. . .” He worked hard during the Paris peace negotiations to bring about its birth. The drafting and explanations of its clauses were the outcome of much deliberations which he had with the leading statesmen of the world. The League, when founded in Geneva (Switzerland

being a neutral country), embodied a compromise between two extreme opinions. It was to work as a world body with a firm commitment towards maintaining world peace even if it were to mean punishing an erring member. The tasks set before the League of Nations were: (a) to prevent wars, (b) to maintain peace, (c) to carry out special duties entrusted to it by the peace treaties signed in Paris, and (d) to promote international co-operation. The obligations of members for upholding the cause of peace are explicitly stated in the text of the covenant which contains 26 articles. For example, Article 10 urged all members “to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence” of one another. Article 11 authorised the League to take suitable action to safeguard the peace of nations. Article 12 mentioned that members should submit their disputes either to arbitration or to enquiry by the Council. Article 13 required the members to accept the award and not to resort to war. Article 15 said that any dispute which could not be settled by arbitration should be submitted to the League’s Council. Article 16 tried to prevent a member from going to war with another in disregard to the provisions contained in the Covenant since it would be tantamount to a war with all members of the League. Article 17 referred to a non-member having a dispute with a member of the League of Nations. In such a case, the nonmember would have to refer the dispute to the League. In case he resorts to war, the provisions of Article 16 would be made applicable to deal with that nonmember. Thus, Articles 10 to 16 ensured the prevention of war and maintenance of peace. Secret treaties and agreements were forbidden and the others had to be registered with the League. The League was empowered to impose economic sanctions against the aggressor, and armed intervention was not precluded if this failed to achieve the desired objective. The above articles were designed to ensure the prevention of future wars. Besides this defensive role, the other articles mentioned about the positive role the League was to play. Article 23 referred to the promotion of just and humane conditions of labour for men, women and children. The covenant also provided for the creation of a Permanent Court of International Justice, and it was therefore duly founded in 1921. Another referred to the need for bringing about a general disarmament among nations. It made members “recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to lowest point consistent with national safety”. The League started functioning from January, 1920, and in November, shifted its headquarters from Paris to Geneva. At the time of inception, the League was composed of forty-one nations, twenty-nine being allied and associated powers. All peace-loving states which expressed their faith in the

covenant were found eligible to seek admission. They were admitted when twothird members of the League declared their approval. The Central Powers were not admitted for some time because they were guilty of causing the Great War. Russia also did not join the League of Nations for a long time. The Senate’s refusal to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in spite of several appeals made by President Wilson caused a great void because the USA could not become a member. Thus the League, from its inception, was deprived of the tremendous support it could have received from those great nations, for maintaining peace.

Organs of the League of Nations The principal organs through which the League functioned were: (a) The Assembly, (b) a Council and (c) Secretariat. The Assembly consisted of representatives of all member-nations, and each member-nation could send three delegates although having only one vote. The Assembly was called into session once a year, and at times, special sessions were held. The chief functions of the Assembly consisted of approving admission of new members, to select non-permanent members to the Council, to elect judges to sit in the Permanent Court, approving the budget, and discuss any matter affecting the peace of the world. To begin with, the Council was composed of four permanent members: Britain, France, Italy and Japan, and four non-permanent members. The strength of the non-permanent members increased from time to time. Finally it consisted of 11 members. Subsequently, the strength of the permanent members also increased from four to five (after Germany secured her permanent seat). The Council members met more frequently than the Assembly. Their important duties were to devise means to protect member-states from external aggression, to inquire into the disputes submitted to it, plan for the general reduction of armaments, and study annual reports submitted to it by the mandatories. Sometimes the Council was called upon to meet threats to world peace effectively. The Council enjoyed executive powers, that it could impose economic sanctions against aggressors. The League’s Secretariat consisted of a Secretary-General and his staff with its headquarters at Geneva. The Secretary-General selected his staff which consisted of many lesser officials drawn from various countries with the approval of the Council. The first Secretary-General was Sir James Eic Drummond. The Secretariat was divided into seven sections dealing with such matters as mandates, disarmament, health, minorities and so on. The Secretary-

General registered and published various treaties signed by member-nations. The Secretariat kept records, maintained correspondence and assisted in the work of other organs. The Secretary General convened the meetings of the Assembly and the Council.

Other Major Agencies of the League The Permanent Court of International Justice (or World Court) Article 14 of the League Covenant provided for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice, and therefore the League drew up a statute for such a court. The draft for setting up of such a court was passed by the Council and subsequently by the Assembly. To begin with, the Permanent Court was composed of eleven judges. Its headquarter was situated at the Hague (Netherlands). The judges were chosen by the Council and the Assembly for a nine-year term. Subsequently the strength of the judges was increased to fifteen. The World Court started functioning from 1921 and it worked throughout the year. It was empowered to “hear and determine any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it”. The Court also gave an advisory opinion whenever it was sought for by the Assembly or the Council. The Permanent Court interpreted international laws and decided on the issues of violation of treaties. The Permanent Court codified international laws.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) Article 23 provided for the establishment of the International Labour Organisation (ILO). It was to be an autonomous body with its seat at Geneva. The ILO consisted of a General Assembly, a Governing Body, and an International Labour Office. The General Assembly was composed of all member-states, each represented by four delegates (one chosen by labour, one by employers and two from government). They mainly devoted their time to discuss various ills afflicting the labour and suggested methods for improvement. The Governing Body consisted of thirty-two members and it elected a Director for the International Labour Office. The International Labour Office collected data on labour conditions, published periodicals, and convened meetings. The ILO worked for improving conditions of workers, especially women and children.

When the UNO was set up, the ILO became one of its specialised agencies. The League set up other minor agencies to fulfil its obligations. The Mandates Commission effectively supervised the administration of colonial territories (taken from the defeated powers) by mandatory powers. Another agency looked after the resettlement of refugees. Yet another checked epidemics. Similarly, another one combated with issues such as illegal narcotics trade and slavery.

Achievements of the League of Nations In its twenty years of a chequered career, the League dealt with a large number of political disputes. Many of these were amicably settled. Disputes arising between smaller nations were settled without much difficulty. In 1920, the League settled a dispute between Finland and Sweden over the ownership of the Aaland Islands in the Baltic. A special commission of the League investigated the case and settled the dispute in favour of Finland. In 1921, the League secured the withdrawal of Serbian troops from the soil of Albania after a threat. A dispute between Poland and Germany over the boundary line to be drawn in upper Silesia was submitted to the League of Nations. The League’s Council brought about a compromise. In 1923, Italy attacked and occupied the Greek island of Corfu in retaliation for the murder of her four subjects on Greek soil. The Italian government demanded an apology and full reparation charges from the Greek government. The League’s Council brought about a settlement. The League also successfully settled the Mosul boundary dispute between Britain and Turkey. A neutral commission investigated the claims of Britain and Turkey on oil-rich Mosul and submitted its report to the Council. It settled the dispute in favour of Turkey. In 1921, the council looked into the German protests over the handing over of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. It upheld Belgium’s claim as just. In 1925, the League Council heard a complaint of Bulgaria about the Greek violation of her border. The Council requested Britain and France to investigate and at the same time demanded Greece to withdraw her troops. Greece was further asked to pay a compensation to Bulgaria. However, the League’s intervention in other disputes where the big powers were involved ended in failures. For example, the dispute between Poland and Lithuania over the city of Vilna was settled by Britain, France and Italy outside the League. Even in the Corfu dispute, Britain and France mediated and brought about a compromise between Italy and Greece since the former was not prepared to accept the decision of the League.

The smooth operation of the mandate may be described as one of the great achievements of the League. Under Article 22, the League was entrusted with the governance of territories taken from Germany and Turkey. The League appointed Britain and France as mandatory powers to look after the well-being of these people till such time they were mature for the granting of independence. In 1920, a Mandatory Commission was appointed to review the progress made by these peoples. The League directly received reports from the peoples concerned. It also received reports from the governments functioning there. On the basis of these reports, the Commission recommended to the Council, measures to be implemented. After the Second World War, the mandate system was absorbed by the UN Trusteeship Council. The League successfully looked after 30,000,000 members of national minorities living in central and eastern Europe. A Minorities Committee was established. The League carried out many other tasks, such as checking the illegal narcotics trade and trafficking in women and children. It did a commendable job in suppressing slavery and bonded labour. Although not fully successful, the League played a prominent role in bringing about general reduction of armaments. The Permanent Court handed over thirty-one decisions and twenty-seven advisory opinions by 1940. The International Labour Organisation was successful in improving the conditions of labour class all over the world, particularly of women and children. The League, for the first time, spread the idea of international co-operation among people of the world and tried to make the world a better place to live in.

Causes of the Failure of the League of Nations Although the League registered great progress in the early years in achieving its avowed objectives, in the long run, it turned out to be conspicuously too weak a machinery to maintain world peace and security. Therefore, an examination of the factors which culminated in the downfall of the League would not be out of place here. The Convenant which brought about the birth of the League was unfortunately attached to all the major peace treaties. Since the peace treaties were one-sided, that was favouring the victorious Allies, the defeated nations always looked upon the world organisation as a partisan body. Moreover, the defeated nations were not admitted into this body for a considerable time, confirming their suspicion about the League being a partisan institution.

Secondly, the abstainment of the USA from this body caused an irreparable loss of moral influence. The League was no doubt founded on the efforts made by a great messiah of peace, President Wilson of the USA. However, his efforts to make his country an active member of the League failed because the American Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles. The participation of the USA in the League’s activities could have stemmed the tide of international lawlessness and could have prevented the outbreak of World War II. Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926 and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) not until 1934. However, in 1933 Germany withdrew from the League, and the USSR was expelled from it in 1939. Thirdly, the weakness of the League lay in the fact that many members were sovereign countries, and therefore, did not like any interference of the League. Italy, Germany and Japan left the League because they incurred its wrath on account of their aggressions. Fourthly, it was felt that the League was dominated by big powers like Britain, France, Italy and Japan. Smaller nations had no role to play. On many important issues, the big powers could not see eye to eye and thus made the League impotent. The powers failed to support the League, and therefore the League failed to maintain peace. Fifthly, the League did not have an armed force of its own to deter the aggressor. It had to depend upon member countries to carry out its will to deter the aggressor. Many a times, these members failed to give it adequate support. When Italy was branded as an aggressor for her invasion of Abyssinia and the League applied economic sanctions against her, Britain and France tried to whittle it down. Despite the sanction, Italy received oil from these countries. Sixthly, the big powers used the League to serve their own ends. Britain looked upon the League as a means to perpetuate her pet theory- the maintenance of balance of power in Europe. Similarly, France wanted the League to ensure her security from a possible German aggression. Seventhly, the League was composed of representatives of member states and not of their people. The ruling governments of those states could hardly appreciate the necessity of maintaining world peace and security vis-à-vis the cravings for the same by their people. The rise of dictators in Europe impeded the chances of the League’s success. Mussolini of Italy and Adolf Hitler of Germany treated the League with contempt. After committing aggression, they pulled their nations out of the League. Germany held the League responsible for all her miseries. She blamed the League for not bringing about disarmament, and therefore, Germany was not obliged to abide by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles any longer. Japan also

left the League after invading Manchuria. The dictators exploited the helplessness of the League and brazenly defied international laws. The law of the jungle prevailed, which finally plunged the world into another catastrophe.

26 World War II: Causes and Consequences Course of the World War

T

he long and disastrous war began with Hitler’s blitzkrieg against Poland. She collapsed after three weeks of fighting. Russia took full advantage of the situation of Germany’s friendship and her army overran eastern Poland and three Baltic states. Russia attacked Finland for not granting certain strategic territories and forcibly occupied her after defeating her. She was expelled from the League of Nations for this act of aggression. The German Panzer divisions (armoured tanks division) and Luftwaffe (Air Force) came to be feared by every nation. After the conquest of Poland, there was lull, with the French and German armies facing each other without doing anything.

After six months of waiting, Hitler struck a swift and deadly blow on Denmark and Sweden. The former surrendered within a few hours, and southern Norway too came under Nazi control thanks to their betrayal by the traitor, Major Quisling. The Allies were compelled to withdraw after receiving heavy blows from German tanks and the Air Force. The fall of Norway and Denmark caused a great handicap to be limited. The Netherlands and Luxembourg were attacked in May, 1940, and both were taken by the Nazis. At the end of this month, Belgium surrendered to the invading German troops and her king, Leopold, was taken prisoner. The English and French troops who went to the rescue of Belgium, were surrounded and pushed into the corner of Flanders.

Thus the British expeditionary forces, the French First Army, and the Belgians were trapped. The latter surrendered but the others were evacuated from Dunkirk —a most remarkable feat achieved with the help of the British Royal Navy, Air Force and large numbers of merchant seamen (26 May to 4 June, 1940).

France Surrenders The German army marched towards the French capital after overcoming all obstacles. The scattered French forces could not save their capital and it fell into the hands of the invaders. It was around this time that Mussolini joined the war on the side of Germany by attacking southern France (June, 1940). France sued for peace. Hitler received her formal surrender in the old railway carriage at Compiegne with vicarious pleasure—a place where Germans formally surrendered after the First World War. Germany occupied the northern and western parts of France leaving the unoccupied southeastern part to Vichy France — the French government of Marshall Philippe Petain during the period 1940-44. He became a puppet in the hands of the Nazis and refused to fight Germany from the French colonies. Thus the fall of France caused a great void, and Britain was left alone to carry on the fight. But General De Gaulle organised French resistance movement from outside France with the ultimate view of liberating his country.

Battle of Britain The British government rejected the German peace offer which meant accepting the fait accompli and the Nazi dictator was left with no choice but to invade Britain. One of the epic struggles of the Second World War was the Battle of Britain (August-September, 1940). Like Napoleon, the Nazi dictator had done careful planning since the British Channel had to be crossed by German ships, and again, this meant that German Air Force (Luftwaffe) had not only to maintain its air superiority to protect her ships, but also penetrate the British air defence system. The Luftwaffe directed by its chief, Hermann Goering, did its utmost but to no avail. The pilots of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) did a splendid job in denting all the German aerial attacks, and by September end, the projected German invasion ended in a fiasco. Winston Churchill, the war-time Prime Minister of Britain, paid handsome tributes to the RAF pilots saying, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few”. Although the immediate invasion of Britain

was warded off, Germany continued its ‘Night Blitz’ against her. British cities and towns suffered heavy damage and many civilians died. Britain retaliated by bombing German industrial areas. It was during this time, that the United States supplied war materials on lend-lease basis to Britain in sympathy for her fight against the Axis powers.

North African Front The lightning victories of Germans made Mussolini, the dictator of Italy, jealous and he too attempted to claim similar credit. His troops attacked Greece, but within a few months, made a hasty retreat after encountering heroic resistance. The Italians also made an attempt to conquer Libya (in North Africa) but the British troops drove them out. Furthermore, the British troops made advance towards Italian-controlled Ethiopia and other colonies to bring about their liberation. Between April and June 1941, the German troops made rapid advances into the Balkans and occupied Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Greece, the last one after encountering heroic resistance. The British troops in Greece beat a hasty retreat and settled in the nearby Crete island. They did not remain long as they were expelled from that island too. To give substantial support to the Italians, the Germans landed in North Africa. Their combined troops defeated the British and subsequently advanced towards Egypt. Had Hitler suddenly not changed his mind, the offensives launched by combined troops would have carried them far into the heartland of the Middle East. But it was not to be.

Invasion of Russia The non-aggression pact signed between Russia and Germany proved to be short-lived. It seemed Stalin did not like the German penetration into the Balkans, and similarly, Hitler, the ring of buffer states created by Russia. The conquest of Yugoslavia by Germany and the quarrel over sharing of the spoils created a serious rift between the two. In June, 1941, Hitler attacked Russia by ordering a well co-ordinated and massive attack. The Russians suffered heavy casualties, and by November, lost eastern Poland, the Baltic Republics and western Ukraine. The German troops laid siege to Leningrad and knocked on the doors of the Russian capital, Moscow. It was a matter of life and death for that great nation and her patriotic citizens fought it out. As during the Napoleonic

invasion, nature came to her rescue. The over-confident Axis troops under Hitler hardly reckoned the advent of Russian winter as a menace. The Russian winter froze the German soldiers, and the ice and snow blocked their advance into the Russian capital. Like the Battle of Britain, the battle for Russia turned out to be a great disaster. Further offensives were postponed. The commonwealth army inflicted crushing defeats on the Italians in east Africa, and subsequently they attacked the Axis forces in north Africa. The British troops took Cyrenaica for the second time.

Japanese Offensives Japan came under militaristic leaders who were planning to conquer China and the Southeast Asian countries. They conquered Manchuria in China in 1931. Using it as a base, they penetrated into China and a full-scale war broke out between the two. With the outbreak of World War II, Japan got an opportunity to expand her empire since the Western democracies were busy fighting the war in Europe and Africa. But fortunately, the USA had been watching her aggressiveness and tried to put a stop to it. The Japanese military leaders under the command of Commander Tojo planned to put the US fleet stationed at Pearl Harbour out of action, so that their future conquests could be accomplished easily. They joined hands with Germany and Italy and their Air Force attacked the American fleet stationed at Pearl Harbour on 7 December, 1941. As it was a sudden attack carried out by Japanese planes, eight heavy battleships and several vessels were sunk. American neutrality came to an end after this since the USA declared war on Japan. Britain and France supported the USA by declaring war on Japan, and Germany and Italy in support of Japan, declared war on the USA. Many South American states declared their support to the USA. Japan’s offensives on the small nations of Southeast Asia yielded rich rewards. Hong Kong, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Burma, the Philippines and a number of islands fell one by one into the hands of Japan (December, 1941 to May, 1942). Japan’s successive victories came to a stop when the American fleet won the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway (May-June, 1942). But Japan was in control of an empire stretching over three million square miles. The summer of 1942, witnessed Rommel’s (renowned German tank commander) spectacular victories in north Africa, and the Italo-German offensives there were carried on with great success. They were within reach of the Egyptian port of Alexandria. At the same time, the Germans reached the Caucasus and posed a serious threat to the Russian oilfields. The Russians under

General Zukhov fought to the last man to save their heavily destroyed city. The Russian General brought about the greatest German disaster by surrounding the Germans and forcing their commander, Field Marshal Paulus, to surrender on 31 January, 1943. In the north also, the Germans were pushed back from Leningrad. In yet another front, the Eighth Army under the command of the British General Montgomery, won a historic battle against Rommel at El Alamein (October-November, 1943). It proved to be a turning point in the North African War because the Italians were rounded up and the Germans were chased across Africa. At this time there were Anglo-American landings in French North Africa to force the Germans to retreat. The German struggle in north Africa came to an end on May, 1943.

The Allies launched their air and naval attacks by bombarding the Ruhr Valley (German industrial centre) and ports. They were followed up by an Anglo-American invasion of Sicily in July, 1943. The Allies gave full support to the resistance movements going on in the German-occupied European countries. After capturing the island of Sicily, the Anglo-American invasion was carried on to the Italian mainland. Meanwhile, Mussolini was dismissed and imprisoned. General Badoglio, a confidant of the Italian royal family, took charge of the Italian government. The new Italian government contacted the Allies secretly for arriving at an amicable settlement. Alliance with Nazi Germany was shaken off. Mussolini was rescued by German parachutists and taken to northern Italy where he set up a rival government. The progress of the Allies on the Italian mainland was halted because of German resistance.

Invasion of Normandy One of the most spectacular events of the Second World War was the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June, 1944, led by an American commander, General Eisenhower. After few weeks of tough struggle with the Germans, the Allies liberated northern and western France. This accomplished, they advanced towards Belgium and Holland. Another Allied force landed in southern France held by Germany and moved towards the Upper Rhine in August, 1944. The Allies were moving across the German frontiers. The Germans fought the “Battle of the Bulge”, and succeeded in halting the advance of the Allies. But the latter began to penetrate through Germany’s weak defences. Simultaneously a Russian army reached the German Capital and heavily bombarded it. Hitler committed suicide. On 8 May, the war came to an end after an armistice agreement was signed by Hitler’s successor, Admiral Doenitz. Some prominent Nazi leaders died and the others faced trial.

Hiroshima And Nagasaki Bombed The Allies concentrated on the defeat of Japan. After the Pearl Harbour setback, the Allies regrouped their forces in Australia, commanded by the American Five-Star General, MacArthur, and took Coral Sea and Midway (May-June, 1942). They conquered the Solomon islands and New Guinea. They went on to conquer many central Pacific islands, and recovered the Philippines. Meanwhile, the Allied armies fought in Burma and captured Rangoon. The Allies next took control of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, the two islands located within striking

distance of Japan. They started bombing Japan. President Truman who succeeded President F. D. Roosevelt after the latter’s death took the most decisive step in ending the war, by dropping atom bombs on Japan. The first atom bomb was dropped on the port-city of Hiroshima on 6 August, 1945 and three days later on Nagasaki, and the deaths caused by these two atom bombs compelled the Japanese military rulers to agree to an unconditional surrender demanded by the Allies. In Hiroshima, 80,000 people were killed, and two and a half square-miles of area was totally wiped out. Heavy damage occurred in another 14 square miles. This nuclear holocaust came as a finale to the Second World War.

Peace Treaties after World War II Regarding the fate of Germany, the Allies had made their aims explicit through the Atlantic Charter, and in Tehran, Yalta and Postsdam conferences. Germany and her capital was to be divided into zones and occupied till such time as she was transformed into peace-loving and democratic country. The Nazi leaders were to be tried for offences and punished. The Franco-German frontier of 1939 was restored. After a plebiscite, the Saar was annexed to western Germany. Russia and the Western Allies quarrelled over many matters and many problems concerning the unification of Germany remained unsolved. A council of foreign ministers prepared drafts of peace treaties to be signed by the five Nazi satellite states, namely, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Finland (July, 1945). The Paris Peace Conference was held in July, 1946, which was attended by tenty-one nations. In February, 1947, these satellite countries of Nazi-Germany signed the treaties after pleading their own cases. (a) Italy surrendered all her territorial conquests gained after the First World War. Albania became independent and a communist state. Trieste was divided into two zones occupied by Anglo-American and Yugoslavian forces. (b) Austria was separated from Germany and the Four Big Powers occupied it till 1955. (c) Hungary and Bulgaria came under communist governments. The latter received south Dobrudja from Romania. (d) Finland ceded some territories to the USSR. (e) After receiving the Japanese surrender, the Allies under General MacArthur occupied her territories until 1951. Japan signed treaties with Britain, France and the USA. She gave up her control over

Korea, Formosa, Sakhalin, Kuriles, the Mandated islands, and signed a defence treaty with the USA permitting her forces to remain in Japan and granted bases for joint-defence.

Results of World War II During the five years and ten months war, it was estimated that twelve million soldiers were killed in action. Another twenty-five million civilians died due to starvation and disease. About 1,60,000 people in Japan died due to dropping of the atom bombs on their cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Even today the children of those who survived this holocaust have been suffering from skin diseases. The USA spent nearly 350 billion dollars. The other countries might have spent something close to a trillion dollars (i.e., 1,000 billion). In terms of damage, the cost was another trillion dollars. The Second World War caused untold sufferings to millions of people all over the world. Everything was in short supply and prices rose. The issue of resettlement of the homeless became a task of great magnitude. The people of the world were aghast at the moral degeneration due to the senseless war resulting in enormous civilian casualties. The dropping of two atom bombs on the innocent people of Hiroshima and Nagasaki roused the conscience of humanity. The barbarous attitude of men in power at perpetrating the worst massacres—such as the Nazi massacres of millions of Jews in particular—indicated the depth of their moral degradation. World War II brought about changes in the status of countries and continents. Britain and France lost their positions of preeminence as superpowers and yielded place to the USA and the USSR. After the war, Britain and France were confronted with various domestic and external problems. Both of them could no longer hold onto their respective colonies. Their economies were in the red and their colonial subjects were demanding independence. Europe lost its status as the citadel of Western civilization. The USA became a global power and this was manifest during World War II. Tapping her vast resources, she became a great industrial giant. She emerged from her isolation and saved Western democracies from peril. One of the startling results of the war was the rise of the USSR as a superpower. She was partly responsible for the defeat of Germany. She joined the Western powers when she was attacked treacherously by Hitler. The heroism shown by her people at the time of war would never be forgotten by posterity. World War II left tales of misery everywhere. Food shortage, inflation,

unemployment and all other legacies of war raised their dragon heads. The people at large were left at the mercy of their corrupt governments. It was in this atmosphere of wretchedness that communism began to thrive. The progress achieved by the Communist Russia dazzled them. The post-war world witnessed the end of colonialism in Africa and Asia. There, the people struggled for their freedom. The new governments in Western democracies had to finally yield to this demand. The Afro-Asian countries gained independence one by one. One of the momentous results of the war was the birth of the United Nations Organisation. Although the League failed to deliver, mankind did not altogether lose its hopes of making the world a safer and happier place to live in. The UN Charter enshrines the hopes and ideals of mankind on the basis of which countries can work together to maintain lasting peace.

Peace Plans of the Allies During the War The aftermath of the war included the occupation of Germany by the Allied powers for the second time. Even before the conclusion of the war, both Britain and the USA had stated what their aims were going to be after the defeat of Germany. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and American President F.D. Roosevelt, met somewhere off the coast of Newfoundland in 1941 and prepared a charter—the Atlantic Charter—expressing what they wished to accomplish soon after the conclusion of the war. Many lofty ideals were declared and these inspired the other nations fighting the Axis powers. These two leaders, according to the charter, declared that they seek no territorial gains, will not make territorial changes, bring about the restoration of freedom of nations denied by Germany, provide self-government to the European colonies and so on. The most important object which these two leaders desired to achieve was the establishment of a new international machinery (birth of the UNO) to maintain international peace and security. About Germany, they wished to ensure that she does not repeat her aggressiveness in future. These two leaders met time and again and planned to bring about the defeat of Germany. They felt it necessary to take the cooperation of Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. The three leaders met in 1943, at Tehran to prepare military plans for defeating Germany through well co-ordinated attacks. They met again at Yalta (Crimea), where three important agreements were reached. The first concerned about the division of Germany and its capital into four occupational zones after her surrender. The second related to the nations about to be liberated and also about

the satellite countries of the Axis powers. The third was kept a secret and it related to the compensation Russia was to receive in the Far East for declaring a war against Japan. Russia was to get some islands belonging to Japan and special rights in Manchuria, which she had lost after the Russo-Japanese war (1905) Soon after Germany’s defeat, President Truman of America, Prime Minister Clement Attlee of Britain, Chiang Kai-shek of China and Marshal Stalin of Russia met in Potsdam (a suburb of Berlin). The four great leaders drafted plans which gave details regarding what they would like to do with defeated Germany. The details included the Allied occupation of that country, liquidation of her armed forces, dismantling of her war industries, and the eventual transfer of power to a democratically elected government, after the destruction of Nazi Party and its elements. The leaders meeting in Potsdam also planned as to how Japan should be treated after her defeat. They agreed that she should be occupied like Germany, and most of her colonies (acquired by conquest) should be handed back to China and some to Russia. One of the wartime agreements included the provision for rendering economic assistance to the peoples who would be liberated from Nazi Germany. It took shape in the form of UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) which was to render much needed aid from 1943 to 1948, to the people of Europe to fight famine and disease. Subsequently, UNRRA provided food, clothing and other assistance to millions of people in various countries, helping them to make speedy economic recovery. At Bretton Woods (New Hampshire), an International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now known as World Bank) was set up in July, 1944. This bank was to render assistance to war-torn countries of Europe to make efforts to improve their economies. America under the stewardship of President Roosevelt realised that it was her absence in the League of Nations that had caused another world war. She, therefore, was determined not to let this be repeated. President Roosevelt took the initiative to build a machinery for post-war collective security wherein the USA would play a leading role. Accordingly, the Dumbarton Oaks Conference was convened in August, 1944 and by October, the four big powers (UK, USA, Soviet Union, and China) formulated general principles for a world organisation on the lines of the earlier League of Nations. It was followed by another big conference convened at San Francisco (April-June, 1945).

Post-War Era in Europe Although World War II was over by 1945, the peace treaties were signed after a

considerable lapse of time. The war time agreements could not be immediately translated into peace treaties after the war, mainly due to the wrangling among the Allies. There was no final peace treaty about Germany, therefore some minimum understanding was arrived at. The eastern frontier of Germany was demarcated along the Oder and Neisse rivers. Russia received the northern part of East Prussia including Konigsberg. France got Alsace and Lorraine, and Poland received Silesia, eastern Brandenberg, a large part of Pomerania, Danzig, and the southern strip of East Prussia. Belgium received Eupen and Malmedy. Czechoslovakia got back Sudetenland. Austria was partitioned into zones for allied military occupation and the Saar region was handed over to France. Comparatively, Germany’s territorial losses were much greater than in the previous war. Germany was totally disarmed and its “war potential” was destroyed, the Germans were “de-Nazified” and the Nazi criminals were put on trial at Nuremberg. In 1946, the court convicted twenty-two criminals, out of which eleven were summarily executed. Several minor Nazi officials were accused of slaughtering millions of Jews and they were also condemned to death. Similarly, between 1946 and 1948, several Japanese criminals were tried and condemned to death sentence. General Tojo was one among them. The Allies, after much wrangling, drafted treaties and they were finally signed by Italy and other minor allies of Germany in February, 1947. All of them contained provisions for reparations to be paid by Italy and minor allies of Germany to Russia, and limitations of armed forces to be maintained by them. The reparation charges of Italy, Bulgaria, Hungry, Rumania, and Finland were $360 million, $70 million and $300 million respectively. Italy gave up her claims to Albania and Ethiopia. She ceded Fiume, Istria, and some Adriatic islands to Yugoslavia. Greece received Dodecanese Islands, and France, some western frontier posts. Hungary ceded Transylvania to Romania and some territories to Czechoslovakia. Romania recognised the annexation of Bessarabia and Bukovina by Russia and southern Dobruja by Bulgaria. The Soviet Union showed marked favour to Bulgaria and she gained Dobruja. Finland lost the province of Petsamo and most of Karelia to the Soviet Union. She ceded a naval base commanding the Gulf of Finland on a lease basis.

Germany The foreign ministers of major powers discussed the peace treaties with Germany and Austria at Moscow in the spring of 1947. They also met in London during the winter of 1947. However, differences persisted and they could not arrive at any settlement. The attitude of the Soviet Union to the question of unification of Germany remained hostile. The Soviet Union wanted to retain the

eastern part of Germany and also the capital, Berlin, under her control. She was not prepared to arrive at any settlement about the unification of Germany. It may be remembered that Germany was divided into four zones with Russia occupying the eastern part. The Allies thought of unifying the zones which they had occupied and in 1949, they ceded all rights to the people of Germany and formed the Federal Republic of Germany. Subsequently, the Russians converted their zone into the German Democratic Republic after setting up a puppet Communist government. But the Russians extended all co-operation to the Allies for setting up a court at Nuremberg to try Nazi war criminals. In 1946, eleven war criminals including Hermann Goering were condemned to death by the Nuremberg court. But Hermann Goering committed suicide just before he was to be hanged. Subsequently, several minor Nazi officials were tried and summarily executed for committing atrocities against the Jews in the concentration camps. The Western Allies did not accord recognition to the German Democratic Republic in East Germany set up by the Soviet Union. But they proclaimed the cessation of war with Germany in general in 1951. The Soviet Union did likewise in 1955. In 1957, France ceded the Saar region to West Germany. The Western allies and the Soviet Union signed a peace treaty with Austria and thereby recognised its independence. Austria was to have the same frontiers as existed before the outbreak of the Second World War.

Japan Japan surrendered in October, 1945, and the instrument of her surrender was received by General Douglas MacArthur on the ship Missouri. Japan was placed under allied control led by MacArthur. He took steps to bring about a peaceful atmosphere in that country. The Soviet Union was not ready to sign a peace agreement with Japan. Therefore, the United States convened a Congress of 48 nations at San Francisco. It was there that a peace treaty was signed (September 8, 1951) which reduced the territory of Japan to its four main islands. Japan surrendered the Kuril islands and southern Sakhalin to Russia. She surrendered Formosa (Taiwan) to Nationalist China and recognised the independence of Korea. She transferred some of her mandated Pacific Islands to the United States. The Soviet Union signed an agreement with Japan at Moscow in October, 1956, and thereby ended its state of war. By this treaty, the diplomatic relations were restored and Japanese prisoners were sent back to Japan. In 1957, Japan was admitted as a member of the United Nations. Thus after a lapse of twelve

years, the world witnessed peace and security. However, the peace that was established was not real peace. It divided Europe into Democratic West and Communist East.

PART VIII

The World after World War II Chapter 27 Emergence of Two Power Blocs Chapter 28 Emergence of Third World and Non-Alignment Chapter 29 UNO and Global Disputes

27 Emergence of Two Power Blocs

O

ne of the most significant results of World War II was the emergence of two blocs, namely, the US and its allies on the one side, and the Soviet Union and its satellite states on the other. With the loss of status as big powers, Britain and France finally yielded place to Stalinist Russia to fill the political vacuum in Europe. Soon after the war, Russia extended its communist system to states of Eastern Europe, namely, Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. All these countries became communist. Furthermore, Russia acquired the Kuril Islands, south Sakhalin, Dairen, and Port Arthur in the Far East. Russia had become a very strong state on the eve of World War II thanks to the implementation of the five-year plans under the dynamic leadership of Joseph Stalin. When Germany was divided, its eastern part along with East Berlin came into the possession of Soviet Union. The Soviet Union’s propaganda machine spread communism all over Asia and Africa. Stalin extended moral support to the peoples of Africa and Asia in their struggle for independence. The rise of communist China, following a revolution in 1949, gave a big boost to the spread of communism to the rest of the world. Soviet Union urged all AfroAsian countries to copy its economic model based on the five year plans for achieving rapid economic development. At the time of his death, Stalin challenged the western world with the Soviet Union’s military might, and also by exploding an atomic device in Septermber 1949 and a Hydrogen bomb in 1953, America’s nuclear monopoly ended. Stalin believed in continuing wars till the capitalist countries embraced communism. Stalinist policies of containing capitalism resulted in the Cold War. So began an ideological conflict between the western democracies and the communist bloc. On the eve of World War II, the US as a champion of western democracies wielded great influence in many parts of Latin America, Africa and Asia. It had remained invincible during the two world wars. It played a major role in the

victory of the allies against the axis powers. Its great president Franklin D Roosevelt gave unstinted support to the allies during the time of crises. During the initial stages of World War II, the US had remained neutral. However, the situation changed following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour (7 December, 1941). The US then entered the world war by supporting the allies.

28 Emergence of The Third World and NonAlignment The Third World

T

he Third World, is a term used to refer to the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. A large majority of the fifty-three African, forty-seven Asian and twelve South American countries, constitute what is known as the Third World. They were all colonised by European countries, economically exploited, and kept in social backwardness. The imperialist countries kept the people divided by following the policy of divide and rule. After the Second World War, the colonial system collapsed, and the European imperialists were forced to grant independence to the Third World countries. Since the Third World countries had become poor because of exploitation, they kept looking towards their erstwhile masters and also the UN for economic assistance. In their hour of distress, the Soviet Union gave moral and material support. The US and the UN began to give aid to the Third World through international financial institutions like the World Bank and the IMF. A majority of the Third World countries had earlier adopted the Soviet model of economic growth after achieving their independence. Lately, they have realized about the pitfalls of the Soviet model (Command Economy). They have switched over to the American model in recent years, i.e. the market economy. A majority of the Third World countries joined the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) during the years of the Cold War. The US government was prepared to render financial assistance, but with strings attached. This was not liked by many nations of the NAM. The international banking institutions agreed to render assistance, but on fulfilment of certain conditions. Therefore, the Third World countries and the NAM are today afraid of being subjected to a new form of colonialism by the west—also known as neo-colonialism.

This neo-colonialism becomes evident when one looks at the terms and the conditions imposed by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the World Bank and the IMF. Some of the conditions imposed by the western countries on the developing nations relate to agricultural subsidies, issues regarding global warming and also existing labour conditions. The Third World countries are extremely sensitive about these conditions since they are fundamental to their economic growth. Therefore, they are now asking the developed countries for a level-playing field. They need more time to fulfil the demands of these international financial institutions controlled by the developed countries.

The North South Dialogue By North-South Dialogue, we mean the newly independent nations of the Third World (Asia, Africa and Latin America) are trying to engage the industrialised countries of the north (the US, Canada and Western Europe) “in negotiations over Changes to the International Economic Systems during the 1970s.” One should remember that by the 1970s, the number of countries belonging to the Third World had increased by leaps and bounds, and begun to demand social and economic justice from the UN. In 1973, the Algiers conference of the NonAligned Movement began to demand a “New International Economic Order” (NIEO). Accordingly, the UN adopted a charter of Economic Rights containing 34 Articles, all envisaging a NIEO. This was in December 1974, and the purpose was to bring about the economic stability in an interdependent world. The UN established two important agencies to bring about this economic stability. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Council for Economic Development (UNCTAD-1964) began to function. The UNCTAD tried to bring the Third World nations (south) into contact with the industrial democracies of the north for concluding agreements on certain development issues. The industrialised nations of the north were ready to engage the south into a kind of settlement because the oil-producing countries of Arab world had created problems. The Arab-world began to use oil as an economic weapon against the north. The north was interested in an amicable settlement, and began to negotiate with the south. So an international economic system had to be evolved, so as to benefit the developing countries. Thus an international economic system which had existed since the Second World War had to be modified in the 1970s. Most of the issues in the north-south dialogue pertained to trade and tariff, foreign aid, international finance and “the governance of multinational companies and institutions”. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) also came

into the picture over the issues of international finance, and trade and tariff. In the meantime, the UN eagerly desired to bring the north and south closer through its Millennium Development Goals. These goals included the eradication of “poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development all by the year 2015.” In the meantime, south-south co-operation started. It began with the AfricaSouth America (ASA) co-operation. This organisation had two summits to its credit. fifty-three delegates from Africa and twelve from South America attended the first summit held in Abuja, Nigeria, in 2006. The second summit was held in September, 2009, wherein forty-nine heads of states from Africa and twelve leaders from South America attended. The ASA, which was led by President Hugo Chavez (Venezuela) and Muammar al-Gaddafi (Libya), desired to see south-south co-operation develop into “twenty-first century socialism”. Gaddafi wanted a military alliance between South America and Africa to challenge the NATO. He desired an organisation like the UN Security Council for obvious reasons. The ASA wanted some kind of economic alliance between countries of Africa and South America which would provide technical assistance and transfer of technology. The ASA hopes to promote co-operation among southern nations through investments, common banks, and in energy and oil. It wants to encourage regional trade agreements. Unfortunately, the ASA is facing a large number of problems at present due to paucity of huge amount of capital (due to lack of organisations like IMF and World Bank).

Brandt Commission Report A commission headed by Willy Brandt, a former German chancellor, investigated as to what was creating a rift between the affluent north and the poor countries of the south. By affluent north, we mean rich countries situated in the Northern hemisphere. When we say the south, we mean many developing countries situated in the Southern hemisphere. One should note that the affluent countries of the north exploited the south politically and economically for many centuries. Willy Brandt desired to evolve an amicable settlement between the two. He said that the north’s prosperity has been due to highly sophisticated products/commodities being sold to the south. Unfortunately, the south is unable to produce these commodities. Their main exports to the north include only intermediary goods, hence there is a great divide between the north and the south. On account of this situation, the south is facing balance of payments

problem. Since the commission’s report came into the public domain during the height of the Cold War, it did not receive the much attention. The north, as well as international financial institutions, too ignored the report. Brandt had recommended that the north should transfer massive amounts of aid (like the Marshall aid given to western countries after the Second World War) to the poor South. He said that this would not only help the poor countries of the south, but benefit the affluent north in the long run.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was founded by the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa in 1955, at a time when the Cold War was raging, and a number of colonies were becoming free. The long term goals of NAM are to promote peace, development, economic co-operation, and, healthy international relations among member states. The Cold War was at its peak, and the members of the NAM preferred to remain neutral. A few important leaders of these nations desired that the movement should be kept away from the superpower rivalry and the military blocs. The first meeting of the NAM took place in Bandung (Indonesia) in 1955 at the initiative of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Chou En-lai and President Sukarno. It was attended by twenty-nine countries. It was in the first meeting, where the leaders announced the principles on the basis of which the Non-Aligned Movement should make progress. The Bandung declaration contained 10 principles: 1. Respect for fundamental human rights and of the objectives and principles of the charter of the United Nations. 2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations. 3. Recognition of equality among all races and among all nations. 4. Non-intervention or non-interference into the internal affairs of another country 5. Respect for the right of every nation to defend itself. 6. Refrain from joining defence pacts and non-use of pressure against the other countries 7. Refraining from carrying out or threatening to carry out aggression or employing use of force against any independent country. 8. Peaceful solution to all international conflicts 9. Promotion of mutual interests and of co-operation. 10. Respect for justice and international obligations.

The next meeting of the non-aligned movement was held in Brioni (Yugoslavia), which reiterated the principles declared in the Bandung meeting. The NAM summit was held at Belgrade in September, 1961, and was attended by twenty-five nations, representing Asia and Africa. It was important, in the sense that, President Nasser of Egypt and President Tito of Yugoslavia delivered their addresses at the conference. They advised the members to adopt a positive approach towards the problems facing the newly independent nations, and also on those struggling for independence. The summit extended its support to all the freedom struggles taking place in the Third World. Members decided to meet once in three or four years, and take stock on the progress achieved so far. Most of the meetings of the NAM thereafter opposed imperialism, recommended admission of the newly independent nations to the UN, extended support to colonial struggles for independence, condemned apartheid in South Africa, encouraged disarmament, and pleaded for the establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) so as to benefit the developing countries. They urged the United Nations to adopt a resolution on the NIEO for the economic emancipation of the South (Algiers conference in 1973). The independence of the Third World became an important issue since the members were not prepared to join either of the two superpower blocs, but they desired economic assistance from them. The NAM fought for the just aspirations of the people of the Third World (sometimes referred to as the south) and it became influential in shaping the UN’s policies. A large number of countries which threw off the colonial yoke joined the NAM which increased its strength from 25 to 118 in recent years. Let us examine what each conference of the NAM had to suggest to the UN and other world bodies: The second NAM Summit was held in Cairo in 1964. It was attended by forty-seven countries. It adopted a plan for peace and international cooperation and condemned the attitude of imperialist powers. It demanded that the colonies secure justice, equality and freedom. The third NAM Summit was held in Lusaka in 1970. It was attended by fifty-four member nations and nine observers. It underlined the importance of the non-aligned movement in tilting the balance of power in favour of itself during the Cold War period. It adopted an agenda for the summit titled “nonalignment and economic development”. It discussed general problems faced by the non-aligned countries. The summit recommended to its members to break off their relations with Portugal and South Africa. The fourth summit of the non-aligned countries was held in Algiers in 1973 and attended by seventy-five member nations. It adopted proposals concerning socio-economic development of developing nations. It urged the world bodies to

consult the NAM while formulating policies concerning the Third World nations. The fifth summit of the NAM was held at Colombo in 1976. It was attended by 88 countries. This summit discussed the problems of Latin American and African countries. It urged the UN to abolish the veto power enjoyed by the permanent members in the Security Council. It wanted the UN to establish a New International Economic Order (NIEO) to solve the problems of the Third World. The sixth summit of the NAM was held at Havana in 1979. It was attended by ninety-four countries which adopted a resolution urging all nations to establish ties with two socialist countries, namely, Cuba and Vietnam. Zaire and Singapore urged other countries to establish closer ties with the west. The seventh summit of the NAM was held at New Delhi in 1983. It was attended by 101 member nations. It was in this conference that India refused to criticise the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The conference urged the UN to bring about nuclear disarmament and establish peace. The eighth summit of the NAM was held in Harare in 1986. It was the silver jubilee year of the NAM. It discussed the problems of the blacks in South Africa and condemned the Apartheid regime. It recommended to the UN to take necessary steps to deal firmly with the South African government. The ninth summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in 1989 and was attended by 102 member nations. The summit asked the UN and other world bodies to ensure free and fair elections in Namibia and solve the issue of the Afghan Civil War. The tenth NAM summit was held at Jakarta in 1992 and was attended by 108 member nations. It must be noted that the Cold War had ended and a number of western countries questioned the relevance of the continuation of the NAM. In spite of this adverse situation, the conference continued to play a positive role. It urged the rich countries of the west to establish better trade relations and also provide financial assistance to the developing countries. The conference asked the UN to restructure the Security Council and provide better representation for the developing nations. Myanmar joined the NAM, and China sent its observer. The eleventh summit of the NAM was held in Cartagena (Colombia) in 1995 and was attended by 118 member nations. fouty-four heads-of-state, including Indian Prime Minister, Narasimha Rao, attended this summit. The Summit discussed a number of controversial issues. It ended with the Cartagena Declaration which urged member nations: (a) to promote international cooperation (b) to demand the UN to establish nuclear-free zones and eliminate weapons of mass destruction (c) to deny support to terrorists and (d) to criticise trade sanctions imposed by the west on a few developing nations. Pakistan raised

its dispute with India over Kashmir, and the summit referred this matter to a Coordination Bureau. The twelfth summit was held at Durban in 1998, under the supervision of South Africa’s leader, Nelson Mandela. South Africa had become free from the Apartheid regime by then, thanks to the sustained pressure exerted by the UN and the NAM. The summit once again urged the UN to eradicate weapons of mass destruction. Mandela’s comments on Kashmir issue were not taken favourably by India. The thirteenth NAM summit was held at Kuala Lumpur in 2003 and was attended by 116 member nations. The summit ended with the declaration, calling upon its members to revitalise the Non-Aligned Movement. It also expressed serious concern over the situations in Iraq and Palestine. When the Cold War ended in the early 1990s, many sceptics questioned the relevance and continuation of NAM in the changed situation. It must be remembered that the USSR had collapsed, and the hegemonic ambitions of the US began to increase. The United States government all along had been unfriendly towards the NAM because the latter was getting moral and material support from the Soviet Union. So in this unipolar world, NAM’s problems began to increase. Despite the changed situation, the NAM continued to struggle for the right of the developing countries on many issues both inside and outside the UN. In the fourteenth summit held at Havana (Cuba) in September, 2006, the NAM members continued to affirm their commitment to the ideals, principles, and purposes upon which their movement was based. It also advocated the policy of the following the principles adopted in the UN charter.

Purposes 1. To promote multi-lateralism and strengthen the central role of the UN 2. To promote unity, solidarity and co-operation among developing countries 3. To defend international peace and security and settle international disputes by peaceful means. 4. To encourage friendship and co-operation among all nations 5. To promote and encourage substantial developments 6. To encourage and protect all human rights 7. To promote peaceful existence between nations. 8. To promote and strengthen the democratisation of the UN 9. To non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament

10. To promote new nuclear weapons-free zones 11. To promote international co-operation for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy 12. To promote initiatives of south-south co-operation. 13. To take advantage of opportunities arising from globalisation 14. To promote the role of civil society and also that of non-governmental organisations for advocating the principles of the movement. The current challenges facing the NAM today are combating terrorism, eliminating weapons of mass destruction, defending human rights, making the UN strong and effective, and seeking social and economic justice. The criticism levelled against the NAM is that it is falling short of many expectations relating to the Third World. It could not play an effective role in the Arab-Israeli conflict, Iraq-Iran war, and also could not prevent the US attack on Iraq in the Gulf War. It could not bring about an effective disarmament program by the nuclear powers. It could play only a marginal role in bringing about the end of the Cold War. In the new circumstances (unipolar world), its role has been restricted. Many political analysts believe that it could still play a positive role in persuading the UN to bring about socio-economic development of the Third World The NAM could play an important role in bringing about structural changes of the UN (with more Asian and African countries being represented in the United Nations Security Council).

29 UNO and Global Disputes The United Nations

T

he adoption of UN declaration of 1 January, 1942, by representatives of twenty-six nations was based on the principle of the Atlantic Charter. It was followed by another meeting at Moscow by foreign secretaries of four big powers (USA, UK, USSR, and China) on the necessity of founding an international organisation, the United Nations (UN). Unfortunately, the Western powers did not treat the countries of Asia and Africa on an equal footing because the Atlantic Charter did not take their cognisance. Subsequently, the Dumbarton Oaks Conference was held on 7 October, 1944, where the USA drew up a plan and placed it before the other big powers. After sometime, the plan for founding the UN was presented to all governments for approval. The UN Charter was drafted at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference.

UN Charter Delegates from fifty nations met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on International Organization (April 25, 1945 - June 26, 1945) and drafted the United Nations Charter which was signed by them on June 26, 1945. The United Nations (UN) was born on October 24, 1945, after the Charter was ratified by the five permanent members― the United States, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and China― of the Security Council and most of the other signatories. Poland, which did not participate at the San Francisco Conference, was admitted as the fifty-first member on the day the UN came into existence. John D. Rockefeller gifted the land in Manhattan (New York) where a building was raised with 39 storeys for housing the UN. Till it was completed,

the UN functioned at Lake Success on Long Island. The official languages of UN are English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic. The UN became an association of sovereign nations wedded to the cause of maintaining peace and security, and settlement of disputes through negotiations or arbitrations through the good offices of the UN. Today the UN has 193 member-states on its roster (the last to be admitted was the Republic of South Sudan). All sovereign nations are eligible to apply for admission to the UN membership. They are admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. They have to sign the UN charter. The UN charter contains 111 articles and includes four clear objectives: (1) to maintain international peace and security, (2) to promote friendly relations among nations on the basis of equal rights and self-determination of people, (3) to achieve international co-operation in solving various problems, and (4) to promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom. The UN adopted a Charter of Economic Rights in December 1974, containing 34 articles. This charter envisages a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The principal organs of the UN are: (a) General Assembly, (2) the Security Council, (3) The Economic and Social Council, (4) The Trusteeship Council, (5) The Secretariat, and (6) The International Court of Justice. Besides the above, there are many subsidiary and specialised agencies working under the supervision of the Economic and Social Council, which in turn, is responsible to the General Assembly. Let us examine the function of each organ in detail.

General Assembly It is like a world parliament. It is called into session at the beginning of September, every year and each member-nation has one vote. Each country can send five representatives to attend the session. The Assembly is entitled to discuss any topic falling within the scope of the UN Charter. The General Assembly elects members to serve in the other organs, votes for the budget, receives report from other bodies including its special committees. Important issues are decided by a two-thirds majority and others by a simple majority. The General Assembly elects its own president and vice presidents. It is called into special session, if any urgent and pressing problem is to be discussed and recommends solutions. The work of the General Assembly is divided amongst its seven committees and every member-nation is represented by one delegate in these committees. The seven committees are: (1) Political and Security

Committees, (2) Economic and Financial Committee, (3) Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee, (4) Trusteeship Committee, (5) Administrative and Budgetary Committee, (6) Legal Committee, and (7) Special Political Committee. A General Committee which consists of 25 members, co-ordinates the activities of the seven committees mentioned above.

Security Council Looking at the functions it performs, one may describe the Security Council as the executive body of the UN. It consists of five permanent members (UK, France, Russia, USA and the People’s Republic of China) and 10 non-permanent members. The latter serve this body for a term of two years. Three nonpermanent members are chosen each year by the General Assembly. The Security Council, unlike the General Assembly, is in session constantly, and its primary task is to deal with “any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression”. It may appeal to the nations involved in the dispute to settle it through the International Court. It may also investigate the matter and impose its solutions. It is necessary that all the five permanent members concur with four others before a decision could be arrived at. This is so because any permanent member could prevent a decision being arrived at or a resolution being passed by exercising its veto. A veto is thus a negative vote cast by a permanent member to stultify the future course of action which the Security Council is intending to take. It was only during the Suez crisis that, the veto cast proved abortive since the issue was discussed (though not in the Security Council) in the General Assembly. The measures the Security Council may adopt to deter the aggressor include economic sanctions, severing of diplomatic relations and the effective use of armed force by its members. The other functions of the Security Council include recommendations regarding admission of members, appointment of the Secretary-General and the selection of judges to serve at the International Court of Justice.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) The UN is entrusted with the task of creating “conditions of stability and wellbeing” of member-nations. This objective is to be achieved through promotion of higher standards of living, full employment, cultural and educational developments, and universal respect for human rights and dignity. The Economic and Social Council is composed of fifty-four member-states elected by a two-

thirds majority of the General Assembly. Six members are elected each year for a term of three years. However, the composition of the Council has undergone some changes. Now it consists of fifty-four members elected for a three-year term. One-third of the members (eighteen) retire annually. They are eligible for re-election. The Economic and Social Council has to deal with the various types of economic and social problems confronting the nations of the world. Therefore, it holds conferences to make special study of these problems, reports, and makes recommendations to the General Assembly and member-nations on the course of action to be taken. To carry on its enormous work, the following commissions are appointed: (1) Transport and Communications Commission, (2) Statistical Commission, (3) Social Commission, (4) Population Commission, (5) Commission on Narcotic Drugs, (6) Commission on Human Rights, (7) Commission on the Status of Women, (8) International Trade Commodity Commission, (9) Economic Commission for Europe, (10) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (originally ESCAFE), (11) Economic Commission for Latin America, and (12) Economic Commission for Africa.

The Trusteeship Council This Council takes care of the people living in territories held under the League of Nations mandate or the territories surrendered by the Axis powers coming under trust. It also receives reports on the progress made in the Trust territories under the concerned powers. People in these areas were also permitted to present complaints or petitions. The Trusteeship Council is composed of big powers (except holding trust territories), member-nations which administer Trust territories, and members elected by the General Assembly. This Council elects a President at the beginning of each session and meets twice a year.

The Secretariat The Office of the Secretary-General is called the Secretariat. It is located in the premises of the UN building in New York. The routine work of this august office is divided amongst the nine departments, each headed by an Assistant Secretary. The Secretary-General of the UN (the present incumbent is Ban Kimoon, 1 January, 2007) is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The first Secretary-General who served the UN was

Trygve Halvdan Lie of Norway from 1946 to 1953. He was succeeded by Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden in 1953. Hammarskjold died in an air crash while dealing with the Congo problem in 1961. Next came U Thant of Burma who worked from 1961 to 1971. Subsequently, Kurt Waldheim of Austria took over the office in December, 1971. The Secretary-General is chief administrator of the UN. Some of the important functions he performs are: (a) carrying out the administrative responsibilities, (b) maintaining records, (c) drafting and publishing treaties, (d) convening the sessions of the General Assembly and Security Council, (e) preparing agenda for the meetings of several committees, (f) submitting reports to the General Assembly and Security Council, and (g) bringing to the attention of the Security Council, any crisis which may threaten international peace and security.

The International Court of Justice It is the main judicial organ of the United Nations with its headquarters at the Hague. All members of the UN automatically become the members of the statute of the court after signing the charter. It is composed of 15 eminent judges who are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council after voting independently. The member nations may refer their disputes to the court for settlement. The decision of the court is binding on the parties concerned with the dispute. The Security Council may also refer a legal dispute to the International Court for settlement. Its advisory opinion can be sought by the specialised agencies of the UNO.

Specialised Agencies Besides the working of the above main organs, there are 18 specialised agencies at work to promote the economic, social, educational and cultural well-being of the people of the world. Let us therefore examine the work of each one of them.

(a) International Labour Organisation (ILO) The International Labour Organisation had been functioning since the early years of the League with its headquarters at Geneva (Switzerland). Its main object is to improve the conditions of the labour all over the world. The

International Labour Organisation is composed of representatives of membernations, employers and workers. It recommends solutions to labour problems and suggests measures for the well-being of workers. It has drafted an international labour code.

(b) Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) This organisation took its birth in 1945 and was administered by a General Conference, a Council and a Director General with its headquarters at Rome. The main tasks carried out by this organisation are: (a) to review food and agricultural situations the world over, (b) to introduce higher standards of nutrition, (c) to conserve natural resources, (d) offer suggestions to countries regarding the improvement of land tenure, and (e) Provide agricultural credit.

(c) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) This great organisation began functioning from 1945 with Paris as its headquarters. The UNESCO is controlled by a General Conference, and Executive Board consisting of 58 elected members (as of February 2014), and administered by a Director General. It main functions are many. It promotes friendly co-operation among member nations through collaboration in the fields of education, science and culture. Its work is highly appreciated by the Third World countries because of its services to the cause of expansion and improvement of education, establishment of training centres for teachers, encouragement given to international scientific institutions by offering scholarships on mutual exchange basis. More than this, it tries to preserve historic monuments, folk-art, dance and music from total extinction. Historians of several countries collaborated to bring out the History of Mankind which was published under the auspices of UNESCO. It publishes several periodicals to enlighten mankind on the progress achieved in education, science and culture.

(d) World Health Organisation (WHO) This organisation was established in 1948 and its main objective is to achieve “highest possible level of health” by all people of the world. To fulfil this

objective, it takes steps to eradicate deadly diseases, prevention of epidemics, improvement of nutrition and spread of hygienic habits among people. It is no wonder that it has controlled malaria and totally eradicated smallpox. With its headquarters at Geneva, this organisation is controlled by a World Health Assembly, an Executive Board and a Director General.

(e) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD or World Bank) It started functioning from 1946. It was initially started to help countries whose economies were severely affected by the World War. In the course of time, IBRD (or World Bank) has extended its financial assistance to the developing countries for increasing their production, raising their standards of living, and for securing better balances in international trade. Its soft lending affiliate, the International Development Association (IDA), came into existence in 1960. The underdeveloped countries can obtain loans from this body at nominal rate of interest on long-term basis. The World Bank gives loans to member states for the execution of specific projects like expansion of power projects, transportation, agriculture and communication. Its headquarters is at Washington, D.C. The International Finance Corporation invests money for improving under-developed countries.

(f) International Monetary Fund (IMF) It was established in 1945 and many nations became members. The most important objective of the IMF is to help member countries to overcome the adverse balance of payment. It brings about international monetary co-operation among member-nations by maintaining exchange-stability, removing exchange restrictions and facilitating world trade. The IMF is managed by a Board of Governors and its headquarters is situated in Washington, DC.

(g) The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) It was started in 1947, after superseding two earlier agreements on civil aviation. Its main task is to facilitate international aviation by drafting uniform regulations for operation of civil airlines, and implementing rules for maintenance of aircraft by introducing improvements in technical methods and equipment and so on for

the safety of passengers. Its headquarters is located in Montreal (Canada).

(h) The Universal Postal Union (UPU) It was originally founded in 1874, under the name, General Postal Union. It became a specialised agency of the UNO in 1948. Its principal task is to facilitate international postal service. The UPU’s main body is the Universal Postal Congress which meets once in five years. The UPU’s headquarters is situated in Berne (Switzerland). The strength of UPU’s membership is 192 (representing 192 nations).

(i) International Telecommunications Union (ITU) It was established in 1932 and at present its membership comprises of 193 member-nations and over 700 private organizations. It allocates radio frequencies and registers its assignments. It makes studies and recommendations and facilitates telecommunication among its member nations.

(j) World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) It was started in 1951, after much discussion by the Directors of the International Meteorological Organisation in 1947, at Washington, D.C. Its main task “is to facilitate exchange of weather data, to establish a world wide network of meteorological stations and to encourage research and training in meteorology”. The WMO’s headquarters is in Geneva (Switzerland). As of January 2013, it has 191 nations as its members.

(k) Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) It was started in 1959, with the purpose of providing a machinery for cooperation between governments in maritime regulations and practices. Furthermore, it seeks to remove discriminatory action by national maritime authorities and also unfair practices by shipping companies. Its headquarters is in London. This organisation is administered by a Secretary-General with the assistance of a council consisting of sixteen members. As of 2013, it has 170 member-nations.

(l) The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) In 1947, twenty-three nations concluded the GATT — a collection of multilateral trade agreements — to extend privileges and concessions in trade among themselves by lowering tariffs and removing certain restrictions. Their attempt at establishing a permanent organization called Organization for Trade Cooperation (OTC) for implementing the GATT failed in 1955 as it did not receive the approval of the US Congress. In January 1995, the GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Headquartered at Geneva, the WTO is the world’s principal trading body with 160 member-states subscribing to its policies and rules. The main criticism concerning this body is that, it favours developed countries and multinational corporations with its agenda of globalisation and liberalisation of world trade.

(m) International Development Association (IDA) All members of the World Bank are eligible to become the members of the IDA which was founded in 1960. It is a lending agency of the World Bank. Developing countries of the world, which are members of this organisation, can avail of the loan facility.

(n) International Finance Corporation (IFC) It is a private sector arm of the World Bank which finances private sector investments in developing countries. It procures capital from international financial markets and helps clients in all possible manner, including providing technical assistance, and rendering advice to governments and businesses.

(o) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) In the 1974 World Food Conference, it was decided to establish the IFAD. The IFAD came into existence in 1977, following a pledge by developed nations to a sum of 1,000 million dollars for agricultural development of backward countries.

(p) World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) The Stockholm Convention of 1967, was signed by fifty-one nations about

setting-up of WIPO which came into being in 1970. It is an organisation dealing with the ownership and rights of inventors and discoverers who have registered with it.

(q) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) As of February 2014, 162 countries have become members of the IAEA which is a leading body created to supervise peaceful uses of atomic energy. Its inspectors inspect atomic power-plants and reactors and ensure that these conform to international safety standards. One should see its importance in the light of the disastrous Chernobyl (Russia) accident, and tragedy that followed it.

(r) United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) The UNIDO became a specialised agency of the UN in 1985, with its headquarters at Vienna (Austria). It renders advice and recommendations with regards to many aspects of industrial policies by the developing and underdeveloped countries. The organisation consists of 171 member-states (as of January 2014). Besides running the eighteen independent specialised agencies under its aegis, the UN is conducting fourteen major programmes and funds, some of which are as follows:

1. United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) The UN set up this fund in 1946, for serving poverty-stricken children after the Second World War. In the course of time, it started giving assistance to developing countries so as to improve the quality of life for children and mothers living in poverty.

2. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) This body of the UN provides funds, technical assistance and preinvestment cooperation to developing and less developed countries.

3. UN Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA)

This organisation was created in response to the rapid rise in the population of developing and under-developed countries after the War. Its main purpose is to create awareness on the problems of population explosion, and the need to check it through family planning programmes. It renders financial assistance to the countries concerned about achieving population planning with the world population increasing by eighty million each year.

4. UN Environment Programme (UNEP) The Stockholm Conference in 1972, highlighted the degradation of the world’s environment and the reasons for it. In response to this challenging problem, the UN set up the UNEP. This programme advocates sustainable development “through sound environmental practices”. Over and above the major programmes and funds, the UN created relief agencies for the refugees and victims of man-made and natural disasters. After the creation of the state of Israel and the following war, millions of refugees fled their homeland (Palestine), and the General Assembly of the UN established the office of UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) in 1951 with its headquarters in Geneva (Switzerland). The UN also appointed a HighCommissioner for Human Rights whose main duty is to raise objections or lodge protests against countries which violate human rights. The UN had intervened effectively in countries where the governments have violated human rights (e.g. Congo, Rwanda etc.).

The Achievements of the United Nations On the political side, the UN has had to tackle more than a hundred difficult situations in its career. Some of them were solved through her good offices. One of the more serious situations which she had to face boldly, was the dispute between Iran and the Soviet Union in 1946. The former accused the latter of interfering in her domestic affairs by continuing to keep her armed forces even after the conclusion of World War II. The UN reminded the Soviet Union of the need to restore normalcy by withdrawing her troops from Iran to which the Soviet Union responded. The Soviet troops were withdrawn. In January, 1946, the Soviet Union complained to the UN of the presence of British troops in Greece which constituted interference in that country’s domestic affairs. The UN made enquiries and found that the British troops were there at the request of the Greek government.

In 1946, the United Nations brought about the withdrawal of troops of mandatory powers, thus enabling Syria and Jordan to become independent. During the same year, she successfully intervened to stop a civil war in Greece inspired by a foreign power and thus saved its independence and sovereignty. Soon after the Second World War, the Japanese left the East Indies which was formerly held by the Dutch. The nationalists there wanted to establish an independent republic under the presidentship of Sukarno. But the Dutch wanted to recover their former colonies. A war of liberation broke out. Therefore, the dispute between Indonesia and the Dutch was referred to the Security Council by India and Australia. The UN effectively intervened and brought about a compromise which brought about the independence of Indonesia in 1949. The Balfour Declaration (1917) and the withdrawal of British troops from Palestine (1948) brought about the birth of Israel. It was situated in the midst of Arab states. The Jews expelled the Palestinians from their homeland and the Arab League took up their cause. The members of the Arab league invaded Israel. The UN intervened and arranged for ceasefire (1948-49). In 1950, the Korean war broke out. When the Japanese left Korea after the Second World War, it was agreed that North Korea was to be controlled by the Soviet Union and South by the USA. Unfortunately, North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel and attacked South Korea. South Korea complained to the Security Council. North Korea was branded as aggressors and UN called upon member states to push the aggressors back. The UN troops led by the USA launched offensives against North Korea and the war prolonged for nearly two years (1950-52). Finally a truce was signed in Panmunjon which was followed by an exchange of prisoners of war. South Korea was thus saved from the jaws of communism. In the early 1950s, the UN also enabled both Morocco and Tunisia to achieve independence. The next serious problem faced by the UN was the Suez crisis. President Nasser of Egypt nationalised the Anglo-Egyptian-owned Suez Canal Company in 1956. Britain and France encouraged Israel to attack Egypt, and subsequently joined her by invading Egypt. The world was on the brink of yet another world war since Khruschev, the Russian leader, threatened Britain and France with war. Fortunately, the USA diffused the situation by appealing to both Britain and France to stop the war. The UN conducted “quiet diplomacy”. She resorted peace in the area. The next important crisis faced by the UN was the Cyprus issue. When the British left the island of Cyprus (situated in the Mediterranean Sea) in 1960, the Greeks and Turks fought for the control of the island. The UN brought about a ceasefire and sent the UN peace-keeping force there to maintain peace.

When the Arab nations closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli ships, Israel retaliated by attacking them. She defeated the Arabs in what is known as “Six days war” and seized the Gaza strip (1967). The UN intervened to establish ceasefire. The UN sent its forces in 1960, to contain a civil war raging in Congo (Africa) after the abrupt departure of the Belgians, and its Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjoeld, lost his life in an air crash while supervising the whole affair. India and Pakistan fought over the Kashmir issue in 1965 and the UN had to intervene to bring about a ceasefire. The UN initiated talks among the nuclear powers for the reduction of all types of armaments. In August 1963, the superpowers agreed for a limited nuclear test-ban. In January, 1967, it was agreed not to test nuclear arms in space. Subsequently, the superpowers agreed for a nuclear non-proliferation treaty. In 1966, the UN imposed economic sanctions on the racist South Rhodesia which had declared her independence from Britain. During the same year, the UN showed its contempt for the South African racist government by terminating its mandate over south west Africa, and transferring it to a UN committee. In 1967, the UN adopted a resolution asking participants in the Middle East War to withdraw their forces, and the resolution provided an acceptable basis for settlement. In 1971, the International Court of Justice declared South Africa’s presence in Namibia as “illegal”, and the People’s Republic of China as a lawful member of the UN during the same year. In 1973, the UN peace-keeping force assumed charge of the areas of conflict, namely, the Sinai and the Golan Heights. Four years later, the UN made arms embargo on South Africa as mandatory on all UN members, to force that country to end racial discrimination and apartheid. In 1978, the Security Council adopted a plan to bring about the independence of Namibia. During the same year, the UN sent a peace-keeping force into the trouble-torn Lebanon. The General Assembly convened a special session to discuss the problem of disarmament. In 1983, the Secretary General of the UN visited South Africa to implement the Security Council’s plan for bringing about the independence of Namibia. In July, 1987, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 598, appealing to Iraq and Iran to end their seven years war. They took a full year to respond to the UN appeal, and after getting totally exhausted, ended their hostilities (July, 1988). In less than two years, the Gulf region faced another conflict when Iraq’s President Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in August 1990. The Iraqi troops occupied Kuwait, and Saddam’s intention was not only to grab its oil resources, but to annex it to Iraq. The sudden invasion and occupation of Kuwait shocked

the Gulf states, and they strongly urged him to pull out his troops and settle his quarrel with that country peacefully. When President Saddam Hussein refused to budge, the UN was approached. The then US President, George Bush, and the Soviet President, Mikhail Gorbachev, condemned Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and urged Saddam Hussein to pull out his troops from that country. The UN Secretary General could not persuade the Iraqi president about the danger facing his country if he disrespected the UN Security Council Resolution. The US Congress gave George Bush the authority to militarily expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait after the deadline set by the Security Council Resolution, i.e., 15 January, 1991. In a last minute effort, Gorbachev tried to persuade his ally, the Iraqi president, by sending his personal envoy, Primakov, to comply with the UN resolution. When the deadline passed, the US and its coalition allies (thiry-four nations in all) waged a war codenamed ‘Operation Desert Storm’ (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991) against Iraq, and President Saddam Hussein urged his Iraqi forces to fight ‘the Mother of all Battles’. Saddam hoped to win the ground war, since he was unable to do anything about the allied aerial bombardment. On 24 February, 1991, the ground war began. Iraqi president hardly knew how the allies would win, but the high-tech war at its peak caused such great havoc, that thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered without fight. Although Saddam Hussein survived after surrender of his forces, the war had totally destroyed his country. The economic embargo of the UN continued even as its inspection teams searched for Iraq’s nuclear arsenal.

Non-political Achievements Although the record of the UN is not very impressive, as many problems remain unresolved, yet it is the only forum through which all disputes can be settled. Many a times, the UN could not effectively intervene because she was not consulted. Sometimes the countries tried to settle the disputes on their own. The superpower rivalries too hampered the UN from effectively functioning- the veto wielding superpowers, at times, prevented the UN Security Council from arriving at amicable solutions on crucial issues. In the non-political field, the UN has an impressive record to its credit. Many developing countries received ample measure of financial assistance from the World Bank, IDA and IMF. The other specialised agencies of the UN, such as the UNESCO and UNICEF rendered great assistance in improving the quality of life in the Third World countries. However, the population explosion seen especially in the Third World countries, has stultified the efforts of this noble

organisation. The affluent countries of the West are now afraid that the UN will be dominated by the have-nots and therefore, become wary of their commitments to this great world body. In 1966, the United Nations adopted two major covenants on human rights, the first one covering civil and political rights, and the second, economic, social and cultural rights. Complaints by individuals referring to the first one would be dealt with by the International Human Rights Committee. In 1969, the UN General Assembly enforced the convention on all forms of racial discrimination adopted by it in 1965. The Nobel Peace Prize Committee awarded the peace prize to the UNICEF for its meritorious services. The General Assembly adopted “the first internationally agreed set of principles on sea-bed and ocean floor zones beyond national jurisdiction”, in 1970. The victims of the Bangladesh war received massive aid from the UN in 1971. The UN Environment Conference met at Stockholm and introduced new principles governing human activities in order to safeguard the Natural World (1972). The UN University in Tokyo urged the global intellectual community to co-ordinate and marshal its efforts to deal effectively with global problems facing the world (1973). In 1974, the UN General Assembly called for a New International Economic Order to work for a stable economy in an interdependent world. Mexico City hosted a world conference of the International Women’s Year, where it adopted a declaration on equality of women and their contributions, and suggested a plan of action for the decade (1975). In trade matters, the UNCTAD adopted an Integrated Programme to deal with problems of world trade, and a new UN specialised agency called International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), with a billion-dollar capital, started financing food production in developing countries (1977). In 1978, the UN General Assembly adopted a convention on the elimination of discrimination against women covering all their rights. In 1980, the World Health Organisation could take the credit for having totally eliminated one of the deadliest diseases, smallpox, from the world. During the next year, the UN General Assembly adopted a Declaration on ‘Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief’. A UN convened conference also prepared an action plan on New and Renewable Sources of Energy. A conference convened by the General Assembly adopted (in 1982), a new international law of the century, i.e., the law of the sea, which took nine years to draft. The General Assembly of the UN adopted a Convention against Torture in 1984, as proposed by the Commission on Human Rights. The UN helped famine-stricken Africa in 1985 with massive relief aid. In 1986, it organised the Earth-Run in 110 countries for the sake of world peace.

The UN with meagre funds has been doing its best to help the people of the world. It has exercised its moral authority, and when it failed, used economic sanctions to punish nations violating UN resolutions. There has been a strong feeling that the strength of the Security Council should be increased so as to give representation to some more countries. India hopes to assume the big power status in the Security Council, and her aspiration is legitimate as she has rendered yeoman service for the cause of world peace since her independence.

The UN’s Failures During the past decade, there has been much debate about the UN being ineffective or redundant. Many critics point out that the UN has become a pawn in the hands of the sole superpower, the United States. It may meet the same fate as the League of Nations. Some of the major failures of the UN are as follows: (a) that it has not succeeded in bringing about disarmament and total implementation of nuclear non-proliferation. It has allowed the big powers to keep nuclear stockpiles. (b) It has failed to resolve the west Asia crisis, and the role is assumed by the US. (c) It has remained helpless when big powers were involved in wars, such as Vietnam, Afghanistan, and west Asia. (d) It has remained helpless when human rights were trampled in countries like Myanmar, Afghanistan, China and some African countries. (e) It has allowed the sole superpower, the US, to dictate terms and conditions in international organisations like the WTO, the International Criminal Court, and the Kyoto protocol. (f) Some say that the UN’s role is restricted to fire-fighting (i.e. separating the combatants) and not fire-prevention (i.e. preventing situations likely to cause wars). The future of the UN largely rests in the hands of the big powers, since small powers are largely watching the situation with crossed fingers. War against Iraq and its occupation by the US-led coalition caused serious concern to the peace-loving people of the world who had implicit faith in the UN as a peacekeeper.

The Challenges Facing The United Nations

One of the daunting tasks before the UN in recent years has been to combat the spread of global terrorism. Although the most publicly dreaded terrorist, Bin Laden, was eliminated by the US forces (May, 2011), there is still his organisation, Al Qaeda, vowing to take revenge—a Jihad against the West and India. While Taliban militants have confined their violent activities to Afghanistan and Pakistan, the active members of the Al Qaeda are believed to have been secretly organising themselves for a major strike. In fact terrorist activities are not only confined to one region or one country, but spread all over the world. The countries which were seriously affected by terrorist activities include not only the US, but also the European Union countries, Afghanistan, Indonesia, India, Pakistan and the Philippines. Many political analysts believe that Pakistan has become the ‘epicentre of terrorism’, as the most wanted terrorists are believed to be operating from its soil. Unfortunately, Pakistan has remained a close ally of the US in combating global terrorism despite its dubious credentials. It must be noted that Pakistan has given shelter to Al Qaeda terrorists even as it receives military and economic assistance from the US. The UN’s role in combating terrorism has not been clearly defined because the US has been leading the global ‘war on terror’ since 2001. The UN is aware of the danger of Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal falling into the hands of either the Pakistani Taliban militants or the Al Qaida terrorists. The UN and the US have been urging India and Pakistan to sign the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. The world knows that Pakistan got its ballistic missiles from North Korea. Pakistan also provided Iran and Libya with the known-how for making nuclear bombs. The Arab-Israeli conflict has been going on for decades, and the UN has not offered any solution to end this conflict. The United States has been taking many initiatives to bring about an end to this conflict. The UN had played an effective role in the Afghan civil war. However, the new Afghan government under Hamid Karzai is still fighting the Taliban militants in various parts of Afghanistan. The NATO troops are helping the Afghan government in suppressing the Taliban militants. The UN is also facing a dangerous situation arising out of the Kashmir issue between India and Pakistan. India does not want any interference in its internal affairs by the UN, and also by the US over the issue of Kashmir. However, Pakistan is insistent upon this issue (dispute) to be settled in its favour by the UN or by US interference. Both the countries possess nuclear weapons, and therefore any conflict between them many escalate into a nuclear war. The UN needs to help solve this problem amicably One of the great challenges facing the UN is bringing about nuclear disarmament. The main goal before the UN is to establish a nuclear-free world.

During the period of the Cold War, attempts were made to settle the issue of disarmament in a phased manner. It is shocking to note that the nuclear powers still have huge stockpiles of nuclear weapons. The US is still supporting the NATO alliance with an excuse that it is meant to be used against some roguestates. The Russian Federation is not happy about it. For example, the danger of a nuclear war suddenly breaking out still haunts the US government, and therefore it has set up a nuclear defence shield.

An Evaluation of The United Nations The United Nations with its 193 members has remained most active on the global political scene. It has remained a beacon of hope to millions of people who have suffered much due to global wars and environmental disasters. By and large, it has fulfilled its tasks by achieving its main goals— preventing wars and environmental disasters. It has also fulfilled many main goals to a large extent, i.e. maintaining peace and security, and preventing recurrence of wars. It has done extremely well in many spheres by rendering manifold assistance to underdeveloped nations through its specialised agencies. It condemned Apartheid in South Africa and applied economic sanctions when that country defied the UN resolution. It has acted as a watchdog and monitored violation of human rights. It has helped bring normalcy in strife-torn areas of the world by sending its peace-keeping forces. While the above merits deserve our notice, we should not ignore its drawbacks. Many a time, it had to depend upon the big powers for co-operation in carrying out its mandates. In recent times, the US has marginalised the UN’s role, and has taken upon itself the role of a ‘global policeman’. The vetowielding big powers have dwarfed the importance of the UN as an effective body. Therefore, if the UN has to refurbish its image as a dynamic world organisation, it has to undergo certain reforms. One of the most important reforms suggested in recent years is that it should undergo structural change so as to become truly representative in nature and character. It has to provide permanent membership to countries like India, Brazil, Japan, Germany and South Africa in the Security Council. At the same time, it should withdraw the veto-power exercised by the permanent members of the Security Council. All these reforms are badly required so that the UN can fulfil the legitimate aspirations of the people of the world.

Human Rights There are many instances in history where groups of people demanded that their rights be respected by the government. For example, a group of barons in England demanded that their charter of rights (Magna Carta) be recognised by King John in 1215 AD. Jefferson’s declaration of independence of the US on the 4th of July, 1776, makes reference to “certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”. Rousseau’s declaration of the rights of man was incorporated in the new constitution of France after the out-break of the French revolution in 1789. There is that famous quote of Voltaire’s, “I disapprove what you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” The right to freedom of speech was denied by many states in the past, and very notably in the case of the Italian scientist, Galileo. The UN Charter was path-breaking in this respect since it included “universal respect for, observance of human-rights, and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion”. This was adopted in the UN General Assembly on 10 December, 1948. The UN also held human-rights conventions in later years, but we must remember that these rights included in the charter and signed by the member nations, are not binding. The UN recommended a series of rights such as (1) International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (which came into force from 1976); (2) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (which came into force from 1976); (3) Covenant against torture—cruel punishments; (4) International Covenant on the Elimination of all forms of racial discrimination; (5) Convention on all forms of discrimination against women (1981) and finally (6) Convention on the rights of the child. There are other conventions like the Geneva Convention which laid down rules to be followed by all nations on the treatment of prisoners of war. In recent years, we see the international criminal court trying war-criminals and others accused of genocide. It must be borne in mind that one of the main causes of the civil war in the US (1861-65) was about the abolition of slavery. President Abraham Lincoln championed the cause of the freedom of the slaves. The most unfortunate part of the UN charter (declaration of human rights) is that it is not binding in nature on those countries which signed. Therefore, human rights violations continue to take place in many parts of the world today. During the period of the Cold War, the US alleged that the communist countries always violated human rights. For example, communist-China had to wait for long time to get admission to the UN on this account. Similarly, she had wait for nearly 15 years to get admission in to the WTO. The US government and Amnesty International have been watching

the human rights records of each nation. In recent decades, we have seen the suppression of Tibetans and the student activists in China. Burma’s military junta too was in the dock for not respecting the rights of its dissident, the prodemocracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Saddam Hussain, the Iraqi leader, did not tolerate the Kurds in his country. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) was created by a UN General Assembly Resolution in 1993, for ensuring respect for human rights all over the world. Human Rights, in all its aspects, constitute the very essence of democracy, and therefore people of more than 40 countries have chosen democracy as their political system.

Gender Issues Many countries in the world, both rich and the poor, are being confronted with the issue of gender discrimination. Since times immemorial, women were considered good only for domestic work. They were considered unfit to carry out intellectual work, and therefore not equal to men in many respects. Men have not allowed women to gain equal status or position in a society, and in addition denied rights to occupy their legitimate role in political and social activities. However, after World War II, the view that women should confine themselves to only domestic chores has changed slowly. During the war, women proved equal to the tasks as carried out by men. The earlier bias, that women are the weaker sex, is slowly being given up in advanced countries. Now a UN agency on gender equality submitted its reports titled “Progress of the World’s Women: in Pursuit of Justice”. It contains some statistics indicating women’s status in many countries. It says that nearly 140 countries have guaranteed gender equality in their national constitutions. But, simply incorporating it in their constitution may not be enough. It has to be implemented so as to do justice for women at large. Many countries have failed to do this. These countries have largely ignored “women strength, industry and wisdom”, considered to be humanity’s greatest untapped resource. To ensure that women (from girlhood to adult stage) receive their due, a few agencies on women are constituted by the UN Women. This organ of UN wants to remove “the barriers to equality, for women so as to tap their potentials for the advance of civilization”. Although, bringing about gender equality may take a long time, it is necessary that we should identify the pitiable situation women face in the maledominated world. In developing countries (including India) women face many difficulties or problems as mentioned below:

1. “Early pregnancy and child birth remain leading causes of death among girls aged 15 to 19 ….” 2. “In over 40 economies, women remain barred from certain jobs and industries”. 3. “That women are three times less likely to report a sexual attack than a robbery”. 4. Despite 117 countries having equal pay loss, women in every sector and region continue to be paid between ten to thirty per cent less than men. 5. Thirty per cent women suffer physical violence from their spouses. 6. Sixty-three per cent of women (aged fifteen to forty-nine) are not allowed to take decisions on domestic matters. 7. There are new women judges (three per cent) in India, while taking into account the large number of cases pertaining to women. 8. Seventy per cent of women in our country are not aware of legal rights. 9. Women police and police stations are rarely found all over India except in big cities. 10. Age-old bias continues against women in a country like ours. For example, infanticide, dowry-deaths, foeticide, women trafficking are all some of problems that are regularly reported in the press. However, in the midst of these dark clouds, there are some silver linings. Women empowerment is being seen as a panacea to many gender issues. In India, there is already a bill before the Parliament giving 33% representation to women. It has been passed in the Rajya Sabha, and is awaiting approval from the Lok Sabha. Women are overwhelmingly represented at the Gram Panchayat level by a law passed earlier. A National Commission for women is set up to look into the gender issues, and redress the grievances of women. Similarly state governments have also set up organisations to protect destitute women. Labour Laws were introduced to protect women from gender bias, and laws are passed to protect women from sexual harassment in places of work. Laws have been passed to abolish many age old customs which denied women their legitimate rights. Existing laws have already given equal rights to women in property matters. Indian courts have become sensitive to cases pertaining to the enforcing of women’s rights in recent years. It is needless to mention that Indian constitution gives guarantees to women regarding their rights, and the courts make no distinction between men and women.

PART IX

Liberation From Colonial Rule Chapter 30 Latin America-Bolivar Chapter 31 Arab World-Egypt Chapter 32 Africa-Apartheid to Democracy Chapter 33 Southeast Asia-Vietnam

30 Latin America-Bolivar

B

y ‘America,’ we not only mean the United States of America but also many other countries situated in the continents of North and South America. It includes Canada, and many other countries which are referred to as ‘Latin America’. Latin American countries are those which are situated to the south of the United States. There are about twenty Latin American countries whose cultures were mainly influenced by either Spain or Portugal. Except Brazil, all the others have Spanish speaking populations. Almost all the people of these countries are Roman Catholic by religion. Situated to the south of the USA is a large Latin American country by the name Mexico. Long ago, two great civilizations, the Maya and the Aztec, flourished here. Mexico is rich in soil and mineral resources. The Spanish conquistador, Hernando Cortes, with his followers landed on the Mexican coast and swiftly conquered the empire (1519) built by the Aztecs. The Spaniards ruled this country for about three centuries. Soon after the conquest of Mexico, another Spanish adventurer, Francisco Pizarro, invaded Peru. He killed the Inca ruler and established the tyranny of Spain. The natives were heavily taxed and forced to work on the farms of the rich Spanish settlers. In the course of a few centuries, the Spanish colonies spread across Central and South America. Portugal became a serious rival to Spain in due course of time. A Portuguese ship sailing under its skipper, Cabral, was blown off its course from the African coast and reached the coast of Brazil. In the course of time, Brazil became the only Portuguese colony in Latin America. A few colonies were also set up by the British, French and the Dutch. A few islands in the Caribbean also were occupied by the European imperialists.

Causes of Revolts in Latin America

The Spanish and the Portuguese brought their armies to Latin America to quell the revolts of natives. The greed of the Spanish and the Portuguese knew no bounds. The natives were forced to sell all their goods to their conquerors at cheap price and buy goods brought to them by their masters at high cost. The mineral resources of their country like gold, silver, tin, copper and oil were exported to enable their masters to become rich. Moreover, the Spanish and Portuguese treated their subjects with unmitigated harshness. Finally, the American War of Independence, the French Revolution of 1789, and the Napoleonic wars inspired the natives of these Spanish and Portuguese colonies to raise the banner of their independence. When Napoleon appointed his brother, Joseph, the king of Spain, the Spanish colonies in America refused to recognise him as such. Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina and Chile declared their independence one after the other. Fortunately, they enjoyed a profitable trade with Britain and the latter offered them her naval protection. However, with the restoration of King Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne by the Treaty of Valençay (1813), the independence of the Spanish colonies was in danger. King Ferdinand VII could be described as one of the most reactionary rulers of Europe at that time. The return to harsh Spanish rule was galling to the subjects of the colonies in South America.

Course of Revolutions A series of rebellions broke out from Mexico to Argentina in the early part of the nineteenth century, and the Spanish King sent his troops to quell these revolts. The liberation movements were strong and so the Spanish troops failed in their mission. The native revolutionaries drove them out of their colonies. Despite his initial setback, the Spanish king continued to send his troops to the colonies year after year with the hope of eventually recovering them. Francisco De Miranda, a Venezuelan patriot, played a most prominent role in the liberation movement of his country. In the end, he was caught by the Spaniards who made him to suffer by imprisoning him in a dark cell. Miranda died a martyr to the cause of independence of his country in 1816. His unfinished task was carried out by another great patriot, Simon Bolivar (17831830). Bolivar fought the Spanish forces for nearly 15 years and finally achieved the independence of Venezuela. Along with Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador and Panama also became free.

Jose de San Martin In the meanwhile, another patriot of Argentina, Jose de San Martin, led a revolutionary movement against the Spanish government and he was joined by Simon Bolivar. Martin was successful in liberating Chile. Subsequently, he gained another victory over the Spanish which resulted in the liberation of his motherland, Argentina. In a short time, the other Spanish colonies, Peru and Bolivia, were set free by Martin and Bolivar. Father Hidalgo, a priest, led a national movement for the independence of Mexico. Most of his followers were simple peasants. Although his struggle failed and he was executed by Spanish authorities, his inspiring leadership was unforgettable. A couple of years later, the national movement gained momentum and the Spanish governor was expelled. The Mexicans declared their state as a republic. With the exception of a few islands in the Caribbean sea, Spain lost all her colonies in South America. With the extension of Napoleonic control over Portugal, the royal family fled the country and settled in Brazil. So Brazil became the headquarters of the Portuguese authority, and for quite sometime, the Brazilians enjoyed many privileges. However, after the Napoleonic defeat, the royal family left for Portugal and Brazil came to be treated as a colony. It was this reversion to the old status that the Brazilians disliked because they lost all the privileges. Therefore they rebelled. The eldest son of the Portuguese king, Dom Pedro, became the leader of the revolutionary struggle. The Brazilians declared their independence and chose Dom Pedro as their emperor in 1822. This empire continued till 1889, and in that year, the Brazilians established a Republic.

The Monroe Doctrine The Monroe doctrine of 1823, discouraged the European powers from political interference in the affairs of the independent countries of South America. So, Spain and Portugal practically lost all hopes of recovering their colonies. Many of the newly independent countries in South America were unfortunate in losing their democratic set up and frequently came under the spell of ruthless dictators. Changes in government became the normal feature in their political system. A typical example was Mexico, where within fifty years time “there were fifty seven changes of government…”.

Simon Bolivar (1783-1830)

Popularly known as the ‘Liberator’, Simon Bolivar, who belonged to an aristocratic family, was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on 24 July, 1783. As a young man, he received western education from well known teachers. He joined a military school and got trained in the art of warfare. In the later years of his life, he decided to liberate his country from the tyrannical rule of the Spanish. He joined the revolutionary movement in 1810, and helped to liberate Venezuela in 1811. Eventually, he became the second president of Venezuelan republic in 1813. After a few years, the Spanish armed forces invaded Venezuela which compelled Bolivar to go into exile. He returned to Venezuela with 2500 soldiers in 1819. He took the Spanish by surprise and defeated them. He became president of Gran Colombia (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) from 1819 to 1830. With the help of his friend, Antonio Sucre, he liberated Ecuador in 1822. Subsequently, he liberated Peru in 1824, thereby completing the mission of his illustrious contemporary, San Martin. In 1825, the so called Upper Peru (now known as Bolivia) was liberated from Spanish rule with help of Antonio Sucre. The people of Upper Peru renamed their country as Bolivia in the honour of Simon Bolivar. Bolivar worked hard for bringing about the union of all the liberated states from the Spanish rule in 1826. But this task remained incomplete due to the constant quarrels and rivalries among the leaders of these. He left the country disappointed, and on his way to Europe, died on 17 December, 1830.

31 Arab World-Egypt

T

he Arab world had no identity as such till the birth of Islam (622 AD). At the time of the death of Prophet Muhammad (632 AD), Islam had spread all over Arabia. Within the next three-quarters of the century, the Islamic Empire led by the Arabs spread all over the Middle East, north Africa and southern part of Spain. The Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and entered France, but they were defeated by Charles Martel in the bloody battle at Tours in 732 AD. They occupied the southern part of Spain for the next seven centuries. The people coming under Arab rule were given the choice of either embracing Islam or pay a tax (or face death). In the course of time, the Arab Empire split into three Caliphates: the Abbasid of Baghdad, the Fatimid of Cairo and the Umayyad of Damascus (later Cordoba). The Caliphs of the time, who were considered as the true representatives of Prophet Muhammad, exercised spiritual and temporal powers. They tried to establish equality and universal brotherhood among all Muslims. They encouraged learning, art, literature, science, trade and commerce. The Islamic Empire built by the Arabs could boast of great centres of learning like Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, Cordoba, Seville and Barcelona. Islam was split into two sects, namely, the Sunnis and the Shias in the second half of the seventh century AD. The Sunnis strictly confirm to the Sunna (custom, usage and form) regarding all the matters and look to the Koran for direction. The Shias hold the opinion that Abu Bakr and his two successors were usurpers, and maintain that Ali was the legitimate successor to the Islamic Caliphate. The Arabs in majority belong to the Sunni sect, and a majority of Iranians belong to the Shia sect. The Ottoman Empire took birth after replacing the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople in 1453. It gave rise to what is known as pan-Islamism. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, panIslamism became extinct following the abolition of the Caliphate. However, panIslamism was replaced by pan-Arabism with General Nasser coming to power in

Egypt. Pan-Arabism and pan-Islamism are the creations of Muslims to bring about the birth of a universal Islamic state. It should be noted that the Arabic language and Islam were the two elements that forged unity among all the Arabs. The concept of Ummah Muhammadiya (community of Muhammadans) envisages the birth of a universal state, and is recognised by the canon law (the Koran and the Hadith). The Islamic world witnessed the rise of small sects such as the Ismailis, the Wahabis, the Ibahdis, the Druzes, the Bahais, the Senussis, the Ahmaddiyas, and the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt and so on.

Arab Nationalism While President Nasser gave a fillip to Arab nationalism at the height of western imperialism, there was another development in the Arab heartland. The movement was associated with the promotion of Arab nationalism, i.e. the establishment of the Arab League. Seven Arab nations, namely, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia and Yemen signed an agreement in the Egyptian capital of Cairo on 22 March, 1945, relating to Arab unity and nationalism. The main purpose of this league was to promote Arab unity, peaceful settlement of disputes if any, among themselves, and forge a united front during the time of war. However, the immediate purpose was to co-ordinate their activities for launching “military, economic and diplomatic offensives against Israel”. Subsequently, fifteen other Arab nations joined the Arab League to convert it into an association of Arab states, and to work within the framework of the United Nations Charter. The headquarters of the expanded Arab League was located at Tahrir Square in Cairo. The main organ of the Arab League was the Majlis or a council having representatives from all the membernations. The Majlis used to meet twice a year in Cairo during the formative years, and subsequently in Tunis. In the course of time, the Arab nation states agreed to work along the following principles: 1. Each Arab state should respect the sovereignty of the other member states. 2. All member states should work in unison for strengthening their relations. 3. Each member state shall co-operate with other member states in matter likes trade and commerce, cultural promotion and bring about

emotional integration. When the western powers were found guilty of siding with Israel in the Arab-Israeli war (Yom Kippur War, 1973), the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), except for Libya, decided to use oil as an economic weapon to punish them. They imposed an oil embargo (October, 1973 to March, 1974) on the west which caused oil prices to shoot up, thereby causing economic depression. However, the western powers tried to overcome this obstacle by bringing the two belligerent sides to the negotiating table for peace talks. The United States administration compelled Israel to pull back its troops from parts of the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. This arrangement of temporary truce enabled the west to forge good relations with the members of the Arab League. Cracks began to appear in the unity of the Arab League when Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel (March, 1979) without consulting the other members of the Arab League. The Arab League took the painful decision of suspending Egypt from the league in 1979. Egypt was re-inducted into the league after a gap of ten years. The unity of the Arab League was again tested at the time of the Gulf War (1990-91), with a few Gulf States opposing western military intervention in the region. The failure of the Arab League to achieve its objectives may be traced to a few reasons: 1. There were traditional rivalries among the members which could not be overcome due to obstinacy. For instance, Egypt and Saudi Arabia remained at loggerheads, Iran and Iraq continued their war from 1980 to 1988 and so on. 2. A few Arab states remained headstrong. For example, Iraq attacked and occupied Kuwait. Despite appeals from the United Nations and the Arab League to withdraw its troops, it continued its occupation of Kuwait. 3. The Arab League was faction-ridden and therefore could not take the right decisions. There was no unanimity on many issues, and the western powers took advantage of this situation. 4. There was an unhealthy contest for the leadership of the Arab league. Despite all these failures, the Arab League continued to forge ahead by concluding several agreements with agencies of the UN and the Afro-Asian communities. In its formative years, it functioned effectively and brought about the independence of a few Arab countries from their colonial rulers. At the time of writing this (2012), the Arab League is closely working with Kofi Annan’s committee in bringing about a ceasefire between President Bashar Al Assad’s

armed forces and the rebels in Syria.

Egypt In the Arab world, Egypt played an important role in the evolution of PanArabism. Going back to its early history, Egypt produced a great civilization in the Nile Valley which prospered for nearly 3000 years. Situated in north Africa, it was subjected to a series of invasions. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, and founded the port city of Alexandria (331 BC). In due course of time, it became a great centre of learning, and was home to the Royal Library of Alexandria. The Roman emperors also conquered Egypt, and it became a Roman colony until 395 AD. Christianity flourished in some parts of Egypt before the advent of Islam. It was around 642 AD, that Islam spread rapidly in Egypt which became an Arab state. Thereafter, the Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties successively ruled Egypt. In 1250, the Mamluk dynasty conquered Egypt, and their rule lasted till 1517. Subsequently, Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire till 1914, when the British Government established a protectorate. In the nineteenth century, Egypt under Ottoman rule produced a great ruler named Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805-48). Albanian by birth, he rendered great services to his Turkish master especially, at the time of the Greek War of Independence (1821). He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt for having introduced several reforms. These reforms, when completed, made Egypt a modern country. Among his noteworthy reforms was the nationalisation of land for the purpose of increasing the state’s revenue. He got all the lands in the country surveyed, and those who held lands illegally were punished. The old revenue system was abolished and replaced by a new system. Religious endowments were abolished. His military reforms modernised Egypt’s army and navy. He established a strong industrial base. He created a professional bureaucracy for improving the efficiency of administration. His kingdom was divided into seven provinces with the village as the lowest unit of administration. He took the advice of the council of ministers, each holding a department under his control. The educational system in Egypt was revamped. It was based on the western model, with elementary, middle and high schools. Teachers fluent in english were employed. Medical and Engineering colleges were set up. Students were sent to Europe for higher education. The educational system in the country went a long way in removing the religious orthodoxy. The Egyptian government launched this drive for the industrialisation of the

country. It imported textile machinery from Europe to improve its nascent textile industry. A sugar mill was started to encourage sugar production in the country. Egypt started export of food grains, sugar and indigo which were all under government control. A special mention should be made regarding the export of garments, made using the long stapled cotton, for which Egypt had become famous. It was during the reign of Muhammad Ali that a printing press named Bulak Printing Press was established, which mostly published school text books. A daily newspaper titled Al Bakai Alamkya made its debut in 1828. Muhammad Ali took advantage of the weakness of the Ottoman Emperor, and demanded that he be conferred the title of Khedive (viceroy), and the province of Syria be ceded to him. When the Ottoman Emperor refused to oblige him, Muhammad Ali declared himself Khedive, and sent his army under the command of his son to conquer Syria. After the occupation of Syria, Egyptian forces threatened the capital of the Ottoman Empire (Constantinople) which forced the Emperor to seek the help of the European powers. The latter compelled Muhammad Ali to agree to a compromise which included his retaining of the title Khedive (to become hereditary). He was offered the island of Crete, instead of Syria. Since then, Muhammad Ali became the de facto ruler of Egypt. In the meanwhile, his forces conquered a part of Sudan. The fourth ruler of Egypt was Sa’id Pasha (1854-63) in whose time the construction of the Suez Canal was taken up (1859). The Suez Canal Company was floated by the ruler with the support of the French Government. However, the funds were not sufficient and therefore, the ruler decided to sell the shares of the company to the European countries. France purchased 207,111 shares, while Egypt held 96,517 shares. The Egyptian Government offered another 850,000 shares to Britain, United States and a few other European countries. This offer did not evoke satisfactory response since many considered this project as not viable. There was much opposition coming from Britain mainly because it was going to be a French project under Ferdinand de Lesseps. Britain objected to the employment of forced labour at the project site. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened to shipping. It reduced the distance and time taken by ships to travel from Europe to Asia considerably (earlier ships from Europe had to navigate around Africa to reach Asia). In the course of time, nearly seventy-five per cent of the goods passing through the canal were carried by the British ships. Sa’id Pasha’s other achievements included construction of the railway line between Alexandria and Cairo in 1855, and the opening of the archaeological department for preservation and protection of Egypt’s ancient monuments. At the time of his death, he left an empty treasury and also huge loans to repay.

Sa’id Pasha was succeeded by his son, Ismail Pasha (1863-97). He continued his father’s policy of modernising Egypt through extension of the railway network, and the introduction of post and telegraphs. He spent huge sums of money for the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1869 by inviting a large number of dignitaries from Europe. Egypt was deep in debt by 1875, amounting to nearly £89 million. Fortunately, the Khedive owned a major part of the 400,000 shares, and he offered this to the British Government. Britain under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli purchased 177,000 shares for £4 million. This act of Disraeli was regarded as a brilliant diplomatic stroke, nullifying the French domination over the Suez Canal Company. In the course of time, Egyptian debt rose to an alarming proportion and compelled both England and France to take control of the financial administration of Egypt in the interests of their investors. The Khedive was helpless when the both the governments put pressure on him. A dual control was set up in 1879, over a part of the Egyptian administration which was deeply resented by both the Khedive and his subjects. Britain and France asked the Khedive to abdicate power in favour of his son, Taufik Pasha. Taufik Pasha was also unable to resist the dual control at a time when the Egyptian army had become demoralised due to foreign interference. This situation became serious when the people of Egypt, led by Colonel Ahmed Orabi, revolted. Ahmed Orabi started a movement called ‘Egypt for Egyptians’ which demanded the hapless ruler to raise the strength of the Egyptian army, dismiss the foreign secretary, and establish a national assembly. These demands were not met with and revolts broke out. The situation got out of control, and the ruler was unable to ensure the security of foreign officials. It was in these circumstances that Britain proposed to France to send a joint military expedition, for quelling the popular revolt in Egypt. When France declined, Ahmed Orabi was crushed by Britain, following the battle of Tel elKebir in September, 1882. Ahmed Orabi and his followers were taken captives, and sent to Ceylon as prisoners. Britain took pride in showing the world that it restored the authority of the Khedive. Egypt was under British occupation from 1883 to 1914. To avoid political discomfiture, Britain pretended as though it was helping the Sultan of Turkey as well as the Khedive of Egypt to bring about political stability. However, Britain continued to be a de facto ruler of Egypt in its capacity as an ‘advisor’. France remained aloof during this situation, and permitted Britain to do the needful. Thus the dual control of Egypt ended in 1883. The British Government appointed Lord Cromer as Consul-General to Egypt (1883-1907) for the purpose of establishing political and economic

stability. The Khedive was compelled to abide by the advice of the British Government which exercised its power through its resident. By 1904, France allowed Britain to rule over Egypt after signing an agreement. When the First World War broke out in 1914, the Turkish Sultan joined the side of Germany and so, Britain severed its diplomatic relations with Turkey. Britain deposed the Khedive of Egypt for lending his support to his overlord. As a temporary measure, it appointed the Khedive’s uncle as titular ruler, and forced him to support the cause of the allies. It was this situation that caused the greatest resentment among Egyptians against foreign rule. Furthermore, Britain was using the resources of the country for the purpose of war. Britain declared the annexation of Egypt to its empire, and established its protectorate. When First World War ended in 1918, the old nationalist movement led by Ahmed Orabi, was revived in the form of the Wafd Party. It was a political party led by Saad Zaghlul Pasha, a great revolutionary. He demanded the British to leave the country, but they had no inclination to oblige him. Then he demanded that the representatives of his political party be permitted to attend the Paris Peace Conference (1919). The Egyptian Government reluctantly agreed, and Zaghlul Pasha led a delegation of a few patriotic Egyptians to meet the peacemakers at the conference. The imperialists in Paris were in no mood to urge the British Government to grant independence to Egypt. However, due to international pressure, the British Government sent Lord Milner to Cairo to study the political situation, and submit his report. The Wafd Party boycotted Milner’s mission, and subsequently Milner submitted his report to the British Government on the status of Egyptian demand for independence. He suggested the termination of British protectorate over Egypt and a grant of limited independence (diarchy). In other words, Britain would manage departments like Defence, Canal Administration, Minority Affairs and Sudanese Protectorate, and leave the rest to the elected Egyptian Government. Accordingly, Britain declared the independence of Egypt in February, 1922, on the fulfilment of certain conditions. Although the Wafd Party led by Zaghlul Pasha rejected it, Britain went ahead and introduced a new constitution in 1923 which permitted a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature. The Egyptian Khedive became a King in April, 1923. Lord Allenby was to guide the king on the matters concerning the reserved subjects. In 1924, general elections were held, and the Wafd Party got a majority under the leadership of Zaghlul Pasha. Although the king and Britain did not like him, they had to accept him as the prime minister of the country. Both tried to suppress his urge for full independence, including the British evacuation of the Suez Canal zone. The Commander-in-chief of Egypt known as ‘Sirdar’ (who

was also in charge of Egyptian forces in Sudan) was assassinated and the British Government immediately demanded that the culprits be punished. It further demanded that the Egyptian civil servants and army units in Sudan should be withdrawn, and the joint rule should cease. Zaghlul Pasha agreed to the specified terms, but not those concerning Sudan. The British government advised the King to dismiss the Wafd ministry. The Wafd ministry was dismissed which resulted in popular protests against the king, and also against the British. In the meantime, Egypt witnessed the birth of a few small political parties sponsored by the king and the British. Zaghlul Pasha died in 1927, and the popularity of the Wafd Party declined. The king tried to form non-Wafd parties to take charge of the government. In the 1930 general elections, the Wafd Party gained the majority, but the king was not prepared to hand over power to them. A minority party, the Sha’ab (The People’s Party) led by Sidki Pasha was invited to form the government. However, not happy with the squabbles going on in the chamber of deputies, the king dissolved the government, and subsequently revoked the constitution unilaterally. Britain remained neutral during this time. The king introduced a new constitution in October, 1930, and general elections were held in 1931. The Wafd Party boycotted the election. The king appointed Sidki Pasha as the prime minister. The new prime minister tried his best to suppress his opponents, but his efforts failed. The next prime minister was Nasim Pasha. He urged the king to scrap the constitution of 1930 and give a new thrust to democracy in Egypt. Accordingly, the king revoked the constitution and began to rule Egypt by decrees. Mussolini, the Fascist dictator, invaded Ethiopia in 1935. Britain naturally felt anxious about the security of Egypt and started taking necessary military and naval measures to protect the country and the Canal Zone. The people of Egypt protested against the high-handed defensive measures taken by the British Government, without consulting the Egyptian Government. The latter remained indifferent resulting in violent disturbances in many Egyptian cities. The antiBritish feelings ran high among the people, which compelled all political parties to forge a united front. All this led to the revival of the old constitution of 1923. General Elections were held in 1936, and the Wafdists won a thumping majority in the chamber. Its leader Mustapha Nahas Pasha became the prime minister. King Fahd died and was succeeded by his 16 year old son, Farouk. The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of August, 1936 contained the following terms: (1) sovereign status to Egypt, (2) replacement of the British High Commissioner by an Ambassador, (3) the giving up of extra-territorial rights in Egypt, (4) setting up of joint control over Sudan, (5) the Egyptian Governemnt to assist Britain in case of war and (6) Britain to retain control over the Suez Canal Zone

after arriving at an understanding with the Egyptian Government. With the sponsorship of the British Government, Egypt was admitted into the League of Nations as a sovereign state in 1937. The Montreux Convention was held in 1937, where Britain asked the concerned European powers to sign an agreement, and give up their extra-territorial rights in Egypt by 1949. In the mean time, King Farouk and the prime minister quarrelled, which led to the dismissal of the government. The Wafd Party split in 1938, and Egypt had a coalition government under Prime Minister Muhammad. In September 1939, the Second World War broke out, and Egypt joined the side of the allies. It was in 1942, the allied powers thought of taking the support of all the Arab countries in their war against Nazi Germany. Their idea to float an Arab League did not take off until 1945. Britain used Egypt’s resources, and its army fought the enemies in the Second World War. After the conclusion of the war, the Egyptians demanded total withdrawal of British troops from its soil and also the Suez Canal Zone, and recognise Egypt’s sovereignty over Sudan. The British Government remained adamant. King Farouk’s luxurious lifestyle, coupled with widespread corruption in the administration, provoked people to revolt in 1951. In January, 1952, riots broke out all over Egypt, and the rioters started destroying foreign property. King Farouk tried to pacify his subjects by blaming everything on the so called Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936, but to no avail. A group of army officers led by General Muhammad Naguib staged a coup and exiled King Farouk. Egypt turned into a republic and was administered by a military junta in 1953. In 1954, General Gamal Abdel Nasser replaced Naguib as the Premier, and following an agreement, Britain withdrew its troops from the Suez Canal Zone. The rise of Nasser heralded the revival of Arab Nationalism. Britain, France and the US were found supporting Israeli aggression against its Arab neighbours. Therefore, the Arab countries looked up to Nasser as a leader who could withstand the pressure exerted by western countries on Egypt to make peace with Israel. Nasser became president of Egypt in 1956, and increasingly adopted an anti-Western and pro-Soviet policies. He launched agricultural reforms after assuming office. A German company prepared a blueprint for the construction of a dam across the river Nile which would help the farmers. This project was approved by the World Bank, but it required necessary funds. Naturally, Egypt appealed to the US and UK for funds to carry out the project. The UK and France considered Nasser as an adversary because he recognised the communist Republic of China in 1956. Egypt imported arms from a communist country and forced the UK to quit the Suez Canal Zone. He joined the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and welcomed the Soviet foreign minister with great warmth. While the US had no objection to offering assistance for the

construction of the Aswan Dam, the UK denied the same. It must be noted that Nasser’s policy in the Middle East was in direct conflict with the interests of Britain, France and Israel. He became very impatient and approached the Soviet Union for the necessary funds. The latter readily agreed to finance the project. Then Nasser hit upon the idea of nationalising the Suez Canal Company in which Britain and France held majority of the shares. The nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company in July, 1956, was considered as a hostile act by Britain, France and Israel. They mobilised their troops and launched attack on Egypt. They launched airstrikes on Egyptian cities, and anticipated backing from the US Government. Nasser appealed to the Soviets for help in defending his country. Soviet Union threatened Britain, France and Israel by issuing a warning. It said that it would support Egypt in this hour of crisis. The US Government was not happy with its allies (Britain, France and Israel) because they were trying to internationalise a local issue. In the meanwhile the NAM supported Egypt’s right to nationalise the Suez Canal Company. The war ended prematurely due to lack of support from the US to its allies, followed by a Soviet threat and an international censure. Anthony Eden’s government in the UK fell. The Suez war and its aftermath made Nasser a hero in the Arab world. He remained at the forefront of the anti-imperial struggle by championing the cause of the independence of the Afro-Asian colonies. The Arab states supported him in his efforts to chastise Israel. Due to the bombardment of the Suez Canal Zone, it was closed for international shipping. What the war proved was: (1) failure of the allies to internationalise the canal dispute, (2) Egypt’s total lack of military preparedness, (3) Lack of Arab unity during the war, (4) Israel’s military prowess and (5) non-co-operation between the super powers (US and Soviet Union) for the peaceful settlement of the dispute. The Suez crisis was discussed in the United Nations (UN) and it passed two resolutions: (1) asked Britain, France and Israel to evacuate the Suez Canal Zone and (2) formed a committee to settle the dispute amicably between the warring parties. The UN stationed a peace keeping force in the Suez area, anticipating flare-up of another conflict. No less important is the fact that the Suez Canal was recognised as an important and strategic International Waterway. It is often believed that it was the threat of the Soviet Union that saved Egypt from imminent destruction. In fact, we should look to the other side as well. The US Government’s disapproval of the allied invasion also rescued Egypt. Egypt built the Aswan dam with financial assistance from the Soviet Union. The water from the dam area helped to irrigate the land lying between Cairo and Alexandria. In the euphoria of success achieved by Nasser, Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic (UAR) in 1958.

The UAR was short lived, and the countries got separated in 1961. In July. 1967, the Six Ways War was fought between Israel on the one side and Egypt, Jordan and Syria on the other. The war ended in the victory of Israel for it annexed large tracts of territories (Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt and Golan Heights from Syria). The defeat of Egypt was a great blow to Nasser’s prestige. Egypt was on the verge of bankruptcy due to the cost of the war and loss of income from the closure of the Suez Canal. Its army was totally demoralised. At the end of the war, Egypt had to seek financial assistance from a few Arab countries. The Soviet Union stopped supplying arms to Egypt. Egypt’s dream of destroying Israel remained unfulfilled. Nasser died in 1970 and was succeeded by his deputy Anwar Sadat.

32 Africa - Apartheid to Democracy Decolonisation of Africa

B

y decolonisation of Africa, we mean the abandonment of their former colonies in Africa by the Western powers—a long process preceded by the nationalist struggles during the recent decades. The decolonisation of Africa may be said to be one of the most important post-war changes the world has witnessed. Colony after colony gained self-government as a first step from its respective masters, followed by complete independence. It may be remembered that each colony received complete independence only after a protracted struggle for freedom.

North Africa: Independence of Tunisia It may be noted that France had established her protectorate over Tunisia in 1881, after defeating its Sultan. In 1922, the people of Tunisia gained a political concession in the form of a Consultative Assembly. However, this assembly had been constituted in such a way that fifty per cent of the seats were occupied by the French nationals. When the French members dominated the assembly, the Nationalists protested and carried on their agitation under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba. As the nationalists became impatient and violent, the French government forced the Sultan and Habib Bourguiba into exile. The Neo-Destour party led by Bourguiba was proscribed. The struggle for freedom continued after World War II and it would have succeeded but for the opposition to it by the French colonists. In December 1952, the issue came up before the United Nations and it recommended bilateral negotiations between the disputed parties. In 1954, negotiations were started between the nationalists and the French Premier, Pierre Mendes France, which ended in the granting of self-government

to this colony (1955). France granted independence to Tunisia in 1956, but retained the naval base of Bizerte. Habib Bourguiba became the president, and he negotiated for the acquisition of Bizerte without any success. Angered by the French attitude, he forced the issue by recourse to armed action. In the end (1963), the French agreed to withdraw their forces from there if compensation was given. Accordingly, this territory was liberated in 1963.

Morocco France had established a protectorate over Morocco in 1912, after a bitter rivalry with Germany and Britain. Spain had also established its control over the northern tip of Morocco. After the World War II, the tide of nationalism had swept through the whole of northern Africa. The Sultan gave his unstinted support to the nationalist Istiqlal party. The French authorities let loose their engine of oppression following a political strike in 1952, which resulted in the killing of hundreds of persons. The Sultan who had given his support to the nationalists was forced to go into exile. The French appointed his meek uncle as the new ruler. But the nationalists made it almost impossible for the French to govern their country effectively. Therefore, the French government was forced to invite the exiled Sultan, Mohammed Ben Youssef, in 1955, on account of the international pressure brought through the UN. In 1956, the French granted independence to Morocco. After an agreement with the Spanish Dictator, Gen. Franco, the Spanish-held Morocco also became a part of the Independent State of Morocco.

Algeria Between 1870 and 1914, thousands of French citizens came to Algeria and settled there. Northern Algeria developed very rapidly and the French citizens sent their representatives to the French Parliament. The native Muslims were given a measure of self-government. But they were not happy and so they rose in rebellion against the French in 1954. Their frequent rebellions made it impossible for the French to rule that colony effectively. Many of the French settlers were opposed to the idea of giving freedom to the natives. At one time (1956), France maintained four hundred thousand troops to suppress the frequent rebellions of the natives. The nationalists demanded total independence. A section of the French army and the French settlers also rose in rebellion against the French government fearing that it would grant independence to the colony. It

was for these reasons that Algeria’s independence could not be achieved early. The result was chaos. The Fourth French Republic fell in 1958. The French president appointed Charles de Gaulle as the premier, and the latter promised the Algerians a status of equality with the French settlers and also self-rule. He tactfully dealt with the mutineers in the French Army. The Algerian independence issue was brought before the UN in 1957. An armed rebellion of the Algerians also failed to achieve its objectives. However, the French premier granted independence to Algeria in July, 1962. The Algerians decided to form a Republic. After the establishment of the republic, they chose Ben Bella as their first president.

West Africa During the nineteenth century, West Africa was partitioned by the British French, and Germans. After the World War I, the Germans lost two of their west African colonies—Togo and Cameroon. The British and the French ruled over them as mandates and they became independent during the 1960s.

Ghana The Gold Coast (now known as Ghana) received her independence from Britain in March, 1957. It was all due to the efforts of a great leader, Kwame Nkrumah. It may be remembered that this British colony received a measure of selfgovernment in 1951. However, the nationalists led by Kwame Nkrumah were not happy. So Britain had to yield to pressure in 1957. Ghana became a member of the UN in 1975, and also joined the Commonwealth of Nations.

Nigeria and Other Colonies Nigeria received her independence in October 1960. She could have achieved her independence even before this date but for the prevailing internal feuds. A number of smaller British colonies also received their independence during the 1960s. They were Sierra-Leone and Gambia. They became independent in 1961 and 1975 respectively.

French West Africa

France established a federation for her colonies in West Africa. These colonies included Senegal, French Sudan, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey, Niger with Mauritania. This federation continued even after World War II. Thereafter, each one of them gained its independence. Before that, each colony had sent its representatives to sit in the French Parliament. After De Gaulle came to power, the French president who governed over each colony, was replaced by a local leader (1958). Each colony was given a choice, either to become independent or become a part of France. All, except Guinea, voted to become a part of the French community. Gradually, each colony began to have second thoughts. Subsequently, they demanded full independence. So all these colonies were granted independence by about 1960.

French (Central) Equatorial Africa During the 1960s, the four French colonies of equatorial Africa, namely, Chad, Gabon, Ubhangi Shari and the middle Congo, attained their independence. Ubhangi Shari became the Central African Republic and the middle Congo, the Republic of Congo (Congo-Brazzaville). Central Africa The British formed a federation comprising the three territories in Central Africa, namely, southern Rhodesia (a self-governing colony), and the protectorates of north Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953. But the African natives, who did not get their share in the political life of their country, raised objections. They did not want to be ruled by the whites. In 1959, they rose in revolt against the British under the leadership of Dr. Hastings Banda. Subsequently the British were forced to grant self-government. In 1964, Nyasaland gained its independence and took the name of Malawi. Regarding northern Rhodesia, the white settlers in that mineral-rich colony came in the way of her attaining independence. However, the nationalists led by Kenneth Kaunda, carried on their agitation vigorously. In the end, northern Rhodesia attained her independence in October, 1964. She was renamed as Zambia. Thus, the federation was broken up leaving southern Rhodesia in isolation. The British gave a measure of selfgovernment to this colony. But the natives could not gain control over the government. The British government was ready to grant independence, but the white minority there led by Prime Minister Ian Smith opposed this move. He unilaterally declared the independence of southern Rhodesia with the white minority government in power in November, 1965. Britain and other members of the UN protested, and later on, applied economic sanctions against this country.

Belgian Congo In 1908, King Leopold of Belgium transferred his control over Congo to the Belgian Parliament. The Belgian Parliament introduced reforms in her colony. However, she was not prepared to grant self-rule to the native Congolese. But after the 1959 elections, the Belgian government changed its mind. She became more lenient towards her colony. Finally, she granted independence to Congo in 1960 with the hope of securing major economic concessions. She was very much disappointed when the native government refused to accede to her demands.The Belgians became angry and her troops returned to Congo. The Congolese Prime Minister, Patrice Lumumba, appealed to the UN for help. The UN sent its peacekeeping force to Congo to bring about a settlement. Meanwhile, Katanga, a province of Congo, revolted against the centre and accepted Belgian assistance. Patrice Lumumba was assassinated in Katanga. After that, the UN played its role in bringing about the expulsion of Moise Tshombe, the leader of the secessionist movement, and in reuniting that unfortunate country. After months of exile, Moise Tshombe returned to become the Prime Minister and led a coalition government at Leopoldville in 1964. In 1965, Moise Tshombe was deposed by President Kasavubu. Kasavubu was also deposed by Gen. Joseph Mobutu who became the new President. The Belgian Trust territory, Ruanda-Urundi, took more time to achieve independence since each had its own King. Ruanda (Rwanda) became independent in July, 1962. A little later, Urundi also received her independence and chose constitutional monarchy.

East Africa East Africa now consists of the former British colonies of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Somaliland, Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland and the French island of Madagascar.

Kenya Kenya was occupied by the white settlers since 1885. They grabbed all the fertile lands for themselves. These lands were claimed by the native African tribe, Kikuyu, as theirs. The British were not prepared to grant independence to the natives of Kenya because of the opposition of the white settlers. Therefore, the black natives of Kenya formed a secret society called Mau Mau. It was led by a great leader called Jomo Kenyatta, who carried on secret activities. He was

accused of Mau Mau terrorism and sentenced to a long imprisonment. In the early 1960s, the British were forced to grant self-government. Kenya’s independence came a little earlier than expected due to the struggle carried on by the Kenya African National Union (KANU). The KANU won almost all the seats in the elections and thereby indicated its desire for independence. The British granted independence to Kenya in 1963. Jomo Kenyatta was released from prison. He became Kenya’s first prime minister.

Uganda Uganda is a small central east African country. It derives its name from the kingdom of Buganda. It is home to many lakes, including the famous Lake Victoria. Uganda is today very well-known for its parks and game reserves. Swahili is the language most commonly spoken. A number of explorers and Christian Missionaries came here in the 1870s. After turbulent religious and civil strifes in the 1890s, it was converted into a British protectorate. Uganda’s freedom from British rule was not achieved till 1962, on account of the non-cooperation of a very small native kingdom, Buganda. Buganda was ruled by Mutesa II, the Kabaka (ruler). The issue of Buganda’s self-government within the sovereignty of Uganda was finally settled. Milton Obote became Uganda’s prime minister in 1962. Mutesa II became the president of the Republic of Uganda in 1963. However, president Mutesa was deposed by prime minister Obote, thereby ending Buganda’s autonomy in 1966. Obote became the new president and in 1967, a new constitution came into force. One of the most notorious presidents of Uganda was Idi Amin, a military general, who overthrew the civilian government in 1971. Idi Amin’s dictatorship continued for eight years. During the military dictatorship of Idi Amin, thousands of Asians were expelled from the country as undesirables. He invaded Tanzania in 1978 which was followed by the counter-invasion of Uganda by Tanzania in 1979. This war (Uganda-Tanzania war) resulted in the collapse of Idi Amin’s military dictatorship. Since 1986, the country has been ruled by President Yoweri Museveni. In 1993, the kingdom of Buganda was restored, and Muwenda Mutebi II has been its Kabaka ever since. It presently enjoys autonomy. Uganda’s capital is Kampala. Its economy has shown great progress in recent years.

Tanganyika (Tanzania)

Tanganyika was a Trust territory administered by Britain. Julius Nyerere, the nationalist leader, organised the Tanganyika African National Union. He won all the seats in the elections and Britain granted independence to this territory in 1961. Zanzibar (with majority of Blacks), on the other hand, was ruled by the Arabs till the late nineteenth century. However, they lost this colony to Britain. Zanzibar gained her independence from Britain in 1963. Unfortunately, the Arab minority government was ruling over the African majority. So the Africans staged a coup and expelled the Sultan. A revolutionary council was set up, headed by Abeid Karume. He reached an agreement with President Nyerere of Tanganyika. This agreement led to the Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. The new state was called as Tanzania.

Somalia After World War II, Britain, who had conquered Italian Somaliland (during the War), returned it to Italy. Italy held it as a Trust territory. The Italian Somaliland became independent on 1 July, 1960. The British Somaliland was governed by Britain as a protectorate. A nationalist party in the British Somaliland desired merger with the former Somaliland. In the ensuing election, this issue came up. After the election, the British agreed for the union of the two Somalilands. The two Somalilands came to be merged and known as Somalia.

Republic of Madagascar (Formerly Malagasy Republic) It is said to be the fourth largest island in the world. Way back in 1500, a Portuguese navigator named Diogo Dias discovered this island. It became a French colony by 1897. During World War II, Madagascar’s strategic importance was realised by Britain. Britain captured the territory from the Vichy French (French regime under German occupation between July 1940 and September 1944) in 1942 and turned it over to the Free French (members of the resistance organisation founded by Charles de Gaulle). Madagascar became an overseas territory of France in 1946. France suppressed frequent revolts which were organised by the extreme nationalists who desired independence. In the meanwhile, a nationalist leader, Philibert Tsiranana, helped to found a moderate party (Social Democratic Party) and won a large number of seats in the subsequent election. France granted independence to Madagascar in June, 1960. Madagascar became a republic, with Tsiranana as its first elected president.

The Republic of South Africa It is one of the richest states in the continent of Africa (forty per cent of the gold and above thirty per cent of diamonds produced in the world, are produced here). The Republic of South Africa was earlier known as the Union of South Africa. The latter came into being when the British annexed colonies like Cape Colony, Transvaal, Natal and Orange River in 1910. The Orange Free State and Transvaal belonged to the Dutch earlier. The Union of South Africa became an independent Republic on 31 May, 1961, following a referendum (5 October, 1960). It left the British Commonwealth after the international community condemned it for its Apartheid policy. The word ‘Apartheid’ means racial discrimination. One should note that fifteen per cent of the white-settlers ruled over eighty per cent of the natives in the Union of South Africa. The whiteminority government treated the natives very badly by denying them their fundamental rights. When Apartheid was made the official policy in 1948, the whole world condemned it. The UN later imposed economic sanctions. The black majority in the country became politically conscious after the formation of the African National Congress (ANC) as a political party. The ANC carried on a long struggle for the natives against the white minority government for nearly four decades. One of its greatest leaders was Nelson Mandela. Nelson Mandela was born on 18 July, 1918 near Cape of Good Hope. He studied law, and joined ANC in 1944. On 21 March, 1960, the Sharpeville Massacre took place which resulted in the death of 69 native protestors due to police firing. This incident enraged Nelson Mandela to such an extent that he gave up his nonviolent struggle against the white minority government. He founded Spear of the Nation as a military wing of the ANC, and carried on a violent struggle against the whites. President Verwoerd was assassinated, but the struggle continued till 1990. Mandela was arrested in 1962 for his unlawful activities and sentenced to life imprisonment. His long struggle and imprisonment attracted the attention of the whole world, and public opinion was built against the continuance of the white minority government in South Africa. It was in 1990 that President F.W. de Klerk released Mandela from prison and both of them made sincere efforts to end Apartheid policy and establish a transitional government. Mandela became president of the ANC in 1991, and in 1994, he was elected President by a popular vote. A new non-racial constitution was introduced in May, 1996. The Apartheid policy came to an end following the adoption of the new constitution. Nelson Mandela and the president, de Klerk, jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize for ending Apartheid. Mandela also received the highest civilian honour from India, the Bharat Ratna. South Africa’s most flourishing cities are Pretoria,

Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban. The first two are administrative and legislative capitals.

Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia) Zimbabwe is situated in the south of the African continent. It is a land-locked country. It was ruled by a white-minority government which carried on its policy of racial discrimination. The natives in Zimbabwe carried on a long resistance against the white minority government for decades, and finally the country got its independence in April, 1980. President Mugabe was elected in 2000, and he incorporated an amendment to the new constitution. By this amendment, his government was empowered to confiscate the lands owned by the whites without paying them any compensation. The purpose was to redistribute these confiscated lands of the whites to the poor blacks. Zimbabwe has chosen a parliamentary democracy, and its current president is Robert Mugabe. Zimbabwe is known all over the world as the home of the Victoria Falls and many popular game reserves. It joined the UN in 1980.

The Republic of Zambia The Republic of Zambia took birth in 1964. It is a land-locked country and was ruled by the British South Africa Company. It joined the British Commonwealth after its independence. Its government was dominated by one-party rule till 1990, when food riots broke out. After the 1991 general-elections, the one-party rule ended. Its capital is Lusaka, and its current President is Michael Sata (assumed office on 23 September, 2011).

Malawi (Originally Known as Nyasaland) It was a British protectorate which became independent in 1964, and thereafter a republic in 1966. Malawi is a small country with less resources. In the early days, the Bantus settled on its lands, and in 1891, the British colonised it. In the 1950s, the British created the Federation of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. After becoming a republic (in 1966), Malawi was ruled by President Hastings Banda (of the Malawi Congress Party), who in 1971, was declared its president for life. In 1993, a referendum was held wherein voters rejected single-party rule in favour of multiparty democracy. He was voted out of power in the country’s

first multiparty presidential elections held in 1994. A new constitution came into force in 1995. Malawi’s capital is Lilongwe, and is currently ruled by President Joyce Banda (assumed office on 7 April, 2012).

Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) Throughout its modern history, the Democratic Republic of Congo had been known for civil wars and corruption. As a result, the people suffered severe hardships. After its independence in June 1960, Patrice Lumumba was elected as its first prime minister. Soon after its independence, a few sections of the army revolted. Lumumba’s rival, Moise Tshombe, took advantage of this situation and brought about the secession of the mineral-rich province of Katanga. He was supported by the Belgian government which had high commercial stakes in this province. Patrice Lumumba was executed on 17 January, 1961, by President Tshombe’s firing squads. This assassination had the backing of the Belgian government. Katanga was reunited with the country in 1963 after the intervention of the UN forces. In 1965, the army chief, Joseph Mobutu, captured power, and renamed the country as the Republic of Zaire in 1971. He was backed by the US as he opposed communism during the Cold War era. His regime became very unpopular due to rampant corruption. Foreign aid meant for development was siphoned off, and he amassed billions of dollars. He was forced to flee the country by the pressure of Laurent Kabila’s forces in 1997. Kabila declared himself as president, and the country reverted to its old name, Democratic Republic of Congo. This country is at present facing many troubles created by hostile neighbours, and also by the Hutu refugees from Rwanda.

Republic of Congo It was a part of French Equatorial Africa earlier, and became independent in 1960. This new nation adopted a Marxist-Leninist model of government in 1969. However, this Marxist-type of government was discarded in 1990, and a democratically elected government assumed office in 1992. After the conclusion of a short civil war in 1997, General Denis Sassou Nguesso became its president again; his earlier tenure as president was from 1979 to 1992.

Rwanda

Rwanda is situated in east central Africa. It is mountainous and densely populated and was ruled by the Belgians earlier. It became independent in 1962. In recent history, Rwanda has suffered from a series of ethnic conflicts. The long tribal warfare between the ruling Tutsis (minority), and the ruled Hutu (Majority) continued for a long time. The Tutsi regime ended in 1959 and they left the country. However, the Tutsi-exiles invaded the country in 1963. This war resulted in large-scale massacres. A multiparty democracy was set up in 1990. However, the ethnic strives continued even after signing of peace accord between the Tutsi and Hutus in 1993. In 1994 ethnic violence erupted again, and nearly one million Hutus fled the country. Th UN intervened and ended the bloodshed. In April, 2000, a first Tutsi President was elected. At present, Rwanda is ruled by President General Paul Kagame.

United Republic of Tanzania The Republic of Tanganyika in East Africa and the Island Republic of Zanzibar became one nation in April, 1964. Today it is known as the United Republic of Tanazania. Julius K. Nyerere became its President after independence and dominated its politics till 1985. In its early days, the Republic of Tanzania adopted Socialism as its ideology. It nationalised its banks and industries. But in the 1990s, it changed over to a market-oriented economy. However, the process of transition towards market economy has been slow and painful. Tanzania is a beautiful country, home to, the Lakes, Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and Mount Kilimanjaro (tallest mountain in Africa).

Contemporary North Africa: Egypt After President Nasser’s death, his colleague, Anwar Sadat succeeded him in 1970. He was trained as a soldier but is believed to have possessed a moderate disposition. In his younger days he was influenced to some extent by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy. Sadat’s Egypt depended entirely on the Soviet Union for arms-supply, and a friendship-treaty also existed between them. However, this close friendship turned bitter when the Russians began to delay arms supply to Egypt. This deep disappointment resulted in the President ordering the Russians to leave the country. Another reason why Russians were expelled was, they were involved in a coup in Sudan, Egypt’s close ally. Sadat’s disappointment with Russia made the western countries happy. Sadat eagerly desired to recover the Suez Canal Zone and Sinai at any cost from Israel. So he started diplomatic

relations with Israel. At the same time, Egypt renewed its diplomatic relations with the US, which had earlier been severed in 1967. The Arab states did not approve of Sadat developing friendly ties towards Israel and the US. President Anwar Sadat wanted to achieve the rapid economic recovery of Egypt. It must be noted that the Suez Canal was closed after the Suez War, and its company revenue to Egypt had stopped. The economic situation worsened, and Sadat felt it necessary to sign the Camp David Treaty with Israel in March, 1979, after the US support. The PLO and the Arab states were shocked and indignant at apparent this betrayal despite Israel vacating the Sinai area. This peace treaty was signed during the time of US President Carter. Syria and the Soviet Union condemned the treaty as a betrayal of the Arab cause. In the meantime, President Sadat got the treaty approved by his people through a referendum despite the combined opposition of the Wafdists, Communists and Muslim Brotherhood. Their violent opposition was ruthlessly put down by the government. It is said that the Libyan leader Gaddafi was so angry that he planned to assassinate President Sadat in 1977. In 1976, President Sadat got reelected for a second term by nearly 100% of the electorate. He got the constitution amended by which the Sharia (Islamic law) was adopted as the main source of legislation. Sadat’s government eventually became repressive and caused angry public reaction. For example, in 1977, Egypt witnessed severe riots over the price of the subsidised bread. The poor had to be pacified by the government by reducing the price of the bread. In mid-1981, extremist elements in Egypt assassinated Sadat when he was reviewing a military parade. He was succeeded by the vice-president, Hosni Mubarak.

Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011) Mubarak’s government in Egypt was fully supported by the US government. The US government started giving military aid to Egypt amounting to $1.5 billion annually. Mubarak gradually increased his grip over the army and civilian administration to such an extent that he cast aside many democratic measures designed to alleviate miserable conditions of the poor (“some 40% Egyptians live on less than $2 a day”). Police brutalities became quite common, and the President maintained one hundred fifty thousand trained and well-equipped guards (riot-squad) for this purpose. Even the educated middle class were not happy with the autocratic rule of President Mubarak because of prevailing inflation, unemployment and rampant corruption. The President muzzled the press, and the rivalry between the extremists (Muslim Brotherhood) and the

moderates further worsened the political situation in the country. Nearly eightyfive million people became frustrated at the tyranny of this dictator, and they finally revolted on 1 February, 2011. The eighty-two year old dictator had to leave the country, and his attempts to foist his son to succeed him had no takers. The revolt in February 2011 (Arab Spring) resembled the French revolution of 1789, wherein the rebellious citizens released 20,000 convicts, and raided police stations at a time when bread had become scarce. All big cities of Egypt witnessed revolts. The army remained neutral, and the police were nowhere to be seen. Finally, Egypt held its parliamentary elections between 28 November, 2011, and 11 January, 2012. The Democratic Alliance for Egypt, comprising of the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice Party and 10 other political parties, won 235 out of the 498 seats in the parliament. However, on 14 June, 2012, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the parliament. The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) assumed legislative power under an interim constitution for a while. In the presidential elections held in May-June, 2012, Mohamed Morsi of the Freedom and Justice Party won by a narrow margin.

Algeria Algeria became an Islamic Republic in 1962, with President Ben Bella heading the government. In 1963, a new constitution was drafted and approved by the people, and Ben Bella of the FLN party was elected for a five year term. Houari Boumedienne became the vice-president as well as the defence minister. In 1965, Ben Bella was deposed following a coup, and he was replaced by the vicepresident. President Boumedienne ruled Algeria for thirteen years like a dictator. A new constitution was drafted, and the FLN party became the only political party to get recognition. The Algerian government received financial assistance from the US, Soviet Union, France and China for improving its economy. Algeria became a member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the NAM. Boumedienne died, and he was succeeded by Chadli Bendjedid. Bendjedid followed the foreign and domestic policies of Boumedienne and brought about political and economic stability to the country. He got Ben Bella released from prison. In 1981, the Algerian government acted as a mediator between the US and Iran, when the latter had held a number of American hostages. This mediation became successful, and the Iranian government agreed to free the hostages. Thousands of Algerian workers are employed in France, since the latter needed cheap labourers. Unlike other countries in Africa, Algeria

did not experience much trouble form the Muslim Brotherhood (extremist elements).

Tunisia Tunisia became a secular state unlike other the Arab and Muslim states. The Neo-Destour party framed the constitution. Its leader, Habib Bourguiba, introduced several reforms and ruled Tunisia with an iron hand. Among his reforms, the most important were land distribution, abolition of polygamy, introduction of free education for all children, and the undertaking of many public works. He worked hard for the unity of the north African states, and depended much on western countries for support. However, in January, 1981, bread riots broke out, and the world came to know that all was not well in Tunisia. Despite being a member of the Arab league, Tunisia continued to tolerate the existence of Israel. Its friendly policy towards Israel brought much financial assistance from the western donors. Today Tunisia is ruled by President Moncef Marzouki (since 13 December, 2011).

Sudan Its early history goes back to the days of the ancient Egyptians of 4000 BC. In those days Sudan was known as Nubia, with the river Nile flowing from south to north. Off and on, the Egyptians were ruling over this country. Around the sixth century AD, Christian missionaries converted the natives of this country. For the next six or seven centuries, a few black Christian kingdoms existed in the neighbourhood of the Muslim kingdoms of Egypt. The Muslims of Egypt were gradually increasing their territory towards the northern part of Sudan. Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Egyptian governor (Wali), conquered northern Sudan in 1820. By 1874, Egypt conquered the whole of Sudan and supported the British in their attempt to exploit this country. Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi led a Muslim revolt against the British and captured Khartoum in 1885. He established an Islamic theocratic state in Sudan. The British defeated Al Mahdi in 1898 and thus Egypt as well as Sudan came under its rule. The British adopted a ‘Divide and Rule’ policy (1924-1956) and governed Sudan as two separate territories—the Muslim North and the Christian South. The governments of Britain and Egypt signed a treaty in 1954 that paved the way for Sudanese independence on the first of January, 1956 (after 136 years of union with Egypt, and fifty-five years of direct British rule).

Ever since its independence, the Muslim north and the Christian south had been at loggerheads. The country has experienced two civil wars (1955-1972 and 1983-2005). The Sudan People’s Liberation Army representing the three Christian districts of the south fought against the twelve northern muslim districts of Sudan. In 2005, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) also known as Naivasha agreement, was signed between the Sudanese government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM). As a result of these long conflicts and frequent famines, nearly 1.5 million people have died. The latter conflict resulted in the displacement of nearly 4 million people. In January, 2011, a referendum for south Sudanese independence was held, and an overwhelming majority (98.83%) voted in favour of independence. On 9th July, 2011, the Republic of South Sudan gained independence, with Juba as its capital. The people of Republic of Sudan (North Sudan) and Republic of South Sudan live in extreme poverty and they suffer from severe famines and food shortages almost every year. The UN is doing its best to assist them. Currently, South Sudan is falling into a trap as a failed state, and is in frequent conflict with the north over the possession of the oil fields at the border affecting its oil exports.

Ethiopia (Abyssinia) Ethiopia is situated on the horn of Africa, i.e. in the north east. It has a long history which goes back to the biblical times. In those days it was known as the land of the Kush, and the ancient Egyptians ruled over this kingdom. It had prosperous trade with the ancient Egyptians. All this changed with the rise of Islam. The Arabs came to rule over Ethiopia, and enjoyed prosperous trade with Europe. The Arabs were replaced by the Italians in the 1890s, and Ethiopia became an Italian colony. Emperor Menelik II defeated the Italians in the Battle of Adowa on 1 March, 1896, and Ethiopia became a free country. In the 1930s, Haile Selassie ruled Ethiopia as emperor. However, the Italians regained the control of this country in 1936. The British drove the Italians out (1941) during the Second World War. The neighbouring Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia for a few years. After the restoration of Haile Selassie, the country witnessed fierce opposition from the Marxists. The Marxists succeeded in establishing their government in 1974 but the Marxists government was over thrown in 1991. In the meantime, Eritrea declared its independence from Ethiopia in 1993. In 1995, Ethiopia became a Federal Democratic Republic. A new constitution was drawn up which divided Ethiopia into nine ethnically distinct regions, with each region

having the right to secede. In May, 1998, Ethiopia and Eritrea fought along their border, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. In December, 2000, the two countries signed a peace accord in Algiers. Ethiopia’s capital is Addis Ababa; and it is a very poor country with thirty-six per cent literacy.

Libya Libya became free following the defeat of the Italian dictator, Mussolini, in World War II, and it chose monarchy. But the monarchy was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi in 1969. He remained in power for more than four decades in Libya. Born in 1942, he showed qualities of leadership. He was known for his fiery temper, and may be called a mixture of opposites. When he assumed power, he believed that he was the natural heir to Nasser’s legacy i.e., Arab nationalism. He championed the cause of Palestinian liberation and decided to punish Israel. Unfortunately, his view was not shared by Egyptian rulers at the time. When President Sadat of Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel, the Arab World felt betrayed. Libya’s relationship with Egypt ended. It was rumoured that Gaddafi might make an attempt to assassinate President Sadat. Gaddafi became anti-west and anti-Christian. He supported the Muslims in Chad who were fighting the Christians. Chad became an independent country in 1960, with a Christian majority. Gaddafi adopted an anti-western policy because the west supported Israel. He nationalised foreign companies. Since the west depended on Libya’s supply of oil, he used oil as a weapon. With the revenues derived from oil-sales, he built schools, colleges, hospitals, and also gave subsidies for house constructions. He is believed to have needed Pakistan’s help for making nuclear weapons. He also depended upon the Soviet Union for arms supply. In the seventies and eighties, Gaddafi opposed the US domination of the Middle East, and its support to Israel. He also opposed the domination of the US over the Gulf of Sidra during the presidency of Reagan. Gaddafi organised a united front of the Arab States to destroy Israel. His hatred towards the US became well-known, and the latter discouraged its citizens from visiting Libya. In 1988, Gaddafi was blamed for the bombing of Pan Am Transatlantic flight 103, over Lockerbie (Scotland) which killed 270 people. The UN slapped sanctions on Libya, and it was in 2003, that the latter paid the compensation of US $10 million to the families of those killed.

33 Southeast Asia-Vietnam Burma: Origins of the Burmese National Movement

T

he nationalist movement in Burma began in the early part of the twentieth century. It was a direct consequence of the British political and economic policies which aimed at exploiting the country and the people. Large tracts of cultivated lands were taken possessions of by Indian money lenders known as Chettiars. These nattu-kotti Chettiars from south India charged as much as 50 per cent interest on money borrowed by poor peasants who pledged their lands and crops as security. Any failure to repay the amount resulted in the land being transferred to the money lender, quite in contrast to the Burmese tradition where lands of the peasants were inalienable. By 1939, twenty-five per cent of the cultivated lands were in the hands of money lenders. The British revenue laws in Burma caused tremendous insecurity among the poor peasants for they were afraid of losing their only source of sustenance, their lands, to the foreigners. The British exploited the natural resources of Burma, such as the teak forests and mines and employed cheap foreign labour, mostly the low paid Indian labourers. The railways and shipping companies in Burma were engaged in further exploitation of the rich natural resources without giving these benefits to the country and the people. Foreign businessmen, mostly British and Indian, never entertained the idea of sharing their profits with the people of Burma. The Indians were hated by the Burmese, for they were considered foreigners who supported the British exploitation. Most professional jobs in Burma were given by the British to the Indians. The British administration included changes in the indigenous political system of Burma, thereby denying local autonomy to the village. The myothugyi system (village government headed by the village headmen) was replaced by the salaried class of village headmen whose jobs were at the mercy of the conquerors. The destruction of this old system caused communication gaps

between the rulers and the ruled, resulting in suspicion and distrust among the Burmese villagers. The activities of European Christian missionaries in Burmese villages caused grave apprehensions among the generally orthodox Buddhists in Burma. The Christian missionaries opened schools to attract large number of Burmese children and competed with the Buddhist-run schools. The British Government supported the Christian missionaries in all possible manners, which proved to be prejudicial to the interests of the Buddhist schools. Therefore, the Buddhist monasteries in Burma became centres of resistance to alien rule during the time of the national movement. Another reason which made the Burmese resentful of British rule was the employment of Indians and the Karen tribals to government jobs in preference to the Burmese subjects. It went to show that the British had no trust in the Burmese. Finally, the Burmese never reconciled themselves to the fact that their country had become an Indian province. They desired to maintain their separate identity as an ancient kingdom enjoying rich and glorious traditions.

Burmese National Movement The rise of nationalism in Asia was the direct outcome of European colonial rule and exploitation. It manifested itself in India in 1885, with the establishment of the Indian National Congress, and also in China with the outbreak of the Boxer rebellion in 1899. Furthermore, the defeat of Russia (a mighty European country) at the hands of Japan (a tiny Asiatic country) in 1904-05 exploded the myth about the invincibility of the Europeans. The fall of the mighty Manchu dynasty and the birth of the Chinese Republic under Sun Yat Sen were events of far-reaching significance and left a deep impression on the Burmese who were suffering under alien rule. Furthermore, the influence of Karl Marx and Lenin spread all over Asia because they denounced capitalist countries for causing untold miseries by their exploitation. The latter tried to prove it in his book, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. Gandhiji’s entry into the freedom movement in India in 1919, also strongly influenced the Burmese masses. The Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) which was founded on the pattern of YMCA in 1906, became the main motivating factor in the upsurge of Burmese nationalism. It opened native schools for children and imparted education with a bias towards native culture and pride on the one hand, and promoted national awareness on the other. In a relatively short time, the YMBA entered the political arena and provided able leaders to fight for freedom.

During the great war (1914-18), the British promised to introduce political reforms in India, and naturally the Burmese too hoped for a bright future. However, while reforms were ushered in India in 1919, the Burmese were denied the same. The British passed the Rangoon University Act which denied autonomous status to Rangoon University in contrast to Indian universities which generally enjoyed autonomous status. Therefore, the General Council of the Buddhist Association (the renamed YMBA) on the one side, and the Rangoon University students on the other, began to agitate against the British policy of discrimination. Its General Council put forward many extra demands which the British categorically rejected. These protests eventually compelled the British to grant “diarchy” in 1921. However, the Burmese nationalists refused to have anything to do with the British till all their demands, such as control over land ownership rights and immigration were met. The Simon Commission recommended that Burma be separated from India in response to the popular Burmese demand. But now, the Burmese looked upon this recommendation with suspicion fearing that Burma would be permanently colonised. The worldwide economic depression in 1929, had disastrous effects upon the Burmese economy, especially in the sectors of agriculture and industries. There was large-scale unemployment in Burma and the prices of agricultural produce crashed. The wrath of Burmese peasants towards the rapacious moneylenders and landlords, who began to exploit their helplessness, knew no bounds. Riots broke out in Burma in 1930-31 against the Indian and Chinese merchants, which resulted in large-scale looting, arson and killings. The peasant rebellion grew under the leadership of a Buddhist monk, Saya San, leader of the General Council of Buddhist Association (GCBA), who in the meantime, proclaimed himself the King of Burma. The political situation in Burma began to worsen and therefore, the British rulers crushed the rebellion mercilessly. After a prolonged trial, the Buddhist monk who proclaimed himself the King of Burma, was executed in 1937. Of the political parties, which emerged during the national movement, the most important was the Sinyetha Party (poor man’s party), which demanded a check on Indian emigration, introduction of lands reforms, protection of peasants from money lenders, and reduction in taxes. It was founded by Dr Ba Maw, who earlier had become famous as an advocate who pleaded the case of Saya San. Dr Ba Maw subsequently organised the “Forward Block” after joining another political party called the Thakin. This merger of the Forward Block and the Thakin Party encouraged the Burmese to revolt against British rule. The Thakin Party was a product of the Rangoon University students’

organisation called Dobama Asiayone (“Our Burma”). The Thakin Party stood for revival of Buddhist cultural traditions, and encouraged students to go on strikes against the British educational system on numerous occasions. Some of the prominent future leaders of the nation, namely U Nu and Thankin-Aung San, were been active participants. Their activities were not liked by the British Government which urged Rangoon University to rusticate them. The Thakin Party was a proper leftist oriented organisation which followed the principle of Marxism and Leninism. Although it did not like the foreigners including the members of the Indian community in Burma, it had high regard for the Indian National Congress and its leaders.

The Japanese Occupation of Burma In 1940, during the middle of the Second World War, Japan contacted the Burmese Thakin Party through its agent, Colonel Suzuki, offering military assistance to Burma to overthrow British rule, on condition that it supported its cause. The offer was rejected since Aung San was getting ready to go to Shanghai to seek the help of the Chinese Communist Party. He was arrested by the Japanese, but subsequently released after he declared that he had come to seek their help. The Japanese agreed to train Aung San and the “thirty Heroes” to enable them to organise a small liberation army which would drive the British out of Burma. During the war, Burma witnessed a united front of many political parties, namely, the Thakins, the Sinyetha, and Buddhist organisations. All these political parties worked in unison to force the British out of Burma. The moderate Myochit party, led by U Saw, formed a government at the insistence of the British. At the round-table conference, U Saw demanded dominion status for Burma which was rejected. On his return, he was accused of being in secret contact with the Japanese and arrested by the British. At the time of the Japanese occupation of Burma, all the nationalist leaders except Ba Maw were jailed. The Burmese hoped that with the Japanese victory over the British, Burma would achieve independence. But their high hopes were dashed to the ground since the Japanese had never entertained the idea of Burma remaining independent. This Japanese attitude earned the undying hatred of the Burmese. During the occupation, the Japanese desecrated many Buddhist pagodas. It was in these circumstances that the Burmese nationalists began an underground resistance movement in August, 1944. This underground movement was called the AntiFascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) which was led by a famous

communist leader named Than Tun. Aung San, the leader of the thirty Heroes, became the League’s president. All the political parties including the Communist Party, the Burmese National army and the People’s Revolutionary Party made the fight against Japanese rule in Burma their common cause. The revolt against the Japanese was initiated by the AFPFLin March, 1945. A major part of northern Burma was affected. The resistance to Japanese rule in Burma incidentally helped the British force to reoccupy Burma during the last years of the war. The Japanese forces withdrew from Rangoon because of local resistance and the invading British forces. The victorious British forces which occupied Burma after driving out the Japanese agreed to remain there till the political situation in Burma returned to normalcy. In the meantime, the British Government declared amnesty to all the members of AFPFLwho had earlier supported the Japanese occupation of Burma. It must be remembered that during the last year of the war, many Indian traders and businessmen quit Burma.

Burmese Independence The last phase of India’s freedom struggle had its impact on the Burmese too as it compelled the British to think of granting them independence as well. The British formed an interim government in Burma with Aung San as Prime Minister in October, 1946. At the general elections held in April 1947, the AFPFLsecured absolute majority. Elections were held for choosing members of the Constituent Assembly which would draft the Constitution for independent Burma. However, U Saw, a defector from the AFPFL, who desired a more revolutionary programme for the country brought about the assassination of Aung San and six other leaders. He hoped to take advantage of the chaotic situation by organising a revolt against the British by blaming them for the assassinations. Unfortunately, his plan failed and the AFPFLgovernment was set up by Nu. He brought U Saw to trial, found him guilty and executed him. Burma became free on 4 January, 1948 and the government was headed by U Nu.

Laos National Movement in Laos As was the case elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the national movement in Laos was also more or less the direct outcome of the policies of the French which proved to be exploitative and harmful. But the movement made substantial progress in the wake of the Japanese occupation of different parts of China and Southeast Asia during the Second World War. Since the Japanese required raw

materials and markets in Indochina, they needed the co-operation of the natives. Japan, therefore, established what is called “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” in which all countries occupied by her were to derive mutual benefits. Japan was doing this at a time when she had begun to suffer from the harmful effects of economic depression and the politics of the thirties.

Anti-colonial Movements in Laos Japan took pride in considering herself as the liberator of countries which she had taken from the western imperial powers. The Japanese government in occupation allowed the natives of the countries to have their own internal administration. In the case of Laos, the French officials, unfortunately, did not leave even when Laos came under Japanese control and supervision (till March, 1945). However, in the end, the Japanese deposed the Vichy French Government, jailed French officials, and permitted the Laotians to declare their independence from France. When the Japanese found that the prime minister of Laos, Savang Vatthana, who also happened to be the Crown Prince, was not inclined to cancel the treaty of protectorate signed with the French some fifty years ago, they asked Prince Phetsarath to replace him. Prince Phetsarath refused to give permission to the French Senior Resident to return to Laos, since Laos had become independent. In this melodrama, King Sisasavang Vong intervened to declare Laos as a French Protectorate and asked Prince Phetsarath to resign. The action of the Laotian monarch thus paved the way for the launching of a national movement called Lao Issara (Free Laos) by the common people but headed by the westerneducated elite belonging to the royal family. The most prominent among them were Prince Souvanna Phouma and Souphannouvong (brothers of Prince Phetsarath). In the provisional government elected by the provisional people’s assembly, all under a provisional constitution, the two brothers occupied ministerial posts. In the course of time, the provisional government deposed the monarch when he refused to invalidate the French protectorate. It was during the last few months of 1945, that the French Government sent troops to re-establish its authority in Laos. The troops were successful in defeating the forces of Lao Issara and capturing Vientiane in 1946. A month later, the French troops captured the royal capital, Luang Prabang. The French government restored monarchy and the members of the Lao Issara were forced to flee the country. These members set up their government in exile and operated from the borders of Thailand with prince Phetsarath as their leader. This

government also included Souvanna Phouma and Souphannou vong as Deputy Prime Minister and Defence Minister respectively. It must be remembered that the Lao Issara government in exile had not come under the influence of communism. The moderate elements in Lao Issara led by Souvanna Phouma made a bold attempt to negotiate the terms of liberation of Laos with the French authorities, but the latter refused to grant total independence. The attitude of the French brought about a split in Lao Issara in 1949, with the moderates led by Souvanna Phouma, and the extremists by Souphannouvong. The latter met the leaders of Vietminh in North Vietnam and declared the formation of a guerilla outfit called Pathet Lao (land of the Lao) in 1950.

Constitutional Concessions to Laos France came under severe pressure and finally granted autonomy to Laos along with the other two states in Indochina and enabled them to become members of the United Nations. Further political concessions to the Laotian Government came in October, 1949, which permitted the exiled members of Lao Issara to return to Laos except Prince Phetsarath. It was this concession by the French that enabled Souvanna Phouma to head the Laotian Government in 1951. However, he was still controlled by the French government. In October, 1953, Laos became an independent member of the French Union. In the meantime, Pathet Lao started operating from the borders of LaosVietnam with its political wing, the Lao Communist Party, which was formed in 1952. The Communist Party members and militia were trained by the Vietminh forces of North Vietnam. The Lao Communist Party gradually extended its control over the two north-eastern provinces, namely, Phong Saly and Sam Neua, in 1954.

Geneva Conference, 1954 After the fall of Dien Bien Phu (fortress), France found it difficult to hold on to the Indochina states. The Geneva Conference of 1954 was convened to establish peace in Indochina. This conference was able to bring about the granting of total independence to Laos. At the same time, it recognised the hold of Pathet Lao over the two north-eastern provinces. The peace makers of the Geneva Conference hoped to see that the liberation movements would ultimately lead to the unification of the country. They also hoped that different factions in

Cambodia and Vietnam would overcome their differences and work in harmony according to the terms of the agreement.

The Philippines: Early Rebellions Against Spanish Rule In the course of time, Spanish rule became very oppressive in the Philippines, due to forced labour, loss of lands, and tribute payments. All these atrocities resulted in a number of rebellions during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the beginning, it was easy to rebel since Spain had not fully succeeded in establishing her control over hundreds of islands scattered everywhere. Leaders of non-Christian subjects often found it easy to organise revolts against Spanish rule in the name of religion. In 1621, there were revolts in Bohol and Leyte which were easily crushed by the Spanish Government because they were not properly co-ordinated. Then there was the serious revolt at Luzon in 1649, by the Visayan labourers in the Manila shipyard. But this was also crushed. Another revolt in the Pampanga section of Luzon in 1660-61, also did not succeed, although it spread widely.

British Occupation of Manila The revolts against Spanish rule became frequent in the eighteenth century, since the Filipinos no longer tolerated the Spanish atrocities. However, the third in the series of revolts which occurred in the eighteenth century coincided with the British-Indian occupation of Manila, which lasted twenty months. This occupation ended after signing the Paris Treaty (1763) between Britain and Spain.

Secularisation Programme It was then that Spanish King Charles III, seriously considered introducing reforms in the much distressed colony of the Philippines. The first of these reforms was introduced by Governor de La Torre which aimed at eliminating the hold of the dominant clergy over the subjects. The Jesuit Society was expelled from the Philippines in 1768 and further denunciation of the role of the friars by the government continued. Then, the Spanish Government in the Philippines, began to blame the Church for interfering in state matters and causing great suffering to the Filipinos. The government began recruiting secular minded

priests for the church-posts. But this secularisation programme did not achieve its objective.

Economic Reforms The Spanish Governor attempted to introduce economic reforms so as to make the Philippines self-sufficient. The government encouraged the natives to cultivate cotton, sugarcane, mulberry trees, tobacco, indigo and hemp. At the same time, the government encouraged the growth of industries and commerce. The Spanish Governor founded the “Economic Society of the Friends of the Country” for the purpose of encouraging industry and commerce. A new commercial code in 1769, provided for the establishment of the Chamber of Commerce. But in the middle of the nineteenth century, Manila’s foreign trade and business showed sharp decline, and this was due to the opening of Chinese ports, including the port of Hong Kong, to British trade. However, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, gave much-need stimulus to the Filipino trade.

Rise of Filipino Nationalism The educated middle class developed regular contacts with many Europeans who came to the Philippines for the purpose of business. The books they got with them and the new thoughts they spread, brought changes in the outlook of the otherwise conservative Filipinos. Some Filipino students went abroad for higher studies, and returned home with new ideas. Colleges, libraries, clubs, newspapers and periodicals awakened sentiments of nationalism and political consciousness.

Jose Rizal The torch of freedom among the Filipino youth was lighted by Jose Rizal, a multifaceted and highly talented personality in Filipino history. Born to Catholic parents, he hailed from Calamba, a farming town, which was dominated by the land-owning Dominican friars. He became sensitive to all kinds of oppression during his younger days, and on his trip abroad, he decided to work for reviving the dignity and freedom of Filipinos. He decided to expose the omissions and commissions of “friarocracy” to the world. Rizal’s writings attacked the friarocracy and therefore, they were banned by the colonial government headed

by Governor-General Terrero. In the meantime, Rizal had set up a civic association named Liga Eilipina whose aim was to unite the Filipinos everywhere for the purpose of opposing Spanish cruelty and injustice. The Spanish authorities arrested him and subsequently jailed him. The moderate phase of nationalism in Philippines ended with the imprisonment of Jose Rizal.

Katipunan After the dissolution of Liga Filipina, there arose a militant organisation named Katipunan which was founded by Andres Bonifacio. The objective of this organisation was to secure freedom for Filipinos by bringing about a violent overthrow of Spanish rule. In a bid to make this organisation popular, Bonifacio declared Rizal, (who had been deported to Depitan by the Spanish authorities) the honorary president. This was done without the consent of Rizal and subsequent events resulted in the persecution of Rizal as a traitor. The execution of Rizal in 1896 by the Spanish authorities greatly strengthened the cause of the national movement. Rizal’s emotional poem titled Ultimo Adios, became a great source of inspiration for all the patriots and is cherished even today. The Katipunan could not achieve its objective because there arose two factions within it, the first led by Bonifacio, and the other by Aguinaldo (a young school teacher). Aguinaldo and his followers proclaimed the Philippines a republic in March, 1897 and carried on the struggle against the Spanish authorities. In the end, Aguinaldo agreed for peace, and the Spanish Government promised to usher in political and administrative reforms. But these promises were not kept and Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on exile.

Aguinaldo Seeks American Help Pretending to be on exile in Hong Kong, Aguinaldo secretly started purchasing weapons with whatever money was paid to him by the Spanish Government. In the meantime, he sought foreign assistance for the overthrow of the Spanish Government in the Philippines. He came into contact with the American Consul, Pratt, and subsequently, with Commodore Dewey of the American Asiatic Squadron. Both these American officers had by then, received instructions to destroy the Spanish Fleet at the Manila Bay (refer Spanish-American War). The destruction of the Spanish Fleet was considered essential to the ultimate victory of the Americans in the Spanish-American war. Unaware of the desire of the Americans to fulfil their aspiration of “Manifest destiny”, Aguinaldo agreed to

assist the Americans in the destruction of the Spanish fleet. With his support, the American troops ultimately captured Manila after destroying the Spanish fleet in May, 1899. Unfortunately for Aguinaldo, the United States Government, concluded a secret treaty with Spain in December, 1898, which provided a sum of twenty million dollars as compensation to Spain for the loss of the Philippines. The secret deal between the two countries took Aguinaldo and his followers by surprise because the Philippines was to come under the rule of the United States. Tens of thousands of patriotic Filipinos died during the military rule established by the US Government. The American colonial regime became very oppressive and Aguinaldo was captured in 1901. To the Americans it cost nearly $200,000,000 to suppress the revolt of the Filipinos, more than what they had paid to Spain for gaining control over the Philippines! In the end, America realised that she would have been better off if she had not taken control of the Philippines, but the United States army had different ideas. After the conquest of the Philippines, the United States Government realised the intensity of the patriotic struggle of the Filipinos. However, the American Government was doubtful whether the Filipinos had developed the capacity and ability to govern themselves. It was, therefore, decided that the American Administration should gain the confidence of the Filipinos. It was in this direction that the first step was taken by the American Government. It replaced the American military regime with a civilian administration under the leadership of William H. Taft. The next step was taken towards eliminating all the ugly features of Spanish rule, particularly in the sphere of landholdings. The Organisations Act of 1902, provided for the separation of the State from the Church. The act declared that all the lands owned by friars as public property be made available for sale to the public. The new laws tried to protect the interests of small Filipino farmers, and in 1916, the unsold lands of the friars were kept at the disposal of the Philippines legislature. In the meantime, the American Government established the Supreme Court, introduced the Habeas Corpus, and provided for registration of civil marriages.

Further Democratisation The American Government introduced political reforms in 1907, which allowed Filipinos to elect representatives to a general assembly, which was authorised to pass necessary legislation on domestic matters, particularly in the areas of finance and land reforms. Two Filipino leaders, namely, Sergio Osmena and Manuel Quezon, figured prominently on the political scene. In the early decades

of the twentieth century, the latter was considered by the Filipinos as the “Father of Philippines Independence”. The American Governor-General, his cabinet and the Upper House still retained the power to reject some of the popular demands of the Filipinos. It was during this time, two political parties emerged on the political scene, namely, the Conservative Federal Party (which desired the merger of the Philippines with the United States) and the not-so-well-organised Nacionalistas (seeking total independence).

Economic Depression (1929-34) American farm and business interests anxious to combat the effects of the economic depression, influenced American policy makers to grant the Philippines her independence. The first step in this direction was taken by the American Congress in passing the Tydings-Mc Duffie Act (1934) providing for not only the creation of Commonwealth of the Philippines, but also setting the date for total independence, ie 4 July, 1946. The Act envisaged a constitutional convention for the purpose of drafting a new constitution wherein the United States would have control over foreign relations, tariff and coinage during the transitional period. The US Supreme Court would also have the powers to review some cases already settled in the local courts in the Philippines.

Japanese Occupation The Japanese began to control several mine-owning companies and other business enterprises in the Philippines. In the early stages of the Second World War, Japan had absolutely no intention of conquering the Philippines. But the tough stand taken by the United States Government towards Japan provoked the Japanese to plan the conquest of the Philippines. The US’ vested interests in the Philippines were contrary to Japanese interests. After the Pearl Harbour attack and the conquest of Indochina, Japan conquered the Philippines. Japan destroyed air-bases at the Clark Field and naval bases at Cante. The Philippine Government was forced to go into exile and the Japanese established a puppet government in its place. However, the Japanese began to face stiff resistance from the Filipino guerillas. The efforts of the Japanese to persuade the Filipinos to follow their way of thinking failed miserably. In October, 1943, Japan promised to grant independence. But in 1944, the forces led by American General MacArthur succeeded in capturing many of the islands of the Philippines. In the meantime, the president of the Philippines, Quezon, died and Osmena occupied this post.

After the liberation of the Philippines by General MacArthur, the American Government handed over power to the Filipinos on 4 July,1946.

Malaysia: Malayan Insurgency (1948) In Malaysia, the Malayan Communist Party tried to deliver a last blow to British rule by destroying the European rubber plantations and tin mines. Their insurgency succeeded to some extent, but the common people at large did not like violent activities. The British, unlike their counterparts, the French and the Americans in Indochina, were quite successful in crushing the Malayan insurgency by 1951. The situation was defused at the political level by encouraging peaceful Chinese citizens to form their own political association called “The Malayan-Chinese Association” (MCA). The MCA eventually joined the UMNO for the common purpose of gaining Mardeka (independence for Malaya). The British Government took drastic steps to cut political activity by penalising 10,000 Chinese with deportation because they were not willing to cooperate with them in the counter-insurgency operation. At the same time, those who assisted the British were given benefits through the government’s socioeconomic programmes. They declared an emergency in Malaya to adequately deal with the insurgency of the communist guerillas. Their operations came to an end in 1960.

Malaya’s Independence The British sent Sir Gerald Templer to prepare a blueprint for the independence of the Malayans. General election was announced to the Federal Assembly in 1954. In the 1955 elections, the MCI Party (Malay, Chinese and Indians) won an absolute majority (fifty-two out of fifty-three seats) in the 92- seat Federal Assembly and the majority leader, Tungku Abdul Rehman, started negotiations with the British for the total independence of Malaya. The British Government transferred its power and Malaya became independent and sovereign in 1957.

Singapore In the case of Singapore, the granting of independence was delayed due to communist activities of the Malayan communists who had captured the trade unions and attacked the school system in Singapore. This course of events

compelled the left wing leader of the Labour Front, David Marshall, to submit his resignation as the leader of the interim government. Thereupon, his successor, Lim Yew Hock, a respected leader of the Chinese community, started negotiations with the British Government for the purpose of establishing an internal self-government for Singapore. It was to be led by a prime minister and cabinet. A security council composed of British and Malay-federal representatives was to be in charge of foreign affairs and defence.

Malaysia and Singapore Elections to the Singapore Assembly took place in 1959, wherein the People’s Action Party (PAP) led by a brilliant barrister, Lee Kuan Yew, won an absolute majority. This party secured the independence of Singapore from the British in 1963. Sarawak and Sabah joined Singapore and they constituted a federation called Malaysia. It was in August, 1965, that Singapore got herself separated from Malaysia to become an independent island state. This event took place partly due to the personal rivalry of the two great leaders, Tungku Abdul Rehman of Malaysia and Singapore’s Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew.

Indonesia: The Sarekat Islam The Sarekat Islam began as a political organisation of the Indonesian Muslims in 1911. Originally, its purpose was to chastise the Chinese rivals in the field of trade and commerce, particularly those engaged in the batik-cloth trade. It tried to promote a sense of unity among the Indonesian Muslims in the face of the ever-growing influence of the Dutch Christian missionaries. The founder of this organisation was a charismatic leader named Oemar Sayed Tjokroaminoto whose inspiring speeches cast a spell on the Indonesian Muslims living in rural and urban areas. By 1919, the Sarekat Islam claimed at least two million staunch supporters to its cause, most of them being Javanese peasants. This organisation would not have been allowed to exist but for its professed loyalty to Dutch rule. In the course of time, this organisation received recognition from the GovernorGeneral. Though split into a few factions, it had a common cause and a common approach to the crucial issues facing Indonesian society. These issues mainly related to the achievement of self-rule, socialism, and modernisation of the economy. It must be remembered that the First World War had its impact on the Indonesian economy. The people had to put up with inflation, levy of numerous taxes, and the erosion of the traditional authority wielded by native officials.

The Sarekat Islam appealed to the Dutch Government to concede several political concessions, and in response to it the Government granted what is known as the Volksraad (People’s Councils) in 1918. However, these councils were composed of elected representatives to the extent of fifty per cent, the remaining being the nominees of the governor-general. All the nominees were Dutch nationals. The Volksraad unfortunately did not enjoy power of its own, but acted as an advisory body. To implement its proposed programme, it had to seek the permission of the Dutch Government at the Hague. Therefore, the Indonesian nationalists felt cheated and frustrated at these so-called concessions.

The Communist Party In these circumstances, there arose a radical socialist group called the Indies Social Democratic Association. Unfortunately, a large number of communists infiltrated into this association. These communists began to use this association to promote vested interests. The communists hailed the formation of Comintern in 1919 and established contacts with it. This communist group subsequently identified itself as the PKI (Partai Kommunis Indonesia) and took into its fold a large number of radical members from the Sarekat Islam. Eventually, the communist party was established under the leadership of Henrik Sneevliet. It grew into a massive organisation and broke away from Sarekat Islam in the twenties. This was because the Sarekat Islam stood for Pan-Islamism and followed constitutional methods to attain its objectives. The communist party, on the other hand, prepared a revolutionary agenda and dreamed of establishing a communist state, even by means of violence, if necessary. The PKI condemned the economic exploitation of the country and stepped up its campaign against Dutch rule in Indonesia. It had a special appeal to the workers in all urban centres and tried to paralyze the Dutch regime by organising strikes. The PKI formed a large number of trade unions, and got them affiliated to the main centre at Canton. The communists organised an uprising in November, 1926 despite the reluctance from Moscow. But this revolt was crushed by the government. The government declared a ban on the communist party. A large number of communist leaders were imprisoned, and the others left the country. The communist movement in the country received a great setback and until 1941 it could not play any useful role in Indonesia. The main cause of the failure of the communist movement was that it could not establish a rapport with the other revolutionary movements, particularly the peasant movement. Also, the

movement failed because the party was getting split into several factions each quarreling with the other. Thirdly, the communist party did not have a grass root level organisation to enlist the support of millions of peasants suffering from the misrule of the Dutch. Even the urban workers did not show their enthusiasm in participating in a strike when the communist party called for it.

The New National Party (PNI) The Dutch Government let loose its engine of oppression, and all political movements in the country were looked upon with great suspicion. In the meantime, the Sarekat Islam had lost its glamour and popularity. Therefore, the need of the hour was a new organisation which could be led by dynamic leaders. In these circumstances, a large number of student study centres became active and prepared the ground for the emergence of a new national party. The new national party happened to be the Indonesian nationalist party (PNI meaning Per Serikatan National Indonesia) which started in 1927. It was led by two eminent leaders, Dr Sukarno and Djipto Mangun Kusuma. The former was an engineer by profession who became popular on account of his leadership qualities. He brought all the non-communist nationalists into his organisation, gave a flag to the party, and a national anthem (Indonesia Raya). Sukarno was inspired by the “example of India’s Congress Party and its programme of mass pressure through non-co-operation”, (J F Cady). The Dutch prevented Sukarno and his followers from spreading the national movement. They were arrested and sent to prison in the Flores Island in 1929. The great depression of 1929 worsened the economic conditions in Indonesia. To make matters worse a hundred thousand Javanese labourers returned home from abroad.

The Partindo The post-depression period in Indonesia witnessed the rise of a new socialist party Partain Nasional Indonesia (in short, Partindo) led by Sutan Sjaharir and Mohammad Hatta. Both of them had returned from Europe. Sukarno joined them after completing his prison term. However the Dutch government sensed trouble and quickly acted against all the three. Sukarno went into exile in 1933 to avoid arrest, and the two others were arrested and sent to New Guinea. Thus, the Indonesian nationalist movement was devoid of leadership, and could not make much progress until the Japanese occupation during the Second World War. During this period, the Dutch Government adopted the policy of extending

political concessions to the people by piecemeal method. Unfortunately, this piecemeal method did not satisfy the people of Indonesia, since it was devoid of any move towards providing a responsible government with the co-operation, of the people. Hence, political tensions prevailed. The Dutch government tried to suppress all legitimate movements of the people and therefore, became quite unpopular. Under these circumstances, the Indonesians were prepared to welcome the Japanese occupation of their country hoping to attain self-rule in future. When the Second World War broke out, the Dutch refused to arm the Indonesians to defend themselves from the Japanese aggression, with the hope that they could hold on to its colony. In the end, the politically conscious Indonesians welcomed the arrival of the Japanese who released the Indonesian leaders, Sukarno, Sjaharir and Hatta from prison.

The Japanese Occupation As early as 1933, Japan had been making attempts to gather enough support for her future rule in Indonesia by wooing the Muslim population. Some Japanese students were sent to West Asia to study Islam, and on their return founded the Islamic Association in Tokyo. This association held its World Congress in 1938 and invited Indonesian delegates to attend. The Japanese Government sent delegates to the Islamic federation called MIAI held at Surabaya in 1937, for the purpose of wooing the conservative Muslim groups of Indonesia to its side. In fact, this was intended to create a feeling of revulsion to the Dutch rule of Indonesia. When the Japanese army occupied Indonesia in 1942, it included a large number of Muslim soldiers who were accompanied by Haji-robed Japanese. What Japan planned to do was to encourage Indonesian religious groups to play an important role, and at the same time suppress political associations such as Sarekat Islam and PNI. In her opinion, the latter two should have no hold on the people. Subsequently, Japan tried to impose her rule on Indonesia with the support of the Islamic Federation (MIAI) which included groups such as reformist Muhammadijah and conservative Nahdlatul Ulama. The scribes of the MIAI attended training camps held by the Japanese where they were indoctrinated. In these camps, the greatness of the Japanese culture and leadership was stressed. Afterwards they were sent to the villages to act as agents to urge the Indonesians to extend whole - hearted co-operation to Japanese rule. In the course of time, the MIAI realised the game of the Japanese

army, and put forward several of its demands in 1943, which the latter was unable to concede. When the MIAI failed to extend full cooperation, the Japanese Government took the next step, that is to sponsor a new political organisation called Putera. This organisation tried to attract the attention as well as co-operation of two great Indonesian leaders, namely Sukarno and Hatta. The Japanese asked these two leaders to take over the leadership of this organisation which was supposed to implement the Japanese policies and economic programmes in Indonesia. In return the Japanese promised political autonomy to the country, and the two leaders agreed to lead this organisation. Suspicious of the Japanese promise, these two leaders clandestinely encouraged underground Indonesian leaders to carry on with their activities against Japanese imperialism. Sukarno and Hatta agreed to help the Japanese in the recruitment of soldiers to the Japanese army, provide supply of materials, and mobilise enough resources to help the Japanese to achieve their goal of establishing “Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere”, all subject to the condition that the country would be granted political autonomy. This agreement remained valid until 1943, when Putera was abolished. In Java, the Japanese plan did not yield results. The Javanese hated the racial superiority and arrogance of the Japanese, and also their methods of exploiting the labour force. The Japanese army snatched away great quantities of food grains from them in order to feed its soldiers. The last step of the Japanese to seek the co-operation of the Indonesians was taken by establishing a political party known as the Masyumi Party which was composed of native scribes and village teachers. This organisation was founded for the purpose of securing the co-operation of the natives for assisting their defence against the invading allied forces. From mid-1944 onwards, Japan began to suffer a series of reverses in the Second World War, and in September 1944, promised total independence to the Indonesians. On the eve of the Japanese surrender to the Allies, the people of Indonesia led by Sukarno, declared independence and formed a republic in August 1945 with the moral support of the Japanese. However, the story of the Indonesian struggle against the Dutch colonial rule did not end as expected. The exiled Dutch Government decided to return to continue its rule over Indonesia from its headquarters in Batavia.

The Indonesian Revolution (1945-49) The last phase of the Indonesian struggle for freedom may be termed a “revolution” since Indonesia had to challenge the return of the Dutch on the one

side, and forge a united front against the communist threat on the other. So it took another four years for her to achieve sovereignty and independence (27 December, 1949). In 1945, the British forces came to Indonesia to accept the surrender of the Japanese. They were helped in this process by the nationalist government. Subsequently, 200,000 Dutch prisoners held by the Japanese in the Indonesian prisons were released. The Dutch Government, which was in exile, sent Dr Van Mook after the Japanese surrender, with the instruction to denounce the nationalist government led by Sukarno. He was appointed to restore Dutch rule in Indonesia. In the meantime, the nationalists in Indonesia demanded that their republic be recognised by the government of the Netherlands before any negotiations could take place. Subsequently, Sukarno resigned in favour of Sutan Sjahrir. After rejecting the demand of the nationalists, the Dutch started capturing island after island, thereby posing a serious challenge to the Indonesian nationalist government. Negotiations continued between the new Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Government in the occupied territories. It finally ended in the signing of the Linggadjati Agreement (25 March, 1947) with the mediation of the British Government. The Linggadjati Agreement (also known as the Cheribon Agreement) envisaged, not only the formation and control of the Indonesian Republic but also the inclusion for Borneo and the “Great East”. This was to be called the United States of Indonesia (USI) and constitute a part of greater NetherlandsIndonesia. The USI was to seek admission as a member of the United Nations. The Union Government of the USI was to extend its control over important subjects like defence, foreign affairs and finance. However, the working arrangement between the government of the Netherlands and the Indonesian Federation did not bring about political unity of the country. In fact, the Indonesians hated the indirect rule of the Dutch. Within four months of the signing of the agreement, there arose a quarrel between the Dutch Government and the Indonesian Republic. It resulted in the armed invasion of Indonesia by the Dutch which had serious international repercussions. India and a host of neutral countries appealed to the UN to bring about a ceasefire between the two parties. This ceasefire came into force following the ratification of the Renville Agreement (17 January, 1948). A committee composed of the representatives of the US, Australia and Belgium was set up which worked for establishing durable peace. The committee proposed a plebiscite to ask the people whether they would like to remain with the Republic or under Dutch sovereignty. Before anything tangible could take place, the Netherlands Government shocked the world with another invasion of the Indonesian Republic terming it ‘police action’. The neutral nations led by India

in the United Nations were outraged. An Asian conference was convened by India’s Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, which strongly condemned the Dutch aggression. The United Nations Security Council brought about a ceasefire in Indonesia. The Dutch Government finally agreed to transfer power and sovereignty to Indonesia after coming under the pressure of the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa. The formation of the Republic of United States of Indonesia (RUSI) took shape with sixteen states (Republic of Indonesia being one of them) on 27 December, 1949. During its transitional phase, it was to be led by the Netherlands. The Dutch felt very awkward in the new political set-up and therefore, quit Indonesia. Thus Indonesia gained her freedom and sovereignty from Dutch colonial rule. In the course of time, the federal setup was dismantled without any war. Sukarno became the first president of Indonesia (1945-1967), and he assumed dictatorial powers after introducing ‘Guided Democracy’ (a democratic system guided by an autocratic president) in 1957.

Kampuchea: Hostility Towards French Rule The French tried to grant autonomous status to Cambodia in 1946, but King Norodom Sihanouk felt that French rule over his kingdom was unbearable. There was a change of attitude found in the King’s behaviour during this time. He began to hate the French domination and began to sympathise with the liberation struggle. In the meantime, the Democrat Party in Cambodia opposed the continuation of French rule, and subsequently the King himself championed the cause of liberation. The people of Cambodia began to treat the King with great respect since he symbolised in his person, the national aspirations. His immense popularity forced the members of the Khmer Issarak (Free Khmer movement) to surrender and join the Democrat Party. They all expected that King Norodom would lead the nation towards achieving the goal of total independence. In spite of the best efforts of the King in this direction, the French continued to be unwilling to give up full control. They were prepared to give autonomy, but not total independence to Cambodia. Therefore, the King had to face a number of difficulties since a large majority of the population and the National Assembly totally opposed the continuation of French rule. It was at this time that the cambodian nationalist, Son Ngoc Thanh returned to the Cambodian capital to revive the freedom movement. The King was not prepared for this and therefore, did not tolerate Son’s activities. The King continued to act like a dictator and dismissed the

Cabinet with the hope that the National Assembly would grant him unlimited powers to govern the country.

Total Independence (1953) In January, 1953, Sihanouk surprised everyone by asking people to join him to fight for independence, and tried to secure international sympathy for his freedom movement. His whirlwind campaigning across France and the United States was for this purpose. It was in the month of November that his efforts were crowned with success. After protracted negotiations with the French Government, Kampuchea was granted total independence on 9 November, 1953. The King returned to Kampuchea on the independence day which incidentally happened to be his birthday.

Vietnam: Origins of the Vietnamese National Movement The origins of Vietnamese nationalism go back to the early centuries of the Christian era when the Vietnamese made bold attempts to oppose Chinese domination. Subsequently, the Vietnamese continued to revolt against the Chinese domination in the early fifteenth century. After the conquest of Vietnam by the French in 1885, the French imperialists started following a policy of assimilation with respect to the people of Vietnam. In their attempt to accomplish this, they destroyed the traditional village autonomy and imposed central control. French rule was also opposed by the natives of Cochinchina in the 1860s and also in the early decades of the twentieth century. The resistance movement in this region was led by the scholar-gentry which enjoyed the support of the peasants.

Nationalist Leaders Two major events of the early twentieth century that had a deep impact on the progress of the Vietnamese national movement, viz, the defeat of Russia at the hands of Japan (1904-05) and the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in China in 1911. These events inspired two Vietnamese leaders, Phan Boi Chau and Phan Chau Trinh, to organise a national movement for the liberation of Vietnam. The former was a popular writer and scholar, in addition to heading an organisation called Duy Tan Hoi. He advocated enlightened monarchy as a panacea for all the

ills of Vietnam. On the other hand, Phan Chau Trinh discarded it as obsolete and pleaded for the introduction of the Western type of democracy in Vietnam. Phan Chau Trinh was arrested and sent to languish in French prisons for his audacity to organise a tax-resistance movement in 1908. The Vietnamese participated in the First World War with the hope that their conditions would improve after its conclusion. However, their hopes were dashed to the ground, since the French Government was not prepared to concede to their demands.

Birth of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDD) There emerged a number of political organisations, some Marxist and others non-Marxist which instigated uprisings against the continuation of French rule in Vietnam. Out of them, the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDD) founded in 1927, had a large following, mainly due to the adoption of the principles of nationalism, democracy and socialism (Sun Yat Sen’s principles) as their objectives. The Marxist group included communists and trotskyites and these two groups merged in the course of time under the dynamic leadership of Nguyen Ai Quoc (known later as Ho Chi Minh). Ho Chi Minh was born in a mandarin family in 1890. He joined the marine service and left his homeland as a cabin-boy. He spent some years in London and subsequently in Paris, where he wrote pamphlets for the leftists. Intensely patriotic, he waved placards outside the Versailles Conference demanding selfdetermination for his country. He joined the French Socialist Party. Thereafter, he visited Moscow as a Communist Party delegate in order to participate in the Peasant International(Krestintern). He went to Canton to work as an assistant and translator to Michael Borodin, who became the Russian advisor to the Kuomintang Party in China. In the meantime, Ho Chi Minh formed the Thanh Nien, i.e., the Association of Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth. Inspired by the Comintern, Ho Chi Minh gave opportunities to many volunteers of his newlyfounded organisations to take training in China and Russia. In 1930, Ho Chi Minh united the three communist groups under the banner, Indochina Communist Party (ICP). It consisted of 1,500 members and enjoyed the general support of many peasant organisations in Vietnam.

The Revolt of 1930-31 A revolt against French rule in Vietnam was organised by VNQDD in 1930,

which failed, despite popular support. This was because of a leak, by which the French authorities came to know of the impending event well in advance. The French authorities crushed this revolt mercilessly and got many leaders arrested, and some executed. The political void left by the decline of VNQDD was to be filled by the communists. The ICP organised a revolt of the peasants in May, 1930, which also failed, leading to hundreds of communists getting arrested with some even being executed. Fortunately, the leader of the ICP, Ho Chi Minh, escaped to Hong Kong. In due course, Ho Chi Minh was arrested and jailed by the British during the period, 1930-33.

Constitutional Monarchy The frequent uprisings in Vietnam had the desired effect on the makers of French foreign policy. The French Government tried to secure public sympathy in Vietnam by asking Prince Bao Dai to become the constitutional monarch and introduced necessary reforms. A moderate and liberal leader named Ngo Dinh Diem, who headed the Interior Ministry went ahead with his plans to introduce reforms which his country so badly needed. Unfortunately, the reforms did not get underway because the King had to seek the consent of the French Government. The French withheld consent for no reason. Probably, the French Government felt that the reforms were too radical to be accepted. Ngo Dinh Diem resigned as the Chief of the Reform Commission in 1933. The Popular Front Government in France ordered the political prisoners in Vietnam to be released and the ICP took advantage of this opportunity to reorganise itself into a political party, the Democratic National Front, attracting into its fold, not only the leftists but also the patriotic rightists. The leaders of this party were Pham Van Dong and Vo Nguyen Giap, who subsequently, worked hand in hand with Ho Chi Minh. In the meantime, the Popular Front Government in France fell, with the result that the Communist Party was banned. When the Second World War broke out, the Japanese overran the whole of Southeast Asia. In the case of Indochina, Japan came to an understanding with the French Vichy Government in 1940 that France could continue its rule over Vietnam, on the condition that it should permit Japanese military activities in the Vietnamese ports. The French Government was also asked to make available, the vast resources of Vietnam to the Japanese. The Japanese act of permitting the French colonial government to continue functioning incurred the wrath of the Vietnamese. When Ho Chi Minh was

released from prison, he convened a meeting of the Central Committee in south China (1941), where it was decided to change the political objective from “agrarian reforms and class revolution to the immediate goal of independence …”. It was in these circumstances that the League of Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) was established, and Ho Chi Minh chosen as its Secretary-General. The Viet Minh decided to start Salvation Associations everywhere to fight the enemies of Vietnam, namely, France and Japan. By 1944, the Viet Minh had a strength of 5,000 volunteers who controlled three border provinces. This force was commanded by the most redoubtable Vietnamese General, Vo Nguyen Giap. In 1945, he was also commanding guerilla forces known as the Viet Cong, and at the same time establishing bases in the Tongking region. In March, 1945, the Japanese who were playing second fiddle to the French in Vietnam, finally seized power after imprisoning the French rulers. They established a puppet regime of Emperor Bao Dai (this time to act as a Japanese agent after forsaking the French). In the meantime, the Viet Minh was successful in establishing what is called liberated zones on the Vietnamese-Chinese borders. It was from these liberated zones that the Viet Minh tried to penetrate into the Red River delta.

The Aftermath of Japanese Surrender In the middle of August, 1945, the Japanese forces surrendered to the Allies, resulting in a political vacuum in Vietnam. Emperor Bao Dai abdicated in favour of the Viet Minh, the only power there to be able to run an independent government in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam’s independence to a milling crowd on 2 September, 1945 after the capture of Hanoi. This event heralded the birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

Vietnam Partitioned Following the conclusion of the war, the Allies decided that Vietnam should be governed by Nationalist China and Britain, the former to operate above the sixteenth parallel and the latter below it. The British released the French officials from prison in South Vietnam and asked them to administer the territory temporarily on their behalf. Ironically, France which had herself been occupied by the German army witnessed the liberation of her soil by the Allied troops. She lost no time now in asserting her imperial rights over the whole of Indochina. The Chinese troops with VNQDD and the Dong Minh Hoi

partitioned Hanoi, the capital of North Vietnam into several pockets, giving authority to the Viet Minh to look after only a few pockets. The struggle of the Viet Minh in the south was of no avail. Its appeal for help from the USA and China became a cry in the wilderness. It was at this time that Ho Chi Minh, as the leader of Viet Minh, found his job the most difficult and challenging. He had to take up the task of liberating and uniting the divided country from formidable enemies. Undaunted by these adversities, he carefully planned to destroy the enemies so as to bring about freedom to his country. He was aware that it would mean a long struggle against the Western imperialists. Ho Chi Minh suddenly announced the dissolution of the ICP on 5 November, 1945, and agreed to cede 10 seats to VNQDD in the forthcoming elections for the National Assembly. He agreed to share power along with Dong Minh Hoi. Forming a coalition ministry, he signed an agreement with France permitting the French troops to replace the Nationalist Chinese troops in Hanoi. What he desired in return was France’s recognition to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a free state with its own government but under the control of the French Union. The modalities of the actual working of this new set-up were to be accomplished through negotiations between the concerned parties. However, Ho Chi Minh was in fact, planning to eliminate foreign powers one by one from Vietnamese soil like Bismarck, who accomplished this for Germany in the nineteenth century. He was quite successful in expelling the Nationalist Chinese troops who had been causing a lot of trouble in his country.

The Indochina War (1946-54) At the conference held in Fontainebleau, the French made things difficult for the Democratic Republic of Vietnam by breaking the promises made earlier, and separating Cochinchina from Vietnam. In fact, the French wanted to rule Cochinchina through a puppet regime. What followed was hostile actions by both, but France exceeded its limit by launching aerial and naval bombardments of the Port of Hai Phong in November 1946. These bombardments caused heavy casualties, killing nearly 6,000 Vietnamese civilians. The Viet Minh retaliated by attacking the French strategic posts everywhere, including Hanoi. A full scale Indochina war broke out lasting eight years between the Viet Minh forces of North Vietnam and the French-American led South Vietnamese forces. The Viet Minh forces (including the Viet Cong) showed their devotion and dedication to

the cause of Vietnamese independence which secured popular sympathy.

The Recognition of DRV Showing no desire to terminate her colonial rule, France declared in 1949 the emergence of the Republic of Vietnam as a part of the French Union, with Laos and Cambodia being treated as associated states. In the meantime, Britain and the United States declared their recognition to the French-controlled Vietnamese Republic which provoked the Soviet Union and Communist China to retaliate by declaring their recognition to the DRV led by Ho Chi Minh. The Cold War thus spread to Indochina thanks to the rivalry between the two superpowers.

The Course of the War The war which dragged on for nearly eight years tested the patience, courage and the strength of the Viet Minh. During this critical time, the redoubtable Viet Minh General, General Giap, employed the methods of guerilla warfare. The Viet Cong came to be dreaded by the French and subsequently by the American forces in the Vietnam war. France was at the end of its tether because the war took a heavy toll and also seriously disturbed the French political system, with French ministries rising and falling frequently. The war ended disastrously for France, in spite of American assistance, with the capture of their strongest fortress, Dien Bien Phu (7 May, 1954), by the Viet Minh forces. The Viet Minh lost a staggering number of nearly 50,000 soldiers, while the French forces lost 70,000 men. France, thus, lost its interest in holding on to this colony and sued for peace. At the Geneva Conference, which began the next day, the two parties to the Indochina war agreed to the following terms: 1. Vietnam was to be temporarily divided into two parts, the North and the South with the dividing line being the Seventeenth parallel. 2. France to give up her control over North Vietnam and the Viet Minh to evacuate her troops from South Vietnam, as well as Laos and Cambodia. 3. General elections would be held in July, 1956 for the whole of Vietnam for the purpose of deciding reunification of the country. 4. France was to declare the total independence of her protectorates, namely, Cambodia and Laos. After achieving independence, these two states were to remain neutral.

Geneva Agreement Violated Thus, North Vietnam came under the control of the Viet Minh with Hanoi as its headquarters, and the South with Saigon as its capital. The Geneva Accord was to be implemented under the aegis of the International Control Commission constituted by India (Chairman), Poland and Canada. The terms of the Geneva Accord agreed upon by both France and the Viet Minh were not in written form. Unfortunately, the accord was violated mainly by South Vietnam with the support of the United States and France. In the meantime, the French appointed Ngo Dinh Diem as the prime minister of South Vietnam. He attracted the attention of the United States after he solved the Catholic refugee problem. It was then, that the US assisted him to consolidate his position vis-a-vis the Chief of the State, Bao Dai. A referendum in October, 1955 brought about the fall of Bao Dai and his replacement by Ngo Dinh Diem. The US-supported Ngo Dinh Diem refused to endorse the Geneva Accord which included the holding of the general elections in July 1956 for the purpose of reunification of Vietnam. Thus, the US Government began to play a game aimed at containing communist expansion in South and Southeast Asia. The South Vietnamese President perfectly fitted into their scheme of things. After failing to save China from the jaws of communism in 1949, the United States was not prepared to give up her next opportunity of saving Vietnam from communism. Ngo Dinh Diem’s oppressive policies alienated the sympathies of the South Vietnamese. His land reforms were not radical enough to bring about a proper redistribution of lands among the landless. He was accused of favouring the people of his own community, the Catholics, who had come from North Vietnam. He was also accused of misusing the economic assistance provided by the United States Government. The North Vietnamese leaders were also very unhappy at the turn of events which kept Vietnam a divided country. The international community did not make any serious attempt to pressurise the US-supported South Vietnamese Government to ratify the Geneva Accord and hold elections. It was at this critical juncture (May, 1959) that the Ho Chi Minh-led North Vietnamese Government decided to liberate South Vietnam by overthrowing the Diem regime. It was for this avowed purpose that North Vietnam established the National Liberation Front (NLF) in South Vietnam in 1960, with the support of the disgruntled South Vietnamese. Ho Chi Minh was the brain behind this scheme of encouraging the South Vietnamese to revolt against their government. North Vietnam started giving secret assistance to the southerners in the form of

arms supplies, military training and provision of manpower. In the 1960s, South Vietnam witnessed several insurgencies against its government with the connivance of the North Vietnamese Government.

The Fall of Diem In 1962, the Diem Government faced a serious crisis known as the Buddhist crisis. The president’s brother and his wife were involved in the halting of the celebration of the birthday of the Buddha, provoking the buddhist monks who revolted. The oppressive regime of Diem crushed this revolt mercilessly without giving any thought to the possible repercussions. A Buddhist monk felt so outraged by these merciless killings of his brethren that he committed selfimmolation. The whole world came to know of this great tragedy, and the US took note of Diem’s unpopularity and distanced themselves from him. In the end, the South Vietnamese generals brought about the overthrow of the Diem Government. The president and his brother were assassinated on 1 November, 1963 with the tacit support of the American Government. What followed was a game of ‘musical chairs’ played among the army generals of South Vietnam. It was this situation that provided a good opportunity to the National Liberation Front to extend its control and influence over hundreds of villages in South Vietnam.

The US Involvement in the Vietnamese War In August, 1964, President Lyndon Johnson informed the Americans that an armed American vessel, Turner Joy, joining the USS Maddox, had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats outside the North Vietnamese territorial waters (the Gulf of Tongking). Subsequently, the President informed the Americans that he was retaliating to the war-like situation by ordering aerial bombardment of North Vietnamese military installations. Without much information about what was happening in the Gulf of Tongking, the Americans Senators and Representatives gave full authority to the president to take suitable action against North Vietnam. Thus, the US administration became involved in an undeclared war with North Vietnam, and perpetrated horrible atrocities on its people by subjecting them to aerial bombardments. This American blunder was exposed by Senator Fulbright who became a severe critic of the president’s Vietnam policy (see his book, Arrogance of Power.) It became necessary for North Vietnam to give

adequate assistance to the NLF in South Vietnam. For Johnson, who dragged the US into the quagmire (dirty war), it cost him his chance of getting re-elected as president. He declined to contest for the second term, and his successor, Richard Nixon, got elected as US President with the promise of ending the Vietnam war, which had incidentally spread to Cambodia. President Nixon regarded the Vietnam war as a no-win situation. His National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger, played an important role in bringing about the end of the Vietnamese war. It had cost 45,627 American lives by 1971. By this time, the United States Government had spent nearly $150 billion. South Vietnam was ravaged by the war and North Vietnam had turned into a desert after heavy bombardments by the US Air Force. Despite these adversities, the people of North Vietnam showed their indomitable courage proving to the world that no superpower on earth could subdue them. The Vietnam war forced the US Defence Secretary McNamara to resign in 1967. He expressed his opinion freely and frankly by saying there was no use of continuing the war. Finally, the Paris Peace Accord was concluded in January, 1973, which formally declared the end of the Vietnamese war. Ho Chi Minh symbolised in his person, Vietnamese nationalism. It was his finest hour. The Paris Peace Accord was the culmination of the untiring efforts of great statesmen of North Vietnam and the US, namely, Le Duc Tho and Henry Kissinger. In recognition of their peace efforts, these two great statesmen were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The three parties which signed the accord, unfortunately, did not keep it. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam invaded the South at a time when the US was withdrawing her forces from Vietnam. President Thieu of South Vietnam ordered the retreat and final surrender of his troops to the invading North Vietnamese army. Saigon was captured by the North Vietnamese forces in April, 1975. It was renamed as Ho Chi Minh city. Thus the two parts of Vietnam finally got united in 1976 under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh.

PART X

Decolonisation and Underdevelopment Chapter 34 Factors Constraining Development: Latin America, Africa

34 Factors Constraining Development: Latin America, Africa Latin America Economic History

F

rom Mexico in North America to Terra del Fuego at the tip of South America, there are about twenty Latin American countries which had been colonised by the Spanish rulers in the early sixteenth century. All of them became free during the early decades of the nineteenth century, thanks to great revolutionaries like Simon Bolivar and San Martin. The Spanish Kings permitted the Conquistadors to occupy large tracts of lands and employ the natives to work for them. In the course of time, these lands were called Latifundia, which were developed by the agents of the Conquistadors. The Crown appropriated all the gold and silver that were mined in these areas. With the passage of time, the estate owners brought slaves from Africa to work along with the natives in their lands. The Spanish governors and the estate owners formed the ruling elite. The church officials occupied important positions. There were only two classes in the society, namely, the ruling elite and the peasants. The natives were meek and obedient, and never questioned the authority of their masters. Some courts were set up here and there to look into the complaints of illegal actions of the masters. Thousands of natives were converted to Christianity. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Latin American countries prospered gradually, due to trade and commerce. The new Latin republican governments adopted the traditionalist strategy of economic growth. In other words, they believed in economic growth based on exports of primary products like coffee, cotton, and minerals. This strategy enriched the coffers of the

exporters, bankers, traders, commercial farmers and foreign investors. As a result, the gap between the rich and the poor widened. The Latin American society, by now, consisted of four classes, namely, the ruling elite (governors, owners of commercial farms, bankers and big businessmen), the upper middle class (managers, professionals, military officials and bureaucrats), the lower middle class (teachers, small farmers, clerks and low ranking military officials) and the poor (landless labourers, marginal farmers, street vendors and domestic servants). Seventy per cent of the national income was enjoyed by the ruling elite and the upper middle class. Therefore, the Latin American countries suffered from skewed economic development. The only remedy to improve the situation was to go in for rapid industrialisation. This was not possible due to ever increasing growth of population and paucity of capital. The population growth in many Latin American countries in the early decades of the twentieth century became a critical issue, to be kept in mind, while implementing any developmental strategy. A few countries in Latin America like Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela received large number of immigrants. The population grew, anywhere between 2.5 to three per cent at a time when the economic growth was about five per cent. The governments of the day thought of implementing modern methods of contraception to control population growth. However, the Roman Catholic Church came in the way. Therefore, urban and rural poverty became conspicuous in almost all the Latin American countries. The Great Depression of 1929, following the stock market crash in the US, had disastrous effects on the economic development of Latin America. With the exception of Venezuela and Argentina, all the Latin American countries were burdened with heavy public debt and were forced to suspend payment of interests to foreign governments. Unemployment and labour unrest became a common feature in these countries. During the period 1930-31, eleven of the twenty Latin American countries experienced revolutions—many of them bloodless. In view of this situation, the traditionalist strategy of development through exports had to be changed. This was because countries in North America and Europe stopped buying products from Latin America. Compelled by circumstances, many Latin American countries adopted what is now known as the Import Substitute Industrialisation (ISI). In other words, these countries believed in self-sufficiency and depended less upon imports. All the industries, which were started from the 1960s, were geared to meet internal consumption. The ISI model of development helped many of these countries till the 1970s. However, the ISI model had to be dumped due to its inherent defects. The 1980s is known as the ‘lost decade’ of Latin America due to the debt crises. The debt

crisis affected not only Mexico, but also the rest of Latin America. It was because of this crisis that foreign countries stopped lending and investing in Latin America. The IMF and the World Bank began to offer economic assistance to Latin America, but on fulfilment of certain conditions. These organisations encouraged Latin America to adopt structural economic reforms (stabilisation, liberalisation and privatisation). The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) concluded a pact of economic assistance with a few Latin American countries like Brazil, Chile and Argentina in 1993. This pact, initially, benefitted these countries immensely. As a result many other Latin American countries too adopted free market reforms. However, during the late 1990s, a majority of Latin American countries faced severe economic recession which caused many industries to close down. As a result, unemployment and poverty increased. The financial downturn in Argentina (1999-2002) caused severe hardships to the common people leading to riots and breakdown of law and order. In 2001, the Argentinean Government limited cash withdrawals from individual bank accounts to $1000 per month which caused resentment among bank account holders. This was done for the purpose of checking the depleting bank deposits. Earlier, in 1994 and 1999, Mexico and Brazil respectively, suffered financial crises. Thus, the World Bank and IMF’s prescription of free market reforms failed miserably in Latin America. The world economic recession of 2008 affected Latin American countries too. The influence of the US over Latin America began to diminish greatly. The disillusionment with free market economy has caused the Latin American people to vote to power, left-leaning presidents. This “Turn to the Left”, referred to as the Pink Tide, is sweeping across Latin America. A new regional group (consisting of thirty-three sovereign nations) called the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) was formed in February, 2010. The purpose of this group is to deepen economic ties among the member states and thereby reduce the influence of the US. The CELAC is seen as an alternative to the US-dominated Organisation of American States (OAS). It is led by well known leftist presidents like Hugo Chavez (Venezuela), Raul Castro (Cuba) and Rafael Correa (Ecuador).

Factors Constraining Latin American Development Ever since their independence from colonial powers, Latin American countries have not witnessed any functional democracy worth mentioning. In other words,

their democracies did not take deep roots, and therefore power was often usurped by unscrupulous dictators. For instance, Bolivia came under military rule from 1964 to 1982. It has witnessed more than 200 coups in its history. Honduras came under the rule of several military dictators after witnessing coups and counter-coups. Paraguay came under the long military dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner (1954-89). The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), comprising of revolutionaries, seized power from the Somoza Dynasty in 1979 following a civil war in Nicaragua. The revolutionary government of the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990. Uruguay too came under military rule from 1976 to 1985. Venezuela was ruled by military dictators, off and on, throughout the twentieth century. Augusto Pinochet, commander-in-chief of the Chilean army, seized power after a coup in 1973, and was the Chilean President till 1990. His regime was responsible for many violations of human rights, which included deaths, tortures and disappearances of thousands of his political opponents. Peru was under the military rule of General Juan Alvarado from 1968 to 1975. Argentina was ruled by military dictator, Juan Peron, from 1946 to 1955, and again from 1973 to 1974. Fidel Castro, a Cuban revolutionary, overthrew the pro-US Batista regime after a successful guerilla war in 1959 and ruled Cuba holding various positions of power- Prime Minister (1959-2008) and President (1976-2008)]. All these dictators came to power mainly because of the failure of civilian governments to solve the problems of the common man. Most of these dictators, except Castro of Cuba and Peron of Argentina, proved to be unpopular. Some of the Latin American countries witnessed prolonged civil wars which derailed their economic development. For example, Guatemala experienced a civil war in the 1960s, which killed 100,000 people. El Salvador witnessed a twelve-year civil war in the 1990s that caused the deaths of 75,000 people. Paraguay, a land-locked country, fought wars with neighbouring countries. Nicaragua faced a civil war during the period 1978-79. The Falkland Islands War waged by Argentina’s military Junta against Britain in 1982 ended with disastrous consequences. It resulted in negative economic growth with more than 100% inflation in Argentina. One of the important factors that prevented economic development of Latin America in the first half of the nineteenth century, was the lack of industrialisation. The two world wars during the first half of the nineteenth century caused immense misery to the common people. With the exception of a few countries like Brazil, industrialisation was absent in most of the Latin American countries. As a result, unemployment, poverty and disease became common, and the duly elected governments were unable to cope with these

problems. The political instability in Colombia for nearly a century and a half (1840-1990) caused great hardships to the commoners. The drug trading cartel, based in Medellin especially, constantly posed a serious threat to the political stability in Colombia. Another important factor that acted as a deterrent to the economic growth in Latin America was the debt crises in the 1980s. It shook the confidence of the international investors. The latter were always uneasy about starting their business ventures due to constant political instability. Government debts, particularly in Mexico, rose very high in the 1980s causing hyperinflation. Similarly, Peru faced its worst hyperinflation during the late 1980s. One of the deterrent factors to the economic development is the widespread corruption. In the early 1990s, Brazil was very much affected by the corruption scandal involving the government of President Fernando Collor de Mello. In 2006, Transparency International which publishes Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), reported high rate of corruption prevailing in all Latin American countries except Chile, Uruguay and Barbados. A large number of politicians in these countries were found to be corrupt, and they were unable to fulfil the election promises made to the people. Free market reforms introduced by a few Latin American countries were met with stiff resistance from the people. For instance, in 1989, President Carlos Andrés Pérez followed the advice of the IMF and introduced liberal reforms such as tightening of subsidies given on petroleum products. This caused rise in petrol prices leading to large scale protests. The government used force to quell the protests which caused hundreds of deaths. In September 2003, when the Bolivian President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada attempted to export natural gas to North America, he faced large scale protests leading to his resignation in October, 2003. His successor, Carlos Mesa, faced protests on the same issue in May, 2005. Lack of inclusive economic growth has led to widespread poverty and unrest. According to a 2005 report of Economic Commission for Latin American Countries (ECLAC), more than 200 million people (forty per-cent of the Latin American population) live in poverty and eighty-one million among them live in extreme poverty. forty to seventy per cent of the wealth generated in these countries is enjoyed by the rich. It goes to show that distribution of income remained unequal. Another deterrent factor to the economic growth was foreign interference and military interventions. The US government constantly interfered in the internal affairs of these countries. For instance, the US President Theodore Roosevelt encouraged the people of Panama to declare their independence from

Colombia in 1903, which enabled the US to undertake the construction of the Panama Canal. In 1973, President Nixon supported General Pinochet in effecting a regime change in Chile by toppling the Marxist government of President Salvador Allende. The US was also involved in the military affairs of Bolivia in the 1950s and 1960s under the guise of stopping drug-trafficking. Despite the above mentioned constraints, the Latin American nations have been making progress in economic development during the last two decades.

Africa (Sub-Saharan Region) Africa is the second largest and second most populous continent after Asia. Western imperial powers colonised Africa during the 1890s with purpose of exploiting its rich natural and mineral resources. It was in the 1960s and afterwards that these African colonies attained their independence from their colonial masters. Soon after their independence, many African countries sought military and economic assistance from the erstwhile Soviet Union. They were unwittingly drawn into the Cold War between the superpowers, and a few of them like Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique had to experience civil wars, which continued for many years. Despite availability of cheap labour, abundant natural resources and fertile soil, the African countries have had the misfortune of being led by incompetent dictators and military rulers. They suffered from civil wars, famines, droughts which caused starvation and disease. Many parts of Africa are constantly plagued by diseases like malaria, HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, diarrhoea, respiratory diseases etc. which killed millions of people over the past few decades. A majority of fifty-three African nations (barring South Africa, Botswana and Namibia) is found to be poor, taking into consideration economic indicators like per capita index and human development index. The Sub-Saharan African nations could not make much progress due to racial discrimination by the white supremacists. Angola suffered from civil wars between 1975 and 2002, and the Democratic Republic of Congo also experienced the First Congo War (1996-97) and the Second Congo War (1998-2003) which resulted in deaths of millions of people due to starvation and disease. In the 1990s, the ethnic conflict between the Tutsis and the Hutus in Rwanda claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Nigeria experienced sixteen years of military rule and a new constitution was adopted in 1999. Nigeria is now a divided nation, the Muslim North and the Christian South, with periodic transfer of power between the two. This powersharing arrangement is not working satisfactorily and thereby causing unrest.

There were food riots in Zambia in the 1990s. The world’s poorest countries are found in Africa, and frequent natural disasters and poor governance have added to their problems. From the above, it is evident that democracy has not gained ground in the African nations. Droughts and internal conflicts have severely impacted political stability in these nations. The economies of these countries have been handicapped due to lack of infrastructure, low rates of literacy, want of foreign investment, shortage of foreign exchange reserves, and ever increasing domestic and external debts. Many of these countries have no capital markets due to poor savings. Inefficient governments and widespread corruption have contributed in great measures to the underdevelopment of these nations.

PART XI

Unification of Europe Chapter 35 Post-War Foundations: NATO and European Community Chapter 36 The European Union

35 Post-War Foundations: NATO and European Community North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

S

ome Western European countries were afraid of the growing threat posed by communism to all the free nations following World War II. Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Brussels on 17 March, 1948, and formed a military defensive alliance. In the meantime communists took control over Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union imposed the ‘Berlin Blockade’ (June, 1948 to May, 1949). The signatories of the Treaty of Brussels desired that the US should protect them from the danger posed by Soviet expansionism. They negotiated with the US for a military alliance which resulted in the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, DC on 4 April, 1949. Article 5 of this treaty states that “an armed attack against one would be regarded as an attack against all”. The members of the NATO appointed General Eisenhower to take over the command of the NATO. The US Government spent large sums of money to equip the NATO forces with the most modern armaments. Although the NATO’s ground forces appeared small in numerical strength compared to the Warsaw Pact countries, the US made up for it by introducing nuclear missiles. The Soviet Union condemned the formation of the NATO alliance, and the admission of West Germany into it in 1954. To counter the threat posed by NATO, the Soviet Union formed a defensive alliance with its communist neighbours called the Warsaw Pact (1955). Critics argued that the NATO formation intensified the Cold War between the two super powers. In addition, they say that it undermined the importance of the Security council of the United Nations by taking over the responsibility of maintaining peace and security. The French President, Charles De Gaulle did not approve of America’s dominating role in the NATO. He wanted France to be

treated as an equal partner with the US and UK. When his demand did not meet with satisfactory response, he withdrew from the NATO’s integrated military command. He then ordered removal of foreign nuclear arsenal from France and also their air bases. He also ordered all non-French troops to evacuate from the French soil. Despite this setback, the NATO continued to act as a bulwark against Soviet expansionism. The communists could not make further inroads into western Europe or in the peripheral countries of the Atlantic. In a way, NATO brought about an end to the rivalries in western Europe, and forged unity among its members. Although Yugoslavia was not a member of the NATO, the latter extended its protection to the former. The NATO extended its influence in the Mediterranean region for strategic reasons since its members received oil supply from Gulf countries through the Suez Canal. In the early 1950s, Greece, Italy and Turkey joined the NATO. In 1960, the American U-2 spy plane flying over Soviet airspace was shot down, an incident that intensified the Cold War. The Soviet Government warned the NATO that it would retaliate if such incidents recurred. At the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962), the NATO got ready to defend the US from the threat of a nuclear war. Following the end of Cold War (1989), and the subsequent downfall of the Soviet Union (1991), the NATO withdrew its nuclear warheads directed against the Soviet Union. Many of the Soviet satellite states became free and joined the NATO, despite protests from Russia. The NATO as a fighting force, assisted the UN in its peace keeping efforts. As per the United Nations Security Council’s resolution, it enforced ‘no-fly zone’ in the Bosnia-Herzegovina crisis (1993). NATO also played an important role in the Kosovo conflict (1999). It tried to defuse the Kosovo crisis by ordering the Serb security forces led by Slobodan Milosevic to stop killing of the Kosovars. In October 1999, NATO gave this leader 10 days grace period to satisfy the demands of the UN which included the holding of an internationally supervised election within nine months. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks in America in 2001, the members of the NATO invoked Article 5 (NATO Charter) and joined the US in its global war on terror. The United Nations Security Council established a security mission called the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in December 2001. Its main role was to secure Kabul and its surrounding areas from the threat of Taliban and other worlords, so that an Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai could be established. The NATO took control of the ISAF on 11 August, 2003, as urged by some of its members.

Marshall Plan Harry S. Truman became president of the United States in 1945, following the death of President F D Roosevelt. The Cold War had started, and many European countries were afraid of a communist takeover. It was at this time that President Truman followed what is known as the foreign policy of containment. He appealed to the US Congress to sanction necessary funds for his Point Four Program. The first point affirmed the US commitment to support the United Nations, the second to assist in the economic recovery of nations affected by World War II, the third to the take preventive steps to save the free nations of the world from the dangers of communism, and the fourth to render technical assistance to underdeveloped countries to modernise their economies. Under Truman Doctrine, the US rendered financial assistance to Greece and Turkey which had been threatened by the communist takeover. George C Marshall, the secretary of State in the Truman administration, proposed a plan at Harvard in June, 1947, for massive aid to countries of Europe whose economies were in a very bad shape. He said, “It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace”. It was left to the European countries to accept the offer, and plan for receiving the economic assistance. The British and French governments welcomed this offer, and thereafter invited the Soviet Union to Paris for a joint response. The Soviet representative not only rejected the US offer, but also condemned it. However, by July, 1947, Britain and France along with fourteen other countries met at Paris and accepted the US aid. On receiving a positive response, the US government appointed Paul Gray Hoffman to take charge of the Economic Co-operation Administration (ECA) to administer the aid package. In the meanwhile, these sixteen European nations established the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) for the reconstruction of their damaged economies under the Marshall Plan. The OEEC created other organs such as the European Economic Community (EEC) or the European Common Market (ECM), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) for the purpose of promoting European economic co-operation. The Marshall Plan provided economic aid to the tune of US$13 billion over a period of four years (began in April, 1948). This assistance went a long way in reviving the economies of the OEEC countries. The Mutual Security Act (1951) of the US Congress abolished the ECA and established the Mutual Security Agency (MSA) to deliver economic, military and technical assistance to the tune

of $7.5 billion to western Europe.

36 The European Union

I

n modern times, Napoleon and Hitler struggled to unite Europe with all its linguistic, cultural and economic diversities. They tried to realise their ambitions by wars at a heightened time of national rivalries. It was only after the two world wars, this vision of united Europe was revived out of sheer economic compulsions. The two world wars shattered the economies of many European countries, and the only hope of reconstructing their economies was by securing external assistance. The Marshall Plan offered great financial assistance to western Europe till 1951, and thereafter, the European statesmen found it necessary to improve their economies by means of increased economic cooperation.

The European Community The names associated with the economic integration of Europe by means of trade and customs treaties are De Gaulle, Helmut Kohl, Francois Mitterrand, Jacques Delors, and so on. The first organisation that was set up after the Marshall aid assistance was the Organisation of Economic Cooperation (OEEC). It was followed by three other organisations, namely, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), and the European Economic Community (EEC). Member states associated with these organisations were one and the same. The European Economic Community was also known as the Economic Common Market. Six states which signed the treaty of Rome on 25 March, 1957, were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands, and all these have laid the foundation of the European Economic Community or the ECM. In the course of time, the EEC enrolled more members into its trading bloc after laying down certain terms and conditions. In the meantime, there took place a merger of EEC,

ECSC and EURATOM in 1967. This merger resulted in the birth of the European Community (EC). The EC started expanding with the addition of more member states, like Denmark, the UK, and Ireland in 1973, Greece in 1981, Spain and Portugal in 1986, Sweden, Finland and Austria in 1995. The EC established its headquarters in Brussels (Belgium). The main purpose of forming the EC was to have smooth flow of trade, labour, and services among the member states. The EC made members sensitive to the need for greater integration and provided a frame work for unified action, particularly in security and foreign policy matters, and also cooperation on police and justice matters. The EC set up a single commission, a single council of ministers, and other legislative, executive and judicial organs.

The Maastricht Treaty This treaty (formally called Treaty on European Union) was signed by all the 12 member states on February 7, 1992, at Maastricht (The Netherlands) and it came into force on November 1, 1993, after being ratified either by their respective parliaments or citizens through referendums.The Maastricht treaty transformed the European Community (EC) into the European Union (EU). The EU sought to create “Europe without frontiers” by throwing open its membership to all the European countries. The said treaty conferred citizenship rights to all the people who lived in their member states of the European Union. It also paved the way for the creation of European Central Bank and a common currency—EURO. It tried to commit the members states to work towards a common security and foreign policy. Austria, Finland and Sweden were admitted into the EU in 1995. Its strength increased to twenty-five in 2004 with the admission of ten more members — eight of them from the former communist bloc. The eight former communist countries which joined the EU in May 2004 were – The Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Estonia. The other two members were Cyprus and Malta. The EU covers a vast area with a population of over 505 million with diverse cultures, languages, histories and traditions. Subsequently, Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU in 2007, and Croatia in 2013. In June, 2004, the leaders of the European Union agreed to frame a new constitution which would put an end to a web of treaties that covered complex relationships earlier and replace it with a new constitution. The new constitution would provide better leadership for a more united Europe. It is also supposed to bring about a sharp ‘international profile and speed up decision making’ process. It would provide enhanced powers to the

parliament and simplify the voting rules to end vetoes. The European Constitution treaty (or Constitutional Treaty) was signed by the leaders of the 25 nations of the European Union (in 20 languages) on October 29, 2004, at the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome—the same place where the six founding members had signed the treaty of Rome in March 1957. As not all the member states — France and the Netherlands in particular — ratified the treaty, it had to be replaced by the Lisbon Treaty (2007) after a “period of reflection” by the EU leaders.

The Constitution The Constitution contained around 350 articles which included new powers for the European Parliament and put an end to national vetoes on forty-five new policy areas, covering judicial and police co-operation, and education and economic matters. More importantly the constitution provided for the post of a President, a Foreign minister and a Public prosecutor. Mr. Romano Prodi was replaced by the former Portuguese Prime Minister, Mr. Jose Manuel Durao Barroso, as President of the European Commission on November 22, 2004. The European Commission is the administrative and executive body of the European Union. The European Union consisted of four main institutions, viz, the Council of Ministers, the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice. Subsequently the European Central Bank [ECB] was also added along with these institutions.

The Council of Ministers It is the principal decision-making body of the Union and includes of heads of states, ministers of member states, and also the President of European Commission. Each member state holds of the Presidency for a period of six months on a rotating basis.

The European Commission With its headquarters at Brussels (Belgium), it is the administrative and executive body of the European Union. It is headed by a President and its office is manned by a staff of nearly 20,000 people. The Commission’s main function

is to assist the Council of Ministers and European Parliament by drafting proposals for legislations and formulate policies for their consideration. There are 28 commissioners representing each of the 28 member states and are appointed by the national Governments for a period of five years.

The European Parliament The Parliament is composed of more than 750 members, representing the 28 member states and are elected for a term of five years. The Parliament functions from Brussels and Strasbourg and it supervises the activities of other European Institutions. It presents new legislative proposals, jointly with council of ministers and passes the annual budget. There are nearly 4000 staff members, who are assisting the day to day functions of the European Parliament.

The European Court of Justice Each member state is represented by one Judge in the European Court. The total strength of European Court is of 28 Judges. The European Court also includes eight Advocate-Generals and takes up cases relating to legal issues and disputes, mainly concerning the Community Law. In each case, a preliminary ruling is followed by a final judgement. Most of the cases which come before European Court for adjudication are from the national courts relating to the Community Law, and the rest from the other institutions of the EU.

The Advent of the Euro One of the most momentous decisions taken by the European Union was the introduction of a common currency – The EURO – on 1 January, 1999. Eleven member states of the EU, namely, Germany, France, Belgium, Austria, Finland, Ireland, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Italy and Luxembourg, joined Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) with EURO as the currency, despite much cynicism from the other member states. In the course of time, seven other member states joined the EMU, which now covers a vast area with more than 330 million people, using the EURO as the sole legal tender. The Euro banknotes and coins first started circulating in the twelve Euro-states (original eleven members and Greece) by January 2002. The EMU hopes to make Europe an economic power house by augmenting the volume of the International Trade,

simplifying monetary transactions and to bring about pricing equality. The EURO conversion rate was fixed in terms of “National Currencies” and approved by the Members of the EMU, on 31 December, 1998.

The European Central Bank The European Central Bank (ECB) is one of the main organs of the European Union and acts as a Federal Reserve Bank for the member states joining the EMU. The National Banks of the member states belonging to the EMU act as a subsidiary to the ECB. The Eurozone area in Europe covers the area of member states, joining the EMU, where the EURO is sole legal tender. The Eurozone member states are among the greatest trading partners in the world, with a GDP amounting to more than 13 trillion dollars. In other words, the EURO bolstered the image of the EU as an economic super power, next only to the US. A few countries including the UK remained out of the EMU zone for their own reasons. For the UK, its currency, the Pound Sterling, was associated with national pride and sovereignty. The new constitution of the European Union was not approved by a few countries due to several reasons. The first main reason was over the controversy regarding the admission of Turkey into the Union. Turkey is a Muslim country and did not fulfil the Copenhagen criteria —that is the absence of democratic set up, no respect for minority and a dysfunctional market economy. Therefore, the new constitution was kept at abeyance during the period 2005-2007. During this period the EU began to face a number of problems and challenges, such as terrorism, crimes, illegal immigration, drug trafficking, disregard of fundamental rights of its citizens, corruption, money laundering and global warming. At the same time, the EU had to maintain cordial relations with the developed and developing countries in order to enhance its image as an economic superpower. It had to meet the expectations and aspirations of its citizens in matters of freedom, solidarity, security and so on. The EU was in the processing of establishing close relations with the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, The World Bank and the World Trade Organisation. This had to be done so as to make the EU institutions to work in close liaison with the above world organisations. Therefore, the twenty-seven member states of the EU felt necessary to have a new organisational set up and hence the Lisbon Treaty.

The Lisbon Treaty, (December 13, 2007) The Lisbon Treaty is being regarded now as a major amendment to the earlier treaties which had established the European Union. The treaty made desired changes in the working of the four or five main institutions, mentioned above, so as to make them more efficient, more representative, and more comprehensive in their approach towards securing freedom, speedy justice, and security. The treaty was finally approved by all the 27 member-states of the EU and it came into effect on December 1, 2009.

The more democratic and transparent Europe The Lisbon Treaty assured its citizens a more democratic and transparent Europe. This objective is to be achieved by strengthening the role of the European Parliament and by means of increasing its powers in areas of the policy making. The European Parliament is made equal in status and stature with the council, particularly in matters like budget making and international affairs. It offers more opportunities to the EU citizens in voicing their opinions and presenting their proposals. The treaty would like to have a better involvement of national parliaments with the working of the European Parliament. The relationship between the member states and the EU has been made cordial and clearer. The treaty provides for the withdrawal of a member state from the Union.

A more efficient Europe The Lisbon Treaty has simplified working methods and voting rules. It has streamlined the working of its institutions so as to make the EU more efficient, particularly in areas of major concern. It has introduced the concept of “qualified majority” which would come in to effect in 2014. Effective and efficient decision making has become the two hallmarks of the EU institutions. The treaty introduces an effective link between the elections and the appointment of the Commission President. It has provided election procedures for composition of the European Parliament. The Lisbon Treaty has enhanced the EU’s ability to function in several policy areas for improving life of its citizens—policy areas of freedom, security and justice. The other areas of concern includes public health, climate change, civil protection, energy policy, humanitarian aid, space, research, tourism and administrative co-operation. The Schengen agreement

enables EU citizens to travel freely across the borders without any hindrance (except a few countries). Thus, a more efficient EU hopes to achieve a better image in the global arena.

Freedom, Solidarity, Security, Rights and Values Adding to the “Four Freedoms” already granted by the Maastricht Treaty (free movement of goods, services, money and citizens), the Lisbon Treaty grants its citizens a charter of fundamental rights which could be legally enforced. These rights includes civil, political, economic and social rights. The treaty desires to bring about solidarity between member states and the Union by providing opportunities to act jointly in such matters like terrorist attack, meeting the needs of the victims of natural or man-made disasters, and during the energy crisis. The treaty compels the Union to provide increased security for all of its citizens by increasing the powers of the police to fight crime and terrorism. The treaty also includes provisions for offering humanitarian aid, civil protection and public health services.

The EU in the age of globalisation The treaty enables the Union to promote European interest and values all over the world. It should be noted that the Union should arrive at a consensus with the member states on how to present its policy in one voice—particularly in relations with other countries. It was felt that the Union should be represented by a Foreign Policy Minister. Lady Cathy Ashton was appointed as the Foreign Policy Chief to look after the foreign relations of the Union. She has been provided with a new office called ‘The European External Action Service’. Lady Ashton’s task is no easy one because she has to persuade the 28 member states to agree on certain policy matters concerning the EU’s relations with other countries. She has achieved diplomatic success in the UN over the issue of Kosovo. It was due to her efforts, that a majority of EU members agreed to grant independence to Kosovo with the help of UN. To make her work easy, she has appointed 28 EU Ambassadors to give the EU diplomacy a sharp edge. The EU is exercising its soft power which includes financial assistance, humanitarian aid, peace keeping missions, trade, and offer of admission to the lucrative EU.

Achievements So Far As mentioned, the EU has unleashed its soft power on many occasions. For example, the EU sent peace keeping missions to Balkans, mainly to Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzgovina in 2003. The EU also sent its forces for replacing the NATO forces for police duties. It sent police missions in 2007 and 2008, to Afghanistan and border areas in Africa for the protection of refugees. A EU mission was also sent to monitor the election of the President in Afghanistan. It has intervened in the conflict between Russia and Georgia in August, 2008 and brought about the ceasefire. It encouraged both of them to start negotiations. The EU also sent its forces in 2008, to maintain law and order in Kosovo. The EU has so far signed number of agreements and facts for maintaining cordial relations with countries like Russia, China, India and so on. For example, it signed a breakthrough agreement with Russia in May 2005 for enhanced co-operation in the fields of economy, freedom, security, justice, education, science and research. In January, 2010, the EU provided an aid relief to the extent of 400 million Euros to the quake-hit people of Haiti. During the same year the EU provided seventy million Euros to the flood-affected people in Pakistan. In December, 2008, the EU launched maritime operations against Somali pirates in order to protect its ships which were delivering food aid to Somalia. Global Recession (2008-2010): EU’s Economic Woes The subprime crisis in the United States had great impact on other economies in the world – no less in the European Union.

Greece The first member state of the EU to be affected by this contagion was Greece (2010). The Greek government in the past had been a spendthrift, inspite of EU’s earlier direction to all the member states, that their budget deficit should not exceed three per cent, and public debt not more than sixty per cent of the GDP respectively. The huge deficits run up by the Greek government had its impact finally on the bond markets. Greece sent an SOS to the EU, and the latter, after much delay, finally decided to render financial assistance to the tune of 110 billion Euros ($ 145 billion) in collaboration with the IMF and the European Central Bank. But this bail out involved the Greek government’s acceptance to undergo a rigorous austerity program such as job cuts, wage cuts, and cuts in public investments (even on the EU funded projects). The Pasok (Pan-Hellenic

Socialist Movement) party led by Greek Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou agreed to swallow this bitter pill.

Ireland Ireland was the next member state to send the distress signal to the EU about its financial crisis. It had asked for a bailout fund to meet the cost of reviving the fallen banks. The chief cause of this economic crisis had been the burst in the house property bubble. Many banks could not recover loans given to the builders/developers for housing projects.

Portugal The next in queue to ask for a bailout fund was Portugal. Portugal had been flourishing during the 1980s, but unfortunately the economy took a downturn during the first decade. The Portuguese Banks were woefully unsuccessful in tapping capital markets because of downgrading of sovereign debt. The EU and the IMF announced a 78 billion-euro bailout package for Portugal in May 2011.

Spain and Italy Spain and Italy too had been affected by the debt crisis, and both of them are unfortunately unable to cope with deficits in their economy. Moreover powerful members of the EU are now deciding on how and on what conditions, assistance is to be given to the affected. The Euro is in the danger of a rapid fall due to debt crisis. Many eurosceptics believe that the EU ought not to have expanded to its present strength (28), as most of them have been lacking in financial discipline. In the meanwhile, Turkey had been pressing hard for admission into the EU, and justifiably so since it has fulfilled major conditions or obligations (except for human-rights violations against Kurds). The International Monetary Fund predicts that the Euro Zone members will suffer from high unemployment rate during the next five years. The EU had come under criticism for not lending enough financial support to the NATO in it’s war against Afghanistan. Another important criticism levelled against EU was, for not taking an unified action on the issue of the Yugoslav wars. Recent criticism surrounds the EU for not adopting a spirit of tolerance with regard to the followers of Islam living in the member states.

France and Belgium have imposed a ban on wearing of niqabs and burqas by Muslim women in public places, and Switzerland has prohibited the construction of minarets. Europe’s Muslim population was outraged after the Danish publication of cartoons of Prophet Mohammad. Another classic example of religious bias of the EU could be seen in the non-admission of Turkey. Turkey meets the Copenhagen criteria except for its treatment of Kurds. The EU is yet to make its presence felt all over world as a super state. It has to overcome many problems, and achieve proper cohesion in its working so as to present a proper image.

PART XII

Disintegration of the Soviet Union and the Rise of Unipolar World Chapter 37 Disintegration and fall of the Soviet Union Chapter 38 Political Changes in Eastern Europe (1989-2001) Chapter 39 Cold War

37 Disintegration and fall of the Soviet Union

L

eonid Brezhnev died in 1982, and during the next three years, the Soviet Union witnessed the governance of Andropov and Chernenko. The economic stagnation which began during the Brezhnev era became much worse. The Soviet agriculture sector failed to deliver the goods and the country faced shortages of food. Its import became essential. Prices of essential commodities went up. The Soviet Union which had a command-economy manned by party bureaucrats, was unable to cope with the problem of shortages felt by the people. Yuri Andropov believed that without the removal of the corrupt communist bureaucrats there was no hope of achieving modernisation.

Gorbachev and the Crumbling of the Soviet Empire The historic break with the past in the Soviet Union began with the assumption of Soviet leadership by Mikhail Gorbachev (a former mechanic of a tractor factory) in 1985. During his period of six years in office, the Soviet Union witnessed a second revolution, far more significant than the first one which occurred in 1917. The Time magazine declared Gorbachev as the “man of the decade”. What nobody in the Soviet Union could have thought of or imagined, Gorbachev was making it happen.

Gorbachev’s Vision Gorbachev realised that the Soviet Union could retain her superpower status in the world only at an enormous cost, a cost that would cause immense sufferings to the people. The economic stagnation that had engulfed the country had wrought havoc, and what the country needed was, coming to terms with realities. His country needed a new ideological framework, a change in tune with the

times, for carving out a better future. Gorbachev tried to explain his vision through concepts—Glasnost (openness), Perestroika (restructuring, reforming and reviving a stagnant economy) and democracy. Wherever he met his people, he asked them to push for change. He said change was necessary to transform a stagnant Soviet society through the programmes of glasnost, perestroika and democracy. He knew changes should come from above and hence his tenure in office witnessed transformation in international, political and economic spheres, which many in the Soviet Union would have considered impossible to attain, just a couple of years ago.

Perestroika Many economic ills such as shortage of many goods (in spite of liberal imports), shortages of food in several regions, high inflation, high federal deficits, rising unemployment and foreign debt (100 billion roubles), began to overwhelm his government. Gorbachev realised that it would be better to end the old system of economy inherited from the past (the Stalinist centrally planned economic system) and bring about a market oriented economy. He desired to reduce the role of planners in the decision-making as well as in state-owned enterprises, and in their place, allow private and co-operative decision making. In simple words, this process is known as ‘privatising and marketing socialism’. The diehard conservatives in his party opposed his reforms and therefore Gorbachev needed the people’s support in the first place and the constitutional authority in the second place. Gorbachev reiterated on many occasions that unless Glasnost and democratisation were accepted, Perestroika would collapse. In a fiercely contested election that took place in March, 1989, Gorbachev defeated his rivals and the Congress elected him as executive President. Thus armed with wide powers not only as General Secretary of the Communist Party, but also as Executive President, Gorbachev carried out reforms to lift the country out of economic stagnation. Unfortunately his sweeping reforms had little chance of success since people were unable to wait for long. Even though people had money to buy food and goods, they were in short supply.

Soviet Foreign Policy Gorbachev attracted the attention of the people of the whole world by introducing sweeping changes in the Soviet foreign policy. He lost no time in telling the world that the Soviet Union had no desire to spread communism to

other countries. He rejected the Brezhnev doctrine and was ready to hold talks on reduction of armaments and destruction of nuclear weapons. In 1985, he met President Reagan of the US at the Geneva Summit (also called Superpower Summit) where both pledged not to wage nuclear or conventional wars. Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ in foreign policy issues took the world by surprise. After announcing his contempt for the US star wars programme, Gorbachev offered wide concessions which put the US in a quandary. His bold initiatives to save the world from another nuclear holocaust took the US and her allies totally by surprise. In December, 1989, President Bush responding to the initiatives of Gorbachev said, “Ours can be a future free both of tyranny and fear.” Four summit meetings which were held between President Reagan and Gorbachev (Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington, and Moscow) till 1989, all brought about the end of Cold War and elimination of intermediate-range ballistic and cruise misslies. The most historic agreement was the one that was concluded in 1987, between the two superpowers, known as the INF Treaty (Intermediate-range Nuclear Force) which included the abolition of the use of specific nuclear weapons. The Soviet troops were pulled out of Afghanistan by 1989. Gorbachev appealed for building of “a common European home” which would be free from fear and enjoy the benefits of economic integration. The confrontation between the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries too ended. During the UN session, which met to consider Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the Soviet Union made frantic efforts to dissuade the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, from taking a position of confrontation. Gorbachev sent his personal envoy, Primakov, to persuade Saddam Hussein, to vacate his aggression, i.e., withdraw Iraqi troops from Kuwait, but Primakov’s mission failed. The Soviet Union had to join other powers to vote for military action against Iraq. For the first time, the two superpowers joined in an action to prevent a Third World War from breaking out. The Soviet Union lost the close friendship of Iraq. The loss of eastern Europe, which was earlier in the Soviet orbit, was undoubtedly due to the demise of communism during the last years of Gorbachev’s era. At the same time there was the demise of the Warsaw Pact. Gorbachev was ready to end the Soviet hegemony over eastern Europe, for this would not only create better East–West relations, but also remove the burden (military and economic) from the shoulders of the Soviet Union. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) also came to an end in June, 1991. Gorbachev’s policy of losing eastern Europe was very severely criticised, and his foreign minister, Shevardnadze had to resign. Gorbachev allowed the eastern European countries, all under communist rule, to go their own way. The Soviet troops were withdrawn from these countries.

Gorbachev’s Failure Unfortunately Gorbachev could not create conditions for the success of his programme, Perestroika. For nearly five years, he tried to urge people to accept it with some forbearance, since there was no easy way to transform a socialist economy of the Stalin-type into a market-oriented economy. Even the manner in which it was ushered in was sudden, and not in phases. Decrees, laws and ordinances had to be passed only to see that they could not be implemented due to some obstacles (November, 1989 to July, 1990). Confusion prevailed, and he dithered, and finally struck a compromise note. The pace of the reforms slowed, with some crucial reforms remaining unimplemented. In the meantime, there was food shortage coupled with prices of several consumer goods going up. Poor production coupled with inadequate transport created terrible shortages in shops and stores. Even though people had money they could not buy. They lost their enthusiasm and interest in the Perestroika. Workers’ strike brought the economy to a grinding halt and even imports from foreign countries could not be distributed to people living in several regions. There was terrible chaos and the conservative ideologues took advantage of the situation and staged a coup on 19 August, 1991. It failed due to the opposition of Boris Yeltsin, who rallied the support of the people in Moscow in front of the Parliament, demanding the coup leaders to release Gorbachev whom they had kept confined. Gorbachev’s inability to control the situation during the last days of his administration was also partly due to fissiparous tendencies operating in the country. Gorbachev had no solution to offer to the nationality problem or ethnic riots. His advocacy of Glasnost encouraged separatist tendencies to surface. His government could not take firm action when the people of Kazakhistan protested at the dismissal of their state’s head in December, 1986. The Balts and Crimeantartars, who were subject to severe oppression during the days of Stalin, protested in Moscow and other cities. The Balts (the peoples of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) who enjoyed independence between the two World Wars demanded sovereign independent status for their states. They desired that their language should replace the official Russian language. The worst ethnic crisis ever to happen in the Soviet Union took place in 1988, between the Azerbaijanis and Armenians over Nagorno-Karabakh, and Armenian enclave in Azerbaijanis territory. Soviet troops had to rush in to quell these ethnic riots. In the elections that took place in the Baltic Republics, the communists lost heavily and this event was followed by pro-independence movement. In 1989, fighting broke out between Uzbeks and Meskhetian-Turks

in the Fargana Valley, and about 50,000 people had to be evacuated to safer places. There were other ethnic clashes too. At the end of 1989, most of the Republics (fifteen in all) were in political turmoil. The nationwide miners strike added to the troubles of the central government. The communist party in Lithuania decided to sever ties with the centre and declare independence from the central communist party. Gorbachev could not take firm steps since he was afraid of adverse international opinion. He imposed economic sanctions but it came to nothing because other republics went to her rescue. The movements for independence in the Soviet Union affected the Russian Republic too, and Boris Yeltsin symbolised their aspirations for freedom. After his party won the majority of seats in parliamentary elections in the Russian Republic, it declared the Russian Republic independent and sovereign. Hence the Soviet Union (the USSR) was fast disintegrating with Gorbachev helplessly watching the scene. Other Republics demanded autonomy. He was losing his charisma and Boris Yeltsin of the Russian Republic was stealing all the thunder. Gorbachev finally came forward with a proposal for a new treaty between the centre and the republics liberally providing more autonomy. The hardliners in the communist party were afraid of losing their power and struck on 19 August, 1991, as mentioned earlier. The coup failed and Gorbachev assumed office after suffering confinement for a couple of days. The world leaders went on watching the situation in the Soviet Union, keeping their fingers crossed, and heaved a sigh of relief when he emerged from his confinement. Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin agreed for changes in the political structure, and the state council, which replaced the cabinet, recognised the independence of Lithuania, Estonia and Lativia on 6 September, 1991. The failed attempt on the part of the coup leaders heralded the demise of the communist party. Gorbachev talked of 500 days Economic Reform. Earlier in July, 1990, he had agreed to the reunification of Germany and also to its joining the NATO. In August 1991, Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the Communist Party and disbanded the Central Committee. The Russian leader, Boris Yeltsin, blamed the Communist Party for organising the coup, and what followed, was the suspension of all activities of the communist parties. Pravda, the official communist party newspaper in Russia, was closed and its property seized. The communist party activities in all Republics were banned. Estonia and Latvia were recognised as independent states in August 1991. By the end of the year 1991, Ukraine, Belarus, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan were recognised as independent republics. Earlier, Gorbachev had urged the republics to agree to a new union treaty that would allow them greater autonomy. He said that if this new treaty was not signed(Russia, Kazakhistan and Kirghizia had already agreed

for a new treaty), he would resign. On 25 December, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the president of the Soviet Union (the following day, the Soviet Union ceased to exist). The Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia and eleven other former Soviet Republics) was formed on 21 December, 1991.

Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999) On 12 June, 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first elected president of the Russian Federation. Russia replaced the defunct Soviet Union in the Security Council of the UN in 1992. Encouraged by the US, Yeltsin dismantled the communist system. The disreputed command economy had to yield place to a market economy.

38 Political Changes in Eastern Europe (19892001) Poland

T

wo factors which remained unique in Poland’s history are, the role of the Catholic Church and the politically conscious worker’s union. Gomulka’s rule came to an end in 1970, because of the riots which took place in Gdynia. There was change of leadership in the Polish United Workers’ Party, and Edward Gierek took over as its new First Secretary in December, 1970. At the time of assuming the charge, Gierek realised the gravity of the economic situation facing Poland. The debts to the West stood at $6 billion and hard currency was needed to import oil from the OPEC. There was terrible housing shortage. There was a high rate of absenteeism of workers. There was shortage of food. Gierek visited the US for food aid, and in the following year (1975) President Gerald Ford reciprocated by visiting Poland. After thirty-five governments signed the Helsinki Accord, human rights activists and intellectuals proposed amendments to the 1952 Polish constitution. The government had to bow to the pressure exerted by human rights activists and the Catholic Church. When the food prices were raised and massive demonstrations took place, many workers were arrested and as a consequence the KOR (Committee for Defence of Workers) was formed in 1976. The KOR expanded its activities, and in 1977, there arose another organisation, namely, Movement for Defence of Human and Civil Rights (ROPCIO) which was founded by 18 dissidents. After the food riots of 1976, the students in the universities formed their own unions, and demands to organise free trade unions were also heard. The Polish government tried to suppress these organisations. Two other organisations which joined to seek reforms from communist regime were the KSS (Committee of Social Defence) and PPN (Polish Independence

Compact). A few leaders worked underground, and the Amnesty International too opened its unit. What all these organisations demanded was, respect for human rights, liberties and religious freedom. Almost all demanded the right to form free trade unions. In July, 1980, increase in food prices caused strikes, and they were settled by the government with “promise of wage-increase”, but the one which took place at Gdansk by 17,000 lenin-shipyard workers proved to be the biggest; and the Polish government had to reach an agreement in response to their 21 demands. Gierek was replaced in September, 1980, by Kania who tried to manage the strike-torn country in such a way so as to avoid Soviet intervention. The independent trade union movement Solidarity, led by Lech Walesa, had the following of more than 10 million workers, including 800,000 communists as members. Walesa’s Solidarity had shown how a highly disciplined organisation should be like. The charisma of Lech Walesa drew worldwide attention and every fourth Pole grew a moustache like his in the 1980s. In December, 1981, the military junta in Poland led by General Jaruzelski proclaimed martial law mainly for the purpose of crushing the Solidarity. The confrontation between Solidarity and the military junta caused immense hardships to the Poles, but Lech Walesa remained firm like a rock. The confrontation attracted the attention of the world and brought great sympathy for Lech Walesa and condemnation for the repressive military junta ruling over Poland. In the meantime, Gorbachev’s Perestroika and Glasnost wielded benign influence on Poland. After waves of strikes in 1988 led by Solidarity, General Jaruzelski was compelled to start his talks with the Solidarity leader. Prime Minister Rakowski admitted the government’s fault by saying that the Roman Catholic Church had unjustly been persecuted for supporting the Solidarity movement. The church then, received legal status in Poland. In the June elections of 1989, the Solidarity won a landslide victory and the communist government resigned. Lech Walesa of Solidarity nominated Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be the prime minister. He had to accept four communists to occupy key posts in the cabinet. Gorbachev had earlier told General Jaruzelski that he should accept the new situation without grudge and help setup the Solidarity-led government in Poland. The Polish army too agreed to support the Solidarity-led government. The Polish economy was in a terrible shape with foreign debts amounting to US $ 39 billion in the early nineties. International institutions came forward for helping the Polish economy to recover, and President Walesa did his best to bring about economic recovery. The market reforms in Poland brought about some improvements. However,

Lech Walesa’s newly founded BBWR party lost the 1993 parliamentary elections, and the former communists and leftists took over the reins of the government. Two years later, he lost the presidential election. A referendum was held in May, 1997, wherein the people voted for a new constitution to replace the Communist Charter. Heavy rains caused floods in July 1997, which was regarded as one of the worst natural disasters of the century. Poland was one of the ten new countries inducted into the EU in 2004.

Czechoslovakia Gustav Husak’s loyalty to the Soviet leadership was cent per cent and therefore he was asked to take over the leadership and bring about ‘normalisation’ in the country following the 1968 revolt and subsequent Soviet invasion. The Brezhnev doctrine of ‘socialistic fraternal assistance’ was to be implemented. Husak followed what is known as “realistic socialism” (realny socialismus) and the First Five Year Plan had a modest aim of improving the standard of living of the people during the period, 1971-75. The targets were no doubt achieved but the country began to depend on other countries for oil, and for food grains, from the Soviet Union (when harvests were poor). The dissidents including Dubcek attacked Husak’s policies and Husak replied that dissidents and intellectuals were traitors. Gustav Husak was re-elected in May, 1980, by the Czech Parliament as president for the second term. After the oil crisis of 1973, and also the Yom Kippur war, the Czechoslovakia economy turned worse. The surplus budget turned into deficit. The Soviet Union increased the price of oil, and her satellite countries had to buy without any option. Prices of several consumer goods were raised by the government in the name of “price adjustment” since in socialist countries, there cannot be inflation. The main export earner for Czechoslovakia were weapons, which were sold to the Third World countries. Husak imposed heavy censorship and the dissidents and intellectuals were thrown out of jobs or forced into exile. Human rights activists were persecuted. The noted playwright, Vaclav Havel, along with other Czechs started a movement called ‘Charter 77’ after being encouraged by the Helsinki Accord. He appealed to the government to obey its own laws first. Human rights activists were persecuted when they sent a letter to the Solidarity leader in Poland about their support to his cause. From the late 1970s to the mid-80s, the Czech economy deteriorated and popular dissatisfaction rose. Living standards declined and economic inefficiency increased. There was a popular outcry for economic

reforms. The plan proposed to achieve this was not implemented. Corruption made things worse. Husak had to resign in December, 1987 and in his place, came Milos Jakes. In the late 1980s, opposition to the communist regime became more vehement, particularly from the human rights activist groups and other intellectuals. All of them signed a petition in support of Vaclav Havel in 1989, when he was unjustly persecuted. The students, who were fed up with the authoritarian regime, protested, and the police perpetrated brutal attacks on the peaceful demonstrators. In the wake of this tension, two other organisations, the ‘Civic Forum’ and ‘Public Against Violence’, joined a mass movement to oust the communist regime. Milos Jakes resigned. Thus, communist regime which had ruled over Czechoslovakia for 45 years came to an end. This ‘Velvet Revolution’, as it was called, ended in the victory of non-communists who made Vaclav Havel the president of their republic. After the demise of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia changed its name to the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic. But these two regions got separated and became independent on 1 January, 1993. A bitter dispute on the shape of post-communist reforms brought about the split. The Czech Republic and Slovakia joined the EU in 2004.

Hungary A majority of the Hungarians considered Janos Kadar, the man appointed by the Soviet Union (after the brutal suppression of the Hungarian revolution of 1956), as a traitor who “betrayed the revolution and his country”. He ruled Hungary for thirty-two years, and the people who considered him traitor developed, surprisingly, a great respect for him in the course of time. How did such a change of feeling for this elder statesman of Hungary occur? Did he betray the Soviet Union to regain the affection of his compatriots? The main answer to these questions lies in the economic miracle he achieved—the economic miracle known as the ‘New Economic Mechanism’. He achieved this miracle in spite of several political and economic limitations set by the Soviet Union. His “Limited Liberalisation” began in 1968 with some decentralisation in decision making, “a more rational pricing system” and a provision for the market to play its role. The aim of the New Economic Mechanism was to produce a socialist society “with a bourgeoisie face”. Hungary developed foreign trade with the West during the period 1965-1977, but its main partner was the Soviet Union. Hungary had to borrow money from the

West to meet the high cost of energy and also for obtaining technology and materials. Rezso Nyers, who helped Kadar in ushering in the economic reforms, was called “Father of the Reform” of 1968. The outcome of the economic reforms was the birth of the middle class which enjoyed many benefits. To make sure that there was less resistance to the economic reforms, Kadar’s Hungary tried to depoliticise her citizens. The keynote of Kadar’s system was to create an atmosphere in the country where the communist party would not lose its hold, and secondly, to continue the old policy of remaining loyal to the Soviet Union. The reforms of Gorbachev in the Soviet Union had its repercussions on Hungary. They indirectly caused Kadar’s regime to fall. Kadar was appointed to the post of President of Communist Party—a purely ceremonial post—and Miklos Nemeth took charge of the government. Kadar’s fall may also be traced to the failure of the economic system which could not deliver the goods in the 1980s, particularly in an era of technological change. Hence the cry for reforms. Kadar jailed the communists who demanded reforms and thereby lost much of his popularity. The jailed communist-reformers were then bent upon removing him from his powerful post. They succeeded when the Gorbachev era in the Soviet Union began. The communist party began to lose its control and permitted a free press. It allowed a decent burial of the fallen heroes of the 1956 revolution. In 1990, elections were held and fifty-two parties participated to elect a democratic parliament, the second one after a gap of forty-two years. The head of the Hungarian Democratic Forum, Jozsef Antall, was installed as prime minister of Hungary. Successive governments since the early nineties have played their part to integrate the country’s economy with the world economy.

The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) The state of East Germany was founded in 1949 after the establishment of West Germany (known as the Federal Republic of Germany). Known as GDR (German Democratic Republic), East Germany declared herself socialist and entered into the orbit of the socialist countries led by the Soviet Union. In the beginning, only a few non-communist countries recognised her independent status, but eventually, other countries accorded recognition. Although she remained as a satellite of the Soviet Union, her economic progress was remarkable. She became one of the top ranking industrial states in the world. Although she was influenced by the western countries of Europe, ideologically she was close to the Soviet Union and followed her diktat. The Berlin Wall was

erected in 1961, i.e., when the Cold War was in full swing. The GDR became totally dependent on the Soviet Union. The man who gave a new identity and ideology to GDR’s existence was Walter Ulbricht, the First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party (SED). During his leadership (1963-1971), there developed a “special German communist ideology”, close friendship with the Soviet Union with the expectation that the latter should respect “East German interests”. He desired other satellite countries of the Soviet Union to do the same. Therefore he became a headache to the Soviet Union which brought about his fall in 1971. The Soviet Union chose his protege, Erich Honecker to lead the GDR. There was four-power agreement on Berlin and the two German states (the FRG and GDR) were recognised by the world community in 1972-73, and the US accorded her recognition in 1974. The UN accommodated both of them as members in 1973. The GDR joined the Warsaw Treaty Organisation (WTO) and in October, 1975, signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Aid with the Soviet Union within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). Under Honecker’s leadership, East Germany made rapid economic progress, though it kept the people starved of consumer goods and could not solve housing problems. Dissidence in any form by intellectuals was not tolerated during the Cold War and East Germans were shot at whenever they tried to escape to West Germany by crossing the Berlin Wall. With Gorbachev coming to power in the Soviet Union, his policy of Perestroika and Glasnost encouraged East Germans to go to the West. In the meantime, Hungary opened her borders to the East Germans so that they could go to Austria and thence to West Germany. Popular movements in East Germany demanded an open border with West Germany and also reunification with her. Honecker refused to accede to these demands. Gorbachev’s visit to East Germany in October, 1989, and the change of leadership (Honecker fell ill and he was replaced by Egon Krenz) brought about sweeping changes. For the first time, the leadership consulted the church, and agreed to the demolition of the Berlin Wall—symbol of the Cold War. East Germans were permitted to go to West Germany to visit their relatives and friends with a choice of coming back. There was a talk of reunifying Germany or the idea of a German confederation and events moved fast and Honecker was arrested for his misdeeds. Gorbachev allowed east European socialist countries to choose their own way, and East Germany demanded unification with West Germany. West German leader Kohl agreed. The reunification took place on 3 October, 1990, after forty-five years of separation. The West German Chancellor Kohl then faced the problems of improving the economy of the East German part which had suffered under

communist rule.

Romania Romania is situated in the central part of Europe. She was founded in 1859. She became one of the satellite states of the Soviet Union after World War II. The Romanian Communist Party (RCP) under the leadership of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej adopted the Stalinist model of economic reforms for economic development. Even after the denunciation of Stalin in the 1950s (Khrushchev’s era in the Soviet Union), Romania continued the Stalinist model under Nicolae Ceausescu who succeeded Gheorghe in 1965. He became the General Secretary of the RCP and also the president of the Romanian Republic. His highly authoritarian and centralised regime continued for the next quarter of a century. There arose the cult of personality, and Romania made rapid progress under his regime, particularly during the period 1965-1975. Romania was transformed from an agrarian state to an industrial one with an 8.6 per cent increase in the national income. One of the hallmarks of Ceausescu’s regime was that he followed an independent foreign policy. For example, he remained neutral when there was dispute between the Soviet Union and Communist China, established diplomatic relations with Bonn (West German government), condemned the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, attached less importance to the Warsaw Treaty organisation, rejected the Brezhnev doctrine, developed close ties with Communist China (following exchange of visits), disapproved of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and maintained cordial relation with Tito’s Yugoslavia. Ceausescu described Rumania as a “Socialist developing state” and adopted economic reforms known as ‘New Economic Mechanism’. However, after early decades of progress, Romania under this scheme could not make enough progress in spite of carrying out structural adjustments. Under Ceausescu’s dictatorship, people in general, and the ethnic minority, Hungarians in particular, suffered great hardships. Ceausescu persecuted the ethnic minority. He never allowed democracy to grow and therefore became unpopular. His ruthless persecution provoked the people to revolt, and this began with a few hundred courageous Hungarians demonstrating in Timisoara city in 1989. The December 1989 revolution forced Ceausescu and his wife to flee but they were caught and executed. In the May elections of 1990, the communists gained a majority of seats in Parliament. The Romanian economy was in very bad shape. Ion Iliescu became the president. The picture was not clear whether

the December revolution which ended Ceausescu’s regime would bring about the fruits of the revolution to the people or not. In 1990, the National Salvation Front formed the government. Seven years later Romania’s king, Michael, returned home. He had been banished from the country by the communists in 1974.

Bulgaria Bulgaria, situated in the southeastern part of Europe, is little known. The state was founded in 681 AD and became a Socialist Republic in 1944. The communist regime under Todor Zhivkov (1954-89) had done a good job in transforming Bulgaria into an industrial state, but the fruits of industrialization did not reach the common people. He did not take interest in liberalising the policy and economy to be in tune with the changing times. His regime suppressed all dissent, and therefore protest-movements started, which resulted in clashes with the police. The protest movements spread to areas where the ethnic Turks lived in a peaceful manner. They were asked to change their names to suit the Bulgarian majority and when they refused, the government came down heavily upon them. This issue brought about a clash with Turkey when thousands of ethnic Bulgarian-Turks fled to Turkey to avoid persecution by the Bulgarian government. The party leaders also accused Zhivkov for showing favours to his son. Zhivkov made his exit on the day the Berlin Wall came down (10 November, 1989). His relatives and friends were purged from influential posts and he was succeeded by Mladenov, who stopped persecution of the ethnic Turks and promised to promote welfare of the people. At the Extraordinary Congress, which was held in January, 1990, Mladenov resigned his post in order to become the president of the state, while Andrei Lukanov became the prime minister. Alexander Lilov was elected chairman of the reformed Bulgarian communist party. The pro-democracy movement in Bulgaria became a common feature and the reformist communist government brought about structural adjustments in the economic system in the spirit of perestroika, glasnost and democratisation. The country witnessed its first free elections in 1990 after four decades of communist rule, and an eleven-member presidency came to power. The next year saw a non-communist government ruling the country. The Union of Democratic Forces, known for its reforming zeal, won a resounding victory in the parliamentary elections in April, 1997. Bulgaria was admitted into the EU in 2007.

Yugoslavia Tito’s Yugoslavia was composed of six republics and two autonomous provinces. After his quarrel with Stalin, Tito introduced a decentralised communism in his country and accepted aid from Western countries. He followed liberal economic policies, and dealt with a firm hand, the rise of Croatian nationalism. He introduced amendments to the 1963 constitution. He treated dissidents with some tolerance as long as they were not ‘anti-socialist’ and also “pro-Soviet”, and the constitutional amendments strengthened his grip over the country by halting the process of decentralisation which it was felt, had gone too far. The end result of this process was the drafting and adopting of a new constitution in 1974, in which the party and its functionaries were given a more active role. The constitution provided for collective presidency, consisting of one member from each republic or province (all totalling nine members). This was enlarged by adding another six members after Tito’s death in 1980. Tito introduced “Worker’s self-management system”, a new feature in Yugoslavia’s Marxist ideology. The Yugoslav People’s Army which had been raised during the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was in close alliance with the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, and their strong bond was to work as a bulwark against any future Soviet invasion of their country. Yugoslavia tried to bring her economic system in line with the West’s in the 1960s but in the process suffered from high inflation (sixteen to twenty per cent in 1978 and about thirty per cent in 1979). Trade deficit began to grow rapidly and stood at $2.5 billion in 1976 and $ 6 billion in 1979. Yugoslavia began to move closer to the West by signing a five-year agreement with the European Common Market which provided trade with the West for Yugoslavia, so as to reduce her trade deficit. Tito maintained strict neutrality during the Cold War and superpower rivalry. He joined the Non-Aligned Movement of the Third World countries and kept in close touch with great leaders like, India’s then prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Nasser of Egypt. Tito tried to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union, although he was close to the West and Third World countries. Yugoslavia condemned Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Yugoslavia warned the Soviet Union and Bulgaria against any interference in her domestic matters. Tito desired East-West detente. President Carter of the USA was impressed and stated that, if the Soviet Union invaded Yugoslavia, the US government would provide her with enough assistance. He visited Yugoslavia in June, 1980, two months after the death of Marshal Tito. The death and end of Tito’s dictatorship, brought Yugoslavia a host of

problems. The political arrangement began to fall apart and the economic system developed many cracks, since Yugoslavia desired to be accepted as a member of the European Community. Centrifugal tendencies began to operate. The eight parties and governments in the country had not been welded properly, and each party enjoyed the power of veto. Regional needs became more important than the common good. The Federal League of Communists could not intervene effectively to stop quarrels. Serbia wanted the autonomous province of Kosovo, dominated by Albanians. The Albanians there wanted Kosovo to become a republic. Yugoslavia which grew out of Serbia, had been welded into a cohesive nation under the able leadership of President Tito. Unfortunately, after Tito’s death, the nation became a melting pot due to fratricidal wars, and the six republics and two autonomous provinces fell apart in 1990. Slovenia and Croatia were the first to declare independence. A civil war in Croatia affected Bosnia, where the Croats and the Muslims voted for independence after a referendum in 1992. The Serbs in Bosnia did not like this situation (they opposed this referendum), and they formed a small republic for themselves within Bosnia. The US and the European Union accorded recognition to the Republic of Bosnia (also called as Bosnia-Herzegovina). The Serbs of Bosnia obviously had the support of Serbia, the latter along with Montenegro formed a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in April, 1992. What followed was the ‘ethnic cleansing’. The Serbs killed thousands of Bosnian civilians and extended their control over three-fourths of Bosnia. Europe had never witnessed such an exodus of thousands of refugees fleeing Bosnia, since the birth of Israel. Negotiations to partition Bosnia followed with peace plans put forward by the big powers. NATO air raids on Serb-held areas of Bosnia followed, to force the Serbs to agree for peace talks. It was in December 1995, that the parties to the war agreed for peace (Dayton Accords), and the UN intervened with its War Tribunal issuing an arrest warrant on Radovan Karadzic, the Bosnian-Serb leader. He resigned, and the US and its allies kept peacekeeping troops in Bosnia (1998). Unfortunately, the Croats, the Muslims, and the Serbs remained divided despite the Dayton Accords. After condemning Serbia-Montenegro (which formed a new Yugoslavian Federation), the UN expelled Yugoslavia in 1992. In the Albanian dominated autonomous province of Kosovo in Serbia (Yugoslavia), there was serious trouble in 1998. The Albanian separatists desired independence for Kosovo, and the Yugoslav President, Slobodan Milosevic used all methods to crush their revolt. What Milosevic did was ethnic cleansing. Thousands fled Kosovo when the Serbian army mercilessly butchered the people and torched their homes. After so much bloodshed, torture, and rape in Kosovo,

the big powers used NATO forces to strike at Yugoslavia itself. Seventy-eight days of aerial bombing forced the Yugoslav president to his knees. Russia wanted to stop this and was about to interfere on behalf of Yugoslavia. Finally, the war ended when the Kosovo Liberation Army agreed to surrender to the NATO. NATO’s air-strikes have been condemned since it had no sanction from the UN Security Council. In 1999, Yugoslav troops left Kosovo, and the UN took charge of administration. By October, 2000, the dictatorship of Milosevic was over. Vojislav Koštunica (2000-2003) was elected the new president of Yugoslavia.

39 Cold War Cold War

S

oon after the conclusion of World War II, Europe witnessed the advent of the Cold War between the communist countries led by Russia and the Capitalist-West led by the United States of America. By Cold War, we mean a continued state of tension and psychological warfare between two groups of power. This continued state of tension expressed itself through threats of war, accusations and subversion. All the weapons of psychological warfare were used. The Cold War which continued to bedevil international relations lasted until 1989. The principal cause of the Cold War was the attempt made by the Soviet Union to dominate the whole world through the spread of its ideology, which the capitalist West did not like. There was a conflict of interest over spheres of influence between the two super powers, USA and USSR. Soviet Union(USSR) made covert and overt attempts to foist communist rule on the countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. The strategy of the communists included extending support to the cause of national movements in Asia and Africa. She condemned the imperialist countries of Europe and America for enslaving many countries of Asia and Africa. She denounced the ways of capitalist countries for exploiting the resources of their colonies for their own benefit and thereby leaving them impoverished. USSR carried on the propaganda of explaining the evils of capitalism. Communist parties were founded in all the countries which received moral support from the Soviet Union. As against this strategy of the Soviet Union, the Western allies apparently, adopted a milder attitude. They did not like countries to come under communist domination. The Western Allies led by the United States of America tried to contain the spread of communism by rendering military and economic aid to several nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America. For example, she rendered economic aid to the war-torn countries of Europe

through a plan called the Marshall plan. In the course of a few years the United States government gave $12 billion as aid to many democratically elected governments in Europe. She would have extended this aid to the communist satellite countries also, but the Soviet Union came in the way. The Soviet Union established its control and influence on Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Albania, Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria. These countries were dominated by Russia, and they adopted the Russian Constitution as their model. Soon after World War II, the Soviet Union brought about a coup in all these countries by which she foisted the communist rule there. She prevented these countries from receiving economic aid under the Marshall plan. In the course of time, President Tito of Yugoslavia quarrelled with Stalin of the Soviet Union and established his own brand of communism in his country. The influence of communism swept many countries of Asia and Africa. The Russians supported the Chinese communists in all possible ways to cause a revolution in 1949. After the revolution of 1949, the communists came into power in China. The nationalist Chinese led by Chiang Kai-shek fled to the nearby island of Formosa (Taiwan). The fall of China into the hands of the communists in 1949 was a great victory for the Soviet Union. It was a serious blow to the efforts made by America to establish a “Free World”. When the Free World was threatened by communism, the United States government, under the presidency of Harry Truman had to take steps to ensure its security. It was then realised that the Free World had to be ‘protected’ by a military alliance of Western countries. The Cold War gathered momentum with the outbreak of civil war in Greece. The local communists tried to overthrow the democratically elected government with the secret support of the Soviet Union. Similarly, Turkey was also in danger of communist subversion. Taking these factors into consideration, President Truman gave military and economic aid to them with which these two countries protected themselves. Thus it showed that military and economic aid would help the nations of the Free World to veer away from communist takeovers. When Russia violated the Yalta and Potsdam agreements by retaining her control over East Germany, the Western World had no choice other than establishing an elected government in West Germany in due course of time. The western allies integrated their military zones into a single economic entity and replaced the Reichsmark currency with the Deutsche Mark on 20 June, 1948. This angered the Soviets and they imposed the “Berlin Blockade” which began on 24 June, 1948. By this blockade, the western zones (zones of Germany under western occupation) were denied rail, road and canal access to West Berlin (sectors of Berlin controlled by western allies) which deprived the people there

of food and other essential commodities. This situation compelled the western allies to supply food and other essential items to West Berlin by air (Berlin Airlift). The Berlin Airlift proved to be very successful, with more than two million tons of food and other supplies reaching West Berlin during the blockade. The west also retaliated against the Soviet Union by imposing embargo on strategic exports from the eastern bloc. The Soviet Union had to finally end the blockade on 12 May, 1949. This resulted in the formation of two German states, namely, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), with Berlin city being split between the two. The Berlin blockade made the Western Allies think in terms of finding a military solution to the problem posed by the Soviet Union. Alarmed by the aggressive attitude of the Soviet Union, five western European nations, namely, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Brussels on 17 March, 1948, and formed a military defensive alliance. The members of this alliance desired that the US should protect them from the danger posed by Soviet expansionism. Along with seven other countries, namely, the US, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland, they signed the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington DC on 4 April, 1949. This collective military alliance came to be known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Subsequently, Greece and Turkey joined the NATO. In 1950, General Eisenhower was appointed the supreme commander of the NATO forces. The main treaty provided that “an armed attack against one would be regarded as an attack against all”. The member-countries of the NATO held meetings of their defence personnel and brought about unified military command. The member-countries led by the USA spent large sums of money to equip the NATO forces with the latest weapons. At last, the Allies persuaded the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) to join the NATO, as the fifteenth member. As against the formation of NATO, the Soviet Union brought about a defence pact with the communist satellite countries of Europe. This pact was called the Warsaw Pact which provided for the defence of its members from the threat of the Western Allies. Till 1949, the USA was the only country in the world which had the knowhow to manufacture an atom bomb. However, this monopoly was broken when USSR tested its first atom bomb in September 1949. The threat of a nuclear war between the two superpowers loomed large before the people of the world. The Cold War further accentuated when President Truman ordered American scientists to manufacture a bomb which would be thousand times deadlier than the atomic bomb. The American scientists succeeded in their efforts to produce and test the hydrogen bomb in 1952. As against this threat, USSR also produced

a hydrogen bomb and tested it successfully in 1953. Thus the two superpowers entered into a race for manufacturing nuclear bombs which scared all the people of the world. The Cold War was intensified when Eisenhower was elected president of the United States of America in 1953. John Foster Dulles became the Secretary of State. Meanwhile the Korean war began in 1950. The USA, led by some members of the UN fought to prevent aggression by North Korea on South Korea. North Korea had become a communist country while the South was under the influence of the capitalist USA. When the UN forces pushed the communists back beyond the 38th parallel, the Chinese communists began to help the North Koreans. It was then that American General MacArthur appealed to the President to declare war on China. When President Truman refused to oblige him, MacArthur made some caustic comments about the president for which he was dismissed. President Truman realised that if the UN forces attacked communist China, USSR would come to her rescue. The war would turn into a world war. Peace was brought about in 1953. The Korean war, no doubt, intensified the Cold War existing between the communist world and the Western Allies. John Foster Dulles, the American Secretary of State, was an inveterate enemy of communism. He believed that the communists in the world would understand only the show of force. Therefore he decided to protect the free world through forming a number of military alliances. He believed that the free world should threaten the communists with war, and this policy was called “the policy of containment”, or “brinkmanship”. In 1954, the United States of America established a military alliance of some free countries in Southeast Asia. The Alliance was called the SEATO which was directed against the two communist giants, USSR and China. John Foster Dulles did not believe in the policy of neutrality which was followed by many Asian countries under the leadership of the prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. He said that this policy was immoral and not viable. During the year 1953-54, China was intending to invade Formosa, the base of the Nationalist Chinese. The United States government had to render all assistance to the Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan government) to withstand the bombardment of the Chinese communists on their island. During the same year the Vietminh (the communists controlling North Vietnam) laid siege to the fortress of Dien Bien Phu where a large French army was taking shelter. The American government hesitated to give support to the French as that would mean a war with the two communist giants—USSR and China. The Vietminh forces led by their great leader, Ho Chi Minh, finally succeeded in capturing it.

Stalin’s death in March, 1953, brought about a change in the leadership in the Soviet Union. There was some kind of collective leadership in Russia up to 1955, but then, Khruschev (Party secretary) and Bulganin came to power after a purge. Their emergence to power somewhat thawed the existing Cold War since they believed in peaceful co-existence of the capitalist and the communist world. The Russians signed the agreement by which the big four powers ended their occupation of Austria. The Russian leaders proved to be friendly and allowed press correspondents and others to visit Soviet Russia. This attitude encouraged the Western statesmen to have the Geneva Summit in July, 1955, which was attended by President Eisenhower and also other statesmen of the Soviet Union, Britain and France. Although the Summit did not yield much, it appeared that there was some thaw in the Cold War. The Western Allies were happy when Khruschev started criticising Stalin’s policies in 1956. In October, 1956, two important events, the Hungarian revolt and the Anglo-French-Israeli attack on Egypt, had far-reaching repercussions on the Cold War. The revolt of the Hungarians was brutally suppressed by their government with the support of the Soviet Union. Many people of the world expected that the USA would intervene to rescue the Hungarians but they were disappointed. In the second incident, Britain and France attacked Egypt for nationalising the Suez Canal Company owned by them. The USSR threatened Britain and France by declaring that, if they did not stop the war USSR would attack them with missiles. The Americans also condemned Britain and France for launching a war against Egypt. As a result, both Britain and France withdrew from the war, and in the former, Anthony Eden’s government fell. The USSR threat worked. The “Suez crisis” brought the world to the brink of a world war. Fortunately, it was averted due to the pressure applied by USA on her allies. Both the USA and the Soviet Union began the manufacture of intercontinental ballistic missiles whose range extended up to 10,000 km. The Soviet Union sent ‘Sputnik’ (October, 1957), the first man-made satellite, into space which orbited round the earth. The Americans felt intensely jealous at the scientific and technological advancement of the Soviet Union and subsequently they were afraid that USSR might use it for attacking their country. The US government began a crash programme to manufacture a missile which would match the skill of the Soviet scientists. The US missiles, when manufactured, had a range of 15,000 km and all the cities of the Soviet Union were within its range. Subsequently, the USA produced the Polaris missiles which could be launched from nuclear submarines. The whole world watched with bated breath, the nuclear race going on between these two superpowers. In 1959, the Russians launched a rocket to the moon. The Russians continued to maintain their

superiority in the exploration of outer space, but the Americans also made matching progress in this field. In 1958, Khruschev became prime minister and created the “Berlin crisis”. He said that he would cancel the Potsdam Agreement of 1945 which divided Berlin into four sectors. He said that this arrangement had become obsolete and he proposed to transfer the Russian sector to East Berlin. He desired that the Western Allies too should do likewise. He issued a vague ultimatum to make them fall in line with him. He also proposed that Berlin should become a free city. The Western powers refused to negotiate on this matter. In 1959, there was a conference of leaders at Geneva which was fruitless. In 1959, Vice-President Nixon went to the Soviet Union and Khruschev visited the USA. In May, 1960, before the summit conference was to take place in Paris, the U-2 incident occurred. An American U-2 reconnaissance plane which was on a spying mission over the Soviet territory was shot down and Khrushchev condemned the USA for violating international law.

The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Cuba under its communist leader, Fidel Castro, developed a hostile attitude towards the United States in the midst of the Cold War. He nationalised US companies which provoked the United States government. To prevent any likely war with the US, Fidel Castro sought help of the Soviet Union to defend itself. The proximity of Communist Cuba to the US made the latter uncomfortable. President Kennedy ordered a secret invasion of Cuba (Bay of Pigs War) which ended in a terrible failure. Cuba allowed the Soviet Union to build bases on its soil for stationing its (Soviet Union’s) nuclear ballistic missiles. A US spy plane on a reconnaissance mission detected the nuclear bases under construction in Cuba. The US President immediately threatened Soviet Union with a nuclear attack if the ballistic nuclear missiles from Cuba were not withdrawn. The United States became more menacing by ordering US warships to surround the island of Cuba. The Soviet Union under Khrushchev, became aware of a likely nuclear war arising out of the dangerous situation, and agreed to withdraw the ballistic missiles from Cuba. However, the Soviet Union imposed certain conditions for the US to fulfil. Firstly, the US should not deploy ballistic missiles in Turkey for threatening the Soviet Union. Secondly, the US should give a guarantee that it would not invade Cuba. The US agreed, and the world heaved a great sigh of relief–a terrible nuclear war thus averted. The nuclear arms race

continued and the Cold War was intensified.

End of the Cold War The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, shocked the world because the president of that country, Alexander Dubcek, was a great follower of MarxismLeninism. He had annoyed the Soviet leaders by introducing liberal reforms in his country during the short period called ‘Prague Spring’ without their consent. A new leader was chosen to rule the country. However, the disgraced Dubcek was restored to his old position on condition that he obeyed the Soviet leaders. The Cold War eased to some extent following the signing of the Helsinki Agreement (1975). Earlier, the Vietnam War entered into a crucial phase with the involvement of the US under its presidents, Johnson and Nixon. This undeclared war by the US government ended in its defeat in January, 1973. This was followed by a peace treaty with the communist North Vietnam. The Cold War intensified again with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. It compelled the US to support the Afghan Mujahedeens in their fight against Soviet occupation. The long Afghan war ended with the withdrawal of the Soviet troops in 1989. The same year witnessed the demolition of the Berlin Wall, which marked the end of the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought about the end of Communism.

Unipolar World Following the fall of USSR and communism, the United States enjoyed unprecedented power and glory from 1991. Even the former communist states of central and eastern Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and so on) became not only free from the communist rule but also joined the European Union. Some of them joined the NATO alliance which was dominated by the USA, despite the protests by the Russian Federation. The US has become the sole superpower exercising its worldwide influence through some of the financial institutions like IMF, The World Bank and the World Trade Organisation. In the course of time, the US as a champion of democracy, went so far as to marginalise even the United Nations. This was seen especially during the second Gulf war in 2003. President Bush desired regime-change in Iraq and also the elimination of its leader, Saddam Hussain. The US government refused to sign

the KYOTO protocol which intended to protect many countries from environmental hazard. On some other issues too, the US disregarded world opinion. The US launched a war on global terror after the 9/11 (2001) tragedy at the World Trade Centre, New York. The NATO troops are fighting the Taliban militants and Al Qaeda terrorists in Afghanistan for protecting the democratically elected Afghan government under Hamid Karzai. However, the US dominance is fast declining due to the economic recession of 2007-09, and also due to the emergence of rising powers like China, India, Brazil and the European Union. China is at present challenging the US’s global supremacy.

Disarmament During the height of the Cold War, the two superpowers were engaged in nuclear arms race. It created great anxiety among the people of the world. There was the danger of a nuclear war hanging over the heads of people of the world. In order to avoid such nuclear confrontation, a number of powerful countries were trying to reach a proper understanding. Negotiations between the two superpowers were started after the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. This crisis would have caused a nuclear war between them. Hence, the US, the Soviet Union, Britain and a large number of countries signed a treaty known as ‘The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty’ (also known as the treaty banning nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and underwater). China and France did not sign this treaty. This treaty subsequently came to be known as comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT), which was signed by 44 countries. India and Pakistan did not sign this treaty.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) As per the recommendations of the UN General Assembly resolution, the US, The Soviet Union and Britain along with fifty-nine other countries signed a treaty called the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968. This treaty was binding in nature upon the signatories. The terms of the treaty mainly included ‘not to promote the spread, or proliferation, nuclear weapons to countries that did not already possess them’.

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (SALT 1, 1972)

President Nixon and President Brezhnev signed this treaty in 1972 which is also known as Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT 1). Both the superpowers, along with a few countries realised that they should limit the production of antiballistic missiles. This treaty included that the both the super powers should keep one system each, and the rest are to be dismantled. The SALT-2 (1972-79) treaty also came to be discussed by the superpowers which related to the earlier missiles’ treaty. The treaty was signed by the two super powers, but unfortunately the US Senate did not approve it.

The Helsinki Accord (1975) At Helsinki (Finland), the Soviet Union and the US, came to an agreement not to confront each other with nuclear weapons. Soviet Union assured the US that it would not export communism to other countries. This was supposed to bring about an end to the Cold War. However, the Soviet Union violated this accord by invading Afghanistan in the late 1970s. The Soviet forces occupied Afghanistan and established their puppet regime.

Strategic Defence Initiative (1983), also known as Star Wars When Reagan was elected President of the US, he was totally opposed to the expansionist ideology of the Soviet Union. He called the Soviet Union the ‘Focus of Evil’ and wanted to teach it a lesson. He initiated a programme known as the Star Wars Program. He wanted the US to develop a kind of nuclear defence shield, so as to defend itself from a possible full-fledged Soviet nuclear attack. It was to be developed over a period of twenty years. This program was also funded by the US Congress. However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, the supposed program was given up. In its place, the US engaged the Russian Federation in another treaty known as Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START I) 1982-1991. President Bush (senior) and President Gorbachev started talks on reducing the stockpile of nuclear weapons. The agreement concluded in 1991, and committed both the powers to reduce the number of nuclear weapons. For example, Russia had to reduce its nuclear weapons numbering 11000 to 8000, and the US to reduce its weapons from 12000 to 10000. After the total collapse of the Soviet Union, a supplementary treaty was also signed. However, in 2002, the US revoked the anti-ballistic missiles treaty, and began building a new defence system to protect itself from rogue states (North Korea, Iran and Libya). In the meantime, President Putin of Russia was not happy because the NATO

alliance continued to exist and permitted erstwhile communist countries of central and eastern Europe to join it.

New START (2010) The US Senate approved the New Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START) in December 2010. President Obama and the Russian President Dmitri Medvedev agreed upon the following: * to limit the number of strategic nuclear warheads (deployed) to 1,550 * to limit the number of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM), Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) launchers and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments (all deployed and nondeployed) to 800 * to limit the number of deployed ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments to 700 The steps taken towards disarmament as mentioned above have reduced the threat of nuclear war between the two superpowers. However, there is still the danger of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of terrorists, or some rogue states which may launch a surprise attack against the US.

Emergence of the US as the Lone Superpower Soviet communism failed to deliver the promise it had made to the people at the time of the formation of the Soviet Union in 1917, i.e. to establish a Soviet Society after the withering away of the state. By 1985, the Soviet economy was in bad shape despite the so called reforms—Glasnost and Perestroika. The country faced severe shortage of food and other consumer goods. Growing unemployment caused much resentment among the people. Movements for independence in all the communist satellite states gathered momentum, and Gorbachev had no answer to this developing crisis. He allowed these states to go their own way, and the USSR disintegrated. He resigned and Boris Yeltsin succeeded him. Boris Yeltsin blamed the communist party for organising the coup against Gorbachev. Pravda, the official communist party newspaper, was closed and its property seized. Communist Party activites were banned. Ukraine and Belarus declared their independence on 31 August, 1991. Boris Yeltsin replaced the defunct Soviet Union with the newly formed Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December, 1991. He dismantled the communist system and abolished the Command Economy. Encouraged by

the US, he introduced a market oriented economy to stop further economic stagnation. Thousands of large and medium scale state-owned enterprises began to face privatisation in 1993. Yeltsin had to face impeachment, but survived. His presidency (1991-1999) was bogged down due to rampant corruption and unemployment. The new Russian Federation replaced the Soviet Union in the UN. In 1993, President Bush (senior) and President Yeltsin signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) in Moscow by which, both agreed to ban multiplewarhead (MIRVs), intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and to reduce nuclear warheads by two-thirds. Unfortunately, START II did not come into effect. After the demise of Soviet communism and the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the lone superpower in the world. The robust US economy stood its ground. The US became not only a champion of democracy, but also remained as the citadel of capitalism. Its military strength was bolstered by being the leader of the NATO. The triumph of capitalism over communism heralded a new era of US domination. Even the Third World countries, which earlier depended upon the Soviet Union for material and moral support, now had to rely on the US for economic assistance. The US and other European powers wielded great influence over the international banking institutions like the IMF and the World Bank. As such the non-aligned countries too began to seek support of the US government for securing economic aid from these banking institutions. The nonaligned movement lost its relevance as a third force. Earlier, the non-aligned countries were playing one superpower against the other to gain political and economic advantages. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved following the demise of the USSR, and the former communist states of eastern Europe joined the European Union to improve their economic prospects. Even Communist China, under the leadership of Deng Xiao Ping, introduced market reforms (Market Socialism) and sought admission into the powerful World Trade Organisation (WTO). India also embraced market reforms in 1991 under the leadership of Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. The then Finance Minister Manmohan Singh played a leading role. The United States is playing a vital role in influencing the policies of the WTO. Since 9/11 (2001), it has also been spearheading the Global War on Terror.

PART XIII

Science, Technology and Environment Chapter 40 Science and Technology in the Modern World Chapter 41 Environmental Challenges

40 Science and Technology in the Modern World

I

t may not be an exaggeration to say that the Industrial Revolution in England gave a tremendous fillip to the growth of science and technology. The textile industry which needed large-scale bleaching and dyeing methods gave stimulus to practical chemistry and machine-technology. The transport of materials and finished products by sea necessitated navigational innovations, and it was not long before the sextant and chronometer were invented. So during the next few centuries, a chain of scientific discoveries and technological innovations continued to take place in the world. The people who marvelled at these things thought of establishing academies of science, and the industrialists who got immense benefits out of this felt the need for founding industrial research laboratories.

Terms of Science and Technology Defined By ‘science,’ we mean a “cumulative body of systematised knowledge gained by observation, experimentation, and reasoning”. The word ‘technology’ is defined as “the fundamental application of scientific knowledge to the practical arts, resulting in improved industrial and commercial products of greater value to the people”. These two things became hand-maids of modern civilization. They marched hand in hand and rendered great services to the growth of human civilization. Scientific discoveries and inventions changed the very approach to life. There was the scientific temper pervading or developing in the Western societies. We call this as the intellectual revolution. Every aspect of nature came to be thoroughly studied and formed a separate subject-matter. Let us examine the achievements of each subject of natural sciences.

Geology The credit for laying the foundation for the subject of geology goes to Nicolaus Steno, a Dane, who found curious fossils of marine life on the mountains. Abraham Werner (1750-1817) was a German scientist who contributed much to the study of crystallography and different forms of rocks. Giovanni Arduino (1713-95), an Italian scholar, worked on the geological chronology and correctly estimated the successive ages of the earth’s crust. His work was followed by an Englishman, James Hutton, in 1795. Louis Agassiz contributed much to marine life and the glacial geology by publishing his works on fresh water Fishes, research relating to fossil fishes, and study relating to glaciers during the 1840s. William Nichol (1810-70), a professor in Edinburgh rendered valuable contribution to the development of petrography, the microscopic study of rocks and fossils. His research methods later came to be applied by Henry Sorby for his study of crystals (1858). Charles Lyell (1797-1875) studied at Oxford and published his Principles of Geology. He was the first to “conceive the idea of classifying the tertiary formations of the Cenozoic Age into four divisions, Eocene, Oligocene, Micocence and Pliocene”. All these terms are in common use by the geologists. Thus, the development of Geology as a scientific subject for study extended its scope and widened the horizon of human knowledge of the earth we live in.

Astronomy—Halley’s Discoveries In the field of astronomy, Edmund Halley, an English astronomer, studied the comet which appeared in 1682 and discovered that the same comet had appeared in 1607, i.e., seventy-six years earlier. After studying its orbit he predicted that it would be seen again in the year 1758. Some of his achievements include the discovery of the “Periodicity” of comets and a method to measure the distance between the Sun and the Earth. Balthaskar Bekkar, a Netherlander, made a deep study on comets and published his findings in the Inquiry into the Meaning of Comets in 1683. A year earlier, Pierre Bayle had published his book Various Thoughts on Comets, in which he exploded the myth that the appearance of comets predict disasters. In 1796, Pierre Simon de Laplace published a book, System of Universe, wherein he declared that all the planets and stars had taken birth from the same source—a rotating nebula of incandescent gas. One of the most remarkable astronomers of the eighteenth century was William Herschel (1738-1822). Besides producing telescopes and discovering the planet Uranus

and the sixth satellite of Saturn, he drew up a picture of the shape of the galaxy. It resembled “the form of a double convex lens with the Sun near the middle”. Astronomy made some more progress with the findings of John Couch Adams, Urbain Le Verrier, Gustaf Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen. The last two contributed to astrophysics since they tried to determine the physical nature of stars. One of the greatest astronomers of the nineteenth century was Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835-1900) who said that comets stop shining and become meteors. He made special study of the three planets, Mars, Venus and Mercury. He observed “canals” and climate resembling that found on the earth on the planet Mars.

Development of the Science of Physics Physics studies different forms of energy and matter. It made rapid strides of progress due to the impetus provided by the Industrial Revolution in England. Some physicists were interested in understanding how the steam engine converted heat into motion. They applied the results of their researches while inventing the gasoline engine and the like. Other physicists studied metals and produced new metals like steel, etc. During the nineteenth century, James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz did research work in electromagnetic waves and energy. It may be remembered that Michael Faraday experimented with magnetism and later on invented the dynamo, which produced electricity. A little later, a group of physicists were interested in electricity and magnetism, and a major breakthrough took place when Heinrich Hertz established the existence of electromagnetic waves. The contributions of Hertz paved the way for the invention of the Wireless. It also led to substantial developments in the fields of electronics and telecommunications. Ernest Rutherford played a stellar role in the field of nuclear physics, and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in the year 1908.

Modern Physics Modern physics is of recent origin and it was nurtured by John Dalton and Max Planck. The latter came forward with a new theory on light as well as the quantum theory. He explained the properties of atom. With the advent of the twentieth century, the world witnessed the birth of Nuclear Physics. It began with Roentgen who discovered the X-rays and subsequently a French couple, Pierre and Marie Curie found out that radium also gives off radiation. It was not long before the scientists discovered marvellous things about the atom. Later,

Albert Einstein predicted that by splitting the atom, tremendous energy can be released. His theory paved the way for the production of atom bomb, and the Americans dropped it on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with catastrophic results. The Age of the Atom bomb began since the middle of the twentieth century. Einstein’s theories on relativity and gravitation represented a profound advance over Newtonian Physics and revolutionised scientific and philosophical inquiry.

Development in Chemistry Chemistry had humble beginning and it took time to grow as an independent science because it had been shackled by alchemy. The names of George Stahl, Henry Cavendish and Antoine Lavoisier helped to develop this subject. Henry Cavendish obtained the hydrogen gas after experiments and discovered that water is not an element but a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Antonie Lavoisier is described as “the Newton of Chemistry”. He burnt different substances in his closed chamber and discovered that their basic elements remained the same, though they had altered in appearance. An English chemist, John Dalton, tried to explain this new phenomenon through his atomic theory. According to Dalton’s theory, all matter is made of minute atoms or “building blocks”, and the atoms of different elements differ in sizes and traits. Although the elements mix to form a new substance, their atoms always remain intact. Extending this line of thinking, a Russian scientist, Dmitri Mendeleev prepared a table of all the identified elements according to their atomic weights (Mendeleev’s periodic table). Research in chemistry led to it being utilised for the material prosperity of man. Chemistry has enabled us to create synthetic materials, fertilisers, plastics, pesticides, and has also played useful role in refining petroleum. The chemists also helped man by creating life-saving drugs.

Progress in Biology Biology is a study of all living things. Several distinguished scientists are associated with its development. Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist, divided all natural objects into stone, animals and vegetables. He also invented the system of giving biological nomenclature to all plants and animals. Rene de Reaumur made a special study of insect life. He is also credited with inventing the thermometer and an unpublished manuscript, Natural History of Ants. John Hunter was interested in studying the comparative anatomy of animals and birds.

Georges Cuvier studied not only the animal world but also the past life of the earth (Paleontology). Some biologists studied the “living jelly” or protoplasm. There were others who took interest in nutrition. One of the most revolutionary figures in modern biology was an English naturalist, Charles Darwin. His Magnum opus was On the Origin of Species which was published in 1859. Darwin said that living organisms had been evolved from a common ancestor which was the first to take birth on the earth hundreds of millions of years ago. The living species— including man—which exist today are the result of a long process of evolution. This long process was painful and slow since many died in between. In other words, Nature did not allow all species to multiply, and selected only those which could best adapt themselves to the existing environment. So the long and painful process of evolution was characterised by a struggle for existence. That was how the numbers in each kind of species were kept more or less, constant. The long process of evolution of living species and the change in their forms led to the development of the new science called genetics. Francis Galton (1822-1911), a cousin of Darwin, studied the hereditary characteristics of geniuses and published work on it. While Galton’s contribution may be strictly assigned to the science of Eugenics, the foundation for the science of genetics was laid by an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), who crossed varieties of garden pea. He finally discovered that hereditary characteristics of each are passed on in a definite form or pattern. Mendel’s law propounds that “when two or more contrasted characters are crossed, the characters separate out in the later generations independently of each other”. The science of genetics has been of immense benefit for it enables breeding superior varieties of plants and animals.

Progress in Medical Field Medical science has made enormous strides of progress during the last 200 years and thereby, extending the average life-expectancy of mankind. It may be remembered that before 1796, there were no vaccines against smallpox, plague and other types of fever. The victims were left helpless and many crude native remedies were adopted. An English doctor, Edward Jenner, found out that those who had cowpox (a mild disease) earlier, appeared to be free from the attack of smallpox. He experimented with a young boy by inoculating him with cowpox serum. Jenner’s experiment against the deadly disease, smallpox, proved highly successful. That was how vaccination (1796) against certain diseases became

popular. Nobody knew how these diseases were caused. However, it was not until 1865 that a French Professor, Louis Pasteur (1822-95), showed that these infectious diseases were caused by germs. He explained how fermentation takes place i.e., souring of milk and putrefaction of meat. He correctly guessed that the silk industry in France had been destroyed by plague. He also discovered the cause for the cattle-disease. But his outstanding achievement was his discovery of successful treatment of persons suffering from hydrophobia (disease caused by the bite of a mad dog). For a couple of years the ‘germ theory’ of Louis Pasteur was ridiculed but it assumed credibility under a German scientist, Robert Koch (1843-1910). With the aid of the microscope, Koch discovered the germs which caused diseases known to us as, cholera and tuberculosis. When the ‘germ theory’ was accepted as a fact, doctors started discovering vaccines or serums to protect the people from such diseases like diphtheria and the like. Emil von Behring protected many children from diphtheria by vaccination. His success led to the discovery of several vaccines for such diseases like typhoid fever, tetanus and others. Walter Reed, an American doctor, found that yellow fever was spread by mosquitoes. Over a span of half a century, scientists discovered powerful drugs such as penicillin and sulfa to combat these deadly germs. Today we have the most powerful antibiotic drugs used against diseases, ranging from infantile paralysis to diseases like cancer and heart disease. In the field of surgery, the discovery of anaesthetics was to be a milestone. It is used to deaden the pain of a patient during the time of surgery. Another important factor in the field of surgery was the discovery of X-rays. It enabled surgeons to see the affected part or organ of the body without surgery. Since the advent of the twentieth century, scientists discovered the energy producing and health-giving properties of various kinds of food. Their deficiencies led to the deteriorating physical conditions of a person. It was in 1906, that scientists discovered vitamins as essential for maintaining good physical condition. Meanwhile, the dangers from surgical operations on patients were minimised by sterilising the tools used by the doctor before the operation. In the old days, Lord Lister, an English doctor, used carbolic acid to prevent festering of wounds.

Technological Innovations The use of iron and steel marked the beginning of the modern world. As mentioned in an earlier chapter (see Industrial Revolution), it was Sir Henry Bessemer who invented a method for “removing the impurities from iron and making it harder”. This refined iron was called as steel. Iron and steel were used

for making machines and tools. Mechanical sewing was introduced by an American, Isac Singer, with the help of a sewing machine operated by a treadle (1851). The steam-driven printing press was introduced in 1813 by two Germans, Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Bauer. Ottmar Mergenthaler invented the linotype printing technique. Tolbert Lanston invented the monotype printing method. The manufacture of paper with the help of a machine was made possible by Henry Fourdrinier. In 1867, an American, Christopher Sholes, invented the typewriter and the Remington factory bought Shole’s rights for the manufacture of typewriters. The development of photography began with the efforts of Thomas Wedgwood who produced contact prints. The next important milestone in the science of photography was achieved when Joseph Niepce discovered the method of making permanent photographic images. A person who also greatly contributed to modern photography was an American, George Eastman. He invented the “Kodak” camera.

Motion Picture With the invention of photography, it was not long before the motion pictures came into vogue. This was made possible by Charles F. Jenkins who produced a motion picture projector in 1894. Gabriel Lippman introduced colour motion pictures. The earliest movies were silent movies and were soon replaced by talkies. Cartoon movies were produced by Windsor Mckay.

Technological Innovations in the Means of Transport Technological innovations in the methods of transport began in the early years of the nineteenth century in England. The first railway locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick and its first journey took place in 1804. In 1807 an American, Robert Fulton, built a steamboat which commenced its regular service on the river Hudson. Refrigerators and cars were introduced in 1875. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened its modern railroad service to the public. The first steamship to cross the Atlantic in 1833 was a Canadian vessel, The Royal William.

Motor Vehicles Karl Benz, a German engineer, introduced motor transport by inventing his

motor-car in 1885. During the same year another German engineer, Gottlieb Daimler, introduced a gasoline engine for running a motorcycle. The modern air transport began in the early twentieth century. The Wright Brothers flew a motor-driven plane successfully in 1903. In 1908, they travelled nearly 100 miles on their motor-driven plane. In 1919, Alcock and Brown flew in a plane across the Atlantic. The first flight around the world was in 1924. The next adventure was made by Charles Lindbergh who flew alone from Long Island in New York to Paris in 1927. During World War I, planes were used for reconnaissance and bombing. The Germans used “Zeppelins”, large floating airships filled with nitrogen gas. It carried some adventurous passengers across the Atlantic. The first commercial jet service started with the flight from New York to Miami. In recent years, an average of 350 passengers are carried by the Jumbojet (747) passenger aircrafts. Military jets fly at a faster rate and at very high altitudes. After the development of rockets, man has been able to fly in space and reach the moon.

Revolution in the Communication System The system of communication was also revolutionised with new technological inventions such as telegraphy, wireless telegraphy and the telephones. Transmitting messages by means of electric wires was called telegraph. The first telegraphic instrument for commercial purpose was introduced by Samuel Morse. In 1844, he used a hand-operated telegraphic key and transmitted a message in Morse code, and the telegraph system came to be used for commercial purposes from that year onwards. Thirty-two years later, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone to transmit the human voice through wires. In 1899, the problem of carrying messages to long distances was solved by Guglielmo Marconi. He had earlier invented the Wireless Telegraph in 1896. He was the first to send radio-signal across the Atlantic in 1901. Based on Marconi’s invention, radio-broadcasting and television were developed during later years. His method of sending messages by wireless (electromagnetic waves) came to be adopted by navigators of ships and planes. In the course of time, undersea cables were laid for sending telegraphic messages across the Atlantic. Another wonderful invention was the television. Charles Jenkins developed a mechanical television system called radiovision and in 1925, he successfully demonstrated synchronised television transmission of both pictures and sound. John Logie Baird, a British engineer, is credited with the first demonstration of both ‘colour and stereoscopic television’. His company, Baird Television Development

Company (BTDC), ‘achieved the first transatlantic television transmission between London and New York’. By 1933, regular television programme came to be broadcast from a New York Station. The first television programme started in Britain in 1936. The invention of the radar after 1935 was another notable event. The radar was used to detect the approaching enemy planes by ships and planes. Through science, man has been able to unlock the secrets of nature.

41 Environmental Challenges Global Warming

I

t simply means the average rise of the earth’s surface temperature over a period of time due to the emission of green house gases. It is said that by 2100 AD, the global average surface temperature would increase from anywhere between 2.50F to 10.4 °F (i.e. 1.4 °C to 5.8 °C). This is an estimate declared by UN Inter-Governmental Panel on climate change in 2001. What would be its most likely effect? It would melt polar ice caps as well as several glaciers around the world and cause rise in sea levels. It would cause extremities of weather and climatic conditions which would lead to disastrous consequences for the mankind. Therefore it has become imperative that all the nations under the aegis of the UN take steps to reduce global warming. It required binding agreements or commitments from all the countries in respect of reducing the emission protocol (1997). Although it created a discord between the rich and poor countries, it was in principle agreed upon by all the countries (with the exception of the US and a few other countries). This commitment became effective from 2008 to 2012. It is supposed to bring about the reduction of global rise in the temperature by 0.280C.

Copenhagen Summit (2009) The Kyoto protocol agreement would end by 2012, and therefore another fresh attempt was made to reduce drastically, the emission of green house gases by both developed and developing countries. The delegates of 114 nations met at Copenhagen for the fifteenth Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The earlier summit which was held in Bali (Indonesia) raised controversy on the limitation of

emission of green house gases between the developed and developing nations. However, the conference called for the urgency to act—act decisively for averting a potential disaster, for the future of mankind. It should be remembered that the rise in temperature on this planet is supposed to trigger several changes in the climate system. While this meeting did not arrive at any final figure of reduction, it hopes that an average of 2 °C will be approved by all nations.

Cancun Summit (2010) The UN climate change conference was held in Cancum (Mexico) in November 2010. It was the sixteenth conference on climate change. The Cancum summit brought about an agreement between the rich and poor countries to limit the global warming to less than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, and called on rich countries to reduce their green house gas emission. Unfortunately, the agreement was not of a binding nature. In that conference it was proposed that the nations should provide for “Green Climate Fund” worth $100 billion by the year 2020, so that it could assist poorer countries “in financing their emission-reduction adaptation strategies”. Again, the participants could not agree on who should reduce the emissions first, the rich or the poor. It is observed that global warming triggers chain reactions, and the world experiences less cold nights and cold days, and also hotter days and hotter nights. The glaciers will melt and sea levels would rise, and in the long term the world would suffer from severe food-shortages. People have experienced ElNino, brown-cloud, and melting of glaciers in the arctic and Himalayas—all indicating environmental degradation. Mankind should gain lessons of wisdom from the phenomenons, and therefore interfere less with nature’s balance.

Pollution Climate change also occurs due to pollutions, i.e. air pollution, land pollution, water pollution and radioactive pollution. Man has always behaved badly with nature and been responsible for environmental degradation. Western countries were greedy, and in order to become rich, they have caused maximum amount of pollution. Due to rapid industrialisation, there is increasing urbanisation in western countries. More and more inhabitants migrated to cities and caused increased air pollution (emission of carbon dioxide and other particles). Air pollution occurs due to emission of carbon dioxide from thousands of vehicles plying on the road. Sawdust and deforestation have also increased the air

pollution. The developing countries are copying the west in this respect. After air pollution, water pollution is taking place in almost all the cities of the world due to dumping of garbage and other effluents. For example, the sacred river Ganges in India is highly polluted due to the flow of sewage water and other industrial effluents. Discarded computers, mobiles and other electronic gadgets, called as electronic waste (e-waste), have also contributed to environmental degradation.

Land Pollution Land Pollution is caused by heavy use of pesticides, insecticides, solid wastes, fertilizers and other chemical wastes (plastics). Soil erosion too has contributed much to the infertility of soil. Other pollutants include– plastics, wasted building materials, rubber, paper, broken glasses and thrown away cardboard boxes and paint drums. The latter causes lead poisoning. Therefore governments will have to take steps to check the land pollution.

Radioactive Pollution It is caused by mining, detonation of nuclear bombs, and emissions from the nuclear plants. One should remember how people died and suffered due to the explosion in the Chernobyl nuclear plant (Ukraine) that occurred on 26 April, 1986. It caused air, water, soil and plant pollutions. The next nuclear disaster took place in March, 2011, at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan. Nuclear explosions since the days of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have been held mainly responsible for causing cancer, leukaemia and other diseases. The last, but not the least, to pollute the environment is noise pollution. Noise pollution has been rampant in almost all industrial cities across the world. It causes deafness among the children and the old. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has prescribed forty-five decibels as the safe noise-level for a city. Any sound above eighty decibels would cause deafness and nervousness. Deforestation has assumed alarming proportion in India as it is turning 1% of the fertile land into barren land every year. World environment day is being celebrated every year on the 5th of June The answer to the problem of deforestation is said to be afforestation (planting of trees). In India, the landmafia is causing the great problem. Sometimes, the governments too encourages mining, and installation of atomic power plants in forest areas. The tribal lands are taken away and sold to big industrial magnates. The Amazon forest in Brazil

has been heavily denuded in recent years. In India, the setting up of Jaitapur power plant in Maharashtra is encountering fierce opposition from the local people. So also the Posco project in Orissa. A fast developing country like India has to strike a right balance between growth and environmental well-being.

The Earth Summit Our planet Earth has become unsafe and unhealthy, especially in the recent decades. This has been mainly due to over population, all kinds of pollutions, deforestation and other damages, like the nuclear fallout and so on. The resources offered by this planet have been plentiful, but nations have become so greedy that they have over-exploited it, causing huge damage to human beings and other living species. In order to save our planet from a total disaster, the earth-summits were held.

The Stockholm Conference — 1972 In this context, the UN environment agency convened a conference of 114 nations in Stockholm in June, 1972. In this conference, the delegates discussed the damages caused to the ecosystem and prepared 150 action plants. It enunciated twenty principles “to protect the delicate balance of the ecosystem and also preserve them for the coming generations also”. The motto of this conference was “only one earth” for the entire humanity. 5 June was declared as World Environment Day in this conference. The next conference was held in Nairobi in 1982, which of reviewed the progress made by the 114 nations.

The Rio Summit–June 1992 The next earth summit was held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in June, 1992, which was attended by 115 of heads of state, 10,000 government missions and 20,000 representatives of NGOs. They adopted the motto “our common future”. The conference discussed 6 most important issues relating to planet Earth, namely, 1) population, 2) forests, 3) technology transfers, 4) finance, 5) degradation, 5) green house gas emissions. The conference ended with a declaration called Agenda 21, a plan for sustainable development. In 2007, Sydney (Australia) started what is called “The Earth Hour” by switching off of electric lights from 8.30 to 9.30 pm (local time) on 27 March. This has been copied by almost all the

countries from 2010 to join in an effort to save the planet from degradation.

PART XIV

Current History Chapter 42 Towards The New Millennium Chapter 43 From The Afghan Civil War to Arab Spring Chapter 44 Post Cold War Era: The Dawning of ‘New Europe’

42 Towards The New Millennium

D

uring the last quarter of the twentieth century, the world has changed a lot. The Cold War continued despite several agreements reached between the two super-powers namely, the Anti-Ballistic/Missile Treaty of 1972, and the conclusion of the Helsinki agreement in 1975. There was a short period of detente (understanding) which was followed by the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet troops in 1979, and its occupation in 1980. The US President, Reagan, described the Soviet union as “focus of evil” and was determined to check its might with the announcement of the “Star Wars”. However, he kept the door open for negotiations with the Soviet Union which was in tune with the spirit of understanding i.e. detente. Fortunately for the US president, the election of Gorbachev as a liberal leader in the Soviet Union in 1985 augured well for the cessation of the Cold War. Gorbachev rejected the “Brezhnev doctrine” (communist countries should unite and fight when one of them go astray — i.e. deviate from the path of communism), and repeated that Soviet Union has no intention of spreading communism to other countries. The four summit meetings held between the two leaders in Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington and Moscow until 1989 resulted in the cessation of Cold War and great progress on the disarmament front. In the meantime, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops from Afghanistan in 1989. The INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force) treaty (signed in 1937 by the US and Russia) was historic because it banned the use of specific nuclear weapons by the two super-powers. The confrontation between the NATO countries and the Warsaw-Pact countries too ended, since Gorbachev was interested in building” a common European home”. In 1989, the Berlin Wall separating the East and West (a symbol of confrontation between East Germany (Communist) and West Germany (capitalism) was demolished.

The Fall of the Soviet Empire

When Gorbachev took over the reins of the government, the Soviet economy was in really bad shape. He was convinced that the nation can retain its superpower status at an enormous cost. It would cause great sufferings to the people. It was time that the nation came to terms with bitter realities such as food shortages, rising unemployment, inflation, foreign debt, and federal deficits. His country needed a new ideological framework to inspire people to work for better future. His ideas for a better future which were based on Glasnost (openness), Perestroika (transformation of society), and democracy, offered hope to the people who had been groaning under the oppressive rule since the Stalinist era. Carried away by his own vision of changing a stagnant society, Gorbachev failed in his efforts to transform it. The die-hard conservatives in his party opposed his plans, and he had to rely on the support of the people. In a fiercely contested election (1989), Gorbachev won the presidency, besides retaining his post as general secretary. Armed with wide powers, he got decrees, laws and ordinances passed for transforming the society and economy, but unfortunately they could not be implemented. The pace of reforms slowed down, and the workers were angry and strikes happened. Before Gorbachev left the scene, he allowed the eastern European countries (all communist countries) to go their own way. The Soviet troops were withdrawn from those countries. People saw the fall of communism. Movements for independence within the Soviet Union started due to Gorbachev’s policy of Glasnost, and there was a coup. Boris Yeltsin, an upcoming leader, opposed the coup after rallying the support of the people of Moscow and got Gorbachev released from confinement. The whole world was watching the situation in the Soviet Union with bated breath. Gorbachev and Yeltsin agreed for changes and the Communist party lost its importance. The leaders agreed for the reunification of Germany. Soon the USSR disintegrated but the republics (eleven in number) joined what is known as Commonwealth of independent states. Russia came to be known as the Russian Federation in the course of time and it embraced a market economy after rejecting the plannedeconomy model. Boris Yeltsin became president and ruled Russia for eight years. Thereafter, he chose Vladimir Putin as his successor in 1999. The US assured Russia of its financial assistance, and the latter joined the NATO as a partner country.

Rise of Communist China After the overthrow of Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist government, the

Communists under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung took over the reins of government. Marxist-Leninst principles influenced the leader, and China launched Five Year Plans for economic and social development; and tried successfully to check the growth of population. The ‘commune system’ was introduced for rural development after individuals land-holdings were abolished. The educational system was revamped. Mao urged the Chinese to practice the virtue of self-reliance and did not seek foreign aid. Unfortunately, his ‘Great Leap Forward’ (his strategy of economic development) undertaken during 195759 failed miserably, and it is said that nearly twenty-seven million people perished due to frequent famines and floods. Mao had to step down for a while, but he regained his position. He launched the ‘Cultural Revolution’ (1966-69) after appealing to the people to follow his thoughts and participate in the economic development of the country. Before he died (1976), communist China acquired nuclear weapons—a great step in achieving big-power status in the world. In 1971, communist China replaced Chiang’s Formosa (Taiwan) as a permanent member in the Security Council of the UN. After overcoming the challenge from Madam Mao and her ‘Gang of Four’, Deng Xiaoping wore the mantle of leadership. He rejected Mao’s ideas and persuaded the party’s third plenum to approve his agenda of ‘economic construction’. During the last years of his life, he advocated building socialism through the medium of ‘socialist market economy’. His reforms came to be known as the “four modernisations”, namely, modernisation of agriculture, industry, science and technology and defence. Special economic zones (SEZs) were created in the coastal regions of China to implement his theory of economic construction. He gave a new Constitution to the people in 1982. Unfortunately, China under Deng did not give attention to the democratic aspirations of the people and showed disrespect for human rights, leading to the Tiananmen tragedy (1989), when a peaceful demonstration in Tiananmen Square, demanding political reforms was crushed leaving nearly five thousand killed and another ten thousand injured. Leaders of the demonstration, mostly students, were arrested. The western world was shocked and China was condemned for violating human rights.

China’s Foreign Relations During the early years of the Cold War, China supported the Soviet Union, backed communist North Korea against South Korea, took Tibet after suppressing a rebellion, and had an armed conflict with India (1962). India felt betrayed since China had earlier signed a treaty of Peaceful-Coexistence

(Panchsheel). India had been at the fore-front in recommending China’s entry into the UN China also quarrelled with the Soviet Union (her ally) pertaining to their common border. China had remained isolated for a long time, and the rest of the world knew very little about what was happening there. The antagonism between Mao’s People’s Republic of China and the West had resulted in the latter barring the former’s entry into the UN for more than two decades. China helped communist North Vietnam against US-supported South Vietnam in the Vietnam War. The defeat of South Vietnam was indeed a victory for the Communists (1975). The US and her allies were finding it difficult to stem the spread of Communism. China’s relations with the West improved a little after 1976. Her nuclear status and market reforms definitely impressed the West. Britain handed over her colony of Hongkong to China in 1997. The US adopted the policy of One China, although she had some reservations. China signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1992. Portugal handed over the territory of Macau to China in 1999 after ruling it for nearly 442 years. Currently China’s attitude towards the US hinges on Taiwan’s merger with the mainland (the US has been supporting the Nationalist government in Taiwan). With the market economy flourishing in the special economic zones, China has been welcoming foreign investments since the early nineties. In 2013, it attracted US $117.6 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) according to Reuters. It has enjoyed an average GDP annual growth rate of more than nine percent in the last two decades. Having the second largest economy in the world, it hopes to become an economic superpower. China had earlier gained entry into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in December 2001.

The Role of the UN The UN celebrated its golden jubilee in 1995. Its role and achievements have been remarkable, given the limitations or constraints. Ever since its birth, it supported decolonisation, championed human rights, opposed racial discrimination (Apartheid in South Africa), helped millions of refugees all over the world, promoted nuclear-war agreements and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1970) and assisted in solving disputes so as prevent wars. It experienced innumerable difficulties due to the raging Cold War, and quite often been blamed for coming under the influence of the US It successfully intervened in many warsituations such as Korea, Vietnam, Arab-Israeli wars, Cambodia, Kashmir (India), Congo, Cyprus, Iran-Iraq war, Iraq-Kuwait (Gulf War I), Somalia,

Bosnia, Afghanistan. The UN always condemned military interventions in the early years but in recent times advocated the use of force on grounds of humanitarian issues involved, or violation of human rights (the UN Charter). It made countries aware of the dangers of enormous growth in world population and also about the dangers of global-warming (meetings held in Stockholm and Rio de Janeiro). Through its agencies, the UN has rendered yeoman’s service to humanity in combating poverty, malnutrition and AIDS. However, the danger of nuclear war has not receded despite many treaties, with the US revoking the antiBallistic missile treaty and planning for what is known as Nuclear Missile Defence (NMD) system to protect the country from the rogue-states (North Korea and Iran). After the first Gulf War and the fall of the Soviet Union, the UN appears to have changed its role from one of peace-keeping to peace enforcement, that is, from non-intervention to humanitarian intervention, thanks to the prodding of the US. Some say that the US is using the UN to carry out its wishes, or sometimes bypassing the UN itself, as in the case of Gulf War II (2003).

The US after 9/11 (2001) The Arab-Israeli conflicts in the Middle East, and the support of the US to Israel, despite long negotiations, have angered Muslims all over the world. Fundamentalist Islamic organisations became active, and the Jihadi extremists gave vent to their anger by means of terror. Osama bin Laden (exiled from Saudi Arabia), sheltered in Taliban’s Afghanistan, conspired to strike at the US interests. The twin towers of the World Trade Centre were brought down by the suicide-bombers who hijacked two passenger-planes to carry out the task. The Pentagon was attacked and partly destroyed. There was shock and disbelief, and President Bush (Jr.) immediately declared war on terror and appealed to all countries to help him. The world watched on the TV the US war on Taliban’s Afghanistan. The US failed to capture the world’s most dreaded man, Osama bin Laden, though Afghanistan fell after heavy US bombings. After setting up a new government there, under the leadership of Hamid Karzai, the US under President Bush called upon Saddam Hussein’s Iraq to dismantle Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). The Iraqi dictator denied having weapons of mass destruction, and allowed the weapons-inspectors to search. The US was not convinced about the report of the weapons inspectors who said they could not find these, and launched war against Iraq (March 20, 2003), despite protests from Russia, Germany and France. The coalition forces led by the US toppled

Saddam’s regime in March 2003. Saddam Hussein was captured in his hometown, Tikrit, on December 13, 2003, and finally executed in December 2006 for crimes against humanity. Being the sole superpower (or Hyper-power), the US with the support of Britain’s prime minister Tony Blair continued to have some kind of paranoia. Syria or North Korea may become the next target. While Syria was accused of helping Saddam’s Iraq, North Korea is being blamed for violating the Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty, by engaging itself in producing nuclear bombs.

Regional Groups During and after the Cold War, many regional groupings were formed for achieving certain objectives — NATO, CENTO, SEATO for the sake of protecting countries around the world from Communist insurgencies; the EU, ASEAN, the G8, for achieving growth and prosperity, and the NAM for the purpose of keeping away from the super-power rivalry. While the SEATO and CENTO became extinct, the NATO remains very much alive today in partnership with Russian Federation. Twenty-eight countries of Europe have joined the European Union (EU), and eighteen of them have chosen the Euro as their common currency. The ASEAN was founded in 1967 by the Southeast Asian Nations, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, and in recent years joined by Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Brunei. The G8 consists of seven rich countries and later joined by Russia. SAARC was founded in 1985 by the nations of South Asia, namely, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Its main aim is to achieve economic co-operation. There are many other organisations which are promoting peace and economic prosperity, like the Commonwealth (53 nations), The Arab League (22 Arab-nations), the Commonwealth of Independent States (12 states of the former USSR), the Organisation of American States, Organisation of African Union (53 member-states), Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries and so on. The largest non-regional organisation is the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), which was started way back in 1955 (Bandung Conference) and today it is represented by 120 member nations and 17 observer countries. Its purpose is to keep away from superpower rivalry and work for achieving peace, disarmament, development, and eradication of poverty and illiteracy. The NAM consists mainly of developing nations which became free from the West’s colonial rule (Asia, Africa and Latin-America).

Globalisation The domination of the US extended to economic aspects, such as trade and commerce of the countries all over the world. After the demise of communism (fall of the Soviet Union), it became obvious that the capitalist system had triumphed. The US and its financial institutions like the I.M.F., the World Bank, and the World Trade Organisation have been extolling the virtues of capitalism and advocating globalisation as the mantra for eradicating all the economic ills of the Third World countries (i.e. poor countries). Globalisation intends to integrate the economy of poor countries with those of other countries by means of encouraging economic reforms such as liberalisation and privatisation. Those Third World countries which sought loans from these financial institutions, particularly the I.M.F. and the World Bank have been asked to fulfil certain conditions. Those countries which joined the World Trade Organisation (WTO), including Communist China (which joined in 2001), have to adhere to certain rules—rules which have been found to be unjust and unfair especially to the Third World countries. In the W.T.O. conference held in Seattle in December, 1999, the Third World countries exposed the double-standard adopted by the West. It is no exaggeration to say that Globalisation is making rich countries richer and the poor poorer. Prof. Stiglitz (Nobel-Laureate and former World Bank’s chief-expert) has proved that the economies of the Third World countries has been damaged by globalisation programme. Then what are the benefits accrued to countries embracing globalisation? Economists point out that free trade (core of globalisation) improves efficiency (due to competition), finances (attracts foreign investments), factor-incomes and gains from the migration of skilled workers. But all of these have not taken place, instead Multinational corporations (of western countries) became the real beneficiaries of the globalisation programme. It is said that poorest countries lost 3% to 5% of their export earnings because of globalisation, and in fact paying more for their foodimports. The Human Development Report (1999) published by the UN Development Programme (UNDP) states: “The top fifth of the world’s people in the richest countries enjoy 82 percent of the expanding export trade and 68 percent of foreign direct investment ― the bottom fifth, barely more than 1 percent.” According to the World Bank’s estimate of 2008, about 1.3 billion people in the developing countries lived on less than $1.25 a day. Therefore the prescriptions of the IMF, the World Bank, and the WTO for the ailing economies of the Third World have not gone down well and the people are protesting everywhere. Their protest marches are led by social activists, labour-union leaders and leading intellectuals like Joseph Stiglitz, Arundhati

Roy and so on. The Ministerial Conference held in Seattle in December 1999 was disturbed by wave of protests. Even humanising globalisation has not found much support. The Asian Social Forum held in Hyderabad (2003) tried to organise rally to protest against imperial globalisation.

Human Sufferings Wars, civil strifes, terrorism, and natural disasters have caused immense sufferings. The Bengal Famine (1943), and the cultural revolution of Mao-TseTung took heavy toll of lives. The Civil wars such as in some southern African and South American countries as also in Congo, Sri Lanka, and Kampuchea (Cambodia) caused deaths to millions. Millions of people became refugees after the creation of Israel and in the recent war in Afghanistan. The Vietnam War cost nearly $ 150 billion and 27,000 American lives. The UN is looking after 28 million refugees under its UNHCR. A new dimension has been added to human sufferings, i.e. the spread of HIV AIDS all over the world. There is no vaccine produced as yet to check this scourge. It has caused 16.3 million deaths so far since its appearance some years ago. Then there was this phenomenon of 2002-03 called the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) which originated in China. It spread to Hong Kong, Singapore, Canada, India and so on. It is a new kind of pneumonia for which there is no remedy or preventive vaccine discovered as yet.

Terrorism In our world, terrorism has caused immense sufferings and terrorist outfits exist in many parts of the world to avenge the wrongs perpetrated by some states. These outfits demand separate state, like the Basque in Spain, the Irish Republican Army in northern Ireland, the Intifada in West Asia, the LeT in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India, the LTTE in Sri Lanka, Hamas in Jordan, the Abu Sayaf in the Philippines, and of course, the Al Qaeda (hiding in Pakistan and Afghanistan). They indulge in kidnapping, torture and killings, of their supposed enemies, and many innocent people have been their victims. Osama Bin Laden (Al-Qaeda) inspired Muslims to wage Jihad (holy war) against the US. His organisation has established links with many terrorist outfits across the world. The suicide squads of his organisation carried out the bombings of the twin-towers of the World-Trade Centre and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001. The US President George. W. Bush did not lose much time in declaring

America’s war on terrorism. He called on all countries to wage this relentless war—to eradicate this evil from the face of the earth, no matter how much time it takes, or sacrifices to be made. Taliban’s Afghanistan which gave shelter to Osama Bin Laden and his followers faced the US airstrikes. Mullah Omar and Osama Bin Laden fled, leaving Afghanistan to be occupied by coalition forces. The US and its allies, set up an interim government, led by Hamid Karzai. The Pakistani Government, which had been a staunch supporter of Taliban regime in Afghanistan, was forced to co-operate with the US forces —amidst protests from the members of the extremist-Islamic organisations. India has always accused Pakistan of sponsoring cross-border terrorism, and the US is quite aware of it. The US government is worried about some Pakistani scientists having colluded with the Al Qaeda in attempting to make atom bomb.

Violation of Human Rights The declaration of human rights is enshrined in the UN Charter and nations joining the UN had to abide by it. During the period the Cold War, the US alleged that the communist countries always violated human rights—i.e. the right to freedom of speech, freedom of faith etc. Communist China had to wait for a long time for getting admission to the UN (she was admitted in 1971). Again she had to wait for long to get admitted to the World Trade Organisation. Human rights record of each nation came under scrutiny by the US and the Amnesty International. Taliban’s regime in Afghanistan, and its atrocities against women was highlighted. China’s suppression of the Tibetans, student activists (remember the Tiananmen Square incident), and the members of Falung gong (a new cult) showed her in poor light in regard to respect for human rights. Burma’s military-junta too is in the dock, with respect to the dissident leader, Aung Saan Suu Kyi, who started a non-violent movement called National League for Democracy (NLD). The second Gulf War (2003) is described as ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’ which means liberating the people of Iraq from the tyrannical regime of Saddam Hussein. The gulf-states under the Sheikhs are worried, lest they be dubbed as tyrannical regimes by the US, and receive the same treatment from the US as on Iraq. The Gulf States of Oman, the U.A.E., and Bahrain have become liberal in outlook—the last named has given voting rights to its women. The UN General Assembly Resolution in 1993 created the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) which consists of 53 members. Human rights, in all its aspects, constitute the very essence of democracy,

and people of more than forty countries during the last three decades switched over to this political system. Democratisation with economic liberalisation may evolve a state into a truly welfare state. Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong are shining examples of such a system.

Expanding Frontiers of Knowledge According to the Management Guru, Peter F Drucker, the future belongs to the ‘Knowledge society’. Therefore, it is necessary to keep track of the everexpanding frontiers of knowledge. To begin with, right down from Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomy attracted a large number of scientists. There is the ‘Big Bang’ theory that tells us about the origin of the universe, which many say is thirteen billion years old, and the earth anywhere about 4.5 billion years old. Many space exploration missions were undertaken to study the universe and the solar system and the first breakthrough came when Sputnik was launched by Russia (October 4, 1957). Another important landmark was the lunar mission, Apollo 11, which landed the first humans, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, on the moon on July 20, 1969. The Russians and the Americans complimented each other with their space missions, and the former established an orbiting space-station, Mir, in 1986, which was another important milestone in the history of space exploration. In February 2003, the space shuttle Columbia exploded while re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere, killing all the astronauts, including the brave Kalpana Chawla, an American of Indian origin. Scientists found out that the emission of green house gases (GHG) during last few decades have depleted the ozone layers to such an extent that the earth is experiencing a rise of 0.5 degree in temperature every year. This will have catastrophic consequences in the years to come, like more people suffering from skin-cancer, change in weather conditions (remember El Nino), rise in sealevels, and increase in the number of acid rains, droughts, famines and floods around the world. The Earth-Summit in Rio and the recently held conference in Delhi tried to address these issues and every one agreed to ratify the Kyoto Protocol (the US and some western nations have not ratified the same). Today we are living in the midst of unparalleled changes, and science and technology has made tremendous progress. Some of the established theories (which remained valid for centuries) are getting outdated. Thomas Kuhn, a famous science historian (author of Structure of Scientific Revolution), talked about what is known as ‘paradigm shift’, which many see as ‘Key to innovation’ or ‘pathway to progress’. Scientists and business leaders have been so much

influenced by his theory, that they are getting more in-depth analysis about their study or operations.

Medical Science Thanks to technological revolution, the field of medical science has made great progress. Today we have better health-care system. Multi-Speciality hospitals with highly qualified surgeons carry out by-pass surgeries, organ transplantation, CAT scan, ultra-sound tests, key-hole surgery and so on. Telemedicine makes it possible for distant patients to receive guidance from specialists. Experiments are taking place using robots to undertake surgeries. In Human Biology, the Genome Project which was launched in 1990 as a combined enterprise (18 countries and 250 laboratories participating in it) has successfully completed its work. Indeed, it is one of the most outstanding contribution ever made, that is making a map for the entire set of genes in the human cell. The study may enable doctors to adopt different strategies in treating patients with inherited diseases (like diabetes etc). In the long run, this successful project may throw light on various problems concerning the genetics of mankind. Vaccines have helped in preventing children and adults from succumbing to many deadly diseases such as smallpox (which has been eradicated), polio, whooping cough and so on. Curative-medicines are available for treating T.B., cancer, snake-bites, rabies, cholera, malaria, typhoid and so on. Computer application has enabled doctors to diagnose the diseases at an early stage and prescribe remedies.

Information Technology Information technology has been aptly described as the second Industrial Revolution of the twentieth century. It is rated as the best and fastest-growing industry in the world. Acquisition and dissemination of knowledge and the application of that knowledge in different fields, like business, has brought about cascading effects. In fact, the world has become a global village, thanks to this I.T. industry. The Internet has played a vital role. Information acts as an important source of knowledge and application of that knowledge in different spheres of life enables many countries to boost their overall growth (education, economy, health-care, literacy and so on). Fortunately, India has been a frontranking leader of this industry and hoping to reap rich rewards. Software

professionals of India have made a mark by their technical skill and zeal all over the world. In 2012, a couple of Indian IT companies (Infosys and TCS) made it to the Forbes list of top 100 innovative organisations in the world. Knowledge as a resource and utility “is now fast becoming the one factor of production, sidelining both capital and labour.” (Peter F. Drucker) Along with the information technology, the telecommunication technology too has made rapid advances. For these there exist no time and place barriers. Through satellite communication, the transnational and multinational corporations around the world have been able to increase their business fourfold. Business executives around the globe need not necessarily have to travel, thanks to the improvements in optical fibre technology, which has brought the videophone and teleconferencing facilities to their offices. The quality of life of many middle-class people across the globe has greatly improved, thanks to the research in superconductivity, bio-technology and ceramics. Electrical and Electronic gadgets (based on fuzzy logic) like the automatic washing machine, micro-oven, cameras, camcorder, air-conditioners and refrigerators are available in the super-markets, and all these consumer items adorn the houses of the middle class and the rich. Computers, fax machines, telephones, intercom, cine-projectors, electronic type-writers and so on have helped the office-personnel to do their work intelligently and efficiently. Super-computers and artificial intelligence have added a new dimension to our ways of acquiring information and intelligence. Super-computers deal with very very complicated problems while artificial intelligence enable machines to think for us. India has produced super-computers after the US refused to supply them. The US also prevented Russia from transferring to India the cryogenic propellant technology that is used to develop rocket engines in the 1990s. New technology (based on electronics) has enabled advanced nations to produce supersonic-jet planes and super-fast trains. Many motor-vehicles in future may use solar-energy or batteries. New technology enabled the US and its allies to defeat the enemies without difficulty and the recent wars in the Gulf and in Afghanistan provide classic examples. The US used satellite surveillance system to trace the desired targets for bombing. It used laser-guided missiles to hit the targets with pin-point accuracy. Electronic mail (E-mail) and Electronic commerce (E-Commerce) have established links within the country and the outside world, and the cellphone has gone a step further in creating a communication revolution. Our parliament has passed what is known as the Cyber-laws (as urged by the UN resolution) to

provide for a regulatory regime.

43 From The Afghan Civil War to Arab Spring

T

he Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, and its support to the Communist Government was galling to many Afghan rebel groups. The Afghan Mujahideen (holy warriors) started resisting the Soviet occupation, but were unable to make much progress. Najibullah became the President of Afghanistan in 1989. With several countries, prominent among them being the US and Pakistan, supporting several groups of Mujahideens to fight against the Sovietcontrolled regime he could not make headway. In the meantime, the UN proposed a peace plan that intended to end the Soviet support to the Najibullah government in Afghanistan, and invited the old Afghan King Zahir Shah to take charge. The Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, and the US President gave their consent. However, the Mujahideen groups were not happy. As the Soviet troops in Afghanistan found it difficult to control the rebel Mujahideen groups, the Soviet leader decided to withdraw in 1989. President Najibullah announced the formation of a military council in order to rule the country, but the rebel Mujahideen groups set up an interim government in exile led by Sighbatullah Majaddidi. He transferred his power to a Mujahideen leadership council. After launching major offensives against the Soviet-backed regime of Najibullah, the Mujahideen factions reached the outskirts of the Afghan capital, Kabul. Najibullah’s regime was overthrown in 1992, and he took shelter in the UN office in April.

The Civil War After ousting Najibullah’s government in Kabul, the warlords of the rebel Mujahideen groups started fighting among themselves over power sharing. Hekmatyar’s forces which controlled the outskirts of Kabul and the town of Jalalabad, fought forces of the new President, Burhanuddin Rabbani. The latter

had the support of General Abdul Rashid Dostum. After some time, General Dostum deserted the president and supported Hekmatyar. The fighting reduced the capital, Kabul, into a rubble. The civil war took nearly 10,000 lives, mostly civilians. Half the population of the city fled. The control of the capital became a very important issue between the rival guerilla warlords.

The Rise of Taliban Taliban is a fanatical Islamic movement, which originated in the Kandahar district of Afghanistan. The founder was Mullah Mohammed Omar who lost an eye while fighting the Soviet troops which had occupied Afghanistan. After the Soviet troops left the country in 1989, he found that the warlords had turned the country into rubble with their internecine fights, and innocent people were put to severe hardships like looting, bribery and rape of women. He started a school with about 30 members —mostly young students (Taliban means ‘Students of religion’). This movement showballed into a big organisation with moral, material and financial support of countries like Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. In the course of time, the Afghan refugee students who had fled the country due to civil war joined hundreds of madrasas (started by Pakistan on its side of the border), run by Jamiat-e-Ulema Islami, a traditionalist Sunni party. By 1994-95 the Taliban had established its military outfits in order to unite the country under its banner.

Talibanisation of Afghanistan Gulbuddin Hekmatyar who had ‘parted ways’ with President Rabbani in 1994 returned to the fold, and the former was made the prime minister in June 1996. However, Rabbani’s government was suddenly overthrown by the Taliban militia in September 1996 after they captured Kabul. The Taliban militia took Najibullah, the former Communist President, captive and hanged him in the heart of the city. In the meanwhile, both Rabbani and Hekmatyar fled the city. The Taliban militia took complete control of Kabul and set up a six-member interim government. The government employees and the people were ordered to strictly follow Islamic customs, manners and dress. The Afghan women were put to severe hardship. The ousted government which was dominated by the Tajiks like Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Masood retreated to the Tajik traditional strongholds in the north. The theatre of the Afghan civil war shifted to the north after 1996, with Pakistan fully backing the Taliban militia. Countries

neighbouring Afghanistan, mainly Iran, Russia and India, took serious note of the spillovers of the civil war, especially with outside interference. The Theeran Conference took up this matter. The year 1997 did not go well with the Taliban as the northern-based opposition coalition made some headway in its effort to push back the Taliban militia towards Kabul.

Role of the UN The civil war in Afghanistan left thousands of Afghan families homeless, with more than 20,000 civilians dead, and 100,000 wounded. The UN was deeply concerned about the situation and offered its mediation in 1998 to end this conflict. Although both the parties to the civil war agreed to work for peace, exchange prisoners, and restore normalcy, they violated the UN-brokered deal. Fighting between the two erupted on May 2, 1998. In addition to the tragedy caused by the civil war, Afghanistan was rocked by two earthquakes, the first one in February, and the second in April, with 4,000 and 5,000 dead respectively. In August the Taliban captured Mazar-e-sharif and other towns in the north, and claimed to be in control of ninety per cent of Afghanistan.

Support to Militants The Taliban, which received moral and material support from Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, unleashed terror by organising and training terrorists. The Al Badr recruited Pakistani militants who were let loose in Kashmir to foment trouble. Then, there was the Harkat-ul-Ansar which also operated in Kashmir with the support of Al Badr. The Al Badr also recruited foreigners (Arabs and Sudanese) to lend support to the rebels operating in Chechnya, Bosnia and Dagestan. The Taliban gave shelter to the exiled Saudi millionaire, Osama bin Laden, who was running terrorist camps in Afghanistan. The US believed that he masterminded the bombing of her embassies in Africa. The UN did not recognise the Taliban Government, but its representative was allowed in the UN. It is said that there are ten million landmines still scattered around in Afghanistan posing serious dangers to its citizens. Nearly two million Afghans took shelter in Pakistan and Iran. Afghanistan is the least developed country in the world.

UN Sanctions

The UN Security Council imposed sanctions on the Taliban’s tyrannical regime in December 2000 for its human rights abuses, giving refuge to Osama bin Laden (the Al-Qaeda leader) and other atrocities (not forgetting the destruction of the monolithic statue of the Buddha at Bamian). Taking shelter in Afghanistan, the Al-Qaeda was involved in the bombings of the US embassies in Kenya, Tanzania and fomenting rebellion in Russian controlled Chechnya. India welcomed the move because the Taliban in December 1999 had supported the Pakistani hijackers of Indian Airlines Flight 814 who had held the passengers as hostages. Moreover, Pakistan was in the dock for having patronised the Taliban regime along with Saudi Arabia.

US Strikes The Taliban’s support to Al-Qaeda’s terrorist activities even after the 9/11 attacks on the WTC in New York and Pentagon (the US Defence Establishment) in 2001 forced the US administration to act swiftly. When the Taliban regime refused to handover the leader of Al-Qaeda and his gang to the US, the US forces started aerial strikes and bombardments to dislodge the Taliban regime. Ground support to the US came from the Northern Alliance led by Ahmed Shah Masood and Rabbani (all Tajiks). The high-tech war (missiles from warships and precision guided bomb attacks) carried on by the US and allied forces flattened Kabul and other strongholds of the Taliban. The Taliban forces led by Mullah Omar fled to the mountains bordering Pakistan, and hoped to retrieve their position with the help of the Pushtun warlords. It must be remembered that it was the US which had supported the Taliban in its efforts to oust the Soviet forces in Afghanistan years earlier. In the meantime, the US and its allies put pressure on Pakistan to force the Taliban to surrender. In spite of its best efforts, Pakistan failed to achieve this goal. Unfortunately, Pakistan was caught in the web of its own making, that is, supporting and recognising the Taliban Government.

Afghan War During the months of October and November the US started its intensive bombings while the ground troops of Northern Alliance (which received military hardware from the US) made headway towards Kabul. The civilian population of Afghanistan suffered heavy casualties when bombs missed the military targets. Finally, the Taliban militia fled to the mountains leaving Kabul to be occupied

by the forces of Northern Alliance. The common people rejoiced at the defeat of the Taliban. Except for a few pockets of resistance, Afghanistan, by and large, remained peaceful. This situation enabled the leaders to form an interim government with the blessings of the exiled king. Hamid Karzai became the president, and many of the Afghan warlords agreed to recognise the new government and promised to support it. The NATO troops are stationed in Kabul and other cities as a protection force to help the government. The new government immediately restored civil rights to the people and promised to give a democratic constitution. On January 2, 2004, the new constitution was approved (after protracted negotiations with the warlords) by the Loya Jirga (Grand Council). The new constitution provides for a democratic setup under a presidential system. Amidst tight security, never seen before, the presidential election took place on October 9, 2004. Mr Hamid Karzai won, after defeating 15 rivals; most notably his greatest rival Mr Yunus Qanooni. The Taliban made many efforts to trigger violence during the election period, but none of them succeeded. Mr Karzai received 41,05,122 votes, that is more than the fifty per cent of the votes cast and he was officially declared the winner on November 3, 2004. President Karzai had an arduous task ahead of him. He had to maintain law and order in the country in the face of several threats to internal security from the Taliban which was regrouping its forces in the mountainous areas. He had to win over the warlords to his side. He had to secure the support of common people among the Pushtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Bahichis and Uzbeks, who owed allegiance to their respective warlords, to carry out several developmental schemes across the country. Afghanistan received financial and military support from its Western allies and India. India has successfully carried out several infrastructure projects like highways, roads, schools and clinics in Afghanistan in spite of the frequent attacks on its workers by Pakistan-sponsored terrorists. India has also trained the Afghan security forces. Construction of the new Afghan Parliament building in Kabul began in 2008 with the Indian government’s financial assistance. It is hoped that this war-torn country will have a bright and peaceful future after the US led troops eventually leave Afghanistan.

Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) Navigation on the Shatt al-Arab (a river in southwest Asia) had remained a bone of contention between Iraq and Iran which defied solution. Furthermore, Iran

had occupied the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb in 1971―islands also claimed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE). In July 1979, Al-Bakr (fourth president of Iraq) resigned and paved the way for Saddam Hussein to succeed him. There was a peaceful transfer of power. President Saddam Hussein who considered himself ‘the defender of the Arab world’ faced two important problems on assuming power – the rebellious Kurds in the north and a hostile Iran in the east. Iran and Iraq traded charges; Iraq blamed Iran for training and arming the Kurds in her territory, and also annexing the three islands (Arabistan). Iran accused Iraq of suppressing the Shia population in her territory. Iraq was also afraid that Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini (spiritual leader of the Shia community) may export the Islamic revolution to her territory. Border clashes between the two countries brought about the war which was officially declared in September 1980. The immediate cause of the war was that Iraq charged Iran with attacking a number of Iraqi villages. The Iraqi army made strategic moves to capture the Abadan oil fields in Iran. When the war began, Syria supported Iran. She accused Iraq of supporting religious fundamentalists in her country. The Security Council of the United Nations then called upon both the countries to observe truce. The long war between Iraq and Iran brought about exhaustion, and finally they agreed to observe the truce in 1988.

The Gulf War (1991) Hardly had the war ended between Iraq and Iran, there came another war – the Gulf War – between Iraq and the US led coalition. The main cause of the war was Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. Kuwait was a British protectorate in 1914. Iraq considered Kuwait as a part of its kingdom. Soon after the independence of Kuwait (1961), Iraq claimed it as its own. But she did not pursue the matter. However, in 1990 Iraq and Kuwait had a dispute over pricing of oil. This matter precipitated Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The Arab nations were taken by surprise, and all of them condemned this action. When Saddam Hussein refused to vacate his troops from Kuwait, the UN had to intervene. When the efforts of the UN also failed to get Iraq to vacate by January 15, 1991, the US and her allies (34 nations in all) started their military attacks on Iraq—codenamed: Operation Desert Storm. Saddam Hussein urged his compatriots to fight this powerful coalition, and called it ‘mother of all battles’. This high-tech war carried on by the US and her allies (with laser-guided missiles and stealth bombers) destroyed Iraq’s main installations. The oil wells

of Kuwait were set ablaze which caused ecological damage to the Gulf region. Unable to fight, the Iraqi soldiers surrendered without a fight on the ground. Saddam’s forces suffered massive defeats, and Iraq agreed for peace after withdrawing from Kuwait.

Ceasefire Agreement (1991) Saddam survived this humiliating defeat, and his representative to the UN, agreed to obey the UN terms of peace. The UN imposed economic sanctions, and this was to continue till Iraq’s armaments and chemical weapons were totally destroyed. For achieving these objectives, the UN sent its inspectors to Iraq’s factories and laboratories. The economic embargo on Iraq by the UN caused great hardships to the people, but they still adore their hero, Saddam. Iraq’s oilrevenues from exports came to a dead-halt and she was not allowed to purchase anything from other countries.

Plight of Iraq The US and its allies tried to eliminate Saddam Hussein but they did not succeed, for the Iraqis admire him. Thereafter the US and the allies made serious efforts to cause severe hardships to the Iraqis by imposing economic sanctions.

Oil for Food Programme Following repeated appeals from Iraq to the UN to lift the sanctions and the cooperation extended by her to the UN inspectors, the Security Council agreed finally to start what is known as “the Oil-for-Food” programme in 1996. Iraq was allowed to import basic necessities such as food and medicines for her 22 million subjects. The UN set up what is known as the Weapons Inspection team (UNSCOM) for enforcing Iraq’s compliance with the Security Council’s resolution to destroy its lethal and chemical weapons.

The Threat of War Iraq took on a collision course when Saddam Hussein called on his compatriots to wage a holy war against his oppressors in January 1998. In February, the US threatened to strike when the weapons inspection team reported non-cooperation

from Iraq. However, the war was averted when Kofi Annan, the UN SecretaryGeneral, brokered a peace deal between the two. In July 1998, Saddam declared he would take action if the UN embargo was not lifted. Pictures of innocent and ailing children suffering due to various maladies and malnutrition had no effect on the oppressors. The US and her allies had been maintaining a large military presence in the Gulf, and in December 1998 the US and UK began air strikes on Iraq (December 28, 1998 – January 4, 1999). This was done in retaliation to Iraq’s alleged non-co-operation to the inspection team. Iraq suffered heavy damage as in the 1991 war. (In 1995, Saddam was re-elected president indicating his popularity.)

The Second Gulf War Exercising its sovereign right, Iraq forced the UN weapons inspectors (who were investigating Iraq for Weapons of Mass Destruction) to quit the country in 1998. Since then the US and its allies were waiting for an opportunity to strike at Iraq for they desired a ‘regime change’. After the defeat of the Taliban in Afghanistan, President George W Bush and Tony Blair put intense pressure on the UN Security Council for approval to strike at Iraq. The Iraqi Government finally yielded to the UN Security Council’s desire that the weapons inspectors be permitted once again to investigate Iraq’s WMD. Before the inspection was over, the US and its allies decided on a pre-emptive strike on Iraq. But France, Germany and Russia opposed this move in the UN Security Council. These three powers wanted a report from the chairman of the weapons inspection commission (Hans Blix) who had inspected Iraqi weapons establishments. Despite the disagreement in the Security Council, the US-led coalition attacked Iraq. The reason for the war being that Saddam was developing weapons of mass destruction, had used chemical weapons against Iran and his own people (at Halabja) and had violated human rights of his subjects. Moreover, the US-led coalition led by President Bush presumed that Saddam Hussein of Iraq was in touch with Al-Qaeda terrorists. But many members of the UN including the Gulf States believed that the US-led coalition was more interested in acquiring the vast oil resources of Iraq after the removal of the Iraqi president. Iraq’s oil resources are vast, next only to Saudi Arabia. The UN became a mute spectator when the US-led coalition served a 48 hours ultimatum to President Saddam Hussein and his sons to leave the country. When there was no response, the war began on March 20, 2003, despite warnings from Iraqi president that he would take the war anywhere in the world.

He appealed to his people to ‘draw your sword’ against the invaders. The world watched the high-tech war (through TV channels) conducted against Iraqi political and military establishments, and the large scale destructions of cities and towns including the capital, Baghdad. It was in Baghdad that the coalition faced fierce attack by Iraqi ground forces. By May 1, the war officially ended in the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and on December 13, he was captured after months of search. His sons were killed earlier in his home town Tikrit. Iraq was occupied by the coalition forces, and Mr Paul Bremer was appointed administrator of Iraq. The Iraqi resistance against occupation forces after the capture of Saddam Hussein continued unabated. This happened even after the transfer of sovereignty by the occupation forces to the new Iraqi Government on June 28, 2004 (two days ahead of the supposed transfer). The US troops that numbered 135,000 protected the interim government. The interim Prime Minister of Iraq, Mr Iyad Allawi, had declared amnesty to resistance fighters involved in minor crimes. On 31 January, 2005, a transitional government was elected by the Iraqis. In April 2005, Jalal Talabani, a Kurdish politician, was elected the sixth president of Iraq; and in the following month, Ibrahim al-Jaafari assumed the office of the prime minister. The transistional government was replaced by a permanent government which was formed in May 2006 following the general elections of December 2005.

Financial Aspects of the War During the war, the US president appealed to the Congress to sanction $75 billion for waging the war. Among the coalition partners, the most important were Britain, Spain, Italy, Australia and subsequently Japan. Most of the Iraqi towns, including the capital, were subjected to large-scale bombing which caused heavy civilian casualties besides immense damage to buildings, bridges, civilian and military installations. The defeated army set fire to oil installations during the period of resistance. With the advent of the war, Russia, India, and several other countries suffered heavy financial losses (due to Iraq’s inability to meet its contractual obligations). India suffered because Iraq could not supply oil under ‘food-for-oil’ programme. Russia lost $3 billion. The Iraqis are suffering the most today as their lives are seriously disrupted. Hospitals, schools, colleges and other establishments have been closed. Tens and thousands of Iraqis have lost their jobs.

Iraq Today A radical Shia cleric, Muqtada al-Sadr, with a large number of his supporters carried on violent resistance against the government. Before the parliamentary elections of March 2010, he had called upon the people of Iraq to vote for those politicians who advocated the expulsion of foreign coalition forces from Iraq. The new parliament started functioning from June 14, 2010, and they re-elected Jalal Talabani (of Patriotic Union of Kurdistan) as president on November 11, 2010. Nouri al-Maliki of the Islamic Dawa Party too continued as the prime minister. The withdrawal of the coalition forces from Iraq began in 2004 and was completed by the end of the year 2011. The last to withdraw were the UK forces in May 2011 and the US forces in December 2011. Between March 2003 and December 2011, an estimated 4,802 coalition military personnel died. On the Iraqi side, more than 160,000 civilians and combatants lost their lives, with about 1.6 million people internally displaced. The financial cost of the war to the US was about $802 billion according to the Congressional Research Service and that for the UK was about £9.24 billion according to the British government.

Illegality of the Iraq War An enquiry commission in the US reported in March 2005 that Iraq did not possess any weapons of mass destruction (the main reason for launching the war by the US president); also a CIA report in the same year mentioned that Saddam Hussein had no formal links with the Al Qaeda before 2003. The legality of pursuing the war without any specific resolution of the UNSC was questioned by the international community. The US Government also came under fire for abusing human rights of the Iraqi prisoners held at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.

Iraq’s Economy The mainstay of Iraq’s economy is oil. Nearly one-third of the population depends upon agriculture. The value of the Iraqi dinar has depreciated since the Second Gulf War. The war caused total chaos. Oil exports came to a standstill since the pipelines were destroyed by insurgents. Unemployment and inflation rates rose. At a donor conference held in Madrid in October 2003, the donors pledged billions of dollars of aid money to Iraq for its reconstruction. In 2004, the Paris Club (group of 19 wealthy economies in the world) agreed to waive 80% of Iraq’s $40 billion debt to them.

Dawn of The Twenty-first Century People of the world fervently hoped that the 21 st century would augur well for peace and prosperity. However, they were in for a big shock. The new century began with a big bang… the Al Qaeda terrorists struck at the very heart of the US financial centre, ramming two planes into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New York City on September 11, 2001. The twin towers collapsed within two hours of the attack. The terrorists also crashed another flight into the Pentagon (US defence Headquarters) in Arlington, Virginia. More than three thousand people were killed in these attacks. The US President George Bush Jr. declared war on terror and promised the Americans that he would punish the perpetrators, no matter how long it might take. The US President urged all leaders of the world to join him in this Global War on Terror. The mastermind of the 9/11 attacks was Al Qaeda’s founder, Osama Bin Laden, who got protection from the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The US lent support to the Northern Alliance led by Ahmad Shah Massoud which was fighting to dislodge the regime of Taliban in Afghanistan. The Northern Alliance was made up of non-Pashtum groups like the Tajiks, Uzbeks etc. With the US ground support the northern alliance defeated the Taliban, and a new government was set up in Kabul under the leadership of Hamid Karzai. Thereafter, American troops and fighter jets started bombing the strong holds of the Taliban along the border with Pakistan. It took nearly ten years for the Americans to avenge the tragedy of 2001…. Bin Laden was shot and killed by US Navy Seals at Abbottabad, Pakistan (2nd May 2011) on the orders fo the US President Barack Obama.

Sri Lanka The long ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka ended in May 2009 with the surrender of the LTTE forces (Tamil Tigers) to the Sri Lankan government. The conflict began in 1949 when the Tamil workers in nothern Sri Lanka were denied citizenship rights. The Tamils in Sri Lanka felt that they were treated as second class citizens. In 1972, the Sri Lankan government recognised Buddhism as its official religion and changed the name of Ceylon to Sri Lanka. The Tamils are concentrated in the north and north-east of Sri Lanka. In 1976, Velupillai Prabhakaran became frontline leader of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) which carried on a violent struggle against the Sri Lankan government. The goal of the LTTE was to create an independent state for the Tamils (Eelam)

in the north and north-eastern parts of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan government failed to bring the LTTE to the negotiating table to solve the ethnic conflict. The Sri Lankan government sought the help of India in negotiating peace with Tamil Tigers in 1987. The Indian government dispatched the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka for the purpose of arranging truce between the two warring parties. However, the efforts of IPKF failed and it left Sri Lanka in March 1990 upon President Premadasa’s request. Subsequently, the Tamil Tigers carried out the assassinations of Rajiv Gandhi (former Indian PM) in 1991 and Sri Lankan President Premadasa in 1993. President Chandrika Kumaratunga failed to engage the Tamil Tigers in ending the ethnic strife. So began the third Eelam war by LTTE in 1995. After losing Jafna to the Sri Lankan forces, the LTTE put up a fierce resistance and the Norwegians intervened to mediate in 2002. The peace efforts of the Norwegian mission failed and the war continued. After repudiating the ceasefire agreement with the LTTE, the Sri Lankan forces went on the offensive and captured Kilinochchi (LTTE’s capital) in 2009. Mahinda Rajapakse, who was elected as the Sri Lankan President in 2005, vowed to end the conflict at the earliest with his slogan “fight to finish”. All the important strongholds of the LTTE, including Mullaittivu, were captured by General Fonseka in April 2009. The LTTE accepted defeat, and on May 18th 2009 its supremo, Prabhakaran, and his seven commanders were killed. The downfall of the LTTE may be traced to the overconfidence of its leader. The LTTE leadership ignored the determination of the new Sri Lankan President Rajapakse to carry on the war to its logical conclusion. The LTTE leader did not bother about the concerns of the Government of India about the repercussions of continuing the conflict. The arms supply to the LTTE began to dwindle and the war came to an end abruptly. The Tamil Tigers took the civilians as hostages during the last phase of the war. The Sri Lankan government brought to an end the emergency which was declared by President Kumaratunga in 1995. During the course of the ethnic conflict more than 80,000 people lost their lives. It is difficult to estimate the collateral damage caused by this conflict. The Sri Lankan government is arraigned by the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) for the excesses committed on the Tamil civilians by the Sri Lankan forces.

Japan On March 11th, 2011, Japan was hit with triple disasters—the earthquake of magnitude 9, the tsunami, and also the damage to nuclear reactor at Fukushima

Daiichi. The meltdown of the nuclear reactor released great amount of radiation which has caused wide-spread damage to the ecology. People had to be evacuated to safer places, i.e. beyond the 20-kilometre exclusion zone. Japan had never experienced such a disaster since the dropping of atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. Thousands of foreigners were stranded and many Chinese students had to leave Japan. Due to the tsunami, nearly 16000 lives were lost and many towns along the Japanese coastline were devastated. It is estimated that the triple disaster caused loss of tens of billions of US dollars. Fortunately, the civil society groups rendered great help to those affected by the disaster. The national mood in Japan became sullen and the Prime Minister Naoto Kan had to resign. Japan lost its place as the second largest economy in the world. Its place has been filled by China. On 30th August 2011, the democratic party of Japan elected Yoshihiko Noda as the new Prime Minister. Noda introduced austerity measures to combat the growing economic crisis in the country. He also indicated that he would increase the rate of the consumption tax for the reconstruction of the areas destroyed by the tsunami.

The Chinese Dragon China’s economy grew at the rate of 10 per cent before the global economic recession (2008-10). The Chinese government had undertaken several infrastructure projects in countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and several countries in Africa and Latin America. It has so far held two trillion dollars of US government bonds and enjoyed favourable balance of trade by manipulating its currency, Yuan. China has replaced Japan as the world’s second largest economy. China’s exports account for 40 per cent of its GDP. It holds more than 3 trillion US dollars in foreign exchange reserves. In view of its declining domestic petroleum production and its rapidly expanding economy, import of oil and gas has assumed great importance. It is investing money and material in oil and gas fields abroad to ensure its long-term energy security. It is also investing money in exploring alternative sources of energy. China today is flexing its muscles against the neighbouring countries in order to expand its territory. Earlier it had taken control of Tibet in 1950. In 1962, China invaded India and occupied large tracts of territory in the Jammu and Kashmir state of India (Aksai Chin). It has not recognised the Mac Mahon line as its border with India. Today it is putting forward its claim to Arunachal Pradesh, an integral part of India. Similarly it has border disputes with neighbouring countries by claiming a few islands in the South China Sea as its

own. It considers Taiwan as a renegade province, and hopes to unify this island in the course of time, it is constantly reminding the US government to follow “One China Policy”, thereby recognising China’s legitimate claim over Taiwan. In recent years, China has been supporting Pakistan with financial and military assistance. It had clandestinely assisted Pakistan in building its nuclear arsenal. It has undertaken construction projects in the Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK) which is also claimed by India as its own. China has widened and repaired the Karakoram Highway which runs from Kashgar (Xinjiang region) to Pakistan via POK. It also wants to develop rail link from Kashgar to Pakistan through POK. China has taken over the Gwadar deep water port in Balochistan (Pakistan) which it wants to convert into an energy hub. In the future it wants to build an oil pipeline between Gwadar and Xinjiang region. The idea behind the above mentioned projects is to receive oil and other goods from the Gulf countries through Gwadar port. These will also serve as alternative routes for Chinese imports from West Asia.

Thailand In a bloodless coup by the Thai army and supported by the People’s Alliance for Democracy (PAD), Thaksin Shinawatra, the Thai Premier was overthrown in September 2006. The Thai Premier had gone to New York to participate in the assembly of the United Nations. The Thai army took control over this monarchical state after forcing the Thai Premier to go into exile. However, the army could not appease the protesting crowd who were demanding the restoration of democracy. Therefore, the army introduced a constitution and held elections in December 2007. The People’s Power Party comprising of Shinawatra’s allies won the elections and formed a coalition government in February 2008. The new Premier could not continue for long; he was unseated. Another Prime Minister was elected, but he too had to go because the court annulled his election. In September 2008, there was a massive protest organized by the Yellow Shirts which took over the Bangkok airport and other government buildings. The Yellow Shirts were protesting against the demand for the restoration of democracy by pro-Thanksin Red Shirts. It was in these circumstances that the army had to intervene. With the support of the army, Abhisit Vejjajiva of the Democrat Party was elected the new Prime Minister on December 17, 2008. Thaksin Shinawatra, who had been ousted from power, was accused of subverting the state system to promote his own business according to the

judgement of the Thai courts. The Red Shirts who supported Shinawatra stormed the ASEAN summit in 2009 which resulted in violence. Some of the delegates were evacuated from the summit so as to facilitate their return to their respective countries. Prime Minister Vejjajiva declared a state of emergency in the capital, Bangkok. Despite the emergency, the Red Shirts launched their protests to bring down the government which had been supported by the army. The core demand of the protesters was that the constitution should be so amended as to restore real democracy in the country. They considered Vejjajiva’s government as illegal. The Prime Minister held several negotiations with the Red Shirts so as to bring peace. However, the latter stood firm, and the House of Representatives had to be dissolved so as to facilitate fresh elections. The Thai army also supported this move in order to end the political chaos in the country. The general election was held on July 3, 2011, which resulted in a victory of the Pheu Thai Party. Its leader Yingluck Shinawatra became the country’s first female Prime Minister. The 44 year old Prime Minister happens to be the sister of the former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. The election results indicated three things. Firstly, the people of the country have warned the military elite not to interfere in democratic politics. Secondly, the people wanted a genuine democracy. And thirdly, they desired a unified nation which would work for the welfare of poor people. The new Prime Minister will be facing many challenges which include bringing about an integration of the Muslim community into the mainstream of Thai society. Thailand is Buddhist-majority country. She has promised to grant some form of autonomy to Muslim areas in southern Thailand.

Nepal During the medieval period, many small kingdoms existed in Nepal. These kingdoms got united in the Kathmandu valley due to the efforts of King Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1790. Nepal became the only country where Hindu monarchy existed. However, in 1846 Ranas wrested power from the king and became virtual rulers. They ruled Nepal for nearly 104 years. It was during this time that the Ranas introduced a regal code which divided the Nepali society into five castes. The members of the ruling family as well as the Taghadaris (Brahmins) constituted the upper class. The rest belonged to the impure class, the lowest being the untouchables. A large majority of people groaned under the tyrannical rule of the Ranas, and thereafter under the kings. It was in 1951 that King Tribhuvan wrested power from the Ranas. His successor, Mahendra, banned all

political parties in 1960 in order to maintain law and order. King Mahendra died in 1972 and was succeeded by his son Birendra. King Birendra came under heavy pressure to lift the ban on political parties due to pro-democracy movement. A new constitution was drafted which provided for the representation of the people and a constitutional monarchy. It was during his time that a multiparty democracy was ushered in. In 1996, the Maoists, who represented the poor by and large, launched a rebellion and tried to topple the constitutional monarchy. In 2001, King Birendra and his family members were killed by crown prince Dipendra. He committed sucide and thereafter Gyanendra assumed power. In the meantime, the Maoists gained great influence in large parts of Nepal and demanded the abolition of monarchy. Gyanendra abused his power and tried to crush the Maoist rebels in 2005. In spite of his serious efforts, he failed. Large scale rebellion by the Maoists took place all over Nepal in April 2006 which forced the king to give up his absolute powers. He appointed G.P. Koirala, the leader of the Nepali Congress Party to form the government. Prime Minister Koirala formed the CPN-UML coalition and tried to bring the Maoists into the mainstream politics. It was he who tried to convince the Maoists that a new constitution would bring about an end to the monarchy. A constituent assembly had to be elected so as to draft a new constitution. On May 28, 2008, the Hindu monarchy of Nepal came to an end and the king became an ordinary citizen. A republic was proclaimed and the king had to vacate the Narayanhiti palace. On April 10, 2008, the Maoists won a clear majority in the constituent assembly. A coalition government was formed by Prachanda, the Maoist leader. But his government failed to draft a new constitution because of raging controversies in the constituent assembly. In the meantime, food prices had shot up, cooking oil became scarce, and agricultural output remained stagnant. Rural poverty and illiteracy continued since there was anarchy. Successive Prime Ministers could not maintain law and order. It was in these circumstances that Baburam Bhattarai became Prime Minister (2011). Political analysts believe that his coalition government would hopefully bring peace and prosperity to the country.

North and South Korea Following the Russo-Japanese war of 1905, Korea was annexed by Japan. At the end of the Second World War, the Japanese occupation of Korea ended, but unfortunately, it was again occupied by Soviet troops in the North and the American forces in the South. The line dividing the two parts of Korea runs

along the 38th parallel. The United Nations peace keeping forces conducted elections in the South, but the Communist North did not participate. In 1950, communist troops of North Korea crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The Korean War continued for three long years. Finally, an armistice agreement was signed between the two. Unfortunately, this agreement could not be converted into a full-fledged peace treaty since both the parties claimed entire Korea as their own. In other words, North and South Korea till today remain technically at war. North Korea had the full support of two major powers, namely, Communist China and the Soviet Union. Kim Jong-il converted North Korea into a military state with himself as the dictator. The South embraced democracy with the support of the west. Constant tensions between the two Koreas became the order of the day. From January 1968 to March 2010, there were frequent clashes between the two. In the meantime, North Korea became a nuclear state, thanks to the clandestine support of Communist China and Pakistan. Along with other countries, North Korea had signed the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). However, in 2003 it renounced the treaty. On 9th October 2006, the North Korean government announced that it had successfully tested a nuclear device. Nuclear North Korea sent a submarine on a spy mission to South Korea which ended in failure. More than 30 North Korean sailors were killed by South Korean security forces in September 1996. In June 2002, there was a bloody skirmish in the Yellow Sea betweeen the North and the South, resulting in the death of 6 South Korean and 13 North Korean sailors. In March 2010, a South Korean corvette Cheonan sank under mysterious circumstances killing 46 South Korean sailors. An investigation later revealed that it was torpedoed by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010, a South Korean island, Yeonpyeong, was subjected to constant artillery shelling by the North Koreans, resulting in the death of two South Korean marines and injuries to five others. South Korea responded to these attacks by retaliatory firings. All these incidents have caused lot of anxiety among the international community. It must be remembered that South Korea has the backing of the US government which has stationed more than 28,500 troops there. The US has committed to help South Korea under all circumstances. It has appealed to China and other interested parties in restraining North Korea from plunging this region into a nuclear conflict zone. North Korea, might appears to have become aggressive with respect to the South in order to gain attention of the US so as to secure economic aid. It has remained as a pariah state for too long, and the US with the help of China would like it to join the international community at the earliest. North Korea with all its nuclear might has remained a poor country due

to agricultural stagnation and crippling economic sanctions imposed on it by the international community. In contrast to its northern neighbour, South Korea has become an economic powerhouse. It has become highly industrialised, specializing in consumer electronics and automobiles. It has developed a highly export-oriented economy, and remains as one of the four Asian Tigers.

The Arab Spring: Revival of Pan-Arabism The winds of change are sweeping over Middle East since January 2011 in the form of full-blown pro-democracy movements against the authoritarian rule. It should be remembered that the domination of the US over the Arab nations is slowly receding in the wake of what is known as the Arab Spring. The revival of pan-Arabism has been due to the maladministration of the Arab countries by their despotic rulers (some of them had the backing of the US), and also due to the unstinted support Israel receives from the US. The economic conditions of the Arabs and their yearning for democracy have been ignored by these Arab rulers. Their administration reeked in coruption, bad governance, and great deal of repression. Arab Spring got its name from the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling of Arab hatred towards their despotic rulers as manifested in their recent revolts. The pro-democracy movements came as its sequel.

Tunisia The first indication of the Arab Spring appeared in Tunisia where an unemployed graduate, Mohamed Bouazizi, committed self-immolation on 17th December, 2010. This trivial episode triggered a chain reaction all over the Middle East. There was groundswell of sympathy for this dead graduate which finally resulted in the overthrow of the Tunisian dictator, Ben Ali. However, the members of the old regime are still controlling the destiny of this country with the support of the US government. But agitations are still continuing.

Egypt The uprising in Tunisia has spread like a wildfire. The next country to be affected was Egypt where President Hosni Mubarak had been ruling like a dictator for nearly three decades. The uprising began on 25th January, 2011, in

Egypt at Tahrir square, Cairo, following the youth movement led by Egyptian activist, Asmaa Mahfouz. It continued for 18 days and brought the country to a standstill, with the Egyptian army remaining as a mute spectator. The most important cities affected were Cairo and Alexandria where people gathered in tens of thousands shouting slogans against Hosni Mubarak. This agitation was led mostly by the tech-savvy and liberal youth who used social media internet sites like Facebook and Twitter to communicate with each other. The Islamists of the Muslim Brotherhood and the liberals of the Wafd party joined the protests. This upsurge of Egyptian nationalism culminated in the resignation of Hosni Mubarak on February 11th, 2011. The US government advised him to resign and pave the way for a smooth transition to democracy. At the time of writing, the ex-president has been accused of unleashing terror on the protesters and is standing trial. The army intervened and suspended the constitution and the parliament and promised the people a new constitution and elections within six months.

Algeria The next country to be affected by the pro-democracy movement is Algeria. The Algerians gathered in large numbers in their capital, Algiers, and started shouting slogans against their dictator Bouteflika. They carried posters reading “Give back our Algeria”, “Bouteflika Out” etc. on February 12th, 2011. The agitation resulted in lifting of the 19-year old state emergency in the country on February 22nd, 2011.

Yemen In Yemen, thousands of people gathered in the capital Sana’a on February 3rd, 2011, and demanded that their long ruling President Ali Abdullah Saleh to leave the country. The ruler, a strong ally of the United States, promised that he would not run for the presidency during the next term. The blast in the presidential compound’s mosque on June 4th, 2011, resulted in his injury, and he had to leave for Saudi Arabia for treatment. After his medical treatment, he returned to his capital Sana’a on September 23rd, 2011, and began to face street protests. Yemen has become a sanctuary for the Al Qaeda terrorists. It is a very poor country facing a civil war and with 40 per cent unemployment. It is said that 20 million people get a daily wage of less than two dollars.

Bahrain The protests in Bahrain (Shia-dominated gulf country, having the headquarters of the US fifth fleet) that began on February 14th, 2011, were largely peaceful. But on the night of 17th February the police conducted raids on the protestors who were sleeping at Pearl Roundabout, Manama, which resulted in the death of three protesters. The government forces again opened fire on protesters, mourners and journalists on 18th February. This incident prompted the protesters to demand the end of monarchy. On 22nd February nearly one hundred thousand people marched to protest against the atrocities committed by the security forces. The Bahraini monarch, a Sunni, requested the assistance of GCC countries like Saudi Arabia and UAE to quell the revolt. On 14th March Saudi troops entered Bahrain and opened fire on the protesters killing many. Finally, these protests resulted in the dismissal of some ministers, release of political prisoners and granting of economic concessions.

Libya On 15th February, 2011, the pro-democracy movement gathered momentum in Benghazi after the arrest of human rights activist, Fethi Tarbel. The protesters here clashed with the police and 14 of them were injured. The people were fed up with the oppressive rule of Muammar Gaddafi who had been in power for more than four decades. A group of people, whose relatives were killed in 1996 firing, started demanding the end of Gaddafi’s dictatorship. Human rights organisations and prominent Libyans also joined the pro-democracy movement. They were supported by the governments of the west, most notably, France, UK and the United States. The protest movement enraged the Libyan dictator, and his forces began suppressing it. In the course of time, the struggle between the protesters and Gaddafi’s supporters turned into a civil war. The United States along with France and UK championed the cause of democracy in Libya by supporting the pro-democracy movement. The NATO warplanes started bombing the port of Tripoli in May 2011. The west invoked the UN’s doctrine of “responsibility to protect” the civilians in the ongoing civil war. The NATO forces started bombing all the strongholds of Gaddafi which resulted in the death of Gaddafi’s youngest son and three grandchildren. The International Criminal Court (ICC) had issued an arrest warrant against the Libyan leader, his son and the intelligence chief for war crimes. Russia, China and India (non-members of the ICC) had been critical about

the sharp escalation of NATO military strikes. Gaddafi was dragged out of a drain in his hometown, Sirte, and killed by the rebel forces on 20th October, 2011.

Jordan Inspired by the ongoing pro-democracy movements in the neighbouring countries, protesters in Jordan, led by trade union members and the leftist parties, demanded the dismissal of the government of Prime Minister Samir Rifai on 14th January, 2011. The demonstrations against the government gathered momentum with the participation of 5000 people who denounced the government’s economic policies a few days later. On 1st February, King Abdullah dismissed the government of PM Rifai and asked a former army general to form a new cabinet. He also ordered him to introduce reforms in order to strengthen democracy. The protesters were not happy and they carried on their agitations.

Syria The pro-democracy movement in Syria started on 26th January, 2011. The protesters called for political reforms and restoration of civil rights. They also demanded an end to the state of emergency which had commenced in 1963. The movement was intensified on 15th March with thousands of protesters marching in major cities of Syria. The regime of President Bashar al-Assad has come in for severe criticism by western powers for suppressing the people’s legitimate aspirations. The west has imposed economic sanctions since long, for they did not like the President’s hostile attitude towards Israel, and friendly attitude towards Iran. He has been accused of instigating the murder of former leader of Lebanon, Rafik al-Hariri. Syria has always been supporting the Hamas, a militant organisation, that now governs the Gaza Strip. The street protests in Syrian capital, Damascus, and other towns resulted in great violence, with 14000 people dead and nearly 10000 people fleeing to neighbouring countries. President Assad saw foreign conspiracy in these rising protests as attempts to dethrone him. He revoked the emergency laws and also agreed to introduce political reforms. The US and its allies are bent upon bringing about ‘regime change’ in Syria. The president is still popular among certain sections of the society. On 17th July, 2011, his supporters held a rally on the occasion of the seventeenth anniversary of his swearing-in ceremony. The

president got full support from his army, the Ba’ath party and the militant organisation, Hezbollah. Russia has also supported the Syrian President since it has been providing defence equipments and port facilities to Syria. Syrian army tanks entered several Syrian cities on 31st July to suppress the revolt which has resulted in bloody clashes–the bloodiest since the movement started. Similar pro-democracy movements began in countries like Morocco, Oman and Sudan. To some extent Saudi Arabia was also affected, where the king announced economic concessions, women’s participation in the next Shura council, and holding of municipal elections.

44 Post Cold War Era: The Dawning of ‘New Europe’

T

he fall of the communist regime in the Soviet Union heralded the birth of a new era in the history of modern Europe. The countries of eastern Europe declared their independence and chose democracy and free market economy after their liberation. Many of them joined the NATO alliance as members. Finding the free market economy with all its defects as beneficial, most of the east European countries began to join the EU. The ten communist countries were admitted to the EU in 2004 and 2007 [the last two being Bulgaria and Romania]. One of the most important features of the post cold war era was the emergence of the EU. It began with the free democracies of the western Europe joining the European common market in 1957. It began to expand from 1957 to 1993 with the admission of many more countries. The EU developed as a secular super-state in the years to come. Russia did not join the union but preferred to introduce the free market economy step by step. Let us examine how the European countries fared in this new era of economic integration and political unity.

The Federal Republic of Germany After demolition of the Berlin wall in 1989, the unification of Germany took place under the leadership of West Germany’s Chancellor, Helmut Kohl (Chancellor of West Germany 1982-90 and that of united Germany 1990-98). The Chancellor signed a treaty with his counterpart with the result that both the Germanies got united. It must be remembered that East Germany had remained extremely poor and therefore the Chancellor tried to improve the economy of the reunited Germany by introducing economic reforms. He was compelled to

increase the taxes and cut government spending much to the chagrin of the people. Kohl’s tenure as Chancellor of a coalition government ended in 1998 after his defeat in the general elections. The social democrats lead by Gerhard Schroder came to power. Gerhard Schroder of the socialist democratic party ruled united Germany from 1998 to 2005. He ran a coalition government with the Greens Party which was led by Joschka Fischer. The new government implemented a package of tax reforms in 2000 in view of the prevailing recession. Schroder’s government also carried out what is known as the ‘Agenda 2010’ which included reforms in social and health sectors. The government highlighted the importance of ecological issues to the citizens and tried to implement the reduction in Green house gases in conformity with the prevailing protocol. It was in 1999 that Germany sent its troops for the first time since World War II to participate in the NATO bombings over Yugoslavia. At that time the Yugoslav President was carrying on ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. After the 11th Sept. 2001 terrorist attack in the U.S.A., Germany supported the United States government in its war on terror. Germany also sent troops to Afghanistan to liberate the Afghans from tyrannical rule of the Taliban. In the meantime, Germany adopted EURO as its currency replacing the Deutsche Mark. Schroder’s first term ended tragically with German cities facing floods. Several German cities like Dresden and Magdeburg got inundated.

Schroder’s re-election In the next German federal election of 2002, Schroder’s Socialist Democratic Party (SPD) won a simple majority. With the help of the Greens Party, he got reelected chancellor for the second term. In 2003, the U.S. and the U.K. launched their war against Saddam Hussain’s Iraq. They accused Saddam Hussain of producing biological, chemical and nuclear weapons secretly, thereby violating the UN sanctions. When Germany and France refused to join the war, the U. S. Secretary of Defence, Donald Rumsfeld, remarked that they are like ‘Old Europe’ in contrast to other European countries that gave support. Schroder’s government was alarmed after witnessing the rise of unemployment and aging population in Germany. The economic recession badly affected the people and the government was forced to introduce ‘Hartz Reforms’. As the government did not have the required majority in the upper house of parliament [Bundesrat], the said reforms were stalled. It forced the government to request the President to call for general elections, as the

opposition refused to co-operate. So on July 21st 2005, the President dissolved the parliament and called for general elections. Election results showed that both the major parties Christian Democratic Union of Germany/ Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CDU/CSU coalition) and SPD won the same number of seats, not one of them was having a clear majority to form a government. Therefore, the major political parties finally agreed to form a grand coalition government with Mrs. Angela Merkel as Chancellor. She became the first female Chancellor in German history.

Angela Merkel (2005- ) Angela Merkel, a dynamic leader, tried to retrieve the economic health of her country by introducing structural reforms. Along with the French president Sarkozy, she became the main pillar of support to the EU and Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Without bothering much about the Eurosceptics, she continued to support the objectives of the EU, despite some setbacks like the rejection of its constitution, and controversy surrounding the admission of Turkey (a NATO member). France and Germany have been facing problems with their Muslim immigrants since long. It appears that they have not integrated with the European society. Moreover, these two countries have been facing the problem of illegal immigration. In view of the German government facing some problems from its Muslim citizens, Merkel was compelled to say that multiculturalism has ‘absolutely failed.’ However, she was quick enough to add that Islam ‘is part of Germany.’ In the 2009 federal elections, the CDU/CSU and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) combine won a majority of seats, and they elected Angela Merkel as their Chancellor for the second time. During her second term in office, she had to face the worst economic crisis, mainly from the effects of global recession (2008-2010). Along with France, she had to manage the EU, instill financial discipline among EU members, make EURO safe, and ensure Europe’s ‘success in a globalised world.’ With the Lisbon treaty amending the constitution of the EU, foreign policy required focussed attention. Merkel along with the French leadership achieved limited success in foreign policy matters. Under her leadership, the EU forced Serbia to accept Kosovo’s independence. The EU imposed tough sanctions against Iran which they believed was secretly producing nuclear weapons in spite of the UN’s prohibition. She has been able to persuade other countries to reduce Green House gas emissions. She also urged the Russian president to accept the European missile shield agreement. Merkel was elected Chancellor for the third

time in succession after her CDU/CSU coalition won by an overwhelming majority in the 2013 federal election. She now heads the CDU/CSU and SPD coalition government. Merkel faces challenges on the economic front as Germany’s GDP annual growth rate has fallen to 1.3% in the fourth quarter of 2013 from the peak of 5.2% in the first quarter of 2011. Unemployment rate in Germany stands at 5.1% in February 2014. However, Germany had a current account surplus of about 7.3% of its GDP in the last quarter of 2013.

The United Kingdom: John Major (1990-1997) John Major rose to power through party ranks and became Foreign Secretary under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Subsequently he was appointed to the post of Chancellorship of Exchequer. When Margaret Thatcher resigned, John Major succeeded to the post of the Prime Minister. As party leader and Prime Minister, John Major easily won the general elections in 1992. During the early years of his office, he had to face many economic problems caused by the global recession [1990-1993]. People began to observe that he was not made of the same stuff like his predecessor. His Prime Ministership lacked dynamism. His government was marked by indecisions. Thus, the conservative rule came to an end after 1997 elections. It was replaced by the labour party which had won the elections by a landslide margin. In 1994 the government opened the channeltunnel linking Britain with European continent. A fast passenger train carries people from the U.K. to France and vice-versa [known as EUROSTAR].

Tony Blair (1997-2007) Tony Blair became the Prime Minister after he led the labour party to victory in 1997. He was 43 when he became the Prime Minister, the youngest to assume office [since Lord Liverpool in 1812]. Another record he set was that of being the longest-serving Labour Party Prime Minister in Britain. Blair became an MP in 1983, joined as member in the Labour Party’s Shadow Cabinet in 1988, and was elected party leader in 1994. He pleaded with the party-members to shift their political stance from the extreme left to middle. In other words, the party should adopt flexible attitude towards ‘state control and public ownership of certain sectors of the economy’. It must be remembered that Marxism had losts its grandeur, and capitalism triumphed after the fall of the Soviet Union. One of the greatest achievements of Tony Blair was to bring lasting peace in Northern Ireland in 1998. He brokered peace agreement between the warring

factions—The Unionists and Republicans. The peace process was initiated between the two, leading to an agreement which ended thirty years of conflict. His reforms included the introduction of devolved assemblies for Wales and Scotland. The month of May 1999 proved historic for Scotland which got a parliament after three centuries. In the same month, a new Wales assembly was opened after a gap of six centuries. Blair’s regime witnessed raising of taxes, fixing of minimum wages and introduction of few employment rights. Britain’s integration with the EU was strengthened due to Blair’s efforts. Blair also promoted market oriented reforms in education and health sectors. He advocated constitutional reforms and implemented strict anti-terrorism laws besides issuing identity cards. He introduced police reforms which increased the power of constables ‘by adding to the number of arrestable offences’. The DNA recording of all criminals was introduced.

Foreign Relations Blair whole-heartedly supported Bush’s “war on terror” following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on New York’s World Trade Center, and the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The US President accused Iraqi leader Saddam Hussain of secretly producing chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, in violation of earlier UN sanctions. He was also accused of having secret contacts with the world’s most dreaded terrorist, Osama Bin Laden [leader of Al-Qaeda]. The US with the UK launched armed attacks on Iraq in 2003 without UN’s approval and toppled Saddam Hussain’s government. Blair’s popularity as Prime Minister declined rapidly when it was found that he had misled the British Parliament by saying that there were enough proofs for going to war against Saddam Hussain. His fall became imminent in 2007. He was questioned frequently on the Iraq war by the party leaders and public. On June 24, 2007, he transferred the party leadership to Gordon Brown [Chancellor of Exchequer]. Three days later he resigned making it easy for Gordon Brown to succeed him. President George Bush praised Blair for his unstinted support to Iraq war by saying that ‘America has no truer friend than Great Britain’. Blair’s sympathy with Israel was well known. He developed good relations with Israeli leader Ehud Barak and subsequently with his successor, Ariel Sharon. During the Palestinian conflict he met Yasar Arafat frequently to speed up peace process – ‘Road Map for Peace’. Blair’s sympathy lay with Israel because he supported the Israeli settlements in the West Bank. Blair also did not

criticize the deaths and destruction caused by Israel in its war with Lebanon.

Gordon Brown (2007-2010) Gordon Brown followed the policies of Blair and tried to improve the British economy. The immigration policy was tightened so as to enable the government to check skilled immigrant workers. The British general election in 2010 resulted in defeat of Labour Party. Even the Conservative Party which gained a slight majority in the parliament had to take the help of others to form a coalition government. The coalition government is led by David Cameron. His government is seriously thinking of reducing the budget deficit by 19% [involving an estimated job loss of 1.5 million] and defence budget by 7.5%. The Labour Party leaders describe these cuts in budget and defence as ‘reckless and dangerous to economic recovery.’

France: Francois Mitterrand (1981-1995) Mitterrand introduced radical reforms but had to modify them in view of the rightists gaining majority in the national assembly. After his re-election as President in 1988, he promoted France’s deeper integration into the EU. His domestic policy lacked lustre. The socialists suffered defeat which led to further moderation of his domestic policy. Edith Cresson’s successor, Beregovoy also did not last long as Prime Minister. He was succeeded by Edouard Belladur, a former finance minister of the RPR. In other words Mitterrand had his ‘second co-habitation’. According to the constitutional convention, the President would have control over foreign policy and defence, whereas the Prime Minister of France will be dealing with finances and home policy.

Foreign Relations As mentioned earlier, Mitterrand may be described as the founder of the EU. He established better ties with France’s former colonies in Africa and Asia. Unfortunately, France could not establish special relationship with Russia as was so during the Gaullist era. Mitterrand was worried about the effects of the downfall of Soviet empire and the break-up of Yugoslavia. He desired to extend membership of EEC to other countries of Europe.

Under his leadership, France participated in the Gulf war because Saddam Hussain refused to withdraw his forces from the conquered state of Kuwait. Mitterrand maintained cordial relationship with Helmut Kohl of Germany. Both struggled hard to bring about the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 which converted the EEC into the European Union. He died of cancer in 1996.

Jacques Chirac (1995-2007) Chirac was no stranger to French politics. He became the Mayor of Paris in 1997 and led RPR party and the centre-left to electoral victory. He became the Prime Minister during period 1986-88 under President Mitterrand. He made an attempt to become the President but failed in 1988. His major breakthrough in politics came when he got elected as President after defeating his rivals [Balladur and Lionel Jospin in the first and second rounds of election] in 1995. During early years of his Presidency, France was feeling the effects of economic recession. Therefore, his government found it difficult to achieve any progress until structural reforms were carried out. The government introduced austerity measures which did not go well the people of France, as against the background of electoral promises made to them earlier. France’s budget was pruned which provoked the labourers to go on nation-wide general strike – largest strike since May 1968. In the mean time, conservative Prime Minister Alain Juppe introduced a plan for pension reforms. This step also provoked huge protests from all sections of people. The President was forced to dismiss the Prime Minister to appease the protesters. France carried out a nuclear test in Mururoa Atoll in the French Polynesia in 1995. The nuclear test provoked the environmental groups and the international community which outrightly condemned these tests. The President declared on 1st February 1996 that France would not conduct any more nuclear tests in future, and thereafter signed the comprehensive test-ban treaty with other countries. The opposition party did not like his reforms-program, so much so, that the President had to dissolve the parliament and order fresh elections. He hoped to get a clear majority for his party to effectively implement his program of reforms. Unfortunately, the election results turned out to be worst, because the socialist party which he led along with the splinter groups, got defeated. Therefore, Chirac had to appoint the socialist leader Jospin as his Prime Minister. There began what is known as second co-habitation during the next 5 years [1997]. The government got much weakened because of reforms program which could not get satisfactory response. Scandals surroundings the RPR party

and so on made the government most unpopular. During the second term of office, Chirac was unable make much headway. His election to the Presidency took place because his main rival, Jean Marie La Pen of the National Front had become most un-popular due to her speeches and actions. Therefore, the people of France found Chirac more acceptable candidate than his main rival. During second term of his office President Chirac exercised his powers over defence and foreign policies. He reduced the military budget, and decommissioned two aircraft carriers, thus [they had become too old and outdated], making the French navy vulnerable. Furthermore, he reduced the expenditure on producing the nuclear weapons. In 2003, the French opposed the second Gulf war which caused regime change in Iraq, and eventual execution of Saddam Hussain in December 2006. The French President remained very friendly with Putin, George W Bush, the German Chancellor and the British Prime Minister.

Nicolas Sarkozy (2007-2012) Son of French mother and Hungarian immigrant, Sarkozy was trained as a lawyer. He served as a Mayor of Neuilly, a Paris suburb, and subsequently worked as Finance Minister under President Chirac. He is known to the French as a workaholic. In the 2007 Presidential election, Sarkozy representing the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) party got elected as the 23rd President of the French republic. It was a time when France was going through the evil effects of recession. Sarkozy became popular during the first two years of his office because he encouraged the French to be hard-working, risk-taking, more tolerant towards the minority, and follow the French laws rigidly. He adopted tough measures and checked illegal immigration. He welcomed the integration of skilled immigrants into the French society. However, he fast turned into a protectionist. He provided funds liberally to the ailing ALSTOM, a large French multinational conglomerate, in order to prevent its liquidation. He encouraged French companies to give more jobs to the French instead of foreigners. He took tough measures to check hedge funds and tax havens. He opposed Turkish admission to the EU. He had earlier opposed war against Iraq launched by US and the UK. He helped to negotiate peace between warring nations, Russia and Georgia. Sarkozy’s pension reform bill (signed by him in November 2010) became a highly contentious issue as it increased the minimum retirement age of the French employee from 60 to 62. Its proposal had earlier (September-October, 2010) evoked large scale protests and general strikes across the country. Many

critics say that Sarkozy had turned into a protectionist, and had ridden roughshod over the French due to the prevailing recession. The austerity measures adopted by his government managed to bring down the budget deficit from 7.1% in 2010 to 5.8% of the GDP in 2011. Sarkozy was defeated by François Hollande of the Socialist Party in the 2012 presidential election.

François Hollande (2012-) François Hollande assumed office as the president of France on May 15, 2012. His government managed to bring down the budget deficit to 4.5% of GDP in 2012, but failed to meet the target of 3.9% set by the EU for 2013. Public spending, under Hollande, has increased to 57% of the GDP which is the highest in the EU. The government has increased taxes, including a steep 75% tax on high earners, to make good the revenue shortfall. The pension reform bill, passed by the lower house of parliament in October 2013, proposes to increase pension contributions period from the current 41.5 years to 43 years by 2035. This means the French employee will have to work longer in order to receive full pension. The unemployment rate in France is about 11%, the highest since the late nineties. All these have made Hollande very unpopular.

Italy During the early nineties Italy faced formidable problems, and the main challenge was voter disenchantment. The Italian citizens were extremely alarmed at the instability of successive governments, large scale corruption, organised crimes, and increased government debt. Referendum held in 1993 approved, among other things, radical reforms in the Senate electoral system―changeover to Additional Member System from Proportional Representation (Additional Member System was replaced by Party-Lists Representation in 2005). To regain the voter’s confidence, major political parties got reformed with a result that there was a realignment of political forces in 1994. It was in this year that general election was held for the new parliament. The parliament witnessed new faces i.e. 452 out of 630 members in the Chamber of Deputies, and 213 out of 315 members in the Senate. Silvio Berlusconi, the leader of Forza Italia party and a media magnate, was elected Prime Minister in May 1994. Berlusconi’s government did not last long. He was succeeded by Lamberto Dini in January 1995. Dini’s government too fell in May 1996. The next government was formed by Romano Prodi, the leader of Olive Tree party.

His government lasted till October 1998. Thus, governments in Italy were most unstable. Berlusconi returned as prime minister for two more terms (2001-06 and 2008-11) ― making him the longest-serving Italian prime minister after World War II. He is embroiled in many court cases, including those for soliciting sex from an under-aged prostitute and tax fraud involving purchase of American movies rights for television at an inflated cost by his Mediaset company. He has been convicted in the tax fraud case and sentenced to four years imprisonment. Instead of undergoing imprisonment, he has been ordered to do community service. Matteo Renzi of the Democratic Party assumed office as prime minister in February 2014. He faces serious challenges as Italy’s economy is in a bad shape and the unemployment rate is high at 12.7%.

Poland In 1993, Soviet forces left Poland, and a new constitution was drafted that guaranteed the rights of all nationals, including ethnic minorities. As already mentioned President Lech Walesa led a coalition government during the period 1990-1995 with Waldemar Pawlak of the Polish People’s Party (PSL) as Prime Minister. The new constitution came into force in July 1997 during the Presidency of Aleksander Kwasniewski (1995-2005). He was re-elected President in 2000 after leading a party called SLD [alliance of the Democratic Left]. He was assisted by Leszek Miller who became PM of a coalition government in October 2001. Both President and Prime Minister wholly supported Poland’s admission to the EU in 2004. It was unfortunate that this government saw its decline because of scandals. In the parliamentary and Presidential elections held in September and October of 2005, respectively, Lech Kaczynski was elected as President. He represented Law and Justice party (PiS). The election turnout suggested that people were disillusioned with politicians of the time. However, in the course of time, the government became popular but led a minority government. In May, a coalition of political parties [PiS, Samoobrona, and LPR] agreed to form a majority and a new government so formed developed a eurosceptical stance [towards the EU]. On August 14, 2008, the Polish government signed a treaty with NATO, which pledged the US government’s support to defend Poland. It must be remembered that Poland had joined NATO as a full-fledged member in March 1999. This defense agreement provoked the Russian government, and Russia threatened Poland with a nuclear attack. However, the Russian government

adopted a moderate stand after some assurances from Poland. President Lech Kaczynski died in a plane crash in Russia on April 10, 2010. On August 6, 2010, Bronislaw Komorowski was sworn in as the new President.

Spain Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero (2004-2011) of the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) took charge as the Prime Minister after he won the election in March 2004. During his early career he had joined the Socialist party in 1979 and subsequently had become the youngest MP in 1986. It must be remembered that Socialist party had been winning the elections consecutively in the 80’s and 90’s. However, this winning streak stopped in 1996 when a coalition of conservative and regional parties formed the government. This was due to decline of socialist party which was ridden with a number of scandals. This conservative-regional group coalition government led by Jose Aznar got into trouble in 2004 when it held a meeting with the armed separatist group ETA which was behind the commuter-train bombing in Madrid. The evidence connected to the bombings clearly pointed out that militant Islamic groups were involved. The train bombing resulted in 191 deaths. This was just before the election held in 2004. It was this incident which provoked the people not to vote for conservative-led coalition group. So the socialist party [PSOE] led by Rodriguez Zapatero won the 2004 election. Zapatero tried to deal with ETA in a more conciliatory manner by holding peace talks in 2006 for bringing about permanent end to bloodshed. It should be noted, that ETA stands for independence for the Basque region in Spain. At present the Basque region is enjoying autonomy. Reforms introduced by Zapatero covered areas like gender-equality, divorce laws, amnesty to illegal immigrants, legalizing gay marriages and domestic violence. These reforms along with the tough measures taken against violence of ETA had brought about victory in 2008 election. As a socialist PM, Zapatero had enough worries, and these related to problems caused by the global recession. It must be remembered that Spain, as a member of the EU, had to follow the financial rules and regulations laid down by it to overcome problems relating to the deepening recession. Spain also faced an economic collapse. Its sovereign debt had become a main source of worry to the government. Zapatero’s austerity measures made him unpopular. He tried to improve his image by carrying out cabinet reshuffle. Public opinion was not in favour of his continuance as the leader of the government. He decided not to

contest the 2011 general election. In the general election of November 2011, the Popular Party (PP) won an overwhelming victory over PSOE, and its leader Mariano Rajoy is the current Prime Minister of Spain.

The Czech Republic As mentioned earlier, Czechoslovakia was split into two states in 1992, namely, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic’s economy had made rapid strides of progress until 2007, when its GDP annual growth rate peaked at 7.7 percent. This was mainly because of its surging exports to the EU states (particularly Germany) and the inflow of foreign investments. The banks and telecommunication sectors were privatized. Many more sectors are likely to be privatized in the near future. The country had signed Schengen Agreement in 2007, and abolished border controls in respect of its neighbours (Germany, Poland, Austria and Slovakia). The Czech government has been reluctant to adopt the Euro as its currency due to political reasons. Its budget deficit remained very low in 2008. The Czech Republic had earlier been described as “most stable and prosperous of the post-communist states.” However, the global economic crisis (2008) impacted the country’s economy badly. Its economy has slowed down, and has even registered negative GDP annual growth rate in the last couple of years. Unfortunately the country has been rated high in corruption “among the other developed OECD countries.” It has a very high literacy rate of 99%. It is hoped that the state will adopt the Euro as its currency in the future. The present state is headed by President Miloš Zeman (assumed office on March 8, 2013) and the government by Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka (assumed office on January 29, 2014).

Serbia and Montenegro The Serbian and Montenegran population of former Yugoslavia established a loose federation in order to have close relationship. The law makers combined these two republics into one state with an option for any one to choose independence after three years [i.e in 2006]. In 2006 a referendum was held and the majority of Montenegrans chose independence. So the union was dissolved in May 2006 with the result that Serbia and Montenegro became two independent states.

Romania After it’s liberation, the National Salvation Front (FSN) formed a government in 1990. Romania’s King Michael, who had been banished by the earlier communist regime, returned in 1997. Corruption and crime went hand-in-hand in 1990s. It was only in recent years that the country has achieved political and economic stability. Romania joined the NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007. Today Romania is a republic led by President Traian Băsescu with Victor Ponta as the Prime Minister.

Bulgaria Bulgaria began to face turmoil after it’s liberation. She joined NATO (2004) and the EU (2007). The present government is led by Plamen Oresharski (2013- ).

Hungary After it’s liberation from the Soviet Union in 1989, the new government of József Antall (1990-1993), and its successors introduced democracy and free market economy. This country attracted largest foreign investments among the countries in eastern Europe. Hungary joined the NATO in 1999, and celebrated the millennium of it’s founding in 2001. It may be remembered that King Stephen I, had founded and united this kingdom in AD 1001. Today it has parliamentary democracy with a government led by Viktor Orban.

Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia on March 3, 1992, following a referendum. The Serb majority in this country objected, and so followed a violent civil war among the Serbs, the Croats and the Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims). As a result of this war, close to a hundred-thousand civilians and military personnel were killed (majority of them Bosnian Muslims) and about two million displaced. The international community intervened, and an uneasy peace was restored after signing of the Dayton Accords by the warring factions in December 1995. NATO forces were stationed in the country to maintain peace and enforce the agreements. The country became a Federal Republic comprising of two autonomous entities― the Federation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina (for Bosniaks and Croats) and the Republika Srpska (Bosnian Serb Republic). In 1995, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) indicted Radovan Karadzic, President of Republika Srpska, for committing war crimes against the Bosnian Muslims and Croats. He had to finally step down from power in July 1996. A three-member collective presidency― consisting of one Croat, one Bosniak and one Serb― was first introduced in the country in 1996. The members of the presidency are directly elected by the people of their respective regions. Each member gets to be the Chairman of the Presidency, for a period of eight months on a rotation basis, during its four-year term. The parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina has two houses― the House of Representatives (lower house) and the House of Peoples (upper house). The members of the lower house are directly elected by the citizens of the country. The presidency, which acts as the head of the state, selects the Council of Ministers from among the various ethnic groups. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister), who heads the government, is appointed by the presidency and endorsed by the House of Representatives. As of February 2014, Željko Komšić is the Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Vjekoslav Bevanda is the Chairman of the Council of Ministers.

Turkey Turkey is not listed in the European continent by the UN statistics division. It has time and again applied for admission into the EU. Justice and Development Party (AKP), led by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, is in-charge of the government since 2002. Just before the recession of 2009, Erdogan had brought about impressive changes in the country’s political and economic landscape. The government controlled inflation, had improved its economy to such an extent, that its investment credit-rating went-up among OECD countries. It became an active member of the G20 club. Erdogan’s government won a referendum on constitutional changes in September 2010 which enabled him to establish its control over the army and judiciary. In 2005, the government was in a position to start negotiations with the EU about its admission. Unfortunately, Turkey’s membership to the EU is blocked by France and Germany. In spite of its impressive records, Turkey was unable to persuade big powers in the EU to permit her to join the EU. It should be remembered that Turkey is an active member of the NATO, its national held the post of Secretary General of the Organisation of Islamic Conference, and is a great leader of Muslim countries

[with a robust young Muslim population].

Russia During the first term of Russian President Vladimir Putin [2000-2004], the Russian economy did well with the GDP growing at 6.7% on an annual average and 11% increase in the average income of a Russian. Russia’s external debt was reduced by nearly 70%, and it was on the road to economic recovery. Putin became quite popular because he managed to keep the Chechen rebels under check. As already mentioned, before he became President, he had been able to claim his victory over Chechen rebels in 1999. Putin decided to make Russia a super power, next only to the United States. He criticized his predecessors for having brought about the dissolution of the Soviet empire. He agreed to establish a market economy to please the western nations, especially so after the country’s command economy had failed earlier. He decided to put an end to political corruption and improve Russia’s ailing economy. He also decided to check a few independence movements, particularly in the autonomous province of Chechnya. A couple of months after his election to the Presidency, Putin faced a very embarrassing situation when a new nuclear submarine Kursk sank in the Barents Sea under mysterious circumstances. All efforts made to rescue the crew [118 sailors] went in vain. The President was reluctant to seek the help of western nations even though it was offered. The crew died due to late arrival of rescue team [including the UK and Norway] with the result that Putin’s popularity took a downturn. Putin’s popularity again suffered when the Government was unable to effectively meet threats posed by Chechen rebels to Russia’s internal security. On October 23, 2002, Chechen militants seized the crowded Dubrovka theatre in Moscow and held over 900 hostages. They demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from Chechnya. Failing which, they threatened to blow up the theatre and kill all the hostages. After three days of hesitation, the Russian government dispatched commandos to rescue the hostages from their captors. The armed commandos stormed the theatre and used sleeping gas. About 130 hostages and 40 Chechen rebels died, most due to suffocation, and the government came in for severe criticism. The theatre incident enraged the President to such an extent that he vowed to take revenge. The Russian army began to strike at all the strong holds of the Chechen rebels. In the meantime, the Chechen rebels killed their newly elected pro-Russian President Akhmad Kadyrov in May 2004. In the month of August

the rebels destroyed two Russian aircrafts. Then followed what is known as Beslan School Hostage crisis (September 1, 2004-September 3, 2004). In this incident, Chechen rebels seized the school and took over 1000 hostages, including school children and their parents and teachers. On the third day of the crisis, Russian security forces entered the school building and freed the hostages after killing the rebels.The incident resulted in the death of about 330 hostages, most of them children. The process of liberalization and privatization of Russian economy began when some of the state enterprises were sold to private entrepreneurs. However, some of the state enterprises were acquired illegally by some Russian business tycoons. Putin intervened and forced these unscrupulous tycoons to return the state property. Two of them, namely, Gusinsky and Berezovsky were forced to give up a part of their assets and leave Russia. In the case of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, he not only surrendered his famous oil company Yukos to the state, but also suffered imprisonment. Putin extended state control over a few TV channels and the print media. After re-election to the Presidency (March 2004), Putin interfered in Ukranian and Byelorussian elections to extend Russian control over these two provinces. His action was severely criticized in the west. The Russian government sponsored a so-called economic reform called Monetization. But it became very unpopular. Russia backed Serbia in suppressing the Kosovars (a majority of them were Muslim-Albanians) because they demanded independence. The demand for independence by the Kosovars was supported by western nations. Finally, Russia compromised on this issue and supported the west in its war against Serbia. Russia also launched a war against Georgia when the latter tried to take over the breakaway South Ossetia. The war came to an end when EU and UN intervened. In the end, Russia unilaterally recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. In spite of west’s criticism of Vladimir Putin, his popularity remained high with the common Russians. This was because he showed signs of great leadership in Russia’s post-Cold War era. Putin extended his hands of friendship with the west and allowed the former communist states to join the EU. However, he opposed their joining the NATO alliance during the years 1997-2004. He was angry when the NATO members attacked Yugoslavia [1999], i.e. war against Kosovo. Putin finally gave his consent to the continuation of the war and join the NATO peace keeping forces for bringing about a political settlement in the Balkans. The US and Russian presidents maintain cordial relationship even though Russia opposed America’s war against Iraq. Russia strengthened it’s ties with Belarus by forming the union with that

state in April 1997. Russia also signed friendship treaty with the People’s Republic of China and agreed to lay the Trans-Siberian oil- pipeline to supply the energy needs of China. In 2008, elections took place for the post of Russian Presidency. Putin’s nominee Mr. Dmitry Medvedev was elected President. The latter appointed Putin as the Prime Minister. In other words, Putin continued to exercise his control over Russia ‘through back seat driving’. In March 2012, Putin was re-elected as President of Russia for an extended term of six years, with Medvedev now as his Prime Minister in a reversal of roles.

Bibliography Encylopaedia Section Encyclopaedia Brittanica (rel. vols.), Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences (rel. vols.). New International Encyclopaedia (rel. vols.), The Columbia Encyclopaedia, Langer’s Encyclopaedia of World History, The New Collegiate Encyclopaedia, James Mitchell’s History and Culture (2 Vols.), The Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopaedic Dictionary (Vol. 3), American Educator Encyclopaedia (rel. vols.)., Britannica Ready Reference Encyclopedia (relevant volumes). UNESCO Published History of Mankind: Cultural and Scientific Development. (rel. vols.)

General Section 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Weech, W.N., History of the World. Sidney, Zebel and Sydney, Schwartz, Past to Present: A World History Nehru, Jawaharlal, Glimpses of World History. Lucas, H.S., A Short History of Civilisation. Brinton, Crane et al., Modern Civilisation: A History of the Last Five Centuries. Nevins, Allen, A Gateway to History. Wells, H.G., The Outline of History. Wells, H.G., A Short History of the World. Collingwood, R.G., The Idea of History. Shapiro, Irwin (Ed.), Universal History of the World. Hayes et al., World History Savelle, Max (Ed), A History of World Civilization (2 Vols.) Breasted, J.H., The Conquest of Civilization. Durant, Will, Lessons of History. Durant, Will, Story of Civilisation (rel. Vols). Davies, World History.

17. Ketelbey C.D.M., A History of Modern Times. 18. Palmer, R.R. and J. Colton, A History of the Modern World. 19. Scott, F.D. & Buckhout, Gerald.L, The 20th Century World, a reading guide. 20. Easton, Stewart C., World since 1918. 21. Langsam, W.C., The World since 1919. 22. Webster, World History. 23. Brinton, C., et al., A History of Civilization. 24. Grant and Temperley, Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century. 25. Fisher, H.A.L., A History of Europe. 26. Hays, C.J.H., Contemporary Europe since 1870. 27. Thomson, David, Europe since Napoleon. 28. Benns, F.L., European History since 1870. 29. Ergang, R.R., Europe in Our Time, 1914 to the present. 30. Buss, Claude, History of Asia. 31. Panikkar, K.M., Asia and the Western Dominance. 32. Clyde and Beer, History of the Far East. 33. Latouratte, K.S., A Short History of the Far East. 34. Vinacke, H.M., A History of the Far East in Modern Times. 35. Williams, T.H. et al., A History of the United States (to 1877) 36. Bailey, T.A., A Diplomatic History of the American People. 37. Hitti, P.K., History of the Arabs. 38. Lenczowski, George, Middle East in World Affairs. 39. Carr, E.H., The Bolshevik Revolution (Vol. I). 40. Pares, Bernard, A History of Russia. 41. Munshi, K.M. (Ed.), History & Culture of Indian People (rel. Vols.). 42. Majumdar, R.C., et al., An Advanced History of India. 43. Chopra, Pran et al., A Social, Cultural and Economic History of India (3 vols.). 44. Hoskins, H.L., European Imperialism in Africa. 45. Paton, Alan, The Land and People of South Africa. 46. Wynia, Gary W, Politics of Latin American Development (1979 reprint) 47. George, Robert Lloyd, North South: An Emerging Market Handbook (1994) 48. Chatterji, N.C., History of the Modern Middle East 49. Permanand, Political Development in South Asia 50. Hazen, C.D., Modern Europe 51. Degler, Carl N, Out of Our Past: The Forces that Shaped Modern America 52. Gupte R.S., History of Modern China