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African American Slang

In this pioneering exploration of African American slang – a highly informal vocabulary and a significant aspect of African American English – Maciej Widawski explores patterns of form, meaning, theme, and function, showing it to be a rule-governed, innovative, and culturally revealing vernacular. Widawski’s comprehensive description is based on a large database of contextual citations from thousands of contemporary sources, including literature and the press, music, film, and television. It also includes an alphabetical glossary of 1,500 representative slang expressions, defined and illustrated by 4,500 usage examples. Due to its vast size, the glossary can stand alone as a dictionary providing readers with a reliable reference of terms. Combining scholarship with user-friendliness, this book is an insightful and practical resource for students and researchers in linguistics and general readers interested in exploring lexical variation in contemporary English. m a c i e j w i d a w s k i is a professor of linguistics specializing in lexical variation and its description. He has conducted research on slang since the early 1990s and has written extensively on the subject. His recent books include The Dictionary of City Names in American Slang (2011) and Yinglish (2012).

African American Slang A Linguistic Description Maciej Widawski

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107074170 © Maciej Widawski 2015 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2015 Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Widawski, Maciej. African American slang : a linguistic description / Maciej Widawski. p. cm “African American Vernacular English (AAVE).” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-107-07417-0 (hardback) 1. Black English. 2. African Americans–Languages. 3. English language– United States–Slang. 4. English language–Social aspects–United States. 5. African Americans–Social conditions. 6. African Americans–Education– Language arts. I. Title. PE3102.N42W43 2015 4170 .2–dc23 2014030463 ISBN 978-1-107-07417-0 Hardback Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/delange Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents

Introduction Acknowledgments Abbreviations 1

2

Foundations

page ix xiii xv 1

1.1 Terminology 1.1.1 African American 1.1.2 Related terms 1.1.3 Slang 1.1.4 Related terms 1.2 Methodology 1.2.1 Scope 1.2.2 Collection 1.2.3 Description

2 2 5 7 8 12 12 15 16

Forms

19

2.1 Combining 2.1.1 Compounding 2.1.2 Affixation 2.1.3 Phraseology 2.2 Shortening 2.2.1 Clipping 2.2.2 Initialism 2.2.3 Acronym 2.3 Conversion 2.3.1 Verbification 2.3.2 Nominalization 2.3.3 Other processes 2.4 Blending 2.5 Borrowing 2.5.1 Loanwords 2.5.2 Loan translations 2.5.3 Eponyms 2.5.4 Brand names 2.6 Creating 2.6.1 Coinage

19 19 32 36 43 44 48 49 50 50 51 52 53 54 54 56 57 58 59 59

v

vi

3

4

5

Contents 2.6.2 Onomatopoeia 2.6.3 Respelling Summary

60 61 64

Meanings

66

3.1 Figuration 3.1.1 Metaphor 3.1.2 Metonymy 3.1.3 Other processes 3.1.4 Figuration themes 3.2 Shifting 3.2.1 Generalization 3.2.2 Specialization 3.2.3 Melioration 3.2.4 Pejoration Summary

66 67 68 69 73 77 77 78 79 80 81

Themes

83

4.1 Common themes 4.1.1 Body 4.1.2 Physiology 4.1.3 Sexuality 4.1.4 Alcohol 4.1.5 Drugs 4.1.6 Categorization 4.2 Specific themes 4.2.1 African Americans 4.2.2 Africana 4.2.3 Racism 4.2.4 Whites 4.2.5 Violence 4.2.6 Entertainment 4.2.7 Luxury 4.2.8 Geography Summary

83 84 85 85 86 87 88 90 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 96 97

Functions

99

5.1 Social functions 5.1.1 Identification 5.1.2 Rebellion 5.1.3 Interaction 5.1.4 Secrecy 5.2 Psychological functions 5.2.1 Emotions 5.2.2 Humor 5.2.3 Toughness 5.3 Rhetorical functions 5.3.1 Informality 5.3.2 Stylization 5.3.3 Conciseness 5.3.4 Forcefulness

99 99 102 104 104 105 106 108 110 111 112 112 114 116

Contents 5.4 Cultural functions 5.4.1 Wordplay 5.4.2 Word battle 5.4.3 Assimilation Summary

vii 117 117 118 119 122

Conclusion

124

Glossary Bibliography Sources Index

128 272 277 292

Introduction

This book presents a linguistic description of African American slang, a highly informal vocabulary coined by or typically associated with African Americans. It grew out of my professional involvement and personal interest in the subject as a sociolinguist, lexicographer and educator. I consider African American slang linguistically innovative and culturally revealing, and feel it deserves scholarly attention. This introduction describes why, how and for whom this book was written, why it is original, and what it contains. African American slang is a significant part of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and an important component of American slang. In the mid 1980s, slang lexicographer Robert Chapman opined: “With the prominence of black people in the armed forces, in music, in the entertainment world, and in street and ghetto life, the black influence on American slang has been more pervasive in recent times than that of any other ethnic group in history” (1986: xi). This influence is increasing: one of the most authoritative experts on slang, Jonathan Lighter (1994: xxx-xxxi) lists it among the most important influences on general American slang, as do such prominent slang scholars as Connie Eble (1996), Michael Adams (2009), Tom Dalzell (2010), Jonathon Green (2010) or Julie Coleman (2012). The significance of African American slang is aptly illustrated by two facts: (1) slang statistically makes up at least 10 percent of all vocabulary known by the average American, and (2) African Americans today constitute over 13 percent of all United States citizens, thus being the second largest non-white ethnic group in the country.1 These figures speak for themselves and are reflected by the enormous linguistic and cultural importance of African American slang. As evidenced by its high occurrence in the nationwide entertainment media, African American slang is more and more popular among Americans regardless of their ethnic origin and exerts an increasingly marked influence on general American English.

1

Estimates based on data found in Lighter (1994) and available from the US Census Bureau (2014).

ix

x

Introduction

The main impetus behind writing this book stems from this linguistic and sociocultural significance, yet there are other reasons as well. African American slang – just as with slang in general and AAVE in the recent past – is still commonly perceived as a deficient deviation from standard English (see, for instance, Lapp 2004: 56 or Wolfram 1998: 103–111). Quite undeservedly so! In reality, linguistic features of African American slang are as systemic as those of AAVE, those of slang and those of standard English. In other words, it is a perfectly rule-governed linguistic system which incorporates aspects of experience that are culturally specific. To paraphrase linguist Connie Eble (1996: 2), African American slang is part of the common lore of language rather than an anomaly. In fact, it is often richer in its linguistic expression than general slang, which is evident in how readily African American slang is borrowed by other ethnic groups in the United States. And so, quoting African American scholar and poet Clarence Major, my goal is “to bring to the language we call [African American] slang a better name [and] a better reputation” (1994: xxvii). Another reason is the surprising scarcity of book-length monographs focusing specifically on the linguistic description of African American slang. While many excellent books have been written on AAVE since the 1970s – works by William Labov (1972), Joey Dillard (1972), John Baugh (1983), Salikoko Mufwene (1998), John Rickford (1999), Walt Wolfram (1999), Shana Poplack (2000), Lisa Green (2002) or Geneva Smitherman (2006), for example – they focus on its sociolinguistic variation, historical development or educational implications, and only in a limited way concern African American slang. The same is true about hip-hop – the subject of books by Samy Alim (2006) and Marcyliena Morgan (2009) – an important source of slang which nevertheless cannot account for the entirety of African American slang. Nor does African American slang feature specifically in general books on slang: the several pages in Connie Eble (1996), Michael Adams (2009) and Julie Coleman (2012) – although valuable contributions to the field – are hardly enough. Introductory essays in the dictionaries by Clarence Major (1994) and Geneva Smitherman (2000a), seminal books on the subject, are extremely helpful but necessarily limited since these books focus on a lexicographic presentation of slang lexicon rather than its systematic, descriptive analysis. Consequently, one must look elsewhere. Information is scattered in books on AAVE and hip-hop usage, or in materials on general slang. This scarcity is especially perceptible by students of linguistics, American studies or African American studies who need a practical source of information on the subject from a purely linguistic viewpoint. This work is an attempt to remedy this situation. Written in the fashion of traditional descriptive linguistics, it focuses on the analysis of slang expressions based on a large database of authentic lexical material. It explores

Introduction

xi

patterns of form, meaning, themes and functions of African American slang in order to enhance our understanding of this phenomenon and demonstrate that it is a creative and rule-governed system, in no way deficient in comparison with standard English. Additionally, it presents an extensive selection of representative African American slang expressions, defined, annotated and illustrated by thousands of real-world examples, thus serving as a practical and useful reference work. At the same time, the book deliberately avoids discussion of extralinguistic themes such as the sociocultural context, public perception, or the historical development of African American slang. It also focuses on synchronic rather than diachronic description; in other words, it is based on the state of African American slang as used today and not in the past. Finally, although aimed at linguists, culture scholars and educators, this book is written in a manner which is hopefully also suited to the general readership as it avoids linguistic nomenclature, though this is explained when necessary. This book also differs from other monographs on the subject in that it is based on a large database of authentic lexical material and draws from it extensively. The main idea behind creating such a database was to get as much exposure to African American slang as possible and to record its usage in natural contexts from various contemporary sources. To that end, the citations have been collected from diverse contemporary African American sources including film, television, magazines, literature, the internet and utterances by African Americans; however, non-African American sources were also included in the database to see the impact African American slang has had on the general slang used in America. The material was collected during my research in the United States in 1999–2000 and 2009–2014, but, in a broader context, constitutes part of my extended professional involvement starting in the early 1990s in collecting, documenting, analyzing and translating slang. Detailed information on the database can be found in the first chapter. The descriptive character of this book is reflected in the organization of its content. It follows the formalized description of slang used in my earlier works, covering a wide range of linguistic topics and allowing an examination of slang from various perspectives. Chapter 1 (Foundations) has an introductory character: it defines the main linguistic terminology associated with African American slang, including AAVE, slang and related terms; it also explains the research methodology employed in data collection and presents the format of description used in this book. Chapter 2 (Form) deals with the morphology of African American slang and presents wordbuilding processes such as combining, shortening, conversion, blending, as well as borrowing and creating. Chapter 3 (Meaning) focuses on the semantics of African American slang: it examines the processes of figuration such as metaphor or metonymy, and analyzes the main semantic shifting processes such as generalization, specialization, melioration and pejoration. Chapter 4 (Themes) deals with

xii

Introduction

lexical fields in American slang presenting the most productive themes, including those common to the general slang and those specific to African American culture or seen from an African American perspective. The last chapter (Functions) concerns pragmatic aspects of African American slang: it discusses its social, psychological, rhetorical and cultural functions. Chapters 2 through 4 are appended with brief summaries which are meant to make the book more user-friendly, especially in an educational context. An integral part of the book is the extensive Glossary: making up roughly half of the volume, it could easily stand as a dictionary in its own right. The Glossary lists representative expressions of African American slang appended with definitions and usage examples, and is intended to serve as a practical and useful reference. Usage is illustrated extensively with examples from the database throughout the book, and reliance on citational evidence is a distinctive feature of this book. The examples are clearly set off from the main text and grouped in separate paragraphs. Their purpose is to illustrate linguistic patterns of African American slang, show slang expressions in context, and authenticate their usage by clearly identified dates and sources. There are over 1,000 examples in the main text of the book and a further 4,500 examples in the Glossary. All examples were taken from the larger, aforementioned database of citations. Viewing slang from the position of an outsider, as most sociolinguists and lexicographers do, affords a more detached and thus perhaps a more objective description. I hope that this research-based scholarly monograph will inspire the reader to perceive African American slang as it is: a significant, innovative, rule-governed sociolinguistic phenomenon inherently connected with African American culture, and an important lexical contribution to American English deserving attention and appreciation.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Professor John Rickford of Stanford University, author of African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, for his tremendous support for the project, his valuable remarks, and his lavish hospitality during my research stay in Stanford and Berkeley; Professor John Baugh of Washington University in St. Louis, author of Black Street Speech: Its History, Structure, and Survival, for his encouraging comments and generous support for the book; Professor Jonathan Lighter of the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, editor of the Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang, for his insightful remarks on slang and his cordial hospitality during my Fulbright Scholarship in Knoxville; Professor Jacek Fisiak, OBE, of University of Social Sciences in Warsaw, author of Linguistic Change Under Contact Conditions, for his unstinted enthusiasm for my academic endeavors. At Cambridge University Press I would like to thank Helen Barton for her generous support and continued interest in my project resulting in the publication of this book; Kay McKechnie for her superb copy-editing; and Joanna Breeze and Helena Dowson for their excellent management of the production of the book. I also wish to thank Professor Malgorzata Kowalczyk, author of Americanisms, a fellow sociolinguist-lexicographer participating in my Slang Project at the University of Gdansk, for her expert assistance in the management of the lexical database; Professor Michael Adams of Indiana University, author of Slang: The People’s Poetry, for reading portions of the manuscript and offering several constructive suggestions and incisive comments; and Phillip Goss of Evansville, Indiana, a consulting editor of my Polish–English Dictionary of Slang and Colloquialism, for his enormous assistance in editing the entire manuscript. Let me also express my appreciation to three people who long ago inspired my later professional pursuits: Andy and Peggy Newman of St. Louis, Missouri, for arousing my interest in slang and colloquial English, and my African American uncle, Walter Tefreden, of Paramaribo, Suriname, for introducing me to the world of soul culture. xiii

xiv

Acknowledgments

This book has been a work in progress for many years. During this time, several ideas from it were incorporated into my other work, specifically being the basis for two academic papers: “Compounding in African-American Slang” published in 2011 in Kwartalnik Neofilologiczny of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and “Figuration and Shifting in African-American Slang” published in 2013 in Studia Anglica Posnaniensia. Some ideas were also incorporated into my teaching practice and were discussed during my lectures, seminars and presentations, specifically at the University of Gdansk and the University of Social Sciences in Warsaw. I hereby wish to thank my audiences for their interest and valuable feedback. The examples presented in this book come from a database which draws from various sources covering literature, television, film, music, press, social media and others. Every effort has been made to identify the original sources of these examples. Sometimes, however, in cases such as lyrics from unpublished rap songs, obscure unprinted material or ephemeral web pages, this proved to be challenging. Should any oversights be brought to my attention, I will be happy to include appropriate updates in any subsequent editions of this book. The lexical material used in this book was verified and expanded using library resources at the following academic institutions: Arizona State University (Tempe), City University of New York, Columbia University (New York), Duke University (Durham, NC), Harvard University (Cambridge, MA), McGill University (Montreal), New York University, Princeton University, San Francisco State University, Simon Fraser University (Vancouver), Stanford University, Tulane University (New Orleans), University of Alabama (Birmingham), University of Alabama (Tuscaloosa), University of Arizona (Tucson), University of British Columbia (Vancouver), University of Calgary, University of California (Berkeley), University of California (Los Angeles), University of California (San Diego), University of California (Santa Barbara), University of Chicago, University of Gdansk, University of Miami (Coral Gables), University of Mississippi (Oxford), University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill), University of North Florida (Jacksonville), University of Ottawa, University of Social Sciences (Warsaw), University of Tennessee (Knoxville), University of Toronto, University of Washington (Seattle), University of Wisconsin (Madison), Yale University (New Haven, CT) as well as New York Public Library and Library of Congress (Washington, DC). Due acknowledgment is given.

Abbreviations

While this book generally avoids abbreviations in the main text, the following grammatical and bibliographical abbreviations appear in the Glossary: adj. adv. excl. n. num. phr. pron. v.

adjective adverb exclamation noun numeral phrase pronoun verb

bk

Barbara Kipfer and Robert Chapman, Dictionary of American Slang (2007) Clarence Major, Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African American Slang (1994) Geneva Smitherman, Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner (2000) Jonathon Green, Green’s Dictionary of Slang (2010) Randy Kearse, Street Talk: Da Official Guide to Hip-Hop and Urban Slanguage (2006)

cm gs jg rk

xv

1

Foundations

Because this book is essentially descriptive, little space has been devoted to the presentation of the linguistic and philosophical theories underlying slang, AAVE slang in particular. Some fundamental theoretical considerations can be brought down to a few main ideas which are briefly presented below and featured throughout the book. This introductory chapter provides information on two practical matters directly linked with linguistic description: it explains the terminology used throughout the book and outlines the methodology employed in the study. The most fundamental theoretical assumption of this book is that it is nontheoretical. Instead, it is descriptive in nature and the approach advocated here is essentially that of traditional descriptive linguistics. Such an approach involves the analysis of a database of thousands of lexical items in search of patterns of form, meaning, theme and function. Rather than looking at what is theoretically feasible in a language, descriptive linguists study the actual language used in natural situations in an attempt to show how empirical investigations of linguistic data can shed new light on previously unanswerable research questions. Although the reader will find numerous theoretical implications throughout the book, the main attitude is descriptive and empirical rather than prescriptive and theoretical; the focus is on observation of language in use leading to theory, rather than vice versa. Moreover, there is no special concentration on any particular linguistic theory. Nevertheless, the book does have certain fundamental theoretical preconceptions, and these are briefly explained below. Language is considered here not as some autonomous, abstract system, but as being closely connected to its coiners and users. Such a view stems directly from sociolinguistics, a discipline of linguistics concerned with the study of the relationships between language and society. Developed in the late 1960s, sociolinguistics was a reaction to the autonomous linguistics represented by Noam Chomsky and his followers who studied language as an idealized and self-sufficient system without any connection to social context in order to find a basic universal grammatical structure. In sociolinguistics, language is viewed as a social phenomenon, analyzable only in a social context; what is more, 1

2

Foundations

language is not considered to be monolithic, but rather composed of varieties, of which none is linguistically superior to another. Consequently, all forms and usages of language are considered to be worthy material for linguistic inquiry. It is not the monopoly of learned authorities whose opinions dictate which forms of language should be used and which should be avoided. Instead, language should be objectively analyzed without passing any evaluative judgments. Such a view is derived from descriptive linguistics, a discipline concerned with the analysis of language as it really is and not as it should be. Descriptive linguists insist that the use of language should be described rather than prescribed: no part of language should be excluded from analysis just because it is considered ungrammatical or nonstandard. That being said, all language forms and usages – be they standard, non-standard, colloquial or regional – deserve scholarly attention. 1.1

Terminology

It is important to explain the major terminology used throughout this book. The most fundamental term and the object of this study is “African American slang,” featured in the title of this book. As has been mentioned before, it is understood as a subset of the larger vocabulary of African American Vernacular English (AAVE), while concurrently making up a part of the even larger lexicon of American slang. The terms “African American” and “slang” have both generated various definitions and synonyms, often discordant or confusing, so it is crucial to define these terms and their analogues precisely. 1.1.1

African American

“African American” is a fairly broad and general premodifier used in the context of the speech of African American people, its alternative and more precise term being “African American Vernacular” (AAV). According to Baugh (in Mesthrie 2001: 709), “African American” suggests a direct relationship to the linguistic legacy of slavery in the United States: in that, the term refers exclusively to the speech of the descendants of African slaves rather than the speech of recent African immigrants to the United States. The addition of “vernacular” suggests that it is used by ordinary, working-class speakers rather than by all African Americans; vernacular will appear with the same additional meaning in other terms discussed below. The term is a part of numerous compound phrases such as the one featured in title of this book: in this sense, “African American slang” means slang coined and used by African Americans in the United States. However, when used alone, “African American” (or “African American Vernacular”) is somewhat unclear due to its debatable origins. Briefly put,

1.1 Terminology

3

some scholars, the so-called “Anglicists,” consider it to be a variety of English rather than a language in its own right. They argue that it developed through the contact of black slaves with the non-standard varieties of British English spoken by the white settlers and slave-owners in North America. Other scholars, the so-called “Creolists,” maintain that it is a language in its own right rather than a variety of English. They argue that it developed as blacks speaking various African languages came into contact under conditions of slavery on the coast of west Africa, in the Caribbean and in the southern United States. There are other theories concerning the origin of African American Vernacular – such as the one proposed by “Neo-Anglicists,” who admit some creolized elements while maintaining a basically Anglicist position – but they are beyond the scope of this work. Still, as observed by Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2006: 224), the status of the term will probably continue to be debatable “due to limitations of data and historical time-depth involved.” There have been other terms in use as well, some of which caught on, others of which have faded into obscurity. Scholars such as Smitherman (2000a: 1) and Green (2002: 6) list several such terms, the most prevalent and in current use include: African American Vernacular English, Afro-American Vernacular English, Black English Vernacular, Ebonics, as well as African American Language, Black Language and Black Talk. The following are occasionally encountered as well: Black Dialect, Black Accent, Ghetto Speech, Jive Talk and Hip-Hop Talk. Most of these terms are used more or less interchangeably, but their meanings do not always overlap. It is thus necessary to introduce appropriate terminological distinctions. African American Vernacular English (alternatively termed African American English, AAVE or AAE) is a fairly recent term from the late 1980s, currently used most widely among linguists (Rickford 1999: xxi). It is also the broadest and most general term. Baugh (in McArthur 1996: 133) defines it as a variety of “English used by a majority of US citizens of Black African background.” As any variety of English, it has specific phonological, lexical and syntactical components; although distinct from standard American English, it is rule-governed and characterized by logical and structural integrity. However, AAVE is not homogeneous, but then again, neither is the speech of white Americans. Moreover, not all African Americans speak it: there may be those whose speech does not differ in any special way from general American English, just as there may be those who can shift from one variety of English to the other, depending on the context. Note that when the nominal element “English” is dropped, the term may be used in another meaning, referring to African American speech considered as a language separate from English, although derived from it in the process of decreolization. Afro-American Vernacular English (alternatively termed Afro-American English) is the synonymous predecessor of AAVE, used especially often in

4

Foundations

the 1960s and 1970s. While it may still be occasionally encountered, it is considered dated and is perceptibly less used nowadays by African Americans who seem to favor the modifier “African” over “Afro-.” Note that “Afro-” itself was preceded by several other terms including “Black” (still used, especially outside North America), “Negro” (once a standard term, now dated and used only in historical contexts), and “colored” (also considered dated). Black English Vernacular (alternatively Black English or BEV), a term coined by Labov in 1970s, has been used as another popular synonym for AAVE. Labov (1972: xiii) defines it as a general cover term for “the whole range of language forms used by black people in the United States.” While the definition is straightforward, the term itself may be vague when taken out of context: it fails to capture the reference to America and may theoretically refer to the English language used by any black person in any country, for instance by English-speaking Nigerians or English-speaking British people of African descent. Moreover, as pointed out by Crystal (2005: 306), this term might suggest that all African Americans use the same variety. Also, the very adjective “black,” at least in the United States, has recently been replaced by the more recent expression “African American”; the same observation is applicable to similar terms discussed below. Note again, that just as with AAVE, when the nominal element “English” is dropped, the term may refer to African American speech considered as a language separate from English. Ebonics in another term for the speech of African Americans. Rickford (1999: xxi) considers it “very similar if not identical to AAVE” but not widely used by linguists. A blend of “ebony” and “phonics,” it was coined in 1973 by African American psychologist Robert Williams (Williams 1975) in order to “throw off the pejorative stereotypes of terms such as substandard, nonstandard or dialect, applied to the speech of African Americans” (Williams 2008: 80). The term originally was broader and extended to West African and Caribbean speech varieties and occasionally has also been used to refer to the entire field of study of African American speech patterns. Today, much like AAVE, Ebonics has two diametrically different meanings, reflecting its fiery political history. It can be understood as a non-standard (or substandard) variety of English used by African Americans. Such a meaning is often assigned by mainstream linguists who consider Ebonics to be just another variety of English. However, Ebonics can also be understood in yet another way: as a language in its own right rather than a variant of English. This meaning was promoted in 1996 by California’s Oakland School Board in a failed attempt to level the educational opportunities for African American children. It was a dramatic moment in the history of African American English that showed how much disdain the general public had for this kind of speech. The term is favored especially by African American scholars who highlight its distinctness. Moreover, since the term originally had an international

1.1 Terminology

5

orientation, Smitherman (2000b: 20) proposes the term “US Ebonics,” which is a helpful alternative to AAVE to maintain the international orientation of Williams’s original definition of Ebonics while at the same time concentrating its focus on the United States in particular. Interestingly, Ebonics is sometimes mistakenly equated with slang: as noted by Wolfram (1999: 67), “in [the] Ebonics debate of 1997, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) was often inaccurately called slang and broken English.” Adams (2009: 76) added: “many opponents of the [Oakland] proposal caricatured AAVE as slang and in doing so meant to stigmatize it.” 1.1.2

Related terms

African English (alternatively termed African English Vernacular) is occasionally encountered as being synonymous with African American. However, its meaning is fundamentally different. As observed by Bokamba and Todd (in McArthur 1992: 20), it principally refers to the English language as used in Africa, for instance in Ghana or Uganda, rather than to AAVE. In other words, when used as a synonym for AAVE, it is a misnomer. African American Language (alternatively termed African American Vernacular) is another term used for the speech of African Americans. However, it is not a synonym for AAVE and refers to the speech used by African Americans considered as a language distinct from English rather than as one of its varieties. Its synonymous predecessor, Afro-American Language (alternatively termed Afro-American Vernacular), was used especially often in the 1960s and 1970s but is rarely encountered nowadays. Black Language (alternatively termed Black Vernacular) is yet another term sporadically encountered in the context of the speech of African Americans. Again, this is a rather imprecise expression since it may theoretically refer to any language used by black people, as for instance Yoruba, Swahili or Xhosa that are used in Africa and have little to do with the kind of English language used by African Americans in the United States. Black Talk is a popular and catchy term listed by Smitherman (2000a: 1) for African American speech. Still, it is rather imprecise because it may refer to any language used by black-complexioned people, whether speaking English or not. On the other hand, when used in an African American context, it may serve as a neat and serviceable umbrella term for any speech used by African Americans, and to some extent, it is similar in scope to AAVE. Black Dialect is another term sporadically encountered for the variety of English used by African Americans. This is, however, a misnomer. Dialect principally refers to a variety of language which is regionally distinctive, while the speech of African Americans is not essentially regional, being rather uniform throughout the United States. Although there are some regional

6

Foundations

varieties, they were more pronounced in the past; today, as noted by Major (1994: xxxi), they are less potent due to massive development in communication, increased transportation, and travel opportunities. Moreover, as Wolfram (1999: 2–3) pointed out, “language specialists often object to the popular usage of ‘dialect’ because of the different possible interpretations the term can have and because of the negative sense it may carry; dialect is sometimes used to refer to a particular social or geographical variety of English that is not the standard one.” More importantly, however, the speech of African Americans is more social and ethnic in nature than it is regional, so more appropriate terms might include “social dialect” (or “sociolect”) and “ethnic dialect” (or “ethnolect”), referring to varieties of a language used by certain social and ethnic groups and serving as a distinguishing mark of sociocultural identity. Black Accent, used even more sporadically, is another term for the speech of African Americans. This is because the term “accent” is even narrower than “dialect” and refers solely to phonological characteristics of a regional variety of language. In other words, “Black Accent” pertains to African American pronunciation and cannot account for the entirety of African American speech, including lexicon and syntax. Moreover, note again that the speech of African Americans is more social and ethnic in nature rather than regional, so the term is a misnomer. Ghetto Speech (alternatively called Ghetto Talk) is another term proposed for African American speech. The term was suggested by Smitherman (2000a: 1) as nearly synonymous with the present-day urbanized speech of African Americans. However, the term has an understandably narrow application: its first element suggests that it refers to the speech of ghetto communities, excluding African Americans who do not live in ghettos; moreover, the term “ghetto” may not necessarily refer to African American ghettos, but may also be used in the context of Hispanic ghettos, for instance. Jive Talk (alternatively called Jive Speech) is also sometimes encountered. The term contains the slang word jive – which is one of the rare expressions traceable back to Africa, meaning “deception” – and has very limited applications. McArthur (1992: 548) describes it somewhat vaguely as “the slang or jargon associated with the earlier 20th century with such African American forms of music as jive (‘a type of swing or jazz’),” slang and jargon being treated as the same type of language. He also adds the second meaning of the term: “in the later 20th century, an informal term for flattering, deceptive, exaggerated, meaningless talk, especially among black Americans; double talk.” Consequently, the term can hardly function as a synonym for African American speech as a whole. Last but not least, there is Hip-Hop Talk (alternatively termed Hip-Hop Speech). It is sometimes equated with the speech of African Americans. This is

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understandable in light of the global popularity of hip-hop as a quintessentially African American phenomenon, and indeed the linguistic contribution of hiphop to current African American speech is immense; as evident in this book, it is even more visible in slang. Alim (2006: 2–3) calls this type of language a “Hip-Hop Nation Language” or “HHNL” and says that “it lends itself to a holistic treatment of all elements of Black Language.” Alim is right in stressing the significance of the special relationship between hip-hop and the speech of African Americans. However, the term “Hip-Hop Talk” cannot account for the entirety of African American speech. Identifying this term with AAVE may seem an exaggeration: for instance, there have been other important lexical contributions to African American speech such as those from blues and jazz. Moreover, while hip-hop is essentially an African American phenomenon, it is created by members of other ethnic groups as well. Finally, not all African Americans create or listen to hip-hop, which has acquired an international status. 1.1.3

Slang

Lexicographer John Ayto (1998: v) aptly calls slang “lexis in extremis.” While slang in itself is extreme, it also tends to generate extreme attitudes. Most people, consciously or not, use it because of its expressiveness, brevity or humor. Many fiercely detest slang because of its crudeness and vulgarity, although they themselves may inadvertently use it. Few are fascinated by its linguistic and cultural richness, though they may not necessarily use it. As it happens, very few professional linguists study slang as their main academic field. Instead, slang is mostly described by amateurs who often lack the necessary knowledge to adequately analyze it. As a result, slang continues to be misunderstood and is perceived as a mere sensational or vulgar deviation from standard language. No wonder it has such a poor reputation. As observed by Lighter (1994: xi), “the public employs the term [‘slang’] as a simple synonym for a subjectively ‘bad’ English.” Interestingly, such an understanding of the term slang is important for the understanding of the negative associations some people may have with the term “African American slang.” Slang is considered difficult to define and characterize. This is largely because of its fleeting character, alleged vagueness, and change of meaning over time. As a result, definitions of slang abound and, to quote Chapman (1986: x): “like proverbial blind men describing an elephant, all correctly, none sufficiently, we tend to stress one aspect or another of slang.” Accordingly, some scholars, such as Thorne (1990: iii), focus on the stylistic dimension of slang, especially noting its high degree of informality and its colloquial character. Others, such as Chapman (1986: xii-xiv), focus on its psychological element, especially the application of slang to express emotions.

8

Foundations

Others, such as Eble (1996: 11), emphasize the social element of slang, especially its function as a marker of group identification. Others, such as Dumas and Lighter (1978: 5–17), stress the rhetorical aspects of slang, especially highlighting its deliberate use for desired stylistic effects. Finally, scholars such as Coleman (2012: 26–116) stress the developmental aspects of slang and are focused on the “natural history” of slang from its creation and development to its metamorphosis and spreading into wider use. In an attempt to formulate a more holistic definition, one can integrate all of the above aspects and define slang as follows: Slang is a highly informal and unconventional type of vocabulary. It is perceived as deeply expressive, attractively catchy, and deliberately undignified. It consists of standard expressions modified in some way or appended with new meanings, and sometimes of entirely novel expressions. Slang is coined chiefly by members of social, occupational or ethnic groups which are typically separate from mainstream society, yet it is often adopted by larger social segments. It is employed in place of standard expressions to convey some extra information of a psychological, social or rhetorical nature. It thus provides alternative, highly informal synonyms for referents already named in the language, but sometimes gives names for referents for which there are no standard expressions, or which have yet to be named. (Adapted from Widawski and Kowalczyk 2012: 18)

This definition is important especially in the context of African American slang. Aside from defining the type, formation and functions of slang, it also describes the coiners and users of slang: “members of social, occupational or ethnic groups which are typically separate from mainstream society.” The definition also mentions the dissemination of slang among larger segments of society. Such is the nature of any type of slang, but, as will be demonstrated in this book, it is especially applicable to the African American variant. 1.1.4

Related terms

A good notion of what slang is can be derived from juxtaposing it with similar subsets of the lexicon often confused with slang. These include non-standard, colloquialism, jargon, vulgarism, taboo, euphemism, idiom, neologism and dialect. These terms are loosely used as synonyms for slang, and though they share certain characteristics with slang, their respective semantic scopes are different. Let us discuss them below. Slang should be distinguished from non-standard or substandard language. These two terms include expressions which, unless used for stylistic effect, are excluded from standard English. Their connotations are rather negative. Such terms are typically used in an educational context for expressions which have become markers of illiteracy or ignorance. McWhorter (2003: 17) links them with the faulty usage of children and newcomers to the language. Simply put,

1.1 Terminology

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they are ungrammatical, while their users are considered too uneducated or incapable of using the corresponding standard forms. Examples include: ain’t (“be not” or “have not”), them (“the”), irregardless (“regardless”) or bestest (“best”). While these expressions are non-standard, they are not slang. “Colloquial” and “informal” are terms often equated with slang. These two terms denote expressions more common in conversation than in formal writing, usually conveying the feel of casual naturalness. The same can also be said of slang, which is colloquial in itself and belongs to the spoken part of language. Still, not all colloquial expressions are slang; for instance, shut up (“be quiet”) and be crazy about (“be very enthusiastic about”) are colloquial but not slang. Lighter (1994: xv) defines colloquialism as “an expression more typical of the unstilted voice of daily conversation, and of a writing intended to convey such a voice, than it is of formal, carefully edited prose,” and contrasts it with slang which “carries a greater sense of opposition to form than does the merely colloquial.” Slang, then, is manifestly divergent and its deliberately undignified tone is the main difference between itself and colloquialism. Jargon, or the highly technical terminology typical of specific occupations, is another subset of vocabulary often mistaken for slang. While much slang also originates inside groups united by their vocations, the two terms are fundamentally different. Jargon is a precise and professional nomenclature developed among specialists chiefly to facilitate cooperation. Slang, on the other hand, is a non-technical and lighthearted vocabulary developed among colleagues chiefly for expressiveness or exclusivity. Examples of jargon include words like emesis (“vomiting”), thoracotomy (“a surgical incision made in the chest wall”) or endoscope (“a miniature camera on a long thin tube inserted into the body during medical exams”), all taken from the medical profession. Such expressions are not slang. Vulgarism has also created much misunderstanding with regard to slang. Naturally, all vulgarisms by definition are slang and such expressions as dick (“penis”), piss (“urine”), shit (“excrement”) and tits (“breasts”) are indeed vulgar. However, not all slang is vulgarism and such expressions as ammo (“ammunition”), comfy (“comfortable”), dork (“idiot”), hottie (“sexually attractive person”) or weed (“marijuana”) are not vulgar in the least. Moreover, the term “vulgar” should also be distinguished from “offensive”: the former is largely used in the context of sex and scatology; the latter involves subjects considered to be social taboos. While all vulgar expressions are inherently offensive, there are slang expressions which are offensive because of violating social taboos but are not necessarily vulgar, for instance gook (“person from Eastern Asia”), greaseball (“Italian”) or lezzie (“lesbian”). Finally, one can distinguish among the various levels of vulgarity or offensiveness. Slang dictionaries – for instance Widawski (1998), Kipfer and Chapman (2007) or Widawski and Kowalczyk (2011) – sometimes differentiate between

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Foundations

expressions considered to be extremely vulgar and offensive, for instance fuck (“have sex”) or cunt (“contemptible or despicable woman”) and expressions that are less so, such as screw (“have sex”) or bitch (“contemptible or despicable woman”) marking them appropriately. Sometimes more elaborate classifications are employed, for instance in Lighter (1994 and 1997) or Spears (2000). Taboo is sometimes confused with slang as well. It refers to an expression or subject that is forbidden or disapproved of because it is considered socially unacceptable. In English, taboo subjects involve sex, scatology, religion or race, while examples of taboo expressions include cornholing (“sodomy”), ragging (“menstruation”), Jesus Freaking Christ (“I am surprised or annoyed”) or kike (“Jew”). Interestingly, as observed by Jay (1992: 223–230), it is now socially more reprehensible in the United States to use taboo expressions referring to race than religion, sex or scatology. A notable example is the linguistic history of the slang synonyms for the standard expression “African American”: nigger, negro, colored and black, all of which have gradually become taboo to one degree or another. On the other hand, via the process of reappropriation, such expressions tend to lose their negative connotation when used by the members of racial groups to which they refer, especially if in self-derision, self-mockery or rough humor. Euphemism is also frequently linked with slang. Labeled the “deodorant of the language” (Dickson 1990: xi-xvi), euphemism involves the substitution of an unacceptable, taboo expression with one that is milder or more socially acceptable. For instance: B.S. replaces bullshit (“nonsense”), darned replaces damned (“cursed”), while S.O.B. replaces son of a bitch (“contemptible or despicable person”). Put differently, reluctance to use taboo expressions produces euphemisms. However, not all euphemisms are slang, and they may also be found in standard or even literary language, for instance, All-Merciful (“God”), terminate (“kill”), sleep with (“have sex with”) and relieve oneself (“urinate”) are all euphemisms and have little to do with slang. Idiom is erroneously equated with slang, too. However, the relation between these two terms is easy to explain. Idiom is a phrase, the meaning of which cannot be inferred from the meanings of its individual elements, for instance: chip off the old block (“someone who resembles his or her father”), tie down (“restrict”) or let down (“disappoint”). In this sense, many slang expressions are idioms: armpit of the world (“a very undesirable place”), change the channel (“shift the topic of conversation”), in deep shit (“in big trouble”) or miss the boat (“lose an opportunity”), among others. However, in order for idioms to be considered slang, they would have to be socially and stylistically lower than standard English. The difference, then, lies in their social and stylistic acceptability rather than in phrase structure itself. Moreover, although numerous slang expressions happen to be idioms, slang is not restricted to the

1.1 Terminology

11

form of a phrase; consequently, the following examples are all slang but not idiom: cool (“excellent or admirable”), babelicious (“sexually attractive”), peanuts (“small amount of money”) or wuss (“weak person”). Neologism, usually understood as recently coined expressions, is also confused with slang. Slang resembles neologism in that it often involves novelty, wordplay and spontaneous creation. Moreover, if we extend the definition of neologism to existing expressions which recently extended their meanings (by figuration or semantic shifting) or whose form was recently manipulated in some way (by combining, shortening or blending), then all slang is neological. Examples include cheese (“money”), staycation (“vacation spent in one’s own home”) or waitron (“waiter or waitress”). However, there are neologisms which may not necessarily be slang, as evidenced by the following expressions created in recent times: eating disorder, download, no-fly zone, webmaster, blush wine, unfriend, cloud computing. Also, many slang words have been around for centuries, clearly having lost their novel value yet remaining slang all the same. Last but not least, slang is occasionally confused with dialect, a regional variety of language, especially one that is lower in prestige than the standard. Examples include: appreciate it (“thank you”), kinfolk (“relatives”), chitlins (“small intestines of pigs prepared as food”) or y’all (“you [plural]”), all from the Southern dialect of American English. Although slang is not geographically restricted, it is often regional, and some expressions may be associated with particular locations. The differences are noticeable in English, as it differs among English-speaking countries. Consider the following examples: bloke (“man”), sod off (“go away”) and wanker (“contemptible or despicable person”), from British slang; arvo (“afternoon”), pom (“Britisher”) and fair dinkum (“genuine”), from Australian slang; or loonie (“dollar coin”), Mountie (“member of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police”) and Newfie (“Newfounlander”), from Canadian slang. Yet slang is not a dialect. As observed by Lighter (1994: xiii), “people who speak the same dialect necessarily share a similar regional or cultural background, but a shared slang is more likely to suggest mutually held antiestablishment attitudes, especially a sharpened disdain for convention or pretense.” In that respect, slang is more social. On the other hand, the term “dialect” may sometimes refer to social or occupational varieties of language, and one can talk about social dialects (or “sociolects”) or occupational dialects. Still, the term is most widely used in its original sense. At this point it would be helpful to comment on how the general public views slang in its relation to the speech of African Americans. While this book is about the linguistic description of African American slang rather than its popular perception, some clarification may be in order. As has been signaled before, slang is commonly perceived as a kind of language inferior to standard English, or simply as “bad” English. For this reason, African American

12

Foundations

English has sometimes been perceived as slang, especially during the Ebonics debate in the mid 1990s, in an attempt to belittle the speech of African Americans (see discussion on Ebonics earlier in this chapter). Needless to say, such an uninformed perception is completely mistaken. Firstly, there is nothing inherently “bad” about slang, which is a perfectly systemic linguistic phenomenon in no way inferior to standard language. Secondly, while African American slang is a significant part of African American English, not all African American English is slang. Moreover, slang is essentially lexical in nature, while African American English extends over the lexical level, exhibiting phonological and syntactical characteristics as well. One should bear these distinctions in mind. 1.2

Methodology

It is important to explain the methodology used in this study. Because of the focus on the descriptive (or empirical) element, special importance was given to the collection of reliable and authentic linguistic data which would serve as the basis for analytical observations. Equally important was the format in which the material was analyzed and described. Consequently, this part of the chapter contains answers to the following methodological questions: what lexical material was searched? where and how was it collected? and in what manner is it described? 1.2.1

Scope

There were several criteria used to determine the scope of lexical material to be searched, included and analyzed in this study. The most general and fundamental criterion was that all the lexical material had to be identified as African American slang as defined on the preceding pages. However, there are a few finer distinctions concerning the scope which require further clarification. The African American origin of expressions was an important criterion for inclusion, significantly impacting the scope of this study. This is because African American slang can be understood in two different ways. In a wider sense, it includes slang expressions coined and used by African Americans such as diss (“disrespect”), motherfucker (“a contemptible person”) or soul brother (“a fellow African American”), but also those expressions coined by other ethnic groups though used by African Americans, the old Anglo-Saxon shit (“excrement”), fart (“pass gas from the bowel via the anus”) or booze (“alcoholic drink”), for example. In other words, it comprises all slang expressions used by African Americans, irrespective or their origin. In a narrower view, African American slang is understood as being composed only of expressions coined and used by African Americans while

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excluding those of non-African American origin. In other words, the above expressions diss, motherfucker and soul brother would be considered African American slang, but shit, fart and booze would not. If one were to include all of them, one would essentially end up analyzing general American slang rather than focusing on exclusively African American content. This narrower perspective is often favored by linguists describing the specific slang of a particular social or occupational group but not by those analyzing the aggregate of slang in a given language. Consequently, the narrower view has also been adopted here as it is believed to suit the purpose of this study best. However, there remains one reservation here. Establishing a definitive origin of slang expressions is not always feasible due to the largely oral and often mutable nature of slang. Some slang lexicographers such as Dalzell (2009) even deliberately omit information on origin in their dictionaries claiming it is sometimes “a matter of guesswork.” This extends to African American slang as well in that there are some “borderline” expressions whose origin is unclear or debatable. On the other hand, despite the lack of precise information indicating an African American origin of a given expression, context often provides a solid argument supporting such a conclusion. Dismissing the possibility of African American origin in such cases would therefore be unfair, as highlighted by Dillard (1985: 200–201). All in all, in this study a compromise was attempted and the few borderline expressions were treated with the benefit of the doubt. This also pertains to some expressions closely associated with African American usage which were also included in this book. Representativeness was another important criterion for the inclusion of expressions. As a general rule, they should be either commonly used by African Americans or typically identified as African American slang. Put differently, such expressions should be representative or, as Coleman (2010: 213) puts it, “in general circulation.” Consequently, the focus was on general African American slang rather than specific slang restricted to social or occupational groups. To this end, a database of citations was generated from representative African American sources where slang is likely to be found, such as African American magazines, films, songs, internet blogs and so forth (see the description on the following pages). The reliance on authentic, realworld citations was to ensure this genuine representativeness. However, the difference between general and specific slang is not always easy to determine. For instance, the slang of the hip-hop lexicon is specific rather than general, and cannot be said to represent African American slang as a whole; yet hip-hop constitutes a very creative and vibrant part of it, so many such expressions were included in this study. Moreover, the so-called general slang – including general African American slang – is composed of individual contributions from the slang of specific groups such as teenagers, musicians, entertainers,

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Foundations

soldiers, criminals and others; their contributions are also included, provided that they are universally known and now part of general African American slang. Ensuring that expressions were up to date was another notable criterion. The emphasis was on current or modern slang rather than historical or ephemeral. Exceptions include the so-called “passive slang vocabulary” (Lighter 1994: xiii), expressions well known but no longer in popular use. The reliance on current citations from contemporary sources was intended to guarantee such currency: most sources from the citations database are less than ten years old. However, ensuring currency was not always easy due to the changeability of African American slang, a problem noticed by Green (2002: 27), as well as the changeability of slang in general. On the other hand, not all slang changes quickly. For instance, the comparison of successive editions of Smitherman’s dictionary, Black Talk (2000a; first published in 1994), demonstrates that numerous entries remain the same, having resisted change and remaining in use in African American communities. The offensive or vulgar nature of certain slang expressions was not a criterion for their exclusion. Since this book advocates the descriptive rather than the prescriptive view on language, it records language as it is actually used rather than as it should be used. This also pertains to offensive and vulgar expressions. Accordingly, no expression was excluded from this book because it might be considered a racial, ethnic, sexual or other epithet, or because it is vulgarism involving taboo subjects like body, scatology, sex or the like. As Dalzell rightly observed (2009: vii), “To exclude a term or citation because it is offensive is to deny the fact that it is used.” Consequently, this book does contain a certain number of expressions which are offensive or vulgar; however, all of them are appropriately identified and labeled in the Glossary. Also note that certain racial expressions which are commonly considered offensive may not be so perceived when used by African Americans among themselves. Finally, one should remember that African American slang is not uniform nor is it universally used by all African Americans. The degree of slang usage and competence is largely conditioned by several sociolinguistic parameters such as age, habitat or socioeconomic status: younger, inner-city workingclass African Americans are naturally more prone to use slang than their older, upper-class counterparts from wealthy suburbia. Such is the case with general American slang, or any slang in any language, for that matter. However, for African Americans, more than any other ethnic group, slang is a unifying factor and displays important social functions, serving as a verbal tool for voicing African American sentiments as well as expressing African American identity and experience. This theme is further expanded in the book.

1.2 Methodology

1.2.2

15

Collection

As mentioned above, this study is based on authentic African American slang material collected in the form of a lexical database of citations. The purpose of creating such a database was to gain as much exposure to African American slang as possible and to record its usage in natural contexts from various contemporary sources to ensure a representative and up-to-date basis for research. The database was designed to cover an extensive array of diverse, contemporary African American sources. To paraphrase Samuel Johnson, author of The Dictionary of the English Language (1755), slang expressions were sought where they are used. To this end, the search focused on sources with substantial African American slang content, for instance films by directors Spike Lee and Lee Daniels, lyrics by rappers Snoop Dogg and Jay-Z, monologues by entertainers Dave Chapelle and Chris Rock, dialogues from television series The Wire and Martin, articles from Ebony and Essence magazines, and fiction by Alice Walker and Omar Tyree; conversations with African American students were also valuable sources of data. While the ultimate selection was necessarily subjective, effort was made to draw from representative sources reflecting the nationwide, mainstream African American vernacular usage. Moreover, non-African sources were also included in the database, for instance newspapers such as USA Today and The New York Times, magazines such as People and Billboard, television programs such as Saturday Night Live and The Jerry Springer Show, and television series such as The Simpsons and Two and a Half Men. The purpose was to ascertain the impact African American slang has exerted on general slang used in the United States, and to assess the significance of so-called “cross-over” terms, which are African American expressions assimilated into general slang. In sum, the collected material totaled over 2,000 different sources from the press, internet, literature, music, film, television and conversation. The complete list is given at the end of this book. The methods used in data collection and applied in the creation of the database were varied, but largely traditional (see Sakel and Everett 2012: 99–138, Kipfer 1984: 32–35 or Thorne 1990: vi). Data were recorded in the form of written notes or dictaphone recordings, which were systematically entered into the database. The internet was used extensively, and a sizeable portion of citations was copied directly from online sources. The reading, listening and watching procedures were extensive and represent several hundred hours of analyzing text, sound and images. Significantly, large searchable computer corpora like the American National Corpus or British National Corpus were used sporadically. This is because corpus linguistics still has a rather marginal applicability to the study of slang due to slang’s largely

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Foundations

figurative nature, as yet impossible for computers to process adequately; the search engines of electronic corpora simply cannot differentiate between the literal and figurative meanings of expressions. Accordingly, although far from being flawless, collecting citations by traditional means such as reading, listening or viewing still seems to be the best method for working with slang. In terms of sheer numbers, there were almost 15,000 citations of African American slang collected in the original database. Of this number, roughly one-third was selected as material for analysis and illustration, and is featured in the book as follows: 1,000 citations are located in the main text while a further 4,500 citations are listed in the Glossary. The Glossary itself is composed of 1,500 expressions drawn from these citations. Naturally, compared with larger electronic corpora such as American National Corpus, this is a rather modest collection. However, when one realizes that all of the citations are in fact African American slang, individually and manually collected, then the scope of the database can be compared to that of a large electronic corpus which lists entries without the ability to distinguish figurative usage. In other words, the size of the database seems to be more than adequate for conducting meaningful analysis of African American slang. Finally, the lexical material was additionally verified through several reference books, including: the two classic dictionaries of African American slang, one by Clarence Major, Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African American Slang (1994), and the other by Geneva Smitherman, Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner (2000a); a sizeable dictionary of hip-hop slang by Randy Kearse, Street Talk: Da Official Guide to Hip-Hop and Urban Slanguage (2006); and the two comprehensive dictionaries of general slang which consistently mark usage typical of African American slang, one edited by Barbara Kipfer and Robert Chapman, Dictionary of American Slang (2007), and the other by Jonathon Green, Green’s Slang Dictionary (2010). 1.2.3

Description

Description is the essence of this book. The focus is on observation of language in use leading to theory, rather than the other way around. Consequently, much space is devoted to the presentation, explanation, interpretation and exemplification of lexical data. The format of description follows the formalized presentation of slang described in my earlier works (Widawski 2003, 2008, 2010a, 2011, 2012, 2013), which may serve as models for the description of slang in any language or for any user-specific slang. In this model, the description is extensive and covers a wide range of linguistic topics, allowing an examination of African American slang from various perspectives. Specifically, it is meant to provide answers to the following questions: what is

1.2 Methodology

17

African American slang made of? What meaning does it have? What is it about? And why is it used? To that end, several levels of description are featured. One such level is morphology. The book describes the main wordbuilding processes of African American slang such as combining, shortening, conversion and blending, as well as borrowing and creating. Another level is semantics. The book presents the processes of figuration in African American slang such as metaphor or metonymy, and analyzes the main semantic shifting processes such as generalization, specialization, melioration and pejoration. Yet another level is the thematic distribution of expressions. The book describes the most productive themes of African American slang, including those common to general slang and those specific to African American culture or seen from the African American perspective. Finally, another level concerns pragmatics. The book analyzes social, psychological, rhetorical and cultural functions of African American slang. An integral part of description is the Glossary. It takes up roughly half of the book and could easily stand as a dictionary in its own right. Arranged alphabetically, it lists 1,500 of the most representative expressions of African American slang, all from the lexical database. The Glossary serves as a quick reference, offering explanatory definitions of slang expressions and supplementing examples featured in the main text. Each entry contains a headword, abbreviated grammatical identification, usage label (where appropriate), standard English equivalent or definition, additional reference information, and citational examples, each preceded by the date and name of its source. The equivalents and definitions were derived using standard lexicographic procedures, which included analyzing and comparing the meaning of each expression in numerous contextual examples of usage found in the database, verifying them with native speakers, and cross-checking them with several reference books, including those by Major (1994), Smitherman (2000a), Kearse (2006), Kipfer and Chapman (2007) and Green (2010) mentioned above; references to these works – labeled cm, gs, rk, bk and jg – can often be found at the end of Glossary definitions. Still, the equivalents and definitions are not meant to cover all of the semantic senses, and may vary according to region, generation or social context. Also note that some examples have been shortened or edited for clarity and reasons of space. The layout and conventions used in this book are straightforward and selfexplanatory, but a few additional notes may help the reader navigate through the citations. Usage examples, extensively used throughout the book, are clearly set off from the main text and grouped in separate paragraphs, all given in italics and organized alphabetically. Each example contains a sentence with a slang expression in boldface, immediately followed by its standard English equivalent or definition in brackets; source and date information follows each

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example. The insistence on the use of authentic examples can be justified for several reasons. First, they constitute the basis for linguistic observations, supporting and illustrating them while also contributing to a better understanding of African American slang as a whole. Second, they confirm the validity of the collected material, which is essential when dealing with such a changeable phenomenon as slang. Third, they show African American slang in its actual usage. This may be especially valuable for non-native speakers of English or students of English as a Foreign Language. Finally, they show the cultural and social context in which slang is used; the breadth of sources can be extremely telling and meaningful in and of itself.

2

Forms

Our linguistic description of African American slang starts with the form of words and phrases. Slang is quintessentially about vocabulary. In any language vocabulary is normally created from already existing words which are either modified or assigned new meanings; sometimes, entirely novel words are coined or borrowed from other languages. As statistically shown by Algeo (1991: 3–14), the main sources for new words in English, in descending order of frequency, are: combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing and creating. African American slang is no different in this respect. The analysis of the lexical database material proves that the linguistic mechanisms of its production include all of the above processes, some being used in an even more creative way. The following is a presentation of these processes and how they function in African American slang. 2.1

Combining

Combining accounts for most lexical innovation in the English language, and together with figuration is among the top productive mechanisms for creating slang expressions. Combining is an umbrella term which includes such word-formation processes as compounding, affixation and sometimes phraseology. 2.1.1

Compounding

Compounding is the most common method of forming new words in English. Compounds are words consisting of two or more parts that are themselves words, for instance superimpose, music box and drunk-driving. They are pronounced as a single unit, with a single stress, and they function grammatically as a single unit. For instance: White House is a compound in “President Obama returned to the White House” but white and house are separate words in “We live in the white house, not the red one.” There are no definitive, clear-cut rules for writing compounds: they can be written as one word (flowerpot), with 19

20

Forms

a hyphen (flower-pot), or as two separate words (flower pot), the latter possibility making them more difficult to identify. Compounding is also a very productive process in forming African American slang. This productivity is most likely to be associated with the relative freedom with which elements can be combined: compounds may be formed from two standard or two slang words, or one of each; they can be created from individual words of various parts of speech and juxtaposed in any order; the end result may be used as almost any part of speech. Moreover, as observed by Eble (1996: 28 and 31), compound elements are underspecified semantically or grammatically, which gives rise to complexity in meaning and figurative interpretation. The following presentation explores this theme in more detail. The noun–noun combination is by far the most common type of compound. As explained by Algeo (1991: 7), “this is probably because there are more new things to name than there are new actions or qualities. We rarely come upon a new action or characteristic, but often invent or discover new objects.” Moreover, the possibility of using one noun as an adjective to modify another noun reduces the necessity to use distinctive adjective forms. In African American slang the use of such compounds is common especially with objects or persons with specific characteristics. Here are some relevant examples: In the blues, Santa’s been known to be a midnight rambler and a backdoor man [¼ man having an affair with someone’s wife] (Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 2006) The music will be played on a boom box [¼ large portable stereo player] (Seattle Times, 2009) What’s with that little dime piece [¼ sexually attractive person, especially a woman] you broke up with the other night? (My Normal, film, 2009) Come on, drama queen [¼ someone who tends to react in an exaggerated or overly emotional way]! (Desperate Housewives, NBC-TV series, 2004) The jukebox [¼ coin-operated record player in a bar] would be playing boogie-woogie and blues (Tina Turner and Kurt Loder, 1986) I’d slept with him out of affection and respect, not out of jungle fever [¼ obsessive romantic or sexual interest between an African American person and a white person] (Armistead Maupin, 1992) According to Busta, he lost a serious rap battle [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] to Jay-Z in high school (Prefix Mag, 2010) She’s my road dog [¼ close friend, especially one who spends much time with you]. She’s my homey, my best friend (Los Angeles Times, 2013)

An adjective–noun combination is the second most frequent compound pattern found in African American slang, a combination which reflects the normal

2.1 Combining

21

word order of the English language. Here are some citational findings from the database: You don’t bring no brown sugar [¼ African American woman, especially if sexually attractive] to this house! (Jungle Fever, film, 1991) This is for the West and the East and the Dirty South [¼ any southern state or southern states in the USA] (Snoop Dogg, 2006) You can’t tell a barber to give a kid a flat top [¼ male hairstyle that is high, square, and flat on top] over the kid’s wishes (Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 2004) What you gray boys [¼ white men, especially young] cookin’ up? (Trespass, film, 1992) Next time grown folk [¼ adults] talkin’, nigga, close your mouth! (Tupac Shakur, 1996) The pretty red bone [¼ light-skinned African American] squinted her eyes at Calvin (Bernard Satterwhite, 2009) This righteous moss [¼ non-kinky hair, especially hair of a Caucasian sort] is a gift from God (That ’70’s Show, Fox-TV series, 2000) Anyone who refers to himself as a white nigga [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop] is extra stupid (XXL Magazine, 2009)

However, the usual adjective–noun word order can sometimes be reversed in African American slang. In this interesting albeit uncommon pattern, the noun modifies the adjective, a pattern atypical in standard English. Here is a handful of examples found in our database: He seemed to be indicating that his ace cool [¼ close friend] told him that he was part of the killing (Stephen J. Cannell, 1998) All my niggas wear Timmy Hillnigger or they don’t wear a damn thing at all! It’s ghetto fabulous [¼ living lavishly and surpassing the standard of living in an inner-city ghetto] (Bamboozled, film, 2000) They’ll settle, and you’ll still only be ghetto rich [¼ maintaining outward signs of wealth without any real money] entrepreneurs (News, ABC-TV program, 2013) They may have a Porsche, but they don’t have ten bucks to put in the gas tank. It’s nigger rich [¼ maintaining outward signs of wealth without any real money] (Boiler Room, film, 2000)

A number of compounds involve numerals which are combined with other parts of speech, usually nouns. The association may be straightforward, but more often requires specific knowledge and is indecipherable to the uninitiated. Examples from standard English include: six-pack, three estates, twelve-tone,

22

Forms

two-seater or zero derivation. There are numerous such alphanumeric compounds in African American slang. Here is a selection of relevant examples: The package was determined to contain an eightball [¼ one-eighth of an ounce of cocaine] of cocaine (Philadelphia Daily News, 1996) Niggas dropped dimes on me bout fifty eleven times [¼ very many] (Saigon, 2006) I’m gonna follow my first mind [¼ first and the best idea or thought]. I’m coming to get my child because it can turn out to be worse later (News, KENS-TV program, 2009) A forty ounce [¼ forty-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor] for breakfast gets a brother through the day (Blackalicious, 1994) Wink got more than seven digits [¼ telephone number] from your bitch (8 Mile, film, 2002)

Compounds can also be formed by combining adjectives with other adjectives. While such “double adjectives” are rare in standard English, they seem to be less so in African American slang. Consider the following: Just hit me with the actual factual [¼ reality or the facts] (Randy Kearse, 2006) My homey from the CPT, he cold chillin’ [¼ excellent or admirable] (Snoop Dogg, 2000) Not only are you a mic master, but a funky fresh [¼ excellent or admirable] one at that! (Zazzle, 2009) You think I’d be more handsome if I were high yellow [¼ light-skinned African American, especially a sexually attractive young woman], like you? (Washington Post, 2004) Get up off your big, fat rusty-dusty [¼ buttocks], don’t your hear me woman? (B. B. King, 1999) That was a stupid fresh [¼ excellent or admirable] jam (Fayetteville Observer, 1998)

Some compounds are made of a noun and a letter of the alphabet, and are sometimes referred to as letter compounds; the letter often stands for a word which is deliberately left out, as in C-section, F-word, S-curve, T-shirt or V-belt. Because of their rather enigmatic form, such compounds are often used as cryptic devices to enhance in-group solidarity, or among people who wish to conceal their activities. Moreover, their abbreviated form sometimes makes them function as euphemisms, masking elements perceived as taboo. They are also used in African American slang for the same reasons. See the following corroboration: He was born in A-Town [¼ Atlanta, Georgia] and raised in Chi-Town (Yahoo Answers, 2000)

2.1 Combining

23

The B-boys [¼ male devotees of breakdancing] from Brooklyn are breakin’ bones for the bucks (Us3, 1993) Suckas on the block know I got a Glock, B-coats [¼ bulletproof vests], and all of that (E-40, 2000) She was one of many B-girls [¼ female devotees of breakdancing] who danced at last week’s event (San Jose Mercury News, 2002) He planned to go see his girlfriend and get a G-ride [¼ stolen automobile] (Rocky Mountain News, 2000) Once the jurors heard the tapes it was clear that he had indeed used the N-word [¼ African American] (Toni Morrison, 1997)

Many compounds are formed according to a pattern using a particular word in first or last position, very much like an affix (either a prefix or a suffix). For instance, the prefix word power is used in this way to form such compounds as power broker, powerhouse, power lunch or power train, while the suffix word burger serves to form such compounds as cheeseburger, fishburger, lobster burger or veggie burger. Such affix-like compounds are common in English, possibly because their meaning can be easily guessed from the meaning of affix words used in similar constructions. Affix-like compounds are also very popular in slang. Certain patterns are enormously productive and are used to form an abundance of combinations. African American slang is no exception here. Let us present some of the most recurrent affix-like words below: Look who’s back. It’s the baby boy [¼ insignificant and irresponsible man] (Longest Yard, film, 2005) You better listen to your boss, white boy [¼ white man, especially young] (Django Unchained, film, 2012) Nagin once declared that New Orleans would be a Chocolate City [¼ any city with a predominantly African American population] again as black residents who left after the hurricane returned to the city (BusinessWeek, 2010) It launched several revitalization projects, including hosting the 2006 Super Bowl to bring attention to improvements in the Motor City [¼ Detroit, Michigan] (Ebony, 2008) I know you remember me and my homegirl [¼ good female friend] Tanya (Snoop Dog, 2008) We’ve been cool since day one scoopin’ all the fly girls [¼ young and sexually attractive women who like to party], havin’ all the fun (Us3, 1993) She a butterhead [¼ stupid African American] and her friends are too (D4L, 2005)

24

Forms All you is is a chickenhead [¼ stupid woman, especially if unattractive] and that’s all you ever gonna be (Malibu’s Most Wanted, film, 2003)

Certain compound patterns have become stereotypically associated with African American usage and are identified as African American by most people. Below is a selection of characteristic affix words of this type, annotated with meaning, connotations and usage examples. The very productive suffix word ass is used to form adjectival compounds to indicate a high degree of a specified characteristic or nature. Dalzell (2009: 24) calls it simply but aptly “an intensifier.” Although used in general slang, this suffix word is more frequently used in African American slang. Its popularity may stem from its audacious and crude humor, as well as from the relative ease with which it can be attached to nearly any adjective. However, many compounds created with this suffix word have a rather ephemeral character (and are therefore not included in the Glossary). Consider the following selections from a long list of examples: I know I left you and I’m so sorry! I miss you so much and forget all those boozy-ass [¼ very drunk] bitches! (Black Planet, 2006) Mike is lost in cyberspace, meets a busty-ass [¼ having very large breasts] blonde (Board Freeones, 2010) You’re dreamin’ if you think them corny-ass [¼ very sentimental] raps’ll work (8 Mile, film, 2002) I’m tired of hearing about his fake-ass [¼ very fake or false] friends (Atlantic Monthly, 2010) You don’t even know why I came down to this fuckedup-ass [¼ very irritating, hopeless or ruined] neighborhood (Soul Men, film, 2008) You two in the same car going to make for a long-ass [¼ very long] drive to Jersey (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) Remember that nasty-ass [¼ very nasty] birth scene that everyone is all up in a roar about? (Hollywood Online, 2010) I just moved into a new house with a new serious-ass [¼ very serious] ant problem (MetaFilter, 2004) I told you stupid-ass [¼ very stupid] niggas not to be doing this shit (8 Mile, film, 2002) You’re a weak-ass [¼ very weak or timid] nigga, should’ve stayed in the country (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002)

But the suffix word ass can be used in another, less productive way to form nominal compounds denoting a person who has a high degree of a specified characteristic or nature. It is usually combined with adjectives to form nominal compounds. Consider these examples:

2.1 Combining

25

Golfers who skip this tournament because of the weather are candy-asses [¼ very weak or timid persons] (San Francisco Chronicle, 2009) Odom is a dumbass [¼ very idiotic person] who can’t learn anything useful (Los Angeles Times, 2006) The rest of us have to cut back but that fat-ass [¼ very obese person] can eat lobster every night (News, MSNBC-TV program, 2010) Do you think the lard-ass [¼ obese person] would have the decency to apologize? (Gothamist, 2010) You’re being a smart-ass [¼ annoyingly knowledgeable and arrogant person] (House M.D., Fox-TV series, 2011) He has made his reputation playing a series of wise-asses [¼ annoyingly knowledgeable and arrogant persons] (New York Times, 2007)

The prefix word black is used to form nominal compounds. It essentially refers to African Americans and their experience, and its use reflects this accordingly. See the following corroboration: Sit your black ass [¼ self, when referring to an African American] down! (Do The Right Thing, film, 1989) Milner grew up in Detroit’s Black Bottom [¼ area of a city with a predominantly African American population] (New York Times, 2004) Don’t forget Atlanta’s reputation as a black mecca [¼ city to which African Americans are drawn to live] (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2010) The interest these artists are generating is not based on the idea they are white singers doing a black thing [¼ any sociocultural practice, behavior or attitude characteristic of African Americans] (Ebony, 2009)

The suffix word daddy is used to form nominal compounds. It usually designates a man who is older, experienced or rich. The association is often jocular and affectionate but may also be ironic and dismissive. This is yet another element often associated with African American usage. Here are some examples: Being a father and baby daddy [¼ teenage father who is not married to his child’s mother] are two different things (New York Amsterdam News, 2004) I’d rather be a mack daddy [¼ pimp] in the ghetto than a mogul in Hollywood (New York Times, 2001) He wants to be my sugar daddy [¼ male lover who supports a younger mistress] (Wild Side, film, 1990) Clara Ross and her sweet daddy [¼ male lover, especially one who supports a younger mistress]! Looks like she’s already got this one wrapped around her little finger (Twitter, 2013)

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Forms

The prefix word gangsta is used to create nominal compounds. It is chiefly associated with the world of inner-city violence, especially as heard in the lyrics of rap music and hip-hop culture, and thus stereotypically associated with African American usage. Notable is the spelling which reflects the loss of the final, postvocalic /r/ characteristic of African American pronunciation. Citational corroboration yields the following: Monfriez took the pistol back and demonstrated an exaggerated gangsta grip [¼ instance of holding an object, especially a gun, sideways] (Patrick Duncan, 1996) It’s many niggas drinkin that gangsta juice [¼ Olde English 800 malt liquor] (King Tee, 2002) Some are yakking on the phone, others are driving with the gangsta lean [¼ style of driving in which the driver sits slung low and tilted toward the passenger seat] (Savannah Morning News, 2007) I’m a ride, I’m a slide, with that gangsta glide [¼ male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the stride] (Tha Dogg Pound, 2010) He reached in his hip pocket, removed a gangsta roll [¼ large wad of money] and carefully peeled off a fifty (Edward Morris, 2007) He is perfecting his gangsta walk [¼ male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the stride] (Twitter, 2009)

In like manner, the noun-forming prefix word ghetto is typically linked with African American usage. It chiefly refers to life experience in the inner-city ghetto filled with harsh economic difficulties and crime. Many compounds are created in this way: She finds time to pack up her ghetto box [¼ large portable stereo player] (Terry Gavin, 2008) Merritt still had his ghetto pass [¼ fictitious pass given to someone who is not from an inner-city ghetto], he understood his students’ slang and knew their music (Charlotte Observer, 2009) She’s not a ghetto queen [¼ African American woman who lives in the innercity ghetto] or a girl from the ’hood with baggy pants (Los Angeles Times, 1994) I am trying to utter my admiration for this cat who is quickly becoming a ghetto star [¼ leading member of a criminal gang from an inner-city ghetto] (Sanyika Shakur, 1993) I admit shooting one with a ghetto stick [¼ shotgun] makes me smile (Indiana Gun Owners, 2010) Baby, I’m feelin’ I’m doin’ so fine. Sippin’ that ghetto wine [¼ cheap wine] (Bizzy Bone, 2006)

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27

The noun-forming suffix word mama is used to form numerous compounds. By analogy to daddy, it designates a woman, characterized by what the first compound element indicates, especially one who exhibits certain physical or psychological traits. Again, the association is usually jocular and affectionate. Consider the following examples: I got to get this cheese with my crew but my baby mama [¼ teenage mother who is not married to her child’s father] full of drama (Snoop Dogg, 1998) Reasons being is weight, weave and big mama [¼ big or stout African American woman] stereotypes (Ebony, 2009) Lose today, and you’ll be waving bye-bye to your career, your fan club, and the free hoochie mamas [¼ sexually promiscuous women] that go with it (Against the Ropes, film, 2004) Don’t worry about money. I am in love with a beautiful girl who makes plenty of it. She’ll be my sugar mama [¼ female lover who supports a younger lover] (Big Daddy, film, 1999) You looking good to me, sweet mama [¼ female lover or mistress]. Want your body (Dr. Dre, 1999)

The noun-forming suffix word nigger (or nigga) designates an African American who has certain characteristics indicated by the preceding word. Compounds created in this way often serve as labels which telegraphically communicate social status or attitude. When used by people other than African Americans, the connotation is extremely racist and offensive. However, when used by African Americans themselves, it becomes perceptibly less so, and can in fact be used with affection. Major (1994: xxxi) aptly explains this lexical reappropriation in this way: by calling themselves “niggers,” African American speakers in a way make null and void racial slurs of white bigots. This remark pertains not just to the word itself, but also to a number of compound combinations in which it is used. This notwithstanding, some such compounds remain pejorative regardless of the user. See the following: The black oral culture fused the two contradictory notions of the devil as a white man and the devil as a bad nigger [¼ African American who is rebellious and aggressive] (New York Times, 2003) The field nigger [¼ rebellious lower-class African American, especially working on a farm] was the militant who wanted freedom, while the house nigger saw himself as part of the master’s household (News24, 2005) Being the house nigger [¼ African American who acts subserviently toward a white employer, especially working in a household] that he is, it does not surprise me that he would want to go along with such terminology (Ebony, 2009)

28

Forms If being a street nigger [¼ lower-class African American, especially involved in some illicit activity] is the way to go for a black man, then college was a waste of time (Wu-Tang Corp, 2010) A real nigger [¼ African American who is righteous, honest and trustworthy] is loyal in good and bad times (Twitter, 2012) Do your own shit. I ain’t no yard nigger [¼ subservient lower-class African American, especially working on a farm] (Todd Houser, 1985)

The noun-forming prefix word soul is yet another lexical element associated with African Americans. The word itself has numerous meanings and connotations in African American culture. In general, it is used to describe any characteristic of African Americans including food, music, language, handshake, etc., suggesting a deep and shared cultural identity as well as group allegiance and affirmation. Consider the citational corroboration: This was right after the riots, so it was scary for a soul brother [¼ fellow African American man] like me on the streets (Los Angeles Times, 2006) If Obama has a craving for soul food [¼ food characteristic of and preferred by African Americans], the smothered pork chops at Gigi’s will give him the strength to go on (Buffalo News, 2009) He was very hip black fellow who spoke all this put-on soul language [¼ African American Vernacular English or, broadly, African American speech] (Sports Illustrated, 1982) “His name is Brian.” “The guy with the grey soul patch [¼ small patch of facial hair just below the lower lip, popular especially among African American musicians]?” (Just Go with It, film, 2011) The gesture dates back to at least the 70’s, when it briefly appeared, only to be soundly defeated by the soul shake [¼ intricate handshake to demonstrate solidarity, popular among African Americans] (New York Times, 2001) Lauren Turner goes for a retro soul sound [¼ moving form of popular music rooted in African American tradition, especially rhythm and blues] with Etta James (USA Today, 2011)

The prefix word white is used to form nominal compounds. By analogy with black, it essentially refers to white people and their experience, and compounds formed through its use reflect this. In African American slang, however, the connotation is usually, although not exclusively, derisive or otherwise negative. See the following examples: No way am I getting my white ass [¼ self, when referring to a white person] back in that bus (Get on the Bus, film, 1996) We need another white boy [¼ white man, especially young] to volunteer (Con Air, film, 1997)

2.1 Combining

29

I was sleeping with white girls [¼ white women, especially young] (Malcolm X, film, 1992) I’ve seen a lot of white niggers [¼ white persons who assume the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop] in my time (Washington Post, 2001) I have just as much disdain for white trash [¼ poor white person or poor white people, especially from the southern USA] as any other race (Ebony, 2008)

Reduplication is a special type of compounding. While it is scarcely used in standard English, it appears to be a surprisingly potent way of forming new words in slang. Broadly speaking, reduplication entails the repetition of a sound, word or word element. Reduplicative compounds (or reduplicatives) are often based on assonance, the poetic device which involves a deliberate repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds to achieve the desired rhyming effect. The association is usually jocular and sometimes reminiscent of baby talk. Reduplication is a long-attested feature of African American slang, according to Flexner and Soukhanov (1997: 16), dating back to the colonial period. So is rhyming, often employed in rap and hip-hop music. Rhyming communicates quick wit and verbal forcefulness quite well, and can be jocular in nature. Two main types of reduplication can be discerned. Exact reduplications involve a precise doubling of the entire word. They are the simplest, and at the same time, rather rare creations. Here are a few examples found in our database: I wish my mama got me some bling-bling [¼ jewelry, especially rings] (Hot Chick, film, 2002) “I think it’s a .357 Magnum!” “Really? I got a deuce deuce [¼ 22-caliber handgun]. My brother gave it to me before he went to jail” (Boyz in the Hood, film, 1991) Come on and shoot the club with a fo-fo [¼ forty-four caliber handgun] (Eminem, 2000) Don’t take my photo in a mo-mo [¼ motel] lookin’ out the window! (Bizzy Bone, 2007) “Where’s the girl? Where’s she at now?” “Po-po [¼ police] came and got her” (Southland, NBC-TV series, 2009) It’s on the way-way [¼ highway] from Chichi through Santa Cruz del Quiche. The drive took us about five hours (Trip Advisor, 2010)

In non-exact reduplications, which are much more common, it is usually the beginning of the second element that is changed, while the vowel remains the

30

Forms

same. Again, the rhyming is based on the poetic principle of assonance. Here is a selection of representative examples: How about a little boogie-woogie [¼ good time]? Come down and join the party! (Mickey Mouse in Living Color, film, 2001) He was my boon coon [¼ close friend], and I was his ace (GS Poetry, 2010) Chrysler wants us to know the 200 is no Sebring drop-top [¼ convertible automobile], and their press release emphasizes the changes (Automotive Addicts, 2011) She had a hoe with her named Bama, a big bad mamma-jamma [¼ sexually attractive woman] (Snoop Dogg, 1996) All the books are characterized by the worst kind of mumbo-jumbo [¼ meaningless or deceptive talk, especially jargon] (Los Angeles Times, 2005) That would sound fine in a philosophy course, but what is, as you say here, the nitty-gritty [¼ the most crucial and basic aspects or elements]? (Alice Walker, 1998) Get off your ole’ rusty-dusty [¼ buttocks] and bring me back some cognac, biyatch! (Dolemite Ebonics, 2010)

Interestingly, most reduplicative compounds found in African American slang are traditional, in that the main operating mechanism is the sheer rhyming effect. In contrast to British slang and especially Cockney dialect, there are no “implied reduplications,” where the two combined elements are supposed to rhyme with another word which carries the meaning, for instance forty-four is supposed to mean “whore” and elephant trunk means “drunk.” A complete lack of such cryptic compounds and a striking abundance of traditional reduplications may suggest African Americans’ preference for linguistic playfulness expressed through rhyming over the need to be secretive or enigmatic. Binomials are similar to reduplicative compounds in that they involve an exact or non-exact repetition of a word element; yet, the two elements are linked with the conjunction “and.” Binomials, which are sometimes classified as phrasal compounds, form a series of three words constituting a single entity, for instance black and white, flesh and blood, rock and roll or salt and pepper. Sometimes the first and last elements are synonymous and thus tautological: the idea is to strengthen one element by adding another with the same or similar meaning. However, not all such constructions are tautological, and sometimes one element is merely loosely connected with another. According to Biber (1999: 1031), binomials are relatively rare in standard English; nevertheless, some of them are quite popular in African American slang. Here are a few instances: We were out here dancing every day. We were juking and jiving [¼ dancing in a boisterous fashion] (People Magazine, 2010)

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31

All I do all day is max and relax [¼ relax and have a good time], and smoke pot (Boys and Girls Guide to Getting Down, film, 2006) Whites and blacks live together harmoniously. I like living in a salt and pepper [¼ interracial] neighborhood (Tuscaloosa News, 1996) Y’all always pull that shit, but it’s time to show and prove [¼ provide hard and concrete proof] (Jay-Z, 2000) Yes, this year as our guests arrive, they can style and profile [¼ boast or act in a showy way] for the paparazzi on the green carpet during the reception (Charlotte Observer, 2010) He is accompanied by music, outtakes, antics and poetics: singing, talking and testifying [¼ celebrating through verbal acknowledgement] about peace, family, and art (Hearing Voices, 2010)

Rhyming is not always restricted to reduplicative and binomial compounds. Another poetic device based on sound repetition used extensively in slang is alliteration (alternatively termed head rhyme). It involves a repetition of the same consonant in a compound or a phrase, typically an initial or final consonant, as in Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers or How much dew did the dew-drop drop if the dew-drop did drop dew. Alliteration has mostly been used in literary language, having figured prominently in poetry. This notwithstanding, it is also a noticeable feature in African American slang (Safire 1982: 80). See the following examples: Show me some love, don’t be a baller-blocker [¼ envious person who is trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny] (Black Planet, 2003) This bama boy [¼ uncultured or unsophisticated man from southern USA] is sick of fishing and ready to cut bait (Rhonda Nelson, 2006) Fab had a beat box [¼ large portable stereo player] (Kingston Standard, 2011) It’s chump change [¼ small or meager amount of money] for the photo-op (Ebony, 2009) My main man [¼ close friend] and me, we’ve been cool since day one (Us3, 1993) We shoot the shit [¼ talk or chitchat], I make dinner, and we watch TV (Time Out New York, 2007) That requires a real soul sister [¼ fellow African American woman] who can embody the role (Black Planet Universe, 2011) Anne wants to be a high school teacher. Tough titty [¼ that is too bad], Anne! That’s not your destiny (Men Who Stare at Goats, film, 2009)

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Forms

2.1.2

Affixation

According to Algeo (1991: 14), the second most productive process of combining in English is affixation (sometimes also termed derivation). It allows theoretically unlimited opportunities for creating new words by adding a variety of affixes to existing words. Technically, these can be prefixes, attached in front of a word; suffixes, attached at the end; and very rarely, infixes, inserted into a word. Many English affixes are the result of borrowing from Greek or Latin, and words built with them are often part of the learned or technical vocabulary of the language. Affixation is also a productive process in African American slang which uses most of the same prefixes and suffixes as standard English. Again, African American slang is in no way deficient in employing the repertoire of linguistic means which are used to create new words in standard English. In fact, as we will see later, it is even more creative and the affixes are used with greater freedom and sometimes with slightly different meanings. Below is a list of such suffixes. Note that all of the suffixes presented below are perfectly standard English, but when attached to a slang word, they form a slang expression. Certain combinations have caught on, while others were merely improvised, spur-of-the-moment creations most likely doomed to be forgotten (and are therefore not included in the Glossary). See the following: The one in red’s a totally tappable [¼ legal or suitable for having sex] chick (Facebook, 2011) His definition of ghettocentric [¼ ghetto-oriented] imagination suggests the explosion of the hood film genre provided a space for contemporary Black youth expression (All Hip Hop, 2011) His little sister was harassed by a gangbanger [¼ member of a criminal gang] on a city bus (Ebony, 2008) He still lives frugally there, maintaining it in the ghetto-esque [¼ similar to a ghetto] area (Pop Matters, 2005) I’m a bootyholic [¼ obsessed with sex or women], every time I look at that girl, you make a nigga wanna sing (Black Planet, 2011) Hold on to the sistahood [¼ African American women collectively]! Before you bash me, I have a question (African Writing, 2008) He is described only as a white male wearing a hoodie [¼ hooded sweatshirt or top] (London Free Press, 2009) What we need now are not white movies with Benetton tokenism, nor movies that ghettoize [¼ make something look typical of the inner-city ghetto] racial experience (Atlantic Monthly, 2010)

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33

Was he melodramatic and sometimes a little uncool in his overt coolness [¼ calmness]? (Ebony, 2009) He gets himself a foxy [¼ (of a woman) sexually attractive] girlfriend who actually likes football (Portland Mercury, 2006)

Let us now illustrate the use of prefixes in African American slang, all of which are standard English, but can be creatively used to form slang words. In terms of frequency of use, these are less common than suffixes, but still more frequently used than infixes. Here is a list of representative examples: You know my ex-shortie [¼ former girlfriend]. I think your new girl looks bettah (Dancehall Reggae, 2004) When I was a kid, I thought that was mega-cool [¼ extremely excellent or admirable] (Facebook, 2011) Now with the mini-gig [¼ small musical performance or concert] behind them, the band’s members appear ready to hit the road in full force (Las Vegas Sun, 2009) It’s impossible to overstand [¼ understand completely or have a profound knowledge] Iran’s attitude without looking at a map and comparing that with U.S. troop movements over the last 20 years (Huffington Post, 2009) Eminem put up seven figures to sign him, and the investment paid off as his retro-gangsta [¼ sounding like old gangsta rap] debut, “Get Rich or Die Tryin’,” sold five million last year (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2004) What I do need to apologize for is criticizing the apology: for dissing the company’s self-diss [¼ criticizing or belittling oneself] (Ad Week, 2010) I’m sorry we invaded you. That was really uncool [¼ unpleasant, rude or unfair] (Ali G Indahouse, film, 2002) After me there will be no more like me, you underdig [¼ understand completely] what I’m sayin? (Black Planet, 2008)

Infixes are extremely rare, both in standard English and in African American slang. This is most likely because they cut a given word into two halves, which often makes such a compound sound unintelligible or awkward. Additionally, as Pearce (2007: 91) observed, they occur mainly in expressions where an obscenity (or euphemism for the obscenity) is infixed into an adjective or an adverb. The only two infixes found in our database are -motherfucking- and -izz- (the latter is discussed in the next section), but the expressions created with their help are numerous, possibly because of their rhyming and intensifying qualities. Adams (2009: 120–144), who examines slang infixation in detail, links it also with poetic qualities. However, many of them have a rather ephemeral character (and are therefore not included in the Glossary). See the following sample:

34

Forms Jasper is abso-motherfucking-lutely [¼ absolutely] perfect in this. And I have no words about Alice (Fan Fiction, 2011) I am pro-union and anti-motherfucking-fascist [¼ anti-fascist] (Rigorous Institution, 2010) Chopin plays the goddamn motherfucking piano? It’s im-motherfuckingpossible [¼ impossible] (Sonic Youth, 2006) Music was great, and that Galaksy/Djoos tag was in-motherfucking-credible [¼ incredible] (Rave, 2011) This week is never-motherfucking-ending [¼ never-ending]! (Blogspot, 2008) That is just sickening. Out-motherfucking-rageous [¼ outrageous]! (Twitter, 2013) I don’t get too excited about biking, to be honest, but the cinematography in that trailer is out-motherfucking-standing [¼ outstanding] (Reddit, 2010) Fuck off! You’re all un-motherfucking-believable [¼ unbelievable]! (Tumblr, 2011)

While African American slang comfortably uses standard English affixes, certain affixes are particularly associated with African American usage. They are not numerous, however. The adjective-forming suffix -ity – not to be confused with the standard English noun-forming suffix which is identical in form – has the meaning “characterized by what is indicated by the first word to an extreme degree.” The association is typically negative, and usually involves arrogance or selfimportance. Here are a few words created in this way: She thought I was being biggity [¼ self-important or arrogant] (Roanoke Times, 2002) Jus ’cuz we got the mayor and the bishops here, don’t get all saddity [¼ selfimportant or arrogant] (Philadelphia Inquirer, 1998) His seddity [¼ self-important or arrogant] colleagues in academia are faking the funk by pursuing more arcane subjects (Atlanta JournalConstitution, 1994) Why he gives a fuck who that uppity [¼ self-important or arrogant] son of a bitch is in love with, I don’t know (Django Unchained, film, 2012)

The once trendy infix -izz- (or –iz-) is used to form nouns, adjectives or verbs. It was extremely productive and had been specifically used to form a multitude of trendy expressions characteristic of rap and hip-hop parlance, though it has since waned in popularity and its use is increasingly a means of parody; Kearse (2006: 645–667) lists a few hundred expressions formed by this infix. However, many of them have a rather ephemeral character (and are therefore not included in the Glossary). While this infix contributes virtually no meaning

2.1 Combining

35

to the inserted word, it is valued for its rhyming and jocular features. Moreover, it is often applied to hide the meaning of a word or, as observed by Peckham (2005: 191), “used to sanitize foul words”; put differently, it can be used to euphemize vulgar or offensive expressions by altering their form, for instance shit becomes shiznit. See the following examples: I must have slipped and broke it, my bizzad [¼ bad] (Urban Dictionary, 2005) We drizzink [¼ drink] smoothies out of red cups with gorgeous people (Facebook, 2011) I can either accept that or make a fizzool [¼ fool] out of myself (Fayetteville Observer, 2012) Don’t forget to wear something warm. It’s gonna be kizzold [¼ cold] (Uptown MPLS, 2006) Can somebody please explain this shizzit [¼ nonsense] to me? (Topix, 2009)

The suffix -izzle (or -izle), now considered dated, is used to form either nouns or adjectives. It was enormously productive and, theoretically, could be applied to nearly any word; much like the above -izz- infix, it had been especially used to create countless vogue expressions characteristic of rap and hip-hop culture. Interestingly, while its attachment would not change the meaning in any noticeable way, its popularity had probably been conditioned by the rhyming, jocular and cryptic qualities. Again, many expressions created with this suffix have a rather ephemeral nature; only a few of the most popular ones are listed in the Glossary. Here is a selection of expressions created in this way: What’s the dizzle [¼ state of affairs or a thing at issue], my nizzle? (Los Angeles Times, 2002) She obviously needs some fizzle [¼ sex or the sex act] (Wrapped, 2010) In the process, they gave white men a viable and edgy alternative to the N-word, my nizzle [¼ fellow African American]? (News, CBS-TV program, 2007) Omigod! My dinosaur of a boss just told me to chillax – for rizzle [¼ real]! (New York Times, 2006) Give us an honest answer. Are you shizzle [¼ certain]? (Pearl Drummers Forum, 2005)

Finally, there is the noun- and adjective-forming suffix -o. While it is by no means exclusive to African American usage, it is nevertheless frequently employed in forming numerous expressions characteristic of African American slang. It carries the meaning of “having characteristics associated with

36

Forms

what is indicated by the root word.” The association is often slightly derisive, jocular or familiar. Note that many expressions created by the attachment of this suffix often result from or accompany back clippings, a type of abbreviation (which will be discussed later). Consider the following examples: There’d be at least one Negro writer in this room and that Afro [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] does not qualify you, my Jewish friend (Bamboozled, film, 2000) I got mad friends with Benzos [¼ Mercedes-Benz automobiles] (Notorious B.I.G., 1994) You and daddy-o [¼ friend] need to grow up and start accepting responsibility for your actions (New Hampshire Union Leader, 2010) I didn’t wanna go late with no present or anything, feel like a foolio [¼ stupid person] (Bebo, 2009) I lived in the ghetto and wore Timbos [¼ Timberland boots or shoes] and army jackets (Access Hip Hop, 2009)

2.1.3

Phraseology

Combining may be discussed with regard to lexical entities larger than compounds, namely, phrases. While the term “phrase” may be understood in a number of ways, for the purpose of our study let us define it as a small series of words standing together in a fixed order and forming a single conceptual meaning; in that, phrases are similar to fixed expressions. Moreover, they have a rather fixed structure and are often composed of elements functioning together as a whole whose meaning cannot be inferred from these individual elements; in that, they are similar to idioms. Examples include: chip off the old block, completely different animal, cut a long story short, heads will roll, on the right track and with all your heart. Phrases are extensively used in African American slang. One of the reasons may be its tendency for emotive expression and exaggeration. This is because phrases are very effective in translating even the most complex meanings into visual images. Another reason may be their rhythmic qualities, which are highly valued in African American slang. Phrases can be divided into several types. In African American slang, one of the most productive phrase patterns involves a combination of verbs and other parts of speech, especially nouns, which are sometimes accompanied by prepositions. The resulting combination functions as an “extended verb.” Here is a selection of such phrases: I didn’t understand how a nigga so young could bust a cap [¼ shoot] (Dr. Dre, 1992)

2.1 Combining

37

He learned to talk tough and cop an attitude [¼ have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude] (Tampa Bay, 2011) Obama is going to flip the script [¼ make a complete reversal of one’s attitude] once he is elected President (Boston Globe, 2008) It shows how important it is to have game [¼ have the ability to deceive or manipulate] (Top Mac Nigga, 2010) I know that the way I kick a rhyme [¼ create rap lyrics and rhymes] some will call me a poet (Us3, 1993) A fan wanted to know and Kellan Lutz kicked the knowledge [¼ gave valuable information] (News, MTV-TV program, 2009) With Emilio kicked to the curb [¼ rejected], it sounds like she’s looking for a new partner for her calmer side (News, MTV-TV program, 2010) If that nigga is trying to make bank [¼ make a lot of money], good for him (XXL Magazine, 2010) I won’t complain if you start to pump up the volume [¼ play loud music] (Daily Maverick, 2011) Obama was fashionably late to Denver but promptly rocked the house [¼ performed in an excellent or admirable way] (Ebony, 2008)

Frequently, there is a certain degree of variability in the use of verb phrases. As observed by Biber (1999: 1025), some of them have a substitutionable slot that can take several fillers, although these are usually constrained semantically. Such usage is also popular in African American slang, where there are numerous strings of synonymous phrases. Consider the following examples: I trust that he will read this article and get his act together [¼ focus or concentrate] (Ebony, 2008) He said he just needs to get his head together [¼ focus or concentrate] (Kansas City Star, 2010) Collect your thoughts, get your shit together [¼ focus or concentrate]! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) This prestigeous event will take place the third week in May, so you have lots of time to get your shizzle together [¼ focus or concentrate] (Washington Fly Fishing, 2006) GT Grad, get your shizznit together [¼ focus or concentrate] and gimme a break! (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2010) He realizes he needs to get his stuff together [¼ focus or concentrate] (San Francisco Chronicle, 2009)

A noticeable number of verb phrases contain the verb get. Such popularity may be attributed to the verb’s short, monosyllabic form and generalized meaning

38

Forms

of “having” or “acquiring”; in certain contexts, as noticed by Green (2002, 30–31), the meaning may also involve “becoming engaged in some activity.” Both the form and meaning make for a highly serviceable and productive phrase element. Here are some relevant examples: Females wanna get a nut [¼ have an orgasm] too, you know (Randy Kearse, 2006) Don’t get a’tude [¼ have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude], dude! (St. Petersburg Times, 1994) Enough with this foreplay. I’m gonna get busy [¼ have sex], baby! (CB4, film, 1993) C’mon, it’s DC, I got to get mines [¼ get something that belongs or is due to me] (Washington Post, 2010) They said he’d never get on wax [¼ record a music album]. Well, I watched him mature in the studio (Philadelphia Daily News, 1987) Sharon is a tease, and the only way she can get her kicks [¼ have a good time] is to play men like suckers (New York Times, 2010) I told him he better get out of my face [¼ leave me alone] (USA Today, 2010)

Another important group is noun phrases. They involve a combination of a noun and another part of speech, often other nouns, sometimes accompanied by a preposition. The resulting combination functions as a noun. Here is a sample of such “extended nouns” found in African American slang: He went to school with me, my ace boon coon [¼ close friend] (Ice-T, 1991) Gavin wanted to make a point by driving Black Man’s Wheels [¼ BMW automobile] (Jessica Mann, 2002) It was their common hatred of the blue-eyed devil [¼ white persons, especially if racist] that united them (Kevin Brown, 1995) Who’s the Boss Nigga in Charge [¼ African American person in charge]? Who the motherfucking boss? (Slim Thug, 2009) So it got me wondering, is “Colored People’s Time” [¼ belief that African Americans are not punctual] a myth, or something that black people have made a fact of life? (Chicago Now, 2009) I’m the Head Nigga in Charge [¼ African American person in charge] (Lean on Me, film, 1989) He’s talking like a man with a paper ass [¼ insignificant man] (Boston University Daily Free Press, 2009) For many years the bad guys were people of color [¼ non-white people] (Ebony, 2009)

2.1 Combining

39

Other types of phrases function as “extended adjectives” or “extended adverbs.” They are usually built around a preposition combined with other parts of speech. Again, the resulting combinations often operate on a figurative level and should not be understood literally. Here is a selection of relevant examples: Fat Joe is down by law [¼ excellent or admirable] and any attempts to assassinate his character are futile and blasphemous (Nah Right, 2010) I used to drink Sazeracs when I lived down home [¼ in the southern USA] in Kentucky (Daily Kilos, 2010) You can haul your asses back down South [¼ toward the southern USA] (Ray, film, 2004) We could take their paychecks for shizzle [¼ certainly]! (Salt Lake City Weekly, 2010) It was obvious last night from the jump [¼ from the very beginning] (Boston Globe, 2010) Peace to all the MCs in the house [¼ among us, especially in the audience] (Ice-T, 1993) Now you can get caught up in the mix [¼ involved] real fast (Snoop Dogg, 1996) Each line be on point [¼ exactly or precisely] when I speak mine (Wu-Tang Clan, 2004) He’s very with it [¼ aware, knowing or understanding] and alert (Buffalo News, 2004) As a black man who has lived up South [¼ in the northern USA] all my life and attended Rutgers University, I get it (Uppity Negro Network, 2009)

Rhyming, as has been mentioned, is a frequently employed device in African American slang and a powerful vehicle for creating new phrases; Major considers it to be its salient feature (1994: xxix). Although associated with an elevated style of literary language, rhymed phrases form a significant part of African American slang. Much like rhyming compounds, such phrases are mostly based either on assonance, which is repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds, or alliteration, which is a repetition of the same consonant, or both. Again, they render a verbal promptness and forcefulness, augmented by syncopated rhythm. Citational corroboration yields the following: “Fo’ shizzle my nizzle” [¼ certainly] is the same as saying “for sure my bro,” or “you know it my friend” (Wiki Answers, 2010) Chad Henne went from being large and in charge [¼ successful and living well] to a guy who looked flustered and confused (South Florida SunSentinel, 2010)

40

Forms These fab soothers can help you max and relax [¼ relax and have a good time] (Out Magazine, 1999) That way nobody can pitch a bitch [¼ complain] about a late starting time (New York Post, 2002) We had a quick second to shoot the shit [¼ talk or chitchat] with Mississippiborn singer Charlie Mars (Black Book Magazine, 2010) He falls hard for a sultry songbird named Angel who keeps goading him to split the scene [¼ leave] with her (New York Newsday, 2006) Somebody should tell him to quit stylin and profilin [¼ boasting or acting in a showy way] after his pitch (Softball Fans, 2010) Any candidate can talk the talk [¼ talk creatively, intensely and convincingly] (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2010)

Formulaic expressions are often treated as borderline cases between phrases and sentences. These are longer sequences of words standing together in a fixed order and treated as a single entity, for instance: Don’t call us, we’ll call you; Easy come, easy go; Have a nice day; How do you do; or, Houston, we have a problem. Their meaning is often idiomatic or figurative. Such expressions are popular in African American slang because, much like proverbs or adages, they function as apt, colorful and telegraphic folk commentaries on life; as observed by Bertram (1996: vii), “they often demonstrate a wry sense of humor and keen understanding of human nature.” Although criticized for their overuse and clichéd character, they are enormously useful as a form of “verbal shorthand” in everyday communication. See the following representative citations: All good in the hood [¼ all right] tonight. Did I forget to mention? A little bit of tension makes the world alright (Jamiroquai, 2010) Players can’t trust their neighbors, they all in the Kool-Aid and don’t know the flavor [¼ are nosy and inquisitive while also ignorant of the situation] (Threat, 1993) If a white man puts his hand on you, kill him before God gets the news [¼ very quickly] (Clayborne Carson, 1995) Just like there are different strokes for different folks [¼ different things please different people], there are different styles of wedding dresses (Shape, 2011) It’s time for Bush to tell it like it is [¼ talk frankly and candidly] on events in Iraq (Chicago Sun-Times, 2006) Black women come in a variety shades and as the old adage goes, the darker the berry, the sweeter the juice [¼ belief that darker skin is better] (Hip Hop Wired, 2010)

2.1 Combining

41

“Who’s your daddy [¼ who is your friend, caregiver or sponsor]?” “You’re my daddy!” “Louder, nigga!” (Baby Boy, film, 2001)

Phrasal verbs (alternatively called verb phrases or compound verbs) form a special case of phrases. They are made from a verb and a preposition (alternatively labeled adverbial particle) as in come off, give up, take on or turn in. They are typically used with an idiomatic meaning that may be misleading and quite different from the literal meaning of the individual words. For this reason, they are considered especially difficult for learners of English. Interestingly, as observed by McArthur (1992: 774), “such verbs are often informal, emotive, and slangy, and may contrast with Latinate verbs.” African American slang abounds in phrasal verbs. Interestingly, they are formed and used in very creative ways which are often different from general American slang or standard English phrasal verbs. This is seen both in meaning and form: they are used with novel meanings or they employ unique combinations of verbs and prepositions. Here is a selection of citational findings: We goin’ down to the A.T.L. and ball out [¼ have a good time] for the weekend (Randy Kearse, 2006) We sit down, blaze up [¼ smoke a marijuana cigarette], hit the books (How High, film, 2001) We boned out [¼ left] fast as hell but they weren’t coming at us at all (Campus Hook, 2004) Let’s break out [¼ leave] and do some different stuff! (Spin Magazine, 2003) I just need to chill out [¼ relax and have a good time] for the next few days (Desperate Housewives, NBC-TV series, 2004) I know that something is going down [¼ happening], Vincent (Heat, film, 1995) Heck, I’d like to poot around [¼ waste time doing nothing] all the time too but you go to work to do a job (Newsarama, 2004) I really wanna roll out [¼ leave] with you guys (Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film, 2003)

As in standard English, the verb and its particle may be separated by the object. Consider the following examples: I asked her how she came to do the show and she began to break it down [¼ explain] (Source, 1993) I’m coming to break her off [¼ provide sexual pleasure], basically giving her what’s missing (News, MTV-TV program, 2002) I couldn’t believe they had the nerve to call me out [¼ challenge verbally] like that (Honolulu Advertiser, 2004)

42

Forms He was trying to fake me out [¼ deceive, especially by doing something opposite rather than expected] (Boulder Daily Camera, 2010) I just gas it up [¼ exaggerate or lie] a little bit and tell the people what they’re going to hear (University of Tennessee Sports, 2009) You wanna head him up [¼ confront or attack] in a debate? (All Hip Hop, 2010) Yes, it seems the normal iPhone 4 is a bit plain for some and one man has decided to jazz it up [¼ enliven or make more exciting and stimulating] a bit (Best Mobile, 2010) Who ripped me off [¼ swindled or cheated, especially by over-pricing]? (My Own Private Idaho, film, 1991)

Also, the verb is sometimes followed by two or more particles forming a longer sequence. Consider these examples found in African American slang: The students tried to get over on [¼ take advantage of] the teacher (Lisa Green, 2002) I still have a lot of friends who are down with [¼ are linked, connected or affiliated with] the gang (Tampa Tribune, 1999) Cal is really strung out behind [¼ in love with] that chick (Clarence Major, 1994) I admit, I’m really strung out on [¼ in love with] her (Goodreads, 2009)

Phrasal verbs may, in turn, become nouns. The products of such transformations are classified either as phrasal nouns or compounds, and the change is usually signaled in writing: the newly formed nouns are usually spelled as one word or linked with a hyphen, for instance carry-out, showoff, takeoff, turnover. It is also signaled in pronunciation: the stress falls on their first elements. McArthur (1992: 774) observes that in standard English most phrasal nouns relate to situations, but those relating to things and people tend to be slangy. There are many such creations in African American slang, most with idiomatic or figurative meanings. See the following citational examples: Mr. Wilkins is shown wearing a blowout [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] in his toddler years (Baltimore City Paper, 2003) They probably had a dress-off [¼ competition among flashily dressed persons] (Hollywood Gossip, 2012) He chants “don’t stop, keep going” repeatedly over a mellow-back [¼ calming] beat (Black Issues, 2010) The process is generally fast and security is very laid-back [¼ calm], very Canadian (Ebony, 2007)

2.2 Shortening

43

Eighteen bucks for this? What a rip-off [¼ swindle, especially by over-pricing]! (Simpsons, Fox-TV series, 1991) You have been called a traitor, a sell-out [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Bamboozled, film, 2000) I gotta send this shout-out [¼ acknowledgment given to someone via the media, especially on the radio or television show] to the Brownside too (Snoop Dogg, 2006)

2.2

Shortening

Tendency toward brevity is an important characteristic of slang, colloquial and spoken language in general. People often use slang to express ideas quicker or to convey a complicated meaning in a concise way. This tendency is evident in a sizeable portion of words which are monosyllabic or abbreviated in various ways. Monosyllabic words are also highly popular in African American slang, a fact duly noted by Eble (1996: 84). This is also in line with the general tendency in American slang to be short in form, corroborated by Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxii). Their abundance is striking but can easily be explained by the aforementioned function. Citational corroboration yields the following: He gonna tell me to turn down my box [¼ large portable stereo player] (Do the Right Thing, film, 1989) The handling is totally bitchin’ and the chicks really dig [¼ like or regard favorably] it (Car and Driver, 2000) Birdie had no right to dis [¼ disrespect by belittling or disparaging] you like that (Above the Rim, film, 1994) Jon spent hours on her new do [¼ haircut] with celebrity hairstylist (New York Daily News, 2010) Then, on top of that shit, you gonna dog [¼ criticize] my baby sister? (Bad Boys II, film, 2003) Don’t forget, grab the blow, then jet [¼ leave] before that ho’ hit the door (Ice-T, 1999) Everyone knows you’ve got mad [¼ a lot of] talent, but in July you’re going to have to prove yourself (Elle, 2005) We rap [¼ peform a rap song] better than most niggers (Bamboozled, film, 2000) We from the same set [¼ neighborhood], but that don’t mean shit no mo’ (MC Ren, 1998) I’m not your “yo” [¼ African American friend], show me your work! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2006)

44

Forms

Abbreviation is equally popular in slang. This is naturally linked with informality and brevity, but may also be motivated by the cryptic character and, sometimes, rhythmic qualities of lexical abbreviations. This very productive mechanism involves clipping, initialisms and acronyms. All these are evident in African American slang, and are presented below. 2.2.1

Clipping

Clipping is an abbreviation in which part of a longer word is removed to produce a shorter word, without an immediate change in lexical meaning. Standard English examples include cab (from cabriolet), exam (from examination) or fan (from fanatic). Elements may be eliminated from the beginning (e.g. airplane changes into plane), the end (e.g. delicatessen changes into deli), or, rarely, both (e.g. influenza changes into flu). Such shortened forms are almost always less formal than their longer sources. As observed by Eble (1996: 35), for this reason “they have been commonly condemned as slovenly and imprecise” by language purists and educators. Clipping is a very productive process in the creation of slang expressions, mostly due to slang’s tendency to be short and its marked informality. However, it is important to notice that clipping itself does not make a given word slang, while other factors of a social or stylistic nature must also be present. Moreover, as noted by Adams (2009: 102), clipping can indicate familiarity and intimacy, and is also popular for these reasons. In African American slang, just as in standard English, a word may be shortened by back clipping, front clipping, or both. Back clipping (also termed hind clipping) is highly productive in slang. It involves the removal of the final syllable(s) of a word. Significantly, a word is back-clipped as soon as enough syllables are given to make the word intelligible: the stump word is often a first syllable(s) representation of a longer word. See the following examples of back clippings found in African American slang: I used to drive an Ac [¼ Acura automobile] and kept a Mac in the engine (Mobb Deep, 1995) There’s no way he’d come to Cali [¼ California] and not check out the waves (Big Momma’s House 2, film) I owe you, cuz [¼ fellow African American man]! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) I’m not trying to igg [¼ ignore] you or anything but I gotta deal with a lot of stuff right now (David Austin, 2007) He’s old but he’s one tough mother [¼ excellent or admirable man or thing] (Starsky and Hutch, film, 2004)

2.2 Shortening

45

I’m not playing for rec [¼ good time]. I’m playing to win and I’ll do whatever it takes (Hoops Hype, 2010) I rep [¼ represent, support and defend the reputation, especially of where one lives] Brooklyn, home of the gangsta (Wu-Tang Clan, 2004) Lil sis [¼ African American woman] walk away with the dough, y’all niggaz still broke (Puff Daddy, 1997)

Interestingly, certain back clippings take various endings such as the -o, -ie, -y or -s suffix, and sometimes involve respellings. Consider the following examples: What’s your addy [¼ address], so I can mail you a box of tissues to clean up the mess you just made? (Washington Post, 2010) I cannot believe he wore his Afro [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] that big (Bad Boys, film, 1995) He dropped two Benjies [¼ hundred dollar bills] (Boston University Daily Free Press, 2009) I was rollin with Lorenzo in a Benzo [¼ Mercedes-Benz automobile] (Dr. Dre, 1999) I don’t have enough respect for that hoe [¼ contemptible or despicable woman] to even learn her name (Topix, 2010) It’s Boston, homey [¼ fellow African American], what did you expect? (Ebony, 2009) There were so many homies [¼ fellow African Americans] from the Westside (Los Angeles Times, 2006) I like black Timbs [¼ Timberland boots or shoes] and black hoodies (Notorious, film, 2009)

A specific type of back clipping is back formation (sometimes called back derivation or inverse derivation). This rare process involves clipping various endings (such as -er, -ion, etc.) from the end of a word, in the mistaken assumption that the dropped ending was a suffix. What remains of the word is assumed to be a stem, but is actually a newly created word, for instance enthuse, housekeep, intuit, liaise, self-destruct or televise. Note that the resulting form changes in part of speech, and typically becomes a verb. As observed by McArthur (1992: 102), back formation can also be used for effect, and for this reason is sometimes used in slang. Still, back formations are relatively rare, both in general and African American slang, which, as suggested by Steinmetz and Kipfer (2006: 49), is possibly because of their unusual formation. Here are the only examples found in our database: They try to baller-block [¼ be envious and try to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny] us, use absolute power (Kanye West, 2010)

46

Forms I’ll be down there, shortly, to conversate [¼ carry a conversation] about that comment (New York Post, 2009) If you don’t stop hitting on my girl, I’m going to motherfuck [¼ harm, especially as punishment or revenge] you (Urban Dictionary, 2009)

Slang words are also formed by front clipping (also termed fore clipping), which involves the removal of front syllable(s) from a word. The removed syllable is typically unaccented, while the base word is bi- or polysyllabic; note that there is often an apostrophe to indicate where letters are missing. In the context of African American slang, some linguists link front clipping to the loss of an unstressed prefix familiar in Gullah, as in “vorce” instead of “divorce” (Dillard 1972: 254). Consider these examples from the database: It’s unfair because people are basing [¼ criticizing, especially in a loud voice] him (USA Today, 2010) He actually had a fro [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] once upon a time (Washington Post, 2007) Snoop entered with his expensive gators [¼ expensive shoes made from alligator skins] on (News, MTV-TV program, 2005) When he goes to speak about the hood [¼ neighborhood], it’s his hood. His experience in the same bricks, on the same street (Ebony, 2009) They dropped the body where we’d see it. To send the message to the jects [¼ housing projects for the poor] (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) I used to drive a Lac [¼ Cadillac automobile] sippin gin and juice (South Park Mexican, 2001) You sayin’ you a rilla [¼ street tough guy or thug] when you knowin’ you not (Black Planet, 2010) They don’t like that ’tude [¼ arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude] much (Grad Cafe, 2010)

Finally, clipping may occur word-medially. This is similar to blending (discussed later); however, this type of clipping involves primarily internal changes within a single word, while blending always affects the changes of two words fused together. Note that these clippings are often spelled with an apostrophe or hyphen to indicate where letters are missing. Some are used as euphemistic devices to mask expressions perceived as taboo. See the following examples: I really enjoyed you on the Troy Johnson show in B’more [¼ Baltimore, Maryland] (Ebony, 2007) The lady in line before my mom was all g’d up [¼ elegant, stylish or welldressed] (Dreamin Demon, 2009)

2.2 Shortening

47

I couldn’t drink the Henny [¼ Hennessy V.S. cognac] straight, I needed somethin to chase (Jay-Z, 1998) Even if I weren’t a handsome MF’er [¼ excellent or admirable man or thing], my confidence would still score me some chicks (Body Building, 2009) It’s time for Dems everywhere to remind voters that the GOP is MF’ing [¼ extremely or totally] crazy (Washington Monthly, 2013) I did whatever I pleased cause I was the mothering [¼ excellent or admirable] champion (Facebook, 2011)

Longer expressions such as compounds and phrases can also be clipped. As observed in my earlier work, the clipping – in this case also called an ellipsis – may occur at the beginning or at the end, and may involve the whole word or simply a part of it. There are numerous elliptical expressions produced in this way in African American slang. Consider the following examples: The Gonzalez brothers, Jerry and Andy, were born in the Apple [¼ New York City] (Bill Kirchner, 2005) Those two bangers [¼ members of a criminal gang] that were here, what gang are they with? (Urban Justice, film, 2007) They let you drive the Benz [¼ Mercedes-Benz automobile] their daddy bought (He Got Game, film, 1998) If you do cop a ’tude [¼ have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude], I will see to it that you spend the next ten years in prison (Long Kiss Goodnight, film, 1996) You’ve been drinkin’ Kong [¼ cheap and strong liquor]! (Mirrevenge, 2009) This mo-fo [¼ contemptible or despicable man] oversimplified highly complex issues with the typical sprinkling of bad rhetoric (News, CBS-TV program, 2009) Let me get the whole Hilfiger hookup, huh? Definitely, mos def [¼ definitely] (Bamboozled, film, 2000) She has driven through that intersection ninety-leven [¼ very many] times (Contra Costa Times, 2009)

A variation of the above is clipping made by reducing one part of a compound or phrase to a single letter – usually a capitalized initial – while the other element of the compound or phrase is retained. Either the first or the second element may be clipped in this way, and both are often connected with a hyphen. Such clippings are very popular in African American slang because of their succinctness and, possibly, their somewhat cryptic character; they may also be used as euphemistic devices to mask expressions perceived as taboo. Citational corroboration shows the following:

48

Forms Playing B-ball [¼ game of basketball] seems foreign to us now (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2003) What brings you to Atlanta? What do you remember most about your trips to Big A [¼ Atlanta, Georgia]? (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2009) “Detroit,” Sam said blankly. “Big D” [¼ Detroit, Michigan] (Richard T. Lynch, 2003) Eminem, the first white rapper, is from D Town [¼ Detroit, Michigan] (Detroit) (Dayton Daily News, 2006) The first time he was here, he bought a bottle of Jack D [¼ Jack Daniel’s whiskey] (Excess Baggage, film, 1997) I practise safe sex, with girls I lay next, in other words, the j-hat [¼ condom]’s on the head (Big Daddy Kane, 1993) Once the jurors heard the tapes it was clear that he had indeed used the N-word [¼ African American] (Toni Morrison, 1997) In 1991, Clarke was picked as the top sportscaster in O-Town [¼ Oakland, California] (Ocala Star-Banner, 1992)

2.2.2

Initialism

Initialism (also termed alphabetism) is another type of abbreviation. It consists of the initial letters of a series of words pronounced in sequence. Note that initialisms are ordinarily spelled using capital letters, often followed by periods. They are frequently encountered as part of specialized terminology and nomenclature such as technical jargon, and, as noted by Steinmetz and Kipfer (2006: 40), contribute to conciseness, precision and succinctness. Standard English examples include AAA, HTML, M.A., NBC, S.O.S. or Y.M.C.A. African American slang uses initialisms extensively. This is particularly discernible in phrases, which are frequently abbreviated into the initial letters for each word. Again, the motivation may be twofold: brevity of expression or cryptic character. To which one may also add their rhythmic qualities. Here is a collection of some of the most frequently recurring slang initialisms: If you can’t make the trek down to ATL [¼ Atlanta, Georgia] like I did, don’t sweat it (Ebony, 2009) I’m a crazy motherfucker when I’m playing with my AK [¼ AK-47 assault rifle] (Snoop Dogg, 1998) The nearest BK [¼ Burger King restaurant] is in the Pennington Market shopping center (Diane Goodspeed, 2005) I am drinking a D.P. [¼ Dom Perignon champagne] at the moment actually. I love this stuff (Newsgrounds, 2009)

2.2 Shortening

49

Civil rights advocates called the case an example of “driving while black,” commonly called D.W.B. [¼ instance of stopping African American motorists for no apparent reason] (Detroit News, 2002) This guy’s no motherfucking M.C. [¼ performer of a rap song]! (8 Mile, film, 2002) What you doin’ in the PJ’s [¼ housing projects for the poor]? You lost? (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) I was born in SFC [¼ San Francisco, California] and raised in Vallejo (My Space, 2007)

The extreme case of initialism – and clipping at the same time – is reduction to just one letter, typically an initial which is capitalized. Consider the following examples: Chill out, B [¼ man]. I’ma drop you off at the hotel and get back with you later on tonight (Wahida Clark, 2009) That’s why the fuck we’re in the D [¼ Detroit, Michigan] (8 Mile, film, 2002) And if you still don’t know what’s goin’ on, yo G [¼ close friend], I got it goin’ on! (Us3, 1993) The reality of my “special” situation with my main man doing an “L” [¼ life sentence without the possibility of parole] hits me the hardest at that time (Prison Talk, 2005) There’s another offer on eBay for OEM parts but they are more expensive for my wallet. I want to still be drivin’ my V [¼ automobile] for a long time (Honda Owners Club, 2010)

2.2.3

Acronym

Acronyms are yet another type of abbreviation. They are made using the first letters of a series of words and pronounced as one word, as in AIDS, laser, NATO, UNESCO, radar, scuba or sonar. In contrast to initialisms, they rarely have periods separating the letters; they are also more typically spelled without capital letters. As a result, they lose their connections to the individual words from which they are derived and become words in and of themselves. Acronyms are also featured in African American slang, although they are much less frequent than initialisms, favored for their rhythmic qualities. See the following examples: As a BAP [¼ wealthy young African American, especially if pampered or arrogant], I am a child of privilege (Philip Herbst, 1997) Grace Monroe is what they used to call a buppie [¼ young, affluent, citydwelling African American professional]; she’s a black sociologist with a PhD (USA Today, 2006)

50

Forms Thanks to all you haters for all the CREAM [¼ money] you made us! (Wu-Tang Clan, 2001) Lucas loved the Strip view from the rotunda where the group danced to the beats of the deejay [¼ disc jockey] (Las Vegas Weekly, 2010) Rumor has it he will show up starring in a movie about Def Jam star Terry Keaton, an old-school emcee [¼ performer of a rap song] who suffered a severe brain injury breaking up a fight (Ebony, 2009)

2.3

Conversion

Lexical conversion (also variously referred to as grammatical shifting, functional shift or zero derivation) is another common method of enriching the English lexicon. In this process, a word changes its usual grammatical function into another without undergoing any alteration in form. The English lexicon is especially amenable to conversion because English is an analytic language: it has comparatively few forms that associate a word with a particular part of speech. For instance, advance gives no clues about its grammar and, viewed out of context, could be a verb, noun or adjective. Changes from and into various parts of speech are possible, but the most common types of conversion are verbification and nominalization. Conversion is aimed at word economy, so it is commonly used in slang, which favors succinctness and brevity. Conversion is also very productive in African American slang and attests to the creativity and flexibility of its users. According to Major (1994: xxx): “[African American slang] is fluid in this way because it remains open to the influences of verbal forces from every conceivable direction.” 2.3.1

Verbification

Verbification involves the changing of nouns into verbs, and is the most productive type of conversion in English. As humorously observed by McArthur: “There is no noun in English that can’t be verbed” (1992: 263). It is also the single most popular type of conversion in African American slang. Interestingly, the words undergoing this change may either be slang or standard English. Consider the following examples: Ain’t nobody tryin’ to clown [¼ joke, tease or make fun of] me! (Ice-T, 1998) Deejaying [¼ working as a disc jockey] is more intuitive, requires more imagination (New York Times, 2008) Nagin has been both dogged [¼ criticized] and praised since the Katrina disaster (Ebony, 2007)

2.3 Conversion

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You sure she ain’t got no money? She could be frontin’ [¼ pretending], you know? (Jungle Fever, film, 1991) It’s OK as long as they don’t get to ghetto [¼ make something look typical of the inner-city ghetto] their style (New Schoolers, 2002) The band has already started gigging [¼ giving a musical performance or to play a concert] (Billboard, 1999) We like to jam [¼ play improvised music, especially jazz] and improvise (University Wire, 2000) Adams was trying to juice [¼ trick someone out of something] him for money (Los Angeles Times, 2001) Gangstaz do dirty work and get pimped [¼ exploited or taken advantage of] by mobsters (Arrested Development, 1992) I know what they want, they want to sex [¼ have sex with] me (Jay-Z, 1997)

2.3.2

Nominalization

Another frequent process of conversion in English is nominalization. As the name suggests, it involves the changing of verbs into nouns. Although productive, it remains less popular then verbification, possibly because nouns can easily be formed from verbs by adding derivative suffixes such as -ation or -ment (Steinmetz and Kipfer (2006: 122). Still, there are numerous expressions converted in this way in African American slang. Citational corroboration yields the following: Mr. Wilkins is shown wearing a blowout [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] in his toddler years (Baltimore City Paper, 2003) In the suburbs, the dressoff [¼ competition among flashily dressed persons] starts more slowly and rarely reaches the importance it does in Paris (Chicago Tribune, 1985) They called him a fade [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] or something like that (Hentai Geek, 2010) They’ve apparently done this before, just for kicks [¼ good time or pleasure] (Washington Post, 2009) The movie was a rip-off [¼ copy or imitation, especially if illegal] of the more expensive 1967 “The Dirty Dozen,” costarring the ultimate definition of black masculinity Jim Brown (Ebony, 2009) They’re sell-outs [¼ African Americans who are subservient to whites or adopt their values and attitudes] who got out the hood and forgot where they came from (Realest Niggas, 2009)

52

Forms Getting a shout-out [¼ acknowledgment given to someone via the media, especially on the radio or television show] from the Vice President is definitely one way to end your trip on a positive note (Ebony, 2009)

2.3.3

Other processes

Other processes of conversion include changes from and into other parts of speech. They are perceptibly less productive compared to verbification and nominalization, but still account for many expressions found in African American slang. Again, such processes attest to the creativity and flexibility of their coiners. Consider the following examples: You’re not that bone [¼ extremely or totally] stupid to think I would keep you on the payroll (John from Cincinnati, HBO-TV series, 2007) It was brick [¼ very cold] outside, wind and all. For a second, I thought about putting on my gloves (Paul Volponi, 2006) You are not more black if you wear a natural [¼ African American hair that is not chemically processed] (Essence, 2009) Dawg has crazy [¼ a lot of or plenty of] rocks in his watch (Randy Kearse, 2006) Judging from Rebecca’s silence perhaps her boss deaded [¼ refused or said no to] her (Broadband Reports, 2010) Still, just like in his movies, Franco doesn’t half-ass [¼ do or make something without enough effort, care or enthusiasm] anything (News, MTV-TV program, 2011) If we were in the room, we’d run onstage, Kanye-style, to high-five [¼ shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand held high, in greeting or congratulation] her (San Francisco Weekly, 2011) And now I should feel bad about someone who offed [¼ killed] him? (Basic, film, 2003) Your daddy got one-eighty-seven’d [¼ murdered] by a brother and you FiveO in South Central? (Get on the Bus, film, 1996) He’s a stone [¼ extreme or total] bigot with little education (Seattle Times, 2010)

There are expressions which may be converted into various parts of speech. A classic example of such conversion is the African American slang word cool, which may function as an adjective, adverb, noun, verb or exclamation. Consider the following examples: Tech-U is a really cool [¼ excellent or admirable] place (He Got Game, film, 1998)

2.4 Blending

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Might I say, you played it real cool [¼ in an excellent or admirable way] (Sorority Row, film, 2009) Let’s play cool [¼ calmly], okay? (Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series, 2006) Nothing in this world can give you that real deep cool [¼ calmness] (Malcolm X, film, 1992) Sylvia grabs my arm and tells me to cool [¼ quit doing] it (Los Angeles Times, 2000) “I see no reason why you can’t go.” “Cool [¼ it is excellent or admirable]!” (Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series, 2006)

2.4

Blending

Blending (also known as fusion or amalgamation) is a combination of shortening and compounding. Blend words (sometimes called portmanteau words, fusions, amalgams or hybrids) are formed by joining two words and simultaneously clipping part of the first or second word, or both. In English, they are usually used for their succinctness, innovation or catchiness, and are popular especially in product names and in advertising. Examples include: breathalyzer, brunch, croissandwich, docudrama, electrocute, gasohol or smog. Blends are very catchy and therefore a conspicuous part of general American slang. Yet they are not as numerous as one might expect, possibly due to their contrived and complex structure, which sometimes impedes understanding. They are, however, slightly more common in African American slang, which may be explained by an appreciation of verbal creativity and poetic innovation. Representative examples include the following: That girl is blackalicious [¼ (of an African American) sexually attractive] with them pretty eyes and thick thighs (Urban Dictionary, 2011) Her famous bootylicious [¼ sexually attractive] feature needs no further description (Ask Men, 2010) Dianne Reeves was born in Motown [¼ Detroit, Michigan] (Washington Post, 2002) She could never change that mugly [¼ very unattractive] face of hers (Media Takeout, 2008) Wow, that is a really sexcellent [¼ sexually attractive] unit (Wordnik, 2009) He called me a splib [¼ liberal African American who opposes racial discrimination but will not challenge the status quo], then grabbed his dick and gave me the finger (Ricardo Cortez Cruz, 1995) We say you a wanksta [¼ rapper who poses as a gangster] and you need to stop frontin (50 Cent, 2002)

54

Forms Who is that stupid wigga [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop] dissin on that new Timbaland track? (Sound Opinions, 2006)

Certain blending processes are enormously productive and popular in African American slang. Such is the case with numerous blends incorporating the once trendy suffix -izzle, which have become especially associated with hip-hop culture. As mentioned before, they have a rather ephemeral nature, and only a few most popular are listed in the Glossary. Here is a handful of illustrative examples: Karma’s a bizzle [¼ problem or difficulty]. I think if any one of those things had gone differently, I would have made it a lot further in the game (TV Guide, 2006) Bernadette, say some shizzle about the dizzle [¼ state of affairs or a thing at issue]! (Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series, 2009) What Seth needs to do is go back to his hizzle [¼ home or house] (Gaia Online, 2010) In the process, they gave white men a viable and edgy alternative to the N-word, my nizzle [¼ fellow African American]? (News, CBS-TV program, 2007) We also predict a rizzle [¼ real or authentic] revolution resulting in superstar status for this brilliant artist (Your Daily Kicks, 2011) I’m not shizzle [¼ sure or certain] if you noticed, but it’s May 10th (Fargo Hardcore, 2008) I honestly don’t get why people are in such a tizzle [¼ irritation or nervousness] about Rooney leaving (Football 365, 2010)

2.5

Borrowing

Borrowing is an important way of enriching the lexicon. It is an umbrella term which principally involves lexical and semantic borrowing. The former entails one language borrowing entire words from another, with varying degrees of modification, while the latter pertains to the literal translation of a concept from one language to create an entirely new lexical entity in another language. Both are used in African American slang, although they are not very prominent. 2.5.1

Loanwords

A loanword is a lexical item taken from one language into another with various degrees of adaptation in spelling, pronunciation or meaning. In English, a sizeable portion of the lexicon has been created in this way, especially with

2.5 Borrowing

55

words borrowed from Latin, Greek or French which belong to formal and technical vocabularies. In recent times, loanwords have come from a broad variety of source languages, reflecting the increased diversity of the US population, and the speed and ease of modern communication. Furthermore, because of its growing role as the global lingua franca, English itself constitutes a source of borrowing. However, loanwords in African American slang have been relatively small in number. This is can be explained by slang’s characteristic of enhancing solidarity and group-identification rather than any attempt at being cosmopolitan. Also, because slang is ethnocentric, borrowings are somehow not considered interesting simply because they do not sound like English. Moreover, much like jargon, borrowings are used primarily in writing for transmission of specific information among specialists rather than for casual communication. Accordingly, borrowings are extremely rare and often heavily modified. Citational corroboration yields the following: We spent boo coos [¼ a lot of or plenty of (from French “beaucoup”)] of money for equipment and uniforms (City Data, 2010) Rastas were smoking ganja [¼ marijuana, from Hindi “ganja”], Jamaica’s potent marijuana and a religious sacrament for Rastafarians, who cultivate it in the hills (Winston-Salem Journal, 2008) The blueswoman learns that someone’s put a hoodoo [¼ bad luck or a person or thing that brings bad luck (from Fon or Ewe “vodu”)] (or a curse) on her (Craw Daddy, 2010) When they got off the boat, the second word they learned was “nigger” [¼ fellow African American (via Spanish from Latin “niger”)] (Toni Morrison, 1994) Yo, we parlay [¼ have a good time (from French “parler”)], parlay everyday (Snoop Dogg, 1999)

Interestingly, borrowings from African languages remain relatively scarce. Put differently, only a handful of expressions in African American slang can be clearly traced to African origins. Some linguists such as Crystal (1995: 96) or Smitherman (2000a: 25) explain this as a result of the policy of slave-traders which mixed Africans of different language backgrounds in order to prevent rebellion. This practice later resulted in diverse forms of speech used by African Americans; rather than resorting to old African expressions not universally known to all slaves, they either imitated the language of the white people or created their own expressions. Nevertheless, some African expressions still survive: What hip [¼ aware, knowing or understanding (possibly from Wolof “hepi”)] individual inspired this visit to the Biltmore? (Bad Boys, film, 1995)

56

Forms There was this jerk snorin’ like a buzzsaw alongside of me and I’m tryin’ to jazz [¼ have sex with (from Mandinka “jasi” or Temne “jas”)] his wife! (James David Horan, 1991) It’s nothing but a bunch of jive [¼ deceptive or misleading talk (possibly from Wolof “jev” meaning “false talk”)] and junk (Hustle and Flow, film, 2005) We drink juke [¼ liquor (possibly from Wolof and Bambara “dzug” meaning “disorderly action”)] out of glasses, not boxes, and at the risk of appearing hopelessly out of date, we use antique utensils such as forks and spoons (St. Petersburg Times, 2004) If you buy a jumbo [¼ very big (possibly from Kongo “nzamba” meaning “elephant”)] SUV, you’ll pay a little more than that (Chicago SunTimes, 1999) I used to wear a mojo [¼ charm or amulet worn against evil (from Fula “moco” meaning “medicine man”)] around my neck (My Space, 2013)

2.5.2

Loan translations

Borrowing can also be understood as word-for-word translation of a certain expression from one language to another. Put differently, the meaning of a word (or words) from one language is literally translated into the form of another language to create an entirely new lexical entity. Such semantic borrowings (alternatively called loan translations or calques) are well known in English, and include such expressions as brainwash (from the Chinese xǐ năo), flea market (from the French marché aux puces) or wisdom tooth (from the Latin dens sapientiae). Semantic borrowing is also the source of a number of expressions in African American slang. The sources are chiefly languages of West Africa, the area from which most slaves came. Here are a few expressions which are loan translations attributed to African languages: We got the bad [¼ excellent or admirable (from Mandinka “a ka nyi ko-jugu” meaning “it is good badly”)] bitches gaspin for air in Aspen (Jay-Z, 1996) If the Olympics gave a gold medal for fat-mouthing [¼ talking too much (from Mandinka “da-ba” meaning “big fat mouth”)], he would be a cinch (St. Petersburg Times, 1997) There you go! Give me some skin [¼ shake hands with me or slap my hand in greeting or congratulation (from Mandinka “i golo don m bolo” meaning “place your skin in my hand”)]! (Ray, film, 2004) Slap me some skin [¼ shake hands with me or slap my hand in greeting or congratulation (from Mandinka “i golo don m bolo” meaning “place your skin in my hand”)], baby! (Huffington Post, 2010)

2.5 Borrowing

2.5.3

57

Eponyms

Eponyms form a modest yet discernible word-acquisition process. Sometimes considered part of borrowings, these are expressions derived from personal names, often of inventors or creators, or names of fictitious characters. They are initially spelled with the first letter capitalized, but in time lose the capitalization. Examples include: stetson (after John B. Stetson, hat manufacturer), to bowdlerize (after Thomas Bowdler, English expurgator of Shakespeare) and sadism (after the Marquis de Sade). In African American slang, eponyms play a marginal role. This is because they normally require concrete knowledge which enables the speaker to associate the expression with the name. The exceptions include wellrecognized people or fictitious characters who became icons for the popular consciousness. Here are a few examples from our database: A mixed signal is when you saying no but you got your hand on my Jim Browski [¼ penis] (Access Atlanta, 2009) The narc succumbs to his jones [¼ drug habit] and eventually loses everything (San Francisco Weekly, 2006) Even if I don’t ball in my Jordans [¼ any of several brands of Nike gym shoes], I would like the comfort they were made for (Nike Talk, 2011) My hands are shaky and I ain’t feelin’ well from drinkin’ King Kong [¼ cheap and strong liquor] and cheap muscatel (Straight Dope, 2005)

First names used as eponyms are more popular in African American slang. They are also employed for a similar effect. Here is a collection of representative examples: Miss Ann, also just plain Ann [¼ white woman], is a derisive reference to the white woman (Wikipedia, 2009) Our spy says she pulled an envelope of Benjamins [¼ hundred dollar bills] out of her purse and handed one over (New York Daily News, 2009) Let’s go smoke some Buddha [¼ marijuana] and get high as hell (Urban Dictionary, 2006) We kinda jumped from “Charlie” to the racist terms. “Charlie” [¼ white person] wasn’t a racist term (Straight Dope, 2003) I had my jimmy [¼ penis] waxed every day last week (New Jack City, film, 1991) Jody [¼ man having an affair with someone’s wife or girlfriend, especially someone who is in jail or went off to war], are you messin’ with my date? (Baby Boy, film, 2001)

58

Forms I’d focus on that and leave the Oprah-ing [¼ dredging intimate facts from someone] to Oprah (Cooking Light, 2008) “I ain’t some Uncle Tom!” “I didn’t mean you were a Tom [¼ African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes]” (Assassination of Richard Nixon, film, 2004)

Interestingly, eponyms based on first names are often modified to form a compound or phrase. Such usage is very popular in African American slang where there are numerous such expressions used especially for negative or positive categorization. Consider the following examples: A judge once referred to her as an Aunt Jane [¼ African American woman who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes], the black female analogue to Uncle Tom (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 1985) He’s a big Willie [¼ important or influential person] now, rappin bout cars, thousand dollar shoppin sprees, hangin out with stars (Blackalicious, 1999) Her current project, “Miss Anne [¼ white woman] in Harlem: The White Women of the Black Renaissance,” a group biography, is forthcoming from HarperCollins (DuBois Institute Newsletter, 2009) “Miss Anne” and “Mister Charlie” [¼ white person, especially regarded as an oppressor of African Americans] date back to the late 19th century when they became generic (Ebony, 2007) A small group of his supporters shouted “sell-out” and “Uncle Tom” [¼ African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (New York Daily News, 2010)

2.5.4

Brand names

Brand names belong to the same category. These are names protected by legal trademarks and are used to distinguish one product from similar ones offered by competitors. With the growth of the mass-market economy and widespread information, many have become generalized, turning into generic words such as Coke, Jeep, Jacuzzi, Jell-O, Kleenex or Xerox. The assimilation seems unavoidable and visible in the loss of capitalization, as seen in aspirin, celluloid, dictaphone, escalator, velcro, walkman and zipper. In African American slang, brand names play a marginal role. Again, they tend to undergo the process of generalization or assimilation and may lose not only their original capitalization, but also their original meanings. Here are a few examples from our database: Audi 5000 [¼ leave], don’t wait for the Feds to show (Kool G. Rap, 2000) They got a Benz [¼ Mercedes-Benz automobile] but live in their mom’s house (Ice-T, 1999)

2.6 Creating

59

Here’s my how-to roll a Dutch Master [¼ cigar with the tobacco replaced with marijuana], in my opinion, the best blunt (Grass City, 2006) I think almost every year someone calls me Oreo [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Indianapolis Monthly, 2010) She is a used Oreo cookie [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes]. The white community used her and spit her out (Ebony, 2008)

Borrowing may also involve expressions taken from African American slang for use in general American slang. This phenomenon, labeled variously as secondary slang, lexical appropriation, or even Africanization of the lexicon, will be dealt with in the last chapter, which is devoted to functions of slang. 2.6

Creating

Creating is the process of inventing entirely new words (alternatively labeled neologisms) via coinage and onomatopoeia. Respelling is sometimes added to this category, although technically speaking, it involves the modification of existing words rather than the coining of new ones. 2.6.1

Coinage

Creating words from scratch accounts for very few new words in language. According to Eble (1996: 26), coinage accounts for almost no new words in English, and one can offer but a few examples: blurb, googol, hobbit, nylon and quark. This is possibly because these words themselves give no clue to their meaning (Lieber 2010: 51). This is also because rather than by coinage (or root creation), most of words in English are produced in conformity with patterns already established in the language, such as by modifying or attaching new meanings to existing words. Coinage of new words is also rare in African American slang, which may be surprising since slang thrives on novelty. However, this corresponds with the aforementioned tendency in the English language to recycle old words. Most African American slang uses existing words, modified either morphologically or semantically. Still, there are a few African American slang expressions that seem to have been coined ex nihilo, and it is impossible to establish their etymology authoritatively. Here are a few examples of such neologisms: Every woman wanted to jump on his bozack [¼ penis] (Badass of the Week, 2009) Who’s the dicty [¼ self-important or arrogant] kid? (Brother to Brother, film, 2004)

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Forms These hincty [¼ self-important or arrogant] ladies were known for their marital linkages to prominent black men (Washington Times, 1994) I wish your mother and father could see you now. And that ofay [¼ white person] you’re gonna marry (Malcolm X, film, 1992) It’s good that he’s lookin’ for alternate routes to obtain some skrilla [¼ money] (XXL Magazine, 2008)

More often, however, creating is manifested in a novel combination of two or more words, or a combination of a word and affixes, for instance petrodollars, Reaganomics, skyjam, televangelist, unfriend or zoo daddy. If so, many of the slang expressions mentioned so far – especially those created by compounding or affixation – are products of such neological creation. While they are composed of well-known words or affixes, either slangy or standard, the particular combination evokes a strongly novel and exciting effect. Such neologisms are exceptionally frequent in African American slang, which can be explained by an oral tradition of creative wordplay and experimentation deeply rooted in African American culture and visible in hip-hop lyrics. Let us recall some of these expressions: It’s all good to call other men chaps when he’s being what he calls Afro Saxon [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Philadelphia Inquirer, 1998) You try to badmouth [¼ criticize and disrespect] the person who is winning the game (Ebony, 2009) It’s part of a trend among blacks to prove they’re blacker-than-thou [¼ criticizing fellow African Americans for not being African American enough] (New York Newsday, 1993) I’ll be down there, shortly, to conversate [¼ carry on a conversation] about that comment (New York Post, 2009) Dressed in a tunic that read “Illadelphia” [¼ Philadelphia, Pennsylvania] and a matching do-rag, he was getting ready to go to work (New York Times, 2004) The niggarette [¼ fellow African American woman] gave me gonorrhea (Wu-Tang Clan, 1997) You can ask all my homies, all got tenderonis [¼ young sexually attractive women] (Snoop Dogg, 1998) You underdig [¼ understand completely], shorty, it’s all about one thing (Lil Wayne, 2004)

2.6.2

Onomatopoeia

Another type of creating is onomatopoeia (or echoism). In this process, new words are formed from natural sounds, or they are adapted visually to suggest a certain sound, as is the case with bow-wow, ding-dong or tick-tock. In

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onomatopoeic usage, sound and meaning echo and reinforce each other. There are a few dozen onomatopoeic expressions in English, but their application is fairly limited: they are particularly used as exclamations in comic books and advertising. Onomatopoeic expressions also play a rather marginal role in African American slang, although they can be useful thanks to their manner of associating sound and meaning. Here are a few such expressions found in our database: This bling [¼ piece of jewelry, especially a ring]? This is ghetto fabulous! (30 Rock, NBC-TV series, 2008) He is a role model not some athlete or rapper with all the bling-bling [¼ showiness and ostentatious luxury] (Ebony, 2009) This shit is real from jump, so if you wanna thump [¼ fight], we can get started (Ying Yang Twins, 2002) He’s been woofing [¼ threatening by using strong and boastful language] since the season began how he’s going to do this and going to doing that (New York Daily News, 2010) You see us guzzling forties, menthols, wine, and wee. Sitting on the back porch, getting zooted [¼ drunk], feeling fine indeed (Talib Kweli, 2007)

2.6.3

Respelling

Respelling (alternatively termed eye-dialect, phoneticism, distortion or corruption) involves deliberate misspelling of an expression. This is done chiefly for jocular effect, especially in journalism or advertising, for instance Beanz Meanz Heinz, Krispy Kreme or Kwik Kleen; it is used in internet communication for brevity, for instance CU L8R or RUOK; it can also be done to imitate someone’s speech, especially in order to mock or ridicule it, for instance Pahk the cah in Hahvahd Yahd or Oh mah Gawd). Since the resulting forms always violate the norms of standard language, they are considered informal or colloquial. One would expect them to be frequent in slang. Surprisingly, this is not the case, possibly because their contrived form impedes understanding; the graphic representation of slang rarely diverges from the standard English spelling, and odd pronunciations and respellings simply are not commonly seen in slang. However, in African American slang, respelling seems to be much more frequent, if not common (Brasch 1981: 299). This can be explained by African Americans’ traditional interest in wordplay and linguistic experimentation, visible in such cultural manifestations as hip-hop lyrics: “How words sound has always interested black speakers,” says Major (1994: xxix). But in African American slang, this process seems to be used to make a political point: the

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deliberate violation of orthographical conventions signals an independent spirit and opposition to authority. It also feigns illiteracy, which suggests the low socioeconomic status frequently associated with African Americans. Another matter is phonetic respelling meant to represent peculiar features of African American English such as monophthongization, postvocalic /r/-dropping and consonant cluster reductions. Note that this process may involve respelling either a standard or slang expression. Citational corroboration yields the following: Besides being a big balla [¼ someone who makes a lot of money] you’re a babbler too (Bluff Magazine, 2010) I know everything there is to know about the shrimping bidness [¼ business] (Forrest Gump, film, 1994) I would like to make new friends, I am not looking for boody [¼ sex or the sex act] so don’t be misdirected or disappointed (Black Planet, 2009) Can you help a brutha [¼ fellow African American man] out? (Washington Post, 2003) You might get a roommate who’s got a lot more chedda [¼ money] than you (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2001) Dawg [¼ friend], I’m with you on your comments about Wooten and Stanley (Ebony, 2009) I think she has flava [¼ sexual attractiveness], she’s a total package (Right Cross Entertainment, 2009) These cats are madd [¼ extremely or totally] talented! (Yahoo Groups, 2009) I always considered her to be a gorgeous, strong and intelligent sista [¼ fellow African American woman] (Brown Sista, 2008) He is an inspiring and talented emcee who is constantly improving his rap skillz [¼ ability to rap very well] (Rap Weekly, 2010)

Respelling in African American slang is perhaps most discernible in a great number of possible variants of three expressions: motherfuck, motherfucker and motherfucking. As evidenced by lexicographic works on the subject by Widawski (1994) and Sheidlower (1995), their respelled forms may run into a few dozen versions, many of them euphemistic. See the following examples from our database: I remember calling someone an MF [¼ contemptible or despicable man] (Ebony, 2010) This mo-fo [¼ contemptible or despicable man] oversimplified highly complex issues with the typical sprinking of bad rhetoric (News, CBS-TV program, 2010)

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I was sitting next to the mothafucka [¼ contemptible or despicable man] (Chappelle’s Show, WGN-TV program, 2010) I’m a mothafuckin lyrical wordsmith, mothafuckin [¼ excellent or admirable] genius (Democratic Underground, 2009) They’re gonna lock me up. Motherfuck [¼ I am irritated]! (Virgin, film, 2003) He was never bothered by the wretchedness of mothering [¼ extremely or totally] stupid children (Screen Hub, 2009) Did I mention what a sexy muh-fuh [¼ excellent or admirable man or thing] Brook is? (All Hip Hop, 2010) You muthafucka [¼ contemptible or despicable man], that was what I was gonna say! (Black Voices, 2010)

Respelling may also be linked to decoding or cryptic functions. Although this is relatively rare, slang may be formed from various code or cryptic devices, occasionally referred to as little languages. These are vocabularies formed from known words by adding specific, meaningless sounds or groups of letters at the beginning or end of a word, or more typically, before or after each syllable. This may be accompanied by some respelling or reordering of syllables in the word. Possibly the most widely known device linked with cryptic function is the infix -izz- (or -iz-), which was mentioned earlier. It was once enormously productive in African American slang and peculiar to rap and hip-hop parlance. While it contributes virtually no meaning, is it valued for its rhyming, jocular and especially cryptic qualities: as observed by Dalzell (2009: 552), it is often applied to hide the meaning of an expression. Other linguists see its use primarily as an intensifier (Coleman 2012: 37). Here is a selection of such expressions (note that many of them have a rather ephemeral character, and therefore are not included in the Glossary): The dope man don’t give a fuck, he’s all about the dizzolars [¼ dollars] (Master P, 1991) We drizzink [¼ drink] smoothies out of red cups with gorgeous people (Facebook, 2011) Man, that hizzouse [¼ house] just got egged by vandals (Urban Dictionary, 2003) I just tried to do a search on them and I didn’t get shizzit [¼ nothing] (Hard Forum, 2004) My life is wizzild [¼ wild]. I’m moving to St. Louis for college and I’m completely nervous about it (My Space, 2010)

Finally, we should mention another cryptic device, back slang. It is formed by respelling a word backward, placing the last letter first, and so on; this may be

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done with the possible omission of one or more letters. While it enjoys some popularity in Britain, it is exceptionally rare in North America, and virtually non-existent in African American slang. Here is the only back-slang expression found in our database: I wouldn’t go so far as to say she sounds like ish [¼ something inferior or worthless] (Concrete Loops, 2009)

Summary As evidenced in this chapter, the form of African American slang is not fundamentally different from that of standard English. The same wordbuilding processes are applicable, disproving uninformed claims of any alleged linguistic deficiency of African American slang in comparison with standard English. In fact, in African American slang, some of these processes are more prominent and used in a more creative way. In compounding, reduplication is very frequent; interestingly, it never involves the clipping of one element to make a “cryptic” (or “implied”) reduplication, as is common in British slang. Certain affix words are productive in the creation of numerous compounds, for instance: daddy, ghetto, mama, nigga, soul and, especially, ass. In affixation, the infixes -izz- and -izzle- are conspicuous, particularly in hip-hop usage, although no longer in vogue. In phraseology, numerous phrasal verbs are formed in a creative way, either with totally new meanings or in unique combinations of verbs and particles; longer phrases and formulaic expressions, often proverbial in character, are also popular and typically reflect the African American experience. Both in compounding and phraseology, rhyming is frequently employed in African American slang, typically achieved through alliteration and assonance. While numerous expressions are the result of combining, equally common is the short form and the shortening of already existing expressions. Monosyllabic words figure prominently in African American slang. In abbreviation, clipped forms and initialisms are most frequent, while acronyms and back formations are relatively rare. Blending, a marginal wordbuilding process, appears to be surprisingly more common than one might expect. Conversion, especially verbification, is as pervasive as it is in standard English. In African American slang, borrowings and loan translations are not especially prominent. Surprisingly, this also pertains to expressions borrowed from African languages or loan translations from these languages, all of which are relatively rare. Likewise, eponyms are also infrequent, except compounds based on first names which enjoy some popularity. Brand names constitute a marginal part of African American slang.

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Just as in standard English and general slang, creating entirely new words is not popular in African American slang. Coinage and onomatopoeia are seldom found. Respelling, on the other hand, is very frequent; the respelled forms reflect the standard AAVE pronunciation but are also used consciously for a number of sociological reasons stemming from the African American experience. Cryptic devices are virtually non-existent except for a variety of initialisms and clippings which have a more or less overt cryptic character.

3

Meanings

The linguistic description of African American slang must include changes in meaning. The lexicon of any language can be enriched by altering the form of existing words, borrowing foreign words, or inventing entirely new words. However, the lexical enrichment may also by done through a change in the meaning of existing words. Semantic change is a natural and well-established vehicle for language development. It principally involves two main processes: figuration, which makes use of metaphor, metonymy and related figurative means, and semantic shifting, which includes generalization, specialization, melioration and degradation. Although figuration is traditionally associated with poetic diction and shifting is commonly viewed in the context of historical change, both are productive in everyday speech and are as much a part of language as any other linguistic mechanism. In African American slang, figuration and semantic shifting are also important mechanisms. In fact, changes in meaning are at least as important as changes in form. First of all, these semantic processes are enormously productive and account for numerous slang expressions based on standard English. More importantly, their popularity and productivity disprove the popular claims of African American slang’s alleged semantic poverty and expressive deficiency with regard to standard English. The following presentation explores these processes in detail. 3.1

Figuration

Figuration is a well-established process of semantic change. It entails a word gaining further, non-literal meanings, specifically through metaphor and metonymy. The English lexicon abounds in meanings created in this way; examples include: nature spoke, living death and crown of England. Although such figures of speech have long featured prominently in poetry, they are also used frequently in everyday language. In fact, as claimed and illustrated by Lakoff and Johnson (1980: ix), figuration is central to thought, cognition and ordinary, non-literary language. 66

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As observed by Coleman (2012: 31), the figurative use of standard English is one of the most common sources of slang. As mentioned previously, the form of slang rarely differs from that of standard English, so figurative meaning is essential. Literature scholars might take this to be surprising, but slang borders on poetry. Lighter (in Algeo 2001: 225) neatly compares the two: very much like poetry, slang is highly connotative and defamiliarizes the mundane world, and it implies that ordinary language is not quite adequate for certain tasks. Figuration is also a significant semantic process in African American slang, interestingly employing many of the same figurative devices found in poetic language: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, allusion, hyperbole, meiosis, simile, personification and reification. Let us discuss them in detail. 3.1.1

Metaphor

Metaphor is the best-known figure of speech used in figuration. It can be generally understood as the application of a word or phrase to someone or something where it is not meant literally, but is rather used to make a comparison. More specifically, metaphor crosses certain conceptual boundaries, often called domains, and names something by a different name. In this way, it brings likeness or analogy between things that are fundamentally different. For instance, a snake can mean “a secretive, treacherous or dishonest person” because the behavior of such people is similar to what is commonly thought to be the behavior of snakes; the domains, however, are entirely different. In popular opinion, metaphor belongs to poetry, where for centuries it has been admired for crossing the boundaries of human thought and inspiring imagination. Metaphor is by no means exclusive to poetry and is used extensively in African American slang as well. This is due to slang’s tendency to avoid naming things directly on the one hand, and its tendency to trigger striking associations on the other. Here is a selection of relevant examples: We’re all ad guys. Flew in this morning from the Apple [¼ New York City] (Out of Sight, film, 1998) I made the choice to devote my life to having kids and be a baby factory [¼ woman who has had a lot of children] (Los Angeles Times, 2010) I’ll do that later, I gotta bounce [¼ leave]! (30 Rock, NBC-TV series, 2007) You keep laying that pipe [¼ having sex] with Marlene and she’ll make us all rich (Ray, film, 2004) Luckily I found out that she was a lemon [¼ light-skinned sexually attractive African American woman] (Yahoo Answers, 2009) “Concussion? How’s your melon [¼ head]?” “It’s all right” (Criminal Minds, CBS-TV series, 2013)

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Meanings You smoked the blunts and got nice [¼ under the influence of drugs] (Notorious B.I.G., 1994) People are salty [¼ irritated, angry or hostile] because she has the nerve to show her real-woman boobs on TV (Bitch Magazine, 2013) He’s a fuckin’ snake [¼ traitor, especially an informant], you niggaz are fuckin blind to facts (Jay-Z, 2009) I figured that if I just split [¼ departed or left], then the problem would go away (Get on the Bus, film, 1996)

3.1.2

Metonymy

Metonymy is another productive figuration device used in standard English. In metonymy, an attribute of something is used to represent the thing itself. In contrast to metaphor, which crosses different domains, metonymy operates within a single domain, linking things that are somehow associated, and thus, as observed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 35), “allows us to center more specifically on certain aspects of what is being referred to.” Examples of this productive figuration device include the Crown (“monarchy or reigning monarch”), plastic (“credit card(s)”), the press (“newspapers or journalists viewed collectively”) or the White House (“The US President and his staff”). Accordingly, African American slang makes extensive use of metonymy as well. As in metaphors, most slang metonyms operate on the same principles as standard language: the meaning of one word must be associated in some way with the meaning of another. African American slang abounds in words which have acquired new meanings in this way. See the following selections: Man, I got some serious bank [¼ money] in my wallet (Aaron Peckham, 2005) Blaze [¼ light a marijuana cigarette] the spliff! Nigga, did you hear me? (Snoop Dogg, 1999) For weeks, Demi’s teammates referred to her as “blondie” [¼ white woman] or “white girl” (Miami Herald, 2010) I hold my chrome [¼ firearm] steady, with a tight grip (Gang Starr, 1999) Ain’t nobody tryin’ to clown [¼ joke, tease or make fun of] me (Ice-T, 1999) I’m on the strip, eyeballin’ [¼ staring at or observing closely] the chicks (Wu-Tang Clan, 2001) I don’t think they’ve got any funds [¼ money] to give us (Macon Telegraph, 2003) I’m not to be fucked with, step in the range of my gauge [¼ shotgun] and get bucked quick (Ice-T, 1993)

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College hoops [¼ game of basketball], particularly the tournament, provide athletic departments big bucks (Ebony, 2009) We can’t go to no march with a white boy [¼ white man, especially young] driving (Get on the Bus, film, 1996)

3.1.3

Other processes

Synecdoche is often considered a kind of metonymy. It is a figure of speech in which the part stands for the whole or, less commonly, vice versa. English is full of meanings based on synecdoche, for instance, hand (“helper”), sail (“boat”), wheels (“car”) or America (“The United States of America”). Synecdoche, too, is often encountered in African American slang. Again, the reasons are similar to those for metonymy, presented earlier. Here is a selection of citational examples of synecdoche: He comes off as one of the biggest badasses [¼ tough, bold and severe persons] in the history of film (Miami New Times, 2011) Yo bitch, bring your black ass [¼ self, when referring to an African American] back over (Snoop Dogg, 1993) You got some booty [¼ woman as a sex object or partner] in this house? I toId you I don’t want no company in my house (ATL, film, 2006) He has a Russian passport, has lived in the District [¼ Washington, DC] for a decade and is known locally not as Joaquim but as Vasily Ivanovich (Ebony, 2009) I pop open the briefcases, nothin but Franklin faces [¼ hundred dollar bills] (Notorious B.I.G., 1997) Brother, I met this fine pink toe [¼ white person] last night (Urban Dictionary, 2010) I don’t give a damn anyway, hey, skins [¼ women as sex objects or partners] are skins! (Us3, 1993) Get your white ass [¼ self, when referring to a white person] away from that window! (Forrest Gump, film, 1994)

Allusion can be considered a form of metaphor. Many metaphors intensify their meaning by cultural allusions or via reference to an historical or literary event, person or place; quite often, allusion is based on popular culture and leisure activities such as sports, movies, television and popular music. They may be fully comprehensible only if one has the specific knowledge of the referents in question. Representative examples include such expressions as: Alphabet City, Beam me up Scotty, City of Angels, get to second base, pull a MacGyver, take the Pepsi challenge or Volunteer State.

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Such use is especially important in African American slang. This is because slang often relies on shared knowledge that can serve as a sign of belonging to a limited circle of people, exluding outsiders who do not have the specific knowledge in question. In fact, allusion is sometimes so specific that it makes slang incomprehensible for those not familiar with African American culture and history. Such use is consistent with slang’s characteristic of being arcane and secretive. Here is a selection of relevant examples: There are cases filled with Florida post cards that show black babies labeled “alligator bait” [¼ African American from Florida or Louisiana, especially a child] (South Florida Sun-Sentinel, 1990) He’s screaming for revenge against Babylon [¼ aspects of white culture seen as degenerate and oppressive] (Chicago Sun-Times, 2012) He asked the victim to buy him a double deuce [¼ twenty-two-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor] (Chicago Sun-Times, 2012) You Mexican boys can’t play the Dozens [¼ tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] (Bobby, film, 2006) She ain’t no field nigger [¼ rebellious lower-class African American, especially working on a farm] (Django Unchained, film, 2012) They never received the promised forty acres [¼ symbolic reparations for enslavement] (Kansas City Star, 2008) Your cousin gets back from getting her hair fried [¼ straightened by using a heated metal comb] and died (Coach Carter, film, 2005) The ghetto lullaby [¼ innercity-ghetto noise, especially sirens, helicopters, gunfire] puttin’ my kids to sleep (Menace II Society, film, 1992) Uncle Colin was a house nigga [¼ African American who acts subserviently toward a white employer, especially working in a household], did what massa Bush told him to do (Washington Post, 2006) We’re paying tribute to African American history and pop culture in Soul City [¼ Harlem, New York] (Book Reporter, 2010)

Hyperbole is another important device used in figuration. It refers to exaggeration or overstatement, usually deliberate and not meant to be taken literally. In the English language, everyday idioms are often hyperbolic, for instance die of shame, million times, tons of money or waiting for ages. Hyperbole is normally used for emphasis, though overuse reduces its impact. Moreover, hyperbole as a way of exaggerating is especially typical of male talk, as observed by Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxv). Hyperbole is productive in African American slang possibly because of the sarcastic humor typically associated with it. The following citational findings reflect this:

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Let me start off by saying that this is strictly a rumor, so don’t take this as serious as a heart attack [¼ very serious] (Bleacher Report, 2011) I ain’t gonna lie, this is one beastly [¼ unattractive] nigga! (YouTube, 2011) All they need is a computer and they can do it before God gets the news [¼ very quickly] (Helium, 2011) So I deaded [¼ abandoned, especially one’s girlfriend] her. I can’t chill with her anymore. She’s a ho! (New York Magazine, 1997) People say “nigger” about fifty eleven [¼ very many] times in “Django Unchained” (Racialicious, 2013) “I gotta jet [¼ leave]!” “You should definitely come over sometime” (Surface, NBC-TV series, 2005) Niggaz should scream on [¼ criticize and disrespect] him for that (World Star Hip Hop, 2009) He couldn’t get a slave [¼ job]; he apparently drank all the travel money up (Scott Newhall, 1990)

The opposite of hyperbole is meiosis (sometimes alternatively termed litotes) and is another frequently used figuration device. It is an ironic understatement that dismisses or belittles, specifically by using expressions that make something less significant than it really is or should be, for instance calling a serious wound a scratch, characterizing a stupid person as not exactly intelligent, or referring to the Atlantic Ocean as the pond. Meiosis is also used is African American slang, again likely for its sarcastic humor. Citational corroboration yields the following: I came to this world undressed, still no B-coat [¼ bulletproof vest], just my chest (Rap Battles, 2008) We’re having a party at G’s crib [¼ apartment or house]. You interested? (Sopranos, HBO-TV series, 1999) I figured it was only a matter of time until a ghetto bird [¼ police helicopter, often used in inner-city ghetto communities] buzzed the neighborhood (Whittier Daily News, 2009) I don’t know nothin’ about nobody gettin’ offed [¼ killed] (Tresspass, film, 1992) I penciled a note stating that he owed me paper [¼ money] (Orlando Sentinel, 1997) Did you peep [¼ observe, examine or notice] that drop-top thing out front? (Men in Black II, film, 2002)

Simile is yet another figure of speech used in figuration. It entails a somewhat fanciful or unrealistic comparison between one thing and another, employing

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Meanings

the words like or as. There are numerous expressions in English based on simile, for instance, (as) black as coal, (as) busy as a bee, (as) strong as an ox, eat like a pig or sleep like a log. Simile is also found in African American slang where it is normally used to strengthen or emphasize a given quality. Consider the following examples: One’s running around, looking crazy as a motherfucker [¼ extremely or totally] (Precious, film, 2009) They’ve gotta know we’re as serious as a heart attack [¼ very serious] (Youngstown Vindicator, 2011) It’s too cold for you to be runnin’ around barefoot as a river duck [¼ barefoot] (Ross Roeser, 1998) Immigration was on my ass like stank on shit [¼ clinging to or following as closely as possible] (Antonio Styles, 2011) We need to be vigilant and stay on you like white on rice [¼ clinging to or following as closely as possible] (New York Times, 2009)

Another figuration device is personification (or humanization), which is often regarded as an aspect of metaphor. It refers to the attribution of human qualities to objects or abstract notions, as in Baby New Year, Father Time, Mother Nature, Old Man Winter, one-armed bandit or Uncle Sam. African American slang also employs personification, with much the same effect as standard English. Here is a handful of examples: This ain’t no weed, Ray. This is boy [¼ heroin]. It’ll make you ass null and void (Ray, film, 2004) She know I’m motivated by a Franklin face [¼ hundred dollar bill] (Chevy Woods, 2012) In the seventies, they said you couldn’t become addicted to “girl” [¼ cocaine]. We knew different (Word Press, 2009) DD is so fat, he has to strategically place mirrors just to find his jim browski [¼ penis] (Let’s Go Kings, 2010) “Give us your best condoms.” “Fine, fine, Lambskin. Very sensitive. Leaves some feeling for your jimmy [¼ penis]” (Booty Call, film, 1997) This big momma [¼ excellent or admirable thing] cost me $7.30. Well worth satisfying my potato craving (Atkins Diet, 2009) Chicago’s wind is called Mr. Hawkins [¼ cold winter wind] (Blogger, 2010)

Finally, there is a figuration device which is the opposite of personification. It may be referred to as reification (or objectification), and again is regarded as part of metaphor. In such “reverse personification,” humans are referred to by names of objects or abstract notions, often to show distance or detachment for

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oneself, but also scorn or disdain for another, for instance cop, the bench, the law, [party] whip, pillar [of the community], the state. This process is also common in African American slang. Consider the following examples: She’s built like a brick. She’s a brick [¼ sexually attractive woman] (Geneva Smitherman, 2000) I used to help all them crumbs [¼ insignificant people] (Randy Kearse, 2006) You seen her? She’s a dime [¼ sexually attractive person], dawg. Perfect ten, man! (Stone, film, 2010) I love Serena. Serena’s body is sick. As my brother says, “She’s a hammer [¼ sexually attractive woman]” (Media Takeout, 2008) First he was my money grip [¼ close friend], then he stole my honey dip (Del the Funky Homosapien, 1991)

In like manner, humans can also be figuratively referred to by names of animals. This is a very common process and accounts for numerous African American slang expressions (see below). 3.1.4

Figuration themes

Even a cursory analysis of figurative expressions in slang may reveal that certain thematic categories are especially productive in figuration. Put differently, there are numerous figurative expressions built around certain themes. In African American slang, too, there are several recurrent semantic patterns which are used in the production of new meanings. Food is one of the most popular images in African American slang. This is most likely because, besides water and oxygen, food is the most elementary substance needed for human existence; it can appeal to taste, smell, sight and touch. The numerous food words for money, parts of the body, people or intoxication indicate that it means much more to people than mere nourishment. Examples of this theme abound. Consider the following: I’m a sexy banana [¼ sexually attractive light-skinned African American woman] (Facebook, 2010) She still knows how to shake her biscuit [¼ buttocks] on the dance floor (Word Press, 2011) You could make a lot of bread [¼ money] playing it (Los Angeles Times, 1986) You can smoke broccoli [¼ marijuana] and still get lung cancer from it (YouTube, 2007) Miss America even made an appearance, and yes, she’s a real cake [¼ sexually attractive woman]! (QVC Boot Bootique, 2009)

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Meanings He tries to put together enough cheddar [¼ money] to finance his dream (New York Times, 2002) I absolutely hate those stupid crumbs [¼ insignificant people] (Neowin, 2009) Sometimes we’ll throw a white chick in if she has flavor [¼ sexual attractiveness] (Flavor XXX, 2009)

Figuration based on body parts is another heavily exploited image in African American slang. Again, this may be because the human body is one of the first things we learn about ourselves, and serves as the most basic reference system. This theme often involves words considered taboo, many of them with secondary meanings related to sex. Here are some examples found in our database: She had big eyes [¼ intense craving or desire] for Berry, whom she met onstage (Time, 2011) Rubber banded bundles of big faces [¼ any of the new-style dollar bills with large faces of US presidents, especially the new hundred-dollar bills] (Nekousa Mullin, 2004) Well, I know you didn’t bone [¼ had sex with] her (Jungle Fever, film, 1991) That guy was eyeballing [¼ staring at or observing closely] me the whole time (Seinfeld, NBC-TV series, 1999) Invite your single friends to celebrate the glass ceilings that hold all of us back by sucking on the glass dick [¼ glass pipe used to smoke crack cocaine] (Madatoms, 2010) And nine times out of ten, the honey he’d hit skins [¼ have sex] with, she’d be a white girl (Get on the Bus, film, 1996) He described the irresponsible speaker as talking like a man with a paper ass [¼ insignificant man] (Zim Dog, 2009) Walking is for old heads [¼ older persons]? I can’t believe what I’m hearing (Kath and Kim, NBC-TV series, 2008)

There are many more productive themes used in figuration. Below is a selection of them along with citational corroboration. Figuration based on colors is an established pattern of creating new meanings in languages. In African American slang, most expressions built around this theme refer to matters of race and skin color, which is not surprising given the aggregate experience of African Americans after over three hundred years of living in America. Consider the following expressions: You don’t bring no brown sugar [¼ African American woman, especially if sexually attractive] (Jungle Fever, film, 1991)

3.1 Figuration

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They were white and I was black. We’d call them “ofays” or “grays” [¼ white persons] (Geraldine Coleman, 1996) Now you’re the finest girl I ever saw in my life, I want to stick to you like white on rice [¼ clinging to or following as closely as possible] (Tina Turner and Kurt Loder, 1980) The term was created by pinks [¼ white persons] to deny responsibility for systemic racism (AntiRacist Workshop, 2013) I dream of the day when the Red, Black and Green [¼ color combination suggesting strong identification with African Americans and their experience] will be on proud display (Black World Today, 1999) I was born a white nigga [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop]! (SOHH, 2007) I ain’t no white trash [¼ poor white person, especially from the southern USA]! (Cape Fear, film, 1991) Blacks think of her as a yellow [¼ light-skinned African American, especially a sexually attractive young woman] (Alice Walker, 1998)

Figuration involving animals is also frequent in African American slang. Expressions based on this theme typically involve an attribution of an animal nature or characteristic to a person or an object. Citational corroboration yields the following: Come on, alligators [¼ devotees or performers of swing music, especially if white]! It’s not enough to dance the dances, you need to talk the talk of swing (Baltimore Sun, 2001) I think you got more sense than any cat [¼ man] in this prison (Malcolm X, film, 1992) I came to cop some licks from some more experienced cats [¼ jazz musicians], you dig? (Ray, film, 2004) I’ve seen pix of her from back in the day and she was such a fox [¼ sexually attractive woman] (Us Magazine, 2010) I’ve got two Cadillacs to drive. A lot of guys work all their lives and never get to drive a Hog [¼ Cadillac automobile] (Sports Illustrated, 2010) The roaches [¼ police officers] will shit themselves to death (Naked Lunch, film, 1991) He had been suffering from paranoid schizophrenia and regularly smoked skunk [¼ very strong marijuana] (Washington Post, 2007) Boy, you’re a real snake [¼ traitor, especially an informant]! (Dreamgirls, film, 2006)

Figuration based on numbers is another frequent pattern. Associating numbers with words or concepts has a long tradition, seen in numerology or the Hebrew

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Meanings

system of gematria. In African American slang this association is contextdetermined and its understanding requires the knowledge of concrete concepts to which numbers relate. Consider the following expressions: The Dozens [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] is about maintaining your cool (Los Angeles Times, 1994) “Give me five [¼ hand-slapping in greeting or congratulation],” he shouts, left arm straight up with five fingers extended (City Pulse, 2010) When somebody buys a forty [¼ forty-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor], they’re going to drink a forty (Charlotte Observer, 1998) Message me your details and I’ll give you the four eleven [¼ information or facts] on the price (Facebook, 2013) I pack a nine [¼ nine-millimeter handgun] all the time (Snoop Dogg, 1998) “Look out, nigga!” “What’s up, punk?” “Possible one-eighty-seven [¼ murder] at corner of Crenshaw and Century” (Boyz in the Hood, film, 1991) Gangsta-ass niggas think deep up three sixty-five [¼ continuously or nonstop], cause real gangsta-ass niggas don’t sleep (Geto Boys, 1992) We’re gonna be watching you twenty-four seven [¼ continuously or nonstop] (Showtime, film, 2002)

Last but not least, let us mention yet another figuration theme: the family, which is the source of several slang expressions in African American slang. As noticed by Dalzell (2010: 13–14) metaphors based on the family serve the purpose of constructing a new, positive self-identity. This is largely the case, although there are also negative, ironic expressions related to this theme which refer to the subservience of African Americans. Here are some examples found in our database: Willie is shot down by a young black woman he accuses of being an Aunt Thomasina [¼ African American woman who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (San Jose Mercury News, 1991) Three proofs that Jesus was black: he called everybody “brother” [¼ fellow African American], he had no permanent address, nobody would hire him (Reinhold Aman, 1993) Your cuz [¼ fellow African American] seems like she is exaggerating a bit (Black Voices, 2011) If we don’t respect our sisters [¼ African American women], who will? (8 Mile, film, 2002) You have been called a traitor, an Uncle Tom [¼ African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Bamboozled, film, 2000)

3.2 Shifting

3.2

77

Shifting

Semantic shifting is an established mechanism of change in the meaning of words. It involves such semantic processes as generalization, specialization, melioration and pejoration, all of which can affect both denotative and connotative meaning. Shifting is usually observed through the passage of time. In standard language, it is evident in shifts from older meanings into new ones, often important to consider in an historical context. For instance, the word gay once meant “merry” but shifted denotation to mean “homosexual.” Since much of slang is formed from old words which acquire new meanings, semantic shifting strongly features in African American slang. By way of analogy, shifts in meaning of slang expressions can be compared to shifts in standard language throughout history. There are numerous slang expressions which changed their meanings in this way; for instance, the expression Ann was first used to mean “a white woman” but, through shifting, came to be used for “an arrogant African American woman who acts like a white person.” All these shifting processes are employed in African American slang. 3.2.1

Generalization

Generalization (alternatively termed broadening or extension) widens the denotative meaning of a word, rendering it broader or more inclusive over time. In standard English, many words have acquired their current meaning through this process. For instance, novice once meant “an initiate in a religious order” but has widened its meaning and now can be used to refer to “any beginner in any field or discipline.” African American slang expressions employ generalization as well. The meaning is widened with regard to standard words that become slang in this way, but also with regard to words that are already slang and have acquired additional meanings. Here is a selection of expressions whose meaning became generalized: I better hurry up and finish this comment before the plug gets pulled and can’t find me some booty [¼ woman as a sex object or partner, not just the buttocks] (CNET, 2009) Taylor Swift won’t ever become a diva [¼ any accomplished and distinguished woman, not just a celebrated female opera singer] who gets caught up trying to bask in her own spotlight (Appleton Post-Crescent, 2009) They tell the taxpayer how it’s using our tax ducats [¼ money in general, not just old European coins named “ducats”] (Ebony, 2009) My woman need funds [¼ money in general, not just amount of money saved or invested], plus her hair and her toes done (Wu-Tang Clan, 2007)

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Meanings Yet if a woman, irrespective of her sexual orientation, was promiscuous, she was a ho’ [¼ any sexually promiscuous woman, not just a prostitute], no explanation needed (Mary Morrison, 2009) Cookbook author Marlena Spieler has a jones [¼ any intense craving or desire, not just a drug habit] for cheese (Kansas City Star, 2006) Ain’t ya goin’ to introduce me to this good-looking mama [¼ any woman, especially sexually attractive, not just someone’s mother]? (Rebecca Buckley, 2006) Ninja don’t sweat. Bullets can’t kill a ninja [¼ any tough person, not just a Japanese martial arts expert]! (Facebook, 2012)

3.2.2

Specialization

Specialization (or narrowing) is the opposite of generalization. It entails semantic change in which the denotative meaning of a word becomes narrowed, less general or less inclusive over time. Again, many current meanings in English lexicon have come about as a result of this process. For instance, meat once simply meant “food” but has narrowed its meaning and now is used only to refer to “the flesh of an animal used as food.” African American slang also features specialization. Again, the meaning is narrowed with regard to standard words that become slang in this way, but also with regard to words that were already slang to begin with. Here is a selection of expressions whose meanings have become specialized: Look, I don’t need your attitude [¼ arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude, not any attitude] (Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series, 2008) I can do [¼ have sex with, not do any activity in general] anybody (54, film, 1998) He moved deftly between classic lyrics and his own added freestyle [¼ spontaneous and improvised music, especially rap, not just any improvisation] (Ebony, 2009) Let’s not talk, let’s get busy [¼ have sex with, not get busy in general]! (South Park, film, 1995) He doesn’t actually smoke herb [¼ marijuana, not any herb] up there (Orlando Sentinel, 2008) I saw your man [¼ close friend, not just any man], man! (Paid in Full, film, 2002) That’s a lot of paper [¼ money, not just any paper], dawg (Crossover, film, 2006) You’ll meet my people [¼ friends, not just people in general] (Ice-T, 1999)

3.2 Shifting

79

You didn’t just go up to a girl and ask her for her seven digits [¼ telephone number, not any set of seven digits] (Washington Post, 1999)

3.2.3

Melioration

Melioration (alternatively termed amelioration or elevation) is yet another semantic process of change in language. It involves an “improvement” in the meaning of a word whose connotations become more favorable over time. Put differently, “words improve in reputation” (Steinmetz and Kipfer 2006: 108). Many current meanings in the English lexicon have come about as a result of this process as well: for instance, knight once meant “a boy” or “male servant” but has improved its meaning to refer to “a noble soldier of higher rank” or “a man who holds the title Sir.” Melioration is also widespread in African American slang. This is because much of slang is negative and involves taboo references to sexual acts, body parts and bodily functions. However, through increased use, these expressions lose their shock value and become more positive. For instance, the world of African American music was responsible for popularizing the meliorated meanings of jam, jazz and juke, all of which originally had sexual references. Here are more examples of slang expressions with ameliorated meanings: Oh my God! You’re so bad [¼ excellent or admirable]! You’re the man! (Strictly Sexual, film, 2008) Diane excelled as the sophisticated bitch [¼ woman] (Tom Lisanti, 2000) You burn [¼ cook, especially if very well] supper? Who’s the lucky girl? (Jungle Fever, film, 1991) I’m gonna need an accountant to count all my cheddar [¼ money] and stuff (A Good Day to Be Black and Sexy, film, 2008) Here’s a fatass [¼ big or impressive] check to smooth out the ride (Catch and Release, film, 2006) I vouch for this motherfucker [¼ excellent or admirable man], he’s a motherfucking genius (8 Mile, film, 2002) They still bring the noise [¼ music, especially instrumental music rather than vocals] (Ebony, 2009) Brandi was a thick [¼ (of a woman) curvaceous] cute little chick (Snoop Dogg, 2006)

Perhaps the most conspicuous instance of melioration in African American slang is the word nigger (and its variant, nigga). It is arguably among the most offensive racist slurs in the English language. However, when used by African Americans in reference to themselves, it often loses its negative meaning. As observed by Major (1994: xxxi), “Black speakers, in self mockery, can call

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Meanings

each other ‘nigger’ and, in a sense, make null and void racial slurs of white bigots.” This pertains to the use of the word by itself but also to numerous combinations whose semantic ranges vary. Consider the following: Who’s the Boss Nigga In Charge [¼ an African American person in charge]? Who the motherfucking boss? (Slim Thug, 2009) I’m the Head Nigger In Charge [¼ African American person in charge] (Malcolm X, film, 1992) Black kids call each other “my nigger” [¼ fellow African American] (New York Times, 2005) I hope you have a Niggalicious [¼ excellent or admirable, especially if connected with African Americans] Christmas (YouTube, 2010) I don’t think that niggarette [¼ fellow African American woman] is so damn sexy (Get Big, 2009) Nigger please [¼ I am irritated and exasperated]! It’s the White House! (Live Journal, 2009) Why don’t you talk like the rest of us poor niggers [¼ fellow African Americans]? (Alice Walker, 2013)

3.2.4

Pejoration

Pejoration (alternatively termed degradation or degeneration) is the opposite of melioration. It involves a “depreciation” in the meaning of a word whose connotations have become less favorable or have worsened over time. Historically, pejoration has shaped the meanings of many standard words. For instance, silly once meant “blessed” or “innocent” but has worsened semantically to mean “ridiculous” or “trivial.” This process is also encountered in African American slang, which often favors mockery and degradation. Because of the generally negative tone of slang, pejoration is considered less evident than melioration (Eble 1996: 59). Our findings support this. Consider the following expressions that have undergone pejoration: “You’re a real bear [¼ unattractive person, especially a woman]!” “Why insult me?” (Matter of Size, film, 2009) I would bend Amanda over, lick her fish hole [¼ vagina], then pound that sweet little love muscle (Ninja Dude, 2009) For all those days you tried to game [¼ deceive or manipulate] me (AZ, 2000) I don’t understand why dudes are so geographical [¼ harboring prejudice against someone because of their place of origin] when it comes to music (Realest Niggas, 2010)

Summary

81

You smoked the blunts and got nice [¼ under the influence of a drug] (Notorious B.I.G., 1994) The game’s out there. Play or be played [¼ be deceived or outsmarted] (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) It was time to quit styling [¼ boasting or acting in a showy way] and focus on the pursuit of their state championship (Chicago Tribune, 2002) Mantan is a Tom [¼ African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes], Mantan is a disgrace (Bamboozled, film, 2000)

Sometimes, the melioration or pejoration in slang can be extreme and involve a total reversal of meaning. Antiphrasis, as it is technically called, is the use of an expression to mean the opposite of its usual sense, for instance saying that’s wonderful when one really thinks something is terrible. Brasch calls this “semantic inversion” and considers it an important feature of African American lexis (1981: 295). Dalzell views such inversion as a sign of rebellion, and explains that it “is a linguistic world-upside-down view, in that what the dominant society views as positive is negative, and vice versa” (2010: 24). Indeed, there are numerous examples of this interesting process in African American slang, showing a fondness for wordplay and semantic experimentation. Consider the following: Tell me, what is the biggest, baddest [¼ most excellent or admirable] hamburger you guys got? (True Romance, film, 1993) You were the illest [¼ most excellent or admirable] man alive, now I’m reading your eulogy (Gang Starr, 1998) It was illin’ [¼ excellent or admirable] seein my nigga DJin at the clubhouse last night (Facebook, 2011) It’s gonna be a mean [¼ excellent or admirable] bike, maybe the baddest we ever built (Skateland, film, 2010) Check out the brainy Brett! You’re a smart motherfucker [¼ excellent or admirable man]! (Pulp Fiction, film, 1994) He’s a motherfucking [¼ excellent or admirable] genius (8 Mile, film, 2003) Everybody loves those guys. They throw the sickest [¼ most excellent or admirable] parties (Old School, film, 2003) He did it in such vicious [¼ excellent or admirable] style, too. Smiling, talking to the audience and his opponents (Ebony, 2008)

Summary As demonstrated above, African American slang is also created by attaching new meanings to already existing standard English words. This is done by the

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Meanings

process of figuration which often involves various changes in meaning called semantic shifts. In that respect, African American slang is not different in any way from the standard English lexicon, where figuration and shifting are used extensively to form new meanings. Moreover, these two processes often feature in poetry, and their pervasive use in African American slang attests to great linguistic creativity and experimentation. Figuration in African American slang is extensive and involves metaphor, metonymy and several other processes; notable is the use of allusion specific to the African American culture and experience. Figuration themes are generally consistent with those used in general American slang and involve food, body parts, animals and a few others; however, certain themes, such as colors, are much more prominent. Semantic shifting is extensive as well. It involves all four processes: generalization, specialization, melioration and pejoration. All of them occur in standard English and are connected with historical change in the language; in slang, however, they happen quicker and are therefore more conspicuous. Most notable is the ameliorated meaning of the racial slur nigger, although this usage remains the exclusive bailiwick of African Americans, and remains offensive when used by outsiders.

4

Themes

The linguistic description of African American slang would be incomplete without an examination of its themes. The lexicon of any language can be divided into certain thematic categories, technically labeled semantic or lexical fields. For instance, a semantic field for cars may include sedans, station wagons, convertibles or sport utility vehicles, while one for emotions may contain anger, envy, fear, joy, sorrow and so forth. Although devising a complete list of semantic fields is impossible, such categorization proves very useful. By grouping expressions thematically, specific areas of human experience can be isolated and analyzed; for instance, a proliferation of expressions in a given field may indicate that it is particularly significant. In this way, it offers valuable insight into what a given language community considers socially and culturally important. African American slang can also be categorized in this way. Studies by Dillard (1977), Rickford (2000) and Green (2002) show that it finds expressions for a wide variety of themes. Some scholars even claim that it can substitute for standard English in nearly all ways. Says Major: “[African American slang] serves as a device for articulating every conceivable thing imaginable” (1994: xxviii). Of course, not all standard words have slang counterparts – for instance, scientific, technological or religious vocabulary. However, there are certain semantic fields in African American slang which are exceptionally prolific. These can be divided into two main categories: common themes which are shared with general slang, and culture-specific themes which are inherent to the African American experience. 4.1

Common themes

Certain themes are particularly common in slang. As evidenced by earlier studies (Spears 1990 and Widawski 1997), most of the slang lexicon has centered traditionally around the following themes: human body, physiology, sexuality, alcohol, drugs and evaluative categorization – all being socially taboo in mainstream American culture. One may label them “common” because they are universally featured in the slang of most languages. 83

84

Themes

This may stem from the fact that they all entail a human element and are close to our nature. Moreover, the great synonymity and profusion of expressions within these themes suggest that standard vocabulary is often an inadequate form of expression. African American slang is no exception. The common themes are exactly the same as those employed in general American slang and include all of the aforementioned themes. At the same time, their popularity is attributed to the very same reasons given above. From this perspective, a sizeable part of African American slang is no different from the aggregate of slang used in America. Naturally, there are also culture-specific themes which are pertinent chiefly to the African American experience; these, however, will be discussed later. 4.1.1

Body

The human body is as central to slang as slang is to human nature. Using our bodies to experience the world via sensory perception is something intrinsically human. On the other hand, social standards of propriety impose a different perception of this physical aspect. While the common attitudes about body parts – especially sexual organs or physical distinctiveness – have become more tolerant in recent decades, this theme still constitutes a cultural and social taboo. Slang overcomes the taboo by accepting these socially unsanctioned expressions. This necessarily limited but highly productive theme is also one of the largest themes in African American slang. It includes expressions for the body in general, body sizes and shapes, attractive and unattractive physiques, specific parts of the body, and many others. The selection below is a mere sample: She said that she would kick McFixx in her biscuit [¼ buttocks] (Spoof, 2009) I could go on and on about his cock, his bone [¼ penis] (Four Rooms, film, 1995) That woman is a real brick [¼ sexually attractive woman, especially if curvaceous] (Birmingham Post, 2001) She’s a real cake [¼ sexually attractive woman]! I’m filthy rich Chinese and I want to spend all my money! (Dark Winter, 2010) She’s attracted to these dumb, musclebound dickheads, cock diesels [¼ muscular men] that can’t even turn to wipe their ass (Bad Boys II, film, 2003) Nigger? Who’s wearing the conk [¼ hairstyle of straightened hair, done especially by lye and other chemicals]? (Malcolm X, film, 1992)

4.1 Common themes

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She also testified that appellant put his fingers inside her “coochie” [¼ vulva] (Leagle, 2010) The red one? With the naps [¼ extremely tight curls of natural, unstraightened African American hair]? (Bad Boys, film, 1995)

4.1.2

Physiology

Human physiology is another central theme of slang. This is understandable since the theme is almost entirely made up of references to what constitutes a cultural and social taboo in American culture. Again, slang overcomes the taboo by accepting these socially unsanctioned references. This fertile theme includes expressions for types of physiological processes, conditions and products. Surprisingly, in African American slang this theme is somewhat underrepresented. Here are a few expressions found in our database: Your album was like dookie [¼ excrement] on the street, it just sat there and stank (Fear of a Black Hat, film, 1993) If you have a dog, you can bank on stepping in ish [¼ excrement] (Network 54, 2008) He muffled his poot [¼ expulsion of intestinal gas through anus] by pulling his ass cheeks apart (Imperfect Enjoyment, 2012) Which one of y’all pooted [¼ expelled intestinal gas through the anus]? (ATL, film, 2006) “This is the fucking shit!” “Yeah, it’s the shiznit [¼ excrement]” (Generation Kill, HBO-TV series, 2008) Hey, man, we’re stopping for a shizzle [¼ excrement]! (HF Boards, 2010)

4.1.3

Sexuality

Sexuality is one of the largest semantic fields in slang. This is because sex is the most primal and desirable human activity. While the norms of social acceptance for sexuality have changed over the past few decades, sex still evokes strong emotions and still constitutes a taboo. The irreverent character of slang allows it to overcome taboo. Additionally, as observed by Spears (1981: ix), the abundance of sexual slang expressions is attributed to the teasing nature of sexual wordplay. Finally, the pronounced synonymity in this area seems to imply that standard vocabulary is again inadequate: says Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxvi): “standard words referring to sex are so scarce or remote and scientific that slang is often used in referring to the most romantic, the most obscene, and the most humorous sexual situations.” This vast theme is one of the largest in African American slang and comprises expressions for a variety of things, people, states and activities: sex

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Themes

in general, types of sexual activity, sexual preferences, sexual attractiveness, sexual partners of either sex, sex for profit, and many others. The following is a modest selection of representative examples: Are you boning [¼ having sex with] our target’s sister? (Dexter, ShowtimeTV series, 2010) It’s a gorgeous ballad about a boozy late-night booty call [¼ sexual arousal or desire to seek a sex partner] (Washington Post, 2011) They make you feel like you bust a nut [¼ have an orgasm] from raw sex (Wu-Tang Clan, 2004) You’re doing a hot twenty-two and you’re cheating on her? I’m so proud of you! My brother’s a dog [¼ seducer or womanizer, especially if very skillful] (Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series, 2006) When the bitch get a nut [¼ has an orgasm], her pussy squirt (Slim Thug, 2009) Are you wearing a jim hat [¼ condom]? If so, try going bare back (Sport Bikes, 2010) The glazed look, sophomoric grin, and gleam in his eye when he mentions his mojo [¼ sex appeal or sex drive] is insulting (Stephanie Rose Bird, 2004) All the skanks [= prostitutes] you hired are light-skinned with fine bodies (Shield, FX-TV series, 2007) Women are out looking for a sugar daddy [¼ male lover who supports a younger mistress] to take care of them, so they can remain little girls (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2010) Why didn’t you tell me you were tapping [¼ having sex with] my own homegirl? (Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series, 2009)

4.1.4

Alcohol

Intoxication by alcohol is another recurring theme in slang. The extensive synonymity and broad scope of this theme can be attributed to the reasons mentioned above. Being intoxicated is socially taboo and may be punishable under the law, yet it is something normal, natural and inherently human. As noted by Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxiv), the use of slang is often “a verbal attempt to convey our understanding and awareness of the condition.” In other words, slang shows that we, too, are human and know the effects of excessive drinking. This theme is also a noticeable part of the lexicon of African American slang, although it is not as extensive as in general slang. Eble (1996: 82) even talks about “the lack of terms for drinking and drunk.” Still, one can find quite a few examples in our database. The theme includes various expressions for

4.1 Common themes

87

alcohol, types of alcoholic drinks, their quality, quantity and packaging, getting intoxicated, and many others. Here is a representative sample of these expressions: I see you two steppin in the club and a bottle of bub [¼ champagne or sparkling wine] (LL Cool J, 2008) I will never run to a gas station for a pack of forties [¼ forty-ounce bottles of strong and cheap malt liquor] (Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series, 2010) He was talking about the not-so-fine ghetto wine [¼ cheap wine] (Michigan Daily, 1997) Geez, how can you drink that ink [¼ cheap wine, especially red]? Gimmie an ice-cold Corona! (Spaces, 2010) He zigged and he zagged and he had too much juke [¼ liquor] (New York Post, 1999) That’s what you get for drinking Kong [¼ cheap and strong liquor]! (View More Pics, 2009) You were nice [¼ drunk] and passed out in the car, so we kept drinking (VW Vortex, 2008) We be drinkin’ Moe [¼ Moet champagne], doin’ dances on that hoe (Nah Right, 2006) Anyone find around 500 cases of pimp juice [¼ champagne] under their Christmas tree? (Chicago Tribune, 2006) My function is to make much and lay back sippin Remy [¼ Rémy Martin cognac] on the rocks (Jay-Z, 1996)

4.1.5

Drugs

Drug use is another extensive theme in slang. While it shares all the characteristics of alcohol intoxication, it is more extreme, more addictive, and more closely associated with the criminal underworld. For these reasons, it too is fertile ground for slang. This huge theme is also prominent in African American slang. It includes various expressions for drugs in general, drug users and dealers, the effects of drug use, types of drugs, and their quality, quantity and packaging. Here is a selection of representative expressions: Can I blaze [¼ smoke a marijuana cigarette] some chronic with you? (Dr. Dre, 1992) You would probably see people lying out in the streets blowed [¼ under the influence of a drug] (Austin Weekly News, 2009) I was always high on Buddha grass [¼ marijuana] (Atlantic Monthly, 2000)

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Themes So is drinking and snorting cake [¼ cocaine], but people still do it! (Subfighter, 2009) I’m gon’ be smokin’ dank [¼ high-quality marijuana], livin’ like a boss (Snoop Dogg, 2008) An eightball [¼ one-eighth of an ounce of cocaine] of cocaine sells for $265 to $350 (Richmond Times, 1995) Usually it’s just a few able-bodied niggas floating [¼ under the influence of a drug], giggling like bitches (Nigga Know, 2007) It’s like they’re geeked up [¼ under the influence of a drug] on something (Los Angeles Times, 2002) People who smoke skunk [¼ very strong marijuana] are eighteen times more likely to develop psychosis than those who take milder forms of cannabis (Nursing Times, 2008) Younger guys get together to smoke some tea [¼ marijuana] instead of swilling Scotch (Metro News, 2008)

4.1.6

Categorization

Last but not least, there is an evaluative categorization theme. Since categorization is usually linked with emotions, and one of slang’s most salient features is emotive connotation, it stands to reason that this is an enormously productive theme in African American slang. Moreover, the abundance and great synonymity of evaluative expressions can be explained by overlexicalization, which, according to Halliday (1978: 165–166), is the extreme and seemingly unnecessary creation of synonyms for existing referents. Overlexicalization is said to be conditioned by an endless search for originality or a constant need for secrecy, but it is also frequent in the speech of social groups which do not associate themselves with the dominant mainstream society. This vast theme comprises expressions for all sorts of evaluative categorization: that of people, things, states and actions; and that of people according to their affability, intelligence or actions. However, it is frequently polarized into either very positive or very negative meanings. As evidenced by findings from our database, positive and negative expressions seem to be of equal proportion, just as our likes and dislikes. Positive categorization is very popular in African American slang. This is probably because it is strongly linked with human nature and the desire to express positive emotions such as joy or pleasure. This vast theme contains numerous expressions, often synonymous, for all kinds of positive categorizations of people, things, states and actions. Notice that some expressions have undergone the process of melioration (discussed in the previous chapter), and

4.1 Common themes

89

shifted their meanings from negative to positive, a feature particularly common in African American slang. See the following: “Chillin’ With The Sisters” was all that and then some [¼ excellent or admirable]! (Ebony, 1994) Who’s that deaf [¼ excellent or admirable] chick packin heat? (Daily News of Los Angeles, 1989) Mona, can I buy you a drink? You look fly [¼ excellent or admirable] as shit. Damn! (Hair Show, film, 2004) They soon realize that what they really want is a fine pad and a foxy [¼ (of a woman) sexually attractive] chick (New York Times, 1996) She’s drivin’ around in her fresh [¼ excellent or admirable] little car (Hair Show, film, 2004) He was hip [¼ fashionable or popular] and funny and smart as hell (Washington Post, 2003) We need fine bitches and phat [¼ excellent or admirable] rides (8 Mile, film, 2002) Who is these righteous [¼ excellent or admirable] motherfuckers with their flags out? (Wu-Tang Clan, 1998) So all the sexy tenders [¼ young sexually attractive women] who wanna holla send me a message! (Black Planet, 2010) This dude is the bomb [¼ excellent or admirable person], everybody likes him, everybody respects him (Columbus Dispatch, 2010)

Negative categorization is also a very productive theme in African American slang. Again, possibly because it is strongly linked with human nature and human emotions. While it is human to verbally express joy and pleasure, expressions of anger and contempt are similarly frequent. This vast theme involves expressions for all types of negative categorization of people, things, states and actions. Here is a representative sample: He’s not really a double-clutcher [¼ contemptible or despicable and untrustworthy person] (Honolulu Advertiser, 2008) You too facety [¼ self-important or arrogant], I think (Seattle PostIntelligencer, 2001) Dear foolio [¼ stupid person]! Real men don’t treat women like garbage! (News, MTV-TV program, 2008) You gotta watch them haters [¼ envious persons who are trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny] (Master P, 2005) They got us into university and then we got hinkty [¼ self-important or arrogant] and didn’t want to talk about that anymore (Michigan Citizen, 1998)

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Themes I wanna get this motherfucker [¼ contemptible or despicable man] who did this (Dexter, Showtime-TV series, 2008) Fight me, you punk-ass [¼ weak, timid or cowardly] bitch! (8 Mile, film, 2002) There was this very scaggy [¼ unattractive and often sexually promiscuous], skinny ho hanging out the door (USA Sex Guide, 2009) Those skags [¼ unattractive women, especially if also sexually promiscuous] make up fifty percent of the audience (Art School Confidential, film, 2006) All those colleges hadn’t made her uppity [¼ self-important or arrogant] (Toni Morrison, 2004)

4.2

Specific themes

As observed by Eble (1996: 51), “the slang of a group proliferates around topics of importance to that group.” While most semantic fields of African American slang are virtually identical with those found in general American slang, there are certain themes which exclusively refer to African Americans’ lives and experiences. Put differently, these are the themes which reflect reality as experienced and seen from an African American perspective. Our analysis shows that such specific themes include expressions connected with African Americans, Africana, racism, whites, violence, entertainment, luxury and geography. 4.2.1

African Americans

This theme contains numerous expressions for African Americans in general, body types with reference to skin color, and other features which are inherently connected with African Americans. Moreover, many expressions in this theme refer to the group-identification function of slang (discussed in the next chapter) and categorize African Americans’ level of independence from the dominant white society, objection to racial inequality, or acquiescence and passivity. Here is a selection of expressions from this vast field: He immediately became aware of the interest she raised in all the local bloods [¼ fellow African American men], not just the men at the tables (Gayle Peters, 1993) Where’s your empathy, brother [¼ fellow African American man]? (Heat, film, 1995) He ordered cocktails for her and her fellow boots [¼ African American persons] in his hotel room (Idaho Statesman, 2006) I’m that field nigga [¼ rebellious lower-class African American, especially working on a farm] they all fear (Public Enemy, 1999)

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The Gullahs in South Carolina and the Geechees [¼ southern seacoast African Americans] in Georgia were left virtually alone (Connect Savannah, 2010) Most black folks I know call him an Oreo [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 1998) Bertha was referred to as an eight rock [¼ very dark-skinned African American], which is a derogatory term for a dark-skinned person (Doc Share, 2009) Liz thought I preferred red-bones [¼ light-skinned African American] (Nathan McCall, 1994) If you’re not fighting out of the ghetto or struggling then you’re a sell-out [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Ebony, 2007) The house nigga and yard nigga [¼ subservient lower-class African American, especially working on a farm] lived diametrically different lives (Right Health, 2009)

4.2.2

Africana

The African American experience is another significant culture-specific theme in African American slang. Taylor (in Mesthrie, 2001: 301) observes that “African Americans invent and utilize a terminology which serves the referential functions of providing labels for concepts and experiences that are particular to their subculture,” to which we may also add the providing of a verbal outlet for group sentiments. This is, understandably, a vast field, including expressions for various groups of African Americans, their cultural norms, and their lives. See the following selections: This ain’t a Black thang [¼ any sociocultural practice, behavior or attitude characteristic of African Americans], but we sure like to do it (Ebony, 2008) New Orleans was a chocolate city [¼ city with a predominantly African American population] before Katrina, it is going to be a chocolate city after (News, CNN-TV program, 2006) Why aren’t there any sisters with dreads [¼ hairstyle of loose thick braids, created by growing hair without combing it for a long time] in the film? (Ebony, 2009) Two of them speak in Ebonics [¼ nonstandard variety of African American English, sometimes considered as a language in its own right, or synonymous with African American English] and black slang (Ebony, 2009) Your cousin gets back from getting her hair fried [¼ straightened by using a heated metal comb] and dyed (Coach Carter, film, 2005)

92

Themes That car looks ghetto’d out [¼ typical of the inner-city ghetto, especially if flashy or tasteless]. Not my style at all (Bimmer Forums, 2002) I want to be the first to give propers [¼ proper respect] to Ginger, our newest and most anointed member (Catherine Clinton, 2004) I am a race woman [¼ female African American activist], too, but of a different sort (New York Newsday, 2002) We are the masters of the dozens and signifying [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] (Nathaniel Turner, 2010) Bless everyone out there in Soulville [¼ Harlem, New York]! (Soul Source, 2010)

4.2.3

Racism

Unfortunately, part of the African American experience is still connected with instances of racism. Despite long-lasting efforts to enhance racial integration and impressive achievements in the movement for racial equality, racial discrimination against African Americans has not been completely eliminated from American life. Although commonly criticized and officially penalized, racism has not gone. This fact is strongly reflected in slang, which tends to provide a verbal mirror of prevailing social conditions. Consider the following expressions: In the brown paper bag test [¼ criterion for admission to a club or organization, based on skin color] blacks darker than the bag’s color were denied inclusion (USA Today, 2007) So it got me wondering, is “Colored People’s Time” [¼ belief that African Americans are not punctual] a myth, or something that black people have made a fact of life? (Chicago Now, 2009) Y’all niggas should be ashamed! Measuring Black women by a “color scale” [¼ gradation of skin color value from very light to very dark] is degrading and uncalled for. Ugh! (Hello Beautiful, 2009) He showed a preference for light-skinned girls with wavy hair and was color struck [¼ harboring prejudice against dark-skinned people, especially African Americans] (Washington Post, 2004) If you answered yes to these questions you suffer from CPT [¼ belief that African Americans are not punctual] (Colored People’s Time) (Shenantics, 2009) I’ve never been stopped for Driving While Black [¼ instance of stopping African American motorists for no apparent reason] (Philadelphia Daily News, 2010)

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I was pulled over for DWB [¼ instance of stopping African American motorists for no apparent reason], driving while black (San Diego Union Tribune, 2006) Obama is light enough to pass the paper bag test [¼ criterion for admission to a club or organization, based on skin color], while brown-skinned first lady would flunk it (Austin American-Statesman, 2009)

4.2.4

Whites

A noticeable part of African American slang involves names for white people. This comes as no surprise: whites as a group have always been present in the lives of African Americans, seen as oppressors responsible for their enslavement and socioeconomic hardships. It is not surprising that the majority of expressions involving whites are clearly negative, with varying degrees of contempt or derision. As observed by Kowalczyk (2010: 91), the abundance of these terms suggests strong emotional attitudes of African Americans, reflecting their historically conditioned mistrust toward white people and disappointment with the insufficient anti-discriminative measures. This is expressed in the imagery and deeply rooted in times of inequality, often equating whites with animals or the devil, thereby denying whites their humanity. Consider the following examples: For weeks, Demi’s teammates referred to her as “blondie” [¼ white woman] or “white girl” (Miami Herald, 2010) It was their common hatred of the blue-eyed devil [¼ white person, especially a racist] that united them (Kevin Brown, 1995) They were willing to do whatever Mister Charlie [¼ white person, especially regarded as an oppressor of African Americans] told them to do (New York Beacon, 2004) They just can’t wait to beat the grays [¼ white persons] (Nah Right, 2010) Speaking strictly as a honkie [¼ white person], I find few pastimes more amusing than watching white people try to be black (Newport Daily Press, 2004) Vote for me, motherfucking maggots [¼ white persons]! (Spank Mag, 2009) The ofays [¼ white persons] were not used to seeing colored boys (Washington Post, 2005) Those peckerwoods [¼ white men from the southern USA] don’t know what they’re doing (Cincinnati Enquirer, 2003) Did the silks [¼ white persons] on the Knapp Commission ever ask about the rate of drug busts? (Carsten Stroud, 1987)

94

Themes Get the hell out of my face, whitey [¼ white person]! (Coach Carter, film, 2005)

4.2.5

Violence

Violence and crime are other productive themes in African American slang, just as in general slang. Here we consider it from the African American perspective, and the associated socioeconomic disadvantages historically suffered by African Americans: finding legitimate upward mobility blocked, some turned to crime and started using language producing an image of toughness, severity and aggression. But the prominence of this theme in slang has also been caused by the attention given to it by the media: the entertainment value of crime has brought a growing influx of criminal slang into literature, film, radio and television. This extends to African American slang and is evident in the connection between hip-hop culture and the world of crime, perhaps best exemplified by the gangsta rap genre. This vast theme includes expressions for various kinds and stages of crimes, the paraphernalia used to commit them, and the types of criminals and their victims. Moreover, there are numerous expressions relating to physical violence, destruction and killing. See the following: In the wake of the shooting he and other baby gangstas [¼ young members of a criminal gang] urged older members of the set to get to the bottom of the shooting of a fellow Blood (New York Newsday, 2006) He also says he has a deuce-deuce [¼ 22-caliber handgun], slang for a 22-caliber handgun (Virginian Pilot, 2009) Come on and shoot the club with a fo-fo [¼ forty-four caliber handgun] (Eminem, 2000) Do they look like gangbangers [¼ members of a criminal gang] working the local 7–11 to you? (Heat, film, 1995) People always gank [¼ steal] my damn lighters! (Aaron Peckham, 2005) I feel all the prisoners who like to go for bad [¼ act tough, especially in order to scare or intimidate others] and shoot people ought to be sent over to Iraq (Lottery Post, 2009) I got backup to jack up [¼ beat, strike or hit] punks who try to act up (Ice-T, 1993) Now, gun owners would say this incident proves the wisdom of packing [¼ carrying (a firearm)] a gun (South Florida Sun, 2005) The street niggas [¼ lower-class African Americans, especially involved in some illicit activity] know me (Slim Thug, 2009) I know a recent case where the perp was 20 and the vic [¼ victim] was then 17 (News, WCTV-TV program, 2010)

4.2 Specific themes

4.2.6

95

Entertainment

Entertainment, especially music, is a significant part of African American culture. In African American slang, this is manifested in numerous expressions belonging to this theme, but is also evident in its continued influence on the lexicon of general American slang. As neatly summarized by Holloway (1993: 342–349), this influence started over a century ago with jazz and blues, then shifted to rhythm and blues, and for the past few decades has been seen in hip-hop and rap. The last phenomenon is of special importance to slang because of its heavy reliance on lyrics. As observed by Dalzell (1996: 201), “the hip-hop movement and rap music provided the biggest infusion of black street vernacular” into the general American slang. It also fostered awareness of socioeconomic injustice. Importantly, hip-hop is not just music: its influence is seen in other cultural contributions such as dancing and visual art in the form of graffiti. This vast theme includes various expressions for music, musicians, fans, musical instruments, and ways of playing and singing. Consider the following examples: “Say, daddy-o, what ax [¼ musical instrument] do you play?” “Piano” (Ray, film, 2004, 1999) As a youth, I used to bomb [¼ graffiti, especially the entire surface] walls (Los Angeles Online, 2013) Alejandro Fernandez is due to drop [¼ release a music album] a new album (Billboard, 1999) They say, what’s a rapper? Well nigga, what’s an emcee [¼ performer of a rap song]? (Snoop Dogg, 2000) Only Pac and Biggie are truly missed, no one else even sounds close to their flow [¼ ability to rap very well] or style (Real Talk NY, 2010) Never just jamming [¼ playing improvised music, especially jazz] for jam’s sake, he and Jimi cared if our brothers and sisters listened, if they understood (Ebony, 2008) “Last of the Mississippi Jukes” is a documentary about blues and juke joints [¼ bars with a coin-operated record player, especially cheap] directed by Robert Mugge (New York Times, 2010) Carter playfully kicked a rhyme [¼ created rap lyrics and rhymes] that showed her own musical skills (News, MTV-TV program) Schoenfeld grew up in housing projects in Brooklyn listening to Motown [¼ sound or style of music that originated in Detroit in the 1960s] and early rap (Boston Herald, 2004) Live bands rock the house [¼ perform in an excellent or admirable way] every weekend (Boston Globe, 2010)

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4.2.7

Luxury

A noticeable part of African American slang involves expressions connected with what one may label as luxury items. This theme is surprising when considered against the background of general American slang. According to Kowalczyk (2010: 94), “the proliferation of such expressions may suggest deep longing for these items as the desired objects, and is most likely conditioned by the socioeconomically low position of the majority of African Americans who simply cannot afford such items.” This theme includes names for various luxury items such as fine automobiles, high-quality drinks, expensive clothing and so forth. Consider the following expressions: I drink Chriss [¼ Cristal champage] and you drink piss. I will have the other half (Bimmer Forums, 2010) I’m drinking a nice, cold, bubbly glass of D.P. [¼ Dom Perignon champagne] as we speak (Face Punch, 2009) Essential items include the eye-catching hat and the super-size gold chain, which is known as a dookie rope [¼ large gold rope-type chain, worn around the neck] (New York Times, 2006) Are you sure that Jo is going to drive a Double R [¼ Rolls-Royce automobile]? (Ten Tenths, 2010) I still keep the illest gators [¼ expensive shoes made from alligator skins], tailor made (Jay-Z, 1996) Every weekend I drink Hen Dog [¼ Hennessy V.S. cognac] with my dogs (Black Planet, 2009) A lot of guys work all their lives and never get to drive a Hog [¼ Cadillac automobile] (Sports Illustrated, 2010) I drive a Lac [¼ Cadillac automobile]! That’s what matters! (Cadillac Forums, 2009) Time to have sex, jump in my Lex [¼ Lexus automobile]! (Ali G Indahouse, film, 2002) My niggas be drinkin yack [¼ cognac] tonight. And wouldn’t mind a little bit of ass tonight (TQ, 2010)

4.2.8

Geography

Finally, there is the theme of geography. As evidenced by Widawski and Kowalczyk (2011), geographical expressions (especially toponyms) constitute an important part of slang. They are semantically rich and culturally meaningful, telegraphically describing the characteristics of places to which they refer, explaining the motivations of their coiners, and revealing the attitudes of their

Summary

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users. These expressions are also very popular in African American slang where they function in a unique way, reflecting a purely African American perspective. This theme includes expressions for various geographical regions, cities and districts. Here is a relevant selection of corroborative material: Back from ATL [¼ Atlanta, Georgia] huh? Never mind Atlanta. Tell me about your doctor’s appointment (Kathleen Cross, 2006) That is what my auntie back in ’Bama [¼ Alabama] used to call hobo chicken (Prison Break, Fox-TV series, 2005) We like them boys up top from the BK [¼ Brooklyn, New York], know how to flip that money three ways (Destiny’s Child, 2004) You was with Malcolm in Mecca [¼ Harlem, New York] (Get on the Bus, film, 1996) They are hungry hyenas from Medina [¼ Brooklyn, New York] (Wu-Tang Clan, 2007) It may be just as likely that the Motor City [¼ Detroit, Michigan] will follow the same path as New Orleans (American Spectator, 2010) Much love from the N.O. [¼ New Orleans, Louisiana]! (Snoop Dogg, 1998) If you’re from the North Coast [¼ Midwestern USA] and you’re proud put this on (Bebo, 2009) They come not out of Oaktown [¼ Oakland, California], but out of a small town called Locash (CB4, film, 1993) De La Cruz was born in the Wood [¼ Inglewood, California], and was raised in Lawndale, in the South Bay (Jacks Music News, 2009)

Summary As shown in this chapter, the lexicon of African American slang can be divided into two main thematic types: common, meaning shared with general American slang, and specific, meaning characteristic of the African American experience and seen from an African American perspective. The common themes make up a majority of expressions in African American slang. They include: body, physiology, sexuality, alcohol, drugs and categorization. There are, however, a few surprises: the physiology theme is surprisingly small when compared to general American slang, as is the alcohol theme. The sexuality and drugs themes, on the other hand, are enormously productive, as is negative or positive categorization. The specific themes reflect the African American experience and perspective. They include: African Americans and Africana, racism and discrimination, whites, violence and crime, entertainment and music, luxury, and

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Themes

geography. Especially frequent are expressions involving matters of racism and discrimination, which is not astonishing given the history of treatment of African Americans in the United States and the aggregate of their experience. The other sizeable themes, violence and crime, reflect the generally low socioeconomic condition of African Americans resulting from discrimination. On the other hand, the proliferation of expressions involving entertainment and music may point to a generally joyful and hedonistic nature.

5

Functions

The linguistic description of African American slang should also include its functions. A good notion of what slang is can be derived from answering why it is used. Analyzing slang in context, one can say that the aim of using this type of vocabulary is seldom the mere exchange of information. Besides the mere referential function, it serves other purposes. As evidenced in earlier works (Lighter 1994 and Widawski 2008), slang is used in place of standard expressions to convey some extra information of a social, psychological or rhetorical nature. Such use of slang seems to be universal and can be applicable to nearly any language. African American slang is used for similar reasons. This chapter analyzes numerous motives for using slang and is grouped according to the three main functions mentioned above. There is, however, another function of African American slang which may be labeled “cultural.” It involves verbal practices rooted in African American culture, but is also independent of its coiners and involves heavy usage of African American slang by non-African Americans. This important function will also be discussed in this chapter. 5.1

Social functions

One of the underlying assumptions in sociolinguistics is that language is not an autonomous, abstract system, but is inherently connected with the people who use it. The importance of this relation is clearly visible in slang. “The raison d’être of slang is social,” says Eble (1996: 120), and this is especially pertinent to African American slang. The social functions of slang include group identification, opposition to authority, phatic function and secrecy. Let us analyze each of these separately. 5.1.1

Identification

Group identification is the main social function of slang. Slang serves to distinguish specific groups within society and to identify members of these groups. The group-identification function is similar to evaluative categorization, 99

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and these often accompany each other. Crystal (2005: 466) calls it “the expression of identity,” or the signaling of belonging to a particular group. African American slang in this function is even more pronounced, possibly because of the heightened awareness of African Americans as a distinct ethnic group. Slang used in this function provides labels for subgroups distinct from the dominant culture, and sometimes for which there is no standard English expression. Here is a selection of relevant citational material: Get off my beat you black alligator bait [¼ African American from Florida or Louisiana, especially a child]! (Beaumont Enterprise, 2007) Cupid is a flaming gay, Blitzen is a stereotypical bulldyke [¼ lesbian, especially an aggressive one] (Encore, 2009) Yuppies and buppies [¼ young, affluent, city-dwelling African American professionals] at this stage move in, transforming old neglected residences into modern castles (Real Estate Web, 2010) This dude is not even from the A.T.L. He is a country bama [¼ uncultured or unsophisticated person from the southern USA]. I hate these dudes (Dime Wars, 2010) If I stop at this sign, these crackers [¼ white persons, especially if poor, racist, or from the southern USA] will kill me (Chris Rock: Never Scared, film, 2004) He’s lower than the head house nigga [¼ African American who acts subserviently toward a white employer, especially working in a household], and that’s pretty low (Django Unchained, film, 2012) How could he afford that ring? I guess she’s the sugar mama [¼ female lover who supports a younger lover] (Us Magazine, 2010) I ain’t some Uncle Tom [¼ African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes], if that’s what you’re trying to say (Assassination of Richard Nixon, film, 2004) You fucking white trash [¼ poor white person or poor white people, especially from the southern USA]! I’ll fuck you up! (Do the Right Thing, film, 1989) He’s a wigger [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop]. That’s the hip-hop term for white kids who want to be black (Los Angeles Times, 2008)

But the group-identification function of slang can be used in yet another way. As observed by Spears (1981: xvi), “people show identification with one another by using another’s vocabulary.” African American slang serves within groups to confirm and enhance internal solidarity: acquired in the context of shared conditions and experiences which provide a unique frame of reference, it strengthens a sense of belonging via the use of an identifiable group

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vocabulary. In this way slang both implies and contributes to a strong emotional allegiance to that group and its values. This allegiance accounts for the dissemination of certain speech patterns, one of which is slang. To quote Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxiii): “A sub-group vocabulary shows that we have a group to which we belong and in which we are somebody — outsiders had better respect us. Slang is used to show others (and to remind ourselves of) our background; to show our group interests, memberships, and patriotisms.” There are numerous slang expressions used in this function: You look at him and you see your homie from around the way [¼ the same neighborhood] (News, MTV-TV program, 2010) You can’t understand this, it’s a black thing [¼ any sociocultural practice, behavior or attitude characteristic of African Americans] (Newsbusters, 2010) Keep it in your own hood bro [¼ fellow African American man]! (Washington Post, 2009) You chill here too long and you have your ghetto pass [¼ fictitious pass given to someone who is not from an inner-city ghetto but who socializes with people who are] revoked (Dallas Morning News, 2000) Here are some of the local happenings in the hood [¼ neighborhood] (Seattle Post Intelligencer, 2011) The niggarette [¼ fellow African American woman] gave me gonorrhea (Wu-Tang Clan, 1997) Where you from, my sister [¼ African American woman]? (Bamboozled, film, 2000) Check it out now, funk soul brother [¼ fellow African American man]! (Fat Boy Slim, 1998)

Perhaps the most conspicuous instance of slang employed in this function is the meliorated use of racial expressions such as nigger or nigga. When used by African Americans in reference to themselves, these extremely offensive slurs often lose their negative connotations and become verbal markers of group solidarity or identification. In this way, African Americans make null and void racial slurs of white bigots, as Major (1994: xxxi) observed. Here are a few such expressions used in this function: We ain’t that tight, but he’s still my nigga [¼ African American friend], you know (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2003) Cause I sell X pills, my nig [¼ fellow African American], I don’t have to worry about bills and shit (Gucci Mane, 2009) The supervisor also used NP, which apparently was short for “nigga please” [¼ I am irritated and exasperated] (Cape Cod Times, 2006)

102

Functions One day people will realize being nigga rich [¼ poor but maintaining flashy symbols of wealth] is getting us nowhere (YouTube, 2013) I hated to see the niggaz [¼ fellow African Americans] that made it (Belly, film, 1998) They threw him over the balcony; the nigger [¼ fellow African American] fell four storeys (Pulp Fiction, film, 1994) “We gonna ride this out to the end!” “That’s my nigga [¼ that is my real friend]!” (Soul Plane, film, 2004)

5.1.2

Rebellion

Rebellion against authority is another important social function of slang which by its very nature is rebellious and nonconformist. To paraphrase Adams (2009: 6): while slang is used to fit in, it is also used to stand out. Analyzing slang in context suggests that it is often used to oppose the established authority or to distance oneself from it. Quite naturally, the prime users of slang in this function are criminals or people who live on the edges of society such as prostitutes, pimps, drug addicts and dealers, and who oppose the legal system and the existing order. Criminal slang reflects their scorn for regular life and law-abiding citizens as well as their disdain for authority. African American slang is no different here from the general slang used in America, and there are many instances of it used in this function. Consider the following examples: No peace for the beast [¼ white person, especially a person in power such as a police officer]! (Public Enemy, 2006) She did drugs, she knew all the d-boys [¼ street-level drugs dealers] on the corners (Palm Beach Post, 2002) Jimmy’s boys were barbecuing. He gaffled [¼ stole] some meat (X’s & O’s, film, 2007) This time I saw that she thumbed buckshot into the cut-down 12-gauge, known on the street as a ghetto stick [¼ shotgun] (Stephen J. Cannell, 2006) You would see black gals and white gals coming in the club to meet their macks [¼ pimps] (Cecil Brown, 2006) A black man would never dream of talkin’ to the po-lice [¼ police] high, that’s a waste of weed! (Chappelle Show, WGN-TV program, 2010) You betta get you some rillas [¼ street tough guys or thugs] (Highlifter, 2009) Man, I done seen a lotta roaches [¼ police officers]! (Snoop Dogg, 2008) He’s a fuckin’ snake [¼ traitor, especially an informant], you niggaz are fuckin blind to facts! (Jay-Z, 2009)

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Light-skinned or dark, they’re 90% marks, straight vics [¼ victims] and they got money to give (Ice-T, 1996)

Rebellion against authority is not restricted to the criminal underworld but is seen in the language of the African American ghetto, and is especially visible in rap and hip-hop usage. Slang in this function is used by people who have been forced to live unorthodox lifestyles in impoverished, crime-ridden and dangerous environments, all of which are birthing grounds for slang. Some scholars are very emphatic here: Alim (ix: 2006) calls hip-hop parlance a “verbal jihad,” discursive struggle against the oppression of African Americans, while Dalzell (2010: 5–6) identifies slang with the language of the oppressed. The countercultural slang of ghetto inhabitants reflects their rebellious attitude toward the more advantaged majority through flippancy and irreverence. It also shows disdain toward fellow African Americans who assumed the behavior of the dominant white society. Finally, it shows cravings for the luxuries of life which are absent in the ghetto. The following expressions illustrate this: So, sometimes, keeping it real means rejecting all the bling-bling [¼ showiness and ostentatious luxury] (Tricia Rose, 2008) It was racist for a policeman to refer to a BMW as “black man’s wheels” [¼ BMW automobile] (Word Press, 2010) The medallion hung from a series of gold links that looked just like dookie chain [¼ large gold rope-type chain, worn around the neck] (Washington Post, 2009) I was lulled to sleep by the blaring of sirens and the undistinguishable blows of gunfire, a somewhat of a ghetto lullaby [¼ innercity-ghetto noise, especially sirens, helicopters, gunfire] (Boston Nexus, 2007) You got the hooptie [¼ old and battered automobile] (Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film, 2003) Bernie is angered by a huge phone bill; he jokingly admonishes his wife that they are not “old-money rich” but “nigga rich” [¼ poor but maintaining flashy symbols of wealth] (New York Times, 2002) You’re wanted by the po-lice [¼ police], and my wife thinks you’re dead (Democratic Underground, 2009) Stay out of the projects [¼ housing projects for the poor]! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) Despite his nerdy, oddball personality, he is a race man [¼ male African American activist], caught up in all matters racial (Ebony, 2009) Black folks call that Uncle Tomming [¼ being subservient to whites or adopting their values and attitudes] (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2012)

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5.1.3

Interaction

Slang is also used for pure social interaction. As has been signaled before, conveying information is not the main purpose of slang. More often, it is used to facilitate social interaction: it occurs in conversation for the purpose of establishing a mood and maintaining or ending social contact rather than for the mere exchange of information. Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski called such use of language a “phatic communion” (Crystal 1991: 257). There is a vast repertoire of expressions used in English for this purpose, for instance: eh, hello, huh, I guess, I mean, right, see you later, well, you know and you see. As demonstrated by Biber (1999: 1072–1098), these expressions are enormously frequent in any conversation. Much the same is true for African American slang. When used in this function, it occurs at the margins of conversation; it also incorporates formulaic and ritualistic terms of address, ice-breakers, feedback signals, or subject changers. Here is a selection of relevant citational examples: Hmm. Daddy like [¼ I like it]! She reminds me a bit of Uma Thurman (Encyclopedia Dramatica, 2009) “Don’t you grab me like I’m some tramp!” “My bad [¼ I am sorry]!” (A Good Day to Be Black and Sexy, film, 2008) “Why not?” “Nigga, please [¼ I am irritated and exasperated]!” (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) “See you later!” “All right. Peace out [¼ goodbye]!” (Clockers, film, 1995) “Let’s give it up for Angela Davis!” “Right on [¼ I approve or agree]!” (Black August, film, 2007) Say what [¼ can you give me more information]? You said his name was Slick? (Heat, film, 1995) What up [¼ hello] blood! What up cuz! What up wankstas! (G-Unit, 2005) I mean, peep this [¼ pay attention and listen carefully]: they say in here 92% of honeys at UCLA are sexually active (Can’t Hardly Wait, film, 1998) Word up [¼ listen or pay attention], look out for the cops! (Wu-Tang Clan, 2000) Yo [¼ hey], bitch, what makes you think I won’t cut you? (Waiting, film, 2005)

5.1.4

Secrecy

Secrecy is often considered an important function of slang. Some linguists such as Chapman (1986: xii-xiv) claim that slang is quintessentially a means of concealing secrets and its use is motivated by a desire to remain secret. Slang is used by such groups as criminals or teenagers who often find a shared

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vocabulary unknown to outsiders an effective way to keep information secret. This is also true in the context of African American slang. Smitherman (2000a: 26) calls secrecy a kind of a veiled code which has served the purpose of internal secret communication outside the dominant white majority. Also Major (2002: 105) highlights this function of slang: “African American slang itself is the classic example of a secret tongue. Since the days of slavery, this secrecy has served as a form of cultural self-defense against exploitation and oppression.” Coined or learned in the context of unique conditions and experiences, slang provides African Americans with a frame of reference which cannot be easily understood outside this shared experience. Today secrecy still serves this purpose, although extensive lexical borrowing from African American slang into general slang has changed this as such expressions quickly catch on and enter general slang. Luckily, new expressions are coined to replace the over-used or crossed-over ones. See the following: We got the bad [¼ excellent or admirable] bitches gaspin for air in Aspen (Jay-Z, 1996) He rules over all B.G.’s [¼ young members of a criminal gang] from the 103rd Street (Chicago Tribune, 1994) I wish I was a d-boy [¼ street-level drug dealer]. Instead I got stuck in this shitty dorm! (Urban Dictionary, 2009) What’s the dizzle [¼ state of affairs or a thing at issue], my nizzle? (Los Angeles Times, 2002) Civil rights advocates called the case an example of “driving while black,” commonly called D.W.B. [¼ instance of stopping African American motorists for no apparent reason] (Detroit News, 2002) He was fine, but there was no fizzle [¼ sex or the sex act] (Something New, film, 2006) And if you still don’t know what’s goin’ on, yo G [¼ close friend], I got it goin’ on! (Us3, 1993) Dude’s lookin’ at an L [¼ life sentence without the possibility of parole] this time around (Randy Kearse, 2006) In the process, they gave white men a viable and edgy alternative to the N-word, my nizzle [¼ fellow African American]? (News, CBS-TV program, 2007) Seals will be TCB’ing [¼ performing in an excellent or admirable way] tonight at “Blues Etc” (Chicago Sun-Times, 1994)

5.2

Psychological functions

While language serves a social function, it is also linked with our thoughts and feelings. The choice of a particular expression is often motivated by

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psychological processes in our minds. Some linguists like Chapman (1986: xii-xiii) regard psychology as the most important function of slang: while general vocabulary reveals little about the speakers or their emotional attitudes toward the subject matter or audience, slang does so amply. Because our own slang lexicon contains many expressions used by choice, it can be one of the most revealing things about a person. This is also true about African American slang. Its psychological functions include the expression of emotions, humor and toughness, as analyzed below. 5.2.1

Emotions

Expressing emotions is one of the primary psychological functions of slang. Analyzing slang in context shows that it is especially proficient in providing verbal expressions for numerous emotional states and reactions; in this respect, it usually assumes the form of exclamations. Additionally, slang provides a means for the emotive categorization of people, things, states and actions; in this respect, it usually assumes the form of epithets. All of this applies to African American slang as well. Below is an illustration of some of the common emotions expressed through slang: Enjoyment or satisfaction: You’ll throw that party, and it’ll be the bestest [¼ best] party in the land! (American Dad, Fox-TV series, 2005) Big ups [¼ congratulations] and congratulations! You finally got your record on the radio (8 Mile, film, 2002) Visit Beachnut’s Xanga Site! Daddy like [¼ this is what I like]! (Xanga, 2009) To the truest shit I ever spoke, one love [¼ greetings] to my true thug niggas! (Tupac Shakur, 1996) That’s my nigga [¼ that is my real friend]! I don’t feel no ways different as I felt from when he signed to us back in ’99 (Hip Hop DX, 2009)

Anger or annoyance: Get out of my face [¼ stop annoying me], dude! (Las Vegas Review Journal, 2010) “Do the math, motherfucker!” “Math? Nigga, please [¼ I am irritated and exasperated]!” (Soul Men, film, 2008) I’m sick and tired (Facebook, 2009)

of

this

shiznit

[¼

something

irritating]

“I’ll make you a list!” “That’s mighty white of you [¼ you are being patronizing or putting on airs]!” (Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series, 2011)

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“Give me my fuckin’ soap back, motherfucker!” “Yo mama [¼ I hold you in contempt]!” (Tom Clancy, 1989)

Indifference: I ain’t studyin’ [¼ do not care] how late you was up last night (Passing Strange, film, 2009) Tell the Feds I don’t give a mothafuck [¼ do not care], you niggas (Prodigy, 2008) I cheated like mad earlier but I don’t give a shizzle [¼ do not care] (Body Building, 2007) Motherfuck it [¼ I do not care], I’ll get straight to the point! (Blackout, film, 1997)

Surprise: You gonna fall out [¼ be surprised] when I tell you who I’m talking about (Richard Price, 1992) “Take a good look!” “Motherfuck [¼ I am surprised]! That’s him!” (Sleepers, film, 1996) Oh, motherfucking motherfuck [¼ I am surprised]! That question had nothing to do with it (Twitter, 2011) Whoopi says it wasn’t rape-rape. Say what [¼ we are surprised and need more information]? (Ebony, 2009)

Positive emotive categorization: Erin was a girl who thinks she’s all that [¼ excellent or admirable] (Rachel Simmons, 2003) Yo, it’s blazin’ [¼ excellent or admirable]! This shit is hot! (Public Enemy, 1998) Look at her. She’s a brick house [¼ sexually attractive woman, especially if curvaceous] (Gone in Sixty Seconds, film, 2000) The girlie was def [¼ excellent or admirable] and she wanted to go (Beastie Boys, 1986) “Was the last party serious?” “It was slammin’ [¼ excellent or admirable]” (Juice, film, 1992) I can’t exactly blame him: she’s one smokin’ [¼ excellent or admirable] ho’ (Ice Cube, 2000) I’m twenty, cute as fuck, have bangin body and a vicious [¼ excellent or admirable] dress (Black Planet, 2009) He’s with it [¼ aware, knowing or understanding], smart, tough (New York Daily News, 2005)

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Negative emotive categorization: Okay, bama [¼ uncultured or unsophisticated person from southern USA], why don’t you get on up there and show me what you got? (Ray, film, 2004) Maybe we’ll get some insight into what he’s seeing in that sour-puss biyatch [¼ contemptible or despicable woman] (Celebrity Gossip, 2009) She’s a hoe [¼ sexually promiscuous woman]. Most of her time spent in the office is on her knees, and the rest? On her back (Yale Herald, 2002) How many honkies [¼ white persons] are in this picture? (Richmond Times, 1988) Shame on you Mr. Lee and any one else who is a player hater [¼ envious person who is trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny] on creative people (News, CBS-TV program, 2009) Fight me, you punk-ass [¼ weak, timid or cowardly] bitch! I could end your shit now and nobody would miss your ass (8 Mile, film, 2002) You looked like a real skag [¼ unattractive woman, especially if also sexually promiscuous] (Lawrence Journal-World, 2000) Canada has always been very pro-gay, unlike that uptight [¼ overly conservative or orthodox] country to the south (I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry, film, 2007)

5.2.2

Humor

Slang can also be used to express humor. The jocular element, evident in the obvious pleasure of wordplay, often serves the purpose of escaping the banality of standard expressions and suggests a departure from the established routines of everyday life. As observed by Adams (2009: 12), slang’s wit compensates verbally for disappointments and insecurities. When it is used in this function, our life seems a happier place. The same can be said about African American slang which can instantly reduce the solemnity, haughtiness or excessive seriousness of a conversation. Here is a handful of relevant examples: Brooke feels like a baby factory [¼ woman who has had a lot of children], but she’s excited about her fourth pregnancy (Chicago Tribune, 2007) I know what he wanted from you, and it wasn’t them bigass [¼ very big] earrings (ATL, film, 2006) He has admitted that he is hoping to share a smooch with a certain bootylicious [¼ sexually attractive] babe on 14th February (News, MTV-TV program, 2011) Them little crumb-snatchers [¼ babies or little children] got under my skin (Daddy Day Care, film, 2003)

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An armored car full of dead presidents [¼ US dollar bills] is on its way to the incinerator (Washington Post, 2000) I was ever going to be dick-whipped [¼ (of a woman) dominated by one’s boyfriend or husband] in all my life (Las Vegas Mercury, 2004) I got some new pimptastic [¼ excellent or admirable] wheels (Off Road, 2005) Shut up, wanksta [¼ rapper who poses as a gangster]! You ain’t gon’ pop a damn thing (Ebonics Translator, 2010)

But humor in slang can function in yet another way: it is used as a device to mask discomfort when talking about certain subjects that have traditionally been considered improper for polite conversation. Taboo subjects like sex, body parts or bodily functions are prime examples. Put differently, slang used in this function “is protective language that disguises unpleasant reality” (Algeo and Pyles 2005: 221). Consider the following examples from African American slang: In case of Jenny’s swollen belly, the cause was bumping without a body bag [¼ condom] (Esquire, 2009) Annabel Chong describes herself as a female stud after boning [¼ having sex with] 251 dudes in a single day (Hustler, 2000) You take so much time that this girl’s gonna be half asleep by the time you even get to her cookie [¼ vulva] (Dog Pound, film, 2010) I was chilling out with my girl watching Stargate and she wanted to get busy [¼ have sex] (Urban Dictionary, 2009) Man, I really need some jelly roll [¼ sex or the sex act] (Black 47, 2009) That Bobbitt dame took a sling blade to her husband’s love muscle [¼ penis], did she not? (News, CNN-TV program, 2007) Rinctum [¼ rectum] is apparently slang for the rectum (Wikipedia, 2009) You would never look at a hot piece of ass like her and think you could get a sick dick [¼ sexually transmitted disease] but you can (Perez Hilton, 2007)

Humor can also function to make sarcastic or ironic comments. In slang, it finds an ideal verbal outlet. Numerous African American slang expressions are used in this way, often with varying degrees of derision or contempt. Here is a selection of citational evidence: They were referred to by historian David Lewis as “Afro-Saxons” [¼ African Americans who are subservient to whites or adopt their values and attitudes] (Christopher Robert Reed, 2002) Black American Princess [¼ wealthy young African American woman, especially if pampered or arrogant] is an expectation of mainstream success that borders on arrogance (South Florida Sun-Sentinel, 1994)

110

Functions I work closely with a young woman who is a drama queen [¼ someone who tends to react in an exaggerated or overly emotional way] (Chicago Tribune, 2008) I’m not a European Negro [¼ African American who assumes the behavior and values of the white society] (Black Voices, 2009) I seen a lot of shit in my life, same sirens, same ghetto birds [¼ police helicopters, often used in inner-city ghetto cummunities] swirlin at night (Public Enemy, 2006) You talk like a man with a paper ass [¼ insignificant man]! (Glock Talk, 2009) So you know you’re not dealing with some fuckin’ marshmallow [¼ white person, especially fat] (50 Cent, 2003) Describing Gates as the Head Negro in Charge is like calling him an Oreo cookie [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] (Los Angeles Times, 1998)

5.2.3

Toughness

Expressing toughness is another notable psychological function of slang. Modern society is getting more competitive and impersonal, and being strong, independent and disillusioned is regarded as a virtue. Slang may serve as a natural expression of such toughness, the natural manifestations of which include vulgarisms and swearwords, which by their nature strengthen the swearer’s image; epithets function in a smilar manner. One should also note that verbal toughness is especially common among men; slang used in this function, as observed by Spears (1981: xvii), is used “for interpersonal bonding, masculinity affirmation, and identity.” But the frequent use of vulgarisms in African American slang is also motivated by external socioeconomic factors. As observed by Eble (1996: 82), “marginalized groups have less to lose in violating the taboos of society” and tend to use vulgar language more often than the mainstream or dominant society. Consider the following: Nigger horny as a motherfucker [¼ extremely or totally], man, dick all hard (Aphex Twin, 2009) I’d love to shoot the shit with you bitches [¼ women] all night, but I gotta go (Coach Carter, film, 2005) You’re following me around like a dick-whipped [¼ (of a woman) dominated by one’s boyfriend or husband] chick (Facebook, 2013) Woke him up, like motherfucker [¼ extremely or totally], you done told him! (Young Buck, 2005) I’d kill the motherfucker [¼ contemptible or despicable man], you know what I’m saying? (Pulp Fiction, film, 1994)

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Take this stinking motherfucking [¼ contemptible or irritating] skell out of my face (Bringing Out the Dead, film, 1999) They played her, she played pussy and got fucked [¼ acted weakly and suffered the consequences] (Word of South, 2008) Your girlfriend doesn’t love you? Tough shit [¼ that is too bad]! (Swimming with Sharks, film, 1994)

However, not all slang is vulgar. According to earlier estimates (Widawski 1994, 2003 and 2010b), only 5–10 percent of slang is vulgar. It seems that similar proportions hold true for African American slang. Toughness can be expressed by other means, most typically through words simply associated with the concept itself. Such words highlight strong, enduring or aggressive features which are necessary to survive in the modern world. See the following: Yeah, I’m a badass [¼ tough, bold, and severe] motherfucker who studies astrophysics (Harvard Crimson, 2005) The bad nigga [¼ African American who is rebellious and aggressive] was a type of folk character existing throughout African American history (Theresa Perry, 1996) I was going to try see if they’d wax me if I acted mannish [¼ acting overly tough or aggressive], but I’m too much of a wimp (Queer ID, 2009) “I can hear everything!” “He’s a ninja [¼ tough person] now” (8 Mile, film, 2002) Y’all know me I keep it real for the rillas [¼ street tough guys or thugs], bustin’ off bullets in you sinners, we the God’s killas (Axe Murder Boyz, 2008) Recently he felt it had attracted some roughnecks [¼ street tough guys or thugs] (Charlotte Observer, 1997)

5.3

Rhetorical functions

Language can be used for deliberate stylistic effects. The manipulation of words, sounds and sentence structures for a desired effect is called rhetoric. Although associated with political orations or academic diction, it is not restricted to elevated use, but also functions in everyday communication. African American slang can also be used for similar, consciously achieved effects. Because slang can be one of the most revealing things about a person, it becomes an important verbal tool when used with a deliberate purpose. Allen (1993: 266) highlights this rhetorical deliberateness: “slang is words that are identifiable primarily by the intent of the speaker.” The rhetorical motives behind the use of slang include informality, stylization, conciseness and forcefulness of expression. Let us analyze each of these motives separately.

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Functions

5.3.1

Informality

Informality is one of the main rhetorical functions of slang. People use different kinds of language (often termed registers or styles) depending on the different situations in which they find themselves. The lexicon of any language can be divided according to the informality scale, slang being at the very bottom. The use of slang always diminishes the formality of communication in which it occurs, and, as observed by Lighter (1994: xii), “charges discourse with an unrefined and often aggressive informality”; such use is often a matter of deliberate and conscious choice. As a result, slang lends a vivid color to content matter which may be serious or contrite. This point is well illustrated by a selection of citations including African American slang, quoting well-known US politicians or found in esteemed newspapers: I have never gone hunting and fishing isn’t my bag [¼ preferred area of activity or specialization] (Richard Nixon, 1991) Mayor Nagin told CNN affiliate WDSU-TV in New Orleans “New Orleans was a Chocolate City [¼ city with a predominantly African American population] before Katrina. It is going to be a chocolate city after” (Washington Post, 2006) President Clinton is quoted in Vanity Fair as saying he did not find the writing easy: “When we were in the White House, from the get-go [¼ from the very beginning] so much happened in such a compressed amount of time” (Vanity Fair, 2004) “They jumped on me like white on rice [¼ as closely as possible],” said City Councilman Michael Bond (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 1995) Obama declined to accept the change from a black cashier with the statement “Nah, we straight [¼ all right]” (New York Times, 2012)

However, one should hold a reservation here. As noted by Eble (1996: 118), “informality as a defining characteristic of slang is probably of limited value in current American culture, where the appearance of informality is considered by many to be chic.” Social behavior reflects this through general tendencies to wear casual clothes, to use plastic cups, to use first names, etc. These are the new norms, and language mirrors this relaxed attitude. 5.3.2

Stylization

Stylization (or imitation) is another important function of slang. People often imitate someone else’s way of speaking for various reasons such as to identify with a style or an attitude, and thus to project their images in the real world. “In our language we are constantly recreating our image in our own minds and in the minds of others,” says Flexner (in Chapman 1986: xxiii). Slang, used in this function, serves to create one’s image: it becomes an outward

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113

characteristic of the users and reflects their personalities. It can be one of the most revealing things about us because our own slang lexicon contains many words used by choice. In the context of stylization, it is noteworthy to present the notions of primary and secondary slang. The former is used by a group of its own creators in its natural context. The latter is consciously used to imitate the primary slang of a specific group outside its natural context, and can be used as a rhetorical function to show one’s solidarity toward that group, but also to ridicule it. Secondary slang is then a matter of rhetorical manipulation rather than true identification. Interestingly, with the speed and ease of modern communication, there is a marked tendency for slang to become general and be used in its secondary function. Such is the case with the widespread imitation of African American slang by whites. One of the reasons for this imitation is “coolness,” especially among young speakers or those wishing to be young. Bucholtz (2011: 89) says that “slang is a crucial linguistic element in the creation and display of coolness, a central value of trendy youth styles of all kinds. Hence slang fulfills a unifying function for speakers who strive for coolness, insofar as displaying familiarity with a rapidly changing lexicon allows them to bolster their credentials as individuals who are on top of current trends.” Lighter (1994: xxxi) explains this imitation by the appealing novelty and the vicarious identifications with big-city street life, associated with African American slang. Still, one cannot but notice a certain paradoxical disparity in the treatment of African American slang: as noted by Morgan (in Mufwene et al. 1998: 251), the dominant society imitates the slang of African Americans, celebrating its wit and creativity, but it still considers it “bad” or unintelligible. Moreover, the stylization function of slang often shifts into lexical appropriation, where African American slang expressions become so assimilated in the general slang that they lose the connection with their origin; Smitherman (2000a: 28–33) calls them “cross-over expressions” and they will be discussed later. Consider the following examples of stylization: Yeah, I’m a badass [¼ tough, bold, and severe] motherfucker who studies astrophysics (Harvard Crimson, 2005) The bling-bling [¼ showy and ostentatiously luxurious] era may have faded for car buyers, but apparently not for auto thieves (USA Today, 2010) By the way, cuz [¼ close friend], I met this sexy blonde tax attorney at Starbucks today (Fifty First Dates, film, 2004) We cannot afford to drop science [¼ give valuable information] (New York Daily Post, 2008) “I think you might have been black in a previous life.” “Fo’ shizzle my nizzle [¼ certainly]!” (White Chicks, film, 2004)

114

Functions Speaking strictly as a honkie [¼ white person], I find few pastimes more amusing than watching white people try to be black (Newport Daily Press, 2004) President Obama wants to kick to the curb [¼ reject] a lot of tax breaks for the nation’s wealthiest families or people making more than $250,000 a year (Washington Post, 2010) From now on, I want you like white on rice [¼ clinging to or following as closely as possible] (30 Rock, NBC-TV series, 2008) There’s nothing like a sexy sister [¼ African American woman]. I’m no racist, but I must admit I don’t even look at white women in a sexual manner (Urban Daily, 2009) Yes, this year as our guests arrive, they can style and profile [¼ boast or act in a showy way] for the paparazzi on the green carpet during the reception (Charlotte Observer, 2010)

5.3.3

Conciseness

Conciseness of expression is another important rhetorical function of slang. To quote Major (1994: xxviii), “African American slang cuts through logic and arrives at a quick, efficient, interpretative solution to situations and things otherwise difficult to articulate.” Because slang tends to be composed of short words, it is extremely effectual in conveying information. It is especially valuable where space is highly valued, such as in newspaper headlines or breaking news on television. Brevity is also desirable because it often makes slang a forceful way of expressing ideas. The same is true about African American slang. Consider these expressions: Amy deserves dap [¼ respect] because her singing is awesome (Ebonics Translator, 2010) Girl, if you don’t get naked, I’m about to dip [¼ leave]! (Too Short, 2006) Not that it matters but she is quite a fox [¼ sexually attractive woman] herself (American Thinker, 2005) I’m so excited about this gig [¼ temporary job, especially for one night]! (30 Rock, NBC-TV series, 2008) They decided it was time to get hep [¼ aware, knowing or understanding] to the times and rejoin the computer world (Creative Lifestyles, 2009) Sorry to interrupt the jam [¼ party or gathering where musicians play improvised music, especially jazz] (Parenthood, NBC-TV series, 2012) You sayin you a loc [¼ member of a criminal gang] but never gang-banged, you ain’t no muthafuckin mobsta (Nefarious, 2000) I’m not your “yo” [¼ an African American friend], show me your work! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2006)

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Conciseness of expression as an important rhetorical function of slang is also seen in African American slang’s amenability to abbreviation. Note the following abbreviations: You’re jealous because I’m driving a Benz [¼ Mercedes-Benz automobile] (Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2006) Before practice I ate at BK [¼ Burger King restaurant] (Burger King) again (Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 1991) We need to celebrate with a bottle of bub [¼ champagne or sparkling wine] (Urban Dictionary, 2003) I think a true MC [¼ performer of a rap song] should be able to freestyle (San Francisco Chronicle, 2007) I remember calling someone an MF [¼ contemptible or despicable man] (Ebony, 2010) My man X is a bad mother [¼ contemptible or despicable man] (Public Enemy, 1994) I lived in N.O. [¼ New Orleans, Louisiana] before the storm (City Data, 2009) When are we getting some rec [¼ good time]? (Battlestar Galactica, SciFiTV series, 2004) How did you hook up with San Quinn and Sky Balla from SFC [¼ San Francisco, California]? (Bay Undaground, 2009) Bandanas, hoodies, timbos [¼ Timberland boots or shoes]! (Snoop Dogg, 2001)

However, slang expressions are used not only because they are concise but also because they communicate more quickly, easily and effectively than standard ones. In English, some ideas require a series of several words, yet they can be expressed easily and more economically in one- or two-word slang expressions. Here slang serves the purpose of verbal short-hand. African American slang is no different in this respect. See the following examples: Leonardo is the guy with a giant Afro [¼ hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans] (Scrubs, NBC-TV series, 2000) Victoria Dryer is a buppie [¼ young, affluent, city-dwelling African American professional], black yuppie who has made it in white corporate America (Cleveland Jewish News, 2007) We refer to the preference for light skin as being color-struck [¼ harboring prejudice against dark-skinned people, especially African Americans] (Lexington Herald Leader, 2009) You ain’t gave me no five [¼ shaking hands with someone or slapping someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation], kids! (Whitney Fan, 2009)

116

Functions See I’m a young nigga but I drink a forty [¼ forty-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor] quick (Mac Mall, 1993) Dude, I need to maintain [¼ be calm, even in the most adverse circumstances] or I won’t make it (Aaron Peckham, 2005) Everybody knows I shaved into a soul patch [¼ small patch of facial hair just below the lower lip, popular especially among African American musicians] for the video (Josie and the Pussycats, film, 2001) No need for you to ever sweat [¼ give someone too much attention] the next bitch (Jay-Z, 2002) I am moved by the spirit. I’m here to testify [¼ celebrate through verbal acknowledgement]! (Yahoo Music, 2010) He’s a wigger [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop]. That’s the hip-hop term for white kids who want to be black (Los Angeles Times, 2008)

5.3.4

Forcefulness

Forcefulness of expression is another notable rhetorical function of slang. Slang is often more direct, vivid, personal and expressive, and thus more forceful than are words from the standard lexicon. It usually avoids the sentimentality, diplomacy and formality which are often carried by standard words. Put differently, people use slang to sound more forceful and emphatic. Natural exponents of forcefulness in slang are vulgarisms, but non-vulgar slang expressions belong to this category as well. This is corroborated by the following citational findings: It’s brilliant stuff, and funky as a motherfucker [¼ extremely or totally] (Music Vice, 2010) Bitch [¼ woman], where do you get this shit from? You crazy? (He Got Game, film, 1998) Yo bitch, bring your black ass [¼ self, when referring to an African American] back over (Snoop Dogg, 1993) I bet you want that hoe [¼ woman] to have your child, niggaz must be blind (E-40, 2000) These are some lazy-ass [¼ very lazy] bastards, so you gotta make sure they don’t slough off (Ray, film, 2004) Fuck! Fuck! Motherfuck [¼ I am irritated]! Fuckety-fuck! (Wire, HBO-TV series, 2002) That’s a hard motherfucking [¼ contemptible or irritating] fact of life (Pulp Fiction, film, 1994) Cosell, get your white ass [¼ white self] in here! (New York Times, 2006)

5.4 Cultural functions

5.4

117

Cultural functions

Language also serves a cultural function. The use of certain expressions often carries with it specific information which is culture-specific or culture-creative. This also extends to African American slang, with its primary cultural functions of wordplay and word battle, to which one may also add assimilation. While they may belong to rhetorical functions as well, they are grouped here since they are culture-specific and inherently connected with African American oral traditions. A separate matter is assimilation, alternatively termed appropriation; although similar to occasional rhetorical stylization, it is largely unconscious, widespread and culturally significant. 5.4.1

Wordplay

Slang is sometimes created and used for the mere pleasure of novelty and freshness derived from verbal experimentation. Besides, people enjoy manipulating the rules of language. Crystal (2005: 464) calls it “ludic” usage of language, where the purpose is not merely to convey meaning but to draw attention to the way the standard rules of language can be bent or broken for an effect. Although wordplay is a well-known feature of general slang, it is especially prominent in African American slang, where it is appreciated for its poetic qualities, especially in rap music. Says Adams (2009: 6): “slang is used to assert our everyday poetic prowess, to manipulate sounds and effects of words,” and adds that “[it] is a show or a performance” (2009: 195). Moreover, as observed by McArthur (1992: 845), wordplay is prevalent not only in rap versifying but also in the names that performers give themselves. This pertains to form and is exemplified by names based on assonance or alliteration, for instance DJ Jazzy Jeff, LL Cool J, Jam Master Jay; or it is pertinent to meaning and exemplified by names accentuating a certain feature, for instance “coolness,” as in Ice T, Ice Cube, Kid Frost or LL Cool J. Here is a selection of examples exhibiting wordplay: Dennis is considered an “Afro-Saxon” [¼ African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes] by the other blacks in his class, a brother hanging with the white kids (New York Times, 2000) He approaches the genre of blaxploitation [¼ commercial exploitation of assumed African American experience, especially in films with African Americans in sensational heroic roles] with humor (Ebony, 2009) The bootylicious [¼ sexually attractive] Kim will be the special celebrity guest (Boston Herald, 2010) Sorry, Nina, I don’t understand Ebonics [¼ non-standard variety of African American English, sometimes considered as a language in its own right, or

118

Functions synonymous with African American English]! (3rd Rock from the Sun, NBC-TV series, 1999) The city might be called Hotlanta [¼ Atlanta, Georgia] because that is where the action is in the Deep South, but that nickname could also apply to the summer climate (Los Angeles Times, 1996) This mugly [¼ very unattractive] nigga should go to jail, then he can morph into blade and fight them other niggas off his booty (Snitch, 2010) To let his massive organ dig deeper into mama’s rinctum [¼ rectum], fella holds her thighs tight (Thumblogger, 2007) That’s not what we all want to learn about the sexcellent [¼ sexually attractive] Tawny K! (OC Weekly, 2004) Green plays a “wigga” [¼ white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop] with dead-eyed accuracy (New York Post, 1998) Fuck these youngstas [¼ young members of a criminal gang], weak-ass niggas, bitches and hoes. I’m sick of this shit but I guess it must be said again, again, and again (Facebook, 2010)

5.4.2

Word battle

Another cultural function of African American slang is the tradition of verbal battles (also called rap battles or verbal dueling). It has been popularized by hip-hop culture and rap music, but is deeply rooted in African American tradition, such as the Dozens, which is making provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner. Verbal battles are gamelike and quasi-mocking exchanges of verbal communication between two or more participants, frequently involving ritual insults which use various stylistic techniques and make creative associations. As observed by Ackerman (in Mesthrie 2001: 291), the aim of verbal battles is to destroy one’s opponent with words, and so winning requires the ability to manipulate language through superior verbal skills such as employing rhyme, meter and figuration, while emphasizing creativity at the same time. See the following expressions connected with this function: You win battles [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] (8 Mile, film, 2002) You capped on [¼ teased, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] me but it was funny as all hell (Urban Dictionary, 2009) There are many different terms for playing the dozens, including dissing [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner], joning, ribbing, signifying and sounding (James Haskins, 2000)

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The Dozens [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] is a game of verbal combat, played mostly by black males on street corners (Baltimore Sun, 1994) He said he’d been drinking in Rabbit’s and someone started signifyin’ [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] on him (Old Cop, 2009) We be readily rappin’ and snappin’ [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] (Outkast, 2000) Shyne shouldn’t be provoking anymore sounding [¼ teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner] (Miss Info, 2010) Fuck that nigga, you diss me, you gon’ be dissed back, nigga! Yo mama [¼ I hold you in contempt], motherfucker! (Royce Da 5’9”, 2005)

5.4.3

Assimilation

While many slang expressions which originated among African Americans remain in that community, a sizeable number of them have become assimilated into general American slang, retaining various degrees of association with African Americans. Many such expressions are a result of the overuse of stylization or imitation (discussed earlier). In extreme cases, these expressions become totally assimilated and are no longer recognized as being related to African American culture. For istance, as noted by Eble (1996: 81), many English speakers are not aware of the African American origins of several words such as nitty-gritty, ripoff or do one’s own thing. Some linguists such as Adams (2009: 57) or Bucholtz (2011: 76) refer to this process of lexical borrowing as the “appropriation” of African American slang by mainstream culture and argue that it is perhaps a better term than “borrowing” since the expressions borrowed are never returned nor have they ever left their source. Other linguists such as Smitherman (2006: 109) go even further and call such process the “Africanization of American English.” The result of complete assimilation (or appropriation) is often referred to as the “cross-over” expression, a term used by linguists such as Rickford (1999: 399) or Smitherman (2000a: 28–33). While general American slang draws from various sources, the influx of expressions from African American slang is striking due to the vast number of these expressions, the high frequency of their use, and the fast rate of assimilation. All this attests to the enormous influence of African American slang on general slang. The popularity of crossover expressions can be attributed to their novel, rich and imaginative qualities, but also, as noted by Eble (in Wolfram and Schilling-Estes 2006: 72), to the attractiveness of non-mainstream cultures to mainstream culture. Coleman explains this attractiveness in this way: “By identifying with disadvantaged minorities [such as African Americans], [general] slang users can show their

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disdain for the standards and traditions of mainstream society without actually having to give up their privileges or go to the trouble of being creative in their own right” (2012: 303). However, many cross-over expressions repeat certain racial stereotypes entrenched in the mentality of the general American public. Below is a selection of African American slang expressions which crossed over to general slang: Are you giving me an attitude [¼ arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude]? (Stark Raving Mad, NBC-TV series, 1999) Are you boning [¼ having sex with] our target’s sister? (Dexter, ShowtimeTV series, 2010) Who doesn’t love a booty call [¼ call to seek a sex partner], answered or not? (New York Magazine, 2009) We were driving for eight hours and stopping at gas stations and I want to catch some Z’s [¼ take a nap] in the van (New York Post, 2008) Chill out [¼ be calm], dickhead! (Terminator 2: Judgment Day, film, 1991) It is fairly obvious that this is not a cool [¼ excellent or admirable] party (Jewish Chronicle, 2010) He was left to bleed to death in my crib [¼ apartment or house] (New York Daily News, 2010) What are you looking at, daddy-o [¼ man]? (Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, film, 2008) The handling is totally bitchin’ and the chicks really dig [¼ like or regard favorably] it (Car and Driver, 2000) Jack is emceeing [¼ perform a rap song] tomorrow (Seinfeld, NBC-TV series, 1991) Everyone eyeballed [¼ stared at or observed closely] it for a second and then shrugged it off (Washington Post, 2011) We know that lower rates and freebies [¼ things given or enjoyed free of charge] help accomplish this (San Francisco Chronicle, 2010) Gulfport is a very laid back [¼ calm] community and the residents like it that way (Tampa Bay Newspaper, 2010) Guys, listen up [¼ pay attention and listen carefully]. A new study says it is actually healthy to stare at a woman’s breasts (News, Fox-TV program, 2011) What kind of metaphysical mumbo-jumbo [¼ meaningless or deceptive talk, especially jargon] is that? (Washington Post, 2010) Delving into the nitty-gritty [¼ details or most basic aspects or elements] of health care negotiations for the first time, Mr. Obama risks alienating members of the labor movement (New York Times, 2010)

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Even at $10 a bottle it was a rip-off [¼ swindle, especially by over-pricing] (North-Central Connecticut Journal Inquirer, 2009) He tried to fuck me, that’s why I split [¼ left] (Human Stain, film, 2003) I gotta train you twenty-four seven [¼ continuously or non-stop] (People I Know, film, 2002) It seems like generally speaking our nation has become very uptight [¼ overly conservative or orthodox] (Everyday Christian, 2010) It’s not often you see the corpse of some poor sap who got wasted [¼ killed] by the Mob, after all (Zeta Boards, 2010)

Interestingly, the assimilation of African American slang expressions extends beyond the border of the United States, entering other national varieties of English. Although understandably not as sizeable in number as in American English, cross-over terms may often be found in Canadian English, yet also in such geographically distant varieties of the language as British, Irish, or even Australian and New Zealand English. This little-researched area deserves attention and attests to an even greater impact of African American slang on the English language around the globe. Here is a sample of such expressions: She insisted she would never badmouth [¼ criticize and disrespect] her ex (Mirror (United Kingdom), 2011) We hope that local labour will be utilised. I give big ups [¼ congratulations] to the Minister (Scoop (New Zealand), 2011) The Maori Party is too attached to the bling-bling [¼ showiness and ostentatious luxury] of ministerial posts (New Zealand Herald (New Zealand), 2011) Most people who remember the 80s can remember someone with a boom box [¼ large portable stereo player] perched on one shoulder (News, BBC-TV program (United Kingdom), 2011) His secretary gave me the “call me” sign. A muse to my art? Or a booty call [¼ call to seek a sex partner]? (Vancouver Sun (Canada), 2011) Students like to chill out [¼ relax and have a good time] here, eat, enjoy a walk or just cruise down the road (Deccan Herald (India), 2011) At $28,000, the cost might seem like chump change [¼ small or meager amount of money] compared to the billions of public money these folks dole out every year (Calgary Herald (Canada), 2011) Thomas has just been a deejay [¼ disc jockey] for a little over a year (Philippine Star (Philippines), 2011) I would fight if I thought anybody had dissed [¼ disrespected by belittling or disparaging] me (London Evening Standard (United Kingdom), 2011)

122

Functions We are told the bus drivers eyeballed [¼ stared at or observed closely] each other (Daily Telegraph (United Kingdom), 2011) Their relationship is uncertain from the get-go [¼ from the very beginning], with Angelica trying to avenge his sudden disappearance (Express Tribune (Pakistan), 2011) Diane is a teacher with a penchant for exercising dance moves to the music of her ghetto blaster [¼ large portable stereo player] before class (Australian Stage (Australia), 2011) I’m concerned how far it is to Portlaoise and where’s a good place to stop for grub [¼ food] on the way home (Irish Times (Ireland), 2011) You’ll be hacked off [¼ irritated] (Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, film (United Kingdom), 2011) Children high-fived [¼ shook hands with him or slapped his hand held high, in greeting or congratulation] him and he crowned his achievement with a sprinted lap of Stockholm’s Olympic Stadium (Warwick Courier (United Kingdom), 2011) You stay in the hood [¼ neighborhood] and deal, you make £500 to £1000 a day if you are lucky (Telegraph (United Kingdom), 2011) Natasha has a very laid-back [¼ calm] personality (Jamaica Observer (Jamaica), 2011) They spoke about how they felt they got their mojo [¼ influence, power or charisma] back (Stuff (New Zealand), 2011) Everything is more expensive, and it seems like everyone is trying to rip off [¼ swindle or cheat, especially by overpricing] hard-working families (Herald Sun (Australia), 2011) I can’t understand why some men get a bit uppity [¼ self-important or arrogant] about it (Herald Sun (Australia), 2011) Thus begins a tug-of-love between the free-spirited, fragile Julia and the stern, uptight [¼ overly conservative or orthodox] Mimi (Independent (South Africa), 2011)

Summary As demonstrated above, the use of African American slang seldom serves the mere exchange of information. More often, slang is used instead of standard English expressions to convey some extra information, whether social, psychological, rhetorical or cultural. While standard language is also used in these functions, they are much more prominent in slang. Such use of slang demonstrates that it is no different from standard English functionally, but can serve as a versatile means of verbal expression.

Summary

123

Social functions are central to African American slang. They include group identification, rebellion, social interaction and secrecy. Such use of slang is especially visible in expressing group identification and solidarity, but also features strongly in showing rebellion and secrecy; this, again, is no surprise considering the aggregate of the African American historical experience in the United States. Social interaction, or the phatic function, is also important and accounts for frequent, everyday use of slang. Equally important are psychological functions, which include expressing emotions, humor and toughness. Much as in general American slang, the most prominent usage is the expression of emotions: slang offers an extensive repertoire of expressions for a variety of emotional states and actions, and emotive labels for people or things. Humor and verbal toughness are common as well. African American slang is also used in rhetorical functions. These involve informality, stylization, conciseness and forcefulness of expression. Of course informality is the most inherent and fundamental characteristic of slang; it accounts for slang’s everyday usage. African American slang is also employed in the function of stylization and used as a so-called secondary slang; in this function it is consciously and heavily imitated by non-African Americans for various reasons such as its originality or “coolness.” Cultural functions also play a significant role in African American slang and include wordplay, word battle and assimilation. The first two are virtually a hallmark of African American slang. Wordplay accounts for hundreds of novel expressions resulting from the creative manipulation of form; word battle, deeply rooted in African traditions, tests verbal and performance skills applied in actual discourse. The most pervasive, however, is the phenomenon of complete assimilation, also known as appropriation, which is the use of African American slang expressions by other ethnic groups and the quick assimilation of these expressions (cross-over terms) into general American slang.

Conclusion

The aim of this book has been to document and describe African American slang, and to serve as a practical source of information on this type of language. In particular, the book is designed to show African American slang as a significant, innovative, rule-governed sociolinguistic phenomenon, and an important lexical contribution to American English, deserving attention and appreciation. The reason for taking up the subject was the linguistic and cultural importance of African American slang evident in its frequent occurrence in American media and popculture on the one hand, and the relative scarcity of relevant scholarly publications on the other. Written in the fashion of traditional descriptive linguistics, the book focuses on the multifaceted linguistic analysis of slang expressions based on a large database of authentic lexical material from various contemporary sources. Slang has been examined from various perspectives, and its exploration has included patterns of form, meaning, themes and functions, all illustrated with ample citational evidence throughout the text and in the Glossary. The concluding assertions made in this book, connected with the description of African American slang, can be summarized as follows. In terms of terminology, African American slang is defined as highly informal vocabulary coined by or typically associated with African Americans. Slang itself is a highly informal and unconventional type of vocabulary, perceived as expressive, attractively catchy and deliberately undignified. It consists of standard expressions, modified in some way or appended with new meanings, and sometimes of entirely novel expressions. It is coined chiefly by members of social, occupational or ethnic groups which are typically separate from mainstream society, yet it is often adopted by larger social segments. It is employed in place of standard expressions to convey some extra information of a psychological, social or rhetorical nature. Slang thus provides alternative, highly informal synonyms for referents already named in the language, but sometimes gives names for referents for which there are no standard expressions, or which have yet to be named. African American slang fits into this definition and exhibits a number of characteristics highlighted in this definition, as seen below. 124

Conclusion

125

In terms of morphology, the form of African American slang is not fundamentally different from that of standard English. The same wordbuilding processes are applicable, including compounding and affixation; in phraseology, numerous phrasal verbs are formed in a creative way; longer phrases and formulaic expressions, often proverbial in character, are also popular and typically reflect the African American experience. Equally common is abbreviation, with clipped forms and initialisms being most frequent, while acronyms and back formations are relatively rare. Blending, a marginal wordbuilding process, appears to be surprisingly more common than one might expect. Conversion, especially verbification, is as pervasive as it is in standard English. Finally, borrowings and loan translations are not especially prominent. In terms of semantics, African American slang is created by attaching new meanings to already existing standard English words, especially via figuration. In this respect, African American slang is again no different in any way from the standard English lexicon. Figuration in African American slang is extensive and involves metaphor, metonymy and several other processes; notable is the use of allusion, specific to the African American culture and experience. Figuration themes are generally consistent with those used in general American slang and cover such subjects as food, body parts and animals, to name a few; however, certain themes, such as colors, are much more prominent. Semantic shifting is extensive as well, and involves generalization, specialization, melioration and pejoration. All of these occur in standard English and are connected with historical change in the language; in African American slang, however, these processes occur faster and are therefore more conspicuous. In terms of semantic fields, the lexicon of African American slang can be divided into two main thematic types: common (i.e. shared with general American slang) and specific (i.e. characteristic of the African American experience). The common themes make up a majority of expressions and include: body, physiology, sexuality, alcohol, drugs and categorization; however, the physiology theme is surprisingly small when compared to general American slang, as is the alcohol theme; the sexuality and drugs themes, on the other hand, are enormously productive, as is negative or positive categorization. The specific themes reflect the African American experience and perspective, and include African Americans and Africana, racism and discrimination, whites, violence and crime, entertainment and music, luxury, and geography; especially frequent are expressions involving racism and discrimination, with other sizeable themes being violence and crime. In terms of pragmatics, African American slang is used instead of standard English to communicate additional information, be it social, psychological, rhetorical or cultural. While standard language also has such functions, they

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are much more prominent in slang. Social functions are central to African American slang and include group identification, rebellion, social interaction and secrecy; such use of slang is especially visible in expressing group identification and solidarity, but also features strongly in showing rebellion and secrecy. Equally important are psychological functions, which include expressing emotions, humor and toughness; much as in general American slang, the most prominent usage is the expression of emotions: slang offers an extensive repertoire of expressions for a variety of emotional states and actions, and emotive labels for people or things. African American slang is also used in rhetorical functions which involve informality, stylization, conciseness and forcefulness of expression; of course informality is the most salient characteristic of slang accounting for slang’s everyday usage. African American slang is also employed in the function of stylization and used as a so-called secondary slang; in this respect, it is consciously and heavily imitated by non-African Americans for various reasons such as its originality or “coolness.” Cultural functions also play a significant role and include wordplay, word battle and assimilation; the most pervasive is complete assimilation, known as appropriation, which is the use of African American slang expressions by other ethnic groups and the quick assimilation of these expressions (cross-over terms) into general American slang. Although the aim of the book has been to analyze African American slang, the scholarly and educational implications stemming from this work go beyond the subject matter. African American slang constitutes an important lexical contribution to African American English and general American slang, and by extension, this multifaceted presentation of African American slang reflects linguistic patterns applicable to both, thereby lending itself to being employed in scholarly endeavors in these fields. For this reason, it is hoped that the observations made in this book will increase our understanding of and enhance our appreciation for African American slang in and of itself. The Glossary is an integral part of the book. Beyond serving as a practical reference, it fulfills the book’s documentary aim listing representative expressions of African American slang with additional meanings, appended with definitions and usage examples. Much like the lexical material used in the main text, the Glossary is based on a large database of citations reflecting the language used in natural contexts, and collected from diverse, contemporary African American sources; however, non-African American sources were also included to illustrate the impact African American slang has had on the general slang used in America and throughout the English-speaking world. To reiterate, viewing slang from the position of an outsider, as most sociolinguists and lexicographers do, affords a more detached and thus a more objective description of the phenomenon. I hope that this research-based scholarly work will inspire the reader to perceive African American slang as

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a significant, innovative, rule-governed sociolinguistic phenomenon, and an important lexical contribution to American English deserving attention and appreciation. To paraphrase Marcyliena Morgan (2009: x): I wanted African American slang to have the same level of respect as any area of study in the academic world. I hope I have succeeded.

Glossary

A A and B conversation phr. a conversation strictly between two people (gs): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Fool, I wasn’t even talking to you. This is an A and B conversation. You can see your way out of it; 1993 Threat: Well, this is a A and B conversation, so C-ya, cause I’d rather see ya than be ya; 2001 Save the Last Dance, film: He’s talking to me. It’s an A and B conversation ABC, A.B.C. see ace boon coon Ac (or AC, A.C.) n. an Acura automobile (jg, rk): 1995 Mobb Deep: I used to drive an AC and kept a Mac in the engine; 1997 Wu-Tang Clan: That shit you had in Vegas, yo, it coulda got us both sprayed up, they seen the Ac, know this traitor; 2006 Randy Kearse: Dawg had the gold Ac in 96 ace (or ace buddy) n. a close friend (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1992 Dr. Dre: Nigga used to be my homey, used to be my ace; 1996 Deseret News: You’ll be pleased to learn that Clooney is now ace buddies with Schwarzenegger; 2004 WuTang Clan: Me and my man, my ace Big Moe from the shelter,’bout to hit the skins ace boon coon (or ABC, A.B.C.) n. potentially offensive a close friend (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1991 Ice-T: He went to school with me, my ace boon coon; 1991 New Jack City, film: 128

My ace boon coon! How you doing?; 2012 Twitter: He my ABC now and forever! ace buddy see ace ace cool (or ace kool) n. a close friend (gs, jg): 1988 Kirk Mitchell: Rocket was leaning against a brick wall close by, looking down, because his main man, his ace cool was dead; 1998 Stephen J. Cannell: His “ace cool,” which means best friend, told him that he was part of the killing; 2009 Los Santos Roleplay Forums: He soon became my ace kool and we did everything together ace kool see above actual factual n. reality or the facts (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Just hit me with the actual factual; 2009 Fathom: If this is actual factual, which I doubt, I think that I need to practice on my bass more; 2009 J2 Comics: I don’t like digital images as much as the actual factual, but this doesn’t seem to have lost in the process addy n. an address, especially an internet address (cm, gs): 2008 My Space: If ya want my addy, feel free to ask; 2010 Washington Post: What’s your addy, so I can mail you a box of tissues to clean up the mess you just made?; 2013 YouTube: Mike sent me his addy so I could mail him some cheddar Afro n. a hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African

Glossary Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1995 Bad Boys, film: I cannot believe he wore his Afro that big; 1999 Snoop Dogg: I’m that nigga who brought Afro back; 2000 Bamboozled, film: There’d be at least one Negro writer in this room and that Afro does not qualify you, my Jewish friend Afroed adj. having a hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans (cm): 2001 Nappy Heads: You didn’t mention the Afro though, as a style option, but you did have a picture of a stunning looking Afroed sister; 2008 Brown Sista: This kinky haired Afro sista is doing her own thing and still rising to the top; 2008 New York Magazine: The Democratic nominee is shown wearing a turban and giving a terrorist fist-jab to his Afroed, machine-gun-toting wife Afro-Saxon n. potentially offensive an African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (bk, gs): 2000 New York Times: Dennis is considered an “Afro-Saxon” by the other blacks in his class, a brother hanging with the white kids; 2002 Christopher Robert Reed: They were referred to by historian David Lewis as “Afro-Saxons”; 2010 Diverse Issues in Higher Education: One might say that search committees, without intending to, look for Afro-Saxons aight1 excl. all right (jg, rk): 2002 Ali G Indahouse, film: Let’s do what Tupac and Biggie never managed, aight?; 2006 Fifty Pills, film: “This must be a huge-ass operation.” “Aight, bitch. I’ll take care of this shit”; 2007 David Austin: “Call me when you can.” “Aight!” aight2 adv. all right (jg, rk): 1995 Clockers, film: “How’d that go?” “It was aight”; 2012 Vincent Greene: She doing aight. I’m going to see her this

129 Saturday; 2013 Rick Ross: It’s gonna be aight, don’t even worry ’bout nothing ain’t studying (or ain’t studyin’) phr. to be indifferent or not care (gs): 1998 BusinessWeek: Dick Cheney Ain’t Studyin’ War No More; 2008 Miracle at St. Anna, film: “Colonel Discroll coming to watch, too. Bishop, you hear me?” “I ain’t studyin’ Discroll!”; 2009 Passing Strange, film: I ain’t studyin’ how late you was up last night airish adj. cool and breezy (cm, gs, jg): 1995 Greensboro News and Record: The whole house was very airish, but they’ve insulated underneath the house and put caulking on the windows; 1998 Hawkins County Post: It feels sorta airish in here; 2008 Carolyn Digh Griffin: Miss Hope, you bes’ git in da house, it’s a gittin’ kinda airish air out n. [1] to go for a walk (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Come on, sugar, let’s air out on the boulevard; 2010 Air Comfort Solutions: You’d like to air out with them?; 2011 Urban Dictionary: “Let’s air out a lil bit!” “Yep, we need some fresh air anyway” [2] to leave (cm, gs): 2011 Urban Dictionary: I aired out my girl ’cuz she wouldn’t put out; 2011 Prophet Blog: She aired out Rihanna for being mean to her; 2011 Hip Hop Stan: Bitches, you wanna air out? AK (or A.K.) n. an AK-47 assault rifle (cm, gs, jg): 1992 Dr. Dre: I never take a step on a Compton block or L.A. without the AK ready to pop; 1992 Los Angeles Times: He once dreamed of revenge, of taking an AK to every policeman and blast them, referring to an AK-47 assault rifle; 2012 Southland, TNT-TV series: Two homies killed my witness with an AK all good (or all good in the hood) phr. all right (jg, rk): 2005 Chronicle of Higher Education: We turn in the

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condo for a fifteen-acre farm, life is slower, and as they say, it’s all good; 2010 Sports Illustrated: Reynolds is on pace for 35 homers 110 RBI and more than 90 runs so it’s all good in the hood; 2011 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: I already talked to Kristina, it’s all good all good in the hood see above alligator n. a devotee or performer of swing or jazz music, especially if white (jg): 1999 Snoop Dogg: She a lady alligator; 2001 Baltimore Sun: Come on, alligators! It’s not enough to dance the dances, you need to talk the talk of swing; 2009 Tom Dalzell: Bernie could well remember the alligators of the late swing period alligator bait n. potentially offensive an African American from Florida or Louisiana, especially a child (bk, cm, jg): 2007 Beaumont Enterprise: Get off my beat you black alligator bait!; 2010 San Francisco Chronicle: Two of the cries that greeted Aaron at games: “Go back to the cotton fields” and “alligator bait”; 2013 All Voices: Alligator bait applied to blacks of any age, particularly those who were from Florida all in the Kool-Aid phr. nosy and inquisitive (cm): 2010 Word Press: He loves to be in the midst of it all, or as my daughters say, all in the Kool-Aid; 2012 Madame Noire: Wendy was trying to get all in the kool-aid like she only can and Raven basically said I’m happy in my personal life; 2013 Bravo TV: Had it been Rodolfo, girl, you’d be all in the kool aid! all in the Kool-Aid and don’t know the flavor (or all in the Kool-Aid and don’t know the flava) phr. nosy and inquisitive while also ignorant of the situation (gs, rk): 1993 Threat: Players can’t trust their neighbors, they all in the Kool-Aid and don’t

know the flavor; 1998 Lorene Cary: I’m old style. Don’t want to be all in the Kool and don’t know the flavor; 2013 New York Amsterdam News: Earthustlers! They’re always in the Kool-Aid and don’t know the flava. Hate ’em! all-originals scene n. a party or other occasion where only African Americans are present (bk, cm, jg): 1990 Alan Dundes: Hey, baby! I dig you holding this all-originals scene at the track; 2009 V-Drums: If you are in an all-originals scene, it’s a different pitch; 2010 Eureka Encyclopedia: Alloriginals scene is blacks only party all that phr. [1] (or all that and then some) excellent or admirable (cm, gs, rk): 1994 Ebony: “Chillin’ With The Sisters” was all that and then some!; 2003 Miami Trial, film: I remember that ho’ got her GED, now she thinks she’s all that; 2005 Man of the House, film: “You’re all that and then some!” “Thank you!” [2] arrogant (gs): 2009 Geek Stink Breath: I am an outgoing person who pretty much is friends with anybody who isn’t all that; 2011 Sassy Stylings: She is all that, kind of an arrogant bitch in the house; 2011 Change of Plans, film: “She’s quite the character!” “Yeah, she’s all that, huh?” all that and then some see above all the way live phr. very lively or exciting (gs, jg): 1995 Things to Do in Denver When You’re Dead, film: He’s bug-fucking-crazy, all the way live!; 2009 Notorious, film: This is DJ Marley Marl. Check it out, y’all. It’s all the way live; 2010 Blogspot: This party was all the way live. Hats off to DJ’s 100 Proof and Swervewon amen corner n. [1] the front seats in the church, typically occupied by the most devout members of the congregation (gs, jg): 2006 Driving Lessons, film:

Glossary God in the pulpit, God in the amen corner, God don’t ever change!; 2009 Daily Sentinel: I looked where the deacons were sitting, in the amen corner; 2012 Word Press: Sitting in the amen corner, elders of the church nod and say “amen” when the preacher says something they like [2] big support or feeling for someone (gs): 2007 Booman Tribune: If they ban all those whom they disagree with, the site will turn into a big amen corner; 2009 More Than Right: Its only purpose is to serve as an Amen corner for their socialist agenda; 2010 Huffington Post: Face it, Cory, you’re not gonna find a very big amen corner here amp see below amped (or amped up, amp) adj. excited (gs, jg, rk): 2007 Wu-Tang Clan: I might get amped to rip something down; 2010 Tennessean: Everyone down here is real amped up for it; 2011 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: The sleepover? Jabbar is pretty amped up about it amped up see above amp up see amped Ann (or Anne) n. potentially offensive a white woman (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: Ann [is] a derisive term for a white woman; 2009 Wikipedia: Miss Ann, also just plain Ann, is a derisive reference to the white woman; 2010 Boston Globe: She looks much nicer than just plain Ann Apple n. New York City (bk, cm, gs): 1998 Out of Sight, film: We’re all ad guys. Flew in this morning from the Apple, New York; 1998 A Tribe Called Quest: Word to Queens, my niggaz in the Apple!; 2005 Bill Kirchner: The Gonzalez brothers, Jerry and Andy, were born in the Apple apple n. potentially offensive the vagina (cm, jg): 2009 Treasure Hernandez: She’s a feisty one, but her apple is sweet as pie; 2012 Twi-Lite:

131 I pop her cherry, then I pop her apple; 2013 Urban Dictionary: Dude, I totally

popped her apple last night apple cap n. a round, bright-colored cap with a very wide brim and a pompom (bk): 2001 Randy Boyd: Holding his gray tweed apple cap over his face, he pretended to be asleep; 2006 Ebony: The dress is accessorized with oversized red apple cap and black sandals; 2010 Express: You have memories of Jackson as a little black boy in an apple cap around the way adv. in the neighborhood (gs, rk): 1993 Us3: Kids around the way know what’s up; 2001 Angie Cruz: She tells Iluminada not to worry, her father is a lot smarter than a lot of the guys around the way; 2002 Wire, HBOTV series: “Where’s his mother?” “Around the way” around-the-way adj. from one’s neighborhood (cm, gs, jg): 1999 Ebony: He said he was fed up with around-theway girls; 2007 Kashamba Williams: After giving it some thought, I wondered if there was really an around-the-way girl story in me to share; 2009 Baltimore City Paper: He looks like an around-the-way type of guy, and in fact he is: a product of Northwest Washington, DC as a motherfucker (or as a mothafucka, as a muthafucka) adv. very offensive extremely or totally: 2004 Wire, HBO-TV series: It’s hot as a motherfucker here; 2009 Precious, film: One’s running around, looking crazy as a motherfucker; 2010 Angry Black Bitch: Strict constructionism becomes selective as a motherfucker ashy adj. (of skin) dry and looking slightly discolored (gs, jg): 1994 Ebony: Ashy skin is never flattering, regardless of your other assets; 2005 Roll Bounce, film: Start puttin’ lotion on your ashy butt; 2005 Bradie Moore: You see,

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black folk need to keep lotion on their bodies all the time to keep from getting ashy skin assed out (or ass out) adv. potentially offensive [1] in trouble (jg): 1996 Nas: You coulda passed out, your coke was gone, now you assed out; 2001 Benzino: I burn rubber and leave you niggas assed out; 2011 J. Cole: I was assed out with my funds low [2] without money (gs, rk): 2008 T.I.: Everybody love to see a nigga assed out, rather see ya lose it all than to see you cash out; 2009 Riot Sound: If you didn’t have a little money already stacked away, you was assed out; 2012 Date Hookup: How many friends would at least lend you a dollar if not a place to stay if you were assed out in the street? ass out see above ATL (or A.T.L.) n. Atlanta, Georgia (gs): 2006 Kathleen Cross: Back from ATL huh? Never mind Atlanta. Tell me about your doctor’s appointment; 2007 Pittsburgh Post Gazette: I have my motivation back living in ATL; 2009 Ebony: If you can’t make the trek down to ATL like I did, don’t sweat it A-Town (or A Town) n. Atlanta, Georgia (jg): 2009 Yahoo Answers: He was born in A-Town and raised in ChiTown; 2010 Cedar Town: Anguish in A-Town! Atlanta Teams Fans Enduring Depression Days; 2011 Babylon: A Town most commonly refers to the city of Atlanta, Georgia attitude n. an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk, cm, gs): 1991 Seinfeld, NBC-TV series: I could never be a maid because I’d have an attitude; 2003 Flywheel, film: “What’s with the attitude?” “I don’t have attitude”; 2008 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Look, I don’t need your attitude Audi (or Audi 5000) v. to leave (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Kool G. Rap: Audi 5000,

don’t wait for the Feds to show; 2007 License to Wed, film: One little exercise, then I’m Audi 5000, okay?; 2011 Raiderfans: Aso is Audi 5000’ing outta here faster than raiderfans Audi 5000 see above Aunt Jane n. potentially offensive an African American woman who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (cm, gs, jg): 1985 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: A judge once referred to her as an Aunt Jane, the black female analogue to Uncle Tom; 1987 Eugene Kuzirian: She had to develop all the strength of character not usually attributed to an Aunt Jane; 1998 Tricity Herald: Militants ridicule these models as Aunt Janes Aunt Jemima n. potentially offensive an African American woman who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (cm, jg): 2013 Ebony: You took this story of Aunt Jemima, this stereotype, this mammyfigure, and you rewrote her story and made her an empowered woman; 2013 Facebook: Aunt Jemima, why you frontin’?; 2013 Chicago Sun-Times: The name “Aunt Jemima” is a racial slur, it stems from slavery Aunt Thomasina n. potentially offensive an African American woman who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (cm, gs, jg): 1991 San Jose Mercury News: Willie is shot down by a young black woman he accuses of being an Aunt Thomasina; 2004 News Max: She’s been attacked as an Aunt Thomasina and a sellout; 2005 American Enterprise: Her kids would come home from school crying that she was an Aunt Thomasina ax1 n. any musical instrument (cm, jg): 2004 Ray, film: “Say, daddy-o, what ax do you play?” “Piano”; 2008 Palm

Glossary Beach Post: To her credit, she stayed on, pretended to play the ax during one tune, then left, throwing the peace sign at the crowd; 2008 Dallas Morning News: He played the ax behind his back ax2 v. to ask (cm): 1994 Fresh, film: I gotta come ax you for the money; 2000 Schoolly D: I gave her ten dollars, then she axed me for some more; 2009 Trailer Park Boys: Countdown to Liquor Day, film: Let me ax you something real quick, dog axman n. a musical instrumentalist, especially guitarist (jg): 2004 Chicago Sun-Times: Both find the 59-year-old West in top form as an axman although his vocal chords are a little worse for wear; 2009 Philadelphia Inquirer: The Philadelphia tenor axman is renowned for his Coltranelike muscularity; 2010 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: In jazz circles the legendary Joe Negri turned up as the axman on the new album by Michael Feinstein B B n. [1] a fellow African American, especially a man (gs, jg, rk): 1991 House Party 2, film: Yo B, you got some cuties here; 2002 8 Mile, film: What’s up, B?; 2002 Paid in Full, film: You’re not the only one working, B! [2] a woman (gs, jg): 2012 Fan Fiction: Machos and womanizers use ridiculous phrases like “Let’s go to the party and scope some B’s”; 2013 YouTube: I agree those are some sexy B’s, haha; 2013 Lipstick Alley: Only stupid B’s accuse Terry Richardson of sexual harassment baby n. a person regarded with affection (cm, gs, jg): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Baby was fine, her body was booming; 2001 Snoop Dogg and Tha Eastsidas: Baby you gank em and play

133 em; 2002 Paid in Full, film: “Don’t call me lucky!” “All right, baby” baby boy n. an insignificant and irresponsible man: 2005 Longest Yard, film: Look who’s back. It’s the baby boy. What is he trying to pull?; 2009 Fan Fiction: I was acting like a stupid baby boy; 2009 Taking of Pelham 123, film: Gerber, baby boy, are you there? baby daddy n. a teenage father who is not married to his child’s mother (gs, jg, rk): 2004 New York Amsterdam News: Being a father and being a baby daddy are two different things. A Baby Daddy is a loser who sires a child; 2005 St. Petersburg Times: People often assume that Kevin Rodriguez Sr. is a baby daddy; 2006 Bring It On: All or Nothing, film: And the next thing you know, you’re going to be on some bad talk show screaming at your baby daddy baby factory n. a woman who has had a lot of children, especially out of marriage (gs, jg): 2009 Bismarck Tribune: Too many baby factories and illegal immigrants riding the systems is taxing us; 2010 Los Angeles Times: I made the choice to devote my life to having kids and be a baby factory; 2011 Hobo with a Shotgun, film: Turn that whore into a baby factory! baby gangsta (or bg, b.g.) n. a young member of a criminal gang (jg): 2001 Daz Dillinger and JT the Bigga Figga: Now I see straight, my B.G.’s can’t relate; 2003 Pitch Weekly: They aren’t interested in watching baby gangstas transform from boys to men; 2012 Southland, TNT-TV series: They were baby gangstas, little punks Babylon n. potentially offensive (especially among Rastafarians) aspects of white culture seen as degenerate and oppressive, especially the police (cm, jg, rk): 2006 New York Times: He’s screaming for revenge

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against Babylon; 2011 Interpress Service: Babylon is the Rastafarian term for the oppressive capitalistic world that promotes inequality; 2011 Legacy: Rastas consider his teachings to have been corrupted by Babylon, their name for Western society baby mama (or baby momma) n. a teenage mother who is not married to her child’s father (gs): 1998 Snoop Dogg: I got to get this cheese with my crew but baby momma full of drama; 2008 First Sunday, film: My baby mama might have took my son away from me today; 2009 Toronto Star: He was just a kid trying to raise a family, with a baby mama, a kid who goes to work baby momma see above backdoor man n. a man having an affair with someone’s wife or girlfriend (bk, cm, jg): 1988 Chicago Tribune: You wonder how many of these sweet backdoor men turn out to be uncaring husbands of their own wives; 2006 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: In the blues, Santa’s been known to be a midnight rambler and a backdoor man; 2008 Los Angeles Times: After warming up with safe jokes about wives and backdoor men, he changed out of his fan dance costume back in the day (or back in the days) phr. in the past, long time ago (jg, rk): 2003 Wire, HBO-TV series: “Like you guys never stole nothing back in the day!” “We ain’t back in the day, Nicky”; 2013 New York Times: That was the formula they were using to acquire companies back in the day; 2013 ASAP Ferg: Them my niggas from back in the day bad (or badd) adj. [1] excellent or admirable (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1996 Jay-Z: We got the bad bitches gaspin for air in Aspen; 2008 Strictly Sexual, film: Oh my God! You’re so bad! You’re the man!; 2009 Ebony: We are still blessed

to have the baddest rock band in the world as ours [2] tough, bold, and severe (gs): 1998 Belly, film: Kisha was a bad motherfucker; 2007 Black August, film: It would just be a love story about the baddest brother; 2008 Chicago Tribune: Obama said that Omar is the toughest, baddest guy on the show badass1 adj. potentially offensive [1] excellent or admirable (cm): 2006 Daily Reflector: We used to play at the Cavern and we know that if you get the right people in there, that’s a badass place to play; 2008 Pegasus News: It’s a unique glimpse at the talented people who make Dallas a badass place to live; 2009 Ebony: They are commodities, flashy, gun-toting, badass boytoys with no social responsibilities or ties [2] tough, bold, and severe (jg): 1998 Washington Post: He mentions it frequently at work, lest anyone forget he’s a badass outlaw; 2005 Harvard Crimson: Yeah, I’m a badass motherfucker who studies astrophysics; 2011 Chicago Magazine: She won pop-cult enshrinement as the badass gang leader in Russ Meyer’s 1965 movie “Faster, Pussycat! Kill!” badass2 n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable person: 2009 Dare, film: You and Johnny acted like badasses; 2013 Huffington Post: Truth be told, Edith is a total badass; 2013 Yahoo Answers: I was a stupid badass back then, I made a lot of stupid mistakes [2] a tough, bold, and severe person (jg): 2011 Miami New Times: He comes off as one of the biggest badasses in the history of film; 2011 Nurse Jackie, HBO-TV series: Your dad is a badass; 2011 Wired News: Most Asian American images portrayed on TV were that of kung-fu badasses, servants or the enemy

Glossary badd see bad baddest adj. [1] the best (jg): 1993 True Romance, film: Tell me, what is the biggest, baddest hamburger you guys got?; 2009 Time: These are the baddest boats in yachting; 2009 New York Times: What do physicists hope to learn from the biggest, baddest physics machine in the world? [2] the toughest, boldest, and most severe: 2000 Snoop Dogg: This here gone be the baddest pimp nigga that you ever gone see; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: He was the baddest gangsta!; 2009 Ebony: Say what you want, he’s the baddest that’s ever done it bad hair n. tight curls of natural, unstraightened African American hair (cm, gs, jg): 2002 Antwone Fisher, film: He had the good hair, and we had the bad hair. She used to say how Kevin was better than us because his father was white; 2008 Yahoo Answers: Why is natural African hair often called bad hair?; 2010 Soul Pages: Good Hair, bad hair, Afro hair, European hair – can’t we all just get along? bad-mouth v. [1] to criticize and disrespect (cm, gs, jg): 2005 Richard Templar: You do not bad-mouth your boss under any circumstances; 2009 Daily Blabber: Kate was careful not to badmouth Jon during her interview with Meredith; 2011 Washington Post: If you publicly bad-mouthed a Fortune 500 company, would you expect that company to hire you? [2] to gossip or rumor (cm, gs): 2000 Hurlyburly, film: That deceitful bitch has been badmouthing Eddie; 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Have you been bad-mouthing me?; 2006 Crossover, film: He probably badmouthed me, trying to poison your mind against me bad nigga see below bad nigger (or bad nigga) n. very offensive unless used by

135 african americans an African American who is rebellious and aggressive (cm, gs, jg): 1996 Theresa Perry: The bad nigga was a type of folk character existing throughout African American history; 1998 C-Bo: I turn a bad nigga into a cowardly lion. And if he’s thinkin about jackin, I’ll keep his ass from tryin; 2003 New York Times: The black oral culture fused the two apparently contradictory notions of the devil as a white man and the devil as a “bad nigger” bad scene n. an unpleasant or depressing experience or situation (cm): 2011 Houston Press: I might have been humiliated enough to down the entire thing in one gulp, and that would have been a bad scene; 2011 Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles: It’s just a bad scene and I cringed through the whole thing; 2011 Sacramento Bee: It could’ve been a real bad scene, but luckily no one was hurt bag n. one’s preferred area of activity or specialization (cm, gs, jg): 2005 St. Petersburg Times: Nursing is not my bag; 2005 New York Times: That was never my bag, metaphysics and all. I was always more partial to meat-andpotatoes writers; 2012 Atlanta JournalConstitution: Teaching is not my bag Bahama mama (or Bahama momma) n. a big or stout African American woman (cm, jg): 2005 Good Times Webshots: Look at those sexy Bahama mamas!; 2005 Honeymooners, film: At the finish line, it’s Bahama mama; 2012 Tube Gals: Coco is a sexy Bahama mama Bahama momma see above ball1 n. [1] a good time (bk, cm, jg): 1993 Snoop Dogg: Y’all stay full of that gin and juice and have a ball; 2009 Idaho Press-Tribune: We rented a class C motorhome and we had a ball; 2010 Corpus Christi Caller-Times: I just want people to enjoy it and have a ball

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[2] the game of basketball (gs jg): 1994 Hoop Dreams, film: It was playing ball for the team; 1995 Basketball Diaries, film: We were just best friends playing ball in the driveway; 1998 He Got Game, film: They love ball-playing brothers, man ball2 v. [1] (or ball out) to have a good time (bk, cm, jg, rk): 2001 Washington Post: I’m always gonna ball, ball ’til I fall; 2006 Randy Kearse: We goin’ down to the A.T.L. and ball out for the weekend; 2006 Snoop Dogg: My nigga, ball ’til you fall! Don’t stop! [2] to play basketball (gs, jg): 2005 Paintball Forum: I went balling yesterday when some white kid walks in all ghetto’d out; 2011 My Space: I went balling with a few of my buddies; 2011 Slam: Despite the bad state of the court, kids balled on that thing daily as if it were a pristine NBA 94-feet [3] potentially offensive to have sex with (cm): 1995 Coolio: If you’re balling me, you got your own set of keys; 1997 Face/Off, film: I like balling your wife; 2005 Forums: Who cares if the boss and you just balled his wife? balla see baller balla-block see baller-block balla-blocka see baller-blocker baller (or balla) n. someone who makes a lot of money, especially illegally (jg, rk): 1996 Newsweek: I am not a hater like you, bow down to a baller that’s greater than you; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Evan’s a baller now with his job downtown and a new Benz; 2010 Sports Illustrated: Let’s separate the ballas from the poseurs baller-block (or balla-block) v. to be envious and try to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny (rk): 2005 H.A.W.K.: Me and Ro are making profit, niggas are trying to baller-block it; 2010 Ebonics Translator: Why you always got to be

baller-blockin on me?; 2010 Kanye West: They try to baller-block us, use absolute power baller-blocker (or balla-blocka) n. an envious person who is trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny (jg): 2003 Black Planet: Show me some love, don’t be a baller-blocker; 2010 Urban Dictionary: A baller-blocker is a person throwing salt on your game, whether it be money or relationship-wise; 2010 Essence: When it is a group of ladies there always will be a baller-blocker in the crew balling1 (or ballin’) adj. successful and living well (gs, jg): 2001 Baby Boy, film: All the real ballin’, successful folks are sellers; 2010 Ebonics Translator: Cheese is a necessary element to any balling effort; 2010 Yahoo Answers: Why are Jewish people so balling? balling2 (or ballin’) n. a good time (bk, cm, jg): 2006 Vogue: Most nights I never had a balling; 2012 Insight News: I’ve never done a stage play before, but I had a balling doing this; 2013 Twitter: Casino? I stayed there. It’s pure balling ball out see ball2 Bama (or ’Bama) n. Alabama (cm): 1996 Anne Bertram: “Where you from?” “Birmingham, Alabama!” “No kidding! My dad was from’Bama”; 2005 Prison Break, Fox-TV series: That is what my auntie back in ’Bama used to call hobo chicken; 2010 Facebook: I’m from Bama, too bama (or ’bama) n. potentially offensive an uncultured or unsophisticated person from the southern USA (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Bamboozled, film: Here come the Bamas. No more city slickers!; 2004 Ray, film: Okay,’bama, why don’t you get on up there and show me what you got?; 2005

Glossary Torrance Stephens: He seems to be such a bama at times bama boy (or ’bama boy) n. potentially offensive an uncultured or unsophisticated man from the southern USA, especially African American: 2004 Ray, film: He never told me that his partner was a blind bama boy; 2006 Rhonda Nelson: This bama boy is sick of fishing and ready to cut bait; 2007 Sports Illustrated: Jake Peavy is a small-town bama boy who is prone to bad luck banana n. a sexually attractive lightskinned African American woman (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: As black slang, “banana” came to mean a light-complexioned and attractive Afro-American female; 2004 Wired News: At least I’m a sexy banana! Plus, this is the most my gigantic boobs have been covered since the start of the game!; 2010 Facebook: I’m a sexy banana bang v. to be a member of a criminal gang and be engaged in its activities (gs, rk): 2009 Street Gangs: Them niggas were bangin’ so tough, coming up to Hamilton, Fairfax, Dorsey; 2011 Southland, TNT-TV series: He was a churchgoing man, he wasn’t banging; 2013 Reverb Nation: I started bangin when I was fifteen. I shot somebody and I went to prison banger n. a member of a criminal gang (gs, jg): 2003 Hollywood Homicide, film: These two bangers, they didn’t mean anything to anybody. But you send them into an open nightclub, and they cap four guys?; 2007 Urban Justice, film: Those bangers that were here, what gang are they with?; 2008 Gothamist: This is never what gets shown on the TV set though, its always the ghetto bangers bank1 n. money (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1991 Ice-T: We put our minds together,

137 made the tracks clever. Now we’re checkin’ more bank than ever; 1993 Us3: My man lost his crib and his bank; 2002 Shoot or Be Shot, film: You gotta make some bank if you wanna eat bank2 v. to make a lot of money (gs): 1990 Ebony: He banked on that star’s potential; Diana Ross took the Supremes to the top with her; 2005 Fort Worth Star-Telegram: If it doesn’t work, then Hicks will have dipped into some of that cash he’s been banking the last couple of years; 2009 Ghost of Girlfriends Past, film: You banked 150K a year BAP, B.A.P. see Black American Princess barefoot as a river duck phr. barefoot (gs): 1998 Ross Roeser: It’s too cold for you to be runnin’ around barefoot as a river duck; 2000 Geneva Smitherman: Barefoot as a river duck [is] an expression used to describe a person walking around without any shoes on; 2003 Darnail: She was as barefoot as a river duck, my mama would say, complaining that her feet hurt base (or ’base) v. to criticize, especially in a loud voice (cm, gs, jg): 2009 Mac Rumors: You guys should stop basing him for having a PC; 2009 Rey Mysterio: This was Psicosis, who’d been basing me for years; 2010 USA Today: It’s unfair because people are basing him bass (or bass on) v. to criticize, especially in a loud voice (jg, rk): 1991 Public Enemy: I’m gone but the bassin goes on; 2006 Randy Kearse: I don’t appreciate you bassin’ on me like that; 2013 Facebook: He does not think it is the source of our problem, so ok, bass him for thinking different bass on see above battle1 n. teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner: 2002 8 Mile, film: You win battles; 2003 Scary Movie 3, film: I’m

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gonna win that rap battle; 2013 Rap Radar: Loaded Lux and Hollow Da Don squared off this past weekend. The battle lasted close to an hour battle2 v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (jg): 1987 Public Enemy: You got no rap, but you want to battle. It’s like havin’ a boat, but you got no paddle; 2010 Wiki How: Pay careful attention to the techniques those artists use to battle; 2010 SOHH: Last year, rapper Roth revealed his inability to battle B-ball (or B ball) n. the game of basketball (gs, jg): 2003 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Playing B-ball seems foreign to us now; 2009 New Haven Register: If a player receives a four-year scholarship to play B-ball, he should be required to play for four years; 2010 Kids Are All Right, film: I did a little B-ball in junior high B-boy (or B boy) n. [1] a male devotee of breakdancing (cm, gs): 1993 Us3: The B-boys from Brooklyn are breakin’ bones for the bucks; 2009 Los Angeles Times: You’re a B-boy, but do you think you have a future in contemporary dance?; 2011 News, KVAL-TV program: Wicked Fx is a group of “bboys,” also known as breakdancers [2] a male devotee of rap music or hip-hop (gs, jg, rk): 1996 Dr. Dre: It’s hardcore, B-boy rhymes just for you; 2006 Ian Condry: It characterized a b-boy ethic even before the term b-boy was known; 2009 Los Angeles Times: What kind of feedback are you getting from other b-boys? Have you lost your street cred at all? B-coat (or B coat) n. a bulletproof vest: 2000 E-40: Suckas on the block know I got a Glock, B-coats, and all of that; 2008 Rap Battles: I came to this world undressed, still no B-coat, just my chest; 2010 Web Forums: Nigga, be

told, next time you come here, bring yo’ B-coat! beam v. to stare at or observe closely (cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: They be beaming me when I walk by; 1996 Ghostface Killa: Two kids was beaming him, them niggas from the movie theater; 2010 Blogs: Everybody was beaming that chick bear n. potentially offensive an unattractive person, especially a woman (cm, gs, jg): 2007 Deseret News: No one was calling her a big, ugly bear; 2009 Matter of Size, film: “You’re a real bear!” “Why insult me?”; 2009 Flickr: She’s such a bear in this picture beast n. a white person, especially a person in power such as a police officer (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2005 San Francisco Chronicle: When you have to deal with a beast, you have to treat him as a beast; 2006 Public Enemy: No peace for the beast!; 2006 Randy Kearse: Beast pulled us over twice today beastly adj. unattractive (gs, rk): 2005 Urban Dictionary: Get that beastly chick away from me!; 2010 Dirty: He was dating some beastly bitch; 2011 YouTube: I ain’t gonna lie, this is one beastly nigga! beatbox1 n. [1] making mouth noises that serve as the background rhythm for a rap (jg): 2007 Big Bang Theory, CBSTV series: It was a human beatbox; 2011 Village Voice: Jimmy revealed his music-related cluelessness by suggesting that Paul throw a “beatbox” in the middle; 2011 Boston Globe: I’ve always enjoyed mixing machines with flesh and that track has a beatbox on it, but it has real drums on top of that [2] a large portable stereo player: 1986 Spin Magazine: Ask him what’s so special about the crew, and he’ll tell you about the beatbox; 1987 Musician:

Glossary He decided to blast a hip-hop anthem from his beatbox in Branford’s face; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Yo, B! Turn that beatbox down beatbox2 v. to make mouth noises that serve as the background rhythm for a rap (jg): 2008 New York Times: Swizz gamely beatboxed while TI rapped; 2010 News, MTV-TV program: He beatboxed while I freestyled for about fifteen minutes; 2011 Us Magazine: Her first foray into the music business occurred when she beatboxed for the rap group Ladies Fresh in the late 80s beat down v. to beat up badly (gs, jg): 1996 Gangsta Nip: Niggas got beat down in the slavery days; 2010 Hood Up: He got beat down by one nigga; 2013 Lil Wayne: We beat a nigga down ‘til he left without a vital sign before God gets the news (or before God get the news) phr. very quickly (gs): 1995 Clayborne Carson: If a white man puts his hand on you, kill him before God gets the news; 1998 Los Angeles Times: Ali explained, “I’m going to hit him before God gets the news”; 2011 Helium: All they need is a computer and they can do it before God gets the news Benjamin (or Benjie, Benjy, Benji) n. a hundred dollar bill (gs, rk): 1999 Daily News of Los Angeles: Now you are ready to cough up a couple of Benjies to take the family out for a Sunday tailgate; 2000 Me, Myself and Irene, film: He’ll hush me up with a couple of Benjamins; 2009 New York Daily News: Our spy says she pulled an envelope of Benjamins out of her purse and handed one over Benjamins n. money (gs, jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: We’ll have Bentleys and Benjamins; 2004 Everyday People, film: The people from the PJ’s ain’t gonna be spending their benjamins at Banana Republic, right?; 2007 CSI: Miami,

139 CBS-TV series: As soon as I get my Benjamins, you get her Benjie, Benjy, Benji see Benjamin Benz (or Benzo) n. a Mercedes-Benz automobile (gs, jg, rk): 1998 He Got Game, film: They let you drive the Benz their daddy bought; 1999 Dr. Dre: I was rollin with Lorenzo in a Benzo; 2007 Ebony: His wife begins showing up in public in his Benz Benzo see above bestest adj. the best: 2009 Root: One of my bestest homegirls called me up wondering what kind of gift she could give her man this Valentine’s Day; 2010 Michael Jackson Commemorated, film: He’s the King of Pop, and he’s the bestest!; 2011 Black Voices: I met my bestest friend on this site bet a fat man (or bet a fat man against the hole in a doughnut) phr. to be absolutely assured or certain (cm, gs, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: I bet a fat man he doesn’t make it back by tomorrow; 2012 Blogspot: If he gets a second term I bet a fat man his policies will be firmly in the left; 2013 iPhoneogram: I’ll bet a fat man y’all can’t speak our language bet a fat man against the hole in a doughnut see above betta recognize see below better recognize (or betta recognize) excl. show due respect and recognition (gs, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: Y’alls, niggaz, better recognize and see where I’m comin from; 1994 Sam Sneed: It’s the man with the masterplan, they call him Sam and I think you better recognize; 2006 Randy Kearse: Better recognize, if it wasn’t for me you wouldn’t be here B.G., BG see baby gangsta B-girl (or B girl) n. [1] a female devotee of breakdancing: 2002 San Jose Mercury News: She was one of many Bgirls who danced at last week’s event;

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2007 Mickey Hess: When hip hop music began, the b-boys and b-girls took to the dance floor; 2010 Tennessean: About 5% of dancers are women known as B-girls [2] a female devotee of rap music or hip-hop (jg): 2009 Forums: I’m predisposed to like her because she’s a B-girl; 2009 Joseph Schloss: You want to be a b-girl?; 2013 Los Angeles Times: B-Girls: Portraits of Women in Hip Hop biatch (or biyatch) n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable woman (jg): 2008 Prom Wars, film: How does it feel, biatch, to be a loser?; 2009 Ace Showbiz: They’re right about Annie though, she’s a biatch; 2009 Celebrity Gossip: Maybe we’ll get some insight into what he’s seeing in that sour-puss biyatch [2] a woman (bk, jg): 2006 World Cup Blog: Let me know if you want some biatch!; 2008 Janet Perr: I got biyatches. I got plenty of chedda, and a phat crib; 2010 New Magazine: Can you imagine Snoop Dogg rocking up to the corner shop with Emily Bishop as his biatch? bid n. a prison sentence (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: This my first real bid; 2009 Notorious, film: He turned himself in, had to do a bid; 2010 Prison Talk: My first bid was in 2008 for a parole violation biddy see bitty bidness n. business (cm, gs): 1994 Forrest Gump, film: I know everything there is to know about the shrimping bidness; 2007 Ebony: Any guy spending enough time to look that fresh and tanned can’t be spending enough time on municipal bidness; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I’m about my bidness, boy, making money never been so smooth Big A n. Atlanta, Georgia: 2000 Inquirer: Big A is Atlanta; 2009 Atlanta JournalConstitution: What brings you to

Atlanta? What do you remember most about your trips to the Big A?; 2010 Facebook: Best of the Big A! The best Atlanta has to offer! Big Apple n. New York City (bk, cm, gs): 1999 Variety Magazine: They plan to linger in the Big Apple; 2010 News, ABC-TV program: But for savvy travelers there are still plenty of bargains to be found in the Big Apple; 2010 New York Post: He sees them on every street corner in the Big Apple bigass adj. potentially offensive [1] very big (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1983 Eddie Murphy Delirious, film: Mick Jagger is an ugly motherfucker, he’s got bigass lips; 2006 ATL, film: I know what he wanted from you, and it wasn’t them big-ass earrings; 2009 Village Voice: Who the fuck is this bitch on your page, with her big-ass tits up on your top eight? [2] self-important or arrogant (bk): 1999 Tim Tharp: I see you don’t have that big-ass friend of yours here to protect you this time, he said; 2004 Snoop Dogg: With that bigass mouth you need to shut the fuck up; 2009 Chicago Sun-Times: He acts a bigass kid Big D n. Detroit, Michigan (gs): 1997 John Holway: Detroit, the Big D, with its nightclubs and pretty girls, beckoned to the single guys; 2005 Alice Randall: Lynx used to chauffeur us all around the Big D when Detroit was something; 2008 Detroit News: One entertaining option for a day in the Big D would be to hit it big eyes n. an intense craving or desire (jg): 2011 African American Literature: Di Di Baby always had big eyes for her friend’s beaus or exes; 2011 Literotica: All three guys had big eyes for my breasts; 2011 Time: She had big eyes for Berry, whom she met onstage big face n. any of the new-style dollar bills with large faces of US presidents,

Glossary especially the new hundred-dollar bill (gs, rk): 2004 Nekousa Mullin: Rubber banded bundles of big faces fell onto the bed; 2006 Shafeeq: “One hundred ninety-nine dollars.” Tiffany handed the clerk two big faces; 2010 Black Planet: Sippin on Cristal and countin them bigfaces, that’s just the way of life! big foe see below big four (or big foe) n. urban police detectives, especially brutal and arrogant (gs, jg): 2007 Heather Buchanan: I’mah so sick and tired of the Big Foe startin’ mess; 2007 Detroit News: The big four were four-man police units known to black Detroiters as instigators of brutality and harassment; 2009 Rutgers Bulletin: The big four roamed the streets, searching for bars to raid and prostitutes to arrest biggety see biggity Biggety O see Biggity O biggity (or biggety) adj. self-important or arrogant (bk, cm, jg): 1996 Roanoke Times: My father kept telling me this was a very historic occasion and I felt real biggety; 2008 New York Times: Back then, I was so busy and so biggity, I didn’t pay attention to what he offered me; 2008 National Public Radio: She suggested I cling to my place at the post office and not let publication make me biggity Biggity O (or Biggety O) n. Oakland, California: 2007 Yelp: The revitalization of the Biggity O is in full effect, and Levende East is going to become a pillar of the Old Oakland dining renaissance; 2010 Twitter: The Biggity O is where you belong, my homie; 2010 Athletics Nation: Is anyone interested in making a road trip to the Biggety O? big mama (or big momma) n. [1] a big or stout African American woman (gs): 2001 Baby Boy, film: I ain’t like Big

141 Mama. I got to have fun; 2008 Elsa Hahne: The best cooks are the big mamas. Ain’t no skinny people like us!; 2009 Ebony: Reasons being is weight, weave and big mama stereotypes [2] the grandmother in the African American family (cm, gs, jg): 2005 Rosalyn Story: Olivia watched in wonder as Big Mama worked, her large hands busy, her forehead etched with a frown of determination; 2006 New York Times: She poses as an obese middle-age woman who asks everyone to call her big momma; 2009 Root: Do you remember Big Mama dying from complications with diabetes? [3] something big or important: 2006 Rick Van Dam: She had a split at both sides of her dress and her breasts were big mamas; 2009 Atkins Diet: This big momma cost me $7.30. Well worth satisfying my potato craving; 2010 World Flicks: They were farming these huge fish for Japanese market, one fish was worth $20 a kilo, and these were big mamas big momma see above Big O n. Oakland, California: 2010 Public Address: George was born in Big O; 2010 Yahoo Answers: If you decide to live in the Big O, then you need to get up into the hills somewhere; 2010 Oakland Online: Come on out to the Big O, we’ll show you a good time, I promise big paper n. a lot of money (gs, jg): 1993 Carl S. Taylor: I didn’t have no big paper saved, and his family took every dime in the house, left me out cold; 2009 My Space: I’m makin big paper on these hoes, you dig?; 2009 Yoddle Pop: It’s a smart strategy if you’re trying to earn big paper big time adv. extremely or totally (gs, jg): 1992 Reservoir Dogs, film: Somebody fucked us up big time, man; 2013 New York Times: He botched it big time; 2013 Los Angeles Times: If you

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do it big time, you had better keep track of what you spent big ups1 n. congratulations (gs): 2005 Coach Carter, film: Big ups to everybody who came out to the Richmond High winter dance, y’all! Get down!; 2009 Ebony: Big ups to Herbie Hancock for his nomination!; 2010 Examiner: The people deserve big ups for the work they’re doing big ups2 excl. congratulations (gs): 2002 8 Mile, film: Big ups and congratulations! You finally got your record on the radio; 2009 Biz Community: Big ups, guys. Thanks for picking me to work with; 2013 Facebook: Big-ups, dudes! That’s amazing big Willie n. an important of influential person, especially African American (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Sopranos, HBOTV series: Tell me why this was a smart move to make Junior the big Willie; 1999 Blackalicious: He’s a big Willie now, rappin bout cars, thousand dollar shoppin sprees, hangin out with stars; 2011 Escapist Magazine: It’s mostly because he’s a big willie in general, but his accent being different from everyone else’s never stops annoying me biscuit n. the buttocks (bk, cm, jg): 2004 Snoop Dogg: Now you always got to be hot and vicious, so move them biscuits and hit them tricks bitch; 2009 Spoof: She said that she would kick McFixx in her biscuit; 2010 Baby Center: She can’t stop shaking her biscuit, shaking her head, and bopping up and down bitch n. [1] potentially offensive a woman (bk, cm, gs): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: My marriage is wrecked, he’s fucking some white bitch; 2000 Tom Lisanti: Diane excelled as the sophisticated bitch; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Yo! l’d love to shoot the shit with you bitches all night, but l

gotta go [2] potentially offensive a girlfriend (bk, jg): 2004 Ladykillers, film: “The man brought his bitch to Waffle Court.” “Stop referring to her that way. She is the other half of my life”; 2005 Be Cool, film: You’re still my bitch. Love ya. Out!; 2011 Meek Mill: Not to mention Ty was fuckin’ his old bitch bitch-ass adj. weak, timid or cowardly (gs, rk): 2001 Jadakiss: I bet the hood won’t miss you, you bitch-ass nigga; 2002 Xzibit: Lemme explain to you why niggaz act like bitches. There’s bitchass niggaz and there’s men; 2005 Waiting, film: Get the fuck out of my fuckin’ face, bitch-ass motherfuckers! bitch-slap v. to slap someone with the back of one’s hand across the face (jg, rk): 2002 Dan Jenkins: Somebody ought to bitch-slap the motherfucker upside the head; 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: I got bitchslapped!; 2011 Huffington Post: I wanted to bitch-slap every single one of ’em bite v. to copy or imitate (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1989 Pamela Munro: Why did you bit my outfit?; 1997 Jay-Z: It’s the nigga, I ain’t mad yeah, bite my shit; 2009 Bebo: Talk like me, even bite everything from me bitty (or biddy) n. a young woman (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: How about callin’ them bitties we met earlier; 2010 Lights So Bright: Because I’m a shy bitty, I wish I were attending the after party; 2013 YouTube: She’s a sexy bitty and I want to do all kinds of dirty things to her biyatch see biatch bizzle n. [1] a problem or difficulty: 2005 Office, film: Here’s the bizzle; 2006 TV Guide: Karma’s a bizzle. I think if any one of those things had gone differently, I would have made it a lot further in the game; 2009 Honda Twins:

Glossary All that crank pressure makes it real bizzle [2] a woman: 2009 My Space: She’s my bizzle and we make an awesome team; 2009 Deviant Art: You old bizzle! I thought you weren’t coming!; 2013 YouTube: What a sexy bizzle! BK (or B.K.) n. [1] a Burger King restaurant (bk, gs, jg): 1991 Sarasota Herald-Tribune: Before practice I ate at BK (Burger King) again; 2001 Pepperell Free Press: We rode to Itaewon and ate at BK again (eating Korean food takes longer) and then to Dongdeamun shopping center; 2005 Diane Goodspeed: The nearest BK is in the Pennington Market shopping center [2] Brooklyn, New York: 2004 Destiny’s Child: We like them boys up top from the BK, know how to flip that money three ways; 2010 Life Files: Bey is not from BK but her husband is; 2012 Chiddy Bang: You from BK, but you can’t always have it your way black n. a fellow African American (gs, jg, rk): 1986 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: I wouldn’t play at no white club that didn’t let in Blacks; 1996 Jay-Z: All us blacks got is sports and entertainment; 2009 Body Space: Yo black, how’s everything coming along? blackalicious adj. [1] (of an African American) sexually attractive: 2000 Boston Globe: Shedding his robe he was a blackalicious sight; 2003 Friendster: Shawn is so blackalicious! He’s funny, trashy, camp, and intelligent; 2011 Urban Dictionary: That girl is blackalicious with them pretty eyes and thick thighs [2] excellent or admirable, especially if connected with African Americans: 2003 Thirty Fourth Street: I’d like to think that I was blackalicious, but unfortunately I am not; 2003 Forums: The Acapella was blackalicious!; 2006 Assata Shakur: I feel renewed and very blackalicious

143 Black American Princess (or BAP, B.A.P.) n. potentially offensive a wealthy young African American woman, especially if pampered or arrogant (jg): 1997 Philip Herbst: As a BAP, I am a child of privilege; 2006 Jerry Springer Show, WBN-TV program: First of all, I’m not no nigger. I’m a Black American Princess, okay?; 2013 Flavorwire: With her black middle-class breeding in full effect, she was also a Black American Princess black-and-tan adj. interracial, especially occupied or patronized by both African Americans and whites (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1996 Chicago Sun-Times: The Sutherland was known as a blackand-tan bar where blacks and whites mingled freely in the audience; 2003 Laurie Palazzolo: There was a bar on Hastings called the Cozy Corner. It was a black-and-tan place; 2010 Passion Play, film: There’s gonna be a raid in a couple of hours. They’re busting a black-and-tan joint down on Adams black ass n. potentially offensive unless used by african americans self, when referring to an African American: 1989 Do The Right Thing, film: Sit your black ass down!; 1993 Menace II Society, film: If it wasn’t for him, my black ass would be dead by now; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Seven years ago they was kicking our black asses black-ass adj. potentially offensive unless used by african americans African American: 2012 Django Unchained, film: I got no problem with it if you ain’t got no problem with burnin’ everything else when this black-ass motherfucker’s gone; 2013 My Space: Yeah, I’m a black-ass mofo; 2013 YouTube: This black-ass singer sang for a long time

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Black Bottom n. [1] an area of a city with a predominantly African American population (cm, gs, jg): 1988 New York Times: Joe Louis grew up in this city’s Black Bottom section and became a larger-than-life symbol; 1988 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: An estimated 10,000 reveled in Detroit’s Paradise Valley in the city’s Black Bottom; 2010 Black Voices: Cobo agreed to let the federal government drop I-75 in the middle of the city’s Black Bottom [2] an area in Detroit with a predominantly African American population (gs): 2011 Fan House: The monument honors the boxing champion who rose from Detroit’s Black Bottom in the 1930s; 2011 Florida Courier: From the Fillmore in San Francisco to Black Bottom in Detroit, they were done in forever in the name of new development; 2013 Yahoo News: Detroit’s Black Bottom has faded into history as a specific burb blacker-than-thou adj. criticizing fellow African Americans for not being African American enough (gs): 1993 New York Newsday: It’s part of a trend among blacks to prove they’re blacker-than-thou; 1996 Los Angeles Times: The fact that Lee would embrace Jackson looks like a contradiction of his previous “blacker-thanthou” public persona; 2003 Joy Ann Williamson: Blacker-than-thou sentiment had a personal and hurtful impact on Black students Black Man’s Wheels n. a BMW automobile (gs): 2002 Jessica Mann: Gavin wanted to make a point by driving Black Man’s Wheels; 2009 Plentyoffish: I wouldn’t be offended at hearing “black man’s wheels,” it’s all about the context and the general educational level of the audience; 2013 Free Republic: Here in Floriduh, BMW stands for Black Man’s Wheels

black mecca n. a city to which African Americans are drawn to live: 2010 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Don’t forget Atlanta’s reputation as a black mecca; 2011 New York Times: Cedric said Atlanta had always been a black mecca and continues to be; 2013 Wikipedia: Harlem was referred to as a black mecca in the 1920’s, 1930’s, 1940’s and still is today blacksploitation see blaxploitation black thang see below black thing (or black thang) n. any sociocultural practice, behavior or attitude characteristic of African Americans (gs): 1990 Spin Magazine: Entertainment in America is increasingly a black thang; 1996 Jet Magazine: Suicide is a White thing, it’s not a Black thing, the myth claims; 2009 Ebony: The interest these artists are generating is not based on the idea they are white singers doing a black thing blaxploitation (or blacksploitation) n. commercial exploitation of assumed African American experience, especially in films with African Americans in sensational heroic roles (bk, cm, jg): 2009 New York Post: It ushered in an era we know as blaxploitation, paving the way for Denzel Washington and Will Smith; 2009 Word Press: It will give audiences a taste of what blaxploitation was like thirty-five years ago; 2013 San Jose Mercury News: She was revered for her roles in blaxploitation films such as “Blacula” and “Shaft in Africa” blaze (or blaze up) v. [1] to light a marijuana cigarette (gs, jg, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: If you with my shit, then blaze up another spliff; 1995 Big Mack: I blaze up a spliff with my nigga Richie Rich; 2009 Brendon Lancaster: He took the spliff from Mo and placed it into the corner of his mouth. “Time to blaze up and prepare for lift off!” [2] to

Glossary smoke a marijuana cigarette (gs, jg, rk): 1992 Dr. Dre: Hey, yo whassup? My name is Dre. Can I blaze some chronic with you?; 2001 How High, film: We sit down, blaze up, hit the books; 2006 Brian Childs: We blazed a joint between deliveries blaze up see above blazing (or blazin’) adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Public Enemy: Yo, it’s blazin’! This shit is hot!; 2009 Ebony: As a fan of boxing I’ll be rooting for a blazing, impressive, rapid victory by Floyd; 2009 Fashion: We also caught Little Boots’ show and it was blazin’! bling1 (or bling-bling) n. [1] showiness or ostentatious luxury: 2008 Tricia Rose: So, sometimes, keeping it real means rejecting all the bling-bling; 2009 Ebony: He is a role model not some athlete or rapper with all the blingbling; 2013 Victoria Advocate: Don’t be afraid to include bling and glitz in the decor [2] a piece of jewelry, especially a ring (jg, rk): 2002 Hot Chick, film: I wish my mama got me some bling-bling; 2007 Walker Moore: He is back in his right mind, no longer using teenspeak or wearing bling-bling and low-riding jeans; 2010 Boston Herald: Brown reportedly got down on one knee and presented her with the bling bling2 (or bling-bling) adj. showy or ostentatiously luxurious (jg, rk): 2005 Miami Herald: It has all the thematic elements of hiphop tirades against the establishment and stories of ghetto life and tales of 24-hour bling parties; 2010 USA Today: The blingbling era may have faded for car buyers, but apparently not for auto thieves; 2010 Wall Street Journal: Sarkozy has been characterized in the press as the bling-bling president and reproached for an apparently lavish lifestyle

145 bling3 (or bling it, bling out, bling up) v. [1] to display showiness or ostentatious luxury: 2006 Bossip: I wouldn’t expect any rappers to stop blinging anytime though; 2013 Facebook: He was commenting on being on a public bus with women that were blinging and carrying Birkin bags; 2013 Word Press: Yesterday’s tomming is today’s blinging [2] to make something look showy or ostentatiously luxurious: 2005 Honolulu Advertiser: She blinged her cell phone in flashy pink and silver; 2010 Blogspot: The Japanese have been blinging their phones this whole time; 2013 Fan Fiction: Wow, he blinged his ride! bling-bling see bling1, bling2 bling it, bling out, bling up see bling3 blondey see below blondie (or blondey) n. potentially offensive a white woman (gs, jg): 2001 Philip Herbst: Blondie is an epithet used largely by black men for white women; 2008 Digital Spy: I don’t think “blondie” is on par with the “N-word”; 2010 Miami Herald: For weeks, Demi’s teammates referred to her as “blondie” or “white girl” blood n. a fellow African American man (bk, cm, gs): 1987 Newsweek: He would be required to prove to a new generation of bloods that he was not to be F’d with; 1996 Get on the Bus, film: Come here, young blood!; 1993 Gayle Peters: He immediately became aware of the interest she raised in all the local bloods, not just the men at the tables blow v. to play a musical instrument (cm, gs, jg): 2010 Yahoo Answers: I’d learn how to blow a sax if I were you; 2011 San Diego Reader: Arnold receives expert instruction on the art of blowing a sax; 2013 YouTube: It looks like they are blowing a trumpet or violin

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blowed adj. under the influence of a drug (gs, rk): 2001 Tampa Tribune: I was blowed. My head was going crazy; 2008 Grass City: After that you should be pretty blowed for a good while; 2009 Austin Weekly News: You would probably see people lying out in the streets blowed blow-out n. a hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1985 Rusty Rothman: Find that style you can wash and fix yourself with hot rollers, a curling iron, or a blow-out; 2003 Baltimore City Paper: Mr. Wilkins is shown wearing a blowout in his toddler years; 2006 Randy Kearse: Man, don’t nobody wear blow-outs anymore blue black n. potentially offensive a very dark-skinned African American (cm, jg): 2006 Gloog: Dark-skinned blacks are called blue-blacks; 2010 Topix: The original blacks are blue blacks, and I am born from those original blue blacks; 2010 Blackbird Press News: It showed blue blacks at an American college blue-eyed devil n. a white person, especially a racist (gs): 1995 Kevin Brown: It was their common hatred of the blue-eyed devil that united them; 2005 News, ABC-TV program: They can’t do it because of the blue eyed devil, because of racism, America is a bad society; 2007 Ebony: The Nation of Islam likely holds the copyright for the term “blue-eyed devil,” which came into common usage blue-light special n. [1] something inferior or inexpensive (gs, jg): 1994 Gerald Haslam: They remain frustrated by and angry at a world that offers them only blue-light special; 2007 Forums: This place is a blue light special for trolls. But it’s not the people who come here to let their

concerns be known; 2013 Chicago Tribune: It’s more than just a bluelight special [2] a police officer (gs, jg): 1998 Stephen J. Cannell: Dey gonna throw dat bitch an’ dem two blue light specials down de elevator shaft; 2004 Insane Clown Posse: I’m hearing sirens going off, it’s no blue light specials; 2011 Offshore Only: We are being followed by two blue light specials B’more (or B-more) n. Baltimore, Maryland (gs, rk): 2004 Jet Magazine: Mo’Nique plays the fun-loving hairstylist from B’more; 2004 Hair Show, film: I can do that back in B’more; 2009 Wilmington News Journal: We’ll drink to that this weekend in B’more, where the awesomely alcohol-fueled Baltimore Beer Week is taking place through Oct. 18 B.N.I.C. see Boss Nigger In Charge body bag n. a condom (cm, gs): 2005 All Poetry: You put a body bag on your dick; 2008 Yahoo Answers: Did you go in raw or did you wear a body bag?; 2009 Esquire: In case of Jenny’s swollen belly, the cause was bumping without a body bag bomb v. to graffiti, especially the entire surface (jg, rk): 2011 Map Sites: Writers were bombing on all the subway lines; 2011 Nathaniel Turner: The more experienced and reputable writers were bombing Philadelphia; 2013 Los Angeles Online: As a youth, I used to bomb walls bone1 n. [1] potentially offensive the penis (cm, gs): 1995 Four Rooms, film: I could go on and on about his cock, his bone; 2000 Marvel Comic Sex: She started to suck his bone while he took care of her burning pussy; 2011 Pornstar Network: Brandon is waiting in the next room, when the ladies join him, and suck his bone [2] marijuana (gs): 2006 Meta Cafe: They probably

Glossary wanted to smoke some bone; 2006 Survivor Sucks: Now you can smoke some bone guilt free; 2011 Drug 3K: Yeah, I am sitting here now debating whether to smoke bone or not bone2 v. potentially offensive to have sex with (gs, rk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: Well, I know you didn’t bone her; 1997 Face-Off, film: I enjoy boning your wife; 2010 Dexter, Showtime-TV series: Are you boning our target’s sister? bone3 adv. extremely or totally (jg): 2004 David Adams Richards: I am very drunk and you are bone ugly. I will wake up sober, and you will wake up bone ugly; 2006 Boston Legal, ABCTV series: By the end of the day, I am bone tired; 2007 John from Cincinnati, HBO-TV series: You’re not that bone stupid to think I would keep you on the payroll boned out adj. potentially offensive [1] exhausted after having sex, especially for a long time (gs, jg): 2008 Penny Arcade: What happens when Mr. Attractive is all boned out?; 2011 Urban Dictionary: “Wanna do it again?” “We were just at it for two hours. I’m all boned out”; 2011 Meat Up Date: I was boned out after overnight chilling [2] phr. without money (gs, jg): 1998 Stephen J. Cannell: He say he gonna be livin’ large, but he always been one boned-out nigga; 2000 Geneva Smitherman: Boned out [means] without money; 2004 Rap Battles: That nigga boned out bone out v. to leave (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1995 Friday, film: They got in the car and boned out; 2004 Campus Hook: We boned out fast as hell but they weren’t coming at us at all; 2011 Xanga: They boned out quick after the cops came boo n. [1] one’s boyfriend (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Vikki Bell: Holly spent the night with her new boo in Brooklyn; 2009

147 Ebony: She is so proud of her boo; 2011 Jumping the Broom, film: “He bought these clothes to impress, hoping he would come up like Jason!” “Don’t talk about my boo like that!” [2] one’s girlfriend (gs, jg, rk): 2001 Baby Boy, film: Is this Jody? The Jody that got my boo pregnant?; 2007 Ebony: The heart wants what it wants and Eddie and his boo are ready to jump the broom; 2008 Mother Jones: He can call me his boo boo coos (or boo-coos, boo koos, bookoos) adv. a lot of or plenty of (cm, gs): 1986 Platoon, film: We got boocoos movement. Third Battalion just got hit fifteen clicks north of here; 2006 Democratic Underground: Sadar seems to have boo coos of influence; 2010 City Data: We spent boo coos of money for equipment and uniforms boody see booty boody call see booty call boody club see booty club boodylicious see bootylicious boody-struck see booty-struck boogie1 (or boogie-woogie) n. [1] a good time (gs, jg): 1995 Onyx: All my niggas are in uptown and ya don’t stop, all my niggas are in the boogie-woogie and ya won’t stop; 2001 Black Knight, film: Clear the floor. Time to get the boogie on!; 2007 Code Name: The Cleaner, film: If you’re looking for the boogie, you’re looking for me; [2] enlivement or energy (jg): 1992 Lawrence A. Stanley: Get on up and put the boogie in your body!; 2001 Harvard Magazine: Mondrian wanted to animate his paintings to give them, as he put it, more boogie-woogie; 2006 Washington Post: Yet, it is mostly abstract and ethereal, without much boogie or groove boogie2 (or boogie-woogie) v. [1] to have a good time (gs, jg): 1997 Wag the Dog, film: I like the nightlife, I like to

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boogie; 2001 Snoop Dogg: I wanna boogie all the time; 2008 Toronto Star: He boogie-woogied in Toronto last night [2] to dance (cm, jg): 1998 Toronto Star: We boogied through the best concert we’ve been to in years; 2006 Dreamgirls, film: People are getting ready to boogie, and when they do, they’re gonna do it to our music; 2007 Jackass 2.5, film: He boogiewoogied fine [3] to move or leave quickly (cm, jg): 2006 American Hardcore, film: We boogied all the way to Salt Lake City, we got there, and the place was closed; 2011 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: Okay, Max. Let’s boogie, we’re late; 2011 Cedar Rapids, film: “Guys, I gotta boogie!” “I’ll see you later” boogie down v. to have a good time (gs, jg): 1992 Juice, film: I make money in Manhattan, go uptown to the Bronx and boogie down; 2008 Deal, film: We’re gonna boogie down tonight; 2013 Facebook: Thanks to everyone who boogied down with us boogie-woogie see boogie1, boogie2 boojie, boojee, boojy see bourgie book v. to leave (gs, rk): 1993 CB4, film: When you gonna let us book?; 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: “What you got?” “He booked!”; 2006 Randy Kearse: I could have booked three hours ago, but I didn’t boo koos, boo-koos see boo coos boom box n. a large portable stereo player (cm, gs): 1994 It Could Happen to You, film: You don’t have to carry around that boom box; 2008 Ebony: Since I rarely listened to radio at home, my boombox was merely a fancy option for entertaining; 2009 Seattle Times: The music will be played on a boom box booming (or boomin’) adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Baby was fine, her body

was booming; 2006 Randy Kearse: I don’t know what she’s eatin’ but she got the boomin body; 2009 Twitter: These boomin’ bitches will do anything boon coon n. potentially offensive a close friend (bk, jg): 1998 James Farmer: I know it was true cause a friend of mine, my boon coon, my main man, was one of those asked, and he told me about it; 2004 Yetonda Payne: Lucinda has been my boon coon since junior high school; 2010 GS Poetry: He was my boon coon and I was his ace boot n. potentially offensive unless used by african americans an African American person (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1992 News, CNNTV program: You’re not goin’ anywhere, boot. You’re goin’ to jail; 2004 Bryant York: His drill instructor called him a “boot,” which was a not so complimentary slang term for a black person; 2006 Idaho Statesman: He ordered cocktails for her and her fellow boots in his hotel room boot up v. to get ready to fight (gs): 1998 Skull Duggery: Nigga, boot up or shut up!; 2005 Urban Dictionary: You betta boot up or everybody is gonna think you a pussy; 2005 Canibus: Suited up, booted up, I’m ready for war booty (or boody) n. potentially offensive [1] the buttocks (cm, gs, jg): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: In my unenlightened days big booty would catch my eye; 1997 Santa Rosa Press Democrat: Judy was a delight shaking her boody to the beat; 2004 Boston Herald: Beyonce once again proves that the size of her voice is in inverse proportion to the size of her booty [2] the vulva (bk, cm, jg): 1993 Snoop Dogg: How else can you get to the booty?; 1995 Friday, film: I am not trying to look at that girl’s booty; 2011 Black Voices: She ought to be ashamed of herself, especially

Glossary referring to her vagina. If her booty is that loose, that means that there was a problem beforehand [3] a woman as a sex object or partner (bk, cm, jg, rk): 2006 ATL, film: You got some booty in this house? I told you I don’t want no company in my house; 2009 CNET: I better hurry up and finish this comment before the plug gets pulled and I can’t find me some booty; 2010 Thumblogger: I thought maybe you guys could use a blonde booty, well, here she is! [4] sex or the sex act (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1999 Centre Daily Times: Many more were mainly interested in booty; 2003 Bringing Down the House, film: Somebody was planning on getting some booty tonight; 2011 Black Voices: If you just want booty, you need to sit down and tell this church girl what you want booty call (or boody call) n. potentially offensive [1] a call to seek a sex partner (cm, gs, rk): 2006 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: I thought I’d surprise you with a boody call; 2008 Ebony: They know you have been watching Internet porn, instant messaging a booty call, and on the phone trying to score some weed; 2009 New York Magazine: Who doesn’t love a booty call, answered or not? [2] sexual arousal or desire to seek a sex partner: 1998 Serendipity: I felt a boody call; 2007 Fort Worth Star-Telegram: It’s booty call, and we can’t have it; 2011 Washington Post: It’s a gorgeous ballad about a boozy late-night booty call booty club (or boody club) n. potentially offensive a strip club (rk): 2002 Minneapolis Star-Tribune: Just because she works in a booty club that doesn’t make her a bad girl; 2007 Star News: I don’t feel like seeing another booty club on the strip; 2009 Ying Yang Twins: We hit the boody club

149 bootylicious (or boodylicious) adj. potentially offensive sexually attractive (cm, jg): 2008 Insider: If I were you I’d probably stop staring at her boodylicious body; 2010 Ask Men: Her famous bootylicious feature needs no further description; 2010 Boston Herald: The bootylicious Kim will be the special celebrity guest booty-struck (or boody-struck) adj. potentially offensive lecherous: 1999 Detroit Free Press: He was boody-struck. It’s just the way he was; 2003 Las Vegas, NBC-TV series: You’re booty-struck, son. You better get a grip; 2010 Examiner: Are you boody-struck? bop glasses (or bopper glasses) n. hornrimmed spectacles, often with blackened lenses (bk, jg): 2007 Easy Dreamer: I sure wish I could find me a pair of the Firefly frames, or one of the other latest styles of bop glasses; 2010 All Music: Dizzy Gillespie’s physical appearance (with bop glasses, a goatee and a beret) gained more publicity than Charlie Parker’s playing; 2012 Tumblr: Is there even lenses on your bop glasses? bopper glasses see above Boss Nigga in Charge see below Boss Nigger in Charge (or Boss Nigga in Charge, B.N.I.C.) n. very offensive unless used by african americans (often sarcastic) an African American person in charge (gs, jg): 2009 Slim Thug: Who’s the Boss Nigga in Charge? Who the motherfucking boss?; 2009 Chimp Out: I feel pretty sure four years with Boss Nigger In Charge will bring their dream of a magic nigger down the gutter; 2013 Twitter: I’m that flashy-ass boss nigga in charge bottom (or bottoms) n. an area of a city with a predominantly African American population (cm, gs, jg): 1992

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Darryl Pinckney: Avenue A continued downhill, unpaved as it entered the Bottom. We didn’t have to be told who lived there; 2007 Black Bottom: Many black neighborhoods around the United States were often called “the bottom” or the “black bottom”; 2013 Twitter: [I’m] in the bottoms with some real West Oakland niggas bottoms see above Bottoms n. Inglewood, California: 1997 Los Angeles Times: He was the main supplier of firearms in the Bottoms; 1999 Los Angeles Times: Inglewood Police Officer Rudy Canstanon said a single patrol car can handle virtually all calls for help in the Bottoms; 2005 LA Weekly: We have to keep that stuff over there in the Bottoms from coming over here bounce v. to leave (gs, jg, rk): 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I’ll do that later, I gotta bounce!; 2010 Ebonics Translator: I’ve been known to bounce unexpectedly; 2011 Nurse Jackie, HBO-TV series: I gotta bounce, I have a brunch with my mom bourgie (or boojie, boojee, boojy) n. potentially offensive a burgeois or elitist African American who assumes the behavior and values of the white society (cm, gs, jg): 1992 New York Times: The workers made millions and the bourgies were frustrated; 2008 African American Essays: The boojies try to cut ties to African American culture; 2011 Baltimore Sun: That’s not me being “boojy,” that’s me stating a fact bout it (or ’bout it) phr. [1] agreeable to something (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Mercedes: What you wanna do I’ll do cause I’m bout it, bout it; 2006 Randy Kearse: Brooklyn chicks always been ’bout it; 2009 Urban Dictionary: “Dude, are you down for some Taco Bell?” “I’m bout it” [2] bold and

daring (jg, rk): 1995 Master P: I’m bout it, I mean I’m rowdy, I hand with these killas that everyone talk about; 1995 U.N.L.V.: They actin’ like they bout it knowin’ they ain’t bout it; 2011 2 Chainz: Damn right, I’m bout it, if you fuck with us, we gonna start up a riot box n. [1] a large portable stereo player (gs, rk): 1989 Do the Right Thing, film: He gonna tell me to turn down my box; 1992 Arrested Development: Grab the box and wait; 2010 Facebook: I’d bring in cassettes to play on his box, everything from Tosh to Santana, Led Zeppelin to Flock of Seagulls [2] the buttocks (jg): 2010 Barstool Sports: The chick shaking her box seems pretty fucking good to me; 2013 All Hip Hop: Michelle Shows off Her Box!; 2013 Tube Stack: BBW Lori gets her fat box filled [3] potentially offensive the vagina (cm, jg, rk): 1999 Notting Hill, film: I knew a girl at school named Pandora. I never got to see her box; 2007 Pigs, film: Wasn’t her box completely shaved?; 2013 Toronto Star: Ford told her that “he was going to eat her box” boy n. heroin (gs, rk): 2000 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: This is boy; 2004 Ray, film: This ain’t no weed, Ray. This is boy. It’ll make your ass null and void; 2010 World Star Hip Hop: To all y’all talkin’ ’bout dude bein’ a junkie: he snorted girl, not boy! bozack n. potentially offensive [1] the penis (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Jay-Z: Rappin niggaz on Prozac get their bozacks; 2009 Badass of the Week: Every woman wanted to jump on his bozack; 2010 Black Voices: First you want to massage my nuts and now you trying to bite my bozack [2] the scrotum (jg): 1992 EPMD: I’ve got this habit of always grabbing my bozack; 2007 Date Hookup: Lick my bozack!;

Glossary 2012 U.N.L.V.: As a matter of fact I like a bitch who ain’t afraid to suck the bozack bread n. money (cm, gs, rk): 1986 Los Angeles Times: You could make a lot of bread playing it; 2005 Philadelphia Inquirer: He figures he’ll have enough bread to pay off his 2000 Toyota Tacoma; 2010 Portland Press Herald: They struggle to earn bread, go to school, send their children to schools and dream the American dream break v. to breakdance (bk): 1984 Baltimore Afro-American: We went on a trip to NYC where we saw guys breaking on the street; 2004 Sacramento Bee: They started breaking on the street; 2010 Riverfront Times: Dudes would bring in canvases and do graffiti, and guys would break break bad phr. to become hostile, menacing, or aggressive (bk, jg, rk): 2008 Breaking Bad, AMC-TV series: All of a sudden, he’s just gonna break bad?; 2010 Slash Film, film: What happens if he breaks bad? Where will the show go?; 2013 Time: If a white man was to come over here and ask me anything, I wouldn’t break bad with him break down v. to explain or present in detail (bk, gs, jg): 1993 Source: I asked her how she came to do the show and she began to break it down; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: Look here, baby, it breaks down like this; 2010 Politically Illustrated: Let me break it down to you. Seventy percent of Americans don’t want that mosque down there near Ground Zero breaker n. a breakdancer (bk): 2006 Richmond Times: Onlookers will witness hometown breakers dancing to the beats of local DJs; 2007 Michigan Daily: It can be used as a challenge, a display of skill that invites a one-up response, with breakers dancing to rhythmic break beats; 2008 St. Paul

151 Pioneer Press: His fellow breakers have performed at malls and birthday parties break off v. potentially offensive to provide sexual pleasure to (rk): 2002 News, MTV-TV program: I’m coming to break her off, basically giving her what’s missing; 2004 Hair Show, film: Let me break you off; 2006 Randy Kearse: If you didn’t talk so much, I’d break you off break on v. to criticize and disrespect (gs, rk): 2005 Coloradoan: They used to break on me; 2006 Randy Kearse: I had to break on my girl; 2007 Stomp the Yard, film: Is he clowning St. Louis? Is he breaking on Jamaica? break out v. to leave (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Ace Ventura: Pet Detective, film: It’s Ace. We gotta break out of here; 2002 News, Fox-TV program: Are they ready to break out now?; 2003 Spin Magazine: Let’s break out and do some different stuff! break wide phr. to leave, especially in a hurry (cm, gs, jg): 2001 Erick Sermon: If you don’t feel this, then nigga break wide; 2004 Derek Grover: They took one look at me and broke wide in the opposite direction; 2013 Facebook: In case of drama, I’m the first to break wide brick1 (or brick house) n. potentially offensive a sexually attractive woman, especially if curvaceous (gs, jg): 2000 Gone in Sixty Seconds, film: Look at her. She’s a brick house; 2000 Geneva Smitherman: She’s built like a brick. She’s a brick; 2010 AVN Magazine: When Christine takes off her coat, you can tell that, although she’s a bit saggy now, she was a brick house back in the day brick2 adj. very cold (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Paul Volponi: It was brick outside, wind and all. For a second, I thought about putting on my gloves; 2007

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Chelise James: The sun was shining bright, but I knew that it was brick outside considering winter was right around the damn corner; 2010 Ebonics Translator: It’s brick outside Brick City n. Newark, New Jersey (rk): 2010 Wall Street Journal: Even though a quarter of the state’s homicides took place in Newark, overall crime was down as part of a three-year, 21% reduction in the Brick City; 2010 New Jersey Online: Last year’s homicide total in Newark was down from five years ago, when 86 people were killed in Brick City; 2013 Facebook: He is a rapper born in Brick City (Newark, New Jersey) bright n. [1] a day or daylight (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Jonathan E. Lighter: I’ll see you in the bright; 1994 Clarence Major: Catch you two brights from now; 2013 Urban Dictionary: Leroy woke up knowing he had only four brights left in county jail [2] potentially offensive a light-skinned African American (cm, gs): 1992 Robert Campbell: “You even got one set for brights.” “Brights?” “Another for bloods. Light-skinned niggers”; 2002 Joyce West Stevens: African American women who are Brights fare a little better, for they receive special treatment because of their skin color; 2003 Outside the Beltway: Some years ago in Texas, light-skinned AfricanAmericans were called “bright,” might still be so bring it on phr. to challenge or dare someone to do something (gs): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: “Brothers, don’t! Don’t! Don’t fight!” “Bring it on!”; 2000 Snoop Dogg: You wanna fight, let’s bring it on; 2009 News, ABC-TV program: There was an octopus, it was wriggling on the plate and my dad said, “I will give you $20 if you eat that.” I was like, “Bring it on!”

bring the noise phr. to play loud music (gs, jg): 2006 Public Enemy: Let me hear you say c’mon now! Bring the noise!; 2009 Ebony: They still bring the noise; 2010 Bangor Daily News: I plug my sax into a keyboard and bring the noise bro see brother broccoli n. marijuana (gs): 1997 WuTang Clan: Light up the broccoli, kid; 2006 San Francisco Chronicle: Other terms associated with the rapper include “broccoli” (marijuana) and “cabbage” (money); 2007 YouTube: You can smoke broccoli and still get lung cancer from it brotha see below brother (or bro, brotha, bruh, brutha) n. a fellow African American man (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1995 Die Hard 3: With a Vengeance, film: “You know how to shoot a gun?” “All brothers don’t know how to shoot guns, you racist motherfucker!”; 2008 Ebony: Bob’s one of those brothas who gets mad when he ain’t the only Black person in the room; 2010 Chappelle’s Show, WGN-TV program: I was the only brother on the plane. I thought I was, ’cause there was another black dude, he was from Nigeria brown paper bag test n. a criterion for admission to a club or organization, based on skin color (bk): 1988 Miami Herald: It was called the brown paper bag test. If you were darker than a brown paper bag, you failed; 2007 USA Today: In the “brown paper bag” test blacks darker than the bag’s color were denied inclusion; 2009 Austin American-Statesman: He barely even passes the brown paper bag test brown sugar n. an African American woman, especially if sexually attractive (cm, jg): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: You don’t bring no brown sugar to this house!; 2007 Code Name: The Cleaner,

Glossary film: Go, brown sugar, dance it up!; 2013 Facebook: You’re one sexy brown sugar bruh see brother brutha see brother B-Town (or B Town) n. Berkeley, California: 1993 Too Short: Howard came through from the B-Town; 2010 Facebook: It’s BART accessible and in B-Town; 2010 Lil B: I’m nigga from the B-Town bub n. champagne or sparkling wine (rk): 2008 LL Cool J: I see you two steppin in the club and a bottle of bub; 2010 PDX Neat Sheet: Stop by and sip on a glass of bub while you scan all the lovely new goodies in stock; 2010 Today: When you pop open a bottle of bub, you’re dipping your toes in that alluring world buck v. to shoot (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Ice-T: The nigga stepped up and got bucked by my ninja; 2009 Jam Personals: Thugs were bucking at us, and we were bucking back; 2010 Anchorage Daily News: one of those people got out a gun and cocked it and started bucking at him buckra n. potentially offensive a white man, especially a mean one (bk, cm, jg): 1989 Atlanta JournalConstitution: Slaves used the African word “buckras.” It’s a term of derision; 1994 Los Angeles Times: A buckra is an offensive term for a white man; 2009 Ebony: Buckra wins hands down buckwild adj. wild, rebellious or destructive (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Public Enemy: No buckwild thinkin cause I don’t know what he drinkin; 2009 Arizona Daily Wildcat: The fanatics at the center go absolutely buck wild; 2009 Palm Beach Post: He told this little kid that his performance was crazy in a buckwild kinda way he was right Buddha (or Buddha grass) n. marijuana (gs): 1991 Public Enemy: Put the

153 Buddha down!; 2000 Atlantic Monthly: I was always high on Buddha grass; 2008 South Florida Sun-Sentinel: Don’t smoke Buddha! Buddha grass see above bulldagger n. potentially offensive a lesbian, especially an aggressive one (cm, gs): 2002 Vagina Monologues, film: I always thought bulldaggers were ugly; 2007 Xtra: They referred to Barbara as a bulldagger or butch; 2007 Curve: Several trips to the Lesbian Herstory Archives led to the discovery of lyrics by Gladys Bentley, an African American singer and bulldagger bulldike see below bulldyke (or bulldike) n. potentially offensive a lesbian, especially an aggressive one (bk, cm): 2009 Encore: Cupid is a flaming gay, Blitzen is a stereotypical bulldyke; 2009 Salon: I had another female professor at Harvard, a bull dyke; 2010 New York Times: In addition to interviews with drag-queens and bulldykes, this unflinching look at the culture of gender-bending also explores something else buppie (or buppy) n. a young, affluent, city-dwelling African American professional (cm, gs, jg): 2006 USA Today: Grace Monroe is what they used to call a buppie; she’s a black sociologist with a PhD; 2007 Cleveland Jewish News: Victoria Dryer is a buppie, black yuppie who has made it in white corporate America; 2013 Philadelphia Weekly: He’s part of a crew of college friends-turned-adults buppies buppy see above burn v. [1] to cook, especially if very well (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: You burn supper? Who’s the lucky girl?; 1997 David Simon and Edward Burns: She at the stove,

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making me a plate of chicken – and Mama could burn some chicken; 2009 Baltimore Sun: She was also a good cook and could burn some chicken [2] to give someone a sexually transmitted disease (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I can’t believe my boyfriend burned me; 2010 Empty Closets: I’ve gotten burned before and it felt like I was pissing razor blades; 2013 Twitter: You got burned from one nigga, then burned six niggas burner n. a firearm (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Jonathan E. Lighter: I want to buy me a couple of burners, man; 1999 Ice-T: I didn’t leave the burner in the B.M.; 2007 Weapons, film: Need to get a burner, yo! bust a cap phr. to shoot (gs, rk): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: You bust a cap on somebody; 1992 Dr. Dre: I didn’t understand how a nigga so young could bust a cap; 2000 San Antonio Express-News: To “bust a cap” is street slang commonly used in gangsta rap to refer to shooting someone bust a move phr. [1] to make a move, take an action (jg, rk): 1998 Big Hit, film: Bust a move man, we’re gonna be late; 2004 Cinderella Story, film: Why don’t you go out and bust a move?; 2013 Word Press: You need to bust a move and be assertive and pursue a woman you want [2] to dance (rk): 2002 Walk to Remember, film: Dance? I’ve seen him bust a move. It ain’t pretty; 2012 New York Times: Just press play and bust a move; 2013 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: She’s busting a move to Katy Perry’s “Roar” bust a nut phr. [1] to have an orgasm (cm, rk): 2004 Wu-Tang Clan: They make you feel like you bust a nut from raw sex; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: Man’s gotta bust a nut, you know what I’m sayin’?; 2008 Insider: Whenever someone loses their cherry or busts a

nut when they’re sixteen or younger, they’re always so proud to tell ya about it [2] to be excited: 1995 Kids, film: He’s pretty crazy, he’ll do whatever to bust a nut; 2008 Rolling Stone: Could journalists stop busting a nut every time Bono has an opinion about something?; 2009 Media Matters: He once again busts a nut over MSNBC bust a rhyme phr. to create rap lyrics and rhymes (gs, jg): 1993 Us3: It’s time to get mine as I bust a fat rhyme; 2004 Philadelphia Inquirer: She’s an audacious cabaret singer who looks like Doris Day and isn’t afraid to bust a rhyme like Eminem; 2010 Tonic: They challenged him to bust a rhyme and he came back with this busting out (or bustin’ out) adj. looking good (bk, jg): 2008 HQ Celebrity: In the movie poster for the film, Kate is busting out; 2008 National Ledger: Both are busting out and have been photographed recently in bikinis; 2011 Hot Celeb Fun: Kelly Brook is busting out and showing off her killer booty like never before bustin’ out see above bust out v. potentially offensive to have sex with (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: All you wanna do is bust me out anyway; 2009 Media Takeout: Y’all tryin to bust the bitch out; 2009 Dread Central: Will Laurie be the killer? Will Michael return to bust her out? Stay tuned for more on this one soon bust suds phr. to wash the dishes (cm, gs, jg): 1992 National Public Radio: There’s hardly a black doctor, an attorney, or what have you, that didn’t bust suds in somebody’s restaurant on Miami Beach before; 2001 San Francisco Chronicle: They want to go where people don’t look at you like you have to go bust suds to pay for your dinner; 2007 Los Angeles Times: Many of immigrants bust suds

Glossary butta see butter buttahead see butterhead butter (or butta) adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg, rk): 1996 Boston Herald: The car is so butta!; 1999 Bowfinger, film: “I ain’t signing shit!” “It’s all good, the script is butter”; 2009 My Space: The music sounds butta as ever, nice to see you’re doing shows man! butterhead (or buttahead) n. potentially offensive a stupid African American (bk, cm, jg): 1999 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: If one of my sisters ever brought home a fuckin’ butterhead, you know what my old man would do?; 2005 D4L: She a butterhead and her friends are too; 2009 Windsor Peak: I’m still trying to keep a straight face when DD gets angry at DS and calls him a butterhead buy a wolf ticket (or buy a woof ticket) phr. to give into threats of strong and boastful language (cm, gs): 1996 Xzibit: I don’t believe the hype or buy a wolf ticket; 2010 Martha’s Vineyard Gazette: In my neighborhood, if you were able to intimidate someone, that person bought your woof ticket; 2013 Esquire: He is now governing by wolf tickets. Would you buy a wolf ticket from this man? buy a woof ticket see above C cake n. [1] cocaine (gs, rk): 2006 Blogspot: After allowing her to inhale some cake, we carried her back to the car as the salsa music spilled into the night; 2009 Subfighter: So is drinking and snorting cake, but people still do it!; 2010 Street Directory: When you were younger, you snorted cake and freebased too [2] potentially offensive the vulva (bk, jg): 2009 Sankaku Complex: That’s her birthday suit.

155 I wanna lick her cake; 2010 Film Drunk: My point is, I’d fuck her cake, or whatever the appropriate euphemism is; 2010 My Space: Lily is fingering her cake [3] potentially offensive a sexually attractive woman (bk, jg): 2010 Dark Winter: She’s a real cake! I’m filthy rich Chinese and I want to spend all my money!; 2011 Twitter: She thinks she’s a cake; 2013 Urban Dictionary: Look at her, she’s a cake Cali n. California (gs): 2006 Big Momma’s House 2, film: There’s no way he’d come to Cali and not check out the waves; 2009 Trust Me, TNT-TV series: I’m from Cali, and I’ve been working in Austin for about a year and a half now; 2010 Root: According to the Suffolk Poll of California last week, the attorney general race in Cali could be closer than what pollsters predicted call oneself v. to consider doing something or intend to do something (cm, gs): 1988 St. Petersburg Times: The crowd jeered, what do you call yourself doing?; 1999 John Wideman: His time he spent doing whatever he called himself doing; 2007 Pride, film: Jim, what you call yourself doing, man? call out v. to challenge verbally (cm, gs, rk): 2004 Honolulu Advertiser: I couldn’t believe they had the nerve to call me out like that; 2008 Digital Journal: Wilson set Kaberle up to fail last night, and then had the nerve to call him out in the media; 2010 ESPN: Do you have the courage to call him out on this issue? call out someone’s name phr. to insult someone (cm, gs, rk): 1997 Love Jones, film: It was like this dick called out my name; 2006 Randy Kearse: Don’t you ever call out my name again; 2011 Blogspot: Today this motherfucker called out my name. He

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is a troublemaker, wants to make people quarrel cane (or ’cane) n. cocaine (gs, jg, rk): 2009 Speedy L. Brown: He hid out at that motel snorting cane, shooting up, and drinking; 2010 Topix: Marty was too busy snorting cane; 2012 GS Poetry: I continued to hang on the block with those who snorted cane candy-ass adj. very weak or timid (cm, gs, jg): 2009 Field Negro: He’s candyass about too many things and needs grow a pair of balls; 2010 McSweeneys: If that candy-ass motherfucker doesn’t play something soon, I’m going to get up there and stuff the whole piano down his throat; 2010 Oklahoma Daily: As a music ed major, I felt like I really didn’t get much respect, because, to be frank, it’s kind of a candy-ass degree candy cane (or candy ’cane) n. cocaine (gs, jg): 2008 Facebook: I just snorted candy cane; 2008 Three 6 Mafia: You mad at me cause I’m ballin’ and I got that candy cane; 2013 Twitter: Merry Christmas, Eve. Don’t snort candy cane! cap v. [1] to kill, especially by shooting (cm, jg): 1988 Above the Law, film: If I don’t cap him now, he’s gonna do me later; 2011 Southland, TNT-TV series: Gizmo paid me to cap him; 2011 Breaking In, film: Dickie wanted to cap him and bury him in the woods [2] to outdo or surpass (jg): 1985 Return of the Living Dead, film: But the weirdest thing I ever saw just had to cap it all; 2000 The Best of Alex Jones, film: That caps everything I’ve been doing in my life; 2011 Blogspot: He had thought he was ready for any type of new surprises, but this capped everything [3] (or cap on) to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (cm, gs, jg): 1986 Too Short: She turned around and

capped on me: She said, fuck you nigga, where’s your teeth?; 1994 Baltimore Sun: The dozens, capping are forms of survival. Being able to keep cool and take insults personally are things that allow black people to be so effective; 1994 Chicago Tribune: It’s sometimes called “capping” or “sigging,” which is short for signifying. The universal term is playing the dozens cap on see above cat n. [1] a jazz musician (cm, jg): 1997 Spokesman Review: There’s a high standard there, in these particular tunes and the way Lester Young and the other cats played them; 1998 Dallas Morning News: My freshman year at Arts was the first time I really heard some cats play jazz; 2004 Ray, film: I came to cop some licks from some more experienced cats, you dig? [2] a rap or hip hop musician: 2002 8 Mile, film: Each of these cats gets a minute; 2006 Six Shot: A lot of rap cats are under the impression that the press is against them; 2006 Public Enemy: Who is this cat I’m lookin at? [3] n. a man (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1992 Malcolm X, film: I think you got more sense than any cat in this prison; 1995 Heat, film: There was this cat I was locked up with in Fulsom; 2000 Bamboozled, film: I am so happy to see you cats! Cat n. a Cadillac automobile (bk): 2002 Joy James: He’s driving a Cat with Vermont license places on the New Jersey Turnpike; 2008 Cadillac Forums: Need a new Cat?; 2010 Auto Moto Gadgets: If you think your teen can’t be trusted to drive your Cat without speeding, just don’t give it to him catch some Z’s phr. to take a nap (bk): 2008 New York Post: We were driving for eight hours and stopping at gas stations and I want to catch some Z’s

Glossary in the van; 2010 Time: I went home to catch some Z’s; 2011 California State University Daily Titan: Compiled below is a list of top five places to catch some Z’s on campus CCM (or C.C.M.) n. money (bk, gs, jg): 1994 Baltimore Sun: CCM is cold cash money; 2010 Dofus: We had no CCM back at the time; 2011 Standing Up For Nothing: There’s certainly enough CCM (cheese) out there Charles Dickens n. the penis: 1994 Notorious B.I.G.: I spit on your grave then I grab my Charles Dickens; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: I’m standing there, holding my Charles Dickens; 2013 Joey Badass: Hit him in his Charles Dickens! Charlie n. potentially offensive a white person, especially regarded as an oppressor of African Americans (cm, gs, jg): 2003 Straight Dope: We kinda jumped from “Charlie” to the racist terms. “Charlie” wasn’t a racist term; 2009 Black Voices: I guess they should have called him “Charlie”; 2013 Yahoo Answers: Charlie was a derogatory term referring to a white man in black culture cheap-ass adj. inferior or inexpensive (cm, gs, jg): 2006 ATL, film: He bought a cheap-ass necklace; 2009 Maximum PC: I did buy my wife a cheap ass laptop; 2010 News, MTVTV program: I’d rather stick to watching the cartoon for now and not waste my money on a cheap-ass movie like that again check v. to criticize or reprimand (gs, rk): 1989 See No Evil, Hear No Evil, film: Lawyers? Do you want to check him for police brutality?; 2006 Randy Kearse: I had to go over there and check this chick about flirtin’ with my man; 2013 Facebook: Why didn’t anyone check him for not defending the female he chose?

157 check it in phr. to give all possessions, especially in a robbery (gs, jg): 2000 Mack 10: Check it in, homey, keys and cash! Don’t make me act a fool and blast your brains all over that dash; 2003 Anybody Killa: Check it in, you little buster!; 2010 Spoof: Their modus operandi is simplicity itself; they approach the unwary and order him to “check it in, motherfucker,” a phrase that replaces the outdated “stick ’em up, motherfucker” check oneself v. to monitor one’s behavior (cm, gs, rk): 1992 Juice, film: Yo, chill! Check yourself!; 2009 Ebony: It’s time for you to check yourself; 2009 Ice Cube: Check yourself before you wreck yourself! chedda see below cheddar (or chedda) n. money (gs, rk): 1998 Wu-Tang Clan: I spent most my cheddar on gear; 2008 A Good Day to Be Black and Sexy, film: I’m gonna need an accountant to count all my cheddar and stuff; 2009 Las Vegas Weekly: At the Palazzo it sells for a whopping $750. That’s a lot of cheddar cheese n. money (gs, rk): 1997 Wu-Tang Clan: All these niggaz want cheese; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Before you go, don’t forget to give us that cheese. Why? Because we broke; 2007 Bradenton Herald: George has enough cheese to pay ten men that type of salary chick n. a woman, especially young (bk, cm): 1992 Malcolm X, film: You one of them white chicks that can’t get enough colored studs?; 1999 American Pie, film: There’s gonna be a naked chick in your house and you’re not gonna do anything about it?; 2000 Cosmopolitan: I’m lucky to be with a chick with such a strong sex drive chicken head n. potentially offensive [1] a stupid woman, especially if unattractive (gs): 2003 Miami Trail,

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film: Chickenhead? I ain’t stupid, Harold; 2003 Malibu’s Most Wanted, film: All you is is a chickenhead and that’s all you ever gonna be; 2004 Barbershop 2: Back in Business, film: You don’t need a chicken head like Terri [2] a woman who performs oral sex: 1996 Redman: I understand niggaz be callin’ me a motherfuckin’ chicken head; 1998 Nelson George: Rap made slang aimed at women like “skeezer,” “hootchie,” “chickenhead,” and the ubiquitous “bitch”; 2000 Ice Cube: Chicken heads get chicken feed, a lil dick and weed is everything that a chicken need chill (or chill out) v. [1] to be calm (cm, gs, rk): 2006 Crossover, film: You need to chill out; 2007 Ebony: Just chill out! It’s only a movie; 2010 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “What were they doing in your room?” “Hey, chill, I’m getting to it!” [2] to relax and have a good time (cm, gs): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: How you boys doing? Keep chilling!; 1994 Martin Lawrence: You So Crazy, film: White people, we was in Africa, chillin’!; 2009 Examiner: I hadn’t chilled out like that in quite a while chillax v. [1] to be calm: 2006 Material Girls, film: I’m gonna have to give you some of my Prozac if you don’t chillax; 2011 Lil Wayne: I’m trying to chillax, but I had to do it; 2013 Webstagram: You’re my nigga, but you need to chillax sometimes [2] to relax and have a good time: 2009 I Love You Man, film: I’m over here at Sydney’s. We’re just chillaxing; 2009 Santa Buddies, film: “So, what are you doing, dude?” “Just chillaxing with a mud bath, dude”; 2013 Crushspot: After school, I just be chillaxin, dawg chill out see chill chill pad n. an apartment or house (gs, jg): 2008 Bebo: If I get a job I could

pay for the ticket and you’d stay with me in my chill pad; 2011 End Times: I had to be evicted from my nice chill pad; 2011 Facebook: The best one I could think of would have to be the time we were sitting downstairs in my chill pad having some beers Chilltown see below Chill Town (or Chilltown) n. Jersey City, New Jersey (jg, rk): 2010 Jersey City Reporter: Why do people call Jersey City “Chilltown”?; 2013 Photo Bucket: If you live in Chill Town NJ, you should know her; 2013 My Space: I’m a 100% Puerto Rican born in Brick Town but I live in Chill Town chinchpad n. a cheap hotel or lodging house, especially if rundown or infested with insects (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: His father died in one of them chinchpads downtown; 1995 Irving Allen: They were also called flea houses and chinch pads; 2005 Yuma Sun: So “chinchpad” became a slang for a boarding house infested with insect pests chocolate adj. African American (jg): 2002 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: They are trying to do things that make my chocolate wife smile; 2010 Atlantic Monthly: Lane reveals his love for his chocolate bunny, Toni; 2011 Porn Hub: Watch Bree Olson get a taste of chocolate dick! Chocolate City n. [1] Washington, DC (jg, rk): 2010 Reuters: The term “Chocolate City” has been used affectionately by African Americans to refer to Washington and other predominantly black cities; 2011 Black Voices: You’re in denial to think that DC is still “Chocolate City”; 2013 Huffington Post: In case you don’t know, Washington, D.C., is also affectionately known worldwide as Chocolate City due to its majority Black population [2] any city with a predominantly

Glossary African American population (gs): 2006 News, CNN-TV program: New Orleans was a chocolate city before Katrina, it is going to be a chocolate city after; 2006 USA Today: Chocolate City is a slang used to describe a city that is heavily black; 2009 Ebony: While it is no longer Chocolate City statistically, its spirit protects you chops n. [1] musical technique or ability (cm, jg): 2003 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: You’ve still got some chops, mom; 2011 Easy Reader: He hit the local scene hard, sharpening his chops, and over the last two years has played 165 gigs a year; 2011 AZ Central: I’d love to see her put some real emotion into what she’s singing. But her chops are undeniable, and sometimes that’s enough [2] talent or skill in general (jg): 2011 Gather: Paltrow has slowly been showing her chops in movies through the years; 2011 Washington Post: It was adapted by veteran crime screenwriter John Romano, and his chops make all the difference; 2014 Los Angeles Times: He built websites, though he insisted on downplaying his chops Chris see below Chriss (or Chris) n. Cristal champage: 2010 Bimmer Forums: I drink Chriss and you drink piss. I will have the other half; 2010 Cad Jewelry: I have to drive across town to pick up Springo so he can drink Chriss under the table at dinner; 2013 Angelfire: You drinkin coolade while I’m drinkin Chriss chrome n. a firearm (cm, jg, rk): 1998 Ghetto Twinz: We packin’ chrome, nigga!; 1999 Gang Starr: I hold my chrome steady, with a tight grip; 2006 Jason Starr: I been dealin’ chrome to kids chronic n. [1] marijuana, especially if very potent (cm, gs, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: I smoke chronic everyday; 1998

159 Belly, film: I don’t even fuck with no more chronic; 2010 Twelve, film: We’re trying to score some chronic, man [2] marijuana laced with cocaine: 1993 Snoop Dogg: Some bubonic chronic made me choke; 1996 Don’t Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood, film: “Come on, nigger, who got that chronic?” “I got that ill killer shit. Guaranteed to fuck you up”; 2008 Grass City: Chronic means marijuana laced with coke Chuck (or Chuckie, Chucky) n. potentially offensive a white person, especially regarded as an oppressor of African Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1987 Tom Wolfe: Chuck come up to Harlem and gonna take care of business for the black community?; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Hey, Chuckie, that’s unacceptable; 2009 Wiki Answers: If there was a black marine and a white marine standing together, you would refer to the white as a “Chuck” and the black as a “Splib” Chuckie, Chucky see above chump n. a weak, timid or cowardly person (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1999 Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai, film: What do you think, I’m a chump?; 2001 Ali, film: You ain’t no champ, you a chump!; 2011 Los Angeles Times: Deal with your choices or admit you’re just a chump chump-ass adj. weak, timid or cowardly (jg): 1993 Trends of Culture: You chump-ass MC’s can’t fuck with the Boogieman!; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: Let no chump-ass niggers think I’m shook; 2011 Democratic Underground: Stop negotiating with terrorists, you bunch of chump-ass, complicit motherfuckers! chump change n. a small or meager amount of money (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2009 Ebony: It’s chump change for

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the photo-op; 2010 News, Fox-TV program: Five million bucks ain’t chump change; 2010 Los Angeles Times: The price tag last year was a little under $14 billion, which is chump change in the context of a $1.3-trillion deficit claim v. to indicate one’s membership in a gang (gs, jg): 1991 Leon Bing: You don’t wanna ’bang. You don’t have to claim; 2003 Mike-D: Who you run with nigga? Who up in the crew? What camp you claiming?; 2006 Randy Kearse: I don’t claim no set homie clambake n. a party or gathering where musicians play improvised music, especially jazz (cm, jg): 1992 Boca Raton News: Maybe I’ll do a jazz clambake in Newport sometime, but I’ll never take a major music festival back there; 2001 Detroit News: That’s exactly what it was, a clambake. A lot of fun for everybody. The entertainers loved to play; 2008 Boston Globe: We wanted a clambake and a small band, and the price was very reasonable clean adj. elegant, stylish or well-dressed (bk, gs, jg): 1994 Nathan McCall: When dudes got clean they wore the latest styles; 2006 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: You look clean. You a celebrity?; 2010 Yahoo Answers: Gay guys keep themselves together, and look clean and nice clock v. [1] to make money (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Master P: Motherfuckers in the game straight clocking cheese; 2002 Miami Herald: I saw how he was just clocking money. He owned a lot of businesses, had every car and a whole lot of money; 2010 Sporting News: They were too busy clocking money [2] to sell drugs (gs, jg): 1995 Clockers, film: “How long have you been clocking?” “What is you, deaf? I don’t hustle!”; 2011 Bruce Welch: The first time I go back to the old neighborhood, I stop at Bird’s house.

He’s clocking coke; 2013 Blogspot: In the world of no economic parity clocking dope is better than starving clown v. to joke, tease or make fun of (gs, jg, rk): 1990 Hartford Courant: He is trying to clown me, by making my opinions seem ridiculous; 1999 Ice-T: Ain’t nobody tryin’ to clown me; 2010 People: My football buddies clowned me for that cock n. potentially offensive the vagina (cm, gs, jg): 1998 Scarface: I stuck my fist up in her cock, she didn’t budge; 1999 2nd II None: If her cock is gettin’ hot, then take her home; 2013 Twitter: She got a vacuum cleaner that fits her cock cock-block1 v. potentially offensive [1] to interfere, intrude or thwart any activity (jg, rk): 2005 Hip Hop DX: They cockblocked the release of this DVD; 2010 Gothamist: However, that plan was cock-blocked due to structural problems with the remaining edifice on the site; 2011 Miami New Times: Being cockblocked by the refs’ one-sided officiating is reprehensible [2] to interfere with someone’s intentions to have sex or with the very sex act (gs, jg): 2006 Hollywood Gossip: You got cock-blocked by your own sister!; 2011 West Word: She tries to take him home to smoosh, but the smash room gets invaded by MVP and Snooki gets cock blocked; 2012 Elite Daily: The roommate will be envious of the ass you bring home, they may even cock block you cock-block2 n. potentially offensive [1] an instance of interfering, intruding or thwarting any activity: 2004 Hellbent, film: I never seen a cock-block like that in my life; 2006 Can Mag: Looks like the big guy is throwing a cock block. Had enough?; 2011 Hill Buzz: Thompson comes into SC to do a cock-block and let McCain

Glossary beat Huckabee [2] an instance of interfering with someone’s intentions to have sex or with the very sex act (cm, gs): 2010 Daily Cardinal: Sorry to hear about the cock-block!; 2011 Marie Claire: A cock-block ruins things, and usually it ruins things abruptly; 2012 Elite Daily: No man wants to deal with the cock block. It should be considered as a disaster to your sex life cock-blocka see below cock-blocker (or cock-blocka) n. potentially offensive [1] a person who interferes, intrudes or thwarts any activity: 2009 TV Squad: Why are you being such a cockblocker, he asks; 2009 Guitar World Magazine: Guys you are the ultimate cock blockers of the universe; 2010 TV Magazine: She’s a cock-blocker. She needs to get a life [2] a person who interferes with someone’s intentions to have sex or with the very sex act (gs): 1990 TV Magazine: I was very disappointed at Will in this episode. I thought he was being a little too jealous and too much of a cockblocker; 2006 New York Times: More surprisingly, he joined the “Cock-blocker” (i.e. a guy who hinders another’s chances with a coed) user group; 2009 YouTube: They get their superpower by having meaningless sex and they fear that the cock-blocker would return cock diesel n. potentially offensive a muscular man (gs, rk): 2003 Bad Boys II, film: She’s attracted to these dumb, musclebound dickheads, cock diesels that can’t even turn to wipe their ass; 2007 Body Building: What up, cock diesels! I just ordered controlled labs WF, GD, and PW; 2010 Club Si: It is full of loose farm whores and suburban airhead cock-diesels cold1 (or cold chilling, cold chillin’) adj. excellent or admirable (jg, rk): 2000

161 Bamboozled, film: You know you’re cold chillin’; 2000 Snoop Dogg: My homey from the CPT, he cold chillin; 2009 Hype Beast: The pink tee is very cold-chillin cold2 adv. extremely or totally: 2009 Ezee: A young couple were experiencing financial difficulties, that is, they were cold broke; 2011 Tennis Forum: I used to respect Maria. But not anymore. She just cold cheated right there; 2011 Real Wrestle Crap: He’s stone cold crazy, you know cold chilling, cold chillin’ see cold1 cold in hand phr. without money (cm, jg): 1980 Robert Hemenway: Zora explained to her literary agent, Jean Parker Waterbury, that she was cold in hand. That is a Negro way of saying penniless; 1985 Dubuque Telegraph Herald: They were cold in hand, broke; 2013 American Blues Scene: To be cold in hand means to have no money Colored People’s Time (or C.P. time, CP time) n. potentially offensive a belief that African Americans are not punctual (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: Colored People’s Time is the stereotypical belief that Negroes are always late and have no sense of time; 2007 My Space: All ladies will be granted free admission until 1130 PM, so get there early. No CP time, please; 2007 Dallas Morning News: When the senator finally made it to the ballroom stage Friday, he alluded to “CP time,” or colored people’s time color scale n. the gradation of skin color value from very light to very dark (cm, gs): 2005 Duane Cady: The lighter their skin tone the higher their status on the color scale; 2009 Hello Beautiful: Y’all niggas should be ashamed! Measuring Black women by a “color scale” is degrading and uncalled for.

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Ugh!; 2012 Chicago Tribune: Zora Neale Hurston offered this color scale for blacks: high yaller, yaller, high brown, vaseline brown, seal brown, low brown, dark brown color-struck adj. harboring prejudice against dark-skinned people, especially African Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2004 Washington Post: He showed a preference for light-skinned girls with wavy hair and was color-struck; 2007 USA Today: He was “color struck,” the term many blacks use to describe those who prefer blacks of one shade; 2010 San Francisco Bay View: America and the world are still color struck and racist come correct phr. to do something which is expected or appropriate (gs, jg, RK): 2005 Soul Strut: I hope I “came correct” enough for you; 2010 Diamond: Niggas betta come correct; 2010 Rap Radar: Redman came correct with this shit come down v. to happen (bk, jg): 2008 Democratic underground: I am waiting to see the country returns to see what came down; 2008 Las Vegas Sun: There is not a lot of warning that something is coming down; 2009 Fresno Bee: I want to know if something is coming down come out of a bag phr. to act contrary to expectation (bk, gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: You can try talkin to him, but ain no tellin, he might come out of a bag; 2009 Blogspot: I don’t know if you gon’ be cool or if you gon’ come out of a bag on me; 2011 Yahoo Answers: If you assume someone is lovable, they may come out of a bag come with it phr. to challenge or dare someone to do something (gs, jg): 1993 Ant Banks: You wanna get toeto-toe, come with it. Oh, I forgot, you just a punk, forget it; 2001 Down Time, film: Show me what you got,

bro. Yeah, come with it!; 2004 B. K. Ray: Come with it, motherfucker. It’ll be a fight conk1 n. hairstyle of straightened hair, done especially by lye and other chemicals (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1987 St. Petersburg Times: The conk made us look cool; 1992 Malcolm X, film: Nigger? Who’s wearing the conk?; 2008 New Jersey Online: He was a skinny colored man with a big conk conk2 v. to straighten hair, especially by lye and other chemicals (bk, jg): 1993 Greensboro News and Record: Shorty teaches his new buddy how to dress walk and conk his hair; 2006 San Diego Union Tribune: He ought to have been stubbornly continuing to conk his hair; 2009 Video Hub: She conked her hair conversate v. to carry on a conversation (gs, jg): 2000 Jay-Z: You wanna conversate with the writer?; 2009 USA Today: It’s something we’ll conversate about; 2010 Southland, TNT-TV series: “We’re having a conversation.” “You don’t conversate unless you have to. Get out of my house!” coochie n. potentially offensive the vulva (cm, gs, rk): 1996 Snoop Dogg: Her coochie lookin juicy, she never ate a dick before but she gon’ do me; 2008 Insider: If that little fruitcake actually pulls this off, then she may have flashed her coochie in public for the last time!; 2010 Leagle: She also testified that appellant put his fingers inside her “coochie” cook (or cook with gas) v. to perform in an excellent or admirable way (gs, jg): 2002 Design Community: Now you’re cooking, dude! That’s my kind of stuff; 2007 Houston Chronicle: “You guys are really cooking with gas!” station communicator Kevin Ford in Mission Control told the astronauts; 2013 Concert Blogger: The band cooked from

Glossary the opening note and their set was definitely a standout performance cookie n. potentially offensive the vulva (bk, cm, gs): 2010 XXX Haven: Her little pink dildo was deep inside of her cookie; 2010 Dog Pound, film: You take so much time that this girl’s gonna be half asleep by the time you even get to her cookie; 2010 Boobaholic: She strips this tiny outfit off and spreads her cookie wide open for you cook with gas see cook cool1 adj. [1] calm (cm, gs): 1993 Us3: I rocked an A average so everything’s cool; 2004 Starsky and Hutch, film: We’re always cool; 2009 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: Be cool, honky!; [2] (or cool-ass) excellent or admirable (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2004 Girl Next Door, film: It’s a cool ride!; 2006 Erie TimesNews: There’s nothing’s wrong with having cool-ass black guy as a sidekick; 2009 Glamour Edge: We’re not dating, although she’s a cool-ass babe! [3] satisfied, reconciled or without any obligations (gs, rk): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: “Are we cool?” “Yeah, we’re cool!”; 2004 Wil Wheaton: Are we cool, or what?; 2008 Tropic Thunder, film: “Are we cool?” “Not really!” cool2 (or coolness) n. calmness (gs): 2001 New York Post: The vice president sits very coolly, and I admire his cool; 2009 Ebony: Was he melodramatic and sometimes a little uncool in his overt coolness?; 2010 Atlantic Monthly: The more Democrats saw of him, especially as the campaign heated up, the more they liked his cool cool3 excl. it is excellent or admirable: 2006 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “I see no reason why you can’t go.” “Cool!”; 2009 Bleacher Report: They’re going to pay me to do it? Cool!; 2011 Ocean’s Eleven, film: “I think she really likes me!” “Cool!”

163 cool-ass see cool1 cool breeze n. an excellent or admirable person or thing (jg): 2004 Washington Post: He’s a cool breeze; 2006 Invincible, film: What’s up, cool breeze?; 2008 Huffington Post: He’s a cool breeze all right. Oh people, do you realize we might get to have a smart, dignified President? cool it v. [1] to be calm (cm, gs, jg): 1987 House of Games, film: Cool it, man! You’ll get the money; 2008 Tampa Tribune: Cool it, man. What’s wrong?; 2010 Wall Street Journal: But even before that announcement, a powerful voice in Beijing was urging people to cool it [2] to quit doing something (gs, jg): 1998 Fat Joe: Cool it, mama! You gettin too hot!; 2000 Los Angeles Times: Sylvia grabs my arm and tells me to cool it; 2006 Dreamgirls, film: I said, cool it, Effie! coolness see cool2 cool out v. [1] to be calm and relaxed (cm, gs, rk): 1987 Beverly Hills Cop II, film: You got to cool out, relax. Things like this work out, trust me; 1991 New Jack City, film: Cool out, you’re jumping the gun; 2005 Weather Man, film: I should cool out a little, I guess [2] to spend time, especially relaxing or wasting time doing nothing (jg): 2006 Snoop Dogg: I came to cool out, lay back and get blown; 2012 Boom Box: She cools out with her friends; 2013 New York Times: Now is the perfect time to cool out with some free jazz concerts cop v. [1] to assume or put on (jg): 2003 News Tribune: Asked how he likes walking to and from school, Sam copped a look of studied indifference; 2008 Fan Fiction: Folding my arms across my chest, I cop a frown; 2010 OK Magazine: The research puts the singer at the top of a list of men who girls would most like to cop a look at

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on [2] to get or obtain (cm, gs, rk): 2004 Ray, film: Cop some licks from more experienced cats, you dig?; 2007 Cane, CBS-TV series: It copped a massive blast of street cred; 2013 Criminal Minds, CBS-TV series: They were trying to cop some weed copacetic adj. good or quite satisfactory (bk, cm, gs): 1992 Malcolm X, film: “How you doing, baby?” “I’m all right. Copacetic”; 2003 One Love, film: Everything’s copacetic, man!; 2009 Christian Science Monitor: But outside the Washington beltway, things are not so copacetic for the GOP cop an attitude (or cop a tude, cop a ’tude) phr. to have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk, gs, jg, rk): 1996 Long Kiss Goodnight, film: If you do cop a ’tude, I will see to it that you spend the next ten years in prison; 2009 New York Daily News: Don’t cop an attitude with me, I have every reason to be mad; 2009 Los Angeles Times: All of a sudden, Monica decides to cop an attitude and stir things up cop a tude, cop a ’tude see above cop some Z’s phr. to take a nap (bk, cm): 1990 Washington Post: Just close them eyes and cop some Z’s!; 1993 Newport News Press: The Courtemanche family below enjoys the show while little Ryan tries to cop some Z’s; 2008 Oakland Tribune: She just desperately wants to cop some Z’s corner n. a street corner where drugs are sold (cm): 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: This is my corner, I ain’t going nowhere; 2009 Notorious, film: Yo, thanks for representing for the brothers hustling on the corners, man; 2011 Currensy: This is for my hustling niggas, niggas on the corner cornrows n. small braids arranged in rows and close to the scalp, often adorned with colored beads (gs): 2002

8 Mile, film: You musta had them cornrows rolled too tight!; 2004 Hair Show, film: It’s that diversity that makes black hair so beautiful: straight hair, braids, dreads, cornrows, Afros; 2009 San Bernardino Sun: He is 5-feet-10, weighs 260 pounds and has short black hair that is often in corn rows co-sign (or co-sign for) v. to support (jg): 2002 People: First he ran the idea past his therapist, who, he says, totally cosigned it; 2006 Randy Kearse: How can you co-sign that garbage?; 2010 Black Voices: I don’t co-sign for people that impregnate multiple women co-sign for see above country bama (or country ’bama) n. potentially offensive an uncultured or unsophisticated person from the southern USA: 2007 Black Planet: Hell, yeah, I’m a country bama but do I look it? Hell, no!; 2010 Dime Wars: This dude is not even from the A.T.L. He is a country bama; 2010 YouTube: Does your man smell like a country bama? couz see cuz C.P.T. (or CPT) n. [1] Compton, California (gs, jg): 2004 Urban Dictionary: Many people will sometimes refer to Compton as “The CPT”; 2010 YouTube: This is a remix done by me and some of the best rappers born and raised in CPT; 2012 Ryder Tee: I used to live in CPT [2] POTENTIALLY OFFENSIVE a belief that African Americans are not punctual (gs, jg): 1990 House Party, film: That’s why you can’t be on C.P.T.; 2009 Facebook: I operate on CPT; 2009 Shenantics: If you answered yes to these questions you suffer from CPT (Colored People’s Time) C.P. time, CP time see Colored People’s Time cracker n. potentially offensive a white person, especially if poor, racist,

Glossary or from the southern US (cm, jg): 1995 Jayo Felony: Called me “nigga”, now my homies put that cracker to sleep; 2000 Bamboozled, film: The reason why these shows didn’t get picked up is because nobody, niggers and crackers alike, wants to see that junk; 2004 Chris Rock: Never Scared, film: If I stop at this sign, these crackers will kill me crack on v. to insult someone (bk, gs, jg, rk): 1993 New York Times: Everybody would crack on me; 2009 Cane Sport: Other players crack on me because I’m from North Carolina; 2009 Fight Magazine: His housemates continue to crack on him, saying he should fess up crazy adv. a lot of or plenty of (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Dawg has crazy rocks in his watch; 2009 D Listed: Oh, this bitch has crazy of the brains!; 2013 Tumblr: Then again a baby is crazy responsibility crazy-ass adj. very crazy (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Now we have to throw a party for your crazy-ass mother!; 2009 Celebrity Gossip: He is known for his crazy-ass political views almost as much as his music; 2009 Las Vegas Review-Journal: Why do you need a crazy-ass clown to host it? CREAM see below cream (or CREAM) n. money (jg, rk): 1996 Ice-T: The cream is the ultimate goal; 2000 Snoop Dogg: Julio Iglesias is makin’ CREAM like that nigga; 2001 Wu-Tang Clan: Thanks to all you haters for all the CREAM you made us! crew n. a group of young people (cm, gs, jk): 1991 New York Magazine: Children call their circle of friends “crews” or “posses,” just like the dealers do; 2012 Facebook: Justin Bieber hangs with his crew in Chicago!;

165 2013 News, CBS-TV program: She’s

hanging with her crew at the beach crib n. an apartment or house (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1999 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: We’re having a party at G’s crib. You interested?; 2008 Janet Perr: I got biyatches. I got plenty of chedda, and a phat crib; 2010 New York Daily News: He was left to bleed to death in my crib crimey (or crimie) n. a close friend (cm, gs, rk): 1994 Fresh, film: You one bad motherfucker, crimey!; 2007 Black Planet: You are my crimie to the death and don’t forget that. I’ll kill a biyatch over you any day of the week if I had to!; 2007 Yelp: Congrats to the best crimey ever! I’m so proud of you! crimie see above crip v. to be a member of a criminal gang, especially the Crips, and be engaged in its activities (jg): 1993 Bloods and Crips: Creepin ain’t easy, but it’s damn sure fun; 2004 Derek Grover: They knew I was crippin but niggas just don’t pay me any attention anymore; 2013 Hood Up: We been crippin for decades now, we well respected Cris see below Criss (or Cris, Crys) n. Cristal champage (jk, rk): 2000 R. Kelly: Me, Kelly, Gotti, and Hov drinkin Cris like it’s H20; 2006 Bekay: You say you only drink Cris?; 2007 David Austin: Buck walked in with a bottle of Cris Crooklyn n. Brooklyn, New York (cm, jg, rk): 1993 Black Moon: I’m all that, straight from Crooklyn, better known as Brooklyn; 2005 Time Out Chicago: Yeah, I live in Crooklyn, baby; 2007 New York Observer: According to his Myspace page, he lives in “Crooklyn” but he isn’t a native crumb-crusher n. a baby or a little child (cm, jg): 1991 Ocala Star-Banner: If you have a houseful of crumbcrushers, a station wagon is nice; 2002

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Indianapolis Star: Hanging around with crumb-crushers and testy teenagers seems beneath you; 2009 Black Athlete: They want women barefoot, with crumb-crusher in tow, dependent and mildly educated crumbs n. insignificant people (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I used to help all them crumbs; 2009 Neowin: I absolutely hate those stupid crumbs; 2013 Tumblr: Motherfucking crumbs! Who the fuck do you think you are? crumb-snatcher n. a baby or a little child (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2003 Daddy Day Care, film: Them little crumbsnatchers got under my skin; 2009 Virginian-Pilot: September means your little evil crumbsnatchers are finally off the streets and become someone else’s nightmare for nine months; 2009 Examiner: I read and acted out the story in front of two dozen wideeyed crumbsnatchers crunk adj. full of energy and excitement (rk): 2013 J. Unit: Let’s go get crunk. Have a good time!; 2013 Facebook: Hope you all have a very crunk Christmas!; 2013 Tumblr: I’m listening to the music and feeling crunk Crys see Criss cut loose v. to give up (bk, cm, jg): 1995 Bad Boys, film: Now don’t worry, you’ll be set free. Cut loose. You’ll be back to your own life; 2000 Chicago Tribune: Megan wanted to cut loose; 2008 News, ABC-TV program: Now, he is ready to cut loose cut someone some slack phr. to allow someone some leeway (cm, gs, jg): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: A reasonable man like you can understand that. So why don’t you cut him some slack?; 1998 Buffy the Vampire Slayer, WB-TV series: “Cut me some slack!” “Why should I?”; 2008 New York Times: New Yorkers will cut her

some slack if she’s appointed, just because of who she is cuz (or couz) n. [1] a close friend (cm, gs, jg): 1995 Heat, film: I ain’t you cuz, you rat motherfucker; 2004 Fifty First Dates, film: By the way, cuz, I met this sexy blonde tax attorney at Starbucks today; 2008 Gran Torino, film: Come on, man, let’s go. We are cuz, right? [2] a fellow African American (cm, gs, jg): 2009 Northern News Services: Thank you my cuz, I wish you a wonderful Christmas this year; 2009 My Space: He’s a cuz from the hood; 2011 Black Voices: Your cuz seems like she is exaggerating a bit D D n. Detroit, Michigan (gs): 2002 8 Mile, film: That’s why the fuck we’re in the D; 2010 Detroit 187, film: I’m gonna show her what living in the D is all about; 2011 Huffington Post: I’ve since moved to Southfield, but you can bet I still consider myself living in the D! da bomb see the bomb daddy (or daddy-o) n. [1] a man (cm, jg, rk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: Yo, daddy! I’ll suck your black dick for $2; 2004 Ray, film: “Say, daddy-o, what ax do you play?” “Piano”; 2008 Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, film: What are you looking at, daddy-o? [2] a friend (cm, rk): 1998 Snoop Dogg: Yah daddy fucked it up; 1996 Get on the Bus, film: Your daddy got 187’d by a brother; 2010 New Hampshire Union Leader: You and daddy-o need to grow up and start accepting responsibility for your actions [3] a male lover, especially one who keeps a younger mistress (bk, cm, jg): 1997 Four Little Girls, film: Her daddy liked the little outfit she had on; 2003 Las Vegas Review-Journal: When we went

Glossary grocery shopping, my daughter started asking strange men to be her daddy; 2009 Progressor Times: Are you going to be my daddy? daddy like excl. I like it: 2009 Xanga: Visit Beachnut’s Xanga Site! Daddy like!; 2009 Encyclopedia Dramatica: Hmm. Daddy like! She reminds me a bit of Uma Thurman; 2012 Facebook: My boys brought home candy. . . daddy like! daddy-o see daddy daisy dukes (or dazzey dukes, dazzey duks) n. very short and tight female shorts (gs, jg, rk): 1993 Los Angeles Times: Some women still go for the cheeky dazzey duks, hyper-abbreviated shorts; 2007 Insider: Here are some new pictures of Jessica wearing daisy dukes; 2010 Teen Hollywood: Tamara wears some super short shorts (daisy dukes) in the film damn skippy excl. certainly (gs, jg): 1993 Fear of a Black Hat, film: “I noticed you don’t smile too much.” “Damn skippy. If you be smiling, motherfuckers think you’re a punk”; 2006 Just My Luck, film: “That’s some expensive shit.” “Damn skippy”; 2007 Juno, film: “I’m not ready to be a mom!” “Damn skippy, you’re not!” damn straight excl. certainly (gs, jg): 1994 Shawshank Redemption, film: “A week in the hole is like a year.” “Damn straight!”; 1997 One Eight Seven, film: “In my book, you’re a hero!” “Damn straight!”; 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: “Everything I said in here stays here!” “Damn straight!” dank n. high-quality marijuana (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2001 Michigan Daily: The lyrical content of the album is not surprisingly non-prolific: it essentially covers drinking, smoking dank, and fucking; 2002 Miami New Times: He says a lot of other dealers will buy dank at a discount and sell it at a full retail

167 price; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I’m gon’ be smokin’ dank, livin’ like a boss dap1 adj. elegant, stylish or well-dressed (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Tonight Show with David Letterman, CBS-TV program: He looked pretty dap; 2010 OK Cupid: You’ll find me at Revolution Cafe, dressed dap, wearing my favorite black fedora; 2013 Facebook: We looked dap last night dap2 n. [1] respect (cm, gs, jg): 2009 Ebony: They get much dap for this; 2010 Ebonics Translator: Amy deserves dap because her singing is awesome; 2011 Apartment Therapy: I think I should get some dap for making it work [2] touching someone’s clenched fist, in greeting or agreement (gs, jg, rk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: I got to give you some dap; 2002 Orlando Sentinel: That’s way cool, dude! Give me some dap!; 2004 Celebrity Cafe: When I finally got there he said what’s up and gave me some dap dap3 v. to touch someone’s clenched fist with one’s own, in greeting or agreement (jg): 2011 Vibe: Tupac’s dapping his boy Money B; 2011 Nah Right: He dapped me with his hand; 2011 Grey’s Anatomy, ABC-TV series: Dap me! dawg see dog1 day late and a dollar short phr. too late or having missed one’s chance (gs): 2011 National Post: He’s been similarly a day late and a dollar short in dealing with Libya, procrastinating when he should have been imposing a no-fly zone; 2011 Austin News: I think a bond revocation at this point in time is a day late and a dollar short; 2011 New York Times: Cynical friends say I was a day late and a dollar short, that I missed a golden opportunity dazzey dukes, dazzey duks see daisy dukes d-boy n. a street-level drug dealer (jg, rk): 2002 Palm Beach Post: She did

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drugs, she knew all the d-boys on the corners; 2002 WC: I’m the gangsta rap nigga that the d-boys love; 2006 ATL, film: You got the d-boys in here too dead v. [1] to abandon, especially one’s boyfriend or girlfriend (gs): 1997 New York Magazine: So I deaded her. I can’t chill with her anymore. She’s a ho’!; 2006 Randy Kearse: I deaded my shortie two months ago; 2010 Yahoo Answers: I deaded her after she said she wants to be close friends, was that the right thing to do? [2] to refuse or say no (gs, rk): 2006 Jay-Z: I should have been deaded; 2009 Media Stream: They successfully deaded the proposal; 2010 Broadband Reports: Judging from Rebecca’s silence perhaps her boss deaded her dead cat on the line phr. something suspicious or shady (gs): 1991 Los Angeles Times: In the Southeast it’s said “there’s a dead cat on the line” to describe a sense that something’s wrong; 2000 Tampa Red: There’s a dead cat on the line. I ain’t lyin’, you’re the cheatin’ kind; 2006 Charlotte Observer: There’s a dead cat on the line means there is something suspicious going on dead presidents n. US dollar bills (cm, gs, rk): 1991 Ice-T: All I love’s my dope and dead presidents; 2000 Washington Post: An armored car full of dead presidents is on its way to the incinerator; 2002 Civil Brand, film: Got moolah? People need you! Dead presidents feed you! deaf see def deejay1 (or DJ) n. a disc jockey (gs): 2004 Ventura County Star: A deejay will provide music until midnight; 2010 Las Vegas Weekly: Lucas loved the Strip view from the rotunda where the group danced to the beats of the deejay; 2013 Ebony: I’ve always been

around music in my household, so becoming a DJ was like a natural progression for me deejay2 (or DJ) v. to be a disc jockey: 2010 California Chronicle: My folks were always buying me records, which is how I started deejaying; 2013 University of Alabama Crimson White: He has been DJing since his senior year of high school; 2013 Broadway World: Back in the day, you didn’t have computers, YouTube, or schools to learn how to DJ deep1 (or deep-down) adj. intense, profound or serious (gs, jg): 2007 Meet the Browns, film: The movie’s been pretty deep so far; 2009 Funny People, film: Ira, this is deep shit. People get divorced; 2011 Bitch Magazine: For some of us, that means we have a deep-down desire to be pregnant deep2 adv. as a large group (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Bizarre: I’m the reason niggas come ten deep and end up leavin solo; 2010 Nah Right: They be deep everywhere, extra cocky and just posted up in the hood; 2010 Sun Gazette: We can go seven deep or more, and that will help us deep-down see deep1 def (or deaf) adj. excellent or admirable (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1989 Daily News of Los Angeles: Who’s that deaf chick packin heat?; 1993 CB4, film: I wanna hear some of those deaf rhymes; 2009 Tumblr: Michelle and Mary were there, so it was a def party deliver v. to perform in an excellent or admirable way (gs): 2000 Bamboozled, film: I want you to think about what I just said and how you can deliver; 2009 Free Press Houston: We finally got back on course with Rusted Shut, and holy shit, motherfuckers delivered; 2009 Blue Mixx: The band really delivered, and played with power and virtuosity

Glossary den n. an apartment or house (cm, gs): 2003 Erie Times-News: Wolf was chillin’ in his den when he got the news; 2005 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: He actually looked forward to getting back to his den for some quality television time; 2010 Washington Post: I was in my den with my wife deuce deuce n. [1] a 22-caliber handgun (gs): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: “I think it’s a .357 Magnum!” “Really? I got a deuce deuce. My brother gave it to me before he went to jail”; 2003 Rudy Gray: He uses a deucedeuce with a silencer; 2009 Virginian Pilot: He also says he has a deucedeuce, slang for a 22-caliber handgun [2] a twenty-two-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor (gs): 2011 Yahoo: Is drinking a deuce deuce everyday bad for you?; 2011 Tiger Droppings: Did you know that they don’t even have 22 oz bottles anymore? We used to drink a deuce deuce everyday; 2011 Summit Post: We sat there drinking a deuce-deuce I brought dickty see dicty dick-whipped adj. potentially offensive (of a woman) dominated by one’s boyfriend or husband (gs): 2004 Las Vegas Mercury: I was never going to be dick-whipped in all my life; 2013 Facebook: You’re following me around like a dick-whipped chick; 2013 Topix: It’s sad that some invisible tyrant has you dick-whipped dicty (or dickty) adj. self-important or arrogant (bk, cm, jg): 2004 Brother to Brother, film: Who’s the dicty kid?; 2007 San Diego Online: Phone all your hep cats and tell them a dicty duchess is singing in San Diego; 2010 Wikipedia: He was accused by some black musicians of a dicty attitude, that is, acting as though he was a member of the white middle class

169 diesel n. a muscular man (gs, rk): 2000 Bamboozled, film: What, you been doing push-ups now? You coppin’ a diesel now?; 2006 Randy Kearse: He was diesel ’til he started smokin’ crack; 2010 Oh L.A.: He’s the big diesel nigga, I’m the mid-size nigga! different strokes for different folks phr. different things please different people (bk, rk): 1993 Mad Dog and Glory, film: “You should try that shit with me some time!” “Yeah? Different strokes for different folks”; 2010 USA Today: It was different strokes for different folks as players and coaches found a variety of ways to pass the time; 2011 Shape: Just like there are different strokes for different folks, there are different styles of wedding dresses dig v. [1] to like or regard favorably (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Car and Driver: The handling is totally bitchin’ and the chicks really dig it; 2003 American Splendor, film: This is terrific, I really dig your work, man; 2009 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: This is some chick that digs fat guys! [2] to understand or comprehend (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2004 Ray, film: I came to cop some licks from some more experienced cats, you dig?; 2004 Starsky and Hutch, film: I can dig what you’re saying; 2009 Las Vegas Review-Journal: Dude, can you dig that? digits n. a telephone number (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 ATL, film: I need to get your digits; 2009 News, Fox-TV program: Jon asks Elena for her digits; 2010 Brooklyn Papers: He was repeatedly asking for her digits dig on v. [1] to like or regard favorably (jg): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: I ain’t Jewish, I just don’t dig on swine, that’s all; 2000 Remember the Titans, film: Me and Rev both dig on The Temptations; 2010 Hole in One, film: I don’t dig on the ginger, I’ve got my eyes on

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that one [2] to observe, notice, or pay attention (jg): 2004 Spider-Man 2, film: Now, dig on this!; 2009 Brooklyn Vegan: In the meantime, dig on this killer live video from Roadburn 2009!; 2011 SB Nation: Make sure to dig on this New York Times story dime (or dime piece) n. a sexually attractive person, especially a woman (gs, jg, rk): 2004 Snoop Dogg: You look like a dime right from here; 2009 My Normal, film: What’s up with that little dime piece you broke up with the other night?; 2010 Stone, film: You seen her? She’s a dime, dawg. Perfect ten, man! dime piece see above dip v. [1] to leave (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Too Short: Girl, if you don’t get naked, I’m about to dip; 2007 Baby Bash: Let’s dip and hit the strip tonight! We only live once; 2009 Real Talk NY: Hop in the whip, and we ready to dip! [2] to interfere by being nosy (gs, rk): 2009 Secret Obsessions: Everyone was conversating with their own little group so I wasn’t too worried about dipping into our conversation; 2010 Black Voices: I’m certain there was some dipping into my ancestral gene pool; 2010 Zeta Boards: She was dipping in his business. I guess she was obsessing over him, too dipped adj. elegant, stylish or welldressed (gs, jg, rk): 2004 Stranger: Some other kid was dipped in a fake Gucci sweat suit; 2006 Randy Kearse: They all came dipped to my party; 2009 Access Hip-Hop: I like to look dipped and dead-sexy and all that shit Dirty South n. any southern state or southern states in the USA (rk): 2006 ATL, film: And we’ve got another scorcher planned for you here in the Dirty South; 2009 Ebony: It’s what Dirty South did for Atlanta; 2009 Frisky: When I lived in the Dirty South, I heard lots of sexist comments

dis see below diss1 (or dis) v. [1] to disrespect by belittling or disparaging (bk, cm, jg): 2000 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: Jennifer dissed their skill as actresses; 2004 News, CNN-TV program: Diss him all you want, but you’d take him on your team in an instant; 2006 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: Some people might diss him for not staying longer [2] to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (cm, gs): 2007 Stomp the Yard, film: I don’t wanna diss them in front of their home crowd; 2010 Root: It’s been a privilege to listen in on the State of the Union, walk the first lady’s garden, and diss Sarah Palin on national television; 2013 Hollywood Gossip: I believe he secretly likes this dissing between his two friends diss2 (or dis) n. an act of disrespecting by belittling or disparaging (gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: They named Muhammad Ali Cassius Clay. You don’t call him Cassius Clay. It’s a dis; 2003 In the Cut, film: “Aren’t you afraid your book on slang is like a dis?” “A dis on whom?”; 2013 Hip Hop DX: Waka was asked if he felt that the mention of his name on “Rap God” was a diss District n. Washington, dc (cm, gs): 2000 Washington Times: By contrast, Gore was born in the District, has lived in the area most of his life; 2007 Washington Post: We who have lived in the District know what is really happening; 2009 Ebony: He has a Russian passport, has lived in the District for a decade and is known locally as Vasily Ivanovich diva n. an accomplished and distinguished woman, especially a talented female rapper (gs, jg): 2008 Showbiz Spy: This risque video cemented her new image as a sexy diva; 2009

Glossary Appleton Post-Crescent: Taylor Swift won’t ever become a diva who gets caught up trying to bask in her own spotlight; 2011 New York Daily News: The diva remained seated when 50 Cent stopped by to say hey, but she rose and planted a double kiss on Ryan Gosling dividends n. money (gs, rk): 2009 Ebony: Ebony had an opportunity to talk to Tage how he got into classical music and how hard work pays big dividends; 2009 My Space: Hopefully in the process, I’ll gain enough dividends to go back to my neighborhood and help; 2009 All Hip-Hop: Just having him on the record would pay her enough dividends later dizzle n. state of affairs or a thing at issue: 1997 Washington Times: They didn’t mind the dizzle; 2002 Los Angeles Times: What’s the dizzle, my nizzle?; 2009 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Bernadette, say some shizzle about the dizzle! DJ see deejay1, deejay2 DL see down-low do1 v. [1] to have sex with (gs, rk): 1997 Simpsons, Fox-TV series: I ain’t too good at talking to women, I really wanted to do you; 1998 54, film: I can do anybody; 1998 Beavis and Butthead, MTV-TV series: I wanna, like, you know, do her [2] to perform oral sex on (gs, rk): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: You gotta remember who’s doing who; 2006 Randy Kearse: You do me, and I’ll do you; 2013 Facebook: Last night some fine chick did me good do2 (or ’do) n. a haircut (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1999 Late Show with Conan O’Brien, NBC-TV program: Do you like my new do?; 2009 New York Daily News: This salon is the perfect place for ladies and gents to get a new do; 2010 Marie Claire: Teaming her new ’do with a high-neck button-front dress, the

171 actress seemed more than pleased with her makeover do a bid phr. to serve a prison sentence (gs, jg, rk): 2003 2 Fast 2 Furious, film: You just came home from doin’ a bid; 2010 Freddie Gibbs: My nigga Rich doin’ a bid. If I would’ve been with him I would joined him; 2010 Stone, film: I’ve done a long bid, man Doctor Feelgood (or Dr. Feelgood) n. a physician who freely prescribes pleasurable drugs, especially amphetamines (bk, cm): 1982 Cheers, NBC-TV series: Otherwise, she would be Doctor Feelgood’s next patient; 2006 Homer News: Addicts went to Doctor Feelgoods as he called them who prescribed the drug without too many questions; 2009 Time: He became dependent on prescription medication and on the Dr. Feelgoods who cater to the pharmacological demands of the stars dog1 (or dawg) n. [1] a friend (gs, rk): 2004 Snoop Dogg: It’s so relentless, and all my dogs up against the life sentence; 2009 Ebony: Dawg, I’m with you on your comments about Wooten and Stanley; 2011 Village Voice: No offense to my dawg Slick, but we joke about this all the time [2] a seducer or womanizer, especially if very skillful (bk, gs): 2006 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: You’re doing a hot twenty-two and you’re cheating on her? I’m so proud of you! My brother’s a dog!; 2008 Big Bang Theory, CBSTV series: Have you slept with her yet? Hm? You dog!; 2009 New York Daily News: It was the third wink that sold me. He’s a sexy dawg [3] an aggressive or brutal man (bk, jg): 2001 Los Angeles Times: McCarron is a real dog when it comes to this race; 2010 Chappelle’s Show, WGN-TV program: Come on, dog, you hit my elbow!; 2013 Rap Genius: DMX is known for his aggressive, dark,

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growling rap vocals. He’s a real dawg! [4] an unattractive woman (gs, jg): 1993 Heaven and Earth, film: It’s my first girlfriend’s house. She was a real dog; 1995 Welcome to the Dollhouse, film: “Do you think she’s pretty?” “Not that pretty, really. She’s a dog”; 2013 Fan Fiction: If she’s such a dog (ugly girl) then why am I here? dog2 (or dog out) v. [1] to criticize (cm, gs): 1997 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: I’ve had guys come up to me and say, “Hey, you dogged me out,” meaning I criticized them; 2003 Bad Boys II, film: Then, on top of that shit, you gonna dog my baby sister?; 2007 Ebony: Nagin, who has been both dogged and praised since the Katrina disaster, is nearing the end of his second term as mayor [2] to treat badly or brutally (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1990 Rocky V, film: If he refuses, you gotta insult him, you gotta dog him, you gotta humiliate him; 2006 International Herald Tribune: They dogged me and I will dog them back; 2006 Boy Culture, film: Jill said she couldn’t trust nobody after you dogged her dog out see above dogs n. shoes, especially gym shoes (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Don’t step on my dogs; 2010 HSN Online: I must have gotten a bad pair of dogs. Mine are nothing like the color shown here; 2013 Facebook: I ran in my new dogs today. Happy! do-it fluid (or do-it-fluid) n. liquor (cm, gs, jg): 2001 Redman: Lubricate y’all veins with this do-it fluid; 2007 Lil Wyte: What’s do-it-fluid? I knew you would ask. [It’s] whatever liquor you you put in your body when you wanna get trashed; 2013 Twitter: I’m in need of some do-it fluid! don’t even go there see below don’t go there (or don’t even go there) excl. I do not want you to talk or think

about it (bk, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Crew, film: “You look tense.” “Don’t even go there!”; 2007 Chicago Tribune: Want to respond? Don’t even go there; 2011 Fan Fiction: Please, don’t go there. We already talked about this don’t hate excl. do not be envious (rk): 2010 My Space: I know I’m sexy so don’t hate!; 2010 Huffington Post: Don’t hate! Blacks don’t crack!; 2011 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: Yo, Braverman! Don’t hate, man! Come in! don’t sweat it excl. do not worry (cm, jg, rk): 1996 Time to Kill, film: “This is all my fault!” “Don’t sweat it, really”; 2002 Chicago, film: Don’t sweat, I can do it alone; 2009 Ebony: If you can’t make the trek down to ATL like I did, don’t sweat it dookie (or dooky, dukie, duky) n. excrement (cm, gs, jg): 1993 Fear of a Black Hat, film: Your album was like dookie on the street, it just sat there and stank; 2002 Big Fat Liar, film: I took a dookie and clogged up the toilet; 2006 South Park, Comedy Central TV series: Who made dookie in the urinal? dookie chain (or dooky chain, dukie chain, duky chain) n. a large gold rope-type chain, worn around the neck (cm, gs): 2008 Boxing Scene: I think I even saw a gold dukie chain on him once; 2009 Washington Post: The medallion hung from a series of gold links that looked just like dookie chain; 2009 Black Planet: She asked my son if she could wear his dooky chain during the show dookie rope (or dookey rope, dukie rope, duky rope) n. a large gold rope-type chain, worn around the neck (jg): 2006 New York Times: Essential items include the eye-catching hat and the super-size gold chain, which is known as a dookie rope; 2008 Yahoo

Glossary Answers: Where can I buy dookie ropes in Boston?; 2010 Pack FM: You wanna keep that dookie rope? dooky see dookie dooky chain see dookie chain dooky rope see dookie rope do one’s thang see below do one’s thing (or do one’s own thing, do one’s thang, do one’s own thang) phr. [1] to follow one’s preferences or style (cm, gs, jg): 2008 Brown Sista: This kinky haired Afro sista is doing her own thing and still rising to the top; 2013 New York Times: It has always been a place where you can go, be free, and do your own thing; 2013 Los Angeles Times: I think you gotta go in there and do your thing [2] to perform in an excellent or admirable way (rk): 2006 Hip Hop DX: Anyway, he is new to the game and he did his thing on the album!; 2009 Ebony: Do your thing Karrine! Make that money and keep the books coming!; 2009 Rolling Stone: All in all, go ahead, do your thang! do one’s own thing, do one’s own thang see above dope n. marijuana (cm, gs, rk): 1990 Ice Cube: You can either sell dope or get your ass a job; 1996 Gotti, film: The guy’s pushing dope; 2000 High Times: These niggas had everything: bitches, gold, dope, rides do-rag (or ’do-rag) n. a nylon wrap or scarf worn over a male haircut (bk, cm, jg, rk): 2009 Worst Previews: We now have a restricted trailer for it, showing Segal in a do-rag kicking some ass; 2010 Atlanta JournalConstitution: The victims described one of their assailants as a black male wearing dark clothing and a do-rag; 2011 New York Daily News: Harlem’s Aaron Henry was tired of wearing a ‘do-rag that left him with marks on his forehead

173 double-clutcher n. contemptible or despicable and untrustworthy person (bk): 2008 Honolulu Advertiser: He’s not really a double-clutcher; 2010 Twitter: How long before you wake up and realize you are a double clutcher?; 2010 Yellow Bullet: I’m not a double-clutcher like you double-clutching adj. contemptible or despicable and untrustworthy (bk): 2009 Isxnation: They can’t catch that guy! He’s a double-clutching son of a mother!; 2010 Evox Forums: You’re a double-clutching motherfucker; 2010 Crazy Shit: He’s a double-clutching sumbitch double deuce n. [1] a twenty-two-ounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor (gs): 2011 Topix: You work for a socalled contractor and during your breaks drink double deuce; 2012 Chicago Sun-Times: Henderson asked the victim to buy him a “double deuce,” referring to a beer bottle; 2013 New Haven Independent: It’s like downing a forty or a double deuce [2] a 22caliber handgun (gs, jg): 1995 Newsweek: A double deuce is a .22; 2005 Urban Dictionary: Man, you ain’t tryin’ to kill that guy wit’ a double deuce!; 2013 Goodreads: She drew on him a double-deuce, but he tore the weapon out of her hands Double R n. a Rolls-Royce automobile (gs): 1996 Snoop Dogg: Don’t get jealous when you see me in the Double R; 2009 Skull Game: Danni who sponsors this site is a genius, drives a Double R [a Rolls and a Royce], and has the best looking bitches ever; 2010 Ten Tenths: Are you sure that Jo is going to drive a Double R? down adj. [1] (or down by law) excellent or admirable (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: She thinks she’s down; 2010 My Space: The concert was down, real down; 2010 Nah Right:

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Fat Joe is down by law and any attempts to assassinate his character are futile and blasphemous [2] linked, connected or affiliated with (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1998 He Got Game, film: So you in the Mafia, down with Gotti, huh?; 1999 Tampa Tribune: I still have a lot of friends who are down with the gang; 2000 Bamboozled, film: I’m down with Della [3] willing or ready to do something (gs, jg, rk): 2000 Bamboozled, film: “It sounds very risky, you are not getting cold feet?” “No. I’m down”; 2005 Beauty Shop, film: Are you down for some Krispy Kreme?; 2006 Christian Science Monitor: Are you down with that? [4] (or down with it) aware, knowing or understanding (cm, jg): 1996 Fugees: A boy’s trying to front like he’s down with it; 2003 Greg Tate: He was trying to impress them with how down he could be with Ultra Blackness; 2013 Pop Dust: Their comeback single offers an implication that the group is down with the current trends down by law see above down home adv. in or toward the southern USA (gs): 2004 Ray, film: Down home, we call it “country dumb”; 2008 Word Reference: We went down home; 2010 Daily Kilos: I used to drink Sazeracs when I lived down home in Kentucky down-home adj. typical of southern USA (gs, jg): 2007 Chef Moz: The Diner offers down-home experience with a classic Southern breakfast and a diner style lunch; 2010 Salon: It’s a downhome, Dixie drink for comfort; 2010 Slate: With Dixie up for grabs, the GOP went carpetbagging for electoral votes: Barry speaks with down-home drawl! down-low (or DL) adj. secret, covert or clandestine (gs, jg): 2013 Quizlet: He runs a down-low operation, and he

receives information about the market in advance; 2013 City University of New York student: This is strictly down-low stuff; 2013 Twitter: Making photographs of someone’s assets without their consent is really a down-low action down South adv. in or toward the southern USA (gs): 1995 Clockers, film: You’re lucky we don’t blow your ass off like them crackers down South; 2004 Ray, film: You can haul your asses back down South; 2011 Chicago Sun-Times: Smith wasn’t sure if a Yankee could live down South down with it see down Dozens n. teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (cm, gs, jg): 1994 Los Angeles Times: The Dozens is about maintaining your cool; 1994 Baltimore Sun: The dozens is a game of verbal combat, played mostly by black males on street corners. It is to teach participants to keep cool under adverse circumstances; 2003 Richmond Times: The men congregate here to share a flask, play the dozens and carry on a running commentary D.P. n. Dom Perignon champagne (gs): 2009 Newsgrounds: I am drinking a D.P. at the moment actually. I love this stuff; 2009 Face Punch: I’m drinking a nice, cold, bubbly glass of D.P. as we speak; 2009 Wine Review: It’s even better than if you had aged D.P. yourself, because the Dom Perignon cellars will have aged it ideally for you drag n. a dull or boring person (cm, gs): 1985 Heavenly Kid, film: You’re getting to be a real drag; 2000 Los Angeles Times: You’re such a drag. Why don’t you just shut up?; 2011 Florida Today: He’s a real drag. The worst part? You can’t get rid of him drama queen n. someone who tends to react in an exaggerated or overly

Glossary emotional way (rk): 2004 Desperate Housewives, NBC-TV series: Come on, drama queen!; 2008 Chicago Tribune: I work closely with a young woman who is a drama queen; 2010 News, CBS-TV program: She is a bit of a drama queen draped adj. [1] dressed (jg): 1994 New York Times: Celtics Imagine Jordan Draped in Green; 2010 Art Daily: The following year she was draped in a burqa; 2011 Black Voices: Nelson Mandela’s grandson was draped in the lion’s skin [2] wearing a lot of expensive jewelry (gs, jg, rk): 2002 Vagina Monologues, film: Just there, all draped in the diamonds; 2005 Washington Post: Rapper 50 Cent was draped in many diamond and platinum medallions; 2010 Melo-X: Hail the king draped in Pharaoh’s bling! drapes n. clothes, especially fashionable (bk, cm, jg): 1989 Mary Helen Ponce: The guys took pains to dress in the latest drapes: French-cuffed shirts and jackets that spelled “class”; 2005 Blogspot: She discreetly shrugged off her drapes; 2007 Flickr: Lauren is very happy with her new drapes. What do you think of them? draws n. underpants (gs): 2005 Aristocrats, film: My son comes in, drops his draws; 2009 Black Gay Gossip: Why is this boy dancing in his draws?; 2011 Auto Blog: The guy had more money in his draws than 50 Cent is staching in his vehicle in this video dreadlocks (or dreads) n. a hairstyle of loose thick braids, created by growing hair without combing it for a long time (cm, gs, jg): 1999 Futurama, Fox-TV series: A Jamaican man with dreads crosses the street; 2009 Ebony: Why aren’t there any sisters with dreads in the film?; 2010 Yuma Sun: The man was described as dark-complected,

175 5 feet tall, with silver front teeth and dreadlocks dreads see above dress-off n. a competition among flashily dressed persons (bk): 1985 Chicago Tribune: The dressoff starts more slowly and rarely reaches the importance it does in Paris; 1993 South Florida Sun: That might have won most dress-offs, but when Frenchy walked down the runway, the night was over; 2012 Hollywood Gossip: They probably had a dress-off Dr. Feelgood see Doctor Feelgood drill v. potentially offensive to have sex with (cm, rk): 1987 Blind Date, film: You son of a bitch, are you drilling her?; 2009 Clip Inspector: He drilled that chick in all positions after she gave him amazing blowjob; 2010 Twitter: There’s no better feeling than drilling bitches driving while black (or D.W.B., DWB) n. potentially offensive an instance of stopping African American motorists for no apparent reason (bk, gs): 2002 Detroit News: Civil rights advocates called the case an example of “driving while black,” commonly called D.W.B.; 2007 New York Daily News: He is accusing local cops of pulling him over for “driving while black”; 2012 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: “He’s also half white!” “He can use his white card when he gets pulled over by a cop for driving while black” drop v. to release a music album (jg): 1999 Billboard: Alejandro Fernandez is due to drop a new album; 2000 Vibe: Mannie and Baby have also managed to drop a new album; 2011 Sound Spike: Though no specific release date has been announced, Lil Wayne plans to drop a new album this spring drop knowledge see drop the knowledge drop science see drop the science

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Glossary

drop the knowledge (drop knowledge) phr. to give valuable information (gs, jg): 1994 State: The trio drops the knowledge of George Jackson and Eldridge Cleaver, and advocates laying low in the ’hood; 2000 San Antonio Express-News: I won’t drop the knowledge on you; 2008 Ebony: There is a way to drop the knowledge and kick the science without offending anyone and still keeping it clean and funny and right on point drop the science (or drop science) phr. to give valuable information (gs, jg, rk): 1996 Martin, Fox-TV series: Drop the science, baby! You’re pregnant?; 2004 Wu-Tang Clan: I drop the science like girls be droppin babies; 2007 Entertainment Weekly: They drop the science about Jenn’s real Denver sexual history drop-top n. a convertible automobile (gs, rk): 2009 Auto Guide: Other than being a drop-top we don’t expect much else new; 2009 Ebony: Davis drove to the ceremony in a 1966 red drop-top Ford Mustang; 2011 Automobile Magazine: The new drop top will join Mazda’s MX-5 as the two sole offerings in the entry compact roadster segment D-Town (or D Town) n. Detroit, Michigan: 2006 Dayton Daily News: Eminem, the first white rapper, is from D Town (Detroit); 2006 Sweet Science: I’m from D Town baby, not the rap band. I’m talking about Detroit; 2011 Big Sean: I’m just D-Town repping, making all theses niggas who secondguessed regret it ducats see below duckets (or ducats, duckettes) n. money (gs, jg, rk): 2000 Boston Globe: Harvard student Patricia Ryan should have more than enough ducats to pay for med school; 2002 Blue Crush, film: We all know summertime is a bummer

with no duckets; 2008 Ebony: Those high-powered cats whose pockets you tapped pay large duckets for that kinda info duckettes see above dukie, duky see dookie dukie chain, duky chain see dookie chain dukie rope, duky rope see dookie rope dumb-ass adj. very stupid (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: “What do you want us to do?” “Dumb-ass question!”; 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: You think she really cares about your dumb-ass party?; 2009 Washington Post: Obama’s supporters are not so dumb-ass fools to not understand that it is politics here dunkie butt (or dunky butt) n. large but shapely buttocks (bk): 1994 12 Gauge: Just gimmie that dunkie butt and them big ol’ legs. I ain’t too hard to beg; 2009 Hot Mom: I envisioned a dunkie butt and immediately went to a jog; 2011 YouTube: Ain’t none of these girls got a dunkie butt or legs or thighs! dunky butt see above Dutch Master (or Dutchmaster) n. a cigar with the tobacco replaced with marijuana (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Grass City: Here’s my how-to roll a Dutch Master, in my opinion, the best blunt; 2009 Yahoo Answers: Why would you smoke a Dutchmaster?; 2009 North Jersey: There was no marijuana but the officer saw a Dutch Master on the rear seat floor D.W.B., DWB see driving while black E Ebonics n. a non-standard variety of African American English, sometimes considered as a language in its own right, or synonymous with

Glossary African American English (cm, gs): 1999 3rd Rock from the Sun, NBC-TV series: Sorry, Nina, I don’t understand Ebonics!; 2000 Bamboozled, film: He speaks fluent Ebonics; 2009 Dallas Morning News: It sounded like Ebonics and we all know that communication skills are critical to success eightball n. [1] one-eighth of an ounce of cocaine (gs, rk): 1995 Richmond Times: An eightball of cocaine, 3.5 grams, sells for $265 to $350; drugs are available at schools throughout the area; 1996 Philadelphia Daily News: The package was determined to contain an eightball of cocaine; 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: My uncle gave me an eightball of coke, told me to take it over to her [2] Olde English 800 malt liquor (jg): 1993 Poetic Justice, film: “They don’t have no eightball? Y’all ain’t got Olde E?” “They don’t sell that outside the black neighborhoods”; 2000 Jervey Tervalon: They are sitting under a streetlight, drinking eightball; 2007 Williams Record: Martha Stewart drank an eightball on Conan O’Brien, and the beverage is a favorite of N.W.A. and Afroman eight rock n. potentially offensive a very dark-skinned African American (cm, gs, jg): 1998 New York Observer: Their eyes gave no sign of what they really felt about those who weren’t eight-rock like them; 2009 Doc Share: Bertha was referred to as an eight rock, which is a derogatory term for a dark-skinned person; 2013 Melanie R. Anderson: Pat uses the term “eight rock” to denote skin color of a “blue black” emcee1 (or M.C., MC) n. a performer of a rap song (gs, jg): 2000 Snoop Dogg: They say, what’s a rapper? Well nigga, what’s an emcee?; 2007 San Francisco Chronicle: I think a true MC should be able to freestyle; 2013 Source: You’re

177 familiar with J. Cole’s rise to prominence as an emcee and producer emcee2 (or M.C., MC) v. to perform rap songs (jg): 1991 Seinfeld, NBC-TV series: Jack is emceeing tomorrow; 2010 About Rap: It’s a step by step instructional guide on how to emcee; 2010 E-How: One of the early founders of emceeing and hip-hop was DJ Kool Herc from the Bronx ends n. money (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1996 Dr. Dre: The bitch is gonna get your ends; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Can you hook me up with a job? I’m just trying to hold some ends; 2008 Seattle PostIntelligencer: You can never have enough ends European Negro n. potentially offensive an African American who assumes the behavior and values of the white society (gs): 2009 MetaFilter: They’d unfailingly refer to him as a European Negro; 2009 Black Voices: I’m not a European Negro; 2011 Your Black World: Some have become European Negroes trying to copy the former enslaver’s behavior everythang is everythang see below everything is everything (or everythang is everythang) phr. everything is okay (gs, rk): 1995 Vampire in Brooklyn, film: Everything is everything, I ain’t seen nothing; 1996 Snoop Dogg: Everything is everything, everybody playin cool; 2010 Washington Wizards: They are thinking everything is everything, but I tell them, you all are going to schools that aren’t as good as other schools eyeball v. to stare at or observe closely (bk, cm): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: So I’m, like, eyeballing her and she walks right up on me and busts out, “Is this your ride?”; 1999 Seinfeld, NBC-TV series: That guy was eyeballing me the whole time; 2001 Wu-Tang

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Clan: I’m on the strip, eyeballin’ the chicks F facety adj. self-important or arrogant (jg, rk): 2001 Seattle Post-Intelligencer: You too facety, I think; 2010 My Space: Most of the black girls these days can’t handle boys because they are very facety; 2012 RoxXxan: They say I’m too fucking facety. Is it because my jeans hang low below my waist, G? fade1 n. [1] very offensive a white person (bk, jg): 2010 Black Voices: He could shoot that fade; 2013 Hood Up: I’m old school, so I prefer fair one. We don’t call them “fades”; 2013 Meme Generator: Not even I can save you from these fades, nigga [2] potentially offensive an African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Fade [is] a Negro who fades into a white way of life; 2007 Barbara Kipfer: Fade [is] a black person who prefers white friends, sex partners, attitudes; 2010 Hentai Geek: They called him a fade or something like that [3] a male haircut in which the sides of the head are closely cut and the top of the head is not (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1990 RunD.M.C.: Is she jockin’ my ’fro or my fade?; 1990 New Yorker: He has his hair cut in a flashy high-low fade; 1996 Cincinnati Magazine: For black teens, the fade is pretty standard fade2 v. [1] to cause problems for someone (gs): 2000 Sucka Free: They all crazy, but they don’t fade me; 2000 DJ Quik: You can’t fuck with a nigga, thinking you wanna fade me; 2003 Esham: If he tryin jump bad, I’m a fade him [2] to ignore or to get rid of (cm, jg): 1992 Dr. Dre: I don’t give a fuck about a bitch, but I and her know that

they can’t fade this; 1993 CB4, film: All that tryin’ to fade me, I think you hit it wrong; 2001 Tupac Shakur: Y’all niggas can’t fade this shit: got shot five times, got out of jail on bail, and sold five million! I’m a self-made millionaire! faded adj. [1] drunk (cm, gs, jg): 2009 Blogspot: I think we all got faded to drive anywhere; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Wow, man, I had a lot of beer. I’m really faded; 2013 Twicsy: Nigga got faded and robbed [2] under the influence of a drug (cm, gs, jg): 2008 Yahoo Answers: I told him I was faded (under the influence of marijuana); 2012 Chris Brown: Nigga gon’ be faded, all the way to the AM; 2013 Marijuana: Tyson got faded on Waikiki Beach with a bunch of recent high school graduates fake v. to pretend, especially by making a pretense of knowledge or skill (rk): 2006 Dreamgirls, film: I’m faking my way; 2006 Randy Kearse: I already know you fakin’; 2010 XXL Magazine: I’m tired of niggas lying, man. Quit faking! fake out v. to deceive, especially by doing something opposite rather than expected (cm, gs, rk): 2002 Newport Daily Press: I thought maybe he would fake us out, but he didn’t; 2008 Newsweek: Brian faked us out, and freaked us out; 2010 Louisville CourierJournal: Graham attempted to fake him out fall out v. [1] to be surprised (cm, jg): 1992 Richard Price: You gonna fall out when I tell you who I’m talking about; 2013 Twitter: Franklin, you’re gonna fall out when you see this; 2013 New York Post: I just fell out when I heard it [2] to faint or collapse, especially if intoxicated (gs, jg): 2008 Opiophile: My dad was in the room when I “fell out” so he immediately took me to the

Glossary hospital; 2009 Trick Daddy: She about to fall out, she can’t take the way her knees shake; 2010 Date Hookup: I just drank some whiskey and fell out fall up v. to come for a visit (bk, jg, rk): 1999 Twista: I fell up in the club tonight; 2004 Lil Jon: You fall up in the club and them niggas wanna mug; 2006 Randy Kearse: We probably fall up in there around six fam n. [1] a family (gs, jg, rk): 1991 What About Bob?, film: Fay, Anna and Siggy, come here! Here’s the fam! The Marvins; 1999 Ice-T: My fam stay together; 2009 Ebony: I will see you and the fam real soon [2] friends (gs, rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: My fam was mad deep up in the club the other day; 2007 David Austin: “How’d you get this shit so fast?” “For my fam I move mountains”; 2009 ESPN: All of his boys, his fam, his crew, flipped on him fancy-ass adj. very fancy or elegant (cm, gs, jg): 1999 Los Angeles Times: What about fish sold in your fancy-ass restaurants?; 2006 Ruthless Reviews: He takes her to a fancy-ass seven-course dinner and everyone in the restaurant can see her tits!; 2010 Heart Racer: I’ve spent all my cash on a fancy-ass pair of trainers fat-ass adj. [1] very obese (jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: Look at this fat-ass nigger!; 2004 Blogspot: If all you can think to talk about is food, then you must be one fatass motherfucker; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I’ve changed into a fatass adult [2] very sizeable and impressive: 2002 John Q, film: The HMO sends the doctor a fat-ass bonus check; 2006 Catch and Release, film: Here’s a fatass check to smooth out the ride; 2013 YouTube: I don’t have a fatass car fat cat n. a wealthy, powerful or privileged person, especially a business

179 person (cm): 2009 Lori Copeland: He was a fat cat, flashing a large diamond pinkie ring; 2010 Game Faqs: It was still plenty of cream even for fat cats; 2011 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: He’s been a fat cat ever since Braineless signed that contract fatmouth1 v. to talk too much (cm, gs, jg): 1991 Allentown Morning Call: I don’t go to power lunches any more. All that talk and nothing ever comes of it. Getting together and nothing but fat-mouthing; 1997 St. Petersburg Times: If the Olympics gave a gold medal for fat-mouthing, he would be a cinch; 2009 Dallas Morning News: This is from the bully whose racist fat-mouthing led to the Freddy’s Fashion Mart fire in Harlem fatmouth2 n. someone who talks too much (jg): 2007 Daily Kos: Pickens is a liar and a fatmouth; 2009 Urban Dictionary: She’s such an annoying little fatmouth; 2009 Politico: If Rush wasn’t such a fatmouth, perhaps people wouldn’t want to tear him down as much fay (or ’fay) n. very offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs): 1994 Clarence Major: Fay [is] a white person; 2005 William Whitmire: White people were called Fays; 2007 My Space: You guys are a bunch of fucking fays feel v. to empathize with someone (gs, jg, rk): 2002 Civil Brand, film: I know what you mean, I feel you, girl; 2008 Winston-Salem Journal: They don’t feel what you’re saying or they don’t understand; 2010 Exclaim: I feel what you’re saying feel a draft phr. to sense that one is being rejected or unwelcome, especially for racial reasons (bk, cm, jg): 1986 Toronto Star: When he sensed racial prejudice he would say “I feel a draft”; 2004 Workers: Anyone feel a draft? The Democratic Party is moving

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to block candidates to the left of Kerry from getting on the ballot; 2005 Canoe: Is it just me, or do you feel a draft? fessor (or ’fessor) n. a professor (cm, jg): 1999 David Roediger: They said he was a ’fessor in a college, could talk all kinds of languages; 2009 Blogspot: I ain’t no college fessor, but here’s what I think is going on here; 2013 Alabama Writers’ Forum: Who would have thought she would one day become a Ph.D. and a ’fessor? field nigga see below field nigger (or field nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans a rebellious lower-class African American, especially working on a farm (cm, gs, jg): 1999 Public Enemy: I’m that field nigga they all fear; 2009 Sisters Talk: In other words, Obama is a housenigga and Tupac would have been a field nigga; 2012 Django Unchained, film: “Let’s hope she works in the house, not in the field.” “Oh no, she ain’t no field nigger” fiend n. [1] a drug addict (gs, rk): 1993 Us3: I hear the beats thump, I shake like a fiend; 2002 Jay-Z: We even sold it to the same damn fiends; 2007 Yahoo Sports: If some kid happens to be a pot fiend or have a gambling problem, a team wants to know [2] an excellent or admirable person or thing (cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Fiend [is] any thing or person of positive quality; 2012 Los Angeles Times: He was a fiend when it came to getting every sound right; 2013 Pittsburgh PostGazette: He’s also a fiend when it comes to the free throw line on the basketball court, sinking up to 100 consecutive baskets at a time fiending (or fiendin’) adj. having an intense crave or desire (gs, rk): 2006 Public Enemy: All these brothers around here fiendin for that crack;

2009 Twitter: I am fiendin’ for a huge glass of ice cold water; 2010 News, MTV-TV program: I been fiending to do something like that fifty eleven (or fifty leven) adv. very many (cm, jg, rk): 1999 Charlotte Observer: I’ve heard most of them fifty leven times, but each time he tells one it gets embellished; 2006 Saigon: Niggas dropped dimes on me bout fifty eleven times; 2013 American Conservative: There are fifty-eleven reasons fifty leven see above fire on v. to beat, strike or hit (bk, cm, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: She just fired on my ex-girlfriend for no reason; 2010 New York Times: The talk returned to boxing. Danny Brown was a childhood classmate who “fired on me” in grade school; 2010 My Space: You really shoulda fired on me, nigga! fire up v. to light a marijuana cigarette (gs, rk): 1999 Chicago Sun-Times: Wolfe fired up a marijuana cigarette; 2009 Terre Haute Tribune Star: He never used marijuana at work, but as soon as he got home he’d fire one up to relax; 2010 Examiner: Folks who grew up in the 60s and 70s smoked weed in high school, hit the bong in college, fired up a joint after the kids were born first and fifteenth n. those days in a month when welfare checks are distributed (jg): 1998 Ice Cube: The first and fifteenth is like Christmas; 1999 Nas: First and fifteenth I’m layin at the check cashing; 2009 Yahoo Answers: Welfare checks, you get them on the first and fifteenth first mind n. the first and the best idea or thought (gs): 2005 Beacon Journal: My first mind was: no more sleepovers; 2007 Los Angeles Times: I should have followed my first mind and said I was not sure, but the detectives told me it was him; 2009 Ebony: Talk to her about instincts and the importance of

Glossary listening to that first mind, the one that speaks loudest before you allow the second guess fish (or fish hole) n. potentially offensive the vagina (bk, gs): 2008 Oxygen Forum: I’d like to finger her fish; 2009 Ninja Dude: I would bend Amanda over, lick her fish hole, then pound that sweet little love muscle; 2010 Perez Hilton: Will she wash her fish hole? fish hole see above five n. shaking hands with someone or slapping someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: African American women’s five involves sliding one’s forefinger across the forefinger of the other sista; 2008 Chicago Tribune: He’s not hot, he’s scalding. You don’t want to even touch his hand to give him five; 2009 Whitney Fan: You ain’t gave me no five, kids! Five-O (or 5-O) n. police (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1995 Worcester Telegram Gazette: “They’re mad cool, they’re more like friends than Five-O,” said a member of The Bomb Squad, using slang from an old TV show to describe the police; 2001 Exit Wounds, film: Yo, it’s Five-O! It’s a setup! Get out!; 2003 Final Destination 2, film: Shit! FiveO’s coming! Let’s fucking roll five-oh-two (or 502) n. drunk driving (jg): 1987 Roxanne, film: “There’s a possible 502 on Main!” “Proceed to Main, confirm”; 1996 Up Close and Personal, film: “You know what a five-oh-two is?” “D.W.I., driving while intoxicated”; 2011 Fan Fiction: Attention, dispatch, any patrol cars near Phoenix Avenue? I have a five-oh-two five on the sly phr. shaking hands with someone or slapping someone’s hand held in the back, in greeting or congratulation (cm, gs): 2000 Minneapolis Star-Tribune: “Five on the sly” is a

181 hand slap done with the hands held behind the back; 2008 Online Athens: I’m turning around and giving high fives on the sly; 2011 Blogspot: Madee stuck her hand out behind her back and the lady gave her a random five on the sly Five Percenter n. a member of a religious group established by former members of the Nation of Islam: 1996 Sapphire: I forget all that shit – Five Percenters, Black Israelites; 2002 Lisa Green: The Five Percenters is an Islamic organization based in New York; 2008 Welcome Home Roscoe Jenkins, film: You Muslim now? You a Five Percenter? Five Percent Nation (or 5% Nation) n. a religious group established by former members of the Nation of Islam (gs, jg): 2009 Film: The film also provides a look at how he became involved in the Five Percent Nation; 2013 Christian Post: Jay-Z appears to have embraced the beliefs of the Five Percent Nation; 2013 New York Times: Dasani stands surrounded by family outside an annual meeting of the Five Percent Nation at the Harriet Tubman School in Harlem fizzle n. [1] sex or the sex act: 2006 Something New, film: He was fine, but there was no fizzle; 2010 E Harmony: All the other guys they are more interested in fizzle; 2010 Wrapped: She obviously needs some fizzle [2] a woman as a sex object or partner: 2010 Daily Kos: After today, only 50% of the people who have called me a fizzle; 2010 Toobed: Erika Fief is a sexy fizzle; 2013 Blogspot: I feel more like a dumb fizzle flat top n. a male hairstyle that is high, square, and flat on top (gs): 1993 Us3: I went to the barber shop, I told Ed to hook up the low flat top; 2004 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: You can’t tell a

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barber to give a kid a flat top over the kid’s wishes; 2010 Tampa Bay: Today, he still has the muscular frame of a soldier and keeps his graying hair in a flat-top flava see below flavor (or flava) n. [1] sexual attractiveness (gs, jg): 2004 Hair Show, film: It’s all about the flavor; 2009 Right Cross Entertainment: I think she has flava, she’s a total package; 2009 Flavor XXX: Sometimes we’ll throw a white chick in if she has flavor [2] a sexually attractive woman (bk, jg): 1990 Max Monroe: Loose Cannon, CBS-TV series: Flavor, isn’t she?; 2006 Public Enemy: They call me “flavor”; 2007 Hollywood Gossip: She’s a real flavor [3] style (gs, jg, rk): 1995 Dr. Dre: Once you hear the beat kid, check the flavor that I’m bringin’; 1996 Snoop Dogg: I got the flavor, I’m major; 2006 Randy Kearse: I’m the one with all the flavor around here flex (or flex on) v. [1] to try to impress people by showing off (gs, jg, rk): 2009 Ebony: Step back and give the man room enough to flex; 2012 Chief Keef: I’mma show you how to ball. I be flexing on these lames; 2013 Trinidad James: I’m a flashy young nigga, I be flexin’ on niggas [2] to impress people by acting macho or intimidating (gs, jg, rk): 1995 Clockers, film: This guy flexed on me. I got scared. You know the rest; 2013 Twitter: He walks into my room tryin to flex me carrying a pocket knife; 2013 Sound Click: Who you flexin’ nigga? You don’t really get it poppin; with Queens! flex on see above flip v. to reverse the meaning of words, especially from unfavorable to favorable (rk): 1995 Toledo Blade: These guys flipped the whole thing; 2005 New York Newsday: Then he flipped

the whole thing; 2006 Randy Kearse: See if he can flip it like this flip the script phr. [1] to reverse the meaning of words, especially from unfavorable to favorable (gs): 2000 Snoop Dogg: I can flip the script but I chose not to this time; 2009 Dollhouse, Fox-TV series: You’ve got the lingo to flip the script; 2009 Ebony: Charlie, let me flip the script [2] to make a complete reversal of one’s attitude (rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: Just make sure you flip the script on this shit tonight!; 2008 Boston Globe: Obama is going to flip the script once he is elected President; 2008 National Public Radio: What about voters who flip the script? floating (or floatin’) adj. under the influence of a drug (bk): 2007 Nigga Know: Usually it’s just a few able-bodied niggas floating, giggling like bitches; 2012 James Swartz: The girl was “floating” now, a term given to marijuana intoxication; 2013 Life Punch: Smoke weed everyday! Dis nigga be floating! floss v. to try to impress people by showing off (gs, jg, rk): 2004 Hair Show, film: Miss Girl is just flossin’, drivin’ around in her new car; 2004 Wu-Tang Clan: I can’t stand niggas that floss too much; 2009 Ebony: On the face of it, you could conclude that Marbury is just flossing flossy adj. trying to impress people by showing off (rk): 2004 Snoop Dogg: You real bossy like, and sometimes flossy; 2009 My Space: We dress nice and act flossy; 2009 Cincinnati News: He flaunted his money by wearing flashy clothes and acting flossy flow1 v. to rap very well (gs, jg): 1991 Ice-T: I used to listen to rappers flow; 2000 Afroman: I’m flowing on the mic like the Mississippi River; 2000 AfuRa: I can flow all day or flow all night, and each of my verses could be used as a night light

Glossary flow2 n. the ability to rap very well (jg, rk): 2010 Real Talk NY: Only Pac and Biggie are truly missed, no one else even sounds close to their flow or style; 2011 SOHH: I know even before I hear his raps, his flow is going to be perfect; 2012 New York Times: Observers noted Obama’s use of black slang in relation to hip-hop culture, like “flow” fly adj. excellent or admirable (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Us3: I’m fly as can be; 1993 Ice-T: You punks are jealous cause I’m rollin in fly shit; 2004 Hair Show, film: Mona, can I buy you a drink? You look fly as shit. Damn! fly chick n. a young and sexually attractive woman who likes to party (bk, cm, jg): 2000 Big L: I’m a street genius with a unique penis, I got fly chicks on my dick that don’t even speak English!; 2009 Stuffy People: She’s certainly a fly chick but her make-up game is not it!; 2011 Elzhi: I knew this fly chick, pretty right, she was my type fly girl n. a young and sexually attractive woman who likes to party (cm, jg): 1993 Us3: We’ve been cool since day one scoopin’ all the fly girls, havin’ all the fun; 2007 Lil Wayne: Make the shy girl horny, make the fly girls corny!; 2010 Showstopper Online: Deidre Lang was a fly girl on “In Living Color” and performed in the Broadway “Hair Spray” fo-fo n. a forty-four caliber handgun: 1999 DMX: Fuck the po-po, nigga keep a fo-fo!; 2000 Eminem: Come on and shoot the club with a fo-fo; 2010 WC: I shot the nigga in the head with fo-fo I grabbed my Mac when the motherfucker hit the floor foolio n. a stupid person (rk): 2008 News, MTV-TV program: Dear foolio! Real men don’t treat women like garbage!; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Bill made him look like such a foolio; 2009 Insider: If

183 you want to see a foolio on a Segway just watch this for real adv. really, genuinely or seriously (cm, jg): 2009 Southland, NBC-TV series: Do you want to lose him for real this time?; 2012 Facebook: What’s going down for real?; 2013 Tumblr: She kissed him for real for the first time later that night for sheezy (or fo’ sheezy) phr. certainly (jg): 1999 Ant Banks: Is he my nigga? Fo’ sheezy, nigga!; 2003 Urban Dictionary: “That chick was so ugly!” “For sheezy!”; 2013 Black Planet: Show me some luv and for sheezy I’ll return tha flava for shizzle (or for shizzle my nizzle, fo’ shizzle, fo’ shizzle my nizzle) phr. certainly (jg): 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “The kid’s a sponge!” “For shizzle my nizzle!”; 2010 Salt Lake City Weekly: We could take their paychecks for shizzle!; 2009 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: “You wanna get into water?” “Fo’ shizzle!” for shizzle my nizzle see above fo’ sheezy see for sheez fo’ shizzle see for shizzle fo’ shizzle my nizzle see for shizzle fo’ sho phr. certainly (jg): 2003 Royce Da 5’9’’: Fo’ sho nigga, I’m in this game, and it’s all good; 2008 Toronto Stories, film: “Call me sometime, will ya?” “Fo’ sho!”; 2013 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: It is the best test fo’ sho forty (or 40, forty dog, 40 dog, forty ounce, 40 ounce, 40 oz) n. a fortyounce bottle of strong and cheap malt liquor (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1998 Charlotte Observer: When somebody buys a forty, they’re going to drink a forty; 2009 L.A. East Side: He got a forty dog in a black bag in his right hand; 2010 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: I will never run to a gas station for a pack of forties

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forty acres (or 40 acres) n. symbolic reparations for enslavement (gs): 1999 Walt Harrington: I say forget about the forty acres. There ain’t gonna be no fuckin’ forty acres! It’s been a hundred and twenty-five years since the Civil War; 2000 Tupac Shakur: Where’s our forty acres and a mule?; 2008 Kansas City Star: They never received the promised forty acres forty dog see forty forty eleven (or forty leven) adv. very many (cm, jg, rk): 2006 Flyer Talk: This guy must’ve had some fortyeleven odd different credit cards!; 2013 City Data: I’ve asked you fortyeleven times; 2012 Twitter: I have forty eleven things to do forty leven see above forty ounce see forty four-eleven (or 411) n. information or facts (jg): 1995 Clueless, film: Here’s the 411 on Mr. Hall. He’s single, he’s 47; 1995 Mack 10: She knew the 411 on every one of them; 2013 Facebook: Message me your details and I’ll give you the four eleven on the price four-one-one (or 411) n. information or facts (bk, gs, jg): 1997 Rocky Mountain News: LL Cool J gives us the 411 on his life with a surprisingly candid biography that suffers its share of silly metaphors; 2003 Boston Herald: He says he can’t give us the 411 on that; 2008 Black Voices: Prepare to be enlightened as Black Voices sheds light on Ramadan and gives you the 411 on fasting fox n. a sexually attractive woman (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1999 Saturday Night Live, NBC-TV program: She’s still a fox; 2010 Us Magazine: I’ve seen pix of her from back in the day and she was such a fox; 2011 Screen Junkies: It makes her one sexy fox foxy adj. (of a woman) sexually attractive (cm, gs): 1996 New York Times: They

soon realize that what they really want is a fine pad and a foxy chick; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Why don’t you get her a dress? You mean one of those sexy, foxy ones; 2006 Portland Mercury: He gets himself a foxy girlfriend who actually likes football Franklin face n. a hundred dollar bill (gs): 1997 Notorious B.I.G.: I pop open the briefcases, nothin but Franklin faces; 2008 Two World Unite: I do not think I have seen so many Franklin faces together or any for that matter. The largest bill I am familiar with is a $20; 2012 Chevy Woods: She know I’m motivated by a Franklin face freebie n. anything given or enjoyed free of charge (bk, cm): 1998 He Got Game, film: There’s no free pussy around here, no freebies; 2010 About: Ask about the MasterCard offer before ordering, and enjoy either a twenty percent discount or a freebie off the menu; 2010 San Francisco Chronicle: We know that lower rates and freebies help accomplish this freestyle1 n. spontaneous and improvised music, especially rap (jg): 2007 Multichannel News: It enables members to easily record, collaborate on, search and listen to freestyle or written raps, without any need for software or file uploading; 2008 Love, Peace and Beatbox, film: We’ll work out a set, and in between maybe do some freestyle; 2009 Ebony: Doing a set mixed with his own hits and a tour of classic hip hop, he moved deftly between classic lyrics and his own freestyle freestyle2 v. to perform music in a spontaneous and improvised manner, especially rap (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Public Enemy: I don’t freestyle much; 2003 Salt Lake Tribune: Dr E, as he is known in the nightclubs where he works, teaches these kids how to freestyle, or rap; 2011 Miami New Times:

Glossary I took him on tours where he had to freestyle other rappers fresh adj. excellent or admirable (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1986 New York Daily News: We hang out with him because he’s fresh; 2004 Hair Show, film: She’s drivin’ around in her fresh little car; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Let’s go to Darrell’s Shop, they got fresher records there fro (or ’fro) n. a hairstyle of bouffant, tightly curled hair, worn by many African Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Chicago Sun-Times: Back in the days Jackson still had a ‘fro; 2007 Washington Post: He actually had a fro once upon a time; 2009 Ebony: Just because your fro is one big mass of hair doesn’t mean you can’t add funky hair accessories to jazz up your do! from day one phr. from the very beginning (gs, rk): 2011 Chattanoogan: Other winners from day one were Davidson and Wofford; 2011 ESPN: We’ve said from day one that the current system needs to be fixed; 2011 New York Post: From day one we’ve talked about getting that banner, putting it on the wall to let everyone see from jumpstreet phr. from the very beginning (bk, gs): 2000 Fort Worth Star-Telegram: The RodmanMavericks marriage was destined for divorce court from jumpstreet; 2000 Bamboozled, film: My only mistake is I didn’t believe in your genius from jumpstreet; 2010 Detroit News: From jumpstreet he told me that he was going to show Ziggy how much he loved him from the get-go (or from the git-go) phr. from the very beginning (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Snoop Dogg: Like I told you from the get-go, don’t trust no one!; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: Let’s do it again from the get-go!; 2010 Philadelphia Inquirer: Most local

185 leaders have supported the proposal from the git-go from the git-go see above from the jump phr. from the very beginning (gs, rk): 2009 Washington Post: The main thing is that from the jump they had no energy; 2010 News, FoxTV program: The president basically put forth that from the jump the Feds did everything that they could to deal with the situation; 2010 Boston Globe: It was obvious last night from the jump from the rip phr. from the very beginning (gs): 2009 Rakim: I told you from the rip, we gone do what we do; 2013 Word Press: I knew from the rip that this was gonna be a killer Sunday lunch; 2013 Twitter: That’s how I know that she has loved me from the rip front v. [1] to pretend (gs, rk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: You sure she ain’t got no money? She could be frontin’, you know?; 2004 Nekousa Mullin: Quit frontin’, Reginald. You don’t buy all this shit just for me; 2005 Vibe: You ain’t never had no real drama in your life, Nelly, so stop frontin’ [2] to try to impress people by showing off (gs, jg, rk): 1993 Us3: C’mon, you don’t have a job, I know you’re frontin’ hard, borrowed the ride from mom; 2004 Lil Flip: Can’t nobody throw a party like me, so quit your frontin!; 2007 XXL Magazine: Next time I see him on Smack DVD, fronting big time, like he’s a real gangster with money stalks fronts n. teeth, especially front teeth (jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: He got one of his fronts knocked out; 2008 Dental Fear Central: While she was scaling my bottom teeth, all four fronts fell out; 2013 Twitter: I laughed so hard my gold fronts fell out fry v. to straighten the hair using a heated metal comb (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1993 San Diego Union Tribune: The point is,

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even if Jackson does have a skin disease, he didn’t have to fix his nose and fry his hair to make it straight; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Your cousin gets back from getting her hair fried and dyed; 2011 Topix: That woman knows how to fry your hair funds n. money (gs, jg): 1997 Jay-Z: The plan was to get funds; 2003 Macon Telegraph: I don’t think they’ve got any funds to give us; 2007 Wu-Tang Clan: My woman need funds, plus her hair and her toes done funk n. [1] the soulful or earthy quality in African American music (cm, gs): 1998 Hartford Courant: Once the band got in its groove, everyone could appreciate the funk of songs like “Shake What You Got” and “Elephant’s Foot”; 2004 Jazz Times: You can feel the funk in their makeover of Burt Bacharach’s “The Look of Love”; 2009 Examiner: I love the funk in his music. I love the sexuality, and the great tempo changes [2] anything basic or elemental (gs, jg): 2013 Adventure Divas: She knows her funk and she uses it; 2013 Twitter: Enjoy the funk and share the vibes!; 2013 Home Barista: I miss the earthy funk in my espresso [3] body odor (cm, gs, jg): 2008 Blogspot: He tells me that the chair umpire can smell her disgusting funk while she is sitting during changeovers; 2009 Baby Center: The last few days, no matter how much I wash, there’s this awful funk coming from his neck area; 2012 Twitter: Every time he passes me, I smell his funk funky adj. [1] soulful or elemental (cm, gs, jg): 1993 Us3: Scribble drabble scrabble on the microphone I babble as I fix the funky words into a puzzle; 2008 New York Times: The fancifully funky voice of Stevie Wonder emanates from her computer’s sound system; evocative portraits by Hipolito Torres

grace the walls; 2013 Cultural Exchange: Hardwood floors and brick interior create a warm resonate sound and a funky atmosphere [2] (or funky fresh) excellent or admirable, especially if fashionable or popular (gs, jg, rk): 1984 Prince: Thank you for a funky time, call me up whenever you want to grind; 2002 Missy Elliot: We funky fresh dressed to impress, ready to party!; 2008 Atlanta JournalConstitution: It was a really funky car, we took photos of it side by side with mine funky fresh see above G G n. [1] a man (gs, rk): 1992 Dr. Dre: I’ma let ’em understand from a young G’s perspective; 2006 Randy Kearse: What time you got, G?; 2009 Verne Harvey: I thought y’all was cool. What’s up, G? [2] a close friend (jg, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: Why you fuckin’ with the gay guy, G?; 1993 Us3: Yo G, I got it goin’ on!; 2002 Jay-Z: I leave off to the club, G’s in the back [3] a member of a criminal gang (jg, rk): 1999 Dr. Dre: Real G’s don’t cry; 1999 Goodie Mob: Hoe better know who the true G’s are!; 2005 Aaron Peckham: That’s a real G. Don’t piss him off gaffle v. [1] to rob or steal (gs, rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: Uncle Sam gaffles me every time I have to pay my taxes; 2009 Live Journal: The cunt came in and gaffled everything she could get her mitts on that was left; 2012 Facebook: I want to find out who gaffled my bike and beat some ass [2] to trick someone out of something (gs, rk): 2006 Colma: The Musical, film: He gaffled my money; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Damn, dude, you got gaffled at the club when you spent $50 to get in and I spent $20; 2013 University of

Glossary California student: You paid $200 for this shit? Man, you got gaffled game1 n. [1] deception or manipulation (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1995 Clockers, film: They ran a game on me, these two; 2003 Nate Dogg: You’re sound your whole shit’s plain. It all sound the same. Nigga, you need game; 2010 Real Talk NY: Fat Joe is playin’ his game [2] criminal activity, especially drug-dealing or prostitution (gs, jg): 1994 Master P: Motherfuckers in the game straight clocking cheese; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: They’re deep in the game; 2008 Three 6 Mafia: They say they shippin keys, a hundred percent of that is cut. They say they in the game, but niggas takin it up the ass game2 v. to deceive or manipulate (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 AZ: For all those days you tried to game me; 2010 Real Assanova: I never tried to game her, never made any sexual advances; 2011 Word Press: He was trying to game me to get out of paying me back gangbang v. to be a member of a criminal gang and be engaged in its activities (cm): 1992 Los Angeles Times: Gang members go gangbanging to protect their surf; 2005 New York Daily News: We’ve been gangbanging for so long, we know you fight your own battles; 2009 Topix: I’ve been gangbanging for over twenty years and I know for a fact there is a fine line you just don’t cross gangbanger n. a member of a criminal gang (cm, gs, jg): 1995 Heat, film: Do they look like gangbangers working the local 7–11 to you?; 2003 Bad Boys II, film: They were the gangbangers that tried to hijack the boss; 2008 Ebony: His little sister was harassed by a gangbanger on a city bus gangsta n. [1] a member of a criminal gang (gs, jg): 1995 Clockers, film: Everybody wants to be a gangsta,

187 right?; 2003 Tupac Shakur: Resurrection, film: Some people say I was a thug and a gangsta; 2009 Chicago Sun-Times: Once a gangsta always a gangsta [2] a rebellious and nonconformist person, especially the one who opposes the white establishment (gs, jg): 1999 Dr. Dre: I’m representin’ for all the gangstas all across the world; 2005 State Property 2, film: You don’t need my help ’cause you’re a gangsta; 2011 Live Leak: These are straight up Vancouver gangstas rebelling against the White Imperialist Powers! [3] a genre of rap music characterized by rapacity, violence and mysogyny: 1993 San Diego Union Tribune: I have a responsibility to not play gangsta. In my opinion, it doesn’t belong on the radio; 1996 Chicago Tribune: What will be the legacy of the young man who played gangsta?; 2004 Los Angeles Times: Gangsta lyrics aside, the rapper needs more originality to rise above his 1990 hit gangstafy v. to make something or someone look typical of the inner-city ghetto gangsters: 2004 Shyne: This is the gangsta lean and the gangsta vibe, keep it gangstafied, nigga, or die; 2006 Newgrounds: I hate how they try to gangstafy everything; 2006 Z-Ro: I’m a gangstafied motherfucker gangsta glide n. a male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the stride: 2009 Urban Dictionary: That guy’s gangsta glide made him look physically challenged; 2010 Columbia University student: Check out his gangsta glide! The dude looks ridiculous; 2010 Tha Dogg Pound: I’m a ride, I’m a slide, with that gangsta glide, I’m a gangsta nigga gangsta grip n. holding an object, especially a gun, sideways: 1996 Patrick Duncan: Monfriez took the pistol back and demonstrated an exaggerated

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gangsta grip; 2005 Aaron Peckham: I got my cap to the back and my AH47 in a gangsta grip; 2009 Packing 4 Life: His imaginary grip was definitely a gansta grip gangsta juice n. Olde English 800 malt liquor (jg): 2002 King Tee: It’s many niggas drinkin that gangsta juice; 2009 My Space: I’m sippin on gangsta juice; 2013 Black Planet: Stop drinking that gangsta juice! gangsta lean n. a style of automobile driving in which the driver sits slung low and tilted toward the passenger seat (jg): 2007 Savannah Morning News: Some are yakking on the phone, others are driving with the gangsta lean; 2007 My Space: Its hard to see over the hood of my Explorer doing the gangsta lean; 2009 Corpus Christi Caller-Times: Sun roof top, diamond in the back, digging the scene with the gangsta lean gangsta limp n. a male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the stride (gs, jg): 2004 Chicago SunTimes: It was a gangsta limp. He thought it was cool; 2005 Orlando Sentinel: Affecting a gangsta limp, he claims to be from Roxbury, but his downtrodden colleagues see right through him; 2009 Louisiana Weekly: I’m the brother that makes you cling more tightly to your purse when you see my silhouette coming down the street with a gangsta limp gangsta roll n. a large wad of money (gs, jg): 2007 Edward Morris: He reached in his hip pocket, removed a gangsta roll and carefully peeled off a fifty; 2009 Wiki How: Be careful who sees your gangsta roll. The last thing you need is to get mugged; 2012 Yelp: You don’t need to bring a gangsta roll cuz it’s super affordable gangsta walk n. a male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the

stride (gs): 1996 Daytona Beach News-Journal: 2Pac talked the gangsta talk and now he’s walked the gangsta walk right to the graveyard; 2000 Snoop Dogg: I know you gettin yo gangsta walk on right now; 2009 Twitter: He is perfecting his gangsta walk ganja n. marijuana (bk, gs): 2002 8 Mile, film: You want to smoke some ganja?; 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Oh, it’s definitely ganja! We’re gonna get busted!; 2009 Atlantic Monthly: I was invited to smoke ganja gank v. [1] to rob or steal (gs, rk): 1999 Ice-T: You ganked a suitcase full of H; 2005 Aaron Peckham: People always gank my damn lighters!; 2009 Bitch Slap, film: Let’s gank this fucker right now [2] to trick someone out of something (gs, rk): 1995 Bad Boys, film: Let’s gank these fools!; 2001 Snoop Dogg: Baby you gank em and play em; 2003 Turk: You niggas thought it was over, but it ain’t. You thought I couldn’t bounce back, nigga you got ganked gas (or gas up) v. to flatter insincerely (gs, rk): 1991 Barton Fink, film: “I think it’s the best.” “Don’t gas me, Fink”; 1998 Jay-Z: I gassed the baddest girl in the class to show me her knockers; 2006 Randy Kearse: Watch how easily I can gas shortie up gas up see above gators (or ’gators) n. expensive shoes made from alligator skins (rk): 1996 Jay-Z: I still keep the illest gators, tailor made; 2005 News, MTV-TV program: Snoop entered with his expensive gators on; 2009 Ebony: Gators and Borsalinos? Nah. Throwback jerseys? OK if you’re twenty and younger gauge n. a shotgun (gs, jg, rk): 1993 IceT: I’m not to be fucked with, step in the range of my gauge and get bucked quick; 2005 Aaron Peckham: I blasted

Glossary him with my gauge!; 2009 Game Battles: If you look closely you can tell he bust a shot with a gauge and the next second he is chainsawing him g’d up see below geared up (or g’d up) phr. elegant, stylish or well-dressed (gs, jg, rk): 2009 Futurama, Fox-TV series: He sure looked pretty geared up; 2009 Ebony: Audience members were geared up in togas; 2009 Screen Weekly: I remember I was all geared up for the first shot Geechee (or Geechie) n. potentially offensive [1] a southern seacoast African American, known as Gullah (bk, cm): 2003 Charleston Post Courier: Gullah people are known as Geechee in Georgia and Florida; 2010 Connect Savannah: The Gullahs in South Carolina and the Geechees in Georgia were left virtually alone; 2010 Black Voices: I was born in Georgia and have Geechees in my family [2] the creole language used by southern seacoast African Americans, known as Gullah (bk, cm): 2000 Palm Beach Post: He grew up speaking Geechee (also called Gullah), the language of his home environment; 2005 State: I knew about it but we didn’t call it Gullah. We called it Geechee; 2008 News, MSNBC-TV program: Thomas has chalked up his silence to his struggle as a teenager to master standard English after having grown up speaking Geechee Geechie see above geeked (or geeked up) adj. [1] under the influence of a drug (rk): 2005 George Carlin: Life Is Worth Losing, HBO-TV program: They get completely geeked on speed; 2005 D4L: I’m geeked up and I can’t see, and all the walls keep lookin at me; 2008 Seattle Times: One of my coaches told me last night not to get all geeked up [2] excited (gs): 2011 Young Jeezy: I was super geeked, cash

189 flowing, money flowing, yeah, that’s a super week; 2013 Cherokee Leader: I think we were a little too geeked up in the beginning, and we had a hard time settling down; 2013 News, WIBW-TV program: There were guys geeked up to play, so there was kind of an adrenaline flow to that game geeked up see above geographical adj. harboring prejudice against someone because of their place of origin (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Catz from Brooklyn are real geographical; 2010 My Space: I’m kind of geographical, so if its not east coast, I’m really not impressed; 2010 Realest Niggas: I don’t understand why dudes are so geographical when it comes to music get an attitude (or get a tude, get a ’tude) phr. to have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk, jg): 1994 St. Petersburg Times: Don’t get a ’tude, dude!; 2006 Washington Post: The kid’s going to get an attitude back, and the kid’s going to make the parent nervous; 2006 Providence Journal: Get an attitude. Be rude. Show up late and don’t apologize for it get a nut phr. to have an orgasm (gs, rk): 1996 Jay-Z: He got a nut; 2009 Slim Thug: When the bitch get a nut, her pussy squirt; 2010 Street Directory: For twenty dollars he’s gonna get a nut, stay all night for another ten bucks get a tude, get a ’tude see get an attitude get busy phr. [1] to have sex (cm, rk): 1993 CB4, film: Enough with this foreplay. I’m gonna get busy, baby!; 1995 South Park, film: Let’s not talk, let’s get busy!; 1996 Ice-T: Are these girls ready to get busy? [2] to start to do something: 1993 Ice-T: Get on the mike and tryin to get busy; 2007 Stomp the Yard, film: Y’all heard the man. Get busy!; 2009 News, CNN-TV program:

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You roll your sleeves up and say, “Let’s get busy” get down phr. [1] to let oneself be natural and unrestrained (bk, cm): 1995 Pulp Fiction, film: Get down, get down!; 1998 Belly, film: Can a nigga just get down? Get a drink? Get some ass?; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Big ups to everybody who came out to the Richmond High winter dance, y’all! Get down! [2] to make an effort (bk): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: Tell the dick to shut the fuck up and get down!; 2009 Factoidz: This will force them to have to get down to do this; 2011 Globe and Mail: You have to be ready to get down to it get in someone’s face phr. to act in a confrontational way toward someone (gs, jg): 2000 Remember the Titans, film: “You blew your assignment!” “Man, I’m covering for you. Don’t get in my face”; 2012 New York Times: He’s not the kind of guy who’s going to get in your face or yell at you; 2012 Los Angeles Times: If you are not doing your job, someone should be allowed to get in your face get it on phr. to start something, especially with a positive mood (cm, gs, jg): 2003 Anger Management, film: Good evening. Ready to get it on?; 2008 You Don’t Mess with the Zohan, film: “Let’s go, let’s get it on!” “No, let’s not go!”; 2010 University of Alabama student: Come on, get it on! It’s gonna be fun! get it together phr. to focus or concentrate (bk, gs): 1993 CB4, film: Look, you guys can rap, but you got nothin’ I can sell. If you get it together, give me a call; 2006 Public Enemy: We got to fuckin get it together; 2008 Ebony: I am hoping she can get it together get jiggy phr. [1] to be sexually involved, especially in an uninhibited way: 2000 Bamboozled, film: Are you getting

jiggy with him?; 2003 Haunted Mansion, film: He wants to get jiggy with my wife?; 2009 Spring Breakdown, film: “What are you doing here?” “Getting jiggy” [2] to dance or feel the urge to dance: 2000 Next Friday, film: I’m in the mood to get jiggy. I wanna party; 2001 Osmosis Jones, film: You don’t dance? Don’t tell me you ain’t never gotten jiggy with it; 2013 Tumblr: Put on your dancin’ boots and let’s get jiggy get mines phr. to get something that belongs or is due to you (gs, rk): 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I’m getting mines!; 2008 Belleville NewsDemocrat: We don’t have anybody out there trying to get mines. That’s not something that we deal with; 2010 Washington Post: C’mon, it’s DC, I got to get mines get missing (or get missin’) phr. to leave (rk): 2006 Jay-Z: You can get missing anywhere you like to; 2009 Bebo: Get with us or get missin’!; 2010 Actionext: I had to get missin’, I’m tired of you stressin’ me get off someone’s case phr. to leave someone alone (bk, jg): 2008 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Can you just get off my case?; 2009 Cape Cod Times: If you’ll get off my case, I’d like to get back to doing what I can do better than all of you; 2010 New York Daily News: I wish people would get off his case and see him as a human being get one’s act together phr. to focus or concentrate (bk): 2008 Ebony: I trust that he will read this article and get his act together; 2010 News, ABC-TV program: It is ironic that this book tells the story of my own struggle to get my act together; 2010 Denver Post: Frank got me to get my act together, he uplifted me in every way, he saved me

Glossary get one’s head together phr. to focus or concentrate (bk, jg): 2009 Seattle Post Intelligencer: I did a little praying and tried to get my head together and keep my nerves down; 2010 Calgary Sun: Now, I’ve got to get my head together and play well; 2010 Kansas City Star: He said he just needs to get his head together get one’s kicks phr. to have a good time (jg): 2010 News, Fox-TV program: I’m not just some asshole who’s here to get his kicks telling you what to do; 2010 Long Beach Press Telegram: I get my kicks, my fun out of winning. I feel my best when I’m playing on the field, that’s when I’m my happiest; 2010 New York Times: Sharon is a tease, and the only way she can get her kicks is to play men like suckers get one’s shit together phr. potentially offensive to focus or concentrate (bk, jg): 1994 Above the Rim, film: This boy ain’t got it. Get your shit together, man!; 1997 Wu-Tang Clan: Get your shit together ’fore the fuck Illuminati hit; 2010 Us Magazine: If you want someone with a brain to help you get your shit together, hit me up get one’s stuff together phr. to focus or concentrate (bk): 2009 Huffington Post: Either get your stuff together fast and succeed on your own or you will face the consequences alone; 2009 San Francisco Chronicle: He realizes he needs to get his stuff together; 2010 USA Today: Hey, you’ve got to go get your stuff together get on someone’s case phr. to start annoying or nagging someone (bk): 2007 Seattle Times: She forces you to have to get on his case about certain things; 2008 New York Times: You can bet that organized labor will get on his case for proposing to reduce the state work force; 2010 Boston Globe: That was the only time that Ford had to get

191 on my case saying I was supposed to be playing a gay man get on wax v. to record a music album (gs): 1987 Philadelphia Daily News: They said he’d never get on wax. Well, I watched him mature in the studio; 1996 Milwaukee Sentinel: A local musician had mortgaged everything but the family cat to get on wax; 2010 Hip Hop DX: That’s the attitude you would get on wax! get out of someone’s face phr. to leave someone alone (bk, jg): 2003 Bad Boys II, film: “We gonna talk about this!” “No, get out of my face!”; 2005 Boston Globe: I’d tell him to get out of my face and go coach somebody else for a change; 2010 USA Today: I told him he better get out of my face get over on v. to take advantage of someone or a situation, especially by deception (gs, jg): 1999 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: Nobody’s gonna get over on me; 2002 Lisa Green: The students tried to get over on the teacher; 2011 Black Voices: You can get over on Uncle Sam get some leg phr. to have sex with a woman (gs, jg): 2005 Urban Dictionary: You are going to get laid, you are going to get some leg; 2010 Detroit Free Press: You’ll get some leg tonight for sure!; 2013 Twitter: I tip my hat to Tucker. Dude got some leg get someone’s nose open phr. to have someone infatuated with oneself (gs, jg): 1993 Posse, film: Lana got your nose open, ain’t she?; 1993 What’s Love Got to Do with It, film: He’s got my nose open and I’m gonna keep him satisfied; 2013 Waka Flocka Flame: Her body language so sexual. This kind of girl got my nose open get with it phr. to show interest, attention or enthusiasm (cm, gs, jg): 2010 Big K.R.I.T.: Get with it, bitch, I throw money like hot potatoes; 2012 Daily

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Ranger: They told me to get with it and figure it out; 2013 Ruste Juxx: Brooklyn’s in the house, get with it, motherfucker! get with the program phr. to follow the rules and do what is expected (cm, gs, jg): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: “See, you gotta get with the program.” “I’m Catholic, it goes against my morals”; 2005 Beauty Shop, film: If you wish to continue working here, I suggest that you get with the program and give me some proper respect; 2011 Los Angeles Times: Harris has come under pressure from the Obama administration to get with the program and agree to a settlement ghetto v. to make something look typical of the inner-city ghetto, especially by making it flashy or tasteless: 2002 New Schoolers: It’s OK as long as they don’t get to ghetto their style; 2007 Mazda World: I hate ghettoed cars; 2009 My Hattiesburg: Santa ghettoed his sled out and went for a test run ghetto bird n. a police helicopter, often used in inner-city ghetto cummunities (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Public Enemy: I been around the world, seen a lot of shit in my life, same sirens, same ghetto birds swirlin at night; 2007 J. Cole: I look up the sky, see that ghetto bird circling; 2009 Whittier Daily News: I figured it was only a matter of time until a ghetto bird buzzed the neighborhood ghetto blaster n. a large portable stereo player (cm): 1983 Joseph Wambaugh: That sucker is the fifth thief I seen this morning with brand new ghetto blasters; 1990 Graveyard Shift, film: Leave the ghetto blaster back in the ghetto!; 1998 Glenn Harper: People in Mexico, just like in the AfricanAmerican community, utilize the ghetto blaster in many ways

ghetto box n. a large portable stereo player (cm): 1992 Ricardo Cortez Cruz: Whenever we had to sit outside we always took a ghetto box with us, so we cranked up a special twelve-inch version of Planet Rock by Afrika Bambaataa; 1996 Elmore Leonard: He went to talk to a man who prepared cafe Cubano and smoked Cohiba panatelas to Radio Mambi on his ghetto box; 2008 Terry Gavin: She finds time to pack up her ghetto box ghetto’d (or ghetto’d out) adj. typical of the inner-city ghetto, especially if flashy or tasteless: 2002 Bimmer Forums: That car looks ghetto’d out. Not my style at all; 2008 Chimp Out: It’s bad to have to look at niggers in their ghetto’d out saggy pants and baggy T-shirts; 2011 When I Was 17, MTVTV program: Selita got all ghetto’d out for her prom ghetto’d out see above ghetto fabulous1 n. [1] someone who lives lavishly and whose life surpasses the standard of living in an inner-city ghetto (gs): 2003 Duke Chronicle: Children growing up in this climate are constantly being bombarded by the media with imagery of the rich and famous or the ghetto-fabulous; 2010 S2S Magazine: These friends quickly learn that living the lifestyle of the ghetto fabulous is not always champagne wishes and caviar dreams; 2012 Reddit: Nouveau riche and the ghetto fabulous are the ones who buy bling [2] lavish life surpassing the standard of living in an innercity ghetto (gs, rk): 1997 Money Talks, film: I was just living ghetto fabulous; 2002 Baltimore NewsTribune: Ghetto fabulous is part of the same vibe, but it’s the new rich buying up; 2009 Love to Know: Ghetto fabulous is a slang term used to describe a lifestyle that includes

Glossary certain luxuries even though some basic needs may go unmet ghetto fabulous2 adj. living lavishly and surpassing the standard of living in an inner-city ghetto (jg, rk): 1999 Washington Post: It turned high school dropouts into self-styled ghetto fabulous entrepreneurs; 2000 Bamboozled, film: All my niggas wear Timmy Hillnigger or they don’t wear a damn thing at all! It’s ghetto fabulous!; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: This bling? This is ghetto fabulous! ghettofy v. to make something look typical of the inner-city ghetto, especially by making it flashy or tasteless: 2003 Malibu’s Most Wanted, film: I’m gonna walk in there and be crazy. I’ll be ghettofied, buckwild; 2007 Riverfront Times: The threat of ghettofication is always looming; 2011 YouTube: Lol! Too white! You need to ghettofy for the wigger masses! ghettoize v. to make something look typical of the inner-city ghetto, especially by making it flashy or tasteless: 2011 Ottawa Citizen: If that’s ghettoization, then ghettoize me, baby; 2011 Atlantic Monthly: What we need now are not white movies with Benetton tokenism, nor movies that ghettoize racial experience; 2013 Dallas Observer: It’s an example of ghettoized architecture, mannered and overdone ghetto lullaby n. innercity-ghetto noise, especially sirens, helicopters, gunfire: 1993 Menace II Society, film: I ain’t raisin’ no family down here. The ghetto lullaby puttin’ my kids to sleep. Copters and shit flyin’ by all night; 2007 Boston Nexus; I was lulled to sleep by the blaring of sirens and the undistinguishable blows of gunfire, a somewhat of a ghetto lullaby; 2009 Wiki Name: Tamisha calls the gunfire and sirens that tear through her

193 Dorchester neighborhood at night her ghetto lullaby ghetto pass n. a fictitious pass given to someone who is not from an inner-city ghetto but who socializes with people who are (rk): 2000 Dallas Morning News: You chill here too long and you have your ghetto pass revoked; 2002 Lakeland Ledger: Kelly does not deserve a ghetto pass; 2009 Charlotte Observer: Merritt still had his ghetto pass, he understood his students’ hiphop slang and knew their music ghetto queen n. an African American woman who lives in the inner-city ghetto, especially a mother who struggles to provide for her family: 1994 Los Angeles Times: She’s not a ghetto queen or a girl from the ’hood with baggy pants; 1999 Krayzie Bone: This verse is for my ghetto queens, tryin’ to come up and get them better things; 2002 Philadelphia Daily News: They made her look like a ghetto queen ghetto rags n. clothes typical of the innercity ghetto and hip-hop culture: 1991 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: You find it ironic that ghetto rags would inspire high fashion; 2007 Boston Herald: There were Southern whites from Nashville, skinheads from New Jersey, and black kids from Cleveland wearing ghetto rags; 2014 Epinions: They eschew their formal gowns for ghetto rags ghetto rich adj. maintaining outward signs of wealth without any real money, especially living lavishly in an inner-city ghetto: 2011 Blogspot: Sure, many Americans are earning well above the poverty line, however they are ghetto rich; 2013 RedEye Chicago: It started doing multiple shows per night, and then immediately I turned ghetto rich; 2013 News, ABC-TV program: They’ll settle, and you’ll still only be ghetto rich

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Glossary

ghetto star n. a leading member of a criminal gang from an inner-city ghetto (jg): 1993 Sanyika Shakur: I am trying to utter my admiration for this cat who is quickly becoming a ghetto star; 1995 Tupac Shakur: When I grow up, I wanna be like them and live my life as a ghetto star; 2006 Palm Beach Post: A promoter of the event Raymond Lowe is a self-described ghetto star ghetto stick n. a shotgun: 2006 Stephen J. Cannell: This time I saw that she thumbed buckshot into the cut-down 12-gauge, known on the street as a ghetto stick; 2008 Yelp: Those two are wacked with a ghetto stick: bang, bang, bang; 2010 Indiana Gun Owners: I admit shooting one with a ghetto stick makes me smile ghetto wine n. cheap alcohol, especially wine or malt liquor: 1997 Michigan Daily: He was talking about the notso-fine ghetto wine; 2006 Bizzy Bone: Baby, I’m feelin’ I’m doin’ so fine. Sippin’ that ghetto wine; 2011 40 Oz Malt Liquor Paradise: Maybe this is old news, but I scored a couple flavors of a ghetto wine I’ve never seen before called PrimeTime gig1 n. [1] a musical performance or concert (cm, gs): 1986 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: I’d go to see them in East St. Louis after my gig; 1999 Billboard: We started doing gigs at the Red Fox Inn; 2004 Ray, film: I’ll be getting other gigs; [2] a temporary job, especially for one night (cm, gs): 1997 New York Magazine: Beaver was working as a teacher in Florida, getting fed up with bureaucratic obstacles and looking for a new gig; 2000 Cosmopolitan: A new co-worker asked if how I liked my new gig; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I’m so excited about this gig! gig2 v. [1] to give a musical performance or to play a concert (cm): 1999

Billboard: The band has already started gigging; 2008 San Diego Magazine: She’s released three EPs and has been gigging all over Southern California; 2010 People Weekly: At night he gigged in local small clubs [2] to have a temporary job, especially for one night (cm, gs): 2009 Lansing State Journal: The guys have already gigged in France; 2010 People Magazine: Leno was gigging in the sleaze clubs, college campuses, even the old-age homes of the hinterlands; 2013 Yahoo Voices: He gigged his way through college girl n. cocaine (cm, gs, rk): 2006 Urban Dictionary: That retard got caught trying to sell 2k worth of boy and girl; 2010 World Star Hip Hop: To all y’all talkin’ ’bout dude bein’ a junkie: he snorted girl, not boy!; 2012 Yahoo Answers: WTF, have you been snorting girl? give it up phr. to give applause or praise (cm, rk): 2009 Black Dynamite, film: Come on, give it up to Afrodite and the Moonchild! Give them a nice round of applause!; 2013 New York Post: Let’s give it up for Coach Garrett!; 2013 New York Magazine: Give it up for one of the baddest rappers in the game! give someone a holla see below give someone a holler (or give someone a holla) phr. to contact someone: 1997 Money Talks, film: This is my card. Will you give me a holler?; 2009 New York Times: If there are any specific points you’d like to see discussed, please give me a holler; 2013 Southland, TNT-TV series: If I see them, I’ll give you a holler give someone an attitude (or give someone a tude, give someone a ’tude) phr. to have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk, jg): 2008 Chicago Tribune: I asked

Glossary the attendant for help and she gave me an attitude; 2010 People Magazine: When I would go into a store, the salesclerks would give me an attitude because I was asking for a size they didn’t carry; 2013 Southland, TNT-TV series: What was that? The rookie’s giving me an attitude? give someone a play phr. to flirt or express sexual interest in someone (jg, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: Why don’t you give me a play? I’ll give you all my love today; 2008 Errol Shaw: Are you telling me that you just gave me a play, and now you are telling me about your husband?; 2011 Democratic Underground: Perhaps the man stunk and that is why she didn’t give him any play! give someone a tude, give someone a ’tude see give someone an attitude give someone five phr. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation (bk, cm, gs): 2005 Coach Carter, film: Give me five! Just give me five!; 2009 Columbus Dispatch: I want to give him five and wish him well; 2010 City Pulse: “Give me five,” he shouts, left arm straight up with five fingers extended give someone some dap phr. to touch someone’s clenched fist with one’s own, in greeting or agreement: 2004 Celebrity Cafe: When I finally got there, he said “what’s up” and gave me some dap (shook my hand); 2005 ESPN: Everybody saw me putting on my uniform, they all came up and gave me some dap; 2005 St. Louis PostDispatch: Give me some of that, give me some dap! give someone some love n. to show someone one’s respect or appreciation (gs, jg): 1994 U.N.L.V.: I’m givin’ a lot of love to my niggas that are dead; 2005 Madagascar, film: Give me some love! The plan worked! I’m very

195 clever!; 2012 New York Times: He’s immensely talented and the secret to him is to give him some love and support, and then he flourishes give someone some skin phr. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1988 Chicago Tribune: The man’s left hand was in the air, palm toward me. I was being invited to give him some skin; 2004 Ray, film: There you go! Give me some skin!; 2008 Belleville News-Democrat: Give me some skin, bro! give someone some slack phr. to allow someone some leeway (cm, gs, jg): 1993 What’s Love Got to Do with It, film: They’d get off my back, give me some slack; 2010 Los Angeles Times: Kristen is only nineteen. Give her some slack; 2011 New York Times: They’ve got to give him some slack. He hasn’t thrown a ball in a game in months give someone some sugar phr. to kiss someone (cm, gs): 2006 Chicago SunTimes: She gave me some sugar; 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Come on, give me some sugar!; 2011 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Give me some sugar, Betsy! glass dick n. potentially offensive a glass pipe used to smoke crack cocaine (gs, rk): 1991 New Jack City, film: People sit down and light that glass dick and take a hit; 2008 Insider: All you want to do is suck the glass dick, right?; 2011 Cedar Rapids, film: It’ll make you feel better. Suck the glass dick, dude God don’t like ugly phr. any negative behavior or feeling, especially envy, is displeasing to God (gs): 2002 All About the Benjamins, film: God don’t like ugly, and you is an ugly motherfucker; 2006 Big Momma’s House 2, film: Girl, you got a mean streak in

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you, and God don’t like ugly; 2010 Yahoo Answers: “God don’t like ugly” is not referring to physical attractiveness. It means that God doesn’t like ugly behavior go down v. to happen or be about to happen (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1995 Heat, film: I know that something is going down, Vincent; 2005 Honeymooners, film: This is the place where it’s gonna go down; 2010 Examiner: You don’t have to be a guru to think something’s going down; all you have to do is read the Internet reports go for bad phr. to act tough, especially in order to scare or intimidate others (gs, rk): 2009 Lottery Post: I feel all the prisoners who like to go for bad and shoot people ought to be sent over to Iraq; 2010 T.I.: I ain’t gonna go for bad, I ain’t looking for no trouble; 2010 Hip Hop Wired: A lot of them go for bad because they are not being disciplined at home go through changes phr. to pass through various emotional difficulties (bk, gs): 2006 Kansas City Star: She seemed to understand what I was going through when I went through changes; 2009 Beaumont Enterprise: I know women go through changes; 2010 Us Magazine: Real women go through changes in pregnancy got it going on (or got it goin’ on) phr. [1] to be successful or live well (jg, rk): 1993 Us3: Yo G, I got it goin’ on!; 2005 Be Cool, film: She sings, she writes her own stuff, she got it going on; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: You the man. You got it going on [2] to perform in an excellent or admirable way (cm, gs, rk): 1993 CB4, film: Dawn got it goin’ on; 1999 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: Some good guitar. Listen to that. They got it going on; 2006 High School Musical, film: Wildcats sing along, they really got it going

on! Wildcats in the house, everybody sing out! go upside one’s head phr. [1] to beat, especially around the head (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2008 Kansas City Star: He helped the big guy fall over and proceeded to go upside his head; 2009 Black Voices: Tiger Woods’ wife can go upside his head and he still treats her right; 2011 Chicago Tribune: And just when you’re ready to go upside his head with a leg from the table that he broke he hands you a check for $100,000 [2] to defeat utterly: 1998 Penny Mickelburry: Eldon went upside his head once; 2007 South Florida Sun: The Oklahoma Sooners used it to go upside their heads; 2009 Lipstick Alley: She told me how she was gonna go upside his head gray1 n. very offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1996 Geraldine Coleman: They were white and I was black. We’d call them “ofays” or “grays”; 2010 Nah Right: They just can’t wait to beat the grays; 2011 OC Connect: Guys in the AF I worked with called them “grays” or “pinks,” “rednecks,” lots of colorful labels, so to speak gray2 adj. very offensive (of a person) white (jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: You know how them gray people been tryin’ to trick us with their slickery?; 2005 African America: It reminds me of the “ofay” or “gray” mentality of my youth. Those used to be code words for white Europeans; 2008 Average Bro: That’s what most gray folks do, test you to see how you react gray boy n. very offensive a white man, especially young (cm, jg): 1990 George Carlin: Doin’ It Again, film: I’m whitey, the blue-eyed devil, gray boy, honkie, motherfucker myself. Don’t bother my ass!; 1992 Trespass, film: What you gray boys cookin’ up?;

Glossary 2008 Average Bro: I am certainly not

goint to let some gray boy do it G-ride (or G ride) n. a stolen automobile (gs, jg): 1990 Rookie, film: I love chasing G-rides; 1997 Salt Lake Tribune: They may not have known that a “G-ride” is a stolen car; 2000 Rocky Mountain News: He planned to go see his girlfriend and get a G-ride, street slang for a stolen car grill n. [1] the face (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Remy Ma: Bitch, don’t ask me why I gotta a nice grill. This is just how my face is; 2010 University of Mississippi student: Yo, check out his grill!; 2012 Facebook: I’m tired of looking at her ugly grill every time she talks [2] the mouth (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Mr. Shadow: Face the motherfuckin’ wall and shut your grill, I’m a paralyze your heart and shove your ass under the hill; 2006 Randy Kearse: The ball smashed ’em right in the grill; 2009 Burbler: She opened her grill to give me a reply [3] a set of decorative veneers put over one’s teeth: 2013 Atlanta Black Star: Jill Scott, known for her bombastic voice surprised her fans when she posted a photo of her grill on Twitter; 2013 Rumor Fix: The rapper is known for his eccentric style and sporting a flashy gold grill; 2013 People: Miley Cyrus found a way to one-up herself with a special accessory: a gold diamond grill grip n. money (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Above the Rim, film: Grip, it’s all about grip; 2009 Jam Personals: Some of you losers are stuck with baby mamas who don’t have no grip, that’s why u feel offended; 2009 Motorcycle: He has the grip to pay for it all grit n. potentially offensive a white person, especially from the southern USA (bk, jg): 2005 Urban Dictionary: That’s where the grits hang out; 2006 Bluffton Today: When

197 I was growing up, we always referred to a “grit” as sort of between po’ white trash and redneck; 2013 Bubble News: Avoid words like redneck, hillbilly, cracker and white trash grits n. food (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: We’d be talking about grits; 2009 Zazzle: Will you stay for some grits?; 2009 Modern Belle: I’ve had really bad grits, and I’ve had absolutely yummy grits grown folk n. adults (gs): 1996 Tupac Shakur: Next time grown folk talkin’, nigga, close your mouth!; 2007 Ebony: Grown folk should know better; 2010 SOHH: It’s the best song I’ve heard. It’s for grown folks grub1 n. food (cm, rk): 1999 New York Times: While the Army has never been known for tasty grub, there is no better source for innovations in packaging and preservatives; 2009 Myrtle Beach Sun News: Adults and kids will have a chance to eat some grub; 2011 News, CBS-TV program: A crowded college cafeteria is a place to grab some grub and also, potentially spread some germs grub2 v. to eat (bk, cm, gs, rk): 2005 West Seattle Herald: I know you like to grub and I know you’re not a health nut; 2007 Hartford Courant: My food was ready before the line went down and I wanted to grub; 2011 Los Angeles Times: If your dad loves to grub, he’s sure to have fun at this cool foodie festival H hacked (or hacked off) adj. irritated (bk, cm): 1999 Topeka Capital Journal: The farmer didn’t want to create undue hard feelings, but he was pretty hacked off by the whole episode; 2007 Beacon Journal: He was hacked off that everyone in the country didn’t believe he

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could play at this level; 2008 Ebony: A foul means someone actually got hacked hacked off see above half-ass1 adj. potentially offensive done or made without enough effort, care or enthusiasm (cm, gs): 2010 Word Press: How does one respond to such a half-ass apology?; 2010 YouTube: It’s a half-ass effort so don’t expect a masterpiece; 2010 Greater Long Beach: I wouldn’t say Jerry Brown has run a half-ass campaign half-ass2 v. potentially offensive to do or make something without enough effort, care or enthusiasm (cm): 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I feel we’re half-assing this!; 2011 Stanford Daily: The players want to be there just about as much I want to watch them half-ass their way through the games; 2011 News, MTV-TV program: Still, just like in his movies, Franco doesn’t half-ass anything half-step v. to do or make something without enough effort, care or enthusiasm (gs, jg): 2001 Two Can Play That Game, film: Tell her you wanna go to that party. Because Shanté, she halfsteppin’. And you got other options. Stop pining over this woman; 2006 Concord Monitor: For so long our justice system has been half-stepping on the ways it deals with sexual deviates; 2008 Mets Geek: He’s been halfstepping since last year and I don’t think Amaro is going to be any different hammer n. a sexually attractive woman (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2008 Media Takeout: I love Serena. Serena’s body is sick. As my brother says, “She’s a hammer”; 2010 Momentum Fathering: You still work a day job and aren’t totally busting up your cubicle with a sexy hammer dressed in a superhero costume; 2010 My Space: I am a sexy hammer with a

mean attitude. Remember, looks can be deceiving handkerchief head n. potentially offensive an African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (cm, gs, jg): 2008 Bob Zellner: The kids are going to walk out on that handkerchief head; 2008 Miracle at St. Anna, film: “He calls me a handkerchief head!” “What?” “An Uncle Tom”; 2013 Black Planet: The handkerchief heads have lost their minds on this one handle your business phr. to start taking care of business (gs, rk): 1994 Above the Rim, film: Go, boy, go! Straighten these motherfuckers out. Handle your business!; 2008 Ebony: Handle your business, lovey, and stop acting like your mind is bad!; 2009 My Latino Voice: I just told you who I was, go handle your business hard rock n. a physically and mentally tough person (gs, jg, rk): 1988 Sir Mix-a-Lot: Death to competitors! You understand, motherfucker, I’m a hard rock!; 2000 DMX: Most of these hard rocks turn out to be soft; 2004 Jim Jones: My nigga Zekey surely a hard rock, he survived them forty-some-odd shots hate (or hate on) v. to be envious and try to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny (gs, rk): 2005 Honeymooners, film: Ralph, stop hating!; 2009 Ebony: Don’t hate on the aspiring actress. That’s just wrong; 2010 Saturday Night Live, NBC-TV program: “It was bad, it sucked bad!” “Y’all just hatin’” hate on see above hata see below hater (or hata) n. an envious person who is trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny (gs, jg, rk): 2000 Afroman: I’m the greatest, and all you haters, I’ll mash

Glossary you like potatoes 2010 T-Mac: Man dem haters can’t stand to see a nigga like me, they see dem gator boots and Versace suits; 2010 New York Times: I couldn't care what these haters say hat up v. to leave (cm, gs, jg): 2005 Beauty Shop, film: Let’s hat up, y’all!; 2009 Speed Talk: I’m hatting up and heading out for the Hot Rod Reunion; 2011 Facebook: Let’s hat up for the USA have a ball phr. to have a good time (cm): 1986 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: Me and my friends were havin’ a ball: sneakin’ and smokin’ and drinkin’ and doin’ darn near everything; 1998 He Got Game, film: We had a ball already; 2009 Ebony: They had a ball, recalled Manning, who arranged the meeting have an attitude (or have a tude, have a ’tude) phr. to have an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk): 2004 Chicago Tribune: Everyone in the family has a tude; 2009 Birmingham News: He told me that if you had an attitude, you wouldn’t get anywhere; 2010 Buffalo News: This is where our delegation needs to have an attitude and be prepared to do battle have a tude, have a ’tude see above have game phr. to have the ability to deceive or manipulate (cm, gs): 2006 Bring It On: All or Nothing, film: Jesse don’t have game like I do; 2010 Top Mac Nigga: It shows how important it is to have game; 2011 Wonkette: Who would have thought that doughy, pasty motherfucker had game? have one’s nose open phr. to be infatuated with someone (cm, gs, jg): 2013 Tumblr: Danny has had his nose open for her for a while; 2013 University of California student: She had her nose opened for him; 2013 Wattpad: She knew she had her nose open for Raven

199 have papers see below have papers on (or have papers) phr. to be legally married (bk, jg): 1986 Washington Post: I will not be number two, I got papers on you; 2009 Baby Names World: She said she had papers on him; 2010 LaDonna Smith: “His wife? You are not married anymore!” “I am married to him and I have papers on him” hawk1 (or Hawk) n. the cold winter wind (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1995 Red Jordan Arobateau: Mickey waits outside on the steps, shielded from the cold hawk, Chicago’s icy wind from over the lake; 1997 New York Times: Not even the infamous winter wind, known here as The Hawk, appears likely to chill the property market here; 2003 Democratic Underground: It’s way too early for the hawk in Chicago hawk2 v. to stare at or observe closely (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1992 Juice, film: I grew up on a sidewalk where I learned street talk and then taught to hawk New York; 2006 Randy Kearse: I can’t go anywhere without him hawkin’ me; 2009 Anchorage Daily News: There were no ladies hawking me hawkins (or Hawkins) n. the cold winter wind (bk, cm, jg): 2009 Barry Popik: Chicago’s wind is called “hawkins” or “the hawk”; 2010 Sewanee: Hawkins was the essence of cold, of terminal, destructive cold; 2011 Examiner: A “Chicago Defender” article calls the Chicago winds “The Hawk or Hawkins” headlight n. potentially offensive a light-skinned African American (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Headlight [is] a light-complexioned AfroAmerican girl — because she tended to stand out in a crowd of darker people; 1996 Connie Eble: A headlight is a light-skinned black person; 2010

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Shout Out Clothing: She was a distressed sexy headlight Head Nigger In Charge (or Head Nigga in Charge, H.N.I.C.) n. very offensive unless used by african americans (often sarcastic) an African American person in charge (cm, gs, jg): 1992 Malcolm X, film: I’m the Head Nigger in Charge; 2001 Snoop Dogg and Tha Eastsidaz: Let my homies off the yard, I shall see the Head Nigga in Charge; 2003 How to Get the Man’s Foot Outta Your Ass, film: “How do I look?” “H.N.I.C.” “Head Nigga In Charge?” ‘Huh!” head up v. to confront or attack (bk, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Snoop Dogg: We could go head up; 2010 All Hip Hop: You wanna head him up in a debate?; 2013 Twitter: If you don’t like me, head me up healthy adj. potentially offensive (of a woman) curvaceous (rk): 2009 X Peeps: You don’t have to be fat, but it is preferred that you are a healthy bitch; 2010 Form Spring: They want a real man, and that is why you will never get a nice, healthy bitch; 2010 MizFit Online: I’d rather be a healthy bitch than a skinny bitch hellified adj. extreme or total (gs, jg): 2008 New York Times: We’re getting a feel for how Matt’s playing. He’s playing some hellified ball; 2008 Los Angeles Times: We’ve got a hellified offense here; 2010 R.O.W.D.Y.: I’m a hellified nigga Hen Dog n. Hennessy V.S. cognac (gs): 2001 D12: Forget the Moet, we’re drinkin’ Hen Dog all night; 2009 Black Planet: Every weekend I drink Hen Dog with my dogs; 2010 Dime Wars: No one forced him to show acts of drinking Hen Dog straight from the bottle Hennie see below Henny (or Hennie) n. Hennessy V.S. cognac (jg, rk): 1998 Jay-Z: I couldn’t

drink the Henny straight; 2004 Method Man: We drinkin’ Henny ’til we flip, poppin’ bottles ’til we sick. All y’all haters eat a dick!; 2009 Twitter: Who’s gonna drink Henny with me? hep see hip hepcat see hipcat hepster see hipster herb n. marijuana (cm, gs, rk): 2003 Gang Starr: I’m drivin home tipsy from the club, puffin herb, vision blurred; 2006 Daytona Beach News-Journal: He doesn’t actually smoke herb up there; 2008 Orlando Sentinel: Never thought I’d see a knight, Sir Ben Kingsley, smoking herb with a member of the Wu-Tang Clan he-say she-say n. gossip or rumor (gs, jg, rk): 2008 Hip Hop DX: Ignorant fools wanna bash another man because of some he-say she-say; 2010 Trip Lee: Now I’d heard a lot of he-say she-say in my life; 2010 Black Hair Media: He is suing her for some he-say she-say high five n. shaking hands with someone or slapping someone’s hand held high, in greeting or congratulation (cm, gs): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: see you later! High five!; 2007 Ebony: I saw two matrons giving each other high five at the Olive Garden yesterday; 2008 A Good Day to Be Black and Sexy, film: You used to give high fives to them high-five v. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand held high, in greeting or congratulation (gs): 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: “Right, Mr. D?” “High-five!”; 2010 Evansville Courier Press: Everybody high-fived Zach and called him “Z-Man”; 2011 San Francisco Weekly: If we were in the room, we’d run onstage, Kanyestyle, to high-five her high yella, high yeller see below high yellow (or high yella, high yeller) n. potentially offensive a

Glossary light-skinned African American, especially a sexually attractive young woman (bk, cm, gs): 1991 Jungle Fever, film: They called me a high yellow; 1993 St. Petersburg Times: She was called “a high yella”: too white to be black, too black to be white; 2004 Washington Post: You think I’d be more handsome if I were high yellow, like you? hincty (or hinkty) adj. self-important or arrogant (bk, cm, jg): 1992 Washington Post: You’ve got to understand something here, something that all those hinkty liberals, pinhead academics and whiny feminists never get right; 1994 Washington Times: These hincty ladies were known for their marital linkages to prominent black men; 1998 Michigan Citizen: They got us into university and then we got hinkty and didn’t want to talk about that anymore hip (or hep) adj. [1] fashionable or popular (bk, cm, gs): 1986 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: The people went somewhere on the weekends, either to Brownsville or to Ripley; Ripley was hipper; 2009 Attleboro Sun Chronicle: Those green glasses were pretty hip; 2009 Ebony: The best Chinese restaurants were not in fact in Chinatown but in Gastown, a hip emerging district that borders Chinatown [2] aware, knowing or understanding (bk, cm, gs): 1995 Bad Boys, film: What hip individual inspired this visit to the Bittmore?; 1998 Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, film: In my line of business it’s important to be hep; 2002 Civil Brand, film: Guess what? I’m hip to that scam about your boys hipcat (or hepcat) n. [1] a fashionable or popular person (bk, cm): 1999 Washington Post: He’s a hepcat. At least he thinks he is, though he’s really a lonely guy beneath all that booze and bravura; 2002 American Idol, Fox-TV

201 series: You were a hipcat, you were great; 2002 Max Decharne: He’s cool, he’s a hepcat. That is one well-dressed dude [2] a devotee jazz or swing music: 1993 Swing Kids, film: Let’s go, hepcats! Come on, that’s the way to swing!; 2010 Chubs: There’s a place where all the hipcats go, they dance and frolic to and fro; 2010 Firehouse Swing: For over ten years, the Firehouse Swing Dance has been the place in San Diego where all the hepcats congregate hip-hop1 n. [1] African American urban youth culture associated with rap music, breakdancing and graffiti (bk, cm, gs, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: This is hip-hop, you don’t belong here; 2003 Bad Boys II, film: You like hip-hop? I love it; 2011 San Francisco Weekly: They’re just dudes who have some thoughts on race, love hip-hop, and love getting drunk [2] rap music (bk): 1993 Us3: Feel the beat drop, jazz and hip-hop, drippin’ in your dome; 1999 Ice-T: Then a music called hip-hop came along and saved my life; 2009 Statesman Journal: He’s a very big name in hip-hop, not just in the Northwest hip-hop2 adj. [1] characteristic of African American urban youth culture associated with rap music, breakdancing and graffiti: 1993 Us3: A hip-hop junkie is what I am; 2009 Charlotte Observer: Merritt understood his students’ hiphop slang and knew their music; 2013 New York Times: They are deeply engaged in hip-hop culture [2] characteristic of rap music: 2000 Tonight Show with David Letterman, CBS-TV program: It’s a hip-hop album; 2001 Snoop Dogg: This is one of the greatest hip-hop records of all time; 2009 Detroit Free Press: A hip-hop concert featuring rappers from across the United States is set for tonight to

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benefit the son of a Muslim leader killed in a shootout in Dearborn hip-hop hug n. a combined handshake and one-armed hug between two males, popular among African Americans: 2009 People Magazine: He also told me how to give a proper hip-hop hug; 2011 Gawker: Joe did the hip-hop hug with them, because they’re black; 2013 Wiki How: Professor Neal describes the “hip-hop hug” he gives to other African Americans: “a handshake, you pull yourselves together, and you bump” hipster (or hepster) n. [1] a fashionable or popular person (cm, jg): 1992 Los Angeles Times: Its biggest draw seems to be Latino families, the local gay community and black-clad Hollywood hepsters; 1997 New York Times: Today’s hepsters share a shouldershrug at just about everything, a fashionable ennui; 2010 New York Magazine: The stereotype of a hipster is not something people aspire to anymore [2] a devotee of jazz or swing music: 2002 Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, film: I just got fucked by this drummer cat. A real righteous Negro hipster; 2004 Ray, film: You’ve come to the place where the hipsters hang their bebop hats; 2010 Michael Fitzwilliams: The patrons of the jazz scene were called “hepsters” and heroin was mostly acceptable in this venue hit it phr. to have sex (cm, gs, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: What’s happening with us, baby, it’s been a while since we hit it; 1999 Nas: Don’t get with no young bitch and hit it. She PG-13, you rated R, she not permitted; 2009 R. Kelly: We hit it in the kitchen, that night, at my home hit skins (or hit the skins) phr. to have sex (bk, gs, jg): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: And nine times out of ten, the honey he’d hit skins with, she’d be a

white girl; 1999 Ice-T: We hit skins all weekend. We didn’t even eat, we just hit em again; 2004 My Baby’s Daddy, film: Is it cool to still hit the skins during pregnancy? hit up phr. [1] to contact (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I was just about to hit you up about that thing we talked about earlier; 2007 Weapons, film: Hey, when you need something, hit me up; 2010 Beatdown, film: Dude, he hit me up like three times today [2] to graffiti: 2005 Aaron Peckham: You, we headin’ out tonight to hit up the hood; 2007 Washington City Paper: One day, my friend and I were talking, saying we’re going to hit up the White House. When I see my name, I’ll be so proud; 2013 New York Observer: Banksy Ditches Retirement to Hit Up the Hell’s Kitchen Hustler Club hit upside one’s head phr. [1] to beat, especially around the head (bk, gs, jg): 2009 Global Grind: Pitbull was hit upside his head with a beer bottle while performing at Planeta Mexico in San Antonio; 2009 Storm Front: The reporter declares that a student was hit upside his head with a gym bag; 2000 Chris Rock Show, HBO-TV program: “He’s hitting everybody upside the head!” “Stay on the line, we’re sending help!” [2] to defeat utterly: 2006 Word Press: How hard do the American people need to be hit upside their heads?; 2009 Emerging Minds: Those people had been hit upside their heads for years, just as we have been, until they adopted a different strategy; 2013 Tampa Bay Newspaper: Everyone can hit up upside our heads H.N.I.C. see Head Nigger In Charge ho’ (or ho, hoe) n. potentially offensive [1] a prostitute (bk, cm, jg): 1998 Saturday Night Live: The Best of Eddie Murphy, film: You can make big money as a ho working for

Glossary me; 2006 Waist Deep, film: I will slap a ho in here; 2010 Vanessa Place: A pimp and his ho’s are referred to as a family, with the attendant dysfunction [2] a sexually promiscuous woman (cm, gs, jg): 2002 Red and Black: If a woman puts out, she’s a ho. If she doesn’t, she’s a prude; 2002 Yale Herald: Well, let me set the record straight: she’s a hoe. Most of her time spent in the office is on her knees, and the rest? On her back; 2009 Mary Morrison: Yet if a woman, irrespective of her sexual orientation, was promiscuous, she was a ho’, no explanation needed [3] a contemptible or despicable woman (bk, gs): 2002 Shield, film: What you do is not hand it over, you stupid ho’; 2004 Salon: Why do you say she’s a ho? To me, she seems like a nice woman!; 2011 Us Magazine: No one cares what this stupid ho is doing anymore! [4] a woman (gs, jg): 2000 E-40: I bet you want that hoe to have your child; 2007 Debra Clayton: He constantly paraded his ho around town for everyone to see; he didn’t even have the decency to hide his affairs; 2009 My Yearbook: I love hanging out with my ho’s and I love meeting new people hoe see above Hog (or hog) n. a Cadillac automobile (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1997 Jonathan E. Lighter: The hustlers call them Hogs, Cadillacs; 2009 Newsweek: It’s Cadillac Escalade. 98% of the SUV drivers don’t need such a big hog; 2010 Sports Illustrated: I’ve got two Cadillacs to drive. A lot of guys work all their lives and never get to drive a Hog holla at see below holler at (or holla at) v. to contact (gs, rk): 1998 Snoop Dogg: I mean when I get lonely I’m a holler at you; 2001 Baby Boy, film: Let’s go holler

203 at these hos; 2007 David Austin: I’ll just holla at you tomorrow, and let you know homeboy n. [1] a close male friend (bk, rk): 1994 Above the Rim, film: Come on, homeboy, let’s go!; 1999 Ice-T: I’d like to send peace out to all my homeboys; 2011 Washington Post: My homeboy texted me [2] a fellow African American man (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1997 Tupac Shakur: All my homeboys and my homegirls, stay strong; 1997 Toni Morrison: It was not hard to persuade other homeboys to repeat it; 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: You’re my homeboy! [3] a male member of a criminal gang (gs, jg): 1990 Seattle Times: Rival gang members had killed a homeboy, a fellow gang member from his neighborhood; 1992 Public Enemy: I got a homeboy who is out on the block, he sells mo’ crack than they sell fish at the dock; 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: Me and my homeboys are in the same serious fucking shit now homegirl n. [1] a good female friend (jg): 1998 New York Daily News: We didn’t have to hire any actresses, those were our homegirls; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I know you remember me and my homegirl Tanya; 2009 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Another round for me and my homegirl! [2] a fellow African American woman (cm, gs): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Homeboys, homegirls, ain’t no need to be lax!; 1995 Coolio: The homegirl down the street with the green eyes and big titties is getting thicker; 2009 Malcolm X Park: They don’t seem to be involved with homegirls [3] a female member of a criminal gang (gs, jg): 1988 Colors, film: “Danny, I’m a homegirl!” “This is my barrio, remember?”; 2002 8 Mile, film: I’ll let a homegirl finish you off; 2009 News,

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MTV-TV program: I did this for my homegirl homes n. [1] a close friend (bk, jg): 1995 Heat, film: Don’t leave me like this, please, homes!; 1998 Flipmode Squad: I gotta hold it down for my homes, son; 2009 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: Don’t call me homes! [2] a man (jg): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: I’m gonna call a hard, coupla pipe-hittin’ niggers who’ll go to work on this homes here with a pair of pliers and a blow torch; 2009 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: “We need to talk!” “Sure, what’s up, homes?”; 2013 Sons of Anarchy, FXTV series: Don’t suck up to me now, homes. It’s embarrassing home slice n. [1] a close friend (rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: Hey, whassup, home slice?; 2009 Bebo: My summer days have been spent boozing, hanging, and laughing with home slices; 2010 Los Angeles Times: She will be pressing charges against her home slice [2] a fellow African American (bk, gs, jg): 1990 Mo’ Better Blues, film: You already owe me $300, home slice; 2006 Urban Dictionary: Hey, home slice, watcha doing on Friday?; 2009 Time Out New York: What up, home slices? homey (or homie) n. [1] a close friend (bk, jg, rk): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: My homies call me Smooth; 2003 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: I met with two of my homeys the other night; 2011 USA Today: You used to be my homey. Now, you act like you don’t know me [2] a fellow African American (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Washington Post: All the brothers are laughing, my homeys and friends; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Yo, homey, look where you’re throwing the ball, man; 2009 Ebony: It’s Boston, homey, what did you expect? [3] a member of a criminal gang (jg): 1993 Washington Post: This song

is dedicated to my homeys in that gangsta lean; 2001 Afroman: I see the corner where I worked with my homies in the back, LAPD searching for us, looking for some crack; 2003 Bad Boys II, film: Roberto saw these two crazy gangbanger homeys homie see above honkie see below honky (or honkie) n. very offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1986 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: We’d be traveling through Alabama or someplace, and getting run off the road by pickups full of honkies with rifles; 1987 Tom Clancy: If all you honkies were that dumb, my ancestors would have imported yours; 2002 Antwone Fisher, film: Yeah, I bet you won’t be fightin’ no more honkies on this boat hoochie (or hoochie mama) n. potentially offensive a sexually promiscuous woman (gs, jg, rk): 1993 CB4, film: I am not a girlie, a skeezer, a hoochie or a stunt. And most certainly, not a ho; 1996 2 Live Crew: She ain’t nothin but a hoochie mama, hood rat!; 2004 Against the Ropes, film: Lose tonight, and you’ll be waving bye-bye to your career, your fan club, and the free hoochie mamas that go with it hoochie mama see above hood (or ’hood) n. [1] a neighborhood (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Jay-Z: The niggaz in the hood was shook; 2009 Ebony: When he goes to speak about the hood, it’s his hood. His experience in the same bricks, on the same street; 2011 Seattle Post Intelligencer: Here are some of the local happenings in the hood [2] an inner-city ghetto (rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: Some fools got capped last night in the hood for lookin’ at someone the wrong way; 2010 News, CBS-TV program: He looks like a street thug from the hood; 2010

Glossary Philadelphia Inquirer: They think I’m just a drug dealer from the hood hoodie see hoody hoodoo n. bad luck or a person or thing that brings bad luck (cm, gs): 2002 Below, film: I’m telling you, there’s some bad hoodoo on this boat; 2010 Craw Daddy: The blueswoman learns that someone’s put a hoodoo (or a curse) on her; 2013 New York Times: An old black maidservant tells Ann that she will continue to be a “hoodoo” until the girl finds herself a husband hood rat n. potentially offensive a sexually promiscuous woman from the neighborhood (jg, rk): 1999 Ice-T: I still sell around the club, grips and bloods and hoodrats, all around me; 2004 Hair Show, film: You have to handle these little hood rats yourself; 2009 Press of Atlantic City: A hood rat is a woman known for sleeping around with various men in a neighborhood hoody (or hoodie) n. a hooded sweatshirt or top (rk): 2006 Jay-Z: I used to wear my hoody like dat; 2009 Washington Post: The man was often masked or wore a hoodie, and many of the assaults occurred in the dark; 2010 Brownsville Herald: A man in a hoodie and a UT Longhorn cap is wanted for holding up a bank at a Brownsville Walmart hoops n. the game of basketball (gs): 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Hey, Jake, wanna go shoot some hoops?; 2007 Are We Done Yet?, film: Man, you know this boy got asthma. He can’t shoot no hoops; 2009 Ebony: College hoops, particularly the tournament, provide athletic departments big bucks hooptie see below hoopty (or hooptie) n. an old and battered automobile (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2008 Marvin Lewis: I’d rather have a

205 hoopty and be happy than a Lamborghini and get no sleep, work like crazy trying to capture the American Dream; 2008 Chicago Tribune: She can’t possibly date a man who drives a rustedout hoopty!; 2008 Virginian Pilot: If you are driving a hooptie passing people on the road in newer models, don’t be jealous hot adj. sexually attractive and desirable (cm, rk): 2000 Cosmopolitan: As I waited for the train, I noticed an extremely hot guy checking me out; 2000 Hustler: I recently started dating this girl who is really hot; 2006 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: You’re doing a hot twenty-two and you’re cheating on her? Hotlanta n. Atlanta, Georgia (rk): 1996 Los Angeles Times: The city might be called Hotlanta because that is where the action is in the Deep South, but that nickname also could apply to the summer climate; 1999 Englewood Herald-Tribune: Michael has lived in Hotlanta since graduating from Georgia Tech; 2011 AVN Magazine: Fans who can’t make it to Hotlanta this week can still experience Ms. Blue at her finest by viewing her sexy music video Hound (or ’Hound) n. a bus of the Greyhound Corporation (cm, jg): 1987 Stephen King: He would get on a Hound and see how things looked down in Florida; 2011 Backpacker: Here in the Northwest, we’ve lost our bus services. I used to be able to hop on a hound at Stevens Pass or Skykomish, but they don’t stop there any more; 2010 Rail Forum: I took a Hound to Vegas, the driver was cool but the bus was creepy house v. to take something from someone, especially by force or manipulation (cm, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I can’t believe you let ‘em house you;

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2006 American Hardcore, film: Third

time they came down, they got housed. And we sent them back to the suburbs; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Dude, Jared got housed last night by those thugs house nigga see below house nigger (or house nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans an African American who acts subserviently toward a white employer, especially working in a household (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: Julius, are you calling your sister a house nigger?; 2006 Washington Post: Uncle Colin was a house nigga, did what massa Bush told him to do; 2006 Public Enemy: These house niggaz go fight in Iraq, cryin’ to their mamma now they wanna come back humping (or humpin’) adj. excellent or admirable (bk, gs, jg): 2006 Word Press: The music was loud and the party was humping!; 2010 Blogspot: The music was humpin’ too. I think they were playing ‘Booty Butt Cheeks’ or something similar; 2010 Facebook: She looks humpin’! hydro n. marijuana (rk): 1998 DJ Clue: Queen’s niggas rock ice and smoke hydro; 2005 Waiting, film: Soon as we get the hydro, we can run this city like the fuckin’ mob; 2010 Grass City: My question is, is it safe to smoke hydro? I ig (or igg) v. to ignore (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: You can’t ig me forever; 2007 David Austin: I’m not trying to igg you or anything but I gotta deal with a lot of stuff right now; 2010 My Space: You little nigga want to ig me? ill adj. [1] inferior or bad (bk): 1995 Bad Boys, film: Some major ill shit happened down at the P.D. There’s

lots of heroin and cash involved; 2011 Jay-Z and Kanye West: Whole world aiming at a nigga head, because I’m the illest motherfucker alive; 2011 Black Voices: They get on these boards and say some of the illest crap I ever heard [2] excellent or admirable (bk, jg, rk): 1998 Gang Starr: You were the illest man alive, now I’m reading your eulogy; 2009 My Space: Yo man, I appreciate that, your stuff sounds ill to me! Quality sound, great man!; 2009 McGill Party: If you know of an ill party or club event coming up, simply mail us and we’ll post it here Illadelphia n. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (jg, rk): 2004 New York Times: Dressed in a turquoise tunic that read “Illadelphia” and a matching do-rag, he was getting ready to go to work; 2007 Hip Hop DX: You wanted him to slide through Illadelphia and do a show; 2009 Body Building: I received a couple samples from Illadelphia, so I want to post up a review to show my gratitude illing (or illin’) adj. [1] inferior or bad (bk): 2005 Simpsons, Fox-TV series: Rappers stopped saying “illin” twelve years ago; 2009 Blogspot: Yo, that bitch was illin’ when she kicked me in the bidness!; 2013 Twitter: Reagan was so illin’, yo! [2] excellent or admirable (jg): 2003 Marci X, film: “You was illin’!” “I was da bomb!”; 2009 Access Hip Hop: Damn, that sounds illin!; 2010 TV Clip: The beat is so illin’ and real crazy all the way thru [3] irrational or crazy (bk, gs, jg): 1985 Krush Grove, film: “You’ve been illin’ lately!” “What you talking about? Nobody illin’. Chillin’!”; 1994 Fresh, film: Why everybody around here illin’?; 2004 Urban Dictionary: You, dat bitch was illin’ when she kicked me

Glossary ink n. cheap wine, especially red (bk, cm): 2010 U-Turn Ho: I could drink that ink!; 2010 Spaces: Geez, how can you drink that ink? Gimmie an ice-cold Corona!; 2013 Found SF: The cheapest Italian restaurants served a full dinner and a glass of red ink for 25¢ in the house adv. among us, especially in the audience (gs): 1993 Ice-T: Peace to all the MCs in the house; 2006 ATL, film: It’s gonna be a long night for some of y’all! We got the Warriors, the Preps and the Ones in the house tonight; 2010 Oprah Winfrey Show, ABC-TV program: The entire family’s in the house in the mix adv. involved (cm, jg, rk): 1995 Friday, film: I can’t believe you got me in the mix!; 2002 8 Mile, film: How can you even bring them in the mix?; 2009 Ebony: When God is in the mix, nothing goes wrong ish n. [1] excrement (gs, rk): 2008 Network 54: If you have a dog, you can bank on stepping in ish; 2011 Twitter: Someone stepped in ish; 2012 Facebook: If it smells like ish, looks like ish, then it must be ish! [2] nonsense (gs, rk): 2009 Yelp: I’ve had enough of this ish!; 2009 Twitter: You talk ish about everybody; 2011 Black Voices: They are saying this ish to support your love of white folk and defend white racism [3] something inferior or worthless (gs, jg, rk): 2009 Concrete Loops: I wouldn’t go so far as to say she sounds like ish; 2011 YouTube: Watch this ish, nigga. Fo real!; 2013 Twitter: People who smell ish on the train should be fined [4] something irritating (gs, jg, rk): 2009 Black Voices: Why are they even uploading this ish?; 2009 Bossip: I wouldn’t visit a fool either who is in jail for doing stupid ish; 2013 Young Money Entertainment: A lyin’ nigga, that’s the ish I don’t like

207 it ain’t a thang see below it ain’t a thing (or it ain’t a thang) n. it is no problem: 1998 Lil Troy: It ain’t a thing to me. You say you changed, you look the same to me; 2006 Whiz Khalifa: I’m heavy in the game it ain’t a thing to a pro;2009 Blogspot: I been spending money like it ain’t a thing it’s on phr. something is about to start (gs, rk): 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: This social experiment, it’s on!; 2005 Beanie Sigel: Once it’s on, nigga, bring the drama to ya lawn nigga; 2010 Lil Wayne: You see that coke turn to oil? It’s on, nigga, it’s on! J Jack D n. Jack Daniel’s whiskey (gs): 2009 My Space: You bring warmth to my heart like my favorite drink Jack D; 2010 Yelawolf: Still sipping on Jack D to my neck and my head starts feeling heavy; 2010 Burbler: I need some more Jack D in my flask jack move n. [1] a strange action or bizarre behavior (gs, jg): 1992 Dr. Dre: Niggaz, they will do jack moves; 2003 Cradle 2 the Grave, film: Only question is, who’s behind this jack move?; 2003 Urban Dictionary: Tom made a jack move by selling his house and moving to Bermuda [2] a theft or robbery: 1996 Don’t Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood, film: All right, give it up! It’s a jack move, fool! Just don’t shoot; 2005 Dirty, film: We’re gonna go in and make this jack move happen; 2006 Waist Deep, film: Get the fuck on the floor right now, nigga. It’s a jack move! jack up v. to beat, strike or hit (cm, gs, jg): 1993 Ice-T: I got backup to jack up punks who try to act up; 1993 Us3: One day he got caught in the act, shacked up and jacked up and taken

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downtown; 2009 My Space: They jacked him up real good jam1 n. [1] a party or gathering where musicians play improvised music, especially jazz (cm, gs): 2001 Daytona Beach News-Journal: Biggest crowd I ever played a jam for was 8500 in the O’Dome in Gainesville; 2008 New York Post: Across the street, there was this park and they used to play jams; 2012 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: Sorry to interrupt the jam [2] a dance party (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1997 Newport Daily Herald: Once a month, in place of their regular lesson, the students are invited to a jam; 1998 Public Enemy: This jam is number one; 2006 Randy Kearse: I haven’t been to a good jam in a while jam2 v. [1] to play improvised music, especially jazz (cm): 1999 New Republic: I’m bringing him to do a little jamming; 2002 David Henderson: I like to jam with other cats, but you just can’t do that over there sometimes; 2008 Ebony: Never just jamming for jam’s sake, he cared if our brothers and sisters listened, if they understood [2] to party or dance at a party (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Sydney Molare: I’ve jammed to the beat, but I can’t say I’ve really listened to all the words; 2009 Love Hurts, film: Get on the floor, boy. We’re jamming!; 2010 Sade Ferrier: The winning team grabbed their girlfriends and jammed to the beat jambox n. a large portable stereo player (bk): 2002 Fan Fiction: They don’t call it a CD player, it is called a jambox; 2005 Epinions: I had a jambox like that in the 80’s; 2011 Rock Boat: Michael was selling a homemade tape recorded on a jambox in this bathroom jamming (or jammin’) adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg): 1990 House Party, film: It was a jammin’ party; 2004 Sideways, film: Jesus, she’s jammin’!

And she’s obviously into you; 2009 Ad Land: The song was jammin’ jammy n. a gun, especially a handgun or pistol (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Fear of a Black Hat, film: This is an Uzi. This is a good jammy for beginners; 1993 Run-D.M.C.: I’mma pull my jammy out and I’mma murder the man; 1996 Jay-Z: Make sure your jammy is full jazz v. [1] to have sex with (bk, gs, jg): 1991 James David Horan: There was this jerk snorin’ like a buzzsaw alongside of me and I’m tryin’ to jazz his wife!; 1991 Raphael Lafferty: He had just come home a few minutes late and had found two other fellows jazzing his wife Regina; 2013 XXX Black Clips: Jayden Simone jazzes her mamma’s admirer [2] (jazz up) to enliven or make more exciting and stimulating (bk, gs): 1999 Magnolia, film: I get so fucking jazzed at these seminars; 2004 Strategic Finance: Being around too many people jazzed her emotions; 2010 Chicago Daily Herald: We’re going to try and jazz it up jazz up see above jazzy adj. [1] played in a jazz way: 1994 New York Times: They are not so jazzy, more in a ragtime style; 2007 Washington Post: The score is very jazzy at times, but it’s also very choral and has a big Broadway sound; 2008 Ebony: Check out the Turntable as we spin the sounds of April Hill, the jazzy and soulful vocalist who is breathing new life into the soul music scene [2] enlivening or exciting and stimulating (gs): 1993 Snoop Dogg: I just love your jazzy ways, Doggy Dogg, your love is here to stay; 2006 Waist Deep, film: We got a little event coming up. Wanna make sure she’s jazzy; 2008 New York Times: One entire wall has been covered with a very jazzy wallpaper he designed

Glossary jects (or ’jects) n. housing projects for the poor (jg): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: They dropped the body where we’d see it. To send the message to the jects; 2009 Saigon: Respect to all the kids still trapped in the jects; 2010 Hood Up: Any of you niggas livin in the jects? jelly roll n. potentially offensive [1] the vulva (bk, cm, jg): 2009 Blues Matters: The woman brags of her prowess as a lover by claiming that her jelly roll is worth lots of dough and is fresh every day; 2009 Xroles: Her jelly roll can twist your soul, her eyes are big and brown; 2013 Japan Tube XXX: Cute Jap whore gets her jelly roll banged [2] sex or the sex act (bk, jg): 1996 Dallas Observer: It’s easy to have fun when you get to sing lyrics like, “I feel like a bitch ’cause I’ve got an itch,” and “No more jelly roll until you get control”; 2000 Thomas Wolfe: “If you want jelly roll, you’ve come to the right place. I ain’t kidding you.” “With niggers? Are niggers good?” “There ain’t nothing better”; 2009 Black 47: I really need some jelly roll Jeri curl see Jheri curl jet (or jet off) v. to leave (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1999 Ice-T: Don’t forget it, grab the blow, then jet before that ho’ hit the door!; 2001 Swordfish, film: I gotta jet. Thanks for the coffee; 2005 Surface, NBC-TV series: “I gotta jet!” “You should definitely come over sometime” jet off see above j-hat see jimmy hat Jheri curl (or Jeri curl) n. partially straightened kinky hair (bk, gs): 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “I like your hair!” “It’s called the Jheri curl”; 2006 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: Afro died out and was replaced by the Jheri curl, a modern, curlier version of the conk; 2009 Philadelphia Inquirer:

209 The Jheri curl became a staple hairstyle in African American communities jigga see below jigger (or jigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans [1] a fellow African American (gs, jg): 2005 Newgrounds: Those jiggas from the club are gangstas. Better watch your back; 2013 Twitter: So many opinions by so many jiggaz; 2013 Black Planet: What’s up my jiggas from the D? [2] an African American friend: 2013 Urban Dictionary: Yo, wassup, my jigga?; 2013 Body Building: Feeling lonely, where my jiggers at?; 2012 Facebook: Shout out to all my jiggaz! jiggy adj. excellent or admirable (gs, rk): 1999 Bowfinger, film: It’s all good, it’s jiggy, baby; 2008 Free Republic: It sounds jiggy to me; 2009 My Space: You still alive? Hope things are looking jiggy on your side of life Jim Browski (or jimbrowski) n. the penis (gs, jg, rk): 2008 Nah Right: You ever did so much coke and you had the flyest broad with you ever, and your Jim Browski wouldn’t respond?; 2009 Access Atlanta: A mixed signal is when you saying no but you got your hand on my Jim Browski; 2010 Let’s Go Kings: DD is so fat, he has to strategically place mirrors just to find his Jim Browski jim hat see jimmy hat jimmy n. the penis (gs, rk): 1991 New Jack City, film: I had my jimmy waxed every day last week; 1997 Booty Call, film: “Give us your best condoms.” “Fine, fine. Lambskin. Very sensitive. Leaves some feeling for your jimmy”; 2003 Cheaper by the Dozen, film: Sounds like someone got his jimmy whipped jimmy hat (or jim hat, jimhat, j-hat) n. a condom (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Big Daddy Kane: I practise safe sex,

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with girls I lay next, in other words, the j-hat’s on the head; 1998 Can’t Hardly Wait, film: Yo, hold up! Do I put on a jimmy hat now?; 2008 Extreme Movie, film: Hold on a sec, babe. Let me grab my jimmy hat jive1 (or jive talk) n. [1] deceptive or misleading talk (cm, gs, jg): 1999 Time: The coverage was all about diversion, all about bright lights and showtime and deflection. It’s all about jive; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: It’s nothing but a bunch of jive and junk; 2008 American Thinker: Who else believes his highfalutin jive talk? [2] slang, especially African American coined by jazz musicians (jg): 1980 Airplane, film: Stewardess, I speak jive; 1989 Meet the Feebles, film: I’m hip to your jive, but it don’t sound hip to me; 2001 Royal Tenenbaums, film: I’ll talk some jive like you’ve never heard jive2 v. [1] (or jive-talk) to deceive or mislead: 2004 Ray, film: “I’d like to discuss your future.” “Don’t jive me now. I ain’t for sale”; 2008 Semi-Pro, film: I’m not jivin’ you. I’ve never jived you my whole life; 2009 Free Republic: Stupid people always seem to be jivetalked, hoodwinked and bamboozled by the flowery speeches [2] (or jivetalk) to use slang, especially African American coined by jazz musicians (jg): 2010 Xbox 360 Achievements: Wish I knew how to jive like in “Airplane”; 2013 Richard Quarantello: This guy was now jive talking me like a bro; I didn’t understand half of what he was saying; 2013 Exclaim: I was jive talking and I was just hip [3] to joke or tease (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1983 Streamers, film: I’m just jiving, you know. Entertaining my own self; 2008 Democratic Underground: I’m just jiving!; 2011 Modern Drummer: He was just jiving with us

jive3 adj. deceptive or misleading (gs, jg): 1997 Blackout, film: That’s real. This here is jive; 2001 Joe Dirt, film: “Everything I said is true!” “No, Brandy is jive. I want to ask her why she was playing games with you”; 2008 Washington Post: For some reason, I’m not too surprised. I kind of thought that Gibbs might be a jive dude jive artist see below jive-ass1 n. [1] (or jive artist) a deceptive or misleading person (jg): 1993 Miami Herald: For some, Coleman was a charlatan, a jive artist; 2011 Facebook: Don’t listen to these jive-asses tryin to pull you down; 2013 Memphis Flyer: Rufus was a jive ass who’d sell his mother for a buck [2] deceptive or misleading talk (bk): 1991 Five Heartbeats, film: I can see through your jiveass like glass, nigga; 1993 Phoenix New Times: Wolf is the king of jiveass; 2009 Tank Net: You take your jiveass and get the hell outta here before I gets my fo-fo and bust your cap jive-ass2 adj. deceptive or misleading (bk, cm, jg): 1993 Bound By Honor, film: That old man was no jive-ass punk; 2008 Paste Magazine: Get your jive-ass ghetto MF tush up on stage, and sing!; 2009 Elmore Leonard: That’s where you learn the expressions, among the bad boys, the jiveass gangbangers showing off jive talk see jive1, jive2 jock v. to like or admire (jg, rk): 1999 Snoop Dogg: I don’t jock no chick; 2009 Notorious, film: Everyone was jocking him ’cause he never lost a battle; 2009 That Grapejuice: First she was jocking Gaga, now she’s going after Madge jodie, Jodie see below jody (or Jody, jodie, Jodie) n. a man having an affair with someone’s wife or girlfriend, especially someone who is in jail or went off to war (bk, cm,

Glossary gs, rk): 2001 Baby Boy, film: Jody, are you messin’ with my date?; 2007 Army Wives, film: A jody is a bad guy who hooks up with all the mommies; 2009 Skinheads: I don’t mess with broads that are in relationships. I am not a goddamn jody jone v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments about the opponent’s mother in a gamelike manner (bk, jg, rk): 2000 James Haskins: There are many different terms for playing the dozens, including dissing, joning, ribbing, signifying and sounding; 2006 Randy Kearse: I didn’t come here for ya friends to be jonin’ me; 2009 YouTube: He don’t know how to jone these niggas jones1 n. [1] a drug habit (cm, gs): 1998 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: His jones devours his life; 2006 San Francisco Weekly: The narc succumbs to his jones and eventually loses everything; 2009 San Francisco Chronicle: I also know that there’s not a law in the world that can keep a junkie from his jones [2] an intense craving or desire (cm, gs): 2005 Chicago Tribune: If you didn’t know any better, you’d swear that Tressel has a jones for drama; 2006 Kansas City Star: Cookbook author Marlena Spieler has a jones for cheese; 2010 New York Times: She realizes that Liev Schreiber has a jones for her jones2 v. [1] to have a drug habit: 2000 Fort Worth Star-Telegram: “I had been jonesing all day,” he said, using a slang term to describe a craving for drugs; 2009 House, M.D., Fox-TV series: He was jonesing for snow white; 2010 New York Times: Just wander down to Vancouver’s seedy Downtown Eastside neighborhood where you’ll find homeless people, prostitutes and addicts jonesing for illegal drugs [2] to crave or desire

211 intensely (rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: She’s been jonesin’ for him for months; 2010 Cleveland Plain Dealer: She sometimes finds herself jonesing for high-end designer duds; 2013 Los Angeles Times: You’re jonesing for an ice cream but can’t get away from the office Jordans n. any of several brands of Nike gym shoes (gs): 2011 Daily of the University of Washington: We got one guy wearing Jordans all the time; 2011 Wikipedia: No matter the occasion, he was always seen in his Jordans; 2011 Nike Talk: Even if I don’t ball in my Jordans, I would like the comfort they were made for juice1 n. influence or power (bk, gs, rk): 1992 Juice, film: He got more juice than everybody else on the street; 2004 Hair Show, film: Let me see what kind of juice you got!; 2008 National Public Radio: He said your administration has no juice anymore among Republicans on Capitol Hill juice2 v. to trick someone out of something (gs, rk): 2000 New York Times: He was saying that she was trying to juice him for the money; 2001 Los Angeles Times: Adams was trying to juice him for money; 2006 Randy Kearse: She been juicin’ dude for years juke1 n. [1] (or jukebox) a coin-operated record player in a bar (bk, cm): 2002 Kerry Segrave: It easily became the top pick on the juke and before the end of the month it became popular on the radio; 2010 San Jose Mercury News: It played on big-city jukeboxes across America in 1959; 2011 Dallas Observer: “Stairway to Heaven” played on the juke [2] liquor (bk): 1999 New York Post: He zigged and he zagged and he had too much juke; 2005 Narkive: You are willing to risk imprisonment for another bottle of juke?; 2004

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St. Petersburg Times: We drink juke out of glasses, not boxes juke2 (or juke and jive) v. [1] to dance in a boisterous fashion (bk, cm, jg): 1997 Poughkeepsie Journal: He was juking and jiving during Vassar Brothers Medical Center’s Halloween party; 2012 South Florida Sun-Sentinel: As is his habit, he juked to the music, gesturing extravagantly; 2013 Lipstick Alley: I can’t tell you how many black people were juking and jiving to his latest album [2] to deceive or mislead: 2009 Michigan City News Dispatch: He taught me how to juke a lot of people; 2009 Charleston Gazette: In high school I just outran everybody or juked them; 2010 Black Voices: They want to juke a person into thinking they are honorable men juke and jive see juke2 jukebox see juke1 juke house n. [1] a brothel (cm): 1994 Clarence Major: Jukehouse [is] a whorehouse; 1996 Los Angeles Times: All the forms of that global cultural juggernaut rock ’n roll were born in black juke houses in the South or in the ghettos of factory cities in the North; 2010 Bleep: He was unaware “juke house” means a brothel [2] a bar with a coin-operated record player, especially cheap: 1989 New York Times: The juke house or juke joint was just about any place the music was regularly performed; 2009 Taffi Stevens: He used to play in the juke houses down the South (a name for what they called clubs in the North); 2013 Southern Folklore: He played local juke house and parties throughout the ’30s and ‘40s juke joint n. a bar with a coin-operated record player, especially cheap: 1998 James Ellroy: A black-white stick-up gang had been clouting markets and juke joints on West Adams; 2010 Chico

Enterprise Record: The club was one of several juke joints in Southside where African Americans went on Saturday; 2010 New York Times: “Last of the Mississippi Jukes” is a documentary about blues and juke joints directed by Robert Mugge jumbo1 adj. very big: 1999 Chicago SunTimes: If you buy a jumbo SUV, you’ll pay a little more than that; 2004 New York Times: It’s like they have moved into a jumbo apartment; 2010 San Diego Union Tribune: I’ve heard it’s difficult to refinance if you have a jumbo loan jumbo2 n. the penis, especially if large: 2000 Paul Beatty: Uh-huh, you stepped on my jumbo!; 2011 Black Booty Bitch: She gets on her knees and starts to swallow his jumbo down her throat; 2013 iTimes: She acts surprised seeing his jumbo jump bad phr. to become hostile, menacing, or aggressive (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: We went there all alone, jumping bad; 2003 Esham: If he tryin jump bad, I’m a fade him; 2008 Robert Freedman: The last dude who jumped bad with me was the one who ended up crying like a little girl jump salty phr. to get irritated, angry or hostile, especially suddenly (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2005 Word Press: They jump salty with each other; 2010 Ralph Ellison: First they jump salty with the truth, and then they start yelling about justice; 2010 Psychology Today: I’ve never had any use of it, and am liable to jump salty at any time junebug n. a boy who is named after his father (cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Junebug [is] a variant of “Junior Boy,” nickname for one who is named after his father; 1997 Jackie Brown, film: Yo, junebug! What’s up?; 2000 Bamboozled, film: “Come

Glossary on, junebug!” “My father, I’m not mad at him” Juneteenth n. June 19, the day when African Americans celebrate emancipation from enslavement (cm, gs): 2001 New York Times: The date, known as Juneteenth, is a day of reflection as well as celebration; 2001 Los Angeles Times: For many blacks, Juneteenth is the real Independence Day; 2011 Chicago Tribune: Juneteenth is the oldest known celebration commemorating the end of U.S. slavery jungle fever n. an obssessive romantic or sexual interest between an African American person and a white person (gs, jg): 1992 Armistead Maupin: I’d slept with him out of affection and respect, not out of jungle fever; 1993 USA Today: He’s a jungle fever homosexual, he only likes white guys; 2011 Vanderbilt Orbis: Some students in interracial relationships will still have to deal with epithets like “yellow fever” or “jungle fever” junk in the trunk n. huge buttocks (jg): 2006 Hard Luck, film: Brothers like some genuine junk in the trunk; 2007 This Christmas, film: White girls ain’t got junk in the trunk; 2009 Globe and Mail: A little junk in the trunk can be a good thing K keep it real phr. [1] to be oneself and avoid pretending (gs, rk): 2003 Wire, HBO-TV series: “Keep it real, yo!” “Whatever!”;2006 American Dreamz, film: That’s my dawg right there! Keep it real, man!; 2008 Tricia Rose: So, sometimes, keeping it real means rejecting all the bling-bling [2] to stick to one’s roots (gs, rk): 1998 He Got Game, film: Boy, keep it real. Do what a black man gotta do; 1998 Slam, film: “Peace, black!” “Keep it real, man!”;

213 2003 Malibu’s Most Wanted, film:

Keep it real and be proud of who you are! keep on keeping on (or keep on keepin’ on) phr. to continue striving to reach a goal despite adversity (cm, gs, jg): 2010 Us Magazine: Ignore the losers and keep on keepin’ on!; 2010 National Post: We’re down to as thin a situation as I’ve ever experienced in my years in football, but you just have to keep on keeping on; 2010 Charleston Post Courier: It’s about improvement and focusing on mistakes and keep on keeping on kick v. to inform or provide information (gs): 1992 Kansas City Star: Magic and I have gathered some of our partners to kick some knowledge to the kids; 2005 Modesto Bee: It is a way to inexpensively kick information to a more accurate level; 2012 Facebook: They were cited for failing to kick info about the operation kick a rhyme phr. to create rap lyrics and rhymes: 1993 Us3: I know that the way I kick a rhyme some will call me a poet; 2009 News, MTV-TV program: Carter playfully kicked a rhyme that showed her own musical skills; 2010 DJ BoBo: It’s party time, that’s why I’m here kicking a rhyme kick back v. [1] to be calm (bk, gs): 1999 Ice-T: Pop the Remy and kick back!; 2008 Ebony: I kick back and listen to music and get inspired from that; 2010 Pontiac Daily Ledger: Kick back and take it easy! [2] to have a good time (cm, gs): 1995 Bad Boys, film: Rent a movie. Something we can kick back to; 2009 U-Stream: It’s a wonderful place to kick back; 2010 Forbes: The walkway offers a welcome diversion, a place to kick back and relax kick ballistics see kick the ballistics kicking (or kickin’) adj. excellent or admirable (bk, gs, rk): 2005

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Bradenton Herald: This all-purpose sauce tastes great on barbecued chicken or brisket but it’s really kickin’ with ribs; 2009 Ear Sucker: The bass on this thing is really kickin’ and it provides some awesome sound quality; 2011 Hop, film: It was great. Really kicking! kick it phr. [1] to talk to or with (gs, jg, rk): 1997 Trojan War, film: Let’s kick it, homey. So where do you guys go to school?; 1998 He Got Game, film: I don’t think they heard you, Stephen. Kick it to ’em again one more time; 2008 Ebony: We used to kick it a lot with this couple [2] to spend time, especially to waste time doing nothing (bk): 2005 Beauty Shop, film: Some people just feel comfortable kickin’ it with people they have somethin’ in common with; 2011 Soul Surfer, film: You can always come and kick it with us, we don’t have to wait for the action; 2013 Twitter: I’d rather kick it by myself than have a whole crew of bullshitters kick it with someone phr. to be sexually involved with someone, especially to have an affair (gs, jg, rk): 2006 ATL, film: I don’t wanna see you, talk with you, kick with you; 2006 Randy Kearse: How long y’all been kickin’ it with each other?; 2007 Afro Samurai, film: I’m thinking, shit, I’m even gonna find me a hottie to go kick it with kick knowledge see kick the knowledge kicks n. [1] a good time or pleasure (cm, rk): 2009 Washington Post: They’ve apparently done this before, just for kicks; 2010 News, Fox-TV program: I’m not just some asshole who’s here to get his kicks telling you what to do; 2010 New York Times: Sharon is a tease, and the only way she can get her kicks is to play men like suckers [2] shoes, especially athletic shoes (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1990 House Party,

film: I’d help you, man, but I got my new kicks on; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Can I get some new kicks?; 2005 Perfect Man, film: “How much your kicks cost you?” “I paid $50 for mine” kick science see kick the science kick the ballistics (or kick ballistics) phr. to talk, especially giving valuable information (gs, jg, rk): 1992 Washington Post: Ice Cube kicked the ballistics for an hour with his deejay Sir Jinx and two other rappers; 1993 Us3: Sucker niggas don’t know that I can kick the mad ballistics plus I’m wreckin’ every show; 1996 Los Angeles Sentinel: Before we kick the ballistics, first a few ground rules kick the knowledge (or kick knowledge) phr. to give valuable information (gs, rk): 1993 Menace II Society, film: You tryin’ to kick some knowledge?; 2009 News, MTV-TV program: A fan wanted to know and Kellan Lutz kicked the knowledge; 2012 YouTube: He kicks knowledge on the current state of hip hop kick the science (or kick science) phr. to give valuable information (gs, rk): 2007 Austin Chronicle: We’ll let news editor Michael King kick the science; 2008 Ebony: There is a way to drop the knowledge and kick the science without offending anyone and still keeping it funny and right on point; 2008 Final Call: The rap race will be lost without a trace or a clue, but what to do? Stop the violence and kick the science! kick to the curb phr. to reject (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2010 Deseret News: Often when they get in trouble or seriously hurt, they are kicked to the curb, and someone replaces them; 2010 Washington Post: President Obama wants to kick to the curb a lot of tax breaks for the nation’s wealthiest families; 2011 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Kick

Glossary him to the curb with a smile on your face! King Kong n. cheap and strong liquor (bk, jg): 2005 Straight Dope: My hands are shaky and I ain’t feelin’ well from drinkin’ King Kong and cheap muscatel; 2010 City of Recovery: We’ve been drinking King Kong, beer, and even whiskey; 2013 Dazed Digital: You wake up in the morning and the world is going round, high from drinking King Kong, and your troubles won’t come down kinks n. extremely tight curls of natural, unstraightened African American hair (gs): 2007 Blogspot: We don’t want Jill’s beautiful kinks to be permanently straight; 2009 Loop: They never had kinks or a fro, but straight, relaxed hair or perfectly tempered curls; 2010 Washington Post: I combed her hair hard, I rushed through her kinks too quickly knock v. [1] to criticize (cm, gs, rk): 2004 New York Newsday: He did what’s right for him, for the right motives. Not one reason to knock him for that; 2005 Box Office Prophets: You knocked him for his relatively soulless performance in “Attack of the Clones,” but Hayden proves that he can be a respected actor in “Shattered Glass”; 2010 Sporting Life: He knocked me for not shooting, and at the end of the day, I took a wrong option [2] to give (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Can you knock a dime on me till payday?; 1995 Clueless, film: Knock me a little kiss. See you!; 2007 Flickr: Knock us a kiss, darlin’! knock boots phr. to have sex (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1994 Chicago Sun-Times: They just want to knock boots and fatherhood is not the ultimate goal; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Y’all together? Y’all knocking boots?; 2008 Houston Chronicle: So theoretically, you just

215 stop all forms of birth control and continue to knock boots and, boom, you are pregnant! Kong n. cheap and strong liquor (bk, cm, jg): 2009 Mirrevenge: You’ve been drinkin’ Kong!; 2009 View More Pics: That’s what you get for drinking Kong!; 2013 Gamespot: All that is happening is Max drinking Kong and talking about how terrible his life is L L n. a life sentence without the possibility of parole (rk): 2005 Prison Talk: The reality of my “special” situation with my man doing an “L” hits me the hardest at that time; 2006 Randy Kearse: Dude’s lookin’ at an L this time around; 2008 Feed Fury: If you want to know what it’s like to be young, black, gangsta and serving an L (life sentence), you have to check out this Lac (or ’Lac) n. a Cadillac automobile (jg, rk): 2001 South Park Mexican: I used to drive a Lac sipping gin and juice; 2009 YouTube: You wanna be with a nigga who be drivin’ a Lac; 2009 Cadillac Forums: I drive a Lac! That’s what matters! lace v. to shoot (rk): 2003 Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film: You trying to get laced, Al?; 2007 Army of Pharaohs: My whole team got laced; 2013 Twitter: A nigga got laced and is going to the hospital laid-back adj. calm or relaxed (cm, rk): 2007 Ebony: The process is generally fast and security is very laid-back, very Canadian; 2009 New York Times: The guide combined the laid-back attitude of a surfer with the taxonomic command of an evolutionary biologist; 2010 Tampa Bay Newspaper: Gulfport is a very laid back community and the residents like it that way

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Lambo n. a Lamborghini automobile (jg, rk): 2007 Popular Science: The thought of driving a Lambo was just too tantalizing; 2008 Ventura County Star: I have never seen a woman drive a Lambo; 2010 Robert Sanchez: But really, who actually cares about a Lambo’s practicality? lame (or lame-ass) adj. [1] inferior, bad or ineffectual (rk): 2002 Jay-Z: I got lame bitches tryin to fuck with my case; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: If you ain’t feelin’ what I’m spittin’, you are lame to the game; 2011 Brainerd Daily Dispatch: I used a pretty lame excuse [2] old-fashioned and overly conservative or conventional (cm, gs): 2000 Source: He’s no longer who I thought he was: lame, sell-out, bullshit, fake are some adjectives that come to mind; 2008 Ebony: It’s a lame song but catchy; 2010 People: Your life is probably lame and that’s why you are so negative and mean spirited lame-ass see above lamp v. [1] to have a good time (gs, rk): 1993 Us3: Today I’m cold chillin’ right around my way, I’m lampin’ with my girl; 1999 Ice-T: I’d rather lamp in my crib; 2011 Post Mortem America 2021, film: I was just lampin’ in the crib with my boys [2] to wait patiently (jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I was in here lampin’ ’til y’all came; 2009 XXL Magazine: Dude has been lampin for years!; 2011 Forum: I got tired of lamping lard-ass adj. obese: 2008 Afrocentric: I was expecting to see some big lardass bitch; 2010 Spoof: It looked a tiny amount compared to all the lard-ass Americans; 2013 Tumblr: Why am I such a lazy lard-ass bitch? large (or large and in charge) adj. successful and living well (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1996 Martin, Fox-TV series: I used to be large, I had the number one radio show in the world; 2010 South Florida

Sun-Sentinel: Chad went from being large and in charge to a guy who looked flustered and confused; 2010 Miami Herald: The pictures make him look large and in charge large and in charge see above lay a trip v. to criticize or accuse someone of something (bk): 1999 ’60’s, film: You tryin’ to lay a trip on somebody? You picked the wrong man; 2005 Lawrence Online: You’re gorgeous, and you don’t bitch or try to lay a trip on me; 2011 Babylon: Don’t lay a trip on me about low grades! lay back v. to relax (cm, jg): 2002 Jay-Z: We lay back, blowin ganja; 2009 ESPN: I’m different from another person who want to lay back and do nothing for rest of the life; 2011 Red and Black: Even though the trio said it likes to lay back, they’ve been working on some serious music making lay pipe phr. potentially offensive to have sex (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Grumpy Old Men, film: “I’ve laid more pipe in this town than Wabash Plumbing!” “You’re going to go after her?”; 2004 Ray, film: You keep laying that pipe with Marlene and she’ll make us all rich; 2010 Hip Hop DX: Did Tip lay pipe to your bitch or something? lazy-ass adj. very lazy (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Ray, film: These are some lazy-ass bastards, so you gotta make sure they don’t slough off; 2008 Wired News: They are completely lazy-ass motherfuckers who cut corners at very opportunity; 2009 News, CBS-TV program: The carriers and clerks are very hard working people but the lazy-ass managers take all the credit and none of the blame leave someone hanging (or leave someone hangin’) phr. [1] to ignore a hand extended for a handshake or hand slapping in greeting or congratulation (gs, jg, rk): 2007 NBA: You’d better not

Glossary leave him hanging; 2010 YouTube: Joe wanted to give me a high-five and I totally left him hangin’; 2010 Twitter: High five! Ah, left me hangin’! [2] to ignore or disrespect: 2009 Indianapolis Star: That wasn’t the only time he left him hanging; 2009 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: You do not leave a brother hanging!; 2010 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Are you gonna leave me hangin’? Left Coast n. West Coast: 2003 Stuck On You, film: You know, it’s his first time on the Left Coast; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Arnie must feel very alone on the Left Coast; 2011 Black Voices: Greetings, big bro on the Left Coast! legal adj. meeting the statutory age limit required to legally consent to sex (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: You don’t look legal to me, let me see some ID; 2007 Shield, FX-TV series: “Hey, looks like Moses finally made it to the land of milk and underage honey!” “She legal, and all kind of willin’!”; 2010 McStories: The bitch was legal, she had a tight pussy and she clearly wanted it from him lemon n. potentially offensive a light-skinned sexually attractive African American woman (bk, cm, jg): 2008 Blogspot: I have later learned that the skank that wishes she was a lemon is now dead; 2009 Yahoo Answers: Luckily I found out that she was a lemon; 2009 Tom Dalzell: Lemon [is] a light-skinned black person let it all hang out phr. [1] to be free and unrestrained (bk, cm, jg): 2010 News, CNN-TV program: I love people who let it all hang out and are not afraid to do so; 2011 News, ABC-TV program: When we’re with the guys we just let it all hang out; 2011 Aspen Daily News: We have normal, conservative, regular jobs, but sometimes we just have

217 to let it all hang out [2] to talk frankly and candidly (bk, cm): 2010 TV Squad: The 61-year-old star talked about making the decision to let it all hang out in the book; 2010 Hollywood Reporter: Lerner is an anomaly who isn’t afraid to let it all hang out; 2013 Miami New Times: He really let it all hang out in his autobiography Lex n. a Lexus automobile (jg, rk): 2002 Ali G Indahouse, film: Time to have sex, jump in my Lex!; 2003 Andre 3000: My nigga had a Lex; 2010 Black Planet: I may or may not be what you expect, but by the time I turn eighteen I plan to be driving a Lex lifted adj. [1] drunk (gs): 2009 Twitter: He got lifted off the Henney; 2010 University of Mississippi student: The motherfucker was lifted and could barely walk; 2010 Posting and Toasting: The guy was totally lifted [2] under the influence of a drug (gs, rk): 2002 Urban Dictionary: School’s out! C’mon, let’s go get lifted!; 2006 Randy Kearse: Yo, they got madd lifted on his birthday; 2009 Game Faqs: Yesterday me and my friends made a bong and got totally lifted like a mojo phr. extremely or totally (cm, jg): 1989 Pamela Munro: He was scoring like a mojo; 1998 Do or Die: The fo-fo blew the mutherfuckin’ head like a mojo; 2005 Home Recording: This seems to be working like a mojo like motherfucker (or like mothafucka, like muthafucka) phr. very offensive extremely or totally (jg, rk): 2009 My Space: It started raining like motherfucker; 2009 Prince: Damn, that bitch’s fine like muthafucka!; 2012 Twitter: I breakdance like motherfucker like stank on shit phr. potentially offensive clinging to or following as closely as possible: 2006 Black Snake Moan, film: That gal be on your

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dick like stank on shit; 2011 Antonio Styles: Immigration was on my ass like stank on shit; 2011 Democratic Underground: I’d be all over that like stank on shit like white on rice phr. clinging to or following as closely as possible (gs, jg): 1980 Tina Turner and Kurt Loder: You’re the finest girl I ever saw in my life, I want to stick to you like white on rice; 2008 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: From now on, I want you like white on rice; 2010 News, CBS-TV program: They’re going to be all over you like white on rice because you can’t afford to say “no” listen up v. to pay attention and listen carefully (bk, gs): 1990 Rookie, film: Hey, listen up! I need two volunteers; 2010 New York Post: Listen up, haters and ignorant people, you have no idea what is going on in that man’s head; 2011 News, Fox-TV program: Guys, listen up. A new study says it is actually healthy to stare at a woman’s breasts living large (or livin’ large) phr. successful and living well (cm, gs, rk): 1999 Dr. Dre: I’m livin’ large like a fat bitch; 2000 Ebony: Why are so many sisters living large?; 2005 Young Jeezy: I’m livin’ large, I got a million worth of cars up in the garage loc1 (or lock, lok) n. [1] a close friend (jg, rk): 1999 South Central Cartel: I’m your dog, you my loc, and that’s forever, sho’; 2013 Phear: Paulie is my homie and he’s out on bail. It’s good to see my best loc walkin’ out; 2013 Twitter: How you doin, loc? [2] a fellow African American (jg, rk): 1998 King Tee: Yo, loc, hear the beat I’m displayin?; 2010 Larry Hill: “Who’s that loc?” “This is ol girl you thought I couldn’t knock, fool”; 2013 Black Planet: Keep on doin what you doin loc, fuck all these hoodrat

hoes cuz you know we both done seen ‘m all [3] a member of a criminal gang (jg): 2000 Nefarious: You sayin you a loc but never gang-banged, you ain’t no muthafuckin mobsta; 2011 Z-Ro: I’m a loc and my loc niggaz need me; 2013 Hood Up: A lot of fake crip niggas think they a loc loc2 (or lock, lok) adj. insane, irrational or mentally unbalanced (gs, jg): 2001 Tha Dogg Pound: Do I give a fuck? Hell, no. I’m a loc nigga; 2002 Urban Dictionary: I wouldn’t talk to that bitch, she’s so loc; 2013 iPhoneogram: I know he a loc nigga, I was just expecting it when I downloaded it loc’d out (or locked out, loked out) adj. insane, irrational or mentally unbalanced (jg, rk): 1995 Crips: Baby Gangsta Bone is a loc’d out young nigga; 2009 Rumors on the Internet: His first wife gets totally loc’d out when these rumors are aired; 2013 University of California student: The bitch looked pretty loc’d out lock see loc1, loc2 locked out see loc’d out locs (or lokes) n. sunglasses (gs, jg): 2006 Urban Dictionary: I was chillin on the bloc wearin my locs; 2008 Brown Pride: He put on his locs and left; 2012 Word Press: He had locs on, he had the clothing locks (or ’locks) n. a hairstyle of loose thick braids, created by growing hair without combing it for a long time (gs, jg): 2009 Wahida Clark: She was wearing a silk burgundy pantsuit and her locks were wrapped with a burgundy scarf; 2013 YouTube: How lovely are my locks, you ask; 2013 Rastafarianism Info: She stated that it was a natural hair style and that she liked her locks lok see loc1, loc2 loked out see loc’d out lokes see locs

Glossary lousy-ass adj. very inferior or bad (cm, gs, jg): 2006 Village Voice: Another lousy-ass flop of a Janet Jackson record!; 2010 Topix: You’re doing a lousy-ass job; 2013 New York Post: I think he’s doing a lousy-ass job love n. respect or appreciation (gs): 1994 U.N.L.V.: I walk in the club givin’ dap to my boys because I got much love; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: You better show me some love for this one, man; 2010 XXL Magazine: He’s seen all aspects of hip hop and has never gotten the love he deserves love bone n. potentially offensive the penis (gs, jg): 2003 Urban Dictionary: She really likes my love bone; 2012 Twicsy: Dan has a big love bone; 2013 Mommy Tube: He can’t wait to stick his love bone in her pussy love muscle n. potentially offensive the penis (rk): 2007 News, CNN-TV program: That Bobbitt dame took a sling blade to her husband’s love muscle, did she not?; 2009 Ninja Dude: I would bend Amanda over, lick her fish hole, then pound that sweet love muscle; 2010 Varsity Online: The damage to his manhood did thus continue until his love muscle lost a sinew low five n. shaking hands with someone or slapping someone’s hand held low, in greeting or congratulation (gs, jg): 1999 Daytona Beach News-Journal: He turned toward Stack and gave him a low five with his left hand; 2001 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: Give yourselves the old low five!; 2008 San Francisco Chronicle: When they passed each other along the ropes at the next hole, Woods offered a low-five low-five v. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand held low, in greeting or congratulation (jg): 2005 USA Today: The two stars, who weren’t on speaking terms in the

219 preseason, low-fived each other and went to the sideline smiling; 2009 Tumblr: Somewhere around this time, Jennifer makes it a personal mission to low-five everyone in sight; 2009 Creston News Advertiser: They low-fived and smiled wide low-life adj. unpleasant, contemptible or despicable (gs, jg): 1989 Willie Dee: Your gal’ll find another nigga, cause the low-life bitch ain’t nothin but a gold-digger; 1990 Poison Clan: That’s all she’s worth to me, the low-life whore; 1991 My Own Private Idaho, film: She met that guy from Reno, that low-life, gamblin’ cowboy fuck M mac see mack1, mack2 mac daddy see below mack1 (or mac, mack daddy) n. [1] a pimp (cm, gs, jg): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Who you calling wannabe mack daddy?; 2006 Cecil Brown: You would see black gals and white gals coming in the club to meet their macks; 2008 CSI: NY, CBS-TV series: Danny tells her mack was trying to protect her from it; [2] a seducer or womanizer, especially if very skillful (gs, jg, rk): 2001 San Antonio Express-News: Being a mack daddy in his late 50s and becoming an actual daddy in the process, he’s brought this upon himself; 2008 North Adams Transcript: If you are good with the opposite sex you are a mack daddy; 2009 Ebony: He’s a long-legged mack daddy [3] an influential man (jg): 1995 Friday, film: He thinks he’s a mack; 2001 King of the Hill, Fox-TV series: I am the mack daddy of Heimlich county. You get the hell of my hood!; 2007 Sound Click: I’m a mack when it comes to rap mack2 (or mac) v. [1] to be a pimp (cm, gs): 2001 Too Short: I been macking

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hard since eighty-eight; 2002 MNMsta: I been macking hoes since day one; 2005 San Francisco Chronicle: Being a mack isn’t easy. It takes discipline, dedication, focus. All those things one might apply toward a career if one weren’t too busy macking [2] to be a seducer or womanizer, especially if very skillful (rk): 2004 Girl Next Door, film: I will always remember all the great times with the dirty dozen, and macking all the honeys; 2006 Randy Kearse: I been mackin’ since high school; 2006 Flyer Talk: He had been macking and wanted to use the club access to help out his game mack daddy see mack1 mad (or madd) adv. [1] a lot of or plenty of (gs, jg): 1994 Notorious B.I.G.: I got mad friends with Benzos; 2005 Elle: Everyone knows you’ve got mad talent, but in July you’re going to have to prove yourself; 2011 Black Voices: I have madd respect for you [2] extremely or totally (gs, jg): 1994 Public Enemy: This is madd real; 1996 New Yorker: I’m mad talented; 2008 New York Times: In that one picture the studio took, I look mad stupid madd see above maggot n. potentially offensive a white person (bk, jg): 2000 Global Threat: Bastards dragged a black man with a truck, and his body smashed. Those two racist maggots should get ropes around their necks; 2009 Spank Mag: Vote for me, motherfucking maggots!; 2013 Facebook: Dem maggots ain’t loving us! main adj. favorite or beloved (bk): 2011 Twitter: I’m chillin with my main nigga; 2011 Yahoo Music: I made it in memory of my main homie who passed away; 2011 Run4Life: I was walking down the street with my main nigger main man n. a close friend (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Dreamgirls, film: Come

on, you know you’re my main man!; 2008 Ebony: I hate to quibble with my main man, Eric Easter, but I’m not quite sure this bailout is necessary; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I’d like to dedicate this record right here to my main man maintain v. [1] to be calm, even in the most adverse circumstances: 2002 Paid in Full, film: Y’know what I’m sayin’? Live and maintain!; 2002 Wire, HBOTV series: We just need to maintain!; 2013 Dizzy Wright: Don’t run away from your problems or your partner, maintain! [2] to stay in touch (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Yo dawg maintain and I’ll holler at you later; 2010 Actionext: Kill that game, but still, maintain!; 2011 Black Planet: Brothas, maintain! major figures n. a lot of money (rk): 2003 Don Juan: They blind to the fact we countin major figures; 2009 YouTube: Who would ever figure that this little weasel nigga would be stackin major figures?; 2009 Wu-Tang Clan: We make major figures make bank phr. to make a lot of money (gs, jg): 2009 Democratic Underground: I like this song a lot! I can see he’s going to make bank on it too!; 2010 Nashville Scene: As he got older, he found other ways to make bank; 2010 XXL Magazine: If that nigga is trying to make bank, good for him make no never mind phr. to make no difference or be insignificant (bk): 1997 Con Air, film: As long as I make it home on time, it makes no never mind; 2003 Miami Herald: The Cubs had a god named Sammy Sosa on their side, but that didn’t make no never mind; 2005 New York Daily News: The idea is to catch the ball, and it makes no never mind how it’s caught mama (or mamma) n. [1] a woman, especially sexually attractive (cm,

Glossary jg): 2000 Snoop Dogg: Little mama, don’t you start!; 1999 3rd Rock from the Sun, NBC-TV series: Every hot mama here was checking him out; 2006 Rebecca Buckley: Ain’t ya goin’ to introduce me to this good-looking mama? [2] a girlfriend, wife or female lover (cm, jg): 1999 Silk: Got little something for my sexy mama; 2004 Ray, film: Come to bed! Mama ain’t finished yet; 2010 Black Planet: You have a young sexy nigga who is looking for a sexy mama mama-jama (or mamma-jamma) n. [1] a sexually attractive woman: 1981 Carl Carlton: She’s a bad mama jama, just as fine as she can be; 1994 Da Brat: Y’all know I’m the real mama-jama; 1996 Snoop Dogg: She had a hoe with her named Bama, a big bad mammajamma; [2] an excellent or admirable thing: 2009 Yahoo Voices: The price is nothing compared to the picture quality you get when you buy this mammajamma; 2011 Hub Pages: I played three racing games when taking this mamajama for a test drive; 2011 Blogspot: You can view it online, but really, you’re going to want to download this mama-jama for your iPhone or iPad mamma see mama mamma-jamma see mama-jama man n. [1] any man, especially a stranger (gs): 1999 Late Show with Conan O’Brien, NBC-TV program: Chicks dig it, man!; 2004 Ray, film: We’re in L.A., man, the place where the Negro comes to spread his wings; 2010 XXL Magazine: I’m tired of niggas lying, man. Quit faking! [2] a close friend (rk): 2000 Bamboozled, film: I’m just tired of waitin’, man; 2002 Paid in Full, film: I saw your man, man!; 2010 Urban Dictionary: Look, man, it means like we brothas you know what I’m sayin’? [3] an excellent or admirable man, especially a man of

221 distinction (gs): 1993 Simpsons, FoxTV series: You’re the man, Homer!; 1996 Barb Wire, film: “Nice work, Mr. Big Fatso!” “I’m the man!”; 1996 Broken Arrow, film: “You’re the man!” “I’m the man!” Man n. a white person, especially a person in power, such as a police officer (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2005 Aaron Peckham: It’s just the Man trying to hold me down!; 2009 Stephen Calt: I’d rather be sloppy drunk, sitting in the can, than to be out in the streets, runnin’ from the Man; 2013 Parenthood, NBC-TV series: You don’t wanna work for the Man! Mandingo n. a strong and big-built African American man (gs, jg): 2010 Public Agenda News: I am proud to say that I am a Mandingo; 2010 Adult DVD Empire: My wife is banging a mandingo; 2012 Django Unchained, film: Them motherfuckers ain’t here to buy no Mandingos. They’s here for the girl mannish adj. acting overly tough or aggressive (cm, gs): 1999 Dr. Dre: I got this bitch speakin Spanish, I’m mannish; 2008 Ebony: The Tops were no second banana, all driven by the expressive, totally mannish voice of Levi Stubbs; 2009 Queer ID: I was going to try see if they’d wax me if I acted mannish, but I’m too much of a wimp man with a paper ass n. potentially offensive an insignificant man (bk, jg): 2009 Zim Dog: He described the irresponsible speaker as talking like a man with a paper ass; 2009 Glock Talk: You talk like a man with a paper ass!; 2009 Boston University Daily Free Press: He’s talking like a man with a paper ass marinate v. [1] to relax and have a good time (gs, rk): 1997 Lost Boyz: I’m lovin’ you, you lovin’ me, we be

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marinatin’!; 2005 Aaron Peckham: I was gonna go to class but I got high and decided to marinate instead; 2010 My Space: I like to marinate with my family and friends [2] to think deeply before responding (gs): 2005 Honeymooners, film: Just give me some time to marinate on it; 2005 Hitch, film: Just let me marinate for a second!; 2009 Ebony: On this Independence Day, let’s marinate on what we call freedom, and what it looks like, feels like now [3] to wait for something to happen (gs, rk): 2000 Zoe Valdes: She’s been marinating for fifteen days; 2006 Blogspot: They’ve been marinating for years; 2011 Black Voices: They are out there marinating for a man like myself marshmallow n. potentially offensive a white person, especially fat (bk, jg): 2003 50 Cent: So you know you’re not dealing with some fuckin’ marshmallow; 2009 Urban Dictionary: That bitch is a marshmallow; 2013 Steam Community: I’m white, so someone called me a marshmallow max (or max and relax) v. to relax and have a good time (gs, jg): 2006 Boys and Girls Guide to Getting Down, film: All I do all day is max and relax, and smoke pot; 2012 Hype Beast: I’ve been maxin in the sun, eating pizza, pasta, spaghetti, all those; 2013 A.J. Crew: I be chilling out and maxing with these chicks max and relax see above may like v. to pretend (gs): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: She may like she was sick, but she wasn’t; 2013 Roleplay Gateway: Around guys she may like she becomes a bit clumsy and not as confident as she usually is; 2013 City Data: She may like she never saw my email M.C., MC see emcee1, emcee2 McGangsta n. an average or typical member of a criminal gang: 2009

Blogspot: The bitches enjoy the thin veneer of danger that comes with a McGangsta; 2007 Minneapolis Star Tribune: “Alpha Dog” has a jagged, bewildering take on McGangstas; 2009 Urban Dictionary: When presented with a situation such as this, the McGangsta will react with anger and hostility McNasty n. a sexually promiscuous woman (rk): 1995 E-40: Filthy McNasties at the bus stop are hitchhikin’ it; 2009 Smart Pakquine: She is now a McNasty; 2013 Twitter: If she ain’t down with rubbers, then she is a McNasty mean adj. excellent or admirable (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: That Cadillas Escalade is one bad-ass ride. I love the rims, they make that shit look mean; 2006 Dreamgirls, film: I’m gonna take a mean ride; 2010 Skateland, film: It’s gonna be a mean bike, maybe the baddest we ever built mean-ass see above mean green n. money (bk): 2006 Walker Payne, film: All right, boys, time to pay the rent. Let’s see that mean green; 2009 Da Original: Earn mean green!; 2011 Facebook: I wish you the best of luck! Hope you raise a lot of mean green Mecca n. Harlem, New York (gs): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: You was with Malcolm in Mecca; 2009 Ebony: The restaurant is located in Mecca; 2010 Uptown Chronicle: I am speaking to my people from the heart, from Mecca – we call it Mecca in Harlem Medina n. Brooklyn, New York (jg, rk): 2002 J-Live: I landed in Medina as a teacher; 2007 Wu-Tang Clan: They are hungry hyenas from Medina; 2009 Atlantis School: I have lived in Medina (Brooklyn) mellow1 (or mellow-back) adj. calm and relaxed (cm, jg): 1991 Jungle Fever,

Glossary film: I’m a cool type of fellow, cool, calm, and mellow; 1992 Malcolm X, film: I am about as mellow as I can be; 2007 Ebony: Harry was all at once mellow, happy, carefree, and sad mellow2 n. a close friend (cm, gs, jg): 1998 Tribe Called Quest: Some of my mellows lost their mothers and their brothers, for them I feel empathy; 2009 Prison Talk: He told me one of his mellows let him borrow them; 2009 Moon Battery: Their mellows will continue to be harshed mellow back v. to be calm and relaxed: 2007 Los Angeles Times: He’ll mellow back and understand the organization is trying to make the right moves; 2009 Blogspot: Y’all need to mellow back and come together; 2010 Rap Music: Before then I was replying to everything, I mellowed back out now mellow-back see mellow1 melon n. the head (rk): 2008 House, M.D., Fox-TV series: It means some poor sap’s getting his melon sliced at the VA for no reason, and he’s gonna be dead by the end of the week; 2008 Bolt, film: “You got hour head stuck pretty good, huh?” “Hey guys, check this out! He’s got his melon stuck!”; 2013 Criminal Minds, CBS-TV series: “Concussion? How’s your melon?” “It’s all right” member n. a fellow African American (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: Member [is] any African American; 2010 McGruff: Right now it ain’t nothin lavish for my members; 2013 Twitter: “Where my fellow members at?” “Right here, nigga” MF (or MF’er) n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable man (bk, cm, gs): 2009 Mobile Salon: That MF was ready to kill his own son because he heard voices in his head; 2010 Ebony: I remember calling someone an MF;

223 2011 Black Voices: I’m so tired of

hearing about this MF’er [2] something irritating, especially if problematic or difficult (cm): 2008 Free Republic: Memory is a real MF’er; 2013 Jalopy Journal: How do you remove the brake booster on a 1956 Buick? I recall there is a nut on the inside of the firewall that is a real MF to get to; 2013 Facebook: Jealousy is a real MF [3] an excellent or admirable man or thing (cm, gs): 2008 Ebony: For me, my stepfather was the coolest MF I have ever known; 2009 Body Building: Even if I weren’t a handsome MF’er, my confidence would still score me some chicks; 2013 YouTube: I love this MF and wouldn’t want to trade his Spanish ass for anything MF’er see above MF’ing1 adj. very offensive [1] contemptible or irritating (bk, gs): 2010 Bossip: I know it’s a MF’ing recession; 2012 Yahoo Sports: Scott yells at Thomas for breaking the boycott, calling him a MF-ing sellout; 2013 Twitter: Unless someone is a MF’ing doctor, I don’t want to hear a word about my weight; [2] excellent or admirable: 2011 Kentucky Sports Radio: I am the MF’ing winner!; 2011 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Of all the colossal idiots I have seen commenting on these blogs, you are the MF’ing champion, hands down; 2013 Game Faqs: MGS4 is a MF’ing masterpiece offensive MF’ing2 adv. very extremely or totally: 2012 Corvette Forum: I have no idea on the price, but that’s a MF’ing cool car; 2013 Washington Monthly: It’s time for Dems everywhere to remind voters that the GOP is MF’ing crazy; 2013 Twitter: Lenny Kravitz is too MF’ing sexy MIA (or M.I.A., Mia) n. Miami, Florida (rk): 2011 City Data: Where to live in Mia?; 2012 Twicsy: He was born in

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MIA; 2013 Yahoo Answers: Does anyone know anything about living in MIA? Mickey D’s (or Mickey D) n. a McDonald’s restaurant (gs, jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: I got him out of flipping burgers at Mickey D’s; 2004 Super Size Me, film: There are more Mickey D’s in Manhattan than anywhere else in the world; 2011 Los Angeles Times: Mickey D’s is going high-tech by replacing cashiers with touch screens mic master n. a performer of a rap song: 1993 Us3: Come flow with the sounds of the mighty mic master, rhymin’ on the mic I’ll bring the suckers to disaster; 2009 Zazzle: Not only are you a mic master, but a funky fresh one at that!; 2013 Grim: I be the militant micmaster makin’ moves Miss Ann (or Miss Anne) n. potentially offensive a white woman (cm, gs, jg): 2007 Ebony: “Miss Anne” and “Mister Charlie” date back to the late 19th century when they became generic versions of the formal address even the most lowly white person warranted; 2009 Yale-New Heaven Teachers Institute: Reverend Abernathy’s humorous depictions of “Miss Ann” and “Mr. Charlie,” African American folk designations of white women and white men, energized many; 2011 Black Voices: Ever since we’ve been in America, from slavery onward, we have been taking care of the needs of Miss Ann Miss Thang see below Miss Thing (or Miss Thang) n. a selfimportant or arrogant woman (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1999 Dr. Dre: Miss Thing tried to scream on my brethren; 2004 Hair Show, film: Hi, Miss Thing! I like your hair!; 2005 Aaron Peckham: My sister, Miss Thang, is getting on my nerves Mista Charlie see Mister Charlie Mista Hawkins see Mister Hawkins

Mista Wind see Mister Wind Mister Charlie (or Mista Charlie, Mr. Charlie) n. potentially offensive a white person, especially regarded as an oppressor of African Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2008 Postmodern Negro: Mista Charlie is on the rise and he is as a roaring lion; 2004 New York Beacon: They were willing to do whatever Mister Charlie told them to do; 2007 Ebony: “Miss Anne” and “Mister Charlie” date back to the late 19th century when they became generic Mister Hawkins (or Mista Hawkins, Mr. Hawkins) n. the cold winter wind (cm, jg): 1990 Alan Dundes: I’m out here with Mister Hawkins, wringling and twisting, ducking and dodging, and skulking close to the buildings; 1994 Clarence Major: Mister Hawkins [is] a cold winter’s wind; 2009 Ultra Lingua: Mister Hawkins is cold wind Mister Wind (or Mista Wind, Mr. Wind) n. the cold winter wind (gs, jg): 1987 Philadelphia Daily News: The Hawk, you know him sometimes as Mister Wind; 2006 Fiction International: Time to leave Mista Wind, Hawk, behind; 2009 Yahoo Answers: Mister Wind was blowing Mo see Moe modulate v. to relax and have a good time: 2008 Blogspot: I’ve been modulatin’. Everything’s cool; 2010 My Space: I’m modulatin’ with my niggas, hoopin, and playing Playstation; 2010 Bebo: I hate niggas who ain’t modulatin’ Moe n. [1] Moet champagne (rk): 2006 Nah Right: We be drinkin’ Moe, doin’ dances on that hoe; 2009 Royal Flush: First you drinkin Snapple, now you drinkin Moe; 2010 Twitter: That’s why I drink Moe, for I can think more [2] (or Mo, ’Mo) the Fillmore area in

Glossary San Francisco (jg): 1992 JT the Bigga Figga: Bitches in the Moe ain’t good; 2007 Socket Site: The ’Mo is the Fillmore area, which is not exactly the same but overlaps with it; 2009 Murder Dog Magazine: I’m not from the Fillmore, I’m from the Mission District. But I’m really linked down with my boys from ’Mo mo-fo (or mofo) n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable man (bk): 2009 News, CBS-TV program: This mo-fo oversimplified highly complex issues with the typical sprinkling of bad rhetoric; 2007 Rolling Stone: R is one ugly mofo; 2008 Johnstown Tribune Democrat: Yo mo-fo, what you doing makin us Dems look so bad, yo! [2] something irritating, especially if problematic or difficult: 2005 Blogspot: Smiling is difficult, talking just looks weird, and chewing is a difficult mo-fo; 2009 Yelp: This one mo-fo cost me the game and I lost $20; 2009 Cheapass Gamer: The downside being that I lost my rental car key, and that mo-fo cost me $150 to get a copy of it! [3] an excellent or admirable man or thing: 2009 Sixth Axis: Just think of the amount of pranks you can play with that mo’fo!; 2009 Stick Am: Who’s that sexy mofo?; 2011 Pocket Lint: The Panasonic FT3 is a seriously tough mo-fo mojo n. [1] a charm or amulet worn against evil (bk, cm, gs): 1998 He Got Game, film: This mojo works! It worked on your ass!; 2009 Stephen Calt: Mojo is one of the few locutions with apparent African pedigree; 2013 My Space: I used to wear a mojo around my neck [2] influence, power or charisma (bk, gs, jg): 2005 Aaron Peckham: I can get any girl if I just use a bit of the old mojo; 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: The girl digs my mojo; 2009 Ebony: Prince lost the mojo

225 [3] sex appeal or sex drive (bk): 1995 Pinky and the Brain, WB-TV series: That man gets my mojo workin’!; 2004 Stephanie Rose Bird: The glazed look, sophomoric grin, and gleam in his eye when he mentions his mojo is insulting; 2008 Ebony: It has negatively influenced much of the industry, despite the success of those models of color who were allowed to work their mojo over the last thirty years moma (or momma) n. [1] a woman, especially sexually attractive (cm, gs, jg): 1988 Lou Aronica: I got there just as he was walking out with a goodlooking momma on his arm and a dreamy smile on his lips; 2007 Jay-Z: Stay out of trouble, momma!; 2008 Ebony: That’s who Gloria is: she’s a loveable, hefty momma [2] a girlfriend, wife or female lover (jg): 2012 Google Plus: This is for my sexy momma; 2012 Twitter: Tell’m I’ll be his new mama; 2013 Blogs: They broke up but she still thinks she’s his momma [3] an excellent or admirable thing (bk): 2007 Camcorder Info: I wasn’t expecting much even though paying nearly $2000 for this momma. What I got was a bunch of professional features that make film making a pleasure; 2008 Gigaom: I am more impressed with the high power G55 laptop and its quadcore processor. Now that’s a fast momma; 2011 Auto Trader: This momma has other options momma see above mo-mo n. a motel (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: We stopped at the nearest momo; 2007 Bizzy Bone: Don’t take my photo in a mo-mo lookin’ out the window!; 2009 Arcade Museum: Sure you would have to find a cheap mo-mo, but its still way less than driving from a far distance money (or money grip) n. a close friend (cm, jg, rk): 1991 Del the Funky

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Homosapien: First he was my money grip, then he stole my honey dip. Mistadobalina is a serpent; 1993 Poison Clan: Hoes ain’t worth it, money grip!; 2001 Fat Joe: My money lookin happy with his wife money grip see above mos def (or mos deaf) adv. definitely (jg, rk): 2000 Bamboozled, film: Let me get the whole Hilfiger hookup, huh? Definitely, mos def; 2002 Wire, HBOTV series: “You’re gonna make this right?” “Mos def!”; 2009 TL Planet: Mos def man I’m gonna try and get it done moss n. hair, especially unstraightened African American hair (bk, cm): 1994 Clarence Major: Moss [is] kinky hair; African hair; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Dennis had some serious moss in the 80’s; 2009 Fan Fiction: Trista used her delicate fingers to comb them out of her long moss mostest adv. most (bk, cm): 2011 Politico: It’s our job to follow her lead because she is the mostest realest American of all; 2011 Scuba Toys: You are like the mostest coolest person on this forum; 2011 YouTube: I am probably not the mostest stupidest person in the world motha see mother mothafuck see motherfuck1, motherfuck2 mothafucka see motherfucker mothafucking see motherfucking1, motherfucking2 mother (or motha, mutha) n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable man (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1994 Public Enemy: My man X is a bad mother; 1995 GoldenEye, film: “Who is the competition?” “An ex-KGB guy. Tough mother”; 2009 Facebook: Vincent, he’s a real mother! He puts me on the hitlist every time he plays [2] something irritating, especially if problematic or difficult (cm):

1996 Rock, film: This mother’s gonna blow big!; 2009 Maclean: This thing is

a mother to take apart by yourself; 2013 Yahoo Answers: The struggles of life can be a real mother [3] an excellent or admirable man or thing (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2003 Elf, film: Time for me to get on the mike, and make this mother of a party hype!; 2004 Starsky and Hutch, film: He’s old but he’s one tough mother!; 2011 Facebook: He’s one strong mother motherfuck1 (or mothafuck, muthafuck) excl. very offensive [1] I am irritated (jg): 1998 Lisa Scottoline: Motherfuck! Everything was fucked up! It was all that bitch’s fault; 2003 Virgin, film: They’re gonna lock me up. Motherfuck!; 2007 Jay Pinkerton: Oh motherfuck, you want to fuck his fucking mother, motherfucker! I bet you motherfucking like that! [2] I am surprised (jg): 1996 Sleepers, film: “Take a good look!” “Motherfuck! That’s him!”; 2004 Rude Pundit: Oh, motherfuck, that’s funny! Goddamn, the Rude Pundit is just doubled over in laughter; 2007 Brothers Solomon, film: Motherfuck! We finished the procedure motherfuck2 (or mothafuck, muthafuck) v. very offensive [1] to curse someone of something, especially in anger (jg): 1989 Do the Right Thing, film: Motherfuck him and John Wayne!; 1989 Willie Dee: Motherfuck the KKK!; 1995 Vampire in Brooklyn, film: “Rita belongs to me!” “Motherfuck you, man!” [2] to not care about: 1997 Blackout, film: Motherfuck it, I’ll get straight to the point; 1999 Summer of Sam, film: “Motherfuck the Mick! Willie Mays was the man!” “Get outta here! Mick was the guy!”; 2004 Chris Rock: Never Scared, film: Fuck you, I don’t need you, motherfuck you! [3] to harm, especially as punishment or

Glossary revenge: 2005 Metal Sludge: He also didn’t motherfuck me which was nice, I have tried not to motherfuck him; 2009 Urban Dictionary: If you don’t stop hitting on my girl, I’m going to motherfuck you; 2011 Facebook: Was that before or after you tried to motherfuck me? motherfucker (or mothafucka, muthafucka) n. very offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable man (bk, cm, jg): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: The motherfucker beat my boy!; 2008 Dexter, Showtime-TV series: I wanna get this motherfucker who did this; 2010 Lil Wayne: The money we spend on sending a mothafucka to jail [2] something irritating, especially if problematic or difficult (bk, cm, gs): 2009 Black Voices: Greed is a muthafucka; 2010 Artist Direct: We’re building a house and the second story’s looking pretty good. We’ve got to put the roof on this motherfucker; 2010 Miss Bicks: I got up extremely early but traffic is a muthafucka! [3] an excellent or admirable man or thing (bk, gs, jg): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: Check out the brainy Brett! You’re a smart motherfucker!; 2000 Bamboozled, film: That motherfucker is a fuckin’ millionaire!; 2002 8 Mile, film: I vouch for this motherfucker, he’s a motherfucking genius motherfucking1 (or mothafucking, muthafucking) adj. very offensive [1] contemptible or irritating (bk, gs): 1997 Tupac Shakur: It’s like a motherfucking trap; 1999 Bringing Out the Dead, film: Take this stinking motherfucking skell out of my face; 2006 Public Enemy: What will it take to break the motherfuckin cycle? [2] excellent or admirable: 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: We’d have to be talking about one charming motherfucking pig!; 2003 8 Mile, film: He’s a

227 motherfucking genius; 2009 Democratic Underground: I’m a mothafuckin lyrical wordsmith, mothafuckin genius motherfucking2 (or mothafucking, muthafucking) adv. very offensive extremely or totally: 1998 Snoop Dogg: I don’t know why you treat me so motherfuckin’ bad; 2007 Glass Jaw: It’s mothafucking cold today!; 2013 Google Groups: You are too motherfucking stupid to be in this discussion mothering1 (or motherin’) adj. potentially offensive [1] contemptible or irritating (bk): 2004 Fan Fiction: You mothering bastard!; 2009 Trance Addict: These things are a mothering bitch to organize; 2012 Facebook: I’ll kick your goddamn ass you mothering bitch! [2] excellent or admirable: 2011 Facebook: I did whatever I pleased cause I was the mothering champion; 2011 Game Faqs: We have a mothering winner; 2013 Facebook: I’m a word wizard and a mothering genius mothering2 (or motherin’) adv. potentially offensive extremely or totally: 2004 Blogspot: Winona Ryder looks like she’s thirteen, and it’s so mothering boring; 2009 Screen Hub: He was never bothered by the wretchedness of mothering stupid children; 2012 Xanga: It hurts like mothering crazy mother wit n. common sense (cm, gs): 2001 Marcia Nelson: They don’t have mother wit. Norma emphasizes the homespun word for wisdom as she tells this story; 2007 Frost Illustrated: Let’s remember the value of a mother’s wit!; 2013 Gilbert Times: It embodies American grit and mother wit by addressing all of the arguments Motor City n. Detroit, Michigan (cm, gs): 2008 Ebony: It launched several revitalization projects, including hosting the 2006 Super Bowl to bring attention to improvements in the Motor

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City; 2010 American Spectator: It may be just as likely that the Motor City will follow the same path as New Orleans; 2010 Los Angeles Times Magazine: You can take the boy out of the Motor City, but you can’t take the Motor City out of the boy. Sykes is an inveterate gearhead Motown n. [1] Detroit, Michigan (cm, gs): 2002 Washington Post: Dianne Reeves was born in Motown; 2004 New York Post: Their three sons and newborn daughter stayed in Portland and haven’t lived in Motown; 2011 Black Voices: Diana Ross grew up in Motown? [2] the sound or style of music that originated in Detroit in the 1960s (gs): 2004 Boston Herald: Schoenfeld grew up in housing projects in Brooklyn listening to Motown and early rap; 2009 Ebony: What about Motown’s Greatest Hits?; 2009 Seattle Times: My dad owned a hardware store and I used to go with him to work when I wasn’t going to school and we’d listen to Motown Mr. Charlie see Mister Charlie Mr. Hawkins see Mister Hawkins Mr. Wind see Mister Wind mugly adj. potentially offensive very unattractive (rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: She’s cute, but her two friends are mugly; 2008 Media Takeout: She could never change that mugly face of hers; 2010 Snitch: This mugly nigga should go to jail, then he can morph into blade and fight them other niggas off his booty muh-fuh n. potentially offensive [1] a contemptible or despicable man (bk, gs, jg): 1999 LA Weekly: Claude, you silly old muh-fuh, you haven’t been a hippie for at least six years; 2010 Twitter: I despise this little muh-fuh; 2013 Reverb Nation: You thought John Gotti was a bad muh-fuh. I guess you haven’t met me [2] something irritating,

especially if problematic or difficult (gs): 2010 Blogspot: Fear is a muhfuh; 2012 City University of New York student: Karma is a real muh-fuh!; 2013 Facebook: Stage fright can be a real muh-fuh [3] an excellent or admirable man or thing (gs, jg): 2009 Media Takeout: Stop it. You are the muh-fuh’s with the power; 2010 All Hip Hop: Did I mention what a sexy muh-fuh Brook is?; 2011 Flickr: I love that muh-fuh mumbo-jumbo (or mumbo jumbo) n. meaningless or deceptive talk, especially jargon (cm): 1991 Barton Fink, film: I don’t know technical mumbojumbo; 2010 Annapolis Capital: They invoked an obscure piece of legal mumbo jumbo that stated that the covenant could be changed with 85% approval from our residents; 2010 Washington Post: What kind of metaphysical mumbo-jumbo is that? mutha see mother muthafuck see motherfuck1, motherfuck2 muthafucka see motherfucker muthafucking see motherfucking1, 2 motherfucking my bad excl. I am sorry (gs, rk): 1996 Martin, Fox-TV series: “You broke it!” “Oh, damn! My bad, Gina!”; 1996 Get on the Bus, film: “Hey, we’re in the middle of a prayer here!” “Oh, my bad!”; 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: My bad! I’m sorry! Those cards are a little confusing my man n. a close friend (bk): 1999 IceT: This song is dedicated to my man Tupac Shakur; 2004 Starsky and Hutch, film: What you got my man waitin’ outside for?; 2004 Ray, film: This is my man, Ray N naps n. extremely tight curls of natural, unstraightened African American hair (cm, gs, jg): 1995 Bad Boys, film: The

Glossary red one? With the naps?; 2004 Yahoo Groups: We’ve been taught to not like anything associated with our blackness, especially naps; 2009 All Experts: I want to soften her naps into curls Nation n. a religious group known as the Nation of Islam (gs): 1998 Nah Dove: He joined the Nation and so did she. This decision helped her abandon street life; 2003 New York Times: He often repeated the view of some members of the Nation that the white man is the devil; 2013 Tumblr: Clay joined the Nation and received the name Muhammad Ali natural n. African American hair that is not chemically processed (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2009 Essence: You are not more black if you wear a natural; 2009 Facebook: “Good hair. Is this why black men favor white women?” “I wear a natural, and I love it. So none of this applies to me”; 2009 Black Voices: I wish I could wear a natural or braids natural-born adj. extreme or total (bk, cm): 1994 Clarence Major: I laughed till I cried, that boy is a natural-born comedian; 2009 Huffington Post: Being married to a natural-born meditator has its drawbacks; 2009 Root: According to the mainstream media, black folks apparently acted like natural-born fools Negro n. very offensive unless used by african americans a fellow African American (cm, gs): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: You’re sending Wolf? Great! Hey, Negro, that’s all you had to say!; 2000 Bamboozled, film: There are millions of Negroes in this country with that same mentality; 2004 Ray, film: We’re in L.A., man, the place where the Negro comes to spread his wings new school n. newer style of rap and hiphop, beginning in the end of 1980s (cm): 1993 Ice-T: I got much respect

229 for the new and the old school; 2002 8 Mile, film: I lead the new school, you’re a buster without the rhymes; 2009 Wikipedia: The new school was initially characterized in form by drum machine led minimalism N.I.C. see Nigger In Charge nice adj. [1] drunk (gs, jg): 2008 VW Vortex: You were nice and passed out in the car, so we kept drinking; 2011 Heroes Mush: He’s a little nice right now from delicious drinks; 2011 Forums: Nigga got nice and damaged [2] under the influence of a drug (gs, jg, rk): 1994 Notorious B.I.G.: You smoked the blunts and got nice; 2006 Randy Kearse: These kinds of chicks don’t get nice; 2010 Drug 3K: So I get nice and I just pass directly out nig see nigger nigg see nigger nigga see nigger Nigga In Charge see Nigger In Charge niggalicious adj. very offensive unless used by african americans [1] (of an African American) sexually attractive (jg): 2004 Urban Dictionary: Yo, that bitch look so damn niggalicious I’d do her out back!; 2009 Foolz: She’s niggalicious; 2013 Black Planet: Make sure to stop by and show me some luv. You’re so niggalicious [2] excellent or admirable, especially if connected with African Americans: 2010 YouTube: I hope you have a Niggalicious Christmas; 2013 Facebook: How’d you get to be so niggalicious?; 2013 Tumblr: It looks so niggalicious! nigga please see nigger please niggarette (or niggerette) n. very offensive unless used by african americans a fellow African American woman: 1997 Wu-Tang Clan: The niggarette gave me gonorrhea; 2009 Get Big: I don’t think that niggarette is so damn sexy; 2013 Facebook: Every nigga needs a niggarette

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nigga rich see nigger rich niggaz n. very offensive unless used by african americans fellow African Americans: 1998 Belly, film: I hated to see the niggaz that made it; 2006 Public Enemy: These stupid niggaz wanna be American Idols; 2007 Wired News: We also got niggaz, pimps and ho’s nigger (or nigga, nigg, nig) n. very offensive unless used by african americans [1] a fellow African American (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1994 Pulp Fiction, film: They threw him over the balcony; the nigger fell four storeys; 2002 Paid in Full, film: What’s up, nig? Everything’s good?; 2005 New York Times: Black kids call each other “a real nigger” or “my nigger” [2] an African American friend (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: I love all of y’all niggas, man; 2004 Ray, film: Come on, it’s not that complicated. Yeah, nigga, that’s it!; 2006 Tampa Tribune: I am always referring to my closest friends, as my nigger niggerette see niggarette Nigger In Charge (or Nigga in Charge, N.I.C.) n. very offensive unless used by african americans (often sarcastic) an African American person in charge (cm, jg): 2000 Rolling Stone: I told the niggas in charge that if couldn’t smoke, I wasn’t steppin’ on stage; 2000 Prodigy: It’s very brutal how the N.I.C. will do you, you get KO’ed and pissed on for being rude; 2007 Half Past Dead 2, film: I’m the Nigger In Charge, I got what you call arrangements nigger please (or nigga please) excl. very offensive unless used by african americans I am irritated and exasperated (gs, jg): 2004 Wire, HBO, TV series: “You don’t value my time!” “Nigger please!”; 2008 Soul Men, film: “Do the math,

motherfucker!” “Math? Nigga, please!”; 2008 A Good Day to Be Black and Sexy, film: That’s not new energy? Nigga, please! nigger rich (or nigga rich) adj. very offensive unless used by african americans poor but maintaining flashy symbols of wealth (cm, gs, jg): 2000 Boiler Room, film: They may have a Porsche, but they don’t have ten bucks to put in the gas tank. It’s nigger rich; 2002 New York Times: He jokingly admonishes his wife that they are not “old-money rich” but “nigga rich”; 2010 Glimmer News: He is like 90% of people living in southern California, living the nigger rich lifestyle nine1 (or 9) n. a nine-millimeter handgun (cm, gs, rk): 1993 Tupac Shakur: They’re quick to pull a nine when it’s time; 1998 Snoop Dogg: I pack a nine all the time; 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: He empties his nine, he gets one in the eye nine2 (or 9) v. to shoot with a gun, especially with a nine-millimeter handgun: 1991 Spice 1: Jack and Juice nined them all; 2009 Twitter: I can’t believe you got nined on your arm!; 2010 Smash Boards: I got nined but didn’t die ninety eleven (or ninety leven) adv. very many: 2009 Contra Costa Times: She has driven through that intersection ninety-leven times; 2009 Blogspot: I’ve got ninety-eleven things to do today; 2013 City Data: Tim tried to call me about ninety eleven times yesterday, but I refused to answer ninety leven see above ninja n. a tough person: 2002 8 Mile, film: “Don’t be saying shit about my mom or my fucking car, man!” “He a ninja now!”; 2010 Insider: Overall, he is one tough ninja; 2012 Facebook: Ninja don’t sweat. Bullets can’t kill a ninja!

Glossary nitty-gritty n. the most crucial and basic aspects or elements (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1998 Alice Walker: That would sound fine in a philosophy course, but what is, as you say here, the nitty-gritty?; 2008 Ebony: When you get down to the nitty-gritty, his score with the justice system is one win, one loss; 2010 New York Times: In delving into the nitty-gritty of health care negotiations, Obama risks alienating members of the labor movement nizzle n. a fellow African American: 2004 State: Snoopafly is working on an album with his nizzles; 2007 Providence Journal: Manny is my nizzle!; 2007 News, CBS-TV program: In the process, they gave white men a viable and edgy alternative to the N-word, my nizzle? N.O. n. New Orleans, Louisiana (cm, gs): 1998 Snoop Dogg: Much love from the N.O.!; 2009 Amazon: I was born in N.O., live in South Louisiana, and lived in N.O. for five years; 2009 City Data: I lived in N.O. before the storm No Coast, No’ Coast see North Coast noise n. music, especially instrumental music rather than vocals (gs): 1999 Public Enemy: Bring the noise!; 2004 Hair Show, film: Ladies and gentlemen, make some noise!; 2009 Ebony: They still bring the noise N.O.L.A. (or NOLA) n. New Orleans, Louisiana: 2011 Philadelphia City Paper: We really only treated ourselves to one upmarket dinner in NOLA; 2011 Yahoo News: While it might be some time before I’m able to get back to N.O.L.A., I look forward to stepping up to the oyster bar at Felix’s; 2011 Slashfood: I’m having my bachelor party in NOLA during Jazzfest North Coast (or No Coast, No’ Coast) n. Midwestern USA: 2009 Bebo: If you’re from the North Coast and you’re proud, put this on; 2009 Slumz

231 Boxden: What part of No Coast you from?; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Portland is OK, but it’s great to be in No Coast again not give a motherfuck (or not give a mothafuck, not give a muthafuck) phr. very offensive to be indifferent or not care: 2008 Prodigy: Tell the Feds I don’t give a mothafuck, you niggas; 2008 Lil Wayne: I might go crazy on these niggas, I don’t give a motherfuck; 2010 Facebook: Ink my whole body, I don’t give a muthafuck not give a shizzle phr. to be indifferent or not care: 2006 CNET: Big Brother doesn’t give a shizzle what you are looking at; 2007 Body Building: I cheated like mad earlier but I don’t give a shizzle; 2013 Facebook: I don’t give a shizzle about politics nut v. to have an orgasm (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Soon as I started to nut, I called out another chick’s name; 2001 D12: Trepare to suck, even if the nigga don’t care to nut; 2012 Tumblr: Oh shit, I’m bout to nut! N-word (or N word) n. an African American: 1997 Toni Morrison: Once the jurors heard the tapes it was clear that he had indeed used the N-word; 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: He called me the N-word!; 2011 Aurora Sentinel: The N-word is perhaps the most powerful word in the English language. It carries 400 years of brutal American history O Oaktown n. Oakland, California (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 CB4, film: They come not out of Oaktown, but out of a small town called Locash; 1999 Ice-T: You might see me in Oaktown; 2009 Frankenhood, film: I just moved down here from Oakland. Oakland? Oaktown!

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Glossary

O.C. (or o.c.) adj. out of control (jg, rk): 2006 Fan Fiction: This story started out as a good one, but it just got so O.C., and things just don’t make sense anymore; 2006 Randy Kearse: Shortie been o.c. since he was about twelve; 2008 Rap Music: This nigga was O.C. O.E. (or O.E. 800) n. Olde English 800 malt liquor (gs, jg): 2003 Brotha Lynch Hung: I’m upstairs, starin’ out the window, drinkin’ O.E.; 2004 Viktor Vaughn: I’m drinkin O.E., hopin pigs don’t see; 2012 Twitter: I’m drinking OE and listening to Outkast ofay n. very offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs): 1988 Elmore Leonard: It is a nice integrated neighborhood, ofays, Arabs, a few colored folks; 1992 Malcolm X, film: I wish your mother and father could see you now. And that ofay you’re gonna marry; 2005 Washington Post: The ofays [whites] were not used to seeing colored boys off v. [1] to kill (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1992 Trespass, film: I don’t know nothin’ about nobody gettin’ offed; 2003 Basic, film: And now I should feel bad about someone who offed him?; 2007 Zodiac, film: He offed a few citizens [2] to have sex with (bk): 2013 Tumblr: I wanted to off that bitch Brooke so damn bad; 2013 University of California student: He says he offed that sexy bitch; 2013 Facebook: She’s offing her imaginary friends off the chain phr. [1] excellent or admirable (jg, rk): 1998 Lil Rob: My chick is off the chain, enough to drive a grown man insane. 36 24 36, she’s got the perfect frame; 2013 Word Press: This concert must be off the press; 2013 Twitter: The band was off the chain last night. So glad I discovered this place! [2] crazy, irrational or out of control (jg, rk): 2006 T-Pop: I’m a gangsta nigga, off

the chain; 2006 Randy Kearse: I hate to tell you but ya shortie is off the chain; 2007 Black Planet: That nigga is off the chain! off the hook adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg): 1997 Snoop Dogg: Cuties walkin’ in the door, come shakin’ ass all across the floor. It’s off the hook!; 2008 LL Cool J: Met this little girl, she was off the hook, I got cold chills when her body shook; 2013 Twitter: These hoes off the hook! O.G. see original gangsta oil n. liquor (cm, gs, jg): 2007 Urban Dictionary: I’m tryin’ to get on dat oil; 2009 Gaia Online: They like to drink oil and smoke pipes; 2013 Flickr: Nigga can’t drink oil all day Olde E n. Olde English 800 malt liquor: 1993 Poetic Justice, film: “They don’t have no eightball? Y’all ain’t got Olde E?” “They don’t sell that outside the black neighborhoods”; 1994 Alkaholiks: Too much Olde E will make you pee; 1997 Blackout, film: I toke weed sippin’ on my Olde E old head n. an older person (gs, rk): 1987 New York Times: It’s time for the old heads to step down; 2005 Prison Break, Fox-TV series: Stretch your legs, old head; 2010 Root: Some old head, experienced in the ways of civil rights challenges, should have told him that old school n. older style of rap and hiphop, beginning in the 1970s (gs, jg, rk): 1993 Ice-T: I got much respect for the new and the old school; 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: “I’m Tracy Jordan, I’m old school!” “Yeah, I’m familiar with this”; 2009 YouTube: That’s why I only listen to old school on E phr. lacking something, especially money (gs, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: You have to look out this time, I’m on E ’til next Friday; 2006 Rap Music: I swear half the niggaz on this board create post like they been on E half

Glossary their life; 2010 Time: That’s annoying because I’ve been on E for over two and a half years one-eighty-seven1 (or 187) n. a murder (gs): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: “Look out, nigga! What’s up, punk?” “Possible one-eighty-seven at corner of Crenshaw and Century”; 1992 Fortress, film: “Do you know what oneeighty-seven means?” “Murder”; 2010 This Is 50: He did a one-eightyseven on a muthafuckin cop one-eighty-seven2 (or 187) v. to murder (gs, jg): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: Your daddy got one-eighty-seven’d by a brother and you Five-O in South Central?; 2010 Twitter: I wonder how many niggas got one-eighty-seven’d?; 2013 YouTube: Those that disliked this are about to get one-eighty-seven’d! one love excl. greetings (rk): 1996 Tupac Shakur: To the truest shit I ever spoke, one love to my true thug niggas!; 2003 One Love, film: “Call me!” “All right. One love, people!”; 2010 Vox Communications: One love to my people in the hood! on full phr. having a lot of something, especially money (gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: On full [is] having plenty of something; 2013 J. Cole: I got my pockets on full, stomach on full, I got full coverage; 2013 Nino Brown: I’m doin my thang, pockets on full on GP (or on G.P.) phr. for no reason or just because (jg): 1998 MC Ren: Compton niggas be takin pussy on GP from CPT all day; 2005 Gucci Mane: I’m a bust his muthafuckin head on GP; 2013 Lil B: They suck my dick on GP, it’s all good on point phr. exactly or precisely (gs, rk): 1994 Above the Rim, film: Bobby, you’re on point!; 2004 Wu-Tang Clan: Each line be on point when I speak mine; 2010 Ebony: He was on point

233 on someone’s case phr. irritating or nagging (bk): 2005 Coach Carter, film: She was always on my case about every little thing; 2005 USA Today: Maury’s been on my case to get out of the house and get back to work; 2006 Seattle Times: This is quite a hassle, and my wife has been on my case to do something about it on T see on time on the DL see below on the down low (or on the DL) phr. secret, covert or clandestine (gs, jg): 1999 Blue Streak, film: I was undercover, on the down low; 2007 Illegal Tender, film: You know how much the government is willing to spend to relocate us and keep us on the DL?; 2008 Pineapple Express, film: Keep it on the down low. Don’t tell anybody where you got it on the real phr. truthfully or seriously (jg, rk): 2005 Coach Carter, film: Yo, on the real, Hercules is weak, B, and y’all barely beat them; 2007 Bring It On: In It to Win It, film: So, on the real, what happens if we don’t?; 2008 Wackness, film: I got mad love for you, shorty. That’s on the real on the strength phr. truthfully or seriously (gs, jg, rk): 1993 Mobb Deep: On the strength that I had to hurt something, I’m a cool nigga but don’t let me start buggin; 2010 DMX: On the strength that they don’t know what they holdin; 2010 Wu-Tang Clan: On the strength, we giants! on time (or on T) phr. at the right time (gs, jg, rk): 2001 Ja Rule: Baby, I’m not always there when you call, but I’m always on time; 2006 Randy Kearse: That was on time dawg; 2011 Webbie: Just hit me up when it’s on time oofus n. a stupid or silly person (bk, cm, jg): 2009 Urban Dictionary: John thinks his jokes are funny, he’s such

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Glossary

an oofus; 2009 VC Entertainment: O’Reily is an oofus, but he is correct on some issues; 2012 Uni Watch: I wouldn’t want to look like an oofus out there Oprah v. to dredge intimate facts from a person (cm, gs): 2005 Urban Dictionary: I didn’t want to tell her, but she Oprah’d it out of me; 2008 Cooking Light: I’d focus on that and leave the Oprah-ing to Oprah; 2009 Wall Street Journal: Kanye Gets Oprah’d by Leno Oreo (or Oreo cookie) n. potentially offensive an African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1998 Sarasota Herald-Tribune: Most black folks I know call him an Oreo; 2003 Salon: Because he has black skin and now practices law, that makes him an Oreo?; 2008 Ebony: She is a used Oreo cookie. The white community used her and spit her out Oreo cookie see above original gangsta (or O.G.) n. an older and established member of a criminal gang (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: That guy’s a gangsta? I’m a gangsta! I’m an O.G., original gangsta. Not him, fucking lawn jockey; 2008 Ebony: An original gangsta, he remains recognized and revered; 2013 Celebrity Cafe: He knows the originals gangstas, but not the young ones who would “kill their own mother” O-Town (or O Town) n. Oakland, California: 1992 Ocala Star-Banner: In 1991, Clarke was picked as the top sportscaster in O-Town; 2001 Long Beach Press Telegram: The guy wants to stay in O-Town; 2012 SOHH: Katt Williams was so furious that he threatened to cancel his show in OTown today outtie 5000 v. to leave (gs, jg): 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: The answer is B-5 and I’m outtie 5000!; 2008

Grass City: I’m outtie 5000, my niggas!; 2012 Nicki Minaj: I told them outtie 5000! overstand v. to understand completely or have a profound knowledge (gs): 1999 Black and White, film: I understand. I overstand what I gotta do; 2009 Huffington Post: It’s impossible to overstand Iran’s attitude without looking at a map and comparing that with U.S. troop movements over the last 20 years; 2010 Manuuh: To overstand the history you don’t need to have a degree P pack v. to carry a firearm (cm, gs): 2005 South Florida Sun: Now, gun owners would say this incident proves the wisdom of packing a gun; 2006 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “She was packing heat!” “Relax, she’s a cop”; 2010 Thomas Sergent: He was packing a Uzi sub machine gun packing (or packin’) adj. having a large penis (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: She didn’t believe I was packin’ ’til I got with her; 2010 OK Cupid: I heard the nigga was packin’ but Dirk has the most beautiful dick I have ever seen; 2010 BlackMen4Now: I could only get half of his dick in my mouth. It was too big! This nigga was packin’! paddie see below paddy (or paddie) n. potentially offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1994 Prince: You see that rich motherfucker again, you know who I’m talkin’ about, that slicked paddy with all the gold in his mouth; 2002 Neil Henry: White people were so many things to Sonny – ofays, honkies, peckerwoods, paddies, depending on his mood and circumstance; 2010 Gaming: I’ve had it with these motherfucking paddies on this plane!

Glossary pail n. the stomach (bk, cm, jg): 2006 Brawl Hall: I think you should give him a shot in the pail; 2009 Tom Dalzell: Pail [is] the stomach; 2009 Scribed: His blood on his pail made it real somehow paper n. money (gs, rk): 1997 Orlando Sentinel: I penciled a note stating that he owed me paper; 2005 Coach Carter, film: “I got some paper for you!” “Now we’re talking!”; 2006 Crossover, film: That’s a lot of paper, dawg paper bag test n. a criterion for admission to a club or organization, based on skin color (bk): 2009 Austin AmericanStatesman: Obama is light enough to pass the paper bag test, while brownskinned first lady would flunk it; 2010 Fredericksburg Free Lance Star: For the federal government to ask school officials to make a visual judgment smacks of the Jim Crow-era paper bag test; 2010 Washington Post: I hope the old paper-bag test is a thing of the past paper chase n. the pursuit of money (gs): 1998 Scarface: Me and the homie’s all on paper chase; 2004 Lil Wayne: I’m on a paper chase until my toes bleed; 2009 Urban Dictionary: That nigga is on the paper chase fo’ sho, he got bills to pay parlay v. [1] to have a good time (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Snoop Dogg: We parlay, parlay everyday; 1995 Tupac Shakur: Come on to keep my temper low. I parlay with my friends. There’s really nowhere else to go; 2000 Mr. Dalvin: I gotta take you underground, parlay all day with the niggas from the Bassment sound [2] to wait patiently (gs, rk): 1995 Friday, film: So y’all just parlaying in here, huh?; 2004 Jamie Lowe: Pookie was parlaying in Durham now that I was home; 2010 Huffington Post: Juan has been parlaying too long

235 pay dues phr. to have a hard life or experience hardships and difficulties (cm, gs): 2008 YouTube: I got shit to lose, I’m a nigga out here payin’ my dues; 2010 Burbler: I got nothin’ to lose, payin’ dues; 2010 Terror Squad: Who them niggas that be breakin rules? Now who them niggas that be payin dues? pay no mind phr. to be indifferent to or consider insignificant (cm): 2004 Super Size Me, film: I never pay no mind to what calories are; 2009 Wonderful World, film: Pay no mind to what he says; 2010 My Space: I pay no mind ’cause they’re not worthy my time peace excl. [1] hello (rk): 1993 Us3: The “peace dude shit ain’t sayin’ nothin”; 1998 He Got Game, film: “Peace, bro!” “What’s up, man?”; 2000 If These Walls Could Talk 2, film: “Good morning!” “Peace, man!” [2] (or peace out) goodbye (gs, jg, rk): 2008 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: “It’s always nice talking to you, Sheldon!” “Peace out!”; 2009 Brooklyn’s Finest, film: “I’m going home to see my lady.” “Peace, man!”; 2009 Never Surrender, film: “Call us if you need anything.” “All right, guys. Peace, bro!” peace out see above peck see peckerwood peckawood see below peckerwood (or peckawood, peck) n. potentially offensive [1] a poor southern white, especially a farmer (bk, gs): 2002 New York Times: He has flicked away critics, calling them a bunch of peckerwoods; 2001 Charlotte Observer: You won’t get a fair shake from those peckerwoods; 2007 Ebony: “Peckerwood” was applied to poor whites and eventually became associated with whites in general [2] any white person, especially from the southern USA (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1999

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Glossary

Held Up, film: All you other peckerwoods, don’t fire unless you’re fired upon!; 2003 Cincinnati Enquirer: Those peckerwoods don’t know what they’re doing; 2011 Black Voices: Who helped those peckerwoods load us onto the ships? peep v. [1] (or peep out) to observe, examine or notice (gs, jg, rk): 2002 Men in Black II, film: Did you peep that drop-top thing out front?; 2002 Barbershop, film: Yo, peep this out. You got a reward if you turn this in; 2004 You Got Served, film: Are you peeping this, man? They’re taking all our moves [2] to discover or uncover, especially something meant to be secret (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Jay-Z: I peeped those and my mind is so advanced; 2006 Randy Kearse: I already peeped that about you; 2009 Atlanta Housewives: I peeped that about Lisa last season and I’m so sure that she is going to rise again [3] to pay attention and listen carefully (jg, rk): 1998 Can’t Hardly Wait, film: I mean, peep this: they say in here 92% of honeys at UCLA are sexually active; 2000 Bamboozled, film: Peep this. I’ll give you a thousand dollars if you can name who the fuck number twenty-four is right there; 2005 Apocalipps: Well, peep this, I ain’t even have to use the nine, I just picked up them briefcases like they was mine peeps n. [1] friends: 2000 Bamboozled, film: I know all about my peeps, my niggas in the ghetto; 2005 Beauty Shop, film: Now, since y’all my peeps, I’ma let you ladies pick Helen’s topic for the day; 2010 Examiner: Do you really know who your peeps are? [2] family (gs, jg): 1998 He Got Game, film: “These are my peeps right here.” “Yo, man, it’s your pops”; 2006 Air Buddies, film: I got mad love for my peeps right here; 2009 Big Bang

Theory, CBS-TV series: I got some chicken for my peeps peep things out phr. to observe, examine or notice what is happening (gs, jg): 1993 Philadelphia Daily News: I peep things out more when I’m blunting; 2008 Omar Tyree: I already peeped things out; 2009 Silverados: I peeped things out and here is what I found people (or peoples) n. friends (cm, rk): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: Call one of his peoples!; 2003 Bad Boys II, film: Two bags? You embarrassed me in front of my people; 2007 Public Enemy: Way back, my peoples gave me pride people of color phr. non-white people (gs): 1994 Public Enemy: We runnin outta time, people of color!; 2009 Ebony: For many years the bad guys were people of color; 2009 New York Times: It’s not hard to find gifts created for and by people of color this holiday season peoples see people perpetrate v. to pretend to be something one is not (gs, jg, rk): 2001 Supafly: I see niggaz perpetratin’ like they lovin’ L.A.; 2009 Gucci Mane: You fuckin player hater, bird-brain-ass nigga perpetratin the boss; 2013 Jon Connor: A lot of these rap niggas perpetrate phat adj. excellent or admirable (bk, gs, jg, rk): 2000 Colorado Springs Gazette: Hernandez said the incident began over the boys’ desire to steal a phat car; 2000 Bamboozled, film: I’m trying to live in a phat crib; 2002 8 Mile, film: We need fine bitches and phat rides piano n. spareribs, especially a single section of boiled or barbecued spareribs (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Piano [is] spareribs; 2003 New York Times: It includes a glossary of Harlem slang, in which piano on

Glossary a platter [is] spare ribs; 2009 ESubjects: Piano means spareribs pimp1 n. [1] a man who exploits or is supported by a woman (cm, gs): 2005 Be Cool, film: The way you’re dressed, you’re either a pimp or a limo driver; 2010 Minneapolis Star Tribune: At the time, it wasn’t too clear that he was a pimp; 2013 Newark Star-Ledger: Gandolfini was cast as a pimp [2] a seducer or womanizer, especially if very skillful (gs, rk): 1991 Ricochet, film: I punch hos and I smack up niggers, because I’m a pimp and a player; 2009 Bridge to Nowhere, film: I remember back in the day, I was a pimp; 2010 Twitter: Bitch, you lookin’ at a real pimp! pimp2 v. to exploit or take advantage of (cm, gs, rk): 1992 Arrested Development: They do dirty work and get pimped by mobsters; 2009 Field Negro: Some are pimping ideology, some are pimping fear, and some are even pimping religion; 2009 Ebony: Pimping technology in the 21st century has made many things more convenient pimpalicious adj. excellent or admirable: 2005 Young Buck: You gettin’ tempted cuz I’m pimpalicious; 2006 New York Times: The show ends with the owner’s first glimpse at the pimpalicious ride; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Man, that new car you bought is pimpalicious pimped out adj. elegant, stylish or welldressed (jg): 2004 My Baby’s Daddy, film: You look different, all pimped out; 2006 Snoop Dogg: Which one of y’all was checkin out this pimped out playa?; 2010 Bright Side: I don’t actually know what Pau was wearing but I am very confident that he was pimped out pimp juice n. [1] anything exciting and attractive to the opposite sex, especially money or status: 2003 Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film: Gotta have the

237 pimp juice!; 2005 Aaron Peckham: see that shorty? She wants my pimp juice; 2010 Astraweb: She wanna get me for my pimp juice [2] champagne, especially Crystal (rk): 2006 Snoop Dogg: It’s a ninety percent chance she gon’ get pimp juice; 2006 Chicago Tribune: Anyone find around 500 cases of pimp juice under their Christmas tree?; 2008 Little Britain USA, HBO-TV series: We would chill for a bit, have a glass or two of pimp juice pimp ride n. an expensive luxury automobile, especially if additionally accessorized (cm, jg): 2007 VW Vortex: I will never drive his pimp ride; 2009 Dorrough: Ask around, bet they tell you that I been fly, I had a pimp ride; 2007 Baltimore Sun: He should not be driving a pimp ride in the hood pimp-slap v. to slap someone with the back of one’s hand across the face (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Scary Movie 4, film: No one pimp-slaps Brenda!; 2009 Democratic Underground: I’m going to pimp-slap the next person who says that; 2009 I Can Do Bad All By Myself, film: Say one more thing, and I will pimp-slap you pimptastic adj. excellent or admirable (jg): 2005 Off Road: I got some new pimptastic wheels; 2006 Super Cars: Seattle is a pimptastic place; 2011 Urban Dictionary: That dress is pimptastic pimp walk n. a male style of walking or strutting with a slight dip in the stride, especially characteristic of pimps (cm, jg): 2009 Yada Yada Bible: Well, that’s where he got his pimp walk; 2009 Liberty News Forum: I don’t like his pimp walk. It’s unprofessional; 2010 Funny Junk: You call that a pimp walk? It looks like you need to take a dump pink (or pinkie, pinky) n. potentially offensive a white person, especially

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a woman (bk, cm, jg): 1996 Outkast: The pinks moved in; 2013 AntiRacist Workshop: The term was created by pinks to deny responsibility for systemic racism; 2013 Dead State: You just proved your racism by pigeonholing all whites (you say pinks) and Republicans pinkie, pinky see above pink toe (or pink toes) n. potentially offensive a white person, especially a woman (cm, gs, jg): 2010 Urban Dictionary: Brother, I met this fine pink toe last night; 2010 All Hip Hop: Everybody in here is saying they don’t find pink toes attractive. You fools is gay! If one nigga can be honest so can I: I love them!; 2011 Black Voices: The last thing I will do is to teach a pink toe how to satisfy my black kings pink toes see above pitch a bitch phr. potentially offensive to complain (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2002 New York Post: That way nobody can pitch a bitch about a late starting time; 2007 Gothamist: A New Yorker would be the first to pitch a bitch; 2009 Talk: My kids weren’t allowed to pitch a bitch for any reason PJ’s n. housing projects for the poor (bk, jg, rk): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: What you doin’ down in the PJ’s? You lost?; 2004 Everyday People, film: The people from the PJ’s ain’t gonna be spending their benjamins at Banana Republic, right?; 2010 My Space: Wyclef’s ‘PJ’s’ video was filmed in Marlboro projects in Brooklyn play v. [1] to womanize and take advantage of women (gs): 1988 Too Short: What is life? It is too short. I play bitches like it’s a sport; 2003 Three 6 Mafia: You play bitches and I mack hoes; 2012 New York University student: Playing is not for me. I’m not a playa [2] to deceive or outsmart (gs,

rk): 2000 Jay-Z: He’ll try to play you twice; 2003 Wire, HBO-TV series: You think brother played me? Can’t read lying eyes after all these years’; 2011 Mechanic, film: They played you so easily, that’s what bothers you playa see player playa hata see player hater player (or playa) n. a womanizer who takes advantage of women (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2004 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: I’m a bad man, I’m a player; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Lamar is such a playa, I seen him with Nikki last night but I know he’s with Amber, and Latasha thinks she’s his girl. He’s playin’ them all; 2009 Topix: Do you continue with a guy knowing he’s a player? player hater (or playa hata) n. an envious person who is trying to prevent someone from doing something successful or funny (gs, rk): 2006 Philadelphia Inquirer: In his former teammates’ eyes he’s essentially a player hater; 2009 News, CBS-TV program: Shame on you Mr. Lee and any one else who is a player hater on creative people; 2010 Washington Post: Don’t be such a player hater and give credit where it’s due play out v. to lose value, meaning or interest (gs, jg): 1995 Jayo Felony: Will I ever play out? Nigga, you know, never would; 2011 Atlanta JournalConstitution: The whole “keeping it real” got played out after the first episode; 2013 Amazon: I thought it played out fast play past phr. to circumvent obstacles or difficulties (cm, gs, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: The bitch is stubborn, but I can play past her bullshit; 2010 University of Alabama student: You gotta play past this stuff; 2012 Natural Freedom: Most of the books tell you how to play past that shit

Glossary play pussy and get fucked phr. very offensive to act weakly and suffer the consequences (gs, jg): 2008 Word of South: They played her, she played pussy and got fucked; 2009 YouTube: Play pussy and get fucked. That’s life; 2011 Facebook: For those who don’t know me, play pussy and get fucked! play the Dozens phr. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (gs, jg): 2006 Bobby, film: You Mexican boys can’t play the Dozens; 2010 Bleacher Report: After all, who in their right mind wants to hear Cornette and Russo play the dozens?; 2011 Entertainment Weekly: It meant to boost Fat Neil’s self-esteem and dishing out more nasty comments than Don playing the dozens pluck n. wine, especially cheap white (cm, gs, jg): 1995 U.N.L.V.: I didn’t give a fuck, I was drinkin’ pluck; 2006 Afrocentric: They see them standing on the corner drinking pluck; 2009 William Flores: These older hustlers would grandstand on the Boulevard while drinking pluck in plain view po-lice (or PO-lice) n. police (gs): 1994 Tupac Shakur: Hoes snitched to the PO-lice; 2009 Democratic Underground: You’re wanted by the po-lice, and my wife thinks you’re dead; 2010 Chappelle’s Show, WGN-TV program: A black man would never dream of talkin’ to the po-lice high, that’s a waste of weed! poor white trash (or po’ white trash, P.W.T.) n. potentially offensive a poor white person or poor white people, especially from the southern USA (cm, gs, jg): 2010 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: It was just those people, uneducated hillbillies, rednecks, crackers, poor white trash; 2011 Entertainment Weekly: They both are poor white trash; 2013 Straight

239 Dope: The P.W.T. were not on the bottom, the blacks were poot1 n. potentially offensive [1] expulsion of intestinal gas through anus (bk, cm): 2009 Blogspot: Does his poot smell like mine?; 2009 Otaku Booty: I didn’t necessarily hear a poot, but I feel like someone might have pooted; 2012 Imperfect Enjoyment: He muffled his poot by pulling his ass cheeks apart [2] excrement (bk): 1986 Village Voice: Did she think I usually walked around festooned in pigeon poot?; 2009 Green Daily: I’ll have to ignore you like a pile of dog poot and ask you to mind your own business; 2009 Yahoo Answers: Why does my dog step on its own poop when he goes outsie? [3] a contemptible or despicable person (bk): 2009 Net Cees: This site doesn’t revolve around you, you stupid poot!; 2011 Renn List: Previous owner has been a real poot. Didn’t tell me about some of the things that were wrong with the car, until today; 2013 Date Hookup: Aw come on, don’t be such a poot poot2 v. potentially offensive to expel intestinal gas through the anus (bk, cm, gs): 2006 ATL, film: Which one of y’all pooted?; 2009 Twitter: I picked up my cat and he pooted on me!; 2009 Fark: The real question is, does your dog poot then turn and look at its butt in surprise? poot around v. potentially offensive to waste time doing nothing (bk): 2004 Newsarama: Heck, I’d like to poot around all the time too but you go to work to do a job; 2009 YouTube: I’ve got some great locations for you to poot around!; 2009 Blogspot: It was the first time in a very long time that he and I went off like this for a whole day just pooting around poot-butt n. potentially offensive a lazy, unmotivated or stupid person

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(bk, cm, gs, jg): 1998 King Tee: You’ll look like a poot-butt!; 2001 Malcolm Kelly: “Some dudes just ain’t cut out for this type of lifestyle.” “Are you saying I’m a poot-butt?”; 2005 Afrocentric: People are such poot butts po-po n. police (jg, rk): 2002 CSI: Miami, CBS-TV series: I don’t need no po-po telling me what to do; 2008 Snoop Dogg: The po-po know, that’s why they on my dick; 2009 Southland, NBC-TV series: “Where’s the girl? Where’s she at now?” “Po-po came and got her” posse n. a group of young people (cm, gs, jk, rk): 1991 New York Magazine: Children call their circle of friends “crews” or “posses,” just like the dealers do; 2006 American Dreamz, film: Omer likes to hang out at the mall, where his posse all know him; 2013 Los Angeles Times: Evan and his posse stop at the Harley-Davidson museum pound v. to drink alcohol in large amounts, especially beer (gs, jg): 1994 Los Angeles Times: He doesn’t drink much of the hard stuff, but he sure can pound beer; 2012 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Did Clay have to pound beer the entire time?; 2013 Blogspot: Smokin’ pot, pounding vodka and hangin’ with hookers – and he’s still a better mayor than Olivia Chow would be po’ white trash see poor white trash profile phr. to boast or act in a showy way (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1995 Mobb Deep: Real niggas don’t try to profile; 1998 Mean Green: You out there profilin’ for them bitches; 2009 Topix: Quit your profiling, you really are a jerk projects n. housing projects for the poor (cm): 1998 Wu-Tang Clan: He’s an ordinary cat from outta projects; 2004 Dave Chapelle: For What It’s Worth, film: Cosby is a nigger from the

projects, and he might say some real shit from time to time; 2009 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: I was a kid living in the projects propers see below props (or propers) n. proper respect (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Ice-T: I get much props because I roll with the hardcore Gs; 1993 Us3: You’ve got to give me props, I’m on the way to the top; 2009 Ebony: I give you props for your journalizing style pump up v. to enliven or make more exciting and stimulating (gs, jg): 1999 Bowfinger, film: If I had more scenes with Kit, then that would really pumped up our scenes; 2012 Mac Daily News: I hear that Vince is available if Apple needs to pump up the presentation a bit; 2013 Los Angeles Times: They have wonderful source material, yet there is some need to pump it up pump up the volume phr. to play loud music (gs): 2010 News, CMT-TV program: Lynyrd Skynyrd pumped up the volume with the lascivious “What’s Your Name”; 2010 Olympian: It was a small audience, but they pumped up the volume, ending with a standing ovation; 2011 Daily Maverick: I won’t complain if you start to pump up the volume punk-ass adj. weak, timid or cowardly (jg, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: Fight me, you punk-ass bitch! I could end your shit now and nobody would even miss your ass; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: There you go, running off to your boys. Because you ain’t nothing but a punk-ass bitch!; 2012 YouTube: Punk-ass nigga runnin away, callin for backup put someone on front street phr. to expose someone’s secrets in public (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: I won’t let you put me on front street like that; 2008 Black Planet: They know

Glossary how to take care of they man and don’t put him on front street; 2009 Hip Hop DX: He tried to use her as a joke, and she put him on front street P.W.T. see poor white trash Q quick, fast and in a hurry see below quick, fast, in a hurry (or quick, fast and in a hurry) adv. very quickly or fast (gs, rk): 1995 Major Payne, film: I’m gonna fix that up quick, fast and in a hurry; 1998 Los Angeles Times: Quick fast in a hurry, I was makin’ crazy dollars; 2006 Big Momma’s House 2, film: I don’t care when it is, day or night, you just call me, okay? And I’ll come runnin’ quick, fast, and in a hurry quiet as kept, quiet as it’s kept see below quiet is kept (or quiet as kept, quiet as it’s kept) excl. let us keep it secret or confidential (gs, jg, rk): 2003 E-40: Quiet as it’s kept, I wanna retire but I can’t; 2006 Randy Kearse: Quiet is kept, I did hit dude’s girl over the summer; 2013 Twitter: Quiet as it’s kept, Steebie just paid off his debt! R race man n. a male African American activist (gs, jg): 1998 New York Times: What a race man signifies for the white segments of our society is not necessarily how a race man is defined for various black constituencies; 2008 News, CBC-TV program: In America, a race man is a black man who is fiercely proud of his race and deeply committed to the political and social advancement of blacks; 2009 Ebony: Despite his nerdy, oddball personality, he is a race man, caught up in all matters racial

241 race woman n. a female African American activist (gs, jg): 1992 Los Angeles Times: Billie Holiday referred to herself as a race woman; 2002 New York Newsday: I am a race woman, too, but of a different sort; 2008 Ebony: A race woman, she addresses the complexities of miscegenation, inter-racial identity, and bi-racial identity Rada see below Rado (or Rada) n. a Cadillac Eldorado automobile (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Ultimate Car Page: I’d have a big grin if I got to drive a ’Rado everyday; 2008 Car Lounge: Should I chill out cause I drive a rado?; 2012 Tumblr: Howzzit you drive a Rado? I’mma get one soon rain v. to complain (bk, cm): 2006 Public Enemy: We rain on Babylon; 2010 New Schoolers: He rained on your stupid thread sweep; 2010 Papers Past: Shells began to rain about it raise (or raise up) v. [1] to leave (bk, cm, gs, rk): 1993 Menace II Society, film: Nigger, hurry up! Come on, man! Let’s raise up!; 2000 Paul Beatty: You four motherfuckers need to raise. You all ain’t none of my social support network; 2012 Obie Trice: Nigga raise up, you can get bucked [2] to leave someone alone (jg, rk): 1993 Geto Boys: Think about it quick, and raise up, bitch!; 2006 Randy Kearse: Raise up dawg, can’t you see I’m busy; 2010 New York University student: Raise up motherfucker! raise up see above rap1 n. [1] a style of African American music where songs are rapidly spoken rather than actually sung, rooted in African American verbal tradition (cm, gs): 2003 Los Angeles Times: Whether you like rap or not, Eminem has about as much claim to the top Grammy as the winners of best spoken word or liner notes; 2005 Village Voice: It’s a good thing that white

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hipster kids listen to rap; 2008 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: I listen to contemporary rap [2] a song that is rapidly spoken rather than actually sung, rooted in African American verbal tradition (bk, cm): 1993 Us3: Yo, if you’re proud and black, you’ll listen to the rap; 2006 Public Enemy: We back with the rap that packs the room; 2009 Rolling Stone: He did a rap on one of Kool Moe D’s first albums [3] a talk or conversation, especially with a member of the opposite sex (cm, gs, rk): 1991 Chicago Tribune: I thought his rap was garbage; 2006 Randy Kearse: Ya man’s rap is some trash; 2008 Philadelphia Inquirer: It was an interesting rap about how the fastidious USA Network detective started a resurgence in TV shows rap2 v. [1] to peform a rap song (bk, cm): 1995 Tampa Tribune: A week later, they were rapping original songs like “Ain’t It A Shame”; 2000 Bamboozled, film: We rap better than most niggers; 2004 Snoop Dogg: I know you dig my rappin [2] to talk or converse, especially with a member of the opposite sex (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1995 Melrose Place, Fox-TV series: “Am I interrupting you?” “No, we were just rapping”; 2010 Huffington Post: Meetings often involved women going around the room and rapping about issues in their own lives; 2013 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: “I had a tought morning!” “You wanna talk about it? Let’s rap!” rap battle n. teasing, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner: 2010 Prefix Mag: According to Busta, he lost a serious rap battle to Jay-Z in high school; 2010 Hip Hop DX: One day, it was like at the end of the school year, and we had a rap battle in the middle of the school; 2010 Minnesota Daily: Minutes later,

they’re in a huddle just outside the front entrance, surrounding two among them in the heat of a freestyle rap battle rapper n. a performer of a rap song (bk, cm): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: He’s a rapper, not an actor; 1996 USA Today: I think a lot of rappers will pay homage to Tupac on their records; 2008 Ebony: I’ll say that 90 percent of rappers grew up without fathers rap song n. a song that is rapidly spoken rather than actually sung (bk): 2006 Jay-Z: I’m singin’ dirty rap songs; 2008 Ebony: In numerous rap songs rappers boast about their harems; 2009 Dallas Morning News: In the video, Bennett performed a rap song that included profanity Rasta n. a Rastafarian, member of a cultural and religious Jamaican movement originating in Ethiopia, associated with reggae music (gs): 1984 Bob Marley and the Wailers: The Bob Marley Story, film: Do you think any of the Rastas have been involved in the killings?; 1998 Half Baked, film: If you desperate, you can get it from the Rastas at Washington Square Park; 2010 News, ABC-TV program: Among Biblical verses Rastas quote as justifying the use of cannabis is Genesis 1:11 raw1 adv. potentially offensive without a condom (gs, rk): 2005 Realest Niggas: There’s a chick that I mess with that has her tubes tied, so I’ll go raw with her; 2006 Randy Kearse: You mean you tell me you went raw with Shortie?; 2010 New York Daily News: Tiger is a fool to go raw with her but I guess Tigers don’t get AIDS! raw2 n. cocaine (gs, rk): 1997 Jay-Z: I got that uncut raw; 2004 Master P: You snort raw, I got Peruvian pure; 2009 Comeup BMX: We used to sniff raw at his house every night cuz he lived next to my dealer

Glossary raw dog1 (or raw dawg) n. potentially offensive sex without a condom (gs, jg): 2006 Perry Halkitis: I just always called it raw dog, I didn’t know barebacking. Different people have different slang; 2009 Twitterific: Him and Tila are having raw dog; 2010 Actionext: Straight up the ass, raw dog with the rash and I don’t fuck wit the condoms raw dog2 (or raw dawg) adv. potentially offensive without a condom (gs, rk): 1997 Wu-Tang Clan: She wanted niggaz to fuck her raw dog; 2007 Where God Left His Shoes, film: You’re gonna have to bag it, because you can’t go raw dog these days; 2009 Omar Tyree: She lets me fuck her raw dog now, and cum all up in her until her ears pop realest adj. very real and authentic: 2008 Realest Niggas: That makes him the realest rapper alive; 2010 All Academic: This is the realest ghetto shit ever filmed; 2011 LA Weekly: This is one of the realest reality shows on TV real nigga see below real nigger (or real nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans an African American who is righteous, honest and trustworthy: 2007 Urban Dictionary: You don’t have to be a real nigga, but it helps; 2012 Hopsin: A real nigga stays out of jail, handles shit, and he keeps focused; 2013 Twitter: I respect real niggas, not these niggas that shoot at people rec n. a good time (rk): 2001 Lox: Some niggas live for peace and some niggas live for rec; 2006 Randy Kearse: This is how I do my rec; 2010 Hoops Hype: I’m not playing for rec. I’m playing to win and I’ll do whatever it takes recognize v. to show due respect and recognition (gs, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: Y’alls, niggaz, better recognize

243 and see where I’m comin from; 1994 Above the Rim, film: Recognize, motherfucker!; 2008 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: “So in your world, you are cool guys?” “Yep. Recognize!” Red, Black and Green n. a color combination suggesting strong identification with African Americans and their experience (cm, gs): 1999 Black World Today: I dream of the day when the Red, Black and Green will be on proud display by countless millions of African people in this country; 2006 Hip Hop Project, film: I see this brother with a kufi on, red, black, and green; 2011 Press of Atlantic City: They gathered to raise the Pan-African flag, with its bold colors of red, black and green, and to celebrate the successes of African Americans red bone n. potentially offensive a light-skinned African American (cm, jg): 1994 Nathan McCall: Liz thought I preferred red-bones; 2004 Johnson Family Vacation, film: “You is a hotbuttered red bone! Look at you, girl!” “Uncle Earl! Come man, that’s my wife!”; 2009 Bernard Satterwhite: The pretty red bone squinted her eyes at Calvin red eye n. a long and aggressive stare (gs, jg): 2007 Blogspot: My cat is giving me the red eye; 2009 Flickr: I feel a little bit scared of his red eye; 2010 University of Mississippi student: What’s with the red eye? What did I do? Remy n. Rémy Martin cognac: 1996 JayZ: My function is to make much and lay back sippin Remy on the rocks; 1999 Ice-T: Pop the Remy and kick back; 2001 Mac Dre: We drinkin’ Remy, doin’ heavy drugs rent party n. a party held to raise money to pay rent by charging guests for attendance (bk, cm): 1992 Wayne’s

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World, film: You got five bucks, you can come to the rent party; 1993 Irving Lewis Allen: One important aspect of Harlem’s indigenous nightlife grew from the custom of rent parties; 2001 New York Times: It was actually a rent party to help the organist rep see below represent (or rep) v. to represent, support and defend the reputation, especially of where one lives (gs, rk): 2004 WuTang Clan: I rep Brooklyn, home of the gangsta; 2003 Beaumont Enterprise: Though I rep my hood and rep my city, my music was for everybody from California to Cleveland to Chicago to Washington DC to New York; 2012 Los Angeles Times: I think this generation of youth wants to be able to “rep the hood,” as they say ride n. an automobile (cm, gs): 1991 Boyz in the Hood, film: Is this your ride? I want to drive it; 2000 Car and Driver: Many of us regard BMW as the world’s finest ride; 2005 Underclassman, film: Vintage ’65 Stingray! Whose ride is this? righteous adj. excellent or admirable (cm, gs): 1998 Wu-Tang Clan: Who is these righteous motherfuckers with their flags out?; 2005 Aaron Peckham: Man, that lasagna was righteous!; 2009 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: This is some righteous chronic righteous moss n. non-kinky hair, especially hair of a Caucasian sort (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 That ’70s Show, Fox-TV series: This righteous moss is a gift from God; 2007 Demopedia: You mean “righteous moss,” white peoples’ hair?; 2009 Democratic Underground: Righteous moss is white people’s hair right on excl. I approve or agree (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: “A small victory, is it?” “Right on, man!”; 2006 Two and a Half Men,

CBS-TV series: “We’re the bros and this is our hood!” “Right on!”; 2007 Black August, film: “Let’s give it up for Angela Davis!” “Right on!” rilla (or ’rilla) n. a street tough guy or thug (rk): 2008 Axe Murder Boyz: Y’all know me, I keep it real for the rillas, bustin’ off bullets in you sinners, we the God’s killas; 2009 Highlifter: You betta get you some rillas; 2010 Black Planet: You sayin’ you a rilla when you knowin’ you not rinctum n. the rectum (bk, jg): 2007 Thumblogger: To let his massive organ dig deeper into mama’s rinctum, fella holds her thighs tight; 2007 Blogspot: Don’t badmouth me, you motherfucker. I’ll skin your rinctum; 2009 Wikipedia: Rinctum is apparently slang for the rectum rip it phr. [1] to have a good time (gs): 2009 My Space: You guys ripped it. I had an awesome time, nice meeting you all; 2010 Kool G. Rap: Look at my life baby, I’m a eighties man rippin’ it, legendary cat play the path for y’all to get with it; 2013 Facebook: Last night we was rippin’ it at the Fifth with Guest DJ EFX! [2] to perform in an excellent or admirable way (gs, rk): 2008 XXL Magazine: Kanye ripped it last night; 2010 Rhymefest: We was rippin’ it every night, givin’ fans their fill; 2011 Black Voices: I saw them last month and they ripped it rip off v. [1] to swindle or cheat, especially by over-pricing (bk, cm, gs): 1991 My Own Private Idaho, film: Who ripped me off?; 2007 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: You’re just trying to rip me off; 2009 Ebony: Jewish, Arab and Korean shop owners had ripped off urban communities for years, selling us stale bread, and bad meat and wilted vegetables [2] to make a copy of or imitate something, especially if done illegally (cm, gs): 1998

Glossary Philadelphia Inquirer: Did Joseph Heller originate Catch-22 or did he rip it off from another writer?; 2008 Washington Post: Why buy mobile content when you can just rip it off from the Web?; 2011 House M.D., Fox-TV series: I’ve seen “Pulp Fiction,” you’re totally ripping off ripoff (or rip-off) n. [1] a swindle, especially by over-pricing (bk): 1991 Simpsons, Fox-TV series: Eighteen bucks for this? What a rip-off!; 2007 Gainesville Sun: Another gigantic ripoff happened years ago when oil companies lobbied politicians to fund the interstate highway system; 2010 Atlantic Monthly: It seems like a ripoff to pay around $100 [2] a copy or imitation, especially if illegal: 1997 South Park, Comedy Central TV series: Dude, these dolls are cheap rip-offs; 2007 Free Republic: They seem to have done a good job combating the Chinese ripoffs (one of which I’m now wearing); 2009 Ebony: The movie was a rip-off of the more expensive 1967 “The Dirty Dozen,” costarring the ultimate definition of black masculinity Jim Brown [3] (or ripoff artist, rip-off artist) a swindler, specially the one who over-prices (bk): 2007 State: This guy was saying I was a ripoff; 2008 New York Daily News: Prosecutors say Warshak is a ripoff artist, while defense lawyers suggest he was a victim of his own success; 2009 Sacramento Bee: She fears she’ll fall in with a ripoff artist who will take advantage ripoff artist, rip-off artist see above rip on v. to criticize and disrespect (jg): 2008 ESPN: He’d rip on me for being short and I’d fire back after he said something stupid; 2011 Mesquite Local News: In fact, during Xmas time I had a hater rip on me for using the term “Xmas”; 2011 Los Angeles Times:

245 Here I was, all ready with the bile, ready to rip on the Grammys for giving the trophy to Lady Gaga roach (or ’roach) n. potentially offensive a police officer (bk): 1991 Naked Lunch, film: The roaches will shit themselves to death; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I done seen a lotta roaches; 2010 YouTube: I guess the roach wanted his chance at stardom road dog (or road dawg) n. a close friend, especially one who spends much time with you (bk, gs, jg, rk): 2007 People Magazine: Usher was my road dawg. I’d seen him love, and I’d watched him date women who were not worthy of him; 2007 Philadelphia Daily News: I’m Lisa and I have the pleasure of introducing my best friend, my boo, my road dawg, did I leave anything out?; 2010 Style List: I have my childhood friends and Hollywood friends and my homeboys and my road dogs and my office staff rock the house phr. to perform in an excellent or admirable way (gs, rk): 2008 Ebony: Barack Obama was fashionably late to Denver but promptly rocked the house; 2010 Montgomery County Courier: He rocked the house playing a lot of his most popular songs mixed in with some of his new material; 2010 Boston Globe: Live bands rock the house every weekend Rokee (or ’Rokee) n. a Jeep Cherokee automobile (gs): 2005 Monkey Cage: He drives a Rokee; 2009 Wow 4X4: It’s less work and cheaper to go buy a new Rokee; 2009 Jeep Forum: This is an old Rokee I used to have roll (or roll out) v. to leave (gs, rk): 1999 Blue Streak, film: Let’s roll! Let’s get out of here; 2003 Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film: I really wanna roll out with you guys; 2006 Monk, NBC-TV series: Are you ready to roll? roll out see above

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roughneck n. a street tough guy or thug (rk): 1997 Charlotte Observer: Recently he felt it had attracted some roughnecks; 2010 Saturday Night Live, NBC-TV program: He’s a roughneck, but he looks like a young Denzel; 2013 Los Angeles Times: She knew he had a criminal past. This chick liked roughnecks rusty-dusty n. the buttocks (bk, cm): 1999 B.B. King: Get up off your big, fat rusty-dusty, don’t you hear me woman?; 2009 Bossip: No one forced him to get up off his rusty-dusty and file that; 2010 Dolemite Ebonics: Get off your ole’ rusty-dusty and bring me back some cognac, biyatch! S saddity see seddity salt-and-pepper adj. interracial, especially occupied or patronized by both African Americans and whites (cm, jg): 1996 Tuscaloosa News: Whites and black live together harmoniously. I like living in a salt and pepper neighborhood; 2002 Dark Blue, film: It was a salt-and-pepper team. A safecracking spook and a blue-eyed peckerwood; 2011 AZ Central: She loves her salt-and-pepper neighborhood, even though some buyers would shy away from the Palomino area where she lives salty adj. irritated, angry or hostile (bk, cm, gs, rk): 1996 Set It Off, film: “Fuck all y’all!” “Cleo, don’t get salty!”; 2009 Police World: You shouldn’t get salty toward me from talking down on these particular officers just because you yourself are a cop; 2013 Bitch Magazine: People are salty because she has the nerve to show her real-woman boobs on TV Sapphire n. a contemptible or despicable woman, especially if aggressive (cm,

gs, jg): 2008 Word Press: Sapphires are blamed for the weak position of their men in society; 2012 Beyond Black and White: That’s because you’re an angry black woman, a Sapphire to be exact; 2013 Answers: One of the most pervasive stereotypes of African American women, Sapphire is an overly aggressive, domineering female say what excl. give me more information (bk, cm, gs): 1995 Heat, film: Say what? You said his name was Slick?; 2001 Baby Boy, film: “I want to get saved!” “Say what, bruh?”; 2009 Ebony: Whoopi says it wasn’t raperape. Say what? scag see skag scaggy see skaggy scandalous adj. untrustworthy and deceitful, especially if ruthless (gs, jg, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: I heard that bullshit. Wink is scandalous, dawg; 2006 Randy Kearse: Thanks to your sister and her scandalous friends, my girl found out; 2009 Ebony: She’s a scandalous beauty scank see skank scanky see skanky scratch n. money (cm, gs, rk): 2009 Babylon: If we sell these bottles, we’ll have enough scratch to buy cigarettes; 2009 New York Times: We owe every bookmaker at the track, and now we are out trying to raise some scratch to pay off; 2010 PC World: He didn’t even have enough scratch to afford a ticket scream on v. to criticize and disrespect (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Dr. Dre: Then Miss Thing tried to scream on my brethren; 2001 News, MTV-TV program: They heard the album, now they want to scream on me; 2009 World Star Hip Hop: Niggaz should scream on him for that seddity (or saddity) adj. self-important or arrogant (cm, jg): 1994 Atlanta

Glossary Journal-Constitution: His seddity colleagues in academia are faking the funk by pursuing more arcane subjects; 1998 Philadelphia Inquirer: Just ’cuz we got the mayor and the bishops here, don’t get all saddity; 2007 Nah Right: Bryant has the attitude of a saddity white bitch sell a wolf ticket (or sell a woof ticket) phr. to threaten by using strong and boastful language (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1986 Philadelphia Daily News: Selling a wolf ticket means the act of intimidation; 2006 Blogspot: Israel is selling woof tickets about striking Russian arms shipments; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: Lester Freamon is not in the habit of selling wolf tickets sell a woof ticket see above sell-out n. an African American who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (gs, rk): 1994 Arrested Development: To me you’re a sell-out and Uncle Tom; 2000 Bamboozled, film: You have been called a traitor, a sell-out; 2009 Realest Niggas: They’re sell-outs who got out the hood and forgot where they came from send v. to excite or arouse keen admiration (cm, gs): 2008 Live Journal: Quotes like this really send me and turn me on; 2009 Well Sphere: There were some recipes for scones in VCon, but no flavor combinations that really sent me, and I didn’t have any of the needed ingredients; 2010 Blogspot: I’ve book-marked dozens of pages, so as to more easily return to the poems that really send me serious adj. excellent or admirable (bk, gs, jg): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: That was a serious cake; 2008 Chicago Tribune: This is a very serious apartment; 2008 TMZ: They spent two years fixing it, and turned it into a serious crib serious as a heart attack phr. very serious (gs): 2000 Jealous Fellas: We

247 ain’t gonna play, nigga. We serious as a heart attack; 2011 Bleacher Report: Let me start off by saying that this is strictly a rumor, so don’t take this as serious as a heart attack; 2011 Youngstown Vindicator: They’ve gotta know we’re as serious as a heart attack serve v. [1] potentially offensive to provide sexual favors to (gs): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: I just want to be the one to serve you; 2009 Literotica: He telling me how he liked how his latest bitch served him; 2010 Kanye West: I used to serve that bitch [2] to beat, strike or hit (gs, rk): 2009 YouTube: He stood up to the little faggot and he got served; 2010 Dion Perkins: That motherfucker got served; 2010 Gaia Online: I’m glad she got served for what she did [3] to outdo one’s opponent or competitor (gs, rk): 1999 Ice-T: I’ve served so many rappers; 2004 You Got Served, film: You’re just mad ’cause tonight you suckas got served!; 2006 Randy Kearse: She served Shortie in the last set set n. [1] a group of people (cm, gs): 2001 Snoop Dogg: I disrespect the set; 2008 Wire, HBO-TV series: We’ll do with you and your set but no one else; 2009 Authorama: They did not belong to our set. We had never been thrown together before [2] a party or a social gathering (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1990 Mo’ Better Blues, film: Nice set! You see them girls out in front?; 2000 Paul Beatty: Where the set at tonight? I need to get loose; 2009 Blaster Newsletter: Gene pounding down beers all through the set [3] a neighborhood (gs, jg, rk): 1996 Don’t Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood, film: He’s the most dangerous O.G. on the set; 1998 MC Ren: We from the same set, but that don’t mean shit no mo’; 2006 Psych,

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film: A murderer is wandering around loose on my set seven digits (or 7 digits) n. a telephone number (jg): 1999 Washington Post: You didn’t just go up to a girl and ask her for her seven digits; 2002 8 Mile, film: Wink got more than seven digits from your bitch; 2007 Sartorialist: I need his seven digits cause this guy is fly seven-thirty (or 730, 7:30) adj. insane or mentally unstable, especially if dangerous (jg, rk): 1998 DMX: I got an army of 730 niggas that come through and worry niggas; 1999 Kelis: Word is he’s seven-thirty, all I know this so-called psycho never hurt me; 2011 Pure Graffiti: What 730 bitch came up with that shit! sex v. [1] to have sex (rk): 2004 Dirty Shame, film: Let’s go sexing!; 2009 Yahoo Answers: If you have been sexing for a while, then she probably feels like a slut; 2010 Facebook: He had a really interesting tattoo on his penis and then oooppps! We were sexing! [2] to have sex with: 1997 Jay-Z: I know what they want, they want to sex me; 2007 Voice: The incident occurred in October, when she discovered her husband had sexed her niece; 2009 Squidge: He has been careful and has been using condoms every time he has been sexing her sexcellent adj. attractive, especially sexually (rk): 2004 OC Weekly: That’s not what we all want to learn about the sexcellent Tawny K!; 2005 Aaron Peckham: That was some sexcellent parallel parking; 2009 Wordnik: Wow, that is a really sexcellent unit SFC (or S.F.C.) n. San Francisco, California (jg): 2009 Bay Undaground: How did you hook up with San Quinn and Sky Balla from SFC?; 2010 City Data: I am interested in purchasing a home in SFC; 2010 Rap Music: The

most original soundz comin out from SFC shiznit n. [1] excrement (rk): 2005 Kid Robot: I woulda taken a shiznit on the floor right there; 2009 Us Magazine: Obesity is a way bigger problem than anorexia or bulimia and yet who gets more shiznit?; 2013 University of California student: The place reeked of shiznit [2] nonsense (rk): 2007 Zachary Scribe: I was confounded by all this Mormon shiznit; 2010 Us Magazine: You haters that believe that shiznit are just as bad as the tabloids; 2010 Palm Beach Post: When I said it, I wasn’t talking shiznit [3] something inferior or worthless (jg, rk): 2008 Body Building: Who in the effing hell would buy this shiznit?; 2010 Yahoo Answers: Throw that shiznit away before you hurt yourself; 2014 Twitter: This Shiznit is just too much [4] something irritating (rk): 2005 PB Nation: I need to get rid of this shiznit; 2009 Facebook: I’m sick and tired of this shiznit; 2013 My Space: Keep that shiznit away from me [5] an excellent or admirable person or thing (jg, rk): 2005 Aaron Peckham: Damn! Your new ride is the shiznit! Lemme borrow it to drive by Mya’s; 2009 CNET: If you are a gamer looking for a laptop that is under $800 then this thing is the shiznit; 2010 My Space: She is the shiznit and she is super sexy! shizzle1 n. [1] excrement: 2006 Wake Skating: I didn’t quite make it to the bathroom on time and now I gotta clean the shizzle off the back of my calves; 2010 HF Boards: Hey, man, we’re stopping for a shizzle; 2010 University of Alabama student: Dude, you got shizzle on your shoe [2] nonsense: 2007 Muckracker: They are so full of shizzle: every week it’s this and that based on top secret evidence; 2009

Glossary Wake Skating: How did I ever listen to this shizzle?; 2009 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Bernadette, say some shizzle about the dizzle! [3] something inferior or worthless: 2002 Esato: Let the piece of shizzle drain itself; 2007 My Space: I would also like to meet girls who are fun to hang around with not sluts or hoes or any of that type of shizzle; 2008 Blogspot: I take full responsibility for this shizzle [4] something irritating: 2000 University of Tennessee student: Get rid of this shizzle, it’s useless; 2006 Kentucky Krawlers: I’m trying to get rid of this shizzle; 2006 Denver Broncos: Karma is a shizzle [5] an excellent or admirable person or thing: 2007 I Could Never Be Your Woman, film: It’s called the “shizzle.” It means the new cool stuff; 2009 My Space: Dude that place is the shizzle!; 2010 CNET: Steve Jobs may try to say that the iPad is the shizzle, but let’s all admit that he gets an A for creativity shizzle2 adj. certain: 2005 Pearl Drummers Forum: Give us an honest answer. Are you shizzle?; 2008 Fargo Hardcore: I’m not shizzle if you noticed, but it’s May 10th; 2010 Bebo: Everything is shizzle shoot the gift phr. [1] to rap very well (cm, jg): 1988 Big Daddy Kane: As I shoot the gift, MC’s stand stiff, while my rhymes stick to you like Skippy and Jif; 1992 Das EFX: Crazy Drayzie shot the sheriff, and I shot the gift; 2005 Shad: Maybe he could tell me if I got the talent. All I wanna do is shoot the gift [2] to talk or chitchat, especially in a graceful or convincing way (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Yo go over there and shoot the gift to them cuties; 2008 Google Groups: It would be great to shoot the gift with you; 2009 Notorious B.I.G.: I ain’t got the time to shoot the gift to hoes, I’m tryin to take bankroll

249 shoot the shit phr. potentially offensive to talk or chitchat (gs): 2005 Coach Carter, film: Yo! I’d love to shoot the shit with you bitches all night, but I gotta go; 2007 Time Out New York: We shoot the shit, I make dinner, and we watch TV; 2010 Village Voice: He’s shooting the shit with guys on the corner short n. an automobile (cm, gs): 2003 Tom McArthur: Homeboy be steady drivin dat short!; 1994 Clarence Major: Short [is] an automobile; 2006 Tom Arnold: “Cool short?” I asked. “Yeah, cool short. You know, nice car” shortie see below shorty (or shortie) n. [1] a young person (jg, rk): 1998 Wu-Tang Clan: The shorties are watchin’; 2000 Jay-Z: What’s the problem, shorty?; 2004 Wire, HBO-TV series: Can you see that shorty sitting tight there? [2] a young woman, especially one’s girlfriend (gs, jg, rk): 2006 ATL, film: We knew everybody from the security guards to the hottest shorties; 2009 Dancehall Reggae: You know my ex shortie. I think your new girl looks bettah; 2009 Ebony: You can be my shorty [3] a child (jg, rk): 2000 Paul Beatty: Look at y’all niggers, niggers I’ve known since back in the day when we was shorter than shorties; 2006 Randy Kearse: I’m expecting a lil shortie in November; 2012 Twitter: This was my nigga when I was a shortie shout-out n. an acknowledgment given to someone via the media, especially on the radio or television show (gs, rk): 1993 CB4, film: Give ’em a shout-out!; 2006 Snoop Dogg: I gotta send this shout-out to the Brownside too; 2009 Ebony: I have to say, getting a shoutout from the Vice President is definitely one way to end your trip on a positive note

250

Glossary

show and prove phr. to provide hard and concrete proof (gs, jg, rk): 1993 IceT: You got black skin, still you gotta show and prove, friend!; 2000 Jay-Z: Y’all always pull that shit, but its time to show and prove; 2011 Hip Hop Press: He is an Asian American rapper who stands to show and prove that race is irrelevant as long as you have will and talent show someone some love n. to show someone one’s respect or appreciation (gs, rk): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: Show me some fucking love, McNulty!; 2002 Paid in Full, film: You know, the nigga definitely showed me some love; 2003 Black Planet: Show me some love, don’t be a baller-blocker shuck1 n. [1] deception or misleading (bk, jg): 1996 Heaven’s Prisoners, film: He was trying to give me some sort of shuck about one of the people on the plane; 2009 Democratic Underground: Sounds more like he wants to do a shuck; 2010 White Negro: Elections are rigged and the whole political game is a shuck [2] someone who deceives or misleads: 1998 My Giant, film: I may sell Cadillacs, but I’m not a shuck; 2008 Hot Rodders: It isn’t that I feel something about the owner like he is a shuck or something; 2010 Kites, film: “How much do you want?” “I’ll give you twenty thousand dollars.” “You sick shuck!” “I’ll give you one million dollars” shuck2 (shuck and jive) v. [1] to deceive or mislead (bk, cm, jg): 2008 Wire, HBO-TV series: No shucking, no jiving, just honest police work, how about that, Jimmy?; 2008 Washington Times: Several Obama folks cried that “shuck and jive” is racial code for deceit and cheating; 2011 Norman Spinrad: Sophia was right about you. Don’t try to shuck me any more [2] to joke or tease (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1991

USA Today: Having just completed his set, Mark Murphy is shucking and jiving in the dressing room; 2000 Bamboozled, film: You’ll go singing and dancing, shucking and jiving, good fun home entertainment; 2008 Atlantic Free Press: You can’t shuck and jive at a press conference shuck and jive see above sick adj. excellent or admirable (rk): 2002 Big Fat Liar, film: He bought like the sickest pad in the 90210. We’re talking mondo bucks; 2003 Old School, film: Everybody loves those guys. They throw the sickest parties; 2009 Team Ninja: The new Bugatti is one sick car! sick dick phr. potentially offensive a sexually transmitted disease (rk): 1993 Onyx: He got too slick, now he got a sick dick; 2007 Perez Hilton: You would never look at a hot piece of ass like her and think you could get a sick dick but you can; 2009 Media Takeout: He got cursed with the sick dick sig (or sigg) v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (cm, gs, jg): 1989 Henry Louis Gates: He defines sigging as “language behavior that makes implications of baiting or boasting, the essense of which is making fun of another’s appearance, relatives”; 1994 Chicago Tribune: It’s sometimes called “capping” or “sigging,” which is short for signifying. The universal term is playing the dozens; 2003 Urban Dictionary: This nigga be siggin cuz! signify v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 James Haskins: There are many different terms for playing the dozens, including dissing, joning, ribbing, signifying and sounding; 2009 Old Cop: He said he’d been drinking in Rabbit’s and someone started signifyin’ on him;

Glossary 2010 Nathaniel Turner: We are the masters of the dozens and signifying silk n. potentially offensive a white person, especially a woman (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1987 Carsten Stroud: Did the silks on the Knapp Commission ever ask about the rate of drug busts?; 1994 Clarence Major: Silk [is] a white girl or woman; 2010 Gaia Online: Who’s a silk who keep doin that? silly-ass adj. very silly (cm, gs, jg): 1996 Ice-T: The silly-ass bitch is runnin around with a gold chain; 2007 Black August, film: Dress me up in that sillyass uniform and string metals around my neck!; 2009 News, MTV-TV program: They are the main people you need in your life right now, not some silly-ass boyfriend since day one phr. from the very beginning (gs): 1993 Us3: My main man and me, we’ve been cool since day one; 2011 Muncie Star Press: They’ve been there since day one; 2011 Computerworld: I’ve had an iPad since day one sis see sister sista see below sister (or sista, sis) n. an African American woman (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: If we don’t respect our sisters, who will?; 2004 Snoop Dogg: The cute lil sista with the fever blista said that I dissed her; 2009 Urban Daily: There’s nothing like a sexy sister. I’m no racist, but I must admit I don’t even look at white women in a sexual matter skag (or scag) n. an unattractive woman, especially if also sexually promiscuous (bk, cm, jg): 2000 Lawrence JournalWorld: You looked like a real skag; 2010 My Space: We all know she’s a skag except for her ass; 2011 Chimp Out: I’ve had women a lot better looking than either of these scags, and I’m ugly like ten mofos

251 skaggy (or scaggy) adj. unattractive, and often sexually promiscuous (jg): 2009 Gamespite: Basically, she’s portrayed as a skaggy middle-aged lady that everyone tolerates because they need to meet in her bar; 2009 USA Sex Guide: There was this very scaggy, skinny ho hanging out the door; 2009 Holy Lemon: She’s a skaggy whore skank (or scank) n. [1] an unattractive woman, especially if also sexually promiscuous (bk, gs, jg): 1994 Reality Bites, film: That pales in comparison to the tweaked-out little skanks you date; 2001 John Moore: Man, she was a real skank in high school; 2006 Joey Hendrix: She’s a scank, I wouldn’t of even touched her after you left [2] a prostitute (bk): 2007 Shield, FX-TV series: All the scanks you hired are light-skinned with fine bodies; 2008 Cook, film: Those scanks will probably end up gang-raped; 2009 Detroit Free Press: My fiancée, who is very beautiful with a vivacious personality, has begun dressing like a total skank skanky (or scanky) adj. unattractive, and often sexually promiscuous (bk, jg): 2006 Dennis Rodman: I’m just not gonna go through that anymore over some skanky chick; 2010 Us Magazine: I’m sick of having this truly beautiful woman compared to scanky Jolie; 2011 Hollywood Life: If you asked me to describe Brooke, words like “skanky” and “insecure” would quickly come to mind skate v. [1] to leave: 1980 Blues Brothers, film: Everything’s gonna be all right. Let’s skate; 2000 Jay-Z: It wasn’t fair to tell you to wait, so I told you to skate; 2000 Snoop Dogg: I appreciate the way y’all skate when the clock hit eight [2] to get away with something, especially to avoid paying a debt (bk, cm, jg): 1991 David Simon: They could both skate any controversy by

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Glossary

scarificing Worden; 2009 Southland, NBC-TV series: You know how many times we tried to take her away? She skates every time; 2009 Michigan Credit Lawyer: Consumers beware! You may have skated past the creditor, but you may not be as lucky with the I.R.S. skeeze1 n. a sexually promiscuous woman (jg): 1985 Krush Grove, film: I heard you was with some skeezes last night; 2002 Crossroads, film: Everyone thinks you’re a trailer-trash skeeze; 2008 Tenth Circle, film: Man, what do you care? She’s just some skeeze you dumped skeeze2 v. to have sex with (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: All he’s tryin’ to do is skeeze you; 2009 Baller Alert: I don’t know whether he married her, or just skeezed her; 2009 Film Bug: I wish I could skeeze her skeezer n. a sexually promiscuous woman (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1992 Dr. Dre: The bus is full of skeezers; 1993 CB4, film: I am not a girlie, a skeezer, a hoochie or a stunt. And most certainly, not a ho; 2002 25th Hour, film: She ain’t nothing but a spic skeezer skeezy adj. sexually promiscuous: 1990 Grand Daddy I.U.: My man Easy Rick picks a skeezy chick; 1999 10 Things I Hate About You, film: I’m a crack whore who should have made my skeezy boyfriend wear a condom?; 2008 Word Press: His skeezy girlfriend is a sexual magnet for everyone except him skillz n. [1] ability to rap very well (gs): 1994 Michigan Daily: However, Da Brat’s rapping skillz aren’t all that; 2005 Louisville Courier-Journal: Shaq’s rapping skillz are indeed questionable; 2010 Rap Weekly: He is an inspiring and talented emcee who is constantly improving his rap skillz [2]

high ability in any area (gs, jg): 2011 ZDNet: It took some very clever hacking skillz to crack that terrible Windows security shell; 2011 Chicago Tribune: Po is a sixth member of the Furious Five, meting out justice with his mad kung fu skillz; 2013 Facebook: Wow, sista had skillz! skin and grin phr. to act in an overly friendly and happy manner (gs, jg): 2005 Blogspot: They’ll skin and grin while they are getting what they want from you; 2007 Berkeley Daily Planet: I’ve always been about doing my job, never about skinning and grinning in front of the camera; 2011 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: I’m pleasant but I don’t skin and grin skins n. [1] sex or the sex act (gs, rk): 1999 Ice-T: We hit skins all weekend. We didn’t even eat, we just hit em again; 2006 Randy Kearse: How was the skins?; 2009 Notorious, film: Give me the skins without askin’ [2] women as sex objects or partners (gs): 1993 Us3: I don’t give a damn anyway, hey, skins are skins!; 1998 Belly, film: Make them skins cry!; 2013 Twitter: We ain’t lookin for skins, we lookin for beautiful women with their head on skrill (or skrilla) n. money (jg): 2005 Aaron Peckham: Shit, even with this job, I need more skrilla; 2006 Blue Light: The mothafucking G’s making plenty of skrill; 2008 XXL Magazine: It’s good that he’s lookin’ for alternate routes to obtain some skrilla skunk n. very strong marijuana (jg, rk): 2000 Snoop Dogg: I got fat bags of skunk; 2007 Washington Post: He had been suffering from paranoid schizophrenia and regularly smoked skunk; 2009 Notorious, film: I’m far from cheap, I smoke skunk with my peeps all day slam v. potentially offensive to have sex with (gs, jg, rk): 1997 Liar

Glossary Liar, film: You had sex with her? You slammed her?; 2009 Word Press: You want to slam her butt; 2013 Literotica: Davey continued to slam her from behind slam dunk n. something or someone certain to win, especially with ease (cm, gs): 2011 Cherry Hill Courier Post: Emerson was confident his pick was a slam dunk; 2011 Pittsburgh PostGazette: It was a slam dunk a couple of weeks ago that Pitt would win the Conference; 2011 News, KGBT-TV program: I thought it was a slam dunk. I really thought I had the job slam-dunk v. to win or defeat someone easily: 2011 Indianapolis Star: We’ve been given a closer look at the Republican agenda that would have been slam-dunked, with only a minimum of debate; 2011 Motley Fool: Its deal could lure in new customers while slam-dunking some of Starbucks’ plans for a better foothold in the market; 2011 NOLA: Yes, we can do it, we want to slam-dunk the test slamming (or slammin’) adj. excellent or admirable (cm, gs, rk): 1992 Juice, film: “Was the last party serious?” “It was slammin’”; 2009 Scrubs, ABC-TV series: Elliot has a slammin’ tushie; 2009 Spring Breakdown, film: “Gayle, what are you wearing?” “My boo loaned it to me. Slammin’, huh?” slang v. to sell drugs (gs, jg): 2004 T.I.: Niggas slanging blow, pimping hoes; 2007 Urban Justice, film: That way I can get a bird’s-eye view of my territory. I can watch the little soldiers slanging and banging; 2012 Currensy: My young niggas slanging where them users is slap skins (or slap the skins) phr. to have sex (jg): 2009 Urban Dictionary: I wanna slap skins with Tanya real bad; 2009 Vagrant Cafe: I also dreamed that Beth Jackson and

253 I were slapping skins; 2009 My Space: Ruksie went to The Game concert last night, fucking slapped skins with him! slap someone five phr. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation (bk, cm): 1999 New York Post: He would always give me a hug or slap me five or whatever; 1999 Kansas City Star: He slapped me five and we went on; 2010 DMX: You don’t gotta slap me five or give me a hug slap someone some skin phr. to shake hands with someone or slap someone’s hand in greeting or congratulation (jg): 2007 Yahoo Answers: Your boss tries to dentify with you by saying “slap me some skin, bro”; 2009 Atlanta Metromix: Slap me some skin, buddy!; 2010 Huffington Post: Slap me some skin, baby! slap the skins see slap skins slave n. a job (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1986 New York Magazine: You got a job, man. You got a slave; 1990 Scott Newhall: He couldn’t get a slave, he apparently drank all the travel money up; 2009 Experience Project: Are you looking for a new slave? slide v. to leave (cm, gs, rk): 1992 Dr. Dre: Don’t think I forgot and I’ll let you slide; 1998 He Got Game, film: Let’s slide off to A.C., J-man!; 1999 Lil Keke: Let’s slide and ride, hit a mall or two! smart-ass adj. annoyingly knowledgeable and arrogant (cm): 1986 Youngblood, film: He’s just a smart-ass kid; 1996 Black Sheep, film: Donnelly had a smart-ass comment to make after everything I said; 2013 Huffington Post: You’ll find somebody making a cynical, hateful, or smartass remark smash1 v. potentially offensive to have sex with (gs, rk): 2004 Snoop Dogg: I come to smash yo’ ass; 2006 Randy Kearse: How long did it take

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you to smash shortie?; 2010 Campus Gossip: She was a virgin, my nigga smashed her smash2 n. wine (bk, cm, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Sam can’t get along without his smash first thing in the morning; 2009 Art Primo: I’m gonna do a vid of me drinking smash; 2010 Orbiter Forum: He may have had too much smash at that point smoking (or smokin’) adj. excellent or admirable (rk): 2000 Ice Cube: I can’t exactly blame him: she’s one smokin’ ho’; 2008 Wrestler, film: Damn, look at you! You are really smokin’, baby!; 2008 Chattanoogan: How about that smokin car in the commercial? snake1 n. a traitor, especially an informant (cm, gs, rk): 2006 Dreamgirls, film: Boy, you’re a real snake!; 2007 Wu-Tang Clan: Keep niggaz outta ya face who are snakes; 2009 Jay-Z: He’s a fuckin’ snake, you niggaz are fuckin blind to facts! snake2 v. to betray, especially by being an informant (rk): 1986 Delta Force, film: Those bastards snaked us, boss! I’m gonna go get ’em!; 2006 Sherry Baby, film: You snaked me with that bitch, Bobby. I can’t trust you; 2010 Runways, film: I’ve got some bad news. He snaked us snap1 v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1994 Philadelphia Inquirer: Snapping is closely related to other forms of verbal expression common among black folk; 2000 Outkast: We be readily rappin’ and snappin’; 2009 Twitter: I’m a person who loves to snap snap2 n. a retort or provocative rhyming comment made in a gamelike manner, especially in order to tease (cm, gs, jg, jk): 2006 John Ridley: He used to crack wise. Call it snaps, call it the

dozens. Call it a sense of humor; 2008 Frontlines: It’s the little bitter snap you made before you took the time to post your honest opinion that got the intended reaction; 2011 Kent Harmon: He seemed to ignore his snap and continued snow1 n. potentially offensive a white person, especially a woman (cm, gs, jg): 1994 Clarence Major: Snow [is] a white female; 2007 Trik Forum: I hate those fuckin’ snows, especially that fuckin fag; 2005 Urban Dictionary: Let’s go pick up some snows to bang snow2 adj. potentially offensive (of a person) white (jg): 2012 Brown Pride: Do I need to state the obvious? She’s a snow girl. I’m not into white chicks; 2012 SOHH: Z-RO has more talent than Ti but Ti sells more records because the snow girls like Ti and if the snow girls like you, you’re going to sell records; 2013 YouTube: It leads to an affair with a sexy snow vixen snowball n. potentially offensive [1] a white person: 2007 Forum Site: I’m white but if someone called me a snowball, I would laugh; 2010 All Recipes: If the woman was here, you wouldn’t call her a snowball, would you? Of course not, we don’t know her ethnicity; 2011 Tumblr: Niggas always tryin to start shit wit dem snowballs [2] an African American man with white hair (cm): 1994 Clarence Major: Snowball [is] a “Negro” male with white hair; 2012 Columbia University student: They called him a snowball because his hair was white; 2012 Django Unchained, film: Who the hell are you calling a “snowball”? snow bunny n. potentially offensive a white woman, especially young (gs): 2003 Shredder, film: Look at the snow bunny! Hey, hottie! Over here!; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: I got a

Glossary snow bunny and a black girl too. You pay the right price and they’ll both do you; 2009 YouTube: I got these two snow bunnies in Venice Beach snowflake n. potentially offensive a white person (jg): 1986 Vamp, film: I thought that snowflake had killed you; 2005 Prison Break, Fox-TV series: You think you can play me, snowflake?; 2009 All Hip Hop: It don’t matter if I marry Suzie, the fuckin’ snowflake some n. sex or the sex act (cm, gs): 2000 Geneva Smitherman: She was actin all evil, girl musta need some; 2002 For da Love of Money, film: There’s three future baby mamas up in here tonight. If you had some rhythm, maybe you’d be gettin’ some; 2004 Snoop Dogg: I just gotta know before you let me get some sorry-ass adj. pathetic or contemptible (jg): 1995 Strange Days, film: Pussywhipped, sorry-ass motherfucker!; 2008 Rocky Mountains News: He is not going to win this election, the Republicans are a sorry-ass party, but the Dems are even worse; 2010 Pro Football Talk: Sean Jensen is a sorry-ass replacement for Brad Biggs on the Chicago Sun-Times Bears beat soul n. the essence of blackness, especially instinctive and emotional qualities (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2001 Busta Rhymes: Feel the soul up in my raps; 2004 Rochester City Paper: The boy proved he’s got soul when he threw out a little Sam Cooke; 2013 University of California student: The kid’s got soul when he dances soul brotha see below soul brother (or soul brotha, soul brutha) n. a fellow African American man (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1987 Full Metal Jacket, film: She says no boom-boom with the soul brother; 1998 Fat Boy Slim: Check it out now, funk soul

255 brother!; 2006 Los Angeles Times: This was right after the riots, so it was scary for a soul brother like me on the streets soul brutha see above Soul City n. Harlem, New York (bk, cm, jg): 1998 Boston Herald: Guests got to hear some great live music from Soul City; 2006 Black Issues book review: Welcome to Soul City!; 2010 Book Reporter: We’re paying tribute to African American history and pop culture in Soul City soul food n. food characteristic of and preferred by African Americans (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2006 New York Daily News: An eclectic spread of soul food and a house full of family and friends await Lil’ Kim when she arrives home; 2009 Buffalo News: If Obama has a craving for soul food, the smothered pork chops at Gigi’s will give him the strength to go on; 2009 Ebony: Gullah spices make meals taste differently than traditional soul food soul language n. African American Vernacular English or, broadly, African American speech (cm, jg): 1982 Sports Illustrated: He was very hip black fellow who spoke soul language; 1987 Pittsburgh Press: They’ve got soul language. I envy the black person who can do soul; 2008 News, BBC-TV program: He could talk the soul language of a black man soul patch n. a small patch of facial hair just below the lower lip, popular especially among African American musicians (jg): 2001 Josie and the Pussycats, film: Everybody knows I shaved into a soul patch for the video; 2002 Tuxedo, film: “If I were you, I’d get rid of the mildew on the chin.” “My soul patch?”; 2011 Just Go with It, film: “His name is Brian.” “The guy with the grey soul patch?” soul shake n. an intricate handshake to demonstrate solidarity, popular among

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Glossary

African Americans (cm, gs, jg): 2007 Schenectady Daily Gazette: Foster is not sure if the soul shake is completely out of fashion; 2010 Sports Illustrated: Scott Levy Mark exchanges a soul shake with Ryan McCarthy; 2010 Esquire: He gives the guy a strong soul shake followed by a hug soul sista see below soul sister (or soul sista) n. a fellow African American woman (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 St. Louis Post-Dispatch: Beck is armed with a pair of singing soul sisters; 2000 Rat Race, film: It’s a sizzling, three-way, backdoor action featuring two sexy soul sisters; 2011 Black Planet Universe: That requires a real soul sister who can embody the role soul sound n. a moving form of popular music rooted in African American tradition, especially rhythm and blues (cm, gs): 2011 Boston Standard: The group guarantee to fill the dance floor and create a great party atmosphere providing a big soul sound; 2011 USA Today: Lauren Turner goes for a retro soul sound with Etta James; 2011 Boston Globe: It gave birth to an especially rhythmic soul sound in the 1960s Soulville n. [1] Harlem, New York (cm): 2006 James Short and Lorine Hughes: They were less prone to appropriate the symbolism of African American gangs in Los Angeles than their African American peers in Soulville; 2009 Yahoo Groups: I was born in Soulville, so I guess I appreciated the change; 2010 Soul Source: Bless everyone out there in Soulville! [2] any African American neighborhood (cm): 2010 Donna Murch: The AAA organized marches from one library to another to popularize themes of education in Oakland’s black neighborhoods, which Warden affectionately referred to as “Soulville”; 2010 Mike Spector:

It took place in North Philly, in a place they called Soulville; 2013 University of California student: This part of town was called Soulville sound v. to tease, especially by provocative rhyming comments in a gamelike manner (cm): 2000 James Haskins: There are many different terms for playing the dozens, including dissing, joning, ribbing, signifying and sounding; 2010 Black Voices: The game, always always played by teenage males of inner cities, is known as “sounding” (hurling a direct insult at the opponent); 2010 Miss Info: Shyne shouldn’t be provoking anymore sounding spike v. to shoot (bk): 1990 Death Warrant, film: He was my friend who got spiked in the head. Maybe you know who did it; 2009 Sox Blog: I think what scared us is we thought he got spiked; 2010 Shroomery: You should spike the motherfucker who did it, that’ll show ’em what’s what! splib n. a liberal African American who opposes racial discrimination but will not challenge the status quo (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1995 Ricardo Cortez Cruz: He called me a splib, then grabbed his dick and gave me the finger; 2009 Topix: One time, this whitey called me a splib; 2009 Slate: Throughout the Marine Corps blacks were known as “splibs” split (or split the scene) v. to leave (bk, cm): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: I figured that if I just split, then the problem would go away; 2003 Human Stain, film: He tried to fuck me, that’s why I split; 2006 New York Newsday: Angel keeps goading him to split the scene with her split the scene see above square bidness, square biz see below square business (or square bidness, square biz) phr. seriously, sincerely

Glossary and without doubt (gs, jg, rk): 1999 Summer of Sam, film: “We gotta be straight to each other. Man to man, square business, OK?” “I’m serious”; 2007 Urban Dictionary: “I just fucked Monique!” “No, you didn’t!” “Square business”; 2009 Real Talk NY: Yo, square business, this song is tough stank (or stanky) adj. [1] stinking (cm, jg): 1994 Above the Rim, film: Can he wash his stanky ass?; 2001 Down Time, film: You’re the only garlic-eating motherfucker around here. You are one stanky motherfucker!; 2002 25th Hour, film: Most women won’t stick with a guy with stank breath [2] contemptible or irritating (gs): 2010 Pro Football Talk: Philly is a stank city with a stank team; 2011 Topix: Please inform him of what a nasty lying stank whore his wife is!; 2013 Twitter: You nasty skank mofo, I will fucking cut you [3] (of a woman) sexually promiscuous: 2000 Cypress Hill: That’s right, you’re a stank hoe!; 2006 Wire, HBOTV series: “Stanky ho!” “Fuck yo!”; 2008 Prince Online Fan Community: The reason why I call her a stank bitch is because she had the nerve to date my buddy while she was married! stanky see above step v. to dance (cm, jg): 2009 Jay Electronica: Niggas wanna step but their legs too short to salsa; 2011 Hood Up: I had no idea you know how to step; 2011 Blogspot: Hearing this song makes me want to get out on the dance floor and step! steel n. a firearm (cm, jg, rk): 1995 Clockers, film: I’m gonna bring my steel and pump bullets in your ass; 2004 Snoop Dogg: I know killers in the street with the steel; 2010 My Space: Situations like this, packing a steel is a must stone1 adj. extreme or total (bk, cm): 2008 Word Press: He’s also a stone

257 psycho, shooting men dead for no reason at all beyond his own amusement; 2009 Urban Dictionary: Elton John is a stone faggot!; 2010 Seattle Times: He’s a stone bigot with little education stone2 adv. extremely or totally (bk, cm, gs): 1995 Just Cause, film: He did a lot of damage to her after she was dead. It’s like he just went stone crazy; 1998 Hope Floats, film: You mean you’re stone sober? You just look awful; 2002 Los Angeles Times: Are they all stone stupid? straight adj. all right, satisfied (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: We straight after this; 2012 New York Times: Obama declined to accept the change from a black cashier with the statement “Nah, we straight”; 2013 Twitter: I’m trynna do this maybe like December 15, you straight with that? street nigga see below street nigger (or street nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans a lower-class African American, especially involved in some illicit activity: 2001 Mr. Marcelo: I’m a street nigga, from the top of my head to the bottom of my feet nigga; 2005 Hustle and Flow, film: You ain’t know you fuckin’ with a street nigga; 2009 Real Good Rap: The beat sucks, the lyrics suck, the song isn’t about anything except being a street nigger, which sounds to me like a made up profession streetwear n. casual clothes that reflect hip-hop and skateboarding styles of dressing (gs): 2011 New York Times: They are two variations on streetwear; 2013 Chicago Magazine: The store specializes in fashion streetwear and accessories; 2013 Twitter: Streetwear has gone too mainstream strung out adj. in love (bk, cm, gs): 1995 Clockers, film: Listen to me, he’s all

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strung out; 2009 He’s Just Not That Into You, film: “There’s no girl!” “You can’t hide it, man. I know strung out, and you are strung out!”; 2009 Goodreads: I admit, I’m really strung out on her strut one’s stuff phr. to display one’s virtuosity, especially in a provocative or uninhibited way (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2009 Cheating Ways: So, slip into that sexy little costume and strut your stuff!; 2010 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Please, Sheldon, let’s go out! I need to strut my stuff!; 2011 New York Daily News: Perry looked ready to strut her stuff studio gangsta n. a rapper who poses as a gangster (jg): 1996 Boston Herald: Tupac is an example of someone who started out as a studio gangsta but ended up real gangsta; 2001 Village Voice: With all of his tough talk, a skeptic might wonder if Shyne isn’t just a studio gangsta; 2003 San Francisco Chronicle: He was no studio gangsta stupid fresh adj. excellent or admirable (bk): 1998 Fayetteville Observer: That was a stupid fresh jam last night; 2009 Julz Design: Tune in to get a supid fresh taste of the audible elements of Hip Hop: Emceeing, Beat Boxing, and DJ’ing; 2012 Twitter: Shoutout to my nigga Hamid for the cut, it’s stupid fresh style (or style and profile) v. to boast or act in a showy way (cm, gs, jg, rk): 2001 Black Knight, film: Homie, may I make a suggestion? Ikea! Get some end tables, some of them $5 lamps, and a futon. Then you’ll be stylin’; 2002 Chicago Tribune: It was time to quit styling and focus on the pursuit of their state championship; 2010 Charlotte Observer: Yes, this year as our guests arrive, they can style and profile for the paparazzi on the green carpet during the reception

style and profile see above styling (or stylin’) adj. fashionable or popular (jg): 2001 What’s the Worst that Could Happen?, film: Just like them glasses you got on. You got in the mirror, you thought you were stylin’; 2004 Veronica Mars, UPN-TV series: “Check out the LeBaron!” “Stylin’!”; 2010 King of Paper Chasin’, film: I was gonna hit the streets in some stylin’ shit, in some “oh shit” type shit suck-ass adj. [1] contemptible or despicable, especially if servile (cm, jg): 1980 Elmore Leonard: [He was] referring to Robinson as suck-ass Uncle Tom; 1999 Mystery Alaska, film: “Read him his rights.” “Fucking suck-ass fucker!”; 2009 Men’s Health: They were just suck-ass employees and no one missed them [2] useless or pointless (jg): 2004 Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story, film: I’ve got three weeks to whip you suck-ass failure junkies into shape; 2006 Democratic Underground: She’s a suck-ass whiney little bitch; 2007 Blogspot: It’s been a suck-ass week in shitsville sugar daddy n. a male lover who supports a younger mistress (cm, rk): 1990 Wild Side, film: He wants to be my sugar daddy; 2005 Two and a Half Men, CBS-TV series: Horman here is her sugar daddy; 2010 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Women are out looking for a sugar daddy to take care of them, so they can remain little girls sugar mama (or sugar moma) n. a female lover who supports a younger lover: 1999 Big Daddy, film: Don’t worry about money. I am in love with a beautiful girl who makes plenty of it. She’ll be my sugar mama; 2010 Us Magazine: How could he afford that ring? I guess she’s the sugar mama; 2010 San Jose Mercury News: First of

Glossary all I’m not looking for a sugar mama, I have my own money sugar moma see above superfly adj. [1] elegant, stylish or welldressed (gs): 1998 Alice Walker: The superfly image spread throughout the community; 2006 Hannah Montana, ABC-TV series: All you superfly guys and you foxy ladies, it gives me great pleasure to introduce the King of Funkytown; 2007 Gangland, film: He had his superfly clothes on, he always had a bunch of good-looking women around [2] excellent or admirable (bk, gs, jg): 2002 I Spy, film: “You wanna see something cool?” “Man, this is some superfly, superspy shit!”; 2009 Susan Boyd: Although he dresses cool and has a superfly car, he’s not shown wearing a lot of bling; 2010 Bebo: Can a superfly Harlem dude beat the system? sweat v. to give someone too much attention (jg, rk): 1998 He Got Game, film: She was sweating you; 2002 Jay-Z: No need for you to ever sweat the next bitch; 2003 Love Don’t Cost a Thing, film: Damn, man. These shorties is really sweating you! sweet daddy n. a male lover, especially the one who supports a younger mistress (jg): 1989 Harlem Nights, film: I really missed you, sweet daddy; 2012 Boardwalk Empire, HBO-TV series: I’m sad and lonely. Won’t some sweet daddy take a chance with me?; 2013 Twitter: Clara Ross and her sweet daddy! Looks like she’s already got this one wrapped around her little finger sweet mama (or sweet moma) n. a female lover or mistress (bk, cm, jg): 1999 Dr. Dre: You looking good to me, sweet mama. Want your body; 2004 News, CMT-TV program: His sweet mama wept like a baby; 2008 Calhoun Times: I looked at my sweet mama who was standing there beside me

259 sweet man n. a male lover (bk, jg): 1984 Palm Beach Post: From the day I found out I was pregnant, my sweet man would rub baby oil on my stomach and back; 2008 National Public Radio: I’d rather be bit by a rattlesnake than to let my sweet man go; 2012 Word Press: No one can take her sweet man away sweet moma see sweet mama sweet papa n. a male lover, especially older (bk, cm, jg): 2002 State: Will she ever escape and see her sweet papa again?; 2004 Ray, film: I went to see my sweetheart last night around ten. She said, move, sweet papa, squeeze me every now and then; 2010 Wolf Records: Luella’s Blues are largely about her “sweet papa” and his break with her sweet talk n. insincere flattery, especially to persuade or soften someone (cm, gs): 1999 Simon Sez, film: I’m immune to the sweet talk!; 2000 New York Times: Under no circumstances should we be fooled by his sweet talk; 2005 Racing Stripes, film: Save the sweet talk for later sweet-talk v. to flatter insincerely, especially to persuade or soften someone (gs, jg): 1991 Homicide, film: We need the mouthpiece to sweet-talk his ass; 2001 Curse of the Jade Scorpion, film: I can’t believe it. You’re actually trying to sweet-talk me?; 2011 New York Times: Instead of sweet-talking recruits, college coaches will instead offer athletes real contracts swing v. to have a good time (bk, cm): 1986 True Stories, film: Most of them just want to swing or aren’t really serious; 1998 Jay-Z: I write the songs that the whole world sing, I don’t know bout y’all but every night I swing; 2010 My Space: The whole barn was shaking, people were swingin’ and the bartenders were rockin’

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T take a chill pill v. to be calm (gs, rk): 1992 Poison Clan: To all you hoes, take a chill pill!; 1998 I Still Know What You Did Last Summer, film: You need to take a chill pill; 2012 New York Times: I wish we could all just take a chill pill and work things out with kindness take care of business (or T.C.B., TCB) phr. to perform in an excellent or admirable way (bk, cm, gs, jg): 1994 Chicago Sun-Times: Seals will be TCB’ing tonight at “Blues Etc”; 1998 He Got Game, film: Boy, I know you’ll take care of business; 2003 Intermission, film: I will TCB, as they say in the States take low phr. to adopt a humble attitude in order to achieve one’s objectives (gs, jg): 2007 Twin Cities Daily Planet: When racist Whites seem to have enough facts to justify it, they became an excuse to take low; 2012 Fan Fiction: You may have to take low for while, but I’m sure she’ll let you back in; 2013 Cool Cleveland: Society had taught them that it was safer to “take low,” as the old folks used to say take off v. to kill (bk, cm, jg): 1992 Robert Newman: The bureau wanted to take him off and he became officially “dangerous” on June 17, 1955; 2000 George Pelecanos: Y’all lookin’ to take us off?; 2009 Twitter: He’s about to take off niggaz talk and testify phr. to celebrate through verbal acknowledgement: 2007 Blogspot: They and members across the earth will love and listen and talk and testify out of changed hearts; 2010 Questia: Bloods who can talk and testify, preach and prophesy, lie and signify; 2010 Hearing Voices: He is accompanied by music and poetics:

singing, talking and testifying about peace, family, and art talk that talk (or talk the talk) phr. to talk creatively, intensely and convincingly (cm, gs, jg): 2006 Crossover, film: You know how to talk the talk; 2009 Kansas City Star: Guys are trying to out-tough us, trying to talk that talk, just trying to scare us; 2010 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Any candidate can talk the talk talk the talk see above tall money n. a lot of money (cm, jg): 1997 San Francisco Weekly: I paid tall money for this one; 2012 Wiz Khalifa: I got tall money; 2013 Facebook: He paid tall money to get it tall paper n. a lot of money (gs, jg): 2009 Urban Dictionary: Tall paper means when you have a stack of thirty or more bills of $20’s, $50’s and $100’s unfolded held together by a rubberband; 2010 Facebook: Ya boy about cash, I’m getting tall paper!; 2012 Sunny De: Cut all that small talk unless we talkin’ tall paper tap v. potentially offensive to have sex with (gs, rk): 1993 Snoop Dogg: Hoes be comin to my flat so I can tap that ass; 2009 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Why didn’t you tell me you were tapping my own homegirl?; 2010 USA Sex Guide: My friend tapped her in the ass taste n. liquor or a drink (cm, gs): 1984 Joseph Wambaugh: A guy needed a taste or two when he’d been stumbling around for hours out there in the black of night; 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: Hey, lieutenant, come have a taste!; 2010 Gang of Pour: After a taste or two, you don’t care for what you’ve been poured TB (or T.B.) n. a Taco Bell restaurant: 2010 Straight Dope: I don’t eat at TB very often, and when I do, I remember why I don’t; 2011 Plainview Daily

Glossary Herald: I’ve been eating at TB for as long as I can remember; 2011 Colorado Springs Independent: This prompted the fast food chain to issue a full-page ad in several national newspapers. See TB’s ad, and the billboard below T.C.B., TCB see take care of business tea n. marijuana (cm): 2000 Buffalo News: Santa Claus is smoking tea!; 2008 Metro News: Younger guys get together to smoke some tea instead of swilling Scotch; 2010 Game Battles: Hey, this is my Asian homeboy right here, don’t hate, we smoke tea everyday! tell it like it is phr. to talk frankly and candidly (bk, cm, jg): 2000 Jay-Z: I stay real, stay sharp, and tell it like it is. I never fake the funk, niggas know I ain’t no punk; 2006 Chicago SunTimes: It’s time for Bush to tell it like it is on events in Iraq; 2010 Citizens Voice: Marino affixed himself with the “straight shooter” label and said he would “tell it like it is” tender see below tenderoni (or tender) n. a young sexually attractive woman (gs, jg, rk): 1998 Snoop Dogg: You can ask all my homies, all got tenderonis; 2008 Washington Post: I was a tenderoni just a few years shy from wiping Similac from behind my teeth; 2010 Black Planet: All the sexy tenders who wanna holla send me a message! But if you butt-ugly or don’t have pics, don’t hit me up, okay? testify v. to celebrate through verbal acknowledgement (cm, gs): 2010 Make My Day: It’s time to join and testify!; 2010 Walking Ministry: A place for every believer and non believer of Jesus Christ to come and join and testify, praise God, and just fellowship; 2010 Yahoo Music: I am moved by the spirit. I’m here to testify!

261 thang see thing that’s mighty white of you phr. potentially offensive you are being patronizing or putting on airs (gs): 1992 Poison Ivy, film: “I teach reading a couple of nights a week to inner city kids.” “That’s mighty white of you!”; 2010 Urban Dictionary: Well God damn, that’s mighty white of you! How could I ever repay you for such a selfless act?; 2011 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: “I’ll make you a list!” “That’s mighty white of you!” that’s my nigger (or that’s my nigga) excl. very offensive unless used by african americans that is my real friend: 2004 Soul Plane, film: “We was in this from the beginning, we gonna ride this out to the end!” “That’s my nigga!”; 2009 Hip Hop DX: That’s my nigga! I don’t feel no ways different as I felt from when he signed to us back in ’99. I feel the same way today; 2010 My Space: The only hero I have is my mom. That’s my nigga. I feel like if she can handle all the bullshit that’s going on, I can too the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice phr. a belief that darker skin is better (gs): 1995 Tupac Shakur: Some say the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juce. I say the darker the flesh then the deeper the roots; 1995 Friday, film: “Man, it’s the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juce!” “Yeah, well, she blacker than a motherfucker, too”; 2009 Barry Popik: The blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice has been used by American blacks since at least 1929 the bomb (or da bomb) n. an excellent or admirable person or thing (gs, jg, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: As far as beats and lyrics go, Biggie is da bomb; 2007 Richmond Times: I love this kid. I love what he stands for. I think he’s

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the bomb; 2010 Columbus Dispatch: This dude is the bomb, everybody likes him, everybody respects him the darker the chocolate, the richer the taste phr. a belief that darker skin is better: 2007 Hairspray, film: If the truth be told, the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice. I could say it ain’t so but, darlin’, what’s the use? The darker the chocolate, the richer the taste; 2011 Wholehearted Men: The darker the chocolate, the richer the taste, that’s where it’s at; 2013 Tumblr: The darker the chocolate, the richer the taste. I’m just another obsessed with Michael Jackson thick adj. [1] (of a woman) curvaceous (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Snoop Dogg: Brandi was a cute little thick bitch; 2009 YouTube: I love this big-ass stripper! Thick bitches are the best!; 2009 Toronto: I like thick chicks equipped with C-cups [2] (of a man) muscular (gs): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: “The kid’s everything I told you.” “Yeah, he’s thick”; 2012 Twitter: Girls do love a thick nigga; 2013 Starting Strength: He’s a thick motherfucker thing (or thang) n. one’s preferences or style (cm, jg): 1997 B.G.: Money makin’ is my thing; 2008 XXL Magazine: It’s obvious that rapping is not your thing; 2011 New York Times: If you still think that African art is not your thing, there’s an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum that may change your mind Third Coast n. southern USA, especially touching the Gulf of Mexico (rk): 2009 Urban Dictionary: Montgomery, New Orleans, Houston, and Miami are all on the Third Coast; 2010 CNote: As you see, I’m from the Third Coast, nigga!; 2010 Hip Hop DX: I’m a cat from Meridian, Mississippi, representing for the Third Coast

three sixty-five (or 365) adj. continuously or non-stop (gs): 1992 Geto Boys: Gangsta-ass niggas think deep up three-sixty-five, cause real gangstaass niggas don’t sleep; 2009 My Space: I sat on my ass all day, the government helps me do that three sixty-five; 2010 Burbler: I’m a real nigga three sixtyfive until I’m done throw down v. [1] to do something vigorously and enthusiastically, especially have a good time (gs, jg): 2011 Twitter: Nigga about to throw down on the grill today with the guys!; 2013 Urban Dictionary: He can really throw down a beat; 2013 Facebook: We about to throw down in Colorado Springs tonight! [2] to fight (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1991 Tupac Shakur: What? You wanna throw down? Better bring your gun, pal; 2000 Girlfight, film: You threw down and you showed me respect; 2007 Heartbreak Kid, film: You wanna throw down, tough guy? I will mess your shit up! Come on! throw the D phr. (of a man) to have sex (gs, jg): 2009 Lipstick Alley: You can’t just be throwin’ the D to every woman who wants it from you; 2010 This Is 50: Damn, she’s fine, and I’d throw the D at her any day; 2013 Barstool Sports: He should instead just send her pics of him throwing the D at other chicks throw the P phr. (of a woman) to have sex (gs, jg): 2012 Yahoo Answers: You’re looking for some easy girl to throw the P at you; 2012 Clutch Magazine: Y’all are throwing the P at these men like that will keep them; 2013 Flickr: Mickey’s throwing the P for Pedro thugged out adj. looking typical of the inner-city ghetto gangsters (jg, rk): 2003 Honey, film: Trying to be thugged out, and wanting to fit in; 2004 New York Times: It has been equipped with

Glossary 26-inch rims, hydraulic suspension and other thugged out features; 2013 Los Angeles Times: She’s kinda thugged out thump v. (especially of a gang) to fight (cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 E-40: Niggas don’t want to thump; 2002 Ying Yang Twins: This shit is real from jump, so if you wanna thump, we can get it started; 2010 Hood Up: He was in Richmond, a fight broke out, and niggas thumped Timbos (or Timbs) n. Timberland boots or shoes (gs, rk): 1993 Wu-Tang Clan: When I struck I had on Timbs and a black mask; 2009 Notorious, film: I like black Timbs and black hoodies; 2009 Access Hip Hop: I lived in the ghetto and wore Timbos and army jackets Timbs see above to def adv. [1] in an excellent or admirable way (gs, jg): 2008 Prodigy: How we gone do it, we gone do it to def!; 2010 This Is 50: I’m not saying he’s the only rapper out there to do it, because there are many other talented emcees that have done it to def; 2012 Twitter: Yes, you did it to def. Ain’t nothin’ better [2] extremely or totally (jg): 2009 Urban Dictionary: That car is fresh to def; 2013 Black Planet: I’m nice, cool to def; 2013 iPhoneogram: This beauty is sexy to def to me Tom1 n. potentially offensive an African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: Mantan is a Tom, Mantan is a disgrace; 2004 Assassination of Richard Nixon, film: “I ain’t some Uncle Tom, if that’s what you’re trying to say!” “I didn’t mean you were a Tom”; 2009 Wikipedia: Tom is a pejorative term for a black person who is perceived as behaving in a subservient manner to white authority figures

263 Tom2 (or tom, Tom it, tom it) v. potentially offensive (of an African American) to be subservient to whites or adopt their values and attitudes (bk, jg): 2006 Todd Wooten: Most Blacks probaby feel that O.J. was Tommin it back then; 2009 Blogspot: No matter how much he Tommed, they still saw nothing but a nigga; 2010 Topix: Juan Williams was way too busy making money and “Tomming it” on Fox News Tom it, tom it see above to the bone adv. extremely or totally (jg): 1993 Oprah Winfrey Show, ABC-TV program: Men will lie to the bone!; 2002 Adaptation, film: What you said this morning shook me to the bone; 2008 Blonde and Blonder, film: They’re bad to the bone, boss tough adj. excellent or admirable (bk, cm, jg, rk): 1983 Outsiders, film: That was a tough car; 2009 Twitpic: He’s one tough dog; 2010 Metal Sucks: He the most balls-out tough motherfucker! tough shit excl. potentially offensive that is too bad (bk, cm): 1994 Swimming with Sharks, film: Your girlfriend doesn’t love you? Tough shit!; 2004 Vicki Thornberry: So we’re out of money. Tough shit!; 2005 Be Cool, film: Tough shit! That’s the cost of doing business tough titty excl. potentially offensive that is too bad (bk, cm, rk): 2009 Men Who Stare at Goats, film: Anne wants to be a high school teacher. Tough titty, Anne! That’s not your destiny; 2009 Rabid Republican: Tough titty! His mother died at age fifty-three from uterine cancer; 2010 Population Statistic: Now listen, I just received an offer and I’m considering it, and if you can’t live with that – tough titty! trickeration n. manipulation or deception (gs, jg): 1991 Los Angeles Times: He routinely accuses his opponents of

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trickeration; 1995 New York Times: He is now the one accused of trickeration; 2011 Blogspot: Don’t be fooled by the trickeration that hoes put by trim n. potentially offensive [1] a woman as a sex object or partner (cm, gs, jg): 2004 Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, film: Come on, dudes, let’s pick up some trim at a strip club!; 2010 Nah Right: Speaking of which I need to find some good trim this week; 2011 Drake: Niggas that are married don’t wanna go home, they want some new trim [2] sex or the sex act (cm, gs, rk): 1983 48 Hrs., film: If I don’t get some trim tonight, I’m going to bust. You know, sex; 2006 Randy Kearse: She ain’t given up no trim; 2010 Words Domination: All of them need a good trim every once in a while trip v. to lose control and behave in an irrational way (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: Before you start trippin’ let me tell you what happened; 2009 Slumz Boxden: Before you start trippin’, let me explain; 2013 Ke Juan: Since I got a little fame, these niggas started trippin’ tude (or ’tude) n. an arrogant, condescending or confrontational attitude (bk, cm, gs): 2002 San Jose Mercury News: What’s with that ‘tude, dude?; 2007 Chicago Tribune: Veronica, what’s with the tude, girl?; 2010 Grad Cafe: They don’t like that ’tude much turn out v. to introduce someone to something new and different, especially in sex (cm, gs, jg): 1990 Too Short: Bitch turned me out, took my dick out the pussy, let me cum in her mouth; 1992 Hard Knocks: I turned her out, now forever she’s a nigger lover; 2013 Wattpad: When I say she turned me out, I ain’t exaggerating twenty-four seven (or 24/7) adv. continuously or non-stop (cm, gs, rk): 2000 Miss Congeniality, film: I work twenty-

four seven; 2002 People I Know, film: I gotta train you twenty-four seven; 2002 Showtime, film: We’re gonna be watching you twenty-four seven two-eleven (or 211) n. an armed robbery (jg): 1992 Dr. Dre: Niggaz try to set me up for a two-eleven; 1996 MC Ren: Don’t come around playin’ 007 cause your ass might get caught in a 211; 2013 Joey Fatts: Got a chrome MAC11, down for a two-eleven U ugly-ass adj. very ugly (cm, gs, jg): 1998 Enemy of the State, film: “Have you looked at the tape? What’s on it?” “Your ugly-ass face is on it”; 2000 Next Friday, film: He’s just an uglyass black dude; 2009 Sorority Row, film: It’s Mickey. I would know those ugly-ass shoes anywhere ug-mug n. an unattractive person (rk): 2005 Roll Bounce, film: He just doesn’t wanna run into that ug-mug he took to the movies last time; 2009 Los Angeles Times: I mean, look at all those ug mugs in the league; 2009 All Hip Hop: I shoulda been in this pic since its clearly for ug-mugs Uncle Tom1 n. potentially offensive an African American man who is subservient to whites or adopts their values and attitudes (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2000 Bamboozled, film: You have been called a traitor, an Uncle Tom; 2010 New York Daily News: A small group of his supporters shouted “sell-out” and “Uncle Tom”; 2013 Lee Daniels’ The Butler, film: Poitier is nothing but a rich Uncle Tom Uncle Tom2 (or Uncle Tom it) phr. potentially offensive (of an African American) to be subservient to whites or adopt their values and attitudes (bk, jg): 2002 New York Times: Gloria Steinem accused her of

Glossary having Uncle Tommed it; 2004 Los Angeles Times: The popularity of hiphop and its particular brand of blackness has made Uncle Tomming no longer necessary; 2012 Atlanta Journal-Constitution: Black folks call that Uncle Tomming Uncle Tom it see above uncool adj. [1] not calm (bk, cm): 2008 United Press International: It would make them feel uncool; 2010 Globe and Mail: I can’t believe this makes me feel uncool; 2011 Twitter: I feel a little uncool when I see my mom wearing it [2] not excellent or admirable, especially if oldfashioned or outdated (bk, cm): 2004 New York Times: The Beastie Boys serve a symbolic role for young Jews looking to connect to one another and their religion without feeling uncool; 2009 Ebony: Was he melodramatic and sometimes a little uncool in his overt coolness?; 2011 Automobile Magazine: They fail to recognize it because they’re so uncool [3] unpleasant, rude or unfair (bk, jg): 1989 Lethal Weapon 2, film: I’m sorry, that 2002 Ali was very uncool; G Indahouse, film: I’m sorry we invaded you. It was really uncool; 2005 Just Like Heaven, film: You freak! That is uncool, man! underdig v. to understand completely (jg, rk): 2004 Lil Wayne: You underdig, shorty, its all about one thing; 2008 Black Planet: After me there will be no more like me, you underdig what I’m sayin?; 2010 Dolemite Ebonics: You betta watch yourself, you underdig me, fool? uppity adj. self-important or arrogant (bk, cm): 1989 John Grisham: Lester was always an uppity nigger; 2004 Toni Morrison: All those colleges hadn’t made her uppity; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Can you believe this uppity Negro?

265 up South adv. in or toward the northern USA (bk, cm, gs): 2009 Uppity Negro Network: As a black man who has lived up South all my life and attended Rutgers University, I get it; 2010 Quantum Apocalypse, film: We worked our way up South; 2010 Root: It can still be up South uptight adj. [1] inhibited (cm, gs): 1998 Alice Walker: She’s an uptight little bitch; 1999 American Beauty, film: You’re too uptight about sex; 2011 Screen Junkies: They are superb in this romantic comedy about an uptight woman who goes to visit her fiancé in Paris [2] overly conservative or orthodox: 2007 I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry, film: Canada has always been very pro-gay, unlike that uptight country to the south; 2010 American Thinker: It is easy to see why the Germans, themselves so uptight and over-scheduled, use it; 2010 Washington Post: I’m not an uptight Republican who wants to tell everyone else how to live V V n. an automobile (rk): 2006 Nah Right: When you pull me over drivin’ my V, tell me why I shouldn’t spit in ya face when you ask for ID; 2006 Randy Kearse: Where you park the V, kid?; 2010 Honda Owners Club: I want to still be drivin’ my V for a long time vanilla n. potentially offensive a white person, especially a woman (bk, jg): 1997 Patricia Nell Warren: A car full of blacks was stopped by several white guys. They tried to turn the car over. The blacks got out and scattered the vanillas pretty good; 2009 Blowjob Blogs: Attractive sexy vanillas play with big ebony cocks!; 2009 Bossip: You niggas can have these vanillas!

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vic n. a victim (cm, rk): 2007 Sarasota Herald Tribune: The vic was identified as Zaher Abdel Mohsin; 2010 Dexter, Showtime-TV series: Who’s the vic?; 2012 Criminal Minds, CBS-TV series: Some of the vics were shot in the leg vicious adj. excellent or admirable (gs, jg, rk): 2006 Snoop Dogg: She was so vicious, lips so luscious, suck a nigga dick and have it shinin like some dishes; 2008 Ebony: He did it in such vicious style, too. Smiling, talking to the audience and his opponents; 2009 Black Planet: I’m twenty, cute as fuck, have bangin body and a vicious dress vine see below vines (or vine) n. a suit (cm, gs, jg): 1992 Malcolm X, film: Where’d you get them goddamn vines you got on? And them shoes?; 2003 Mathematics: I’m a get myself some fine-looking vines and a great-looking ride; 2013 Twitter: Brandon Jennings be wearin vines like that too? W wack (or wack-ass) adj. inferior or unsatisfactory (jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: They don’t laugh ’cause you wack. It’s ’cause you white with a mic; 2006 Puff Puff Pass, film: I voted for her wackass dad. The way I see it, she owes me; 2013 LL Cool J: Y’all niggas is so wack, your crew is such, y’all lack the hard impact wack-ass see above wailing (or wailin’) adj. excellent or admirable (bk, jg): 2007 Telemark Talk: The white carpet is already rolled out for him and I’m thinking a wailin’ party is in order!; 2009 Porn Blocker: Josh is a wailin’ motherfucker!; 2009 Santa Paula Times: The members of Big Bad Voodoo Daddy love to throw one heck of a wailing party

walk heavy phr. to behave in a selfimportant and self-assured manner (bk, cm, jg): 1997 New York Times: I was walking heavy. I felt strong; 2007 YouTube: I walk heavy, always staying with my Glock; 2013 Twitter: I talk heavy cuz I walk heavy walk soft phr. to behave modestly and quietly (bk, jg): 2000 Ice Cube: This nigga is walkin’ soft; 2003 Gilbert Morris: Well, boy, it’s better to walk soft around your ma for a time after you’ve made a plumb fool of yourself; 2009 Free Dictionary: I try to walk soft and not rock the boat wangsta see below wanksta (or wangsta) n. potentially offensive a rapper who poses as a gangster (rk): 2002 50 Cent: We say you a wanksta and you need to stop frontin; 2010 Los Angeles Times: He was not even a gangster, he was a wanksta; 2010 Ebonics Translator: Shut up, wanksta! You ain’t gon’ pop a damn thing wannabe n. someone who is trying to be like another person or to belong to a particular group (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2011 Atlantic Monthly: We increasingly see affiliates, wannabes, and those who are inspired by al-Qaeda coming to the fore; 2011 Tampa Bay: It’s popular among young Hollywood stars and wannabes; 2011 News, FoxTV program: It is the American people who are asked to pass judgment upon a presidential wannabe waste v. to kill (cm, gs): 1986 Beastie Boys: He wasted two kids that ran for the door; 1987 Full Metal Jacket, film: If you wanna waste her, go on, waste her!; 1998 Enemy of the State, film: Hammersly was professionally wasted wax v. to record a music album (gs): 1996 Snoop Dogg: We wax tracks and smack up MCs who compose the

Glossary violence; 2009 Indiana Public Media: In the last year of his life he waxed an album for Blue Note that many consider to be his masterpiece; 2009 Brunswick Records: They continued to experiment, waxing an album inspired by Curtis Mayfield’s Superfly soundtrack way-way n. a highway: 2005 Rice Place: Don’t swing your car on the way-way; 2009 Blogger: We’re on the way-way to Vegas; 2010 Trip Advisor: It’s on the way-way from Chichi through Santa Cruz del Quiche. The drive took us about five hours Westside n. West Coast, especially California (gs): 2005 Aaron Peckham: I’m just bangin’ on the westside right now, I’ll hit ya back; 2006 Los Angeles Times: There were so many homies from the Westside; 2013 Sound Click: Shout out to my niggas in the Westside! whaddup see below what up (or whaddup) excl. [1] hello (gs): 1996 Get on the Bus, film: What up, Black?; 2002 8 Mile, film: What up, dawg!; 2009 Time Out New York: What up, home slices!; 2005 G-Unit: What up blood! What up cuz! What up wankstas! [2] what is going on (gs): 1996 MC Ren: What up nigga? What’s happenin?; 1999 Snoop Dogg: Nigga what up now? You act like a bitch; 2002 Paid in Full, film: “What up?” “Calm down!” whip n. an automobile (jg, rk): 2012 Meek Mill: I roll around through my old hood in my new whip; 2012 Wiz Khalifa: I’m in a hella fast whip going top speed; 2013 Horseshoe G.A.N.G.: Shoot a nigga while he sittin’ in his whip white ass n. potentially offensive self, when referring to a white person: 1994 Forrest Gump, film: Get your white ass away from that window!; 1996 Get on the Bus, film: No way am

267 I getting my white ass back in that bus; 2010 Lil Wayne: They were here before

your white asses were white-ass adj. potentially offensive white: 1999 Cut Run Deep, film: You’re dead! You fucking white-ass motherfucker! Say your prayers!; 2005 Blogspot: What can I say about the white-ass mentality? I don’t like it; 2013 Twitter: These white-ass motherfuckers sure do hate having a black president white boy n. potentially offensive a white man, especially young: 1997 Con Air, film: We need another white boy to volunteer; 1998 He Got Game, film: He’s a cool white boy; 2013 Lee Daniels’ The Butler, film: They say this new white boy is smooth white girl n. potentially offensive a white woman, especially young: 1992 Malcolm X, film: I was sleeping with white girls; 2009 Ebony: Who is more like the 17-year old white girl audience of MTV than a 17 year old white girl?; 2010 Washington Post: You talk like a white girl white meat n. potentially offensive a sexual partner, especially a woman (cm, jg): 2005 Urban Dictionary: Them niggas is lustin for the white meat; 2013 Literotica: You will never desire white meat again; 2013 Twicsy: Niggas get their hands on some white meat white nigga see below white nigger (or white nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans a white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop (gs, cm, jg): 2007 SOHH: I was born a white nigga!; 2008 Mix Tape Torrent: He called that dude a white nigga; 2009 XXL Magazine: Anyone who refers to himself as a white nigga is extra stupid

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Glossary

white trash (or W.T.) n. potentially offensive a poor white person or poor white people, especially from the southern USA (bk, cm, jg): 1989 Do the Right Thing, film: You fucking white trash! I’ll fuck you up!; 1991 Jungle Fever, film: She ain’t nothin’ but a low-class white trash; 1991 Cape Fear, film: I ain’t no white trash whitey (or whitie) n. potentially offensive a white person (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2004 Starsky and Hutch, film: “What can you tell me about them?” “Not much. Couple of whiteys”; 2005 Coach Carter, film: Get the hell out my face, whitey!; 2008 Ebony: There is a lot of mentioning black performers, musicians, politicians, but no real mention of whitey? whitie see above who’s your daddy excl. who is your friend, caregiver or sponsor (gs, jg): 2001 Baby Boy, film: “Who’s your daddy?” “You’re my daddy!” “Louder, nigga!”; 2008 Time: It was as if Cheney had walked onto the stage, looked straight in the camera and asked, “Who’s your daddy?”; 2009 Not Easily Broken, film: Who’s your daddy now, sucker? wife v. to make someone one’s steady girlfriend (gs, rk): 2002 Jay-Z: I think I might wife her; 2008 Snoop Dogg: If you like her, wife her and if you love her, smother her; 2009 Ray Nitti: I like her, I want to wife her, I want to take her home and pull an all-nighter wifey (or wifie) n. a steady girlfriend (gs, rk): 1997 Us3: I gotta make dough, send home to wifey and mom; 2000 Next: All I ever need is my wifey; 2008 Snoop Dogg: I told my young wifey, “I love ya honey, but you gotta hit the streets” wifie see above wigga see below

wigger (or wigga) n. potentially offensive a white person who assumes the behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop (bk, cm, gs, jg): 2002 8 Mile, film: You a wigga who invented rhyme for money; 2008 Los Angeles Times: He’s a wigger. That’s the hiphop term for white kids who want to be black; 2010 Us Magazine: I think he was trying to talk like a wigger wild (or wild out) v. to get furious and go on a damaging rampage (bk, jg, rk): 2007 Wu-Tang Clan: We like rebel niggaz powdered up wilding in the streets of Liberia; 2009 Forum: Packs of mostly Black and Latino kids were wilding; 2009 Notorious, film: Your boy’s been wilding out, man wild out see above wise-ass adj. annoyingly knowledgeable and arrogant: 2000 Sopranos, HBO-TV series: You’re a wise-ass motherfucker, huh?; 2009 Los Angeles Times: Everything Jim wrote was laced with a wiseass sense of humor; 2013 Twitter: His wise-ass remarks didn’t belong on the news with it phr. [1] fashionable or popular (bk, cm, gs): 1989 Boca Raton News: She looks fabulous and she is totally with it; 1995 New York Times: He affects clothes that carefully cultivate the “with it” image; 2007 New York Newsday: He’s hip, he’s with it, he’s today [2] aware, knowing or understanding (bk, cm): 2004 Buffalo News: He’s very with it and alert; 2005 New York Daily News: He’s with it, smart, tough; 2012 Democratic Underground: Bill Clinton seemed pretty much with it wolf (or woof) v. [1] to threaten by using strong and boastful language (bk, cm, gs, rk): 2006 Brown Pride: They are the same as any other gang, all wolfing and shit; 2009 George Middleton: Nigga, you ain’t whip no ass yet. Stop

Glossary wolfin’; 2010 Tech N9ne: These niggas funny, nigga battle rapin’ and steady wolfin’ [2] to talk idly (bk, cm, gs): 1987 Untouchables, film: Let’s cut the woofing, pal. You tell me or you’re going to the fuckin’ morgue; 1994 Friends, NBC-TV series: What are you guys woofing about?; 2008 Dayton Daily News: She was always wolfing about this and that wolf ticket (or woof ticket) n. threatening by using strong and boastful language (cm, gs, jg): 1992 Atlanta JournalConstitution: Wolf ticket refers to an outrageous boast meant to intimidate or impress the listener; 1995 The Click: Wolf tickets is some silly tricks tryin to be the shit comin’ with that sicky singsing stupid-ass shit; 2002 Jimmy Lerner: Following another fifteen-minute flurry of wolf tickets, young deputy Camel does the handcuff routine again Wood (or ’Wood) n. Inglewood, California: 2009 Jacks Music News: Mr. De La Cruz was born in the Wood (Inglewood), California, and was raised in Lawndale, in the South Bay; 2010 Hood Up: So you’re from the Wood?; 2010 Nah Right: He’s from the Wood woof see wolf woof ticket see wolf ticket word (or word up) excl. [1] I approve or agree (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 1993 Fear of a Black Hat, film: “Calm down before somebody gets hurt!” “Word, man. Marty’s right!”; 2002 8 Mile, film: “It’s always easier for whites to succeed in a black man’s medium, right?” “Word up, it’s true”; 2007 30 Rock, NBC-TV series: “Be home tonight, I need to talk to you about something!” “Word!” [2] listen or pay attention (bk, cm, rk): 1995 LL Cool J: Make a brother feel good, word up!; 2000 Wu-Tang Clan: Word up, look out for the cops!; 2009 Ebony: Word up! Vanessa is also an actress!

269 word is bond excl. I approve or agree (gs, jg, rk): 1995 Clockers, film: Word is bond! Now get your motherfuckin’ ass outa my car; 1998 He Got Game, film: “We ain’t for the fame, we for the change!” “Word is bond”; 2011 Lil B: Word is bond, nigga! word to the mother (or word to your mother) excl. I approve or agree (gs, jg): 1991 House Party 2, film: “Malcolm embraced the brotherhood of all men!” “Yo, word to the mother!”; 1995 Higher Learning, film: “Do I make myself clear?” “Yeah man, I understand. Word to the mother”; 2010 South Florida Sun-Sentinel: “A happy rock star is hard to find.” “Word to your mother” word to your mother see above word up see word work the body phr. to dance: 1997 Us3: Work the body, baby, it’s a party!; 2000 Edmonds Kevon: Now move it to the right, work the body, baby, shake it like you mean it!; 2011 Red Orbit: They all work the body in a front-to-back motion W.T. see white trash X x’ed out (or X’ed out) adj. no longer important or relevant (cm, jg): 2003 Don Juan: Shoulda been down from day one, now you X’ed out; 2013 Twitter: You used to be cool until you got x’ed out; 2013 YouTube: You got x’ed out. Everything you say is irrelevant Y yack n. cognac (gs, rk): 2008 Snoop Dogg: We got that chronic, we got that yack for you!; 2009 YouTube: We be drinkin yack and banging da bitches; 2010 TQ: My niggas be drinkin yack tonight. And wouldn’t mind a little bit of ass tonight

270

Glossary

yard nigga see below yard nigger (or yard nigga) n. very offensive unless used by african americans a subservient lowerclass African American, especially working on a farm (jg): 1985 Todd Houser: Do your own shit, I ain’t no yard nigger; 2006 New California Media: For four hundred years we’ve had the house niggas, you got the field nigga, and you got the yard nigga; 2009 Right Health: The house nigga and yard nigga lived diametrically different lives yella, yeller see below yellow (or yella, yeller) n. potentially offensive a light-skinned African American, especially a sexually attractive young woman (bk, cm, gs): 1998 Alice Walker: Blacks think of her as a yellow; 2009 Blogspot: She’s a stuckup Creole bitch, stuck up yellow; 2009 Washington Post: Hi, my name is Leah and I am a yeller yo1 excl. [1] hello or hey (bk, cm, gs, jg, rk): 2002 8 Mile, film: Yo, Rabbit! Wait up!; 2005 Waiting, film: Yo, bitch, what makes you think I won’t cut you?; 2005 Coach Carter, film: “Yo, what’s up?” “Nice to see you again, Mr. Carter” [2] yes (cm, gs, jg): 2001 How High, film: I gotta fix it. Yo! That’s right!; 2001 Exit Wounds, film: “You like it?” “Yo, dog, this shit is hot, man”; 2004 Torque, film: “You’re gonna help me out of it!” “Yo, dog!” yo2 n. a fellow African American, especially a friend (cm, jg, rk): 2002 Wu-Tang Clan: Listen, yo, we got into a fight in the bar, shit was just crazy; 2006 Wire, HBO-TV series: I’m not your “yo,” show me your work!; 2006 George Pelecanos: Maybe, Wilkins imagined, the victim had been hitting some other yo’s girlfriend yo boy n. [1] potentially offensive a white person who assumes the

behavior and values of the African American culture, especially hip-hop (bk, cm, jg): 2002 Wire, HBO-TV series: What’s the deal with the yo boy? What did he do?; 2006 Penn Live: The other group consisted of yo boys; 2009 Baltimore City Paper: There were yo boys, punk rockers, new wavers, and anybody that might be considered a social misfit [2] a friend (gs): 2009 My Space: Hello world, it’s yo boy, Icy D!; 2010 Washington Post: It’s really hard to control a black man, even if he’s yo boy; 2012 Yahoo Groups: This club is owned by my yo boy Lil Trent yo mama see your mama youngsta n. a young member of a criminal gang: 2010 Facebook: Fuck these youngstas, weak-ass niggas, bitches and hoes. I’m sick of this shit; 2010 Actionext: That’s how it is where youngstas livin’; 2010 All Hip Hop: What the fuck’s wrong with you youngstas? your mama (or yo mama) excl. potentially offensive [1] I hold you in contempt (cm, gs, jg): 1989 Tom Clancy: “Give me my fuckin’ soap back, motherfucker!” “Yo mama!”; 2003 Guy Thing, film: “Yo mama!” “What did you just say?”; 2005 Royce Da 5’9”: Fuck that nigga, you diss me, you gon’ be dissed back, nigga! Yo mama, motherfucker! [2] so you say (bk): 1990 USA Today: He looked me right in the eyes and said, “Yo mama!” I didn’t know what to do; 1990 Presumed Innocent, film: He would have said: yo’ mama!; 1998 Sports Illustrated: She ran up to me and said, “Your mama” Z zooted adj. [1] drunk (jg, rk): 2006 Randy Kearse: They came home from Roxy’s zooted; 2007 Talib Kweli: You

Glossary see us guzzling forties, menthols, wine, and wee. Sitting on the back porch, getting zooted, feeling fine indeed; 2009 Urban Dictionary: That girl was zooted at that party yesterday [2] under the influence of a drug (jg, rk): 1991 New Jack City, film: I copped me a bag of that red devil angel dust, I got zooted; 2009 Life on Mars, ABC-TV series: This guy’s zooted; 2013 Grantland: Kenny was zooted on ecstasy

271 zoot suit n. a man’s suit with a loose jacket and high-waisted tapering pants, popular in 1940s and 1950s (bk, cm, jg): 1996 Snoop Dogg: I came through in a zoot suit, lookin’ too cute; 1999 Memphis Commercial Appeal: The groomsmen will sport white zoot suits, hats and canes, and the bridesmaids will dance down the aisle to a rhythm and blues number; 2010 Big Bang Theory, CBS-TV series: Put on your best zoot suit!

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Conversation Columbia University students; City University of New York students; New York University students; University of Alabama students (Birmingham and Tuscaloosa); University of California students (Berkeley and Los Angeles); University of Mississippi students; University of Tennessee students.

Index

abbreviation, 44–50, 64, 115, 125 accent, 6 Ackerman, Raquel, 118 acronym, 44, 49–50, 64, 125 Adams, Michael, ix, x, 5, 33, 44, 102, 108, 117, 119 adverbial particle, 41–42, 64 affix, 23, 32 affixation, 19, 32–36, 60, 64, 125 affix word, 23–29, 64 Africa, 3, 5–6, 56 Africana, 90–92, 97, 125 African American culture, 17, 28, 60, 70, 82–84, 91, 95, 99, 117, 119, 125 African American English (AAE), 3–4, 12, 62, 126 African American Language, 3, 5 African Americans, theme, 90–91, 97, 125 African American slang, definition, ix, 2, 8, 13, 124 African American speech, 3–6, 11 African American Vernacular (AAV), 2, 5, 15 African American Vernacular English (AAVE), 1–5, 7, 65 African English, 5 African English Vernacular, 5 Africanization, 59, 119 African languages, 3, 55–56, 64 Afro-American English, 3 Afro-American Language, 5 Afro-American Vernacular, 5 Afro-American Vernacular English, 3 alcohol, 83, 86–87, 97, 125 Algeo, John, 19–20, 32, 67, 109 Alim, Samy, x, 7, 103 Allen, Irving Lewis, 111 alliteration, 31, 39, 64, 117 allusion, 67, 69–70, 82, 125 alphabetism, 48 alphanumeric compound, 21–22 amalgam, 53 amalgamation, 53 amelioration, 79

292

American English, 3, 11, 119, 121, 124, 127 American slang, 2, 13–14, 41, 43, 53, 59, 82, 84, 90, 95–97, 119, 123, 125–126 antiphrasis, 81 appropriation, 59, 113, 117, 119, 123, 126 assimilation, 15, 58, 117, 119–123, 126 assonance, 29–30, 39, 64, 117 Australian slang, 11 Ayto, John, 7 back clipping, 36, 44–45 back derivation, 45 back formation, 45–46, 64, 125 back slang, 63 Baugh, John, x, 2–3 Bertram, Anne, 40 Biber, Douglas, 30, 37, 104 binomial, 30–31 Black Accent, 3, 6 Black Dialect, 3, 5 Black English, 4 Black English Vernacular (BEV), 3–4 Black Language, 3, 5 Black Talk, 3, 5 Black Vernacular, 5 blend, 4, 53–54 blending, 11, 17, 19, 46, 53–54, 64, 125 blend word, 53 blues, 7, 95 body, 79, 83–85, 97, 125 Bokamba, Eyamba, 5 borrowing, 17, 19, 54–59, 64, 66, 119, 125 brand name, 58–59, 64 Brasch, Walter, 61, 81 brevity, 7, 43–44, 48, 50, 61, 114–116 British English, 3 British slang, 11, 30, 64 broadening, 77 Bucholtz, Mary, 113, 119 calque, 56 Canadian slang, 11

Index categorization, 58, 83, 88–90, 97, 100, 106–108, 125 changeability, 14 Chapman, Robert, ix, xv, 7, 9, 16–17, 43, 70, 85–86, 101, 104, 106, 112 citations, 13–17, 126 clipping, 44–49, 65, 125 Cockney, 30 coinage, 59–60, 65 Coleman, Julie, ix, x, 8, 13, 63, 67, 119 collection, 12, 15–16 colloquialism, 2, 8–9, 61 combining, 11, 17, 19–43 common themes, 83–90, 97, 125 compound, 19, 43, 47, 58, 64 compounding, 19–32, 53, 60, 64, 125 compound patterns, 20–32 compound verb, 41 conciseness, 48, 111, 114–116, 123, 126 conventions, 17–18 conversion, 17, 50–53, 64, 125 corpus linguistics, 15 corruption, 61 creating, 17, 19, 59–64 crime, 26, 94, 97, 103, 125 cross-over expression, 15, 105, 113, 119–123, 126 cryptic device, 22, 30, 35, 44, 47–48, 63, 65 Crystal, David, 4, 55, 100, 104, 117 cultural allusion, 69 cultural functions, 17, 99, 117–123, 125–126 currency, 14 Dalzell, Tom, ix, 13–14, 24, 63, 76, 81, 95, 103 database, 1, 13–17, 124, 126 degeneration, 80 degradation, 66, 80 derivation, 32 description levels, 11, 124 descriptive linguistics, 1–2, 124 descriptivism, 1–2, 12, 14 dialect, 4–6, 8, 11, 30 Dickson, Paul, 10 dictionary, 9, 13–14, 16–17 Dillard, Joey, x, 13, 46, 83 distortion, 61 drugs, 83, 87–88, 97, 125 Dumas, Bethany, 8 Eble, Connie, ix, x, x, 8, 20, 43–44, 59, 80, 86, 90, 99, 110, 112, 119 Ebonics, 3–5, 12 echoism, 60 education, 4, 8, 126 elevation, 79

293 ellipsis, 47 emotions, 7, 85, 88–89, 106–108, 123, 126 entertainment, 90, 94–97, 125 ephemerality, 14, 24, 33–35, 54, 63 epithet, 14, 106, 110 eponym, 57–58, 64 ethnic dialect, 6 ethnic group, 6–8, 10, 12–14, 28, 90–91, 93, 99–100, 110, 113, 123–124, 126 ethnolect, 6 euphemism, 8, 10, 22, 33, 35, 46–47, 62 Everett, Daniel, 15 examples, xii, 17–18, 126 exclamation, 52, 61, 106 extension, 77 eye-dialect, 61 figuration, 11, 16–17, 19–20, 39–40, 42, 66–77, 82, 118, 125 figuration themes, 73–77, 125 figure of speech, 66–67, 69, 71 first name, 57–58, 64 Flexner, Stuart Berg, 29, 43, 70, 85–86, 101, 112 forcefulness, 29, 39, 111, 116–117, 123, 126 fore clipping, 46 formulaic expression, 41, 64, 104, 125 front clipping, 44, 46 functional shift, 50 fusion, 53 generalization, 17, 58, 66, 77–78, 82, 125 general slang, 13, 15–17, 24, 65, 83, 86, 94, 102, 105, 113, 117, 119, 126 geography, 90, 96–98, 125 ghetto, 6, 26, 103 Ghetto Speech, 3, 6 Ghetto Talk, 6 Glossary, xv, 14, 16–17, 24, 32–35, 54, 63, 124, 126 graffiti, 95 grammatical shifting, 50 Green, Jonathon, ix, xv, 17 Green, Lisa, x, 3, 14, 38, 83 group identification, 8, 55, 90, 99–102, 123, 126 Halliday, Michael, 88 head rhyme, 31 hind clipping, 44 hip-hop, 7, 13, 16, 26, 29, 34–35, 54, 60–61, 63–64, 94–95, 103, 118 Hip-Hop Nation Language (HHNL), 7 Hip-Hop Speech, 6 Hip-Hop Talk, 3, 6

294

Index

historical change, 66, 77, 82, 125 Holloway, Joseph, 95 humanization, 72 humor, 7, 10, 24–25, 27, 29, 35–36, 40, 61, 63, 70–71, 106, 108–110, 123, 126 hybrid, 53 hyperbole, 67, 70–71 identification, 99–102, 113 idiom, 8, 10–11, 36, 40–42, 70 illiteracy, 8, 62 imitation, 112–113, 119 inclusion, 12–14 infix, 32–35, 63–64 informality, 7–9, 44, 61, 112, 123–124, 126 initialism, 44, 48–49, 64–65, 125 interaction, 104 internal clipping, 46–47 inverse derivation, 45 irony, 25, 71, 76, 109–110 jargon, 6, 8–9, 48, 55 Jay, Timothy, 10 jazz, 6–7, 95 Jive Speech, 6 Jive Talk, 3, 6 Johnson, Mark, 66 Johnson, Samuel, 15 Kearse, Randy, xv, 16–17, 34 Kipfer, Barbara, xv, 9, 15–17, 45, 48, 51, 79 Kowalczyk, Malgorzata, 8–9, 93, 96 Labov, William, x, 4 Lakoff, George, 66, 68 Lapp, Diane, x letter compound, 22–23 lexical borrowing, 54, 105, 119 lexical field, 83 lexical material, 12, 15–16, 18–19, 124, 126 lexicography, 7, 17, 62, 126 lexicon, 2–3, 6, 8, 12–13, 50, 54, 59, 66, 78–79, 82–83, 86, 95, 97, 106, 112–113, 116, 125 Lieber, Rochelle, 59 Lighter, Jonathan, ix, 7–11, 14, 67, 99, 112–113 linguistic description, 1, 11, 17, 19, 66, 83, 99, 124 litotes, 71 loan translation, 56–57, 64, 125 loanword, 54–56 luxury, 90, 96–97, 125 Major, Clarence, x, x, xv, 6, 16–17, 27, 39, 50, 61, 79, 83, 101, 105, 114

male talk, 70, 110 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 104 McArthur, Tom, 3, 5–6, 41–42, 45, 50, 117 McWhorter, John, 8 media, 94, 124 meiosis, 67, 71 melioration, 17, 66, 77, 79–82, 88, 101, 125 Mesthrie, Rajend, 2, 91, 118 metaphor, 17, 66–69, 72, 76, 82, 125 methodology, 1, 12–18 metonymy, 17, 66–69, 82, 125 monosyllabic word, 37, 43, 64 Morgan, Marcyliena, x, 113, 127 morphological patterns, 19–65 morphology, 17, 125 Mufwene, Salikoko, x, 113 music, 6, 15, 28, 69, 79, 95, 97–98, 125 narrowing, 78 negative categorization, 89–90 neologism, 8, 11, 59–60 nominalization, 50–52 non-standard expression, 2–4, 8–9 noun phrase, 38 novelty, 8, 11, 19, 41, 59–60, 113, 117, 119, 123–124 objectification, 72 occupational group, 8–9, 13, 90, 113, 124 offensiveness, 9–10, 14, 27, 35, 79, 82, 101 onomatopoeia, 59–61, 65 origin, 2, 6, 9, 12–13, 55, 113, 119 overlexicalization, 88 overstatement, 70 passive slang, 14 Pearce, Michael, 33 Peckham, Aaron, 35 pejoration, 17, 77, 81–82, 125 perception, 5–12, 14, 113, 124, 126 personification, 67, 72 phatic function, 99, 104, 123 phoneticism, 61 phonology, 3, 6, 12 phrasal noun, 42–43 phrasal verb, 41–42, 64, 125 phrase, 10, 36, 47–48, 58, 64, 67, 125 phraseology, 19, 36–43, 64, 125 physiology, 83, 85, 97, 125 poetry, 29–31, 33, 53, 66–67, 82, 117 Poplack, Shana, x portmanteau word, 53 positive categorization, 88–89 pragmatic patterns, 99–123 pragmatics, 17, 125

Index prefix, 23, 32–33 prefix word, 23, 25–26, 28 preposition, 36, 38–39, 41 prescriptivism, 1–2, 14 primary slang, 113 pronunciation, 6, 19, 26, 42, 48–49, 54, 61, 65 proverb, 40, 64, 125 psychological functions, 17, 99, 105–111, 122, 124–125 Pyles, Thomas, 109 racism, 27, 79, 90, 92–93, 97, 125 rap battle, 118 rap music, 26, 29, 34–35, 63, 94–95, 103, 117–118 reappropriation, 10, 27 rebellion, 81, 99, 102–103, 123, 126 reduplication, 29–31, 64 referential function, 99 register, 112 reification, 67, 72 representativeness, 13, 15, 17, 126 respelling, 45, 59, 61–65 rhetorical functions, 8, 17, 99, 111–117, 122–126 rhyming, 29–30, 33, 35, 39–40, 63–64, 118 rhythm, 36, 39, 44, 48–49 rhythm and blues, 95 Rickford, John, x, 3–4, 83, 119 root creation, 59 Safire, William, 31 Sakel, Jeanette, 15 sarcasm, 109–110 Schilling-Estes, Nathalie, 3, 119 scope, 12–14 secondary slang, 59, 113, 123, 126 secrecy, 70, 88, 99, 104–105, 123, 126 semantic borrowing, 54, 56 semantic change, 66, 78 semantic field, 83, 90, 125 semantic inversion, 81 semantic patterns, 66–82 semantics, 17, 125 semantic shifting, 11, 17, 66, 77–82, 125 sexuality, 83, 85–86, 97, 125 Sheidlower, Jesse, 62 shifting, 19, 66, 77–82 shortening, 11, 17, 19, 43–50, 53, 64 simile, 67, 71–72 slang, definition, 7–8, 124 slur, 27, 79, 82, 101 Smitherman, Geneva, x, x, xv, 3, 5–6, 14, 16–17, 55, 105, 113, 119

295 social dialect, 6, 11 social functions, 14, 17, 99–105, 122, 124–125 social group, 6, 8, 13, 88, 90, 99–100, 104, 110, 113, 124 social interaction, 104, 123, 126 social status, 2, 14, 26–27, 62, 92–96, 98–101, 110 sociolect, 6, 11 sociolinguistics, 1, 14, 99, 124, 126–127 solidarity, 22, 55, 100–101, 113, 123, 126 Soukhanov, Anne, 29 sources, 13–15, 18, 124, 126 Spears, Richard, 10, 83, 85, 100, 110 specialization, 17, 66, 77–79, 82, 125 specific themes, 83–84, 90–97, 125 spelling, 19, 26, 42, 46–49, 54, 57–58, 61–64 standard, 2–4, 6–12, 17, 20, 61–62, 65, 68, 77–78, 80, 83–85, 99, 108, 115–117, 122, 124–125 standard English, 8, 10–11, 17, 21–22, 29–30, 32–34, 41–42, 44, 48, 50, 61, 64–68, 72, 77, 81–83, 100, 122, 125 Steinmetz, Sol, 45, 48, 51, 79 style, 7, 10, 39, 44, 111–112, 118 stylization, 8, 111–114, 117, 119, 123, 126 substandard, 4, 8 suffix, 23, 32–33 suffix word, 23–25, 27 swearword, 110 synecdoche, 67, 69 syntax, 3, 6, 12 taboo, 8–10, 14, 22, 46–47, 74, 79, 83–86, 109–110 Taylor, R.L., 91 terminology, 1–12, 48, 91, 124 thematic patterns, 83–98 Thorne, Tony, 7, 15 Todd, Loreto, 5 toponym, 96 toughness, 94, 106, 110–111, 123, 126 understatement, 71 United States, 2–5, 10, 15, 55, 98, 112, 121, 123 variety, 2–6, 11, 121 verbal battle, 118 verbal dueling, 118 verbification, 50–52, 64, 125 verb phrase, 36–38, 41 vernacular, 2, 95 violence, 26, 90, 94, 97, 125

296

Index

vocabulary, 2, 8–9, 14, 19, 32, 55, 63, 83–85, 99–100, 105–106, 124 vulgarism, 8–10, 14, 110, 116 whites, 28, 55, 90, 93, 97, 113, 125 Widawski, Maciej, 8–9, 16, 47, 62, 83, 96, 99, 111 Williams, Robert, 4

Wolfram, Walt, x, x, 3, 5–6, 119 word battle, 117–119, 123, 126 wordbuilding patterns, 19–65 wordplay, 11, 60–61, 81, 85, 108, 117–118, 123, 126 zero derivation, 50