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2º ESO – PROYECTO BILINGÜE CURRICULUM INTEGRADO

AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE STUDENT´S GUIDE & WORKBOOK - 1

CONTENTS AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE - STUDENT ´S GUIDE  

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WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN ABOUT? VISIT PLAN - SCHEDULE

STUDENT ´S GUIDE

AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE – WORKBOOK 

Routes of Science and Cities for Wisdom

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Al-Andalus. Eight centuries of History

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Islam, Al-Andalus & Science. Brief Exhibition

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Cultural Routes of El legado andalusí

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Science in Al-Andalus

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Astronomy and Mathematics

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Cartography and Navigation

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Water Systems

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Mechanics

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Optics, Physics and Chemistry

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Agronomy and Botany

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Medicine and Zoology

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Architecture

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Mining and Metal-working

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Other Technologies

FURTHER INFORMATION  

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REFERENCES AND WEBSITES VIDEOS

GLOSSARY

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AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE - STUDENT ´S GUIDE WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN ABOUT? Al-Andalus Pavilion, in the midst of Granada Science Centre, provides you a complete vision of Arab-Muslim scientific heritage and invites you to value and preserve this cultural legacy. So we are going to travel back in the past, understanding the medieval Muslim scientific world, the role played by Al-Andalus and its relationships with the Mediterranean area and Western Christendom. Therefore, our main goals will be:  Meeting and knowing Al-Andalus´ scientific heritage and the influence of medieval Islamic science in the scientific history  Muslim culture as a link between East and West, North and South  Knowing and remembering outstanding historic landmarks, cities and characters  Understanding the way Islam Science recover, preserve , spread and develop the scientific Greek and Roman legacy  How scientific knowledge has no clear boundaries between disciplines or between theory and applications.  

The Pavilion is divided in two different floors: The lower floor displays a small permanent exhibition analysing some aspects of AlAndalus and Muslim scientific world. Educational workshop room is setting here. The upper floor develops these topics using models, interactive media games, audiovisual resources.... You will spend most of time here, looking for the answers to complete your workbook.

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VISIT PLAN - SCHEDULE 

DEPARTURE: WE LEAVE AT 9.15 / 9.30 FROM IES ALBAYZIN

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BREAK TIME ABOUT 12.00 h

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BACK TO EXHIBITION / EDUCATIONAL WORKSHOP AT 12.30

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ARRIVAL AT IES ALBAYZIN: 14.25 / 14. 35

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PLEASE, BE RESPECTFUL OF TIMETABLE AND DON´T BE LATE¡

Visiting the Exhibition

Upper Floor Lower Floor  1 Routes of Science and Cities for Wisdom  2 Al-Andalus. Eight centuries of History 

3 Sites

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4 Al-Andalus & Science.

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16 Cultural Routes of El legado andalusí

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17 The Routes of El legado andalusí

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5 Science in Al-Andalus

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6 Astronomy and Mathematics

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7 Cartography and Navigation

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8 Water Systems

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9 Mechanics

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10 Optics, Physics and Chemistry

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11 Agronomy and Botany

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12 Medicine and Zoology

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13 Architecture

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14 Mining and Metal-working

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15 Other technologies

AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE STUDENT´S GUIDE & WORKBOOK - 3

ROUTES OF SCIENCE AND CITIES FOR WISDOM Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula at the beginning of 7 th century. Soon Islam spread from the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to India and westward to the Iberian Peninsula. Islamic culture and Empire soon assimilated culture and knowledge from the conquered territories. In 9th century the Caliph founded the first House of Wisdom in Baghdad to translate the most important Persian and Greek works into Arabic. The Arab scientists fused, preserved and transmitted ancient (Greek-Latin) knowledge, but also developed it by making their own contributions and achievements. So, in the Middle Ages the Islamic World rediscovered the knowledge and wisdom of Classical Greece and Rome and Ancient Orient. This knowledge was transmitted in Arabic and came to Europe through Italy and the Iberian Peninsula, and through other contacts (trading exchanges, travels, pilgrimage and Crusades). During the emirate of Abd al-Rahman II, this scientific legacy arrived to Iberian Peninsula (= Al-Andalus) from the East as an endless flow of learning and spread to the rest of Europe. So Al-Andalus became the actual forefront of medieval science and thinking in Europe; Classical knowledge came back to the West thanks to translations from Arabic language. In the Iberian Peninsula translations was carried out in the Spanish March (during 10 th century) and later in the Ebro Valley, Seville and Toledo (works during King Alfonso X the Wise were particularly worthy).

AL-ANDALUS. EIGHT CENTURIES OF HISTORY Al-Andalus was the name the Muslims gave to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and more specifically, to the territory they controlled. The area covered by AlAndalus differs of that of modern Andalusia, but is here that the Moors stayed the longest.

A brief summary of the history of Al-Andalus: Traditionally, we divide this time in four different periods: 1. THE UMAYYADS (711-1031 AD. / 92- 422 H.) Muslims arrived to Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD. Within a period of 7 years Muslims conquerors came to dominate almost all of this land, except small regions in the North. The ruling Dynasty, the Umayyads governed from Cordoba; they came from Damascus and first founded an Emirate and later a Caliphate. 2. THE TAIFA KINGDOMS (1031-1086 AD / 422-479 H.) After the Umayyad power collapse, some local and regional lords became independent kings (malik) of small kingdoms (taifa) and created courts as magnificent as Cordoba. There were noteworthy governors in Toledo, Zaragoza, Granada, Seville or Almeria.

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3. ALMORAVIDS AND ALMOHADS (1086-1232 AD/ 476-630 H.) To stop the advance of Christians, the Taifa Kingdoms asked for help to the Almoravids, a Bereber dynasty from the Sahara. They entered Al-Andalus, swept aside the Taifa Kingdoms and extended their empire throughout Al-Andalus. Later, Almohades took control of Al-Andalus, and established their capital in Seville. This dynasty went into decline from 1212 onwards after, and were defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa battle by Aragon and Castile Christian Kingdoms. 4. THE NASRID KINGDOM OF GRANADA (1232-1492 AD / 629-879H.) Ruled by the Nasrid dynasty, this was the last Muslim territory on the Iberian Peninsula and survive for 250 years despite of its political weakness. In 1492, after being conquered by Castile Kingdom the last Nasrid King, Boabdil (=Abu Abd Allah) left the Iberian Peninsula and settle in Northern Africa.

ISLAM, AL-ANDALUS & SCIENCE. EXHIBITION The Islamic Empire absorbed the culture and teachings of the lands it conquered. Initially, Arabic science was known for its ability to integrate Greek, Syrian, Sanskrit and Persian teachings and the knowledge of other cultures. Ancient classical works by Aristotle, Plato, Galeno, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, Euclid and Archimedes were published and disseminated thanks to their Arabic translations. Moorish scientists did not just fuse together and disseminate ancient science; however, they also developed it extensively by making their own significant contributions. Disciplines such as astronomy, mechanics, physics, geography and medicine were enriched by constant exchange. The adoption of a single language, Arabic, helped to extend the network of knowledge to the most remote areas. Another element that helped dissemination was the introduction of paper in the Arab world in the 8th century, making copying easier and bringing about the proliferation of many works. In the 10th century, paper was present at the court of the Cordoba Caliphate. Trade, pilgrimages and journeys for study made by the people from Al-Andalus meant that the region took an active part in science being developed in the Islamic East and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean. Al-Andalus was a cultural bridge that recovered the knowledge of the classical tradition and oriental science and from the 11th to 13th centuries, Arab-Latin translators worked for the transfer of this knowledge to the rest of Europe. To conclude, the aim of this exhibition and school-work on science in Al-Andalus is to take a look at the importance of Al-Andalus history, to highlight Islamic scientific world

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between the 8th and 15th centuries, and to underline significant scientific achievements in a variety of disciplines such us Astronomy, Agronomy, Mathematics, Pharmacology, Botany, Medicine and Navigation. A significant proportion of this knowledge clearly shows the extent of scientific collaboration between different communities, societies and religions, all of which were driven by a single purpose; the desire to discover and apply this knowledge for the benefit of mankind.

The 15th century Nasrid Granada (A Model): Knowing the Muslim city Under the rule of Nasrids Granada was protected by a wall surrounding the city, with gates all around the medina (= Muslim city). The citadel of the Alhambra was on the top of a red hill (al-Hamra) protected by walls and towers. In Moorish Garnata (Granada) streets were narrow and winding. The heart of the city was the commercial area, around the Great Mosque, and featured the Alcaiceria, the old Arab bazaar where silk and other luxury goods were sold. There were too a large number of public baths and flour mills. Outside the city walls there were many almunias with gardens. At this time Granada had an estimated population of 70.000 people. The Medina was located in the centre of Garnata. This was a walled area including a wide variety of buildings such as the Great Mosque, other smaller mosques, souks or markets, the madrasa or former Islamic college, the Alcazar (governor´s residence) as well as baths. The medina was surrounded by suburbs called arrabales. The Arrabales sprung up outside the walled area when the city began to grow. They were sometimes given the name of the craftsmen community that inhabitated them. Each one had its own facilities and services (mosques, baths, souks...). The medina was surrounded and protected by walls. Walls were fortified by defensive towers and barbicans. Crossing the walls there were gateways with complex architectural structures featuring double doors or right angled bend. A city was as important as the number of gateways it had. Garnata had more than 30 of them; the finest were Puerta Elvira, Puerta de las Pesas and Puerta de Bibarrambla. As other Muslim big cities, Garnata had various cemeteries as well as one for Jews and another for Christians. Following Roman tradition, they were usually located outside the city walls, close to the main gates. Sometimes they were absorbed by growing cities. Granada had

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six main cemeteries: the Puerta Elvira, Socaster, La Sabika, The Puerta de los Alfareros, Los Extranjeros y La Rauda. Mosques were religious buildings used by Muslims to worship. The quibla wall determines the direction in which mosques face and featured the mihrab, where the iman stand to lead prayers. A tower or minaret is the place used by muezzin (prayer caller) to call worshippers to prayer five times a day. Mosques also had a courtyard with a fountain for ablutions. The main mosque in the city or Aljama (in the same place of current Cathedral) was one of the over 200 mosques founded in Garnata. Public Baths were important buildings in Al-Andalus day-life; worshippers were required to wash themselves before praying. Public baths or hammam were similar to Roman hot baths and comprised four different rooms: a vestibule to put away the clothes, one cold bath room, one warm and the other hot. Granada should have many baths although only four have survived, the most important of these are The Bañuelo. Houses were built in the Mediterranean style with an enclosed courtyard or patio. The exterior had usually few windows generally covered by lattice woodwork panels to prevent people looking from the outside. Water was supplied by several irrigation channels. The Aynadamar channel is believed to be the very first of them. They were also many aljibes, tanks used to store rainwater, in the city. Outskirts the city, there were the almunias, leisure estates with gardens and plantations. The finest of these estates belonged to the upper-class people. Almunias had an ornamental and aesthetic purpose as well as were farms to make money and trial grounds for the acclimatisation of seeds and crops from Middle East. The Maristan was a hospital used at first to treat all kind of illness, but at last used to care for the insane. In Granada, the maristan was founded in fourteenth century by the Nasrid sultan Muhammad V. It has many rooms, a spacious courtyard and stores. The madrasa was an Islamic college. Granada´s madrasa was built in the middle of the fourteenth century by sultan Yusuf I. Here the most famous teachers and schoolmasters gave lessons on grammar, Arabic poetry, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and natural sciences. However, the most important were the study of the Koran. Subjects were taught orally and also involved the reading of core texts. Inside the medina the souk was the place for the economic activities (trade and craftsmanship). The Alcaicería was an enclosed area inside the souk, were goods were sold. During the Nasrids, the Alcaiceria in Granada was a commercial area dedicated to the trading of silk and other luxury goods. Alhondigas were used to store goods and provide lodges for merchants and traders. A fine example of them is the Corral del Carbón, which stands opposite the Alcaiceria and is the only surviving alhondiga in Spain.

CULTURAL ROUTES OF EL LEGADO ANDALUSÍ

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SCIENCE IN AL-ANDALUS Al-Andalus Pavilion takes a look at Islamic scientific legacy. It deals with disciplines such as trigonometry, combinatorial analysis and algebra. Calculus, along with astronomy and its instruments, is subject of special analysis, along with physics and optics. Geography, cartography, navigation and travel are also a major source of information. Not forgetting medicine, so closely linked with pharmacology, botany, alchemy and chemistry. Other sciences such us veterinary science, zoology, geology and music are also present in this Pavilion. Agronomy, architecture and the decorative arts are closely linked to the history of Al-Andalus, and are also present in this scientific dimension. From the Orient to the Occident, in the Middle Ages the Arabic-Islamic World rediscovered the knowledge and wisdom of Classical Greece and Rome and of the Ancient Orient. This knowledge was transmitted in Arabic and came to Europe through Italy and the Ibherian Peninsula, and through other contacts such as those established through the Crusades, trading exchanges and travels. Human movement, pilgrimages, the export of works and knowledge, were all common practice in the Mediterranean, so there were a multitude of books and scientific learning brought from Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia …. Contrary to the current concept of specialisation, the learned men of that age would be specialists in various fields of science at the same time. Many of them knew about medicine, pharmacology and botany. Meanwhile, knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, optics and philosophy often also existed in parallel. The Arabs distinguished between the sciences linked to Islam and their own tradition and those that originated in other civilizations, which they called sciences of the ancients. This term helps us to understand the contribution made by Arabic science, through its roots, on the one hand in the Mediterranean in Classical Greece and Rome and on the other hand in the Orient from Mesopotamia to India and China. The classical legacy entered Arabic science through Greek translations, commissioned especially from the year 750 AD. Onwards under the second Abbasid Caliph, al-Mansur, the builder of Baghdad (754-775), assimilation and development of the classical legacy continued for a further three centuries. The legacy of classical Greece and Rome came to Al-Andalus by three main routes:  From the Arabic Orient, through the contacts the Andalusians had with the central core of the Arab-Islamic culture to which they belonged.  From the native people of the Iberian Peninsula, who stayed in Al-Andalus and kept their Latin culture active until the 10 th century.  Trough relations with Byzantium, which were decisive in the 10th century, when the Byzantine Emperor sent the caliph of Cordoba the Materia Medica by Dioscorids and the History by Paulus Orosius. st

Knowledge and Learning in Arabic

In the 1 century Hegira (8th century AD.), a process of development of knowledge began that was to bear important fruits, especially in the followings fields:

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1.- Essential wisdoms Religious sciences and jurisprudence Language and Literature Geography: ▪ Descriptive geography ▪ Physical geography ▪ Cartography ▪ Accounts of travels History: ▪ Universal and dynastic chronicles ▪ Biographies 2.- Rational Sciences Physical sciences: ▪ Medicine ▪ Zoology and Veterinary ▪ Agronomy ▪ Botany ▪ Pharmacology ▪ Physics ▪ Optics ▪ Chemistry and Alchemy ▪ Geology ▪ Meteorology Philosophy: ▪ Logic ▪ Metaphysics Mathematics and geometry: ▪ Numbers and calculus ▪ Algebra ▪ geometry Astronomy: ▪ Observation and planetary theories ▪ Trigonometry ▪ Astronomical instruments Music: ▪ Theory and practice ▪ Instruments 3.- Applied sciences Mechanics Hydraulics Mineralogy Metallurgy Navigation

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Architecture and construction techniques Other technologies (ceramics, glass, paper, textiles and others)

ASTRONOMY AND MATHEMATICS Astronomy is directly linked with Maths, and soon became an important discipline, supported by political power and social elites (upper social class). During Middle Ages, Astronomy was linked to Astrology. Astronomical tables, almanacs, equatoriums, spherical calculators and astrolabes were some of the instruments that underwent significant development. In the East, major astronomical observatories were created (Maragha, Samarkand) and will have an important role in medieval astronomy.

ASTRONOMY The Arabic legacy in astronomy was the fruit of the assimilation of previous traditions (Mesopotamian, Hellenistic, Greek and Indian-Iranian) and their own original ideas, and is one of the most brilliant examples of a shared Mediterranean scientific heritage. This heritage is both intangible, in that it deals with ideas and vocabulary, including technical terminology and the names of stars, and tangible in that it is made up of manuscripts and instruments, which as the faithful companions of the astronomer accompanied him on a roundabout journey through the great scientific centres of the medieval Arab world, from Baghdad to Cordoba and from al-Andalus to Samarkand. Astronomers and observatories had access to quadrants, armillary spheres, astrolabes and other sophisticated instruments that enabled them to observe the heavens, draft theories, calculate tables and measure the time and, also to pray, fast, make pilgrimages and bury their dead as required by Islamic tradition.

Astronomy and Portable Astronomical Instruments Astronomers and Observatories needed the right tools for their work and this meant that many of the instruments inherited from the Ptolemaic tradition were improved, and new instruments were invented. Together these astronomers produced hundreds of treatises which are preserved today for posterity in thousands of manuscript copies in public and private libraries. These texts do not normally provide information about the technology or the materials used in the construction of the instruments. Astronomers were often themselves astrolabe-makers and constructed their own instruments, but we also have records of astrolabes and quadrants that were made for sale on a highly specialized market.

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The Universal Instruments of Al-Andalus The history of the design of astronomical instruments has many things in common with the history of applied mathematics and the development of descriptive geometry and the theory of projections. Mediaeval literature on astronomical instruments includes a number of works that are compendia of the instruments known by their respective authors. Some of these are standard well-known instruments in general circulation, but others are geometrically complicated variants whose real existence is uncertain. Al-Andalus made a distinguished contribution in the materialization of what were complex options, and between the 11th and 14th centuries, Andalusian astronomers and astrolabists updated these standard instruments which then made their way back to the Orient and the rest of Europe.

Astronomy and Astrology Astrology, as applied astronomy, often justified the theoretical importance of astronomy. Kings and Queens sponsored the work of astronomers believing that they would provide them with tables with which they could make more accurate horoscopes, and some of them in their double role as astronomers and astrologers enjoyed a privileged position as Royal councillor. “Court” astrology was fashionable in the Emirate and the Caliphate of al-Andalus, in spite of opposition from alfaquíes (experts in law) and certain poets. Alongside this elitist astrology, there was another “mass market” form of astrology, which was perhaps less mathematical and closer in essence to magic. From the fusing together of Oriental materials, al-Andalus inherited historical horoscopes, the astrological technique of choices and astrological meteorology, to which it added its own contribution, the survival of Latin techniques of judiciary astrology. Andalusian astrologers developed mathematical astrology techniques which simplified the calculation of planet longitudes for the horoscope, and mathematical techniques and tables that were applied to the calculation of astrological procedures such as the projection of rays, astrological progressions (tasyr) and the division of the ecliptic into houses.

Production of Astronomical Ideas After an initial phase of translation and assimilation, Arabic astronomers soon began to produce their first original works with descriptions of the stars, references to spherical astronomy and applied trigonometry, planetary models and astronomical tables. Mediaeval Arabic sources refer to open-air observation stations in private residences, in royal gardens or in public places. In the 9 th century there were observatories in Baghdad (al-Shamasiyya) and in Damascus (al-Qasiyun), but these were something of an exception and it was not until the 13th century that the important Observatory of Maragha was created, which was later followed by those in Samarkand (15th c.) and Istanbul (16th c.). There are no references to observatories in Muslim countries in the West, except for the occasional mention of the use of towers for observation purposes.

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Astronomy, Religion and Everyday Life The calculation of praying times or the azimuth of the alquibla are examples of the ways in which astronomical discoveries were applied to everyday life. Alquibla means direction, although in an Islamic context, it is clear that the direction of Kaaba, the temple in Mecca, is the direction par excellence. Facing in the right direction when praying, or at other significant moments such as when sacrificing an animal, relieving oneself or burying someone, are all rules set down in the Koran, which not only remain in effect today, but are also a key part of the Muslim symbolic universe. In their prayers, Muslims travel towards Mecca in a Spiritual sense, but they also travel there physically when they comply with another basic requirement of their religion: pilgrimage.

MATHEMATICS Arabic mathematics is the result of a juxtaposition and subsequent synthesis of different ancient legacies that were significantly enriched during the period of innovation that extended from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Geometry and number theory came from Greece. The decimal positional system was recovered from India. The procedures of calculus, measurement, calculation and problem solving came from Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and probably from the Iberian Peninsula as well. From these theoretical and practical contributions, original contributions were devised over the centuries: obtaining new results in ancient disciplines (geometry, number theory); the study of new mathematical objects (plane and solid figures, number series); the development of approximation methods; the creation of new disciplines. Some of these, like algebra and trigonometry, became autonomous with respect to other older disciplines. Others, such as combinatorial analysis and the construction of magic squares, remained largely undeveloped.   

Why did Islam culture develop the mathematical knowledge? Passion for science Territorial expansion: astronomy, geographic and cartographic knowledge (trigonometry and navigation charts) Religion: The calculation of praying times or the azimuth of the alquibla are examples of the ways in which astronomical discoveries were applied to everyday life. Alquibla means direction, although in an Islamic context, it is clear that the direction of Kaaba, the temple in Mecca, is the direction par excellence. Mathematics: Theoretical and Practical Contribution       

Numbers and Calculus Algebra Geometry Astronomy Geography and Cartography Physics Decoration

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Measuring Time On the Arabian Peninsula, as in the rest of the Middle East, a long time before the arrival of Islam there were already empirical methods of observing the sky, so as to measure the passage of time. In Islam, the Muslim calendar was lunar and the civil day began at sunset, with the result that the night always preceded the day to which it belonged. The mawaqit are the five moments in the day set for holy prayers. If greater precision is not required, they are taken as a reference point to designate any phase of the day or night. During the expansion of the Islamic Empire through the Grecian-Roman world, the Arabs discovered the solar quadrant and Muslim astronomers, who were interested in measuring time, began developing sundials and similar devices.

GEOGRAPHY. CARTOGRAPHY AND NAVIGATION The Arabs inherited their knowledge of geography from the Greeks, and they extended it not only because of their extraordinary passion for science, but also due to their own territorial expansion, which covered great areas of Asia, Africa and Europe and gave them interesting first-hand geographical information. Their starting-point was Ptolemy´s Geography, which was translated into Arabic in the th 9 century. At the start of the 11th century, al-Biruni carried out important geodesic research and established the rules for spherical trigonometry as used in mathematical geography. From the 11th century onwards, the study of geography progressed in Al-Andalus and Sicily. Maps were drawn in both the Orient and the Islamic West and a multitude of geographical works of all kinds were written, such as geographical introductions to books on universal history, travel stories and other similar works. Descriptive geography was developed in both the oriental and the occidental Muslim world. Oriental geographers became particularly interested in the Mediterranean once they had discovered the Maghreb. The Mediterranean nautical chart appeared in the 13 th century, produced by cartographers from Italy, Majorca, North Africa and Al-Andalus, with detailed descriptions of the coasts. Arabic astronomers twice corrected Ptolemy´s calculation of the size of the Mediterranean, which was about 20 degrees out of line. This error was reduced by about 9 degrees, and in 10th century they achieved such a high level of accuracy that in some tables of geographical coordinates there was only a half a degree of difference from today´s modem measurements. The greatest geographer of the Middle Ages was born in Ceuta (1100), called Al-Idrisi. His most important work was carried out in Sicily in the court of Christian king Roger, who gave him the task of producing a world map. Al-Idrisi wrote his Nuzhzt al-mushtaq, the geographical masterpiece of the Middle Ages, which combined both descriptive and mathematical geography.

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During the Middle Ages there were a number of important changes in navigation techniques that affected technical aspects of the vessels, in particular the introduction of the stern rudder (maybe from China), the triangular sail (allows for sailing against the wind) and the use of navigation charts together with a compass. Treatises and diagrams showing tides, the lunar mansions, etc. appeared to help ships on the right course. Considerable impetus was given to astronomical navigation in Al-Andalus. They were able to navigate without following the coastline, calculating latitude by the meridian height of the sun or the polar star. Instruments such as the compass, nocturnal astrolabe and nautical quadrants allowed sailors to establish their position, direction and speed.

WATER SYSTEMS The water required for the irrigation system characteristic of agriculture in Al-Andalus was obtained using a generalized hydraulic system, which has left its mark on the Spanish language which uses numerous terms derived from Arabic such as: acequia (irrigation channel), alberca (water tank), aljibe (cistern or well) amongst others. Written sources and archaeology have given us an insight into the water system in Al-Andalus, and the way water was collected, distributed and used. This system was the result of a synthesis of Yemeni and Berber elements combined with those found locally. One of the most interesting methods of obtaining water from underground was trough perforated galleries. Both water and wind power have been used since ancient times and appear in Greek treatises translated into Arabic. The practical applications of water-power for irrigation or for moving things were developed in the Middle Ages, and the important role played by Al-Andalus can be seen in the Arabic roots of Spanish words such as noria (waterwheel) and aceña (watermill). Watermills with wheels and trip-hammers were used by the people from Al-Andalus to remove the husk from rice, grind cereals, etc., and also for making paper.

MECHANICS

Mechanics Books on mechanics by Archimedes, Apollonius and others were translated from Greek into Arabic, and practical mechanical applications varied greatly across the expanse of the Muslim world, with the Roman tradition that was technically so important being particularly influential. The best-known Arabic treatises on mechanical matters appeared between the 9th and the 16th centuries, beginning with the works of Banu Musa (Book of Ingenious Devices), which were

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followed by other scholars such as al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna, al-Sa’ati (= the clockmaker), and above all al-Djazari (13th c.) with “A compendium on the theory and practice of the mechanical arts”. In Al-Andalus, the treatise on automata by al-Muradi is particularly worthy of note.

Ibn Firnas: poet and inventor There is a legend that shows this man from Cordoba (died 887) in flight. The story goes that he donned feathers and wings and launched himself very briefly into the air before plummeting down “because he had not put on a tail”. Paving the way for other famous fliers, his feat is well commemorated today and he can be seen for example gliding above the Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai. He is also said to have contributed to the progress of al-Andalus by applying his knowledge of astronomy, alchemy and his art as a wordsmith: understanding metrics, building an armillary sphere, a clock with automata and even a representation of the firmament that included thunderbolts and lightning. He also had ideas on glass-making. He composed songs and verse, and accompanied another “cultural hero”, Ziryab, the great musician. The chroniclers of the Umayyads pointed to the creativity of Ibn Firnas as proof of the level achieved by al-Andalus as early as the 9th century.

Clepsidra. Nocturnal watch of water. Clepsidras are kind of watches which need neither batteries nor electricity. They work with water. The most antique ones date from ancient Egypt. They can measure the time depending on what water takes to fall from one pitcher to the lower. The outlet hole had a determined diameter so it was possible to control the time to fall. The level of the water indicated the periods of time that was spending.

OPTICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY PHYSICS Arab scientists studied various aspects of Physics such as the statics of solids and liquids, dynamics and optics. They also delved into mechanics, as we will see in another section. The works of Ancient Greek scholars were acknowledged, discussed and extended by these authors using mathematical and experimental approaches. Today we still have extant about sixty Arabic works on statics, with important contributions by Avicena, al-Razi and alBiruni, or those by al-Khazini on gravity and the centre of the Earth. Alfarabi, Abu Salt of Denia, Avempace, Averroes, and others discussed the philosophy of Natrue and raised what were essentially physics questions, the first in his study of vacuum, On vacuum, which was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages. Al-Bitrudji, otherwise known as Alpetragius, was the first scientist in al-Andalus to mention the theory of impteus, in his De Motibus Coelorum, translated into Latin by Michael Scot.

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CHEMISTRY

Chemistry and Alchemy Al-Kimiya’ is the Arabic name for “chemistry” and “alchemy”. Chemistry deals with the transformation of materials to make dyes and inks, cosmetics and perfumes, to obtain substances required in certain techniques or processes (textiles, ceramics, paper), applications in metal-work etc. Alchemy however had more esoteric dimensions and proposed the transmutation of elements to convert any metal into gold or to prepare the elixir of life. Various traditions came together in Arabic al-Kimiya’ including the Coptic and the Greek traditions. There are records of the contributions made by over 40 Arabic chemists/alchemists until the middle of the 11th century, of whom Djabir (Geber in the Latin translation), Razi and Alfarabi stand out. In al- Andalus Maslama the Cordoban (10th c.) is another important figure, with his great work “Rank of the Wise Man”, in which he analyses the transformation of metals by heat, and refers to experiments such as the obtaining of mercury oxide, which brings to mind the mercurius calcinatus of Lavoisier, the great 18th century chemist. Ibn Khaldun (14th c.), in his “Introduction” dedicates a chapter to alchemy and cites a brief treatise by the Andalusian Ibn Bisrun, a disciple of the great Maslama the Cordoban (10 th c.), and for example states; “The principles of this noble art had already been mentioned by the Ancients. Those who wish to learn it must start by learning these three rules: 1. If [transmutation] can occur; 2. From what does it occur?; and 3. How does it occur?”

The Still The use of the still (al-anbiq) was typical. It had three parts: the “pumpkin” (qar’a), containing the material that was to be distilled, which was heated using water vapour or fire, and then passed on to the “cold still”, where distillation took place before reaching the “container” (qabila). Several stills could be mounted at the same time reaching over a metre high.

OPTICS Foremost amongst the Greek treatises on Optics translated into Arabic were those by Euclid and Ptolemy, whose old Arabic version was translated into Latin in Sicily (13 th cent.). In the 9th century al-Kindi became the first scientist to prove that light travelled in a straight line and he also made contributions on perspective. His work was translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title De aspectibus. Notable Arabic works on theoretical and applied Optics continued to be produced over the next four centuries. These dealt with reflection and refraction, eclipses, rainbows, vision and the propagation of light. The Latin versions made in the Iberian Peninsula show that their originals in Arabic must also have passed through al-Andalus.

Ibn al-Haytam

Ibn al-Haytam of Basora (11th cent.) is an outstanding example of rationality who refuted the theory espoused by Greek philosophers of the “Spirit of vision”. He also presented other new theories about visual perception and the properties of light and colours, combining

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physics, maths, physiology and psychology in his “Book of Optics” translated into Latin. Cited by Roger Bacon and other European theorists, who adapted his name to Alhazen, his works were also discussed by Persians and Turks. His epistle on burning mirrors De speculis comburentibus was translated into Latin in Toledo in the 12th century.

AGRONOMY AND BOTANY BOTANY As in the rest of the mediaeval Islamic world, botany was closely linked to medicine and pharmacology, and also to agronomy, which means that many of the writers referred to in the sections on these subjects also appear in this section on botany. The Materia Medica by Dioscorides was the point of reference and inspiration for many of the first works written in al-Andalus. Two other classical authors, Theophrastus and Aristotle, also influenced the development of the study of botany, although to a much lesser extent and a more philosophical level. Abu Hanifa al-Dinawari was the point of reference in terms of the terminology used. Initially, botanical information was most often found in treatises on pharmacology, as in the treatise by Ibn Djuldjul, although little by little, new scholars emerged that ushered in a new era in which various treatises were written, of which the Basic Guide to Plants for Doctors is undoubtedly the most famous.

Leading Botanists and their Contributions One of the first botanist in al-Andalus of which we have records is al-Bakri, the author of a book on plants which has unfortunately been lost. The first great work dedicated exclusively to botany is attributed to Abu l-Kahyr, and established a modern system for the taxonomic classification of plants, which was followed by later writers. Ibn Badjdja wrote a small theoretical work in which he used more rudimentary methods of botanical classification. Al-Nabati was the last-known botanists (to date) of al-Andalus. The information we have on this work is still somewhat confusing, although he is said to have provided curious details on plants from several different countries. Various other scholars whose works contained botanical and pharmacological information, such as Ibn Djuljul, al-Gafiqui, al-Idrisi and Ibn al-Baytar should also be added to this list.

AGRONOMY AND AGRICULTURE The arrival of the Arabs marked the beginning of the greatest and most far-reaching development of agriculture on the Spanish Peninsula which, in spite of the high levels reached during Roman times, had entered a phase of regression and stagnation under the Visigoths. This development had a solid theoretical or agronomical base laid down by Andalusian agronomists in their treatises and put into practical effect in a variety of tried and tested agricultural techniques and practices that adapted well to the soils of al-Andalus. The agronomy of al-Andalus was the product of a combination of classical, Oriental Arabic and local traditions which expanded out first to North Africa and the Orient and later

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from the 16th century onwards to the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. Perhaps the most striking feature of this applied agronomy was the introduction of an irrigation-based system of agriculture and more specifically of intensive field production, which was something completely new and in marked contrast with what had existed hitherto. The improvements brought by irrigation were complemented with the introduction of new crops and the reintroduction of others that had been abandoned or forgotten, together with a more intensive use of land by reducing and at times eliminating fallow lands, with the result that in many areas there was now for the first time a summer harvest.

Species Cultivated Country landscapes were greatly enriched with the introduction and acclimatization of new species from different parts of the Islamic world and the improvement and diversification of existing species. The first group included several species of particular interest: citric fruits (bitter orange, lemons, limes, citron fruit or a variety of grapefruit); some species for industrial use (mulberry, sugar cane, cotton, henna), fruit and vegetables (aubergines, artichokes, melons, water-melons…) and others such as rice, pistachio nuts or date palms. In the second group there was an increase in the varieties of cereals (specifically wheat and millet) and fruit trees (apples, figs, pears, peaches, quinces, plums). Special attention was given to certain tree species (jujube trees- azufaifos) which are now relatively uncommon, but still form a traditional part of the landscape and culture of Granada.

Agricultural Techniques Many techniques were proposed in these treatises for the different phases of the agricultural cycle, some of which could still be applied today:  Preparation work: this involved levelling the land to prepare the ground and make it easier to irrigate and cultivate. This was followed by the fertilization of the soil by breaking it up, ploughing it and turning it over.  Cultivation: grafting techniques highly developed in al-Andalus and with some surprising combinations, demonstrate that these agronomists had a profound knowledge of botany. These techniques had an obvious application in the improvement and the diversity of the species cultivated. The idea of pollination as a technique of sexual propagation was equally interesting.  Fertilisers: the most commonly used fertilisers were of animal origin, including pigeon manure. As the agronomists themselves pointed out, the use of fertilisers from birds, rich in nitrates, or from young plant humus and manure, can transmit illnesses. They also recommended composts made with straw, manure and ash.  Irrigation: The advances achieved in water collection and distribution were essential for the development of the new agriculture of al-Andalus, as they enabled a rationalization of what was highly-prized resource.

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 Pest/Weed control: certain techniques used for weed control based on competition between species are most interesting and highly topical. Examples include the sowing of lupins which were later buried as a part of the fight against grama grass and other harmful weeds, the basis for modern weed control studies. Other techniques which were then considered to be of a magical nature are known today to have a rational explanation.

MEDICINE AND ZOOLOGY MEDICINE & PHARMACOLOGY Medicine was one of the most important sciences for the Arabs, and the most developed branch of medicine was pharmacology, which was based on traditional knowledge of the curative power of plants. Botanic gardens were created, in many cases alongside hospitals, which meant that the doctors had their own plants with which to prepare the medicines they prescribed to their patients. Plants were the main ingredients, but they also used minerals and animal substances. The aim was to find substances that had direct curing powers (simple medicines) or that when combined formed more active medicines (compound medicines). Books on pharmacology covered a wide range within medical literature. These included lists of simple medicines in alphabetical order, pharmacopoeias, treatises against poisons, hospital formularies, and those that referred to specific uses (eye drops, poultices…) There were also encyclopaedic works and others on remedies and foods that stressed the importance of diet as part of a preventive, hygiene-based form of medicine.

Medicine There is a traditional form of medicine known as the Medicine of the Prophet. Arabic medical studies began around the end of the 8 th century, using the traditions of the “Ancients”, above all Galen and Hippocrates, as a base. The first medical texts in Arabic were written in the 9th century and their theoretical and experimental creativity continued for a further six centuries, as can be seen in a multitude of different works. Together with Mathematics and Astronomy, Medicine formed part of the triad of great Arabic contributions to Science, because of its philosophy, its advances in diet, hygiene and illness prevention, surgery, ophthalmology, drugs and hospital treatment. Experimentation was fundamental to these advances and for example, 14th century doctors from Granada faced with a number of serious epidemics came up with the theory of contagion. Al-Kindi anticipated the Law proposed by Weber (d. 1878) on the relationship between the dose of medicine and its effect. Ibn al-Nafis (13th c.) described pulmonary circulation, in a similar way to that proposed by Servet three centuries later. Arab contributions to medicine were extended and prolonged through translations into Latin, Hebrew and Romance languages.

Surgery Surgery was a branch of medicine that flourished under the Arabs. Leading figures included Abu I-Qasim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcasis (in the Latinized form of his name) who lived in Madinat al-Zahra and Cordoba in the 10th – 11th centuries. His “Book for practising

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(medicine) without having to consult any other texts” has 30 volumes, and deals particularly with Pathology, Hygiene and Pharmacology. Volume XXX discusses “cauterization, surgery and bone fractures” and described the instruments used, some of which such as forceps were new. th

Ophthalmology

From the 11 century onwards, Arabic ophthalmology, with ‘Ali b ‘Isa, a Christian from Baghdad, and ‘Ammar de Mosul, offered a variety of new ideas (for example, suction of cataracts). His treatises were translated into Latin with contributions that have been essential for modern ocular pathology since the 18th century. The classification of materials into a basic “Guide” such as that produced by al-Gafiqi (12th c.) from Cordoba were precursors of those produced by modern ophthalmology, th

Eminent Physicians

Al-Razi (10 c.), author of about 200 works, half of which were on medicine including his al-Hawi, an extensive work in 25 volumes, refers to the medical knowledge of the Greeks, Syrians, Arabs, Persians and Indians and adds his own shrewd observations and experiences. His work was translated into Latin by the Jewish doctor Farragut in 1279, and was printed on numerous occasions in Europe after 1486, Al-Razi also wrote essays on the doctorpatient relationship, hospitals, calculations etc. His study of small-pox and measles was the first written work on these illnesses, and was translated into Latin and other languages and printed about 40 times between 1498 and 1866. Many other physicians are mentioned in books entitled “Categories of doctors” such as that written by the Andalusian Ibn Djuldjul. We should also remember Avicena with his lengthy Canon of Medicine, that spread in Latin and Hebrew versions the Andalusian physicians Avenzoar and Averroes… Eminent Jewish physicians such as Maimonides also wrote in Arabic.

Hospitals Hospitals treatment, promoted by the Government, was an integral part of Arabic medicine, from the 8th century onwards. There are records of eight hospitals in mediaeval Baghdad; three in Damascus, and three more in Aleppo; five in Cairo, at least one in Mosul, Jerusalem, Gaza, Mecca, Medina, Alexandria, Tunis, Fez, Marrakech and Granada. Many eminent physicians had links with these hospitals or maristanes.

ZOOLOGY The Arabs’ knowledge of zoology and veterinary science also included some basic concepts of Greek and Roman origin among others. They also made their own discoveries which they then passed on: a good example is the zoological part of the voluminous

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encyclopaedia by Avicena, al-Sifá, which was translated for King Frederick II of Sicily (approx. 1230) by Michael Scot under the Latin title of Abbreviatio Avicennae de animalibus. There were plenty of Books on animals in Arabic and more practical references could be found in agricultural treatises on the productivity and care of domestic animals. All of these writings contain a large variety and amount of real and symbolic zoological information, which was also presented in the images of animal frequently portrayed in different art forms and works.

ARCHITECTURE

Genesis and Urban Evolution From the beginning, Islamic society was highly urban. When the Muslims arrived on the Iberian Peninsula, urban life had taken a significant step backward when compared with the Roman era, as across all of western Europe. With the stabilization of Islamic rule, especially in the 10thcentury, both ancient and new cities experienced extremely important development, unequalled in Europe, with Cordoba, the Anadalusian capital of the Omeya Caliphate, becoming the largest and most populated city of its time. The conquerors of Al-Andalus used existing cities and, unlike in other Islamic areas, did not found any new ones after they have settled for good. The most important urban centres (Cordoba, Toledo, Merida, Saragossa and Seville) remained in the earlier sites, although their road structure and appearance were transformed. Some cities, like Saragossa, preserved a large part of the Roman layout. The newly created cities, like Murcia and Badajoz, consolidated the control of the central power. Both these and existing cities (like Cordoba) usually expanded on a fairly regular basis, although the characteristics of Islamic society and demographic pressure resulted in them having an irregular and compact appearance, common in densely populated cities. Of all the cities founded by the Andalusians, the court cities were particularly outstanding, with the spectacular palace areas of the caliphs and sultans who built them and court and administrative residences, in addition to all the elements usually found in Islamic cities. Two examples of this are Madinat al-Zahra in Cordoba and the Alhambra in Granada.

Urban Structure and City Elements The Islamic city or madina was characterized by a set of elements, some of which were common to other cultures. The city walls demarcated the city and defended its inhabitants. The mosques were the distinctive element on which the city structure was based; they were usually centres for teaching as well. The aljama mosque (from the Arabic to gather), initially the only on each city, brought the Muslim community together for prayer on Fridays, and was both religious and political in nature.

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Around the mosque lay commercial areas or zocos, this extended down the main thoroughfares and linked the aljama to the city gates. Shops and workshops were grouped by activity, with some located on the periphery for health reasons. With direct access to the area outside the city, there might be walled enclosures or fortresses (alcazaba), where the local power resided. At times, neighbourhoods or shantytowns developed with their own structures like those in the medina mosques, neighbourhood markets, baths, etc., all protected by successive rows of walls. In the earliest phases of its development, the city would have wide open spaces which, as the population grew, were filled with the production of craftwork and buildings. The cities had different systems for supplying water, at time using irrigation ditches and channels from outside the city. In most cases, water was obtained from wells or cisterns inside the cities. When the supply was sufficient, the city had a sewer system.

Construction techniques Muslim civilization took advantage of construction techniques and forms of different origins. In al-Andalus, Roman and even earlier forms of construction were still in use, along with new arrivals from the East, some of which underwent important subsequent development. Of the pre-existing techniques, some like stonecutting were only in limited use at the time, becoming less common in the 11th century, despite its widespread use in the 10 th century, especially in Cordoba. Constructions with brick and adobe (uncooked bricks) were among those most used in public and domestic architecture. Of the traditional techniques in the Mediterranean that were most widely developed in al-Andalus and northern Africa, doubtless the most important was the technique of rammed earth (in Spanish, tapial), which consisted of using moulds or wooden frames to make walls of rammed earth, a mixture of earth, aggregates and other stabilisers like calcium or gypsum, creating a real concrete. Innovative techniques reached al-Anadlus from Persia and Iraq, usually related to the use of a material that was very abundant both here and there, but that had not been taken advantage of before: plaster. Its use for finishing surfaces and embellishment was widespread, taken advantage of its easy carving, and it was also used as a conglomerate in stone, brick and rammed earth constructions. Some exceptional techniques reduced or eliminated the use of auxiliary structures like formwork and moulds to hold up arches and vaults during the construction process, common in areas that were low on wood. This led to the development of ribbed brick vaults with plaster mortar, a technique already known in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia, and timber vaults in al-Andalus, starting in at least the 12th century and widely used even today. Without a doubt, the shining example of the synthesis of European structural influences and Islamic decorative influences is found in woodwork. Designed to build cover structures

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that would be visible from inside, this technique was developed in the Christian areas on the Peninsula with spectacular results for several centuries after al-Andalus. It required the extensive application of geometry, using simple formulas to design structures and yet was easy to do, despite the spectacular and complex results. In addition to woodwork, ornamental architecture also featured the use of carved plaster in different compositions (geometric, floral and epigraphic) and the use of glazed pottery, applied in pieces that were cut to form mosaics with compositions that were largely geometric, simulating intertwined bows and creating works of exquisite beauty.

MINING AND METAL-WORKING Mining was an important industry in al-Andalus. There are records of mines of gold, silver, copper, brass, mercury, lead, alcohol or galena, iron sulphur, tutty, alum, copperas, zaffre, rock crystal, asphalt, marble, lime, gypsum and some precious stones, as well as sea salt and rock salt. We have textual information about these mines and other clues such as placenames including those derived from the Arabic word al-ma´din: Almaden (“the mine”). Written sources have shown that there was a significant metal-working industry in alAndalus and archaeological findings have done likewise in Saltés (Huelva) and in Vascos (Toledo), where hammers, axes, punches, pointers and other tools have been found, along with large amounts of iron slag, all of which are signs of mining and metal-working activity. Numerous metal objects (both luxury and practical items) from the al- Andalus period survive today, for example the amazing selection of tools found at Liétor (Albacete). Written sources refer to certain places where they were made: al-zuhri, a 12th century geographer from Almería, mentions the factory (dar al-sinaa: atarazana) in Huesca, that produced “elegant helmets and coats of mail and instruments made from copper and iron”; he also says of Seville: “they also export alfinde (type of steel) from this city and they manufacture Indian steel too, as nearby there is a mine of alfinde powder (used to treat the iron)”.

Mining Centres Metallurgy developed near miming centres. Metals and alloys were produced, the main ones being silver, copper, lead, mercury and, specially, iron. At the mine al Almaden, so-called xabeca, ovens (for reducing cinnabar to mercury) were manufactured and in use until almost the end of the 16th century. The iron mines were concentrated in the mountain ranges of Seville and Cordoba and to a lesser extent in the Sierra Menera (Teruel), Zenete (Granada), the Montes de Toledo and Castellón. Copper came from Granada, Almeria, Toledo and Huelva (Rio Tinto and Tarsis) and Ajustrel (Portugal). The mine at Almaden was the principal source of cinnabar and mercury. Lead and silver mining was concentrated in the mountain ranges of Cordoba and Cartagena, the Montes de Toledo, Granada and Almeria. Alum mines for the textile and leather industries were located above all at Cabo de Gata

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(Almeria), Mazarrón (Murcia) and Rio Tinto (Huelva). The minting of coins was very important and fine metallurgy techniques for gold and silver developed to that end. The main gold mining centres in al-Andalus were at the Darro and Genil Rivers (Granada) and the Segre River (Lerida). Quarries with clay, gypsum, lime and decorative rocks were spread across the area, but the most important were found in Constantina (Seville), Macael (Almería), Montemayor (Malaga), Los Almadenes (Murcia) and Tarragona. Salt mines, such as those at Cadiz, Saragossa and La Malaha, were also quite important.

The Mines of Obejo (Córdoba)

The geographer al-Idrisi -12th c.- describes the mercury and cinnabar mines (about 400 metres deep), he visited in Obejo, “ a day´s journey north of Cordoba, [whose products] are exported all over the world. Over a thousand men work here, some going down the shafts to cut the stone, others transporting wood for the combustion of the mineral, others with the vessels in wich the mercury is melted and sublimed, and others with the furnaces and the fire”.

Coin Making Another important side of the material industry was coin making. Coins were an instrument of fiscal authority, issued under a monopoly system and in large quantities by almost all the successive States of al-Andalus, and represented their power. In general, they coined gold dinars and silver dirhams, with occasional fall-backs into low alloys and copper coins (felus). The coining process was carried out in the Royal Mint (dar aikka: from which Spanish word ceca is derived), and the various workmen involved included an engraver (naqqas), as the coins were adorned with expressive lettering and decorations.

OTHER TECHNOLOGIES WEAPONS

Military Technology War played a central part in medieval society in the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, there were great developments in armaments, which were put to use by Christians and Muslims alike. There were various types of arms, offensive ones such as swords, lances, bows and crossbows, as well as defensive weaponry such as shields and helmets. Siege machines were also produced and included wooden towers, catapults and gunpowder weapons including muskets, large-bore cannons and smaller cannons.

Weapons The Arabs used a variety of metal-based offensive and defensive weapons (swords, lances and spears, maces, bows and cross-bows, arrows, shields, helmets and chain mail). These came in different shapes,

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types and qualities and the way they were forged was highly valued. In his “Epistle on Swords”, the 9th century philosopher al-Kindi describes two kinds of iron, natural and manufactured. He divides the first kind into hard and light, plus the combination of the two forged together. The manufactured kind, he says, “is steel; it is manufactured with iron; and during casting a purifier is added which tempers it until it becomes hard and flexible, and can be worked in the fire”.

Gunpowder A variety of projectiles were shot with catapults (mandjaniq). In the Nasrid Emirate of Granada they used primitive cannons known in Arabic as “naphtha devices” which were fired with gunpowder (barud): Emir Isma’il I besieged the frontier town of Huéscar in 1324 A.D./724 H., as recounted by the Vizier Ibn al-Khatib: “he surrounded the town completely, lined up his troops for the attack and fired with a powerful device that worked with naphtha throwing flaming balls at a small window of an inaccessible tower in the fort and produced effects like those produced by rays of lightning that fall from the sky”.

POTTERY AND GLASSWORK

Pottery There must have been a significant amount of production in al-Andalus, judging from the archaeological, artistic and monumental remains, producing notable techniques, pieces and styles which evolved with great personality, and products for export. The techniques and features would live on in Mudejar and Moorish pottery and extend across the Peninsula, especially green-and-brown ware (in Teruel, Peterna, Manresa) and blue ware (in Teruel, Calatayud, Paterna, Manises, Barcelona, Fajalauza and more). Al-Andalus brought together eastern and indigenous ceramic traditions. The most significant innovation in al-Anadalus was glazing. Known in Roman times, it came to alAnadalus from Persia and required the application of techniques like lead- and tin-glazing, wall tiling, the dry line or “cuerda seca” technique and lusterware. The green-and-brown technique, characteristic of the pottery from the Omeya Caliphate, was tin-glazed. Dry line began to be used in al-Andalus in the 10th century: the design was outlines with a line of manganese and oil, separating the pigments, and then glazed in a second firing. The prestigious lusterware or loza dorada arrived in al-Andalus from the East in the th 10 century. During the Nasrid Emirate, Malaga (which gave its name to this pottery, Malicha or Malica) produced magnificent examples (like the famous Alhambra vases). The piece, fired one, was submerged in lead and tin sulphide and then decorated with cobalt oxide (which produced blue over the tin glazing). The lustre was the result of applying silver, copper and mercury sulphides and iron and alum oxides before firing the piece a third time (at 650º). From the 14th century on, these techniques was exported to Manises and Paterna and spread across Aragon, Catalonia and Murcia.

Pottery and Kilns Recent archaeological finds contributed more information through the identification and study of pottery and kilns in al-Andalus, in excavations ranging from Pechina-Almeria to Balaguer, Denia, Murcia, Priego and Saragossa. Archaeologists are now beginning to learn

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about the origin of this enormous production of everyday and luxury crockery by analysing the components. Two types of kiln: single-chamber with kiln bars; double-chamber with vertical flue.

Glasswork in al-Andalus Arabic writers describe glass as one of the most outstanding products of al-Andalus in the Middle Ages. Ibn Saíd al-Mafribi (13th century), for example referred to glass producers in Malalga and Almeria, and said that Murcia was “renowned for the manufacture of glass and ceramics; from both materials they make large vessels in the most elegant and exquisite shapes”. In spite of these references showing glass objects, until recently very few glass pieces from the alAndalus period had been discovered, apart from a few fragments found in excavations such as those carried out at the beginning of the 20th century in Madinat al-Zahra. This began to change with the increase in mediaeval archaeology, although our knowledge of this particular field is still very limited in comparison with what we know about other art forms produced in al-Andalus.

Techniques and Shapes In excavations of glass workshops in Murcia archaeologists discovered a great deal about the process of preparation of the raw materials, the melting and blowing of the glass, and the various kinds of oven used. These ovens had up to nine crucibles containing glass of different colours which enabled the glass-markers to produce beautiful multi-coloured pieces. An impressive variety of decorative techniques were used, such as moulding, carving, incrusting, printing, enamelling and even the application of gold paint. Restores have managed to put various glass pieces back together. These include vessels used at the table such as jugs, glasses and bottles; various kinds of lamp; and even laboratory tools such as flasks and stills. There are also fragments of flat glass in different colours that formed part of glass panels mounted on plaster-work frames that were used to decorate houses from at least the 12th century onwards.

FABRICS

Textile techniques and Materials Fibres were obtained from plants (flax, cotton, hemp) and animals (silk, wool), and then spun, dyed and prepared for weaving. Products included different types of fabrics, carpets and tapestries that required a loom (horizontal or vertical), with weights some of which have been discovered in archaeological excavations, as have an abundant supply of thimbles and needles of various different sizes. A “pedal loom” was mentioned by the Valencian poet al-Rusafi in the 11th century.

Fabrics The rich fabrics of Tiraz, which were used for ceremonial occasions, were first brought to Cordoba by the Emir Abd al-Rahman II (822-852). During the Ummayad and subsequent

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periods, the production of Tiraz in the palace workshops became very important as did other luxury industries. The veil of Hisham II, Caliph of Cordoba, survives today. The fabrics were either simple or compound, depending on the number of wefts or warps. Simple fabrics included taffeta, serge and satin. Fabric manufacturing was very important in the mediaeval Islamic world, and fabric production and trade was a great source of employment and wealth. The geographer al-Idrisi -12th c.- praised the 800 workshops in Almeria which had a highly varied production. The high esteem in which the textile industry was held is shown by the large number of al-Andalus fabrics mentioned or conserved in different parts of mediaeval Europe, some of which survive to this day, such as those kept in the Museum of Las Huelgas (Burgos). Another significant fact is the number of Spanish words derived from Arabic that are used to describe fabrics such as: algodón (cotton), alvexí, balda quino (baldachin), cendal (sandal), cenefa (stripe, trimming), damasquino (damask), gasa (gauze)…

Silk Silk, which original in China and was known in both Rome and Byzantium, was also made in different parts of al-Andalus, becoming one of its most important products nad reaching its peak in the Nasrid Emirate of Granada. At the time of expansion of Islam, the use of cotton (al-qutn) already stretched from India to Persia and it soon became a material characteristic of al-Andalus. Fine strips of gold (or gilded silver) were entwined with silk threads, forming the highly prized “oropel” fabric.

Fabrics: the Dyes The Andalusians knew of a good number of plants for dyeing their fabrics and clothes: indigo and woad (blue), walnut root, sumac and gall (black), turmeric, saffon and dyer´s weed (yellow) and henna, sesame and madder (red). Animal substances were also used, such as murex, and Kermes insects for dyeing fabrics red, as well as dyes that were mineral in origin like verdigris and cerussite to obtain green.

WRITING (For Writing Down and Transmitting Information: Papyrus, Parchment and Paper)

Parchment Ancient scribes wrote on a variety of different materials until papyrus, and above all parchment came to the fore. Ibn al-Nadim (10thc.) explained the very ancient technique of tanning animal hides until surfaces suitable for writing were obtained. These were used in Arabic from the 7th century onwards and survived to some extent right up until the 16 th century. Sometimes the hides were dyed to enhance them, as happened with the blue parchment kept in Qayrawan. Once the parchments were cut and sewn together, they could form a book.

Paper The great Chinese invention of paper spread across the territories of Islam and reached Tunis from Samarkand at the end of the 9th century. It was of enormous importance as it

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reduced the cost of writing materials and so a huge scale as shown by the millions of manuscripts produced since. The paste used by the Arabs as a base for paper was above all made of flax and cloth. The bibliophile Caliph al-Hakam II promoted the use of paper in al-Andalus, and sheet of paper from the end of the 10th century is still kept in great library in the Qarawiyyin of Fez. Although paper was manufactured in many different places, the paper mad in Xátiva (which used rice or wheat starch and very slight watermark lines) was particularly admired. From alAndalus and Sicily, the use and manufacture of paper spread across Europe. This enabled book production to multiply and was an essential cultural motor, a “cultural revolution”, in a similar way to printing centuries later and electronics today.

Inks and Pens Inks typically came in two forms: one that was kept solidified and another that remained liquid. There were a multitude of different types, named after their country of origin (such as Chinese ink, etc), after a component, or after the use to which they were put. The Granada writer al-Qalalusi (14th c.), in his manual on writing, provides a detailed explanation of how inks were manufactured on a base of tree gall, vitriol, gum Arabic and water. Most writing was done with cane pens (qalam), cut in different ways for the different kinds of calligraphy. A pen with ink-store incorporated is mentioned as a rarity in the 11th century Egypt of the Fatimids.

A Recipe for Making Silver Ink Fine strips of silver are cut and then placed in a pan of the fire. Once molten, they are poured into a vessel with mercury, and then mixed with a clay rod and rubbed on a stone to remove the black. Once purified, it is poured into a clean bottle and gum Arabic is added (Umdat al-kuttab, 11th century).

MUSIC The Moors introduced the following musical instruments into Europe: the lute (ud), psaltery (qanun), viol (rabab), flute (nai), horn or trumpet (nafir), tambourine (duff) and the kettledrum or drum (tabl), etc. The most popular and original musician in al-Andalus was Ziryab (c. 9th). He was responsible for adding the fifth string to the classical lute. Musical instruments were made by specialist carpenters.

Musical Theories The flourishing of music was another important aspect of the culture of al-Andalus with local traditions being merged with Arabic or Oriental styles as a result of the arrival in the area of musicians and slave singers. There are a variety of documentary sources about music and musicians, with treatises by al-Andalus academics (9th–15th centuries) describing both theoretical and practical aspects. Iconographic images and musical instruments recovered from archaeological excavations show the wide variety of instruments and the way they were played.

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Musical theorists from al-Andalus knew and referred to musical works by Orientals such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi, ikhwan al-Safa, Avicena… with all their variants, profane music of a classical nature (nawba), popular music and Sufi music, which show music’s recreational, aesthetic and functional facets and its relationship with poetry. The spread of Andalusi music throughout the Maghreb has ensured its survival to this day.

Musical Practice and Teaching Three important schools have been identified in:  The South of al-Andalus (Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Malaga)  The Upper March (Zaragoza and Albarracín).  The Levantine School (Murcia, Denia, Xátiva and Valencia). These sprung from the Cordoba School based around the great master Ziryab (Iraq-Cordoba, 9th c.). The musical treatises describe a system of alphabetical musical notation based on the base note of the four double chords of the lute and their relationship with the cosmic elements, human humours and natures, the main modes and rhythms of cultured music.

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FURTHER INFORMATION REFERENCES AND WEBSITES http://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/ http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.php http://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.html

VIDEOS 1001 Inventions and The Library of Secrets - starring Sir Ben Kingsley as Al-Jazari Presentación de 1001 inventos islámicos que cambian el mundo, en inglés, dificultad mediaalta. En plan peliculita. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=related 1001 Inventions: Pioneers of Science and Technology Otra presentación de la misma exposición: algunos ejemplos, espectacular. El inglés es muncho más clarito... y explica las norias. Muy recomendable! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=related Discovering Maths at The Alhambra in Al-Andalusia / 2´ bueno como presentación y fácil de seguir. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4 [1/7] What The Muslims Did For Us Bastante bien, es una serie seria de la BBC. Dicción impecable y relativamente fácil de entender. Este es el primer capítulo, pero te proporciona los enlaces para poder continuar con

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los otros 7. Merece la pena! http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=i v When the Moors (Muslims) Ruled Europe: Documentary (full) Fácil comprensión, interesante, pero a veces cae en tópicos, para ver en partes (dura 1h 42´). Del 4´12” al 12´32”: muy interesante explicación de la armonía constructiva en la Alhambra a partir de series de rectángulos proporcionales. “Through interviews with noted scholars, you’ll see how Moorish advances in mathematics, astronomy, art, and agriculture helped propel the West out of the Dark Ages and into the Renaissance.” Conduced by Bettany Hughes (born 1968), an English historian, broadcaster and writer. http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAo [5/11] When Muslims Ruled in Spain (Astronomía = astrolabio) Del comentado más arriba, sólo la parte dedicada al astrolabio. El inglés resulta fácil de seguir. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sve8x8eQAw&feature=related

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VIDEOS in SPANISH

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+x-.Arte Geométrica en español buena introducción a las cuestiones de matemáticas, geometrría y arte islámico. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=related +x- 3. La geometría se hace arte (a-b).f4v la geometría en la Alhambra, muy interesante, este es más bien una introducción. Español. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=related +x- 3. La geometría se hace arte (b-b).f4v En español. Los 17 grupos cristalográficos del plano y partición periódica del plano: no os desaniméis, es muy fácil ¡ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yg +x- 13. Matemáticas y realidad.avi en español interesante aplicación de los grupos geométricos de la alhambra a proyectos de estudiantes de arquitectura http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhM

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GLOSSARY

 NEW WORD....

ITS MEANING....

ACHIEVEMENT

logros, avances

BRICK

ladrillo

CARVED

Tallado, modelado

CHESS

ajedrez

COTTON

algodón

CRAFTSMAN

artesano

CRAFTSMANSHIP

artesanía

DEVICE

Instrumento, aparato,

DRAFT

borrador

ENABLED

capacitó, permitió

FABRICS

tejido

GLASS

vidrio, cristal

GRID

cuadricula , rejilla, red

GUNPOWDER

pólvora

HARBOUR

puerto

HEGIRA

HEGIRA

HEIGHT

altura

HERITAGE

legado, herencia

HOUSEWARE

ajuar doméstico

LUSTERWARE

cerámica de brillo metálico

MEASURE

medida

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NEW WORD....

ITS MEANING....

MEASUREMENT

medición

NOTEWORTHY

notable

OVEN

horno

PATTERN

patrón (~ modelo)

PILGRIM

peregrino

PILGRIMAGE

peregrinación

PORTOLAN CHARTS

PORTULANO

POTTERY

cerámica

POWDER

polvo

RANGE

cordillera / rango (intervalo)

RAW MATERIALS

materias primas

SALT

sal

SHAPE

forma

SILK

seda

STERN-POST

mástil

STILL

alambique

SUNDIAL

reloj de sol

TILE

azulejo, baldosa

TO ACHIEVE

lograr, conseguir

TO ALLOY

alear

TO COAT

revestir

TO COVER

cubrir, forrar

TO DISPLAY

desplegar, exhibir

TO DYE

teñir, tintar

TO GRAFT

injertar

TO LEVEL

nivelar

TO MEASURE

medir

TO MELT

fundir, derretir

TO MINT

acuñar

TREATISE

tratado

VAULT

bóveda

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NEW WORD....

ITS MEANING....

VESSEL

nave, navío / vasija

WATER SYSTEM

hidraúlica

WATERWHEEL

noria

WEAPONS

armas

WISDOM

sabiduría

WOODWORK

ebanistería , carpintería

WORSHIP

culto, adoración

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THE GUIDE - REFERENCES La presente Guía para la actividad interdisciplinar Al-Andalus y la Ciencia ha sido elaborada a partir de los textos en inglés que aparecen en los respectivos paneles de la exposición permanente del Pabellón de Al-Andalus y la Ciencia, así como de la edición en inglés de la Guía para la visita editada por la Fundación El Legado Andalusí y el propio Parque de las Ciencias de Granada. La finalidad de esta guía es estrictamente pedagógica, como respuesta a la necesidad de proporcionar al alumno acceso a la información de la exposición en inglés, que no aparece en la página web oficial del Pabellón de Al-Andalus. Los textos han sido transcritos por los autores de la actividad, no siendo éstos responsables del contenido expresado en ellos. Las imágenes proceden en su mayor parte de fotografías realizadas por los autores en la Exposición, y en menor caso de las que aparecen en la web oficial del Pabellón de AAndalus y la Ciencia o de internet. Queremos expresar nuestro agradecimiento por las facilidades que el personal del Pabellón de Al-Andalus nos ha proporcionado.

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© Mª Belén Pena González & Luis Manuel Rodríguez Martín

2º ESO - CURRICULUM INTEGRADO - PROYECTO BILINGÜE DEPARTAMENTO DE HISTORIA DEPARTAMENTO DE MATEMÁTICAS DEPARTAMENTO DE CIENCIAS NATURALES DEPARTAMENTO DE TECNOLOGÍA DEPARTAMENTO DE INGLÉS

IES ALBAYZÍN

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