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ID782 June 2004

Defense Language Institute English Language Center Lackland Air Force Base, Texas

AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

782 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Preface ID782, Grammar for the American Language Course, supplements DLIELC’s Introduction to the American Language Course, which is designed to familiarize experienced instructors with techniques and methodology useful in teaching the General English materials of the American Language Course (ALC). The explanations and illustrations of American usage herein are intended as references to aid instructors of the ALC. Inquiries concerning these materials, including requests for copies, should be addressed to DLIELC/LESL 2235 Andrews Ave. Lackland Air Force Base, Texas 78236-5259 E-mail: [email protected] Copyright© 2003 by Defense Language Institute English Language Center and its licensors. Notice of Rights: All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

This supersedes ID782, December 2001.

PREFACE

i

– USER NOTES –

ii

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Table of Contents PREFACE

............................................................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ iii INTRODUCTION THE WHAT AND WHY OF GRAMMAR ...............................................................................................................................v HOW WORDS MAKE SENTENCES ................................................................................................................................... vi 1 NOUNS Types of Nouns .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 Noun Inflections Showing Number............................................................................................................................ 4 Noun Inflections Showing Possession ....................................................................................................................... 8 Noun Derivations .................................................................................................................................................... 11 Noun Phrases .......................................................................................................................................................... 14 Noun Equivalents .................................................................................................................................................... 14 Noun Functions ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 2 PRONOUNS Types Of Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................. 19 Personal Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................. 19 Demonstrative Pronouns......................................................................................................................................... 26 Interrogative Pronouns ........................................................................................................................................... 28 Reciprocal Pronouns............................................................................................................................................... 30 Indefinite Pronouns................................................................................................................................................. 30 Pronoun Modification ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Other Pronoun Forms............................................................................................................................................. 34 3 VERBS – PART I Functions of Finite Verbs........................................................................................................................................ 35 Verb Tenses............................................................................................................................................................. 42 The Simple Tenses................................................................................................................................................... 43 The Progressive Tenses........................................................................................................................................... 50 The Perfect Tenses .................................................................................................................................................. 54 The Perfect Progressive Tenses .............................................................................................................................. 59 4 VERBS – PART II Voice ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Mood ....................................................................................................................................................................... 67 Auxiliaries (Helping Verbs) .................................................................................................................................... 70 5 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Adjectives ................................................................................................................................................................ 75 Adverbs ................................................................................................................................................................... 87 6 DETERMINERS AND CONJUNCTIONS Determiners............................................................................................................................................................. 99 Conjunctions ......................................................................................................................................................... 102 7 PREPOSITIONS Types of Prepositions ............................................................................................................................................ 105

PREFACE

iii

8 SENTENCE PARTS AND PATTERNS The Sentence ..........................................................................................................................................................111 Parts of the Sentence..............................................................................................................................................113 Sentence Patterns...................................................................................................................................................115 9 PHRASES AND CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................................119 Clauses...................................................................................................................................................................120 Phrases ..................................................................................................................................................................137 APPENDIX A PUNCTUATION End Punctuation ....................................................................................................................................................160 The Comma............................................................................................................................................................161 The Semicolon........................................................................................................................................................164 The Colon ..............................................................................................................................................................165 The Apostrophe......................................................................................................................................................166 Quotation Marks....................................................................................................................................................168 Other Punctuation Marks ......................................................................................................................................169 APPENDIX B IRREGULAR VERBS ......................................................................................................................................................172 APPENDIX C PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS Adjective/Preposition Combinations......................................................................................................................180 Verb/Preposition Combinations (2-Word Verbs)...................................................................................................181 APPENDIX D MORE SENTENCE PATTERNS Pattern One............................................................................................................................................................198 Pattern Two ...........................................................................................................................................................200 Pattern Three .........................................................................................................................................................201 Pattern Four ..........................................................................................................................................................203 Pattern Five ...........................................................................................................................................................205 Additional Patterns with There and It....................................................................................................................207 APPENDIX E MORE ON INDIRECT SPEECH Tense Harmony......................................................................................................................................................211 Modals in Indirect Speech .....................................................................................................................................212 Questions in Indirect Speech .................................................................................................................................213 General Truths in Indirect Speech.........................................................................................................................214 Commands (Imperatives) in Indirect Speech .........................................................................................................214 GLOSSARY

..........................................................................................................................................................215

INDEX

..........................................................................................................................................................221

iv

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Introduction

The What and Why of Grammar Historically, English grammar explanations and rules were patterned after Latin grammar. Because Latin scholars had already developed a comprehensive terminology to explain how Latin worked, scholars of English borrowed much of this terminology and applied it to English language patterns. English, however, grew and developed differently from Latin. And, as the language spread across North America, American English developed, deviating somewhat from “the Queen’s English.” The American language continues to grow and change as the United States becomes a truly “universal” nation influenced by many ethnic and language groups. Today, English is no longer strictly British or American as it evolves into a common world language, continually changing to meet the needs of its users. The grammar of a language is the system of elements and rules needed to form and interpret the sentences of that language. Prescriptive grammar creates rules for how sentences should be put together. These rules tell us that subjects and verbs should agree or that pronouns must match their antecedents in number and gender. Descriptive grammar analyzes sentences as they actually are put together by language users. A descriptive grammarian would discuss the use of ain’t or the decline in the use of the subjunctive mood. Over time, descriptive grammar patterns sometimes become a part of the prescriptive grammar. Change in the use of can and may in American English is an example of this evolution. As rules for English grammar have become more descriptive, the accepted register has also undergone changes. Register, in language, refers to different levels of formality and usage. Even though many registers of English have been used throughout history, there has always been one register, that used by the leaders in a culture, considered to be “proper” or “good.” In the past, any variants of “proper” register were considered “incorrect” or “bad.” Over time, however, as people from many different groups have assumed leadership positions, this has become less and less true. The diversification of power has led to changes in the standard language and to wider acceptance of language variations. Most native speakers use several registers, depending on occasion, content, and purpose. In spite of this democratic ideal, in American English there remains a register that is desirable for those who wish to succeed and to be seen as knowledgeable. Today, the desirable register for most use is relatively informal, but grammatically “standard.” As the language has become less formal, so too has the terminology used to describe it. It is important for the instructor of English as a foreign or second language to teach the language as the student will encounter it and will be expected to use it. To that end, this text attempts to be both descriptive and prescriptive and to use current simplified terminology as well as traditional terminology with which the experienced instructor may be familiar.

PREFACE

v

How Words Make Sentences Words, or parts of speech, combine with each other to form larger units, which then combine to form sentences. Sentences always contain a noun or noun phrase and a verb or verb phrase, and they may also contain prepositional phrases, adjectival phrases, and/or adverbial phrases. Sometimes the noun phrase with all of its modifiers is called the subject, and the verb phrase with all of its modifiers is called the predicate. This text attempts to explain these parts of speech and parts of the sentence and the relationships between them for instructors of the American Language Course (ALC). The parts of speech are illustrated in the chart below as lexical categories. Sometimes the major categories are called content words, while the minor categories are called structure or function words. Note that the major categories are open, meaning new words are continually added to them. The minor categories are closed; they are restricted to a fixed set of elements already in the language.

Parts of Speech (Lexical Categories) MAJOR LEXICAL CATEGORIES

EXAMPLES

Noun (N)

apple, John, fish, idea

Verb (V)

drive, think, believe, hammer

Adjective (Adj)

blue, young, silent, lush

Adverb (Adv)

silently, quickly, happily

Minor lexical categories

Examples

Determiner (Det)

the, a, this, these

Auxiliary verb (Aux)

will, can, may, must, be, have

Preposition (P)

to, in, on, near, at, by

Pronoun (Pro)

he, she, him, his, her

Conjunction (C)

and, or, but

(

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Word groups Words fit together in predictable patterns to form ideas. A very simple explanation of the order of these patterns follows. This diagram sets out only the minimum requirements for each word group. Phrase – a group of words Clause – a group of words with a subject and a verb Sentence – a group of words with a subject and a verb, expressing a complete idea Paragraph – a group of sentences about one idea These simple definitions help students identify the word groups they may be asked to work with. More complete explanations must necessarily follow. There are, for example, many kinds of phrases, but all that is required to make up a phrase is a group of words. Usually, a phrase is missing either a subject or a verb. If one of these is missing, the word group cannot be a clause or a sentence, so it must, therefore, be a phrase. a pizza delivery person about the visitor without the quotes waiting patiently A clause must contain both a subject and a verb. If the clause is independent, it also contains a complete idea. If it is dependent, it does not contain a complete idea. contact the guard (independent) people call them (independent) you have (dependent) they had been (dependent) A sentence, in its simplest form, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete idea. A simple sentence and an independent clause are identical except that the clause is attached to one or more additional word groups, while a simple sentence stands alone. Phrases and clauses combine to form complex sentences. Sentences about the same idea are grouped together to form paragraphs. Related paragraphs are further grouped together to develop larger ideas into, for example, essays or stories.

PREFACE

vii

– USER NOTES –

viii

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

1

Nouns Meaning determines a word’s part of speech, or lexical category. Words which indicate people, animals, places, things, concepts, emotions, or processes are categorized as nouns. People:

man, child, teacher

Animals:

cow, sheep, duck, fish

Things:

desk, car, house, dress

Ideas, concepts, emotions: truth, honor, envy, love, surprise Processes: combustion, radiation, evolution, assimilation

Types of Nouns Nouns are grouped into several categories. Use determines category, so some nouns occur in more than one.

Categories of Nouns

Examples

Concrete: objects that can be seen, touched, and usually counted

a car, a desk, a rose, a cookie, a cow, a mouse, a radio, furniture, wheat

Abstract: ideas, processes, feelings

peace, democracy, learning, anger, happiness

Count: items that can be counted

a minute, an hour, a bird, a dollar, a man, a woman

Noncount:

UNIT 1

mass nouns

water, oil, gas, metal, cheese, bread,

abstract nouns (see above)

peace, democracy, learning, anger

non-specific groups

furniture, clothing, equipment, fruit

1

NOTE: Some nouns change category according to context. Coffee is all I have for breakfast. (Coffee is a noncount noun.) How about another coffee? (Coffee is a noncount noun used as a count noun; actual meaning: a cup of coffee)

Categories of Nouns

Examples

PROPER NOUNS: particular people, places, or things

2

Personal names

Dorothy, Charles, the Joneses, Mr. Baker, Col. Evans, Dr. White

Geographic locations

England, Salt Lake City, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon, the Gobi Desert, Lake Superior, California

Units of time

Monday, August, the 20th Century

Titles of works such as books, movies, publications

The Last of the Mohicans, Star Trek II, The New York Times

Holidays, special events, and special time periods

Christmas, Ramadan, Halloween, Labor Day

National and religious groups

Americans, Buddhists

Religions

Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Shinto

Names of organizations and institutions

The United Nations, the Red Crescent, the Defense Language Institute, Harvard University

Titles of companies

The Ford Motor Company, General Electric, Exxon, Coca Cola

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Categories of Nouns

Examples

COMMON NOUNS: any member of a class of similar items

man, river, officer

Compound nouns: two nouns joined to form one

bedroom, toothpick, bookcase, airport

Collective nouns: nouns naming groups considered a single unit

family, class, government, team, crowd, herd, flock, kit, set, pack

NOTE: Collective nouns take a third person singular verb except when individuals or items within the group act separately. The committee is meeting tomorrow. (the committee as a unit) The police are patrolling the streets. (individual police officers)

Our basketball team is playing tonight.

UNIT 1

3

✦

Change of Form

Nouns change form in two ways, by inflection and by derivation. ♦

An inflection shows a different grammatical subclass or relationship.

♦

A derivation changes a word to another part of speech or expands its meaning.

This text discusses two types of noun inflections—those showing number and those showing possession. Nouns derived from other parts of speech are illustrated in charts.

Noun Inflections Showing Number ✦

Count and Noncount Nouns

Singular and noncount nouns are without inflection. They refer to single items or to items that cannot be precisely numbered.

Noncount Nouns knowledge

meat

money

He can recite hundreds of facts, but he doesn’t demonstrate much knowledge. Doctors say eating too much meat is not healthy. He has a little money.

Count nouns are made plural by adding the inflections -s or -es to the base form of the word.

Count Nouns 1 fact/17 facts 1 hamburger/3 hamburgers 1 dollar/ 100 dollars There are thousands of facts in the book that Joe bought last night. Ted ate 4 hamburgers last night. I found twenty dollars last night.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Nouns usually considered noncount are sometimes pluralized into count nouns.

✦

Noncount

Plural

Would you like some coffee?

Our grocery store sells coffees from around the world.

Fruit is very good for you.

Doctors recommend eating different fruits.

Cake is a traditional part of most American birthday celebrations.

If you’re looking for a wide selection of cakes, try the bakery on the corner.

Pluralization of Nouns

Regular Plurals Add -s inflection to singular nouns ending in a single consonant preceded by a vowel.

Add -es inflection to nouns ending in sibilant sounds spelled s, z, x, ch, sh.

Add only -s to nouns ending in silent e preceded by a sibilant sound (/s/,/z/). This causes the plural word to be pronounced as though the plural inflection were -es.

boy

→

boys

pet

→

pets

stair

→

stairs

key

→

keys

branch →

branches

bush

→

bushes

base

→

bases

tax

→

taxes

nose

→

noses

face

→

faces

lease

→

leases

slice

→

slices

choice →

choices

NOTE: Verbs also use an -s or -es inflection for the third person singular present tense. Such words as runs, marches, and dances can be either plural nouns or present tense verbs depending on context.

UNIT 1

5

leaf—leaves

Regular Plurals (continued) For singular nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add -es.

If the final y is preceded by a vowel, add only -s.

For most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add -es to form the plural.

If the final o is preceded by a vowel, or if the noun names a musical instrument, add only -s. For one syllable words ending in f or fe, change the f or fe to v and add -es to form the plural.

For some singular words ending in f, simply add -s.

6

story

→

stories

duty

→

duties

baby

→

babies

day

→

days

toy

→

toys

play

→

plays

potato

→

potatoes

echo

→

echoes

cargo

→

cargoes

piano

→

pianos

zoo

→

zoos

loaf

→

loaves

wife

→

wives

leaf

→

leaves

chief

→

chiefs

cuff

→

cuffs

belief

→

beliefs

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Irregular Plurals Irregular plural nouns have the following characteristics: (1) they are changed internally; (2) they are changed with an ending other than -s or -es; (3) the singular and plural forms are the same (no inflection); (4) their plurals are derived from a language other than English. Internal change

Ending change other than -s or -es

Absence of any inflection

Plural endings derived from other languages, especially Latin

woman

→

women

man

→

men

mouse

→

mice

ox

→

oxen

child

→

children

one fish

→

two fish

one sheep

→

several sheep

one deer

→

two deer

stimulus

→

stimuli

alumnus

→

alumni

alumna

→

alumnae

vertebra

→

vertebrae

bacterium

→

bacteria

criterion

→

criteria

parenthesis → analysis Nouns with plural forms only

UNIT 1

→

parentheses analyses

pants, trousers, scissors, pliers

7

Irregular Singular A few nouns that end in -s are singular in meaning. news

What is the latest news?

measles

Measles is a disease that usually afflicts children.

Some academic disciplines: economics

Economics is John’s college major.

physics

Physics was my most difficult subject.

mathematics

Mathematics is her favorite subject.

Mr. Fields produces the television news.

Noun Inflections Showing Possession Nouns can be inflected to show possession or ownership. In American usage, an “of phrase” to indicate ownership, as in “the car of Tom” or “the books of the students,” is unusual. “Tom’s car” and “the students’ books” are common. The possessive form is almost always used with animate nouns, which indicate living things (the dog’s leg). The “of phrase” is occasionally used with inanimate nouns, which indicate non-living things (“the leg of the chair”). However, an adjectivenoun combination (noun adjunct) is more common (“the chair leg”).

8

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Formation of the Possessive For singular nouns (usually representing a person or animal), add ’s.

The child’s toys, the cat’s bowl, the teacher’s book, Bob’s car, Charles’s jacket, Mr. Martinez’s hat

This is also true for singular nouns ending in /s/ or /z/. NOTE: The possessive of a singular noun ending in /s/ or /z/ is often shown with only the apostrophe.

Charles’ jacket, Mr. Martinez’ jacket

For plural nouns ending in /s/ or /z/, add only the apostrophe.

The prisoners’ complaints (more than one prisoner) The teachers’ salaries (more than one teacher)

For plural nouns not ending in /s/ or /z/, add ’s.

women’s jobs

For phrases or compound words, add ’s to the last word.

the Chief Executive Officer’s desk

children’s games

Burly and Smith’s furniture store somebody else’s exam paper

We watched the news on Thomas’s television.

UNIT 1

9

✦

Other Uses of Possessive Form Nouns Expressions of time periods

a day’s work, a month’s salary, today’s lesson

Expressions of natural phenomena

the sun’s light, the earth’s rotation, the tree’s branches

Expressions of value

a dollar’s worth, five cents’ worth

The hospital stay cost him a month's salary.

The sun’s light is also a source of heat.

Can you let me have a dollar’s worth of apples? Expressions of measurement

a hand’s breadth, a stone’s throw

Expressions of characteristics

a baby’s smile, a teenager’s impatience, a bull’s strength

Expressions of origin

Shakespeare’s sonnets, Mozart’s first symphony

We live only a stone’s throw from the mall. (i.e., a short distance)

Our 16-year-old often shows a teenager’s impatience with older people.

I reread Shakespeare’s sonnets every year or two. Expressions of location

the town’s parks, our country’s railroads Our country’s railroads are in excellent condition.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Noun Derivations Some nouns are derived from verbs, adjectives, or other nouns. These are created by adding a derivational suffix (ending) to the stem or base form of the original verb, adjective, or noun.

Verb + Noun Suffix BASE VERB

SUFFIX

DERIVED NOUN

arrive

-al

arrival

meet

-ing

meeting

marry

-age

marriage

persevere

-ance

perseverance

depend

-ence

dependence

brew

-(e)ry

brewery

attend

-tion

attention

provide

-sion

provision

act

-or

actor

please

-ure

pleasure

weigh

-t

weight

defend

-ant

defendant

auction

-eer

auctioneer

manage

-r

manager

govern

-ment

government

employ

-ee

employee

Adjective + Noun Suffix BASE ADJECTIVE

SUFFIX

DERIVED NOUN

able

-ity

ability

bold

-ness

boldness

wide

-th

width

intimate

-cy

intimacy

young

-ster

youngster

independent

-ence

independence

distant

-ance

distance

brave

-ry

bravery

perfect

-ion

perfection

ideal

-ism

idealism

ideal

-ist

idealist

UNIT 1

11

Noun + Noun Suffix BASE NOUN

SUFFIX

DERIVED NOUN

piano

-ist

pianist

friend

-ship

friendship

democrat

-acy

democracy

boy

-hood

boyhood

library

-ian

librarian

masochist

-ism

masochism

mob

-ster

mobster

Noun + Feminine Noun Suffix Historically, suffixes were added to generic nouns, those previously considered masculine, to create feminine forms. Few gender-specific nouns are used today because of legal and political considerations. In many cases new gender-neutral nouns have been created to replace the genderspecific forms of the past. Example: flight attendant has replaced steward and stewardess. The forms listed below are found primarily in publications predating the women’s movement. GENERIC NOUN

FEMININE SUFFIX

FEMININE NOUN

aviator

-ix

aviatrix

host

-ess

hostess

bachelor

-ette

bachelorette

hero

-ine

heroine

fiancé

-e

fiancée

comedian

-enne

comedienne

landlord

-lady

landlady

masseur

-euse

masseuse

A female pilot used to be called an aviatrix. Now, like her male counterpart, she is referred to as an aviator.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Spelling Patterns for Noun Formation by Suffix

Spelling in English is problematic, even for native speakers of the language. That’s because there are so many “rules” to remember and just as many exceptions. The chart below shows the most common spelling patterns for noun formation. Usual exceptions to the patterns are also listed, but keep in mind that there are also rare exceptions to almost every pattern. The final consonant of one-syllable words is doubled when the suffix begins with a vowel.

The final consonant of a word of two or more syllables is doubled when the syllable before the suffix is stressed and contains only one vowel. Silent e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant.

Exceptions: (where silent e is omitted)

run

→

runner

god

→

goddess

clap

→

clapper

plan

→

planner

propel

→

propellant

concur

→

concurrence

repel

→

repellent

commit

→

committee

nice

→

niceness

advertise

→

advertisement

crude

→

crudeness

safe

→

safety

true

→

truth

wise

→

wisdom

wide

→

width

argue

→

argument

acknowledge → Silent e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

When a word ends in y, the y is changed to i before adding a suffix.

UNIT 1

acknowledgment

measure

→

measurement

relate

→

relation

please

→

pleasure

cooperate

→

cooperation

preserve

→

preservation

rare

→

rarity

move

→

moving

multiply

→

multiplier

marry

→

marriage

try

→

trial

drowsy

→

drowsiness

ratify

→

ratification

hazy

→

haziness

13

Noun Phrases A noun phrase (NP) may substitute for an individual noun. A noun phrase is a group of words containing a noun and its determiners and modifiers. The central noun of the phrase is called the headword. Modifiers may occur either before or after the noun in a NP.

Noun Phrase (NP) DETERMINER

MODIFIER(S)

NOUN (Headword)

MODIFIER(S)

the

old

house

near the river

lake,

serene and clear

first young

soldier

killed

several

men

upstairs

the the

Noun Phrase the red barn in the pasture

Noun Equivalents Noun phrases are only one of several substitutes for nouns. Clauses, adjectives, and adverbs can also be used to perform noun functions. Their uses as nouns will be explained as each is presented.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Noun Functions Nouns function in two cases in sentences and clauses: the subjective case and the objective case.
Subjective case nouns perform the action of a verb or rename the performer of the action. They function as any of the following: ♦

subjects

♦

subject complements

♦

appositives


Objective case nouns receive verb action. They function as any of the following:

✦

♦

direct objects

♦

indirect objects

♦

objects of prepositions

♦

object complements

Subject

These nouns in the subjective case function as subjects of sentences. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT Determiner

AUXILIARY

Noun cry.

Babies The

VERB

ship

has

sailed.

Charles

has

left.

These

boys

can

swim.

Many

soldiers

are

marching.

UNIT 1

15

✦

Subject Complement

These nouns in the subjective case function as complements after linking verbs such as BE. They are complements because they complete an idea and are subject complements because they tell something about the subject, often by renaming, specifying, or describing. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

VERB

NOUN/NP as SUBJECT COMPLEMENT Determiner

✦

Modifier

Noun soldiers.

Those men

are

My sons

are

Her favorite food

is

Mr. Rice

became

fine

men. fruit.

our

favorite

teacher.

Appositive

These nouns in the subjective case function as appositives. They rename or identify another noun. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

NOUN/NP as APPOSITIVE

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

Our mechanic,

John,

fixes

German cars.

My brother,

the CPA,

works

on taxes.

Mr. Green,

our supervisor,

quit.

✦

Direct Object

These nouns in the objective case function as direct objects of verbs. They answer the question what? or whom? after a verb. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

VERB

NP AS DIRECT OBJECT Det

Modifier

Noun

young

thief.

Whom did the policeman catch?

rations.

What did the soldier forget?

parents.

Whom does the oldest son support?

The policeman

caught

the

That soldier

forgot

the

The oldest son

supports

16

his

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Indirect Object

These nouns in the objective case function as indirect objects of the verb. They answer the question to whom/what? or for whom/what? NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

VERB

Det Margaret and Bill

Our friendly neighbor

John

✦

gave

brought

read

DIRECT OBJECT

INDIRECT OBJECT Modifier their

the

the

whole

young

Noun a party.

For whom did Margaret and Bill give a party?

family

a gift.

For whom did our friendly neighbor bring a gift?

children

a bedtime story.

To whom did John read a bedtime story?

nephew

Object of a Preposition

These noun phrases in the objective case function as objects of prepositions. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

VERB

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) Preposition

Noun/NP as Object Of Preposition Det

Modifier

Noun

Joan

talked

with

our

new

friends.

Jim

swam

in

the

cold

water.

That man

is

from

my

country.

Bill

is

on

the

phone.

UNIT 1

17

✦

Object Complement

These nouns in the objective case function as complements after objects. They are complements because they complete ideas about the objects. Complements often complete an idea by renaming, or giving a role to, the original noun or pronoun. NOUN/NP as SUBJECT

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

NOUN/NP as OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT Determiner

Noun

The people

made

the hero

their

leader.

Some teachers

consider

David

a

genius.

The students

elected

him

✦

secretary.

Direct Address (Vocative)

When nouns identify a person or group being addressed, they are called vocative. The vocative usually, but not always, occurs at the beginning of a sentence. VOCATIVE NOUN/NP

SUBJECT NOUN/NP

PREDICATE VERB PHRASE

Men,

(you)

be on the parade grounds early.

Ms. Smith,

(you)

come to my office, please.

Sharon,

Alice

is here!

Walter,

the water

is rising in the river.

Occasionally, the vocative occurs within the sentence: Pay attention, everyone, to the following message. Tell me, Tom, where you’re going.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

2

Pronouns A pronoun substitutes for a noun (Latin pro = for or in place of + noun). Pronouns do not have complete meaning in themselves but derive their meaning from the context in which they are used. When a pronoun refers to an identifiable noun, that referent noun is called the pronoun’s antecedent. In some contexts pronouns do not have antecedents.

Types Of Pronouns The most common categories of pronouns are as follows: ♦

personal

♦

demonstrative

♦

interrogative

♦

reciprocal

♦

indefinite

Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns, such as I, you, he, she, and it, take the place of names of people or groups of people. Personal pronouns are classified by number, person, and gender.

✦

Classification by Number
Singular pronouns refer to one person or thing.

She is talking on the telephone.


Plural pronouns refer to two or more persons or things.

We were eating lunch.

The singular personal pronouns are he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, you, your, and yours. The plural personal pronouns include we, us, our, you, your, yours, they, them, and theirs.

UNIT 2

19

✦

Classification by Person
I and we are examples of first person pronouns, referring to the speaker or writer. I spoke to the class. We will pick Mike up at seven o’clock.
You (singular) and you (plural) are second person pronouns, referring to the person or persons addressed. You can go to lunch now if you want to. The President will meet with all of you tomorrow.
He, she, it and they are third person pronouns, referring to the person, persons, or things spoken or written about. He was a war hero. She wants to go out to dinner. It is the last book that Dr. Suess wrote. They were tired after class.

✦

Classification by Gender
I, you, we and they do not identify the gender of the antecedent.

They are in the classroom.

Look at the horse. What is it eating?


He, him, and his refer to males.

He looks happy. 20


It refers to gender neutral animals and things.


She, her, and hers refer to females.

She is smiling. GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Some nouns fit more than one classification. For example, common nouns such as teacher, parent, student, and friend can be antecedents for he or she, depending on the specific referent. My teacher is nice. I like her. She is Ms. Smith. I like my teacher. He is nice. He is Mr. Smith. The following chart shows some of the types of nouns that these pronouns can refer to: PRONOUN

NOUN REFERENT

he

man, father, brother, uncle, son, actor, king

she

woman, mother, sister, aunt, daughter, waitress, queen

it

box, idea, organization, childhood, opportunity, liberty

he or she

teacher, parent, student, friend, secretary

he or it

stallion, bull, ram, rooster

she or it

hen, cow, doe, ewe, mare, ship, aircraft, car

he, she, it

baby, dog, cat, pet (Note that if the name of the baby or the animal is known, the speaker is likely to use he or she; if unknown, it.)

The plural pronoun they is used to refer to all plural nouns, regardless of gender.

✦

Classification by Case

Personal pronouns have several forms, or cases. The case that is used depends on the function of the pronoun in the sentence, the kind of noun it replaces, or the context object to which it refers. Common cases in English are as follows: ♦

subjective

♦

objective

♦

possessive

♦

reflexive

Subject (Nominative) and Objective Cases The grammatical terms subject and object label functions of nouns in sentences. Pronouns can serve in place of nouns in both subjective and objective cases.
Subjective (or nominative) case refers to the function of a word as subject.
Objective case refers to the function of a word as an object.

UNIT 2

21

Pronouns as Subjects and/or Direct Objects The following chart shows how pronouns can act as subjects and direct objects. (NP indicates noun phrase.) SUBJECT

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

Noun/NP/ Pronoun

Noun/NP/Pronoun

Mr. Smith

trained

the dog.

He

trained

it.

Mary

respects

her parents.

She

respects

them.

John and Sam

like

you.

They

like

you.

Pronouns as Indirect Objects Pronouns in the objective case can also be used as indirect objects. The following chart shows a subject, an indirect object, and a direct object. SUBJECT

VERB

Noun/NP

22

INDIRECT OBJECT

DIRECT OBJECT

Noun/NP/Pronoun

Noun/NP

Ms. Jones

gave

the cat

some milk.

Ms. Jones

gave

it

some milk.

Judy

gave

the dogs

bones.

Judy

gave

them

bones.

Mike

wrote

his father

a letter.

Mike

wrote

him

a letter.

John and Ed

sent

Betty and Mary

photographs.

John and Ed

sent

them

photographs.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions The next chart shows how objective pronouns can function as objects of prepositions. Notice that the pronoun forms are objective—the same as those used for direct and indirect objects. SUBJECT

VERB

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

Noun/NP

Preposition

Noun/NP/PN as Object of Prep

This letter

is

from

Aunt Mary.

This letter

is

from

her.

The letter

is

for

Mr. Doe.

The letter

is

for

him.

The invitation

is

for

John and Jane.

The invitation

is

for

them.

Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns, pronouns which indicate ownership, can substitute for possessive nouns. POSSESSIVE NOUNS

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Is this Bob and Anne’s house?

Is this house theirs?

Is that Jason’s car?

Yes, it’s his.

That’s not your umbrella. It’s hers.

UNIT 2

23

Reflexive Pronouns as Objects Reflexive pronouns can replace nouns in any objective function: direct object, indirect object, or object of preposition. However, their function is different from object pronouns because they indicate that the subject and the object are the same person or thing. He shot himself by accident. DIRECT OBJECT

I cut myself this morning. Watch out! You’ll hurt yourself! He taught himself English. She cut herself a piece of cheesecake.

INDIRECT OBJECT Pour yourself a drink. They didn’t allow themselves enough time for the trip. I bought this for myself. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

He did the job all by himself. As for myself, I have no need of a second car.

Plural Pronoun / Emphatic The dignitaries, themselves, took us sightseeing.

Singular Pronoun / Reflexive Case Elizabeth can drive the car herself.

Emphatic (Intensive) Pronouns When used in apposition to (immediately following) nouns or pronouns, the -self words are reflexive in form but not in meaning. Their meaning is emphatic, or intensive. They emphasize the subject or assure that the subject of the verb is the performer of the action. He, himself, told me the story. Do it yourself! (You, not anybody else, do it!) Beth told me about the incident herself. 24

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Interrelationship of Person, Gender, Number and Case

The following charts show how the categories of case, number, person, and gender interrelate.

Plural Personal Pronouns – Indefinite Gender CASE

1st Person

2nd Person

3rd Person

Subjective

we

you

they

We are teachers.

You are all tardy.

They are my parents.

us

you

them

Don’t forget us.

We saw you today.

Can you tell them?

ours

yours

theirs

That’s ours.

The books are yours.

Those cars are theirs.

ourselves

yourselves

themselves

We did it ourselves.

Did you hurt yourselves?

They introduced themselves to us.

Objective

Possessive

Reflexive

Singular Personal Pronouns 1st Person

2nd Person

3rd Person

CASE

INDEFINITE GENDER

MASCULINE

FEMININE

NEUTRAL

Subjective

I

you

he

she

it

I am a teacher.

You are tardy.

He is my father.

She is my mother.

It’s a good movie.

me

you

him

her

it

Don’t forget me.

We saw you today.

Can you tell him?

He told her.

David bought it.

mine

yours

his

hers

That’s mine.

The book is yours.

That car is his.

This chair is hers.

myself

yourself

himself

herself

itself

I cut myself.

At a buffet, you serve yourself.

He introduced himself to us.

She did it by herself.

The dog hurt itself.

Objective

Possessive

Reflexive

UNIT 2

– (no possessive case)

25

Demonstrative Pronouns This, that, these, and those are demonstrative pronouns. This (singular) and these (plural) usually substitute for things near the speaker in space or in time, while that and those refer to things at a greater distance.

✦

this / that

This is my horse.

✦

these / those

These are my horses.

26

That is my neighbor’s horse.

Those are my neighbor’s horses.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Demonstrative Pronouns as Subjects or Objects

When demonstrative pronouns substitute for people or things, they may be used as subjects or objects. SUBJECT

This is my favorite food. These are my children. That is the capital building. Those are books for students.

DIRECT OBJECT

We’ll put this in the kitchen. Did you find these in the garage?

INDIRECT OBJECT

Give this your immediate attention. Send that to the repair shop.

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

What can I understand from this? We talked about that yesterday. Hang those pictures above these.

✦

Demonstrative Pronouns Used to Express Time

Demonstrative pronouns may also be used to refer to periods of time. PRESENT

This is the most pleasant time of the year in the South.

PRESENT AND RECENT

These are unusually warm days that we’ve been having.

PERIOD IN THE PAST

Those were the good old days.

SPECIFIC PAST TIME

That was the day Johnny got his first tooth.

NEAR FUTURE SPECIFIC

This is the weekend we are planning to go to the coast. (next Saturday and Sunday)

FUTURE SPECIFIC

That is the weekend we are planning to go to the coast. (a weekend in a future month)

NOTE: Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners before nouns. (Example: This book is good.) See the unit on determiners (page 99). UNIT 2

27

Interrogative Pronouns Who, whom, whose, what, and which are interrogative pronouns. They are sometimes called question words because they are most often used to ask questions. They can function as subjects and objects. Interrogative pronouns can be combined with the suffix -ever.

✦

Interrogative Pronouns as Subjects and Objects SUBJECT

Who is outside?

Who and what are commonly used with singular verbs.

What made that noise?

Note: Statement word order is used when an interrogative pronoun functions as a subject.

Who is calling? What happened? Which are you looking at?

DIRECT OBJECT

What did you buy? Which do you prefer? Whose did you use? Who(m) did you visit?

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

Who(m) did you talk to ? To whom did you talk? From whom did you buy your car? Whose (house) did you go to?

Whom is an optional form in standard American English today. It is often used immediately following a preposition but has been replaced by who in most other objective constructions. Whom is still preferred for all uses in the objective case in formal English. The words whose, what, and which also serve as modifiers of nouns. (Whose book is that?) In this position, they function as determiners rather than pronouns. (See the unit on determiners, page 99.)

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Else and -ever

Else Used in Questions When an interrogative pronoun is followed by else, the question is requesting additional or different information. SUBJECT

Who else was at the meeting?

DIRECT OBJECT

Whom else did you meet?

INDIRECT OBJECT

You gave whom else this memo?

-ever Used in Questions The suffix -ever adds a quality of surprise to the basic interrogative pronoun. It serves to intensify the question, making it almost an exclamation. QUESTION

IMPLIED MEANING

Whoever told you that?

That can’t possibly be true.

Whatever made him say such a thing?

I know he didn’t mean that.

Who(m)ever did you give all that money to?

You gave away a million dollars.

NOTE: In legal and formal situations, you may come across the somewhat archaic suffix -soever. Like -ever, it can be used to intensify. Example: Whosoever comes under the jurisdiction of this court will be required to abide by the laws hereby set forth.

-ever Used in Statements In a statement, the use of the suffix -ever suggests choice or indifference. QUESTION

STATEMENT

What would you like to do after dinner?

Whatever you like.

Who is going to teach that class?

Whoever is available.

What should we do if we want to go?

Whoever wants to go should call.

Which of the books can we use?

Whichever you want will be fine.

NOTE: The suffix -ever has the same effect when added to interrogative adverbs, such as where and when. Examples: Wherever did you buy that sweater? or Where would you like to go for lunch? Wherever you like. or Whenever you’re ready, we’ll go. (See the unit on adverbs, page 87.)

UNIT 2

29

Reciprocal Pronouns Each other and one another are used to show a mutual or reciprocal relationship. They usually occur as objects.

We always give each other birthday presents.

DIRECT OBJECT

Martha and her aunt see each other every week.

INDIRECT OBJECT

Anne and I wrote each other letters for years.

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

Did you see those two children running toward each other?

POSSESSIVE

The students read one another’s papers.

Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns designate nonspecific persons or things. They are commonly grouped according to their referents—people or things which can or cannot be counted. Indefinite pronouns form a very large category, but the list of those frequently used, like some, each, all, and everybody, is relatively short. A great many words in this category also function as determiners.

✦

Commonly Used Indefinite Pronouns COUNT

30

NONCOUNT

Singular

Plural

anybody anyone anything everybody everyone everything nobody none (of) nothing somebody someone something each either neither no one

any all none few, a few (of) some several enough plenty (of) both many more a lot, lots (of)

any all none little, a little (of) some much enough a lot, lots (of)

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Use of Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used as subjects and objects.

Tom won’t speak to anybody until he finishes his report.

SUBJECT

Some like cream with their coffee. Either will be acceptable. Anyone can do it.

DIRECT OBJECT

Would you like a little? I bought several. He didn’t buy many.

INDIRECT OBJECT

Please give everyone a pencil. I gave each some money. Mark told others your story.

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

Cream is distasteful to a few. The movie was interesting to some. Training is good for everybody.

UNIT 2

31

✦

Specific uses of Particular Indefinite Pronouns Much

Any

Much (used by itself) generally requires a negative verb when it is used as an object.

No

You don’t have much to complain about. Compare to: You have a lot to complain about.

Indefinite pronouns formed with any are usually used in questions and negative statements.

Do you have anything with you? Compare to: Yes, I have something with me.

I don’t know anyone here. Compare to: I know everyone here. Indefinite pronouns containing no create negatives and are commonly used with affirmative verbs.

Nobody is allowed past this gate. Compare to: Visitors are not allowed past this gate.

Subject-Verb Agreement Singular and noncount indefinite pronouns require third person singular verbs. Everybody wants to go to the football game tonight. I’m not sure what it is, but something seems wrong here. None of the cake was eaten. Sometimes a little is better than a lot. Plural indefinite pronouns require third person plural verbs. Any, all, none, some, enough, a lot, and lots may take third person singular or plural verbs, depending on whether their referents are count or noncount nouns. The boys are here. A lot are hungry. (The plural verb are is used because the pronoun a lot refers to the count noun boys.) Some fruit is on the table. A lot is too ripe too eat. (The singular verb is is used because the pronoun a lot refers to the noncount noun fruit.)

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Here are many types of vegetables. All are delicious.

In sentences having indefinite pronouns of quantity (quantifiers) plus an of-phrase as subject, the noun in the of-phrase determines whether the verb is singular or plural. All of the furniture was painted. All of the chairs were painted. Some of the jewelry was stolen. Some of the rings were stolen. In sentences expressing mathematical functions, the verbs BE and equal may be either singular or plural. Four and six is/are ten. Four times five equal/equals twenty. Either, neither, and any, when expressing a choice, traditionally use singular verbs. Either of the offices is acceptable to the colonel. Neither of the men was promoted.

Pronoun Modification Pronouns ending in -one, -body, and -thing can be followed by adjectives. Somebody new just joined the class. Have you read anything interesting lately? Everything important is mentioned in this chapter. The indefinite pronoun one may be preceded by an adjective. Note that one may be pluralized by adding -s. Mary likes the blue one. I'll take the small ones.

UNIT 2

33

Other Pronoun Forms ✦

Anticipatory It

Anticipatory it substitutes for the actual subject of a sentence, which occurs after the verb. It is nice to see you. (The phrase to see you is the actual subject of the sentence.) It is believed that some day all diseases will be eradicated. (The clause that some day all diseases will be eradicated is the actual subject of the sentence.)

✦

Impersonal It

Impersonal it is used to refer to weather conditions, distance, time, temperature, or identification. A linking verb, usually BE, is used with impersonal it. It seems hot in here. It’s humid today. It’s 12:00. It’s five miles to the nearest store.

✦

Relative Pronouns

The most common relative pronouns are who, whom, which, and that. They work as subjects or objects in clauses and give information about noun phrases. The man who just spoke to you is my Uncle Jim. The sofa which we bought last night has leather upholstery. Note that sometimes the relative pronoun can be omitted. The ice cream that I like best is vanilla. The ice cream I like best is vanilla. The different functions of relative pronouns will be covered in Unit 9, Phrases and Clauses, page 119.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

3

Verbs – Part I Verbs are used constantly in spoken and written English. They are used to make statements and requests, give commands, and ask questions. Sometimes called the heart of the sentence, the verb is the most complicated part of speech. Some grammarians classify verbs as either finite or nonfinite. Finite verbs are verbs which function, alone or with auxiliaries, as complete verbs. Mark swims ten miles every day. The boys walked to the bus stop. Bob will go to the bookstore today. Meet me at the restaurant. As shown in the examples above, finite verbs are limited by person, number, and mood—each of which will be covered in detail in this chapter. A finite verb can also function as the predicate of a sentence. In other words, it says something about the subject. Nonfinite verbs are verb forms which function as other parts of speech in sentences. They include infinitives, participles, and gerunds—each of which will be covered in detail in Unit 9. Nonfinite verbs are also called verbals. I like to swim. (infinitive used as a direct object) Feeling sleepy after her lunch, Martha took a nap. (present participial phrase used as adverb) Gerald, exhausted after his long trip, vowed never to fly again. (past participial phrase used as an adjective) Correcting pronunciation is one of an English teacher’s jobs. (gerund phrase used as a subject)

Functions of Finite Verbs Finite verbs function in sentences as one or more of the following:

UNIT 3

♦

linking verbs

♦

transitive verbs

♦

intransitive verbs

35

✦

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs do not describe an observable action, but simply link (or connect) the subject with a word or words which tell something about the subject's nature, occupation, condition, or appearance. In fact, linking verbs are much like an equal sign (=). It is even possible to substitute the word “equal(s)” for the linking verb in some sentences.1 The BE verb is the most common linking verb. In statements, BE and other linking verbs link the subject with a complement. A complement is a noun, adjective, or adverb2 which identifies, modifies, or relates to the subject.

Linking Verb BE + Subject Complement SUBJECT

BE

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

I

am

hungry. (adjective complement)

The girls

are

tired of playing. (adjective complement)

You

are

a doctor. (noun complement)

Fort Sam Houston

is

an Army post. (noun complement)

We

are

overseas. (adverb complement)

Tom’s room

is

on the third floor. (adverbial complement)

See how many different types of complements you can find for the BE verbs in the following paragraph: My husband and I are newlyweds. We used to live in Detroit, but now we are in New York. We like New York. It’s exciting here. This is our apartment building. Our apartment is upstairs.

Answers: newlyweds (noun complement); in New York (adverbial complement); exciting here (adjective complement); our apartment building (noun complement); upstairs (adverbial complement) 1

The importance of the meaning of most linking verbs is limited. This is particularly true of BE, which some grammarians do not categorize as a verb, but put in a category by itself, between function words and true verbs. Because of this weak semantic content, linking verbs, like function words, seldom receive much voice stress.

2

Many grammarians include adverbs and adverbials as subject complements of the BE verb. Some traditional grammarians, however, consider the BE verb an intransitive verb when followed by an adverb or adverbial. This text treats the BE verb as a linking verb and adverbs and adverbials as complements of the BE verb.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Other Linking Verbs + Complements SUBJECT

LINKING VERB

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

The captain

got

angry this morning. (adjective complement)

Smith’s son

became

a lawyer. (noun complement)

The food in the mess hall

seems

better today. (adjective complement)

✦

Transitive Verbs

Whereas linking verbs indicate a state of being, transitive verbs describe mental or physical activity. And just as linking verbs always have subject complements, transitive verbs always have direct objects.

Transitive Verb + Direct Object SUBJECT

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

The colonel

invited

several friends.

We

watched

a good movie.

The captain

wants

more volunteers.

Transitive verbs may also have indirect objects. Occasionally transitive verbs have a direct object and an object complement—a noun or adjective that modifies or relates to the direct object. (Refer to Unit 8, page 111, for more information on sentence patterns.)

Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object SUBJECT

VERB

INDIRECT OBJECT

DIRECT OBJECT

The major

will write

you

a letter of recommendation.

Ned

passed

me

the pepper.

Anthony

is giving

the baby

some orange juice.

Note: Each of these sentences can be rewritten with a preposition. The direct object precedes the prepositional phrase which functions as the indirect object. Example: The major will write a letter of recommendation for you.

UNIT 3

37

Isabel told Marcus a joke. (Trans verb +IO + DO)

Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement

38

SUBJECT

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

OBJECT COMPLEMENT

They

considered

him

an intelligent person.

We

thought

the food

delicious.

I

want

my coffee

black.

Citizens

elect

a person

President.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Verbs Which May Be Linking or Transitive

Verbs of perception (feel, smell, taste, sound, look) function as either linking verbs or transitive verbs. As linking verbs, they are followed by subject complements which describe the subjects. As transitive verbs, they show physical action of the subjects and have direct objects.

Verbs of Perception as Linking Verbs SUBJECT

LINKING VERB

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

I

feel

uncomfortable with those people.

Your new perfume

smells

wonderful.

This ice cream

tastes

too sweet.

That music

sounds

awfully loud.

Your cake

looks

delicious.

Verbs of Perception as Transitive Verbs SUBJECT

TRANSITIVE VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

The tailor

felt

the soft material.

I

smell

smoke.

Denise

tasted

the soup.

A police officer

sounded

the alarm.

Bird watchers

look at

birds.

UNIT 3

39

✦

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs do not have objects. They show a complete action on their own. However, they are often modified by adverbs or adverbials telling how, when, where, or why.

SUBJECT

INTRANSITIVE VERB

ADVERB/ADVERBIAL

The dogs

are barking.

The prisoner

escaped

last night.

The girl

smiled

shyly.

(You)

Stand

at attention!

The troops landed at dawn. (Sub + Intrans. Verb + Adverbial)

It is important to remember that whether a verb is transitive or intransitive does not depend on the verb itself, but on its use in the sentence. SUBJECT

TRANSITIVE VERB

40

OBJECT

bite.

Some dogs Some dogs

INTRANSITIVE VERB

bite

letter carriers.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

These verbs are usually transitive: raise

Please raise the window. We need to raise some money.

lay

Lay the book on John’s desk.

put

Where did you put the car?

enjoy

Mr. Williams enjoys opera music.

We enjoyed our tour of the White House. (transitive verb enjoy)

These verbs are usually intransitive: sit

Why don’t you sit over here?

rise

The sun will rise over the bay tomorrow.

lie

Don’t lie in the sun too long.

come

Are you coming to the movie with us?

go

She wanted her guests to go home.

The sun rose at 6:30 a.m. (intransitive verb rise)

UNIT 3

41

Verb Tenses Tense indicates when an action takes place. The basic tenses are past, present, and future. In English, only the past and present tenses are considered simple. The simple present is indicated by the base form (infinitive form without to) of the verb, such as talk, need, ask. The regular past is created by adding the suffix -ed, as in talked, needed, asked. However, there are also many irregular past tense verbs, such as saw, found, kept. The future, the perfect, and the progressive tenses require the addition of auxiliaries, sometimes called helping verbs, to the simple present form of the verb. Person and number also affect the formation of verb tense.

✦

Person

The grammatical terms first person, second person, and third person refer to the relationship of individual persons or groups to the action indicated by the verb.
First person refers to ♦

the person who is speaking or writing (I), or

♦

that person and one or more persons in the same group (we).


Second person indicates ♦

the person or group spoken or written to (you).


Third person indicates ♦

✦

all people or entities spoken or written about (Mary, he, they).

Number

The grammatical terms singular and plural designate the number of people or entities indicated in a grammatical construction.
Singular refers to one.
Plural refers to more than one.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

The Simple Tenses ✦

Simple Present Tense

In the present tense, all verbs, except BE and have, use the same form—the base form, or simple present—for all persons except the third person singular. For the third person singular, an inflectional ending of -s or -es is added, sometimes after a spelling change.

SUBJECT

1st person

2nd person

VERB write

fix

try

go

be

have

I

write

fix

try

go

am

have

We

write

fix

try

go

are

have

write

fix

try

go

are

have

writes

fixes

tries

goes

is

has

write

fix

try

go

are

have

You (singular) You (plural)

3rd person

He

singular

She It

plural

They Bo & Jo

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43

Use of the Present Tense In English, where time and tense do not always correlate exactly, the present tense has several uses. The present tense is used to express a condition occurring at the time of speaking or writing that may continue for a short time. He is sick. The coaches are angry. We are here. Mary seems delighted.

I’m on the phone.

The present tense is used to express a general truth. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. The earth revolves around the sun. Dogs like bones. Leaves fall in autumn. The present tense is used to express the idea that an activity or capability existed before the moment of speaking or writing, exists at that moment, and is expected to continue into the future. He lives on Wilson Street. Juanita speaks fluent English. Richard bakes bread. My children dislike romance movies. The present tense is used to express a customary or habitual action. Adverbs of frequency (always, seldom, usually, etc.) are often used to reinforce this concept. He often goes to the movies on Saturday. Peggy usually takes the bus to work. I sometimes sleep late on Sunday. Ahmed seldom makes a mistake in math. Richard smokes a pack of cigarettes every day.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

The present tense can be used to express future time. Adverbs of time often clarify the meaning in this construction. There is a meeting next week. They leave for Slovenia Thursday. John’s plane arrives this evening. The movie starts at 8:00. The present tense is used to refer to what an author has said, whether the author is living or dead. The present tense is also used to refer to the content of any art form. Shakespeare analyzes types of leadership in his histories. Amy Tan writes about the experiences of Asian-American women. At the end of the movie, the hero dies, but his message lives on. In his Ninth Symphony, Beethoven appeals to a universal hope. The present tense is sometimes used to create a sense of immediacy, as in the following: ♦

Newspaper Headlines San Antonio Floods Again Earthquakes Shake California

♦

Informal First Person Stories “I call her, but her brother says she’s not home. The next day she tells me I shouldn’t call again.”

♦

Stage directions in manuscripts of plays Villain enters from left. Shot is fired from offstage. Villain falls.

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✦

Simple Past Tense

The past tense of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed or -d to the base form. The past tense of most irregular verbs is formed by an internal vowel change. Except for BE, past tense verbs do not change form to indicate person or number.

Regular and Irregular Past Tense Formation

Regular verb

Irregular Verb

Present Tense

Past Tense

talk

talked

agree

agreed

speak

spoke

fly

flew

come

came

For a complete list of irregular verbs, see Appendix B, page 172.

Past Tense of BE BE has two past tense forms, was and were, distributed as follows:

1st person

SUBJECT

SINGULAR

I

was

We 2nd person

You (singular)

were were

You (plural) 3rd person

46

PLURAL

were

He

was

Jane

was

They

were

Maria and Juan

were

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Use of the Past Tense The past tense is used to express a completed activity that occurred at a definite time in the past specified by time words such as yesterday, last night, a year ago. It rained last week. She took her sister to the airport at 3:00 p.m. I watched the Olympics last night.

I met my new boss yesterday.

The past tense is used to express a completed activity that occurred at an unspecified time in the past. The class went on a field trip. He came to see us about his schedule. Joy waited for the children.

The past tense is used to express an activity that occurred in the past over a period of time but was completed before the time of speaking or writing. He studied French when he was in high school. Margaret taught in Alaska last year. I lived on the island for three years.

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✦

Simple Future Tense

The future tense is sometimes expressed by a phrase made up of will plus the simple form of the main verb. It is used to talk about actions that have not yet occurred. Note that there is no change in the future tense to indicate number or person.

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

SUBJECT

WILL

VERB

I

will

see.

We

will

see.

You (singular)

will

hear.

You (plural)

will

hear.

He

will

learn.

It

will

grow.

They

will

listen.

John and Mary

will

know.

Use of the Future Tense Will can be used to express an action that will take place in the future at a specified or unspecified time. Will is often contracted with a subject pronoun, as in I’ll and we’ll. The colonel will see you tomorrow at eight o’clock. They will be late if they don’t hurry. I’ll do my best to help you. We’ll discuss that later. Will can also be used to express willingness to act. I’ll do that for you. I’ll swim across the lake if you will.

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Occasionally shall replaces will in very formal constructions. It can also be used for emphasis. I shall travel the world when I retire. You shall be on time for class. Someone who shall remain nameless told me some gossip about you. In American English, however, shall is more commonly used in question form, with first person only, to offer a suggestion or a choice. Shall we leave now? Shall we go to a movie or play golf on Saturday?

BE going to In spoken American English, a form of BE followed by going to often expresses future time.3 Notice that going to and the base form of the verb do not change, but that the form of BE changes to reflect person and number. SUBJECT

FUTURE TENSE BE Singular

1st person

I

am

We 2nd person

You

are are

You 3rd person

3

BE Plural

are

going to

Verb

going to

walk.

going to

walk.

going to

answer.

going to

answer.

He

is

going to

finish.

She

is

going to

finish.

It

is

going to

finish.

They

are

going to

finish.

John and Joe

are

going to

finish.

In speech going to is often pronounced gonna. Second language learners sometimes incorrectly produce gonna to.

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The Progressive Tenses ✦

Present Progressive Tense

The present progressive tense, also called the present continuous, is created using a present tense form of BE and the present participle form of the verb.

SUBJECT

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE BE Singular

1st person

I

am

We 2nd person

You (singular)

50

-ing Verb singing.

are are

You (plural) 3rd person

BE Plural

singing. listening.

are

listening.

He

is

growing.

She

is

learning.

It

is

growing.

They

are

learning.

Sam and Ann

are

growing.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Use of the Present Progressive Tense The present progressive tense is used to express an activity that is in progress at the moment of speaking or writing but that will probably finish in the near future. This near-future completion is sometimes clarified by adding now or right now. Dad is cooking dinner. Cliff is practicing his violin. John and Judy are working in the yard right now. Are you doing your housework now? The present progressive tense is used to express an activity that began in the past, continues into the present, and probably will continue into the future for an unspecified length of time. Mary is studying music in New York. Fred’s son is working for an oil company in Kuwait. The state highway department is repairing Military Drive. The Garcias are living in Germany. The present progressive tense is used to express an activity that will take place in the future. A time word or phrase may be used to clarify this usage. Margarita is going to college in Chicago next year. The new commandant is arriving in April. We are buying a new car as soon as the new models come out. The present progressive tense is used in combination with always to emphasize a frequently repeated action. Sometimes the emphasis expresses dissatisfaction. Mr. Williams is always going to the opera. The children are always complaining about their homework. The state is always repairing the highways.

Andrew is always daydreaming.

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✦

Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense, also called the past continuous, is created using a past tense form of BE and the present participle form of the verb. SUBJECT

PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE BE Singular

1st person

I

was

We 2nd person

You (singular)

-ing Verb studying.

were were

You (plural) 3rd person

BE Plural

studying. working.

were

working.

He

was

singing.

She

was

playing.

It

was

working.

They

were

learning.

John and Joe

were

studying.

Use of the Past Progressive Tense The past progressive tense is used to indicate that one action in the past was in progress when another occurred. I was watching my favorite show when the pollster called. John was washing his car when the storm hit. They were working in the library when I saw them last. The past progressive tense can be used to indicate a continuous action in the past. This construction has a meaning very similar to the simple past. It was raining this morning. (It rained this morning.) I was singing to the baby before bedtime. (I sang to the baby before bedtime.) The past progressive tense can be used to answer a question about past actions. What were you doing? I was singing to the baby.

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✦

Future Progressive Tense

The future progressive tense is formed from will + BE + the -ing verb form. The construction does not change to accommodate person or number.

John will be watching the baby next week.

SUBJECT

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE will be

-ing Verb

I

will be

reading.

We

will be

speaking.

You

will be

writing.

You

will be

learning.

He

will be

reading.

She

will be

speaking.

It

will be

living.

They

will be

hearing.

John and Joe

will be

writing.

Use of the Future Progressive Tense The future progressive tense is used to designate a single event that will be occurring anytime in the future, or an occurrence that may become habitual in the future. Note that will is often contracted with pronouns. I’ll be seeing you. When I retire, I’ll be playing golf more often. He will be calling you sometime this week.

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The Perfect Tenses The perfect tenses relate an action to two points in time: the time of the action itself and another time in the past, present, or future. Have you been to Spain? (at some point in the past) I have finished my homework. (action started in the past and recently completed) The movie had already started when I got to the theater. (two actions in the past—one occurring before the other) Jane will have been in the military for ten years next July. (two points in the future) It is helpful to think of perfect as meaning complete and the perfect tenses as ways to talk about the time an action is perfected, or completed. All of the perfect tenses use a form of the auxiliary (helping verb) have and the past participle (third form) of a verb.4

✦

Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed with have or has and a past participle. This tense says that, as of now, something has been or is being done. SUBJECT

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Singular

1st person

I

have

We 2nd person

You (singular)

4

Past Participle called.

have have

You (plural) 3rd person

Plural

written. sung.

have

drunk.

He

has

jumped.

She

has

run.

It

has

grown.

They

have

eaten.

Mary and Joey

have

learned.

Other helpers (BE and will) are used with some perfect tenses.

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Use of the Present Perfect Tense The present perfect is used to show that an action began at a stated time in the past and continues in the present. Since is used with this construction. He has lived here since May. Magda has spoken English since she was a child. The Browns have vacationed in Europe every summer since 1980.

They have taken the train to work for years.

The present perfect is used to show that an action has occurred over a period of time beginning in the past and continuing in the present. The preposition for is used to clarify this meaning. I have attended DLI for about three months. Joan has worked at the UN for sixteen years. He has been here for about half an hour. The present perfect is used to show that an activity has occurred one or more times in the unspecified past. I’ve been to New York only once. John has written his wife six times. I have explored the jungle occasionally. The present perfect is used to refer to an action completed shortly before the present. Our visitors have just left. The commandant has briefed the troops. We have eaten breakfast.

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Simple Past or Present Perfect? Second language learners are often confused by the simple past and the present perfect tenses. When is the simple past sufficient, and when is the present perfect needed? Compare:

Simple past: He studied French for two years. (Here the simple past is used because he no longer studies French.) Present Perfect: He has studied French for two years. (Here the present perfect is used because he began studying French two years ago, and he is still studying French now.)

These rules generally apply:
If the action began and ended at a definite time in the past, the simple past is used.
If the action continues into the present or was just completed, the present perfect is used.

✦

Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is formed with had and the past participle of the verb. It shows that one action occurred before another action in the past. SUBJECT

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

56

PAST PERFECT TENSE had

Past Participle

I

had

gone

We

had

gone

You (singular)

had

eaten

You (plural)

had

eaten

He

had

seen

She

had

seen

It

had

seen

They

had

seen

Jim and Joe

had

seen

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Use of the Past Perfect Tense The past perfect tense is used to indicate one action in the past which occurred before another event in the past. I had finished my work before the captain arrived. Jason had cooked dinner by the time I finished setting the table. When she realized she needed it, her car had already run out of gas.

MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO






TODAY

Dinosaurs had disappeared long before cities were built.

Notice that the past perfect is used in the main clause, but the simple past or past progressive is used in the subordinate (supporting) clause. In some cases there is no supporting clause. He had never seen a cigarette before. (until that time—the time in the past when he first saw a cigarette) He had already heard that story. (at the time in the past when he heard it again)

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✦

Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense is formed by will have and the past participle. It relates two events to the future. SUBJECT

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE will have

Past Participle

I

will have

worked

We

will have

studied

You (singular)

will have

played

You (plural)

will have

run

He

will have

learned

She

will have

written

It

will have

happened

They

will have

spoken

Sal and Sam

will have

lived

Use of the Future Perfect Tense The future perfect is used to show that an event will be completed before a second event which will occur in the future. I will have finished my work before you arrive. She will have left by the time the other guests arrive. Julia will have lived in six countries when she returns to the States. Notice that the event in the main clause may have started in the past or may start in the future. This tense indicates the time the occurrence finishes, not the time it begins. The tense of the verb in the supporting clause is simple present.

These students will have gotten to know each other well by the time they finish their project.

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The Perfect Progressive Tenses The perfect progressive tenses combine characteristics of the perfect tenses and the progressive tenses. They are perfect in that they relate one action to another in time. They are progressive in that the earlier of the two actions is in progress. Because they are perfect, they use have, has, or had and been. Because they are progressive, the -ing form of the verb is used.

✦

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

The present perfect progressive tense is formed with have or has plus been and the -ing form of the main verb. SUBJECT

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE Singular

1st person

I

have been

We 2nd person

You (singular)

UNIT 3

-ing Verb studying.

have been have been

You (plural) 3rd person

Plural

studying. writing.

have been

writing.

He

has been

working.

She

has been

working.

It

has been

working.

They

have been

working.

Juan and Ahmed

have been

working.

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Use of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense The present perfect progressive is used to express an action that began in the past and is continuing in the present. I have been studying all night. You have been working very hard. Brian has been writing a thesis. Notice that all of these actions are happening now but began in the past. In the first two examples, the progressive verbs are intransitive and are followed by adverbial phrases. In the third example, the progressive verb is transitive with a direct object.

✦

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

The past perfect progressive tense is formed with had plus been and the-ing form of the main verb. When is often used to introduce the clause containing the second action.

We had been driving for an hour when it started to rain.

SUBJECT 1st person

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

I had been

studying

had been

writing

had been

working

We 2nd person

You (singular) You (plural)

3rd person

He She It They Maria and Elsa

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Use of the Past Perfect Progressive Tense The past perfect progressive is used to express an action that had been in progress for some time when another action in the past occurred. This tense does not indicate whether the first action stopped when the second action took place. Maria had been working on the project when I was assigned to it. I had been studying English for three years before they sent me to DLI.

✦

Future Perfect Progressive Tense

The future perfect progressive tense is formed by adding will, to indicate the future, to the other components of the perfect progressive. SUBJECT 1st person

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

I will have been

studying

will have been

writing

will have been

working

We 2nd person

You (singular) You (plural)

3rd person

He She It They Gerald and Judith

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Use of the Future Perfect Progressive The future perfect progressive is used to express an action that will have been in progress when another action occurs in the future. On the first of October, I will have been living in my present home for exactly ten years. When he gets to Jackson, he will have been flying for twenty hours.

By the time of the recital, she will have been playing the violin for five years.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

4

Verbs – Part II Voice Sentences occur in one of two voices, active or passive:
Active voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is performing the action indicated by the verb. Stephen chose the navy blue jacket. The boys ate all of the pies.
Passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is receiving the action of the verb. The navy blue jacket was chosen by Stephen. All of the pies were eaten by the boys.

ACTIVE VOICE

Joseph caught the ball.

✦

PASSIVE VOICE

The ball was caught by Joseph.

Active Voice

Most sentences with transitive verbs indicate the subject acting on something outside of itself – the object. The following is an example: The dog chased the cat. In this sentence, the dog (the subject) is the agent (the performer of the action), and the cat (the object) is the receiver of the action. This sentence is in the active voice. The active voice can occur in any tense.

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Use of the Active Voice The active voice is used to indicate that the subject of the sentence is performing the action indicated by the main verb.

✦

SUBJECT

VERB

DIRECT OBJECT

Storms

destroy

trees.

The storm

destroyed

many trees.

The storm

will destroy

the elm tree.

The storm

is destroying

all the trees.

The storm

has destroyed

the palms.

Storms

will have destroyed

all the trees.

The storm

has been destroying

trees all night.

Notice that, even though the verb changes form to indicate tense, in every case the subject, storm or storms, is performing the action.

Passive Voice

Some sentences with transitive verbs indicate the subject as receiver of the action of the verb. In this case there is no object. These sentences are in the passive voice. For example: The cat was chased by the dog. Passive voice sentences use the past participle of the verb preceded by a BE auxiliary. It is this BE auxiliary—not the past participle—which indicates tense. SUBJECT

VERB BE + participle

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

Trees

are destroyed

by storms.

Many trees

were destroyed

by the storm.

The elm tree

will be destroyed

by the storm.

All the trees

are being destroyed

by the storm.

The palms

have been destroyed

by the storm.

All the trees

will have been destroyed

by storms.

These trees

have been being destroyed

by storms ever since I can remember.

Notice that, in each example, something happens to the trees. They are acted upon – destroyed – by the storm or storms. The past participle destroyed is used, and the BE verb changes to indicate tense. The performer of the action, when specified, is indicated in a prepositional phrase. Note also that, while an example has been provided, most grammarians do not approve of using perfect progressive tenses in the passive. 64

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Passive Voice without Designated Agent Often the prepositional phrase designating the agent, or performer of the action, is omitted. Sometimes other information about the action is included. COMPLETING INFORMATION

During the storm

SUBJECT

VERB

COMPLETING INFORMATION

He

was killed

yesterday.

She

was fired

from her job.

several trees

were destroyed.

Julio

was promoted.

Use of the Passive Voice Although many current writers try to avoid the passive voice in favor of the active voice, the passive voice is widely used in textbooks, scientific, technical, and business reports, and newspaper and magazine articles. In fact, use of the passive is appropriate, and even preferred, under the following circumstances:
the performer of the action is unknown, and/or the receiver is more important than the performer The pedestrian was injured.
the subject is inanimate and cannot perform an action The house was painted yesterday.
the action itself is to be emphasized John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963.
the speaker wishes to avoid assigning blame I’m sorry, but your flight has been canceled and your luggage has been lost.
a situation is of social or historical significance The peace treaty will be signed today.
a statement is intended to be objective and impersonal The decision was made yesterday.
a question asks for time of an event When was the last treaty signed?

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✦

The GET-Passive

Frequently, a get auxiliary is used to form passive constructions. This informal structure, called the GET-passive, is created by combining get and the past participle of a verb. Although the GETpassive is very common in spoken American English, the BE-passive appears more frequently in writing. Compare the following examples:

✦

GET-Passive (Informal)

BE-Passive (Formal)

The mail gets delivered at eleven.

The mail is delivered at eleven.

He’s going to get promoted to major.

He will be promoted to major.

Transformation of Direct and Indirect Objects to Passive Subjects

The following is an example of a sentence written in the active voice with a transitive verb and both direct objects and indirect objects. Mr. Jones

transitive verb

indirect object

direct object

sent

Mr. Smith

a letter.

When a sentence of this type is transformed to the passive, either the direct object or the indirect object can become the subject, depending on the emphasis desired. Thus, in the passive voice, the example sentence above would appear as follows: Mr. Smith was sent a letter (by Mr. Jones). A letter was sent to Mr. Smith (by Mr. Jones). Even though the same sentence content can be expressed in three different ways, those ways are not equally effective in every circumstance. Use of the passive requires careful consideration. Consider the following examples:
Active Professor Lear gave the class a challenging assignment. (This example sentence gives Professor Lear credit for challenging his students.)
Passive – direct object becomes subject A challenging assignment was given to the class by Professor Lear. (This sentence is awkward and probably would not occur in standard American English, even though it is grammatically correct.)
Passive – indirect object becomes subject The class was given a challenging assignment by Professor Lear. (This sentence appropriately stresses the challenge received by the class.) 66

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Stative Verbs

Some transitive verbs cannot be transformed into the passive voice. These are called stative verbs or mid verbs. That car must have cost a lot of money. They had a promotion party last night. That new uniform doesn’t suit all of the soldiers. The captain’s smile lacks warmth. Julie can’t afford a new car yet. Juan and Maria want a larger house. Exceptions are occasional special expressions such as, “A good time was had by all.”

Mood In grammar, the term mood refers to the forms that reflect attitudes, ideas, or feelings about a subject. Verb forms are used to express how a subject is thought about at the time of writing or speaking. In English there are three moods:
indicative
imperative
subjunctive

✦

Indicative Mood

The most common mood in English is the indicative, which can occur in all tenses. The indicative is used for facts, opinions, and questions. Mark works downtown on Saturdays. When will your new house be finished? Has the new commanding officer arrived yet? The commander wants everyone here early tomorrow. Mario and Lisa move to Florida every winter. We always have a good time at their parties.

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✦

Imperative Mood

The imperative mood utilizes the simple form of the verb for both singular and plural. Often the understood subject, you, is omitted.
The imperative is used for orders, advice, requests, and sometimes suggestions. Take this note to the commander. Don’t waste so much time. Please give me a call tomorrow about noon. Stay awhile longer. You, listen! Never do that again. John, finish your homework. You go down to the corner and turn right.
The inclusive, or first person imperative, is used for suggestions, pleas, and occasionally polite commands. Speakers or writers include themselves in the proposed action by using let’s, a contraction of let us. Let’s have a big Thanksgiving dinner. Let’s try to fix this. Let’s not waste so much time
The inclusive is easily confused with the command form of let, meaning permit. While both are examples of the imperative mood, they are not the same. Let the soldiers have weekend passes. Let the staff take a break. Let me find some dry clothes for you.

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✦

Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive is the least used of the moods. Because it is used to express unreal or conditional sentences, the subjunctive is also considered the most challenging of the moods to construct. Two basic rules always apply to the formation of sentences in the subjunctive mood:
In the present tense the subjunctive always uses the base form of the verb. The verb does not change to agree with the subject in number and person. It is essential that you be (not are) at the meeting on time. John asked that she work (not works) more quickly.
Were is used as the past tense form of BE. If I were you, I wouldn’t do that. I wish I were going with them to Switzerland.

Use of the Subjunctive The subjunctive is effectively used in only four contexts:
Contrary-to-fact clauses beginning with if (The conditions expressed by the verbs in these examples do not exist.5) If I were overseas, I would vote absentee. (I am not overseas.) We could go to the coast if the weather were better. (The weather is not better.)
Contrary-to-fact clauses expressing a wish (formally) (Wishes are expressed in the subjunctive in formal English, but not in informal English. Although a past subjunctive verb is used in the formal example, the time implied by the verb is present.) FORMAL:

I wish [that] summer vacation were longer.

INFORMAL: I wish [that] summer vacation was longer.
THAT-clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, recommend, request, and suggest (These verbs express ideas that have not yet become reality, so the clauses that follow them require the subjunctive mood. Note that, in current usage, the conjunction that is often omitted from that-clauses.) The supervisor insists [that] her staff be (not are) on time. Dr. Johnson recommends [that] Josie take (not takes) an aspirin a day. The instructions suggest [that] the user test (not tests) the color on a small area first. 5

The subjunctive is not used in IF clauses which express conditions that exist or may exist. Example: If Joy moves (not move) to Washington, she will work at the Pentagon.

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Certain set expressions (A few set expressions from a time when the subjunctive was more widely used remain in standard American English today.) Here is a partial list: You could be right. Be that as it may, we will not discuss the topic any further. My brother has owned many cats. He is, as it were, a feline authority. The picnic will be held come rain or come shine. Far be it from me to disagree with him! Is today Friday? Would that it were!

Auxiliaries (Helping Verbs) In English, a main verb is often preceded by a helping verb or auxiliary. Some auxiliaries function only as helpers; they cannot act as main verbs in a sentence. These auxiliary verbs are called modals.

✦

Modals

These verbs function only as auxiliaries—never as main verbs: can6 may will7

shall should might

could would must

A modal helps the main verb by giving it special meaning. It does not state facts, but expresses mental concepts such as possibility, ability, permission, or obligation. It is placed before the simple form of the verb. We will finish this project sooner than expected. You should call home once a week. Students must study if they wish to succeed. I would take a vacation, but I don’t have enough money.

6

The modal can should not be confused with the verb can. Examples: Grandmother cans vegetables every spring.

7

The modal will should not be confused with the verb will. Examples: He is going to will his entire estate to his cousin. After her accident, she willed herself to walk again. 70

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Use of Modals Modal use is extensive and varied. Here is a brief summary of the most basic uses of the nine modals mentioned on the previous page.

MODAL

USE

EXAMPLE

can

to express ability

Martha can play the guitar.

to ask for or grant permission informally

Mother, can I stay up to watch the movie? No, you can’t.

as the past tense of can

Martha could play the guitar when she was six.

to express possibility

We could go to the movie Saturday.

to make a very polite request

Could you please turn up the heat?

to formally ask for or grant permission

Yes, you may finish the rest of the chocolate cake.

to express slight possibility

We may finish on time if we don’t have any more interruptions.

might

to express slight possibility

John might want to go with you.

should8

to express opinion or moral obligation

You should (or ought to) eat less and get more exercise.

to express possible condition

Should you finish the test early, you may leave.

to express expectation

She studied a lot, so she should pass the test.

to make a suggestion

Shall we have lunch at the new Mediterranean restaurant?

to emphasize a command or intention

You shall be in the barracks before curfew.

could

may

shall

I shall lose ten pounds before the holidays.

8

Some grammarians consider ought to an informal alternative to should in some contexts.

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MODAL

USE

EXAMPLE

will

to express willingness

I’ll clean the garage this weekend if you want me to.

to express determination

You will do as the training instructor says.

to express future plan

The next congress will be evenly balanced.

to express expectation

We’ll see you on Sunday.

to express necessity or obligation

You must hurry or we’ll be late.

must

You must sign the application if you want it to be considered.

would

to express deduction or logical conclusion

It is 6:00 p.m. He must be home by now.

to make a polite request

She isn’t here. Would you call back please?

to express a contrary-to-fact condition

I would go with you, but I have to take my sister to the airport.

to express past habit now discontinued

When I was younger, I would watch TV five hours a day.

All of these modals, except can,9 are sometimes combined with have to form modal perfects— modals in the present perfect tense. He might have been there, but I didn’t see him. John could have gone to the park. Kate would have graduated last year, if she had passed her finals. The driver should have paid attention to the speed limit.

9

Note that there are rare exceptions: Example: He can’t have been the murderer! He was with me the whole time.

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Verbs With Double Functions

The verbs BE, do, and have, in all their forms, can function as either helping verbs or main verbs.

Use of Double Function Verbs as Helping Verbs If have, has, or had is placed before the past participle form of another verb, it is a helper rather than a main verb. (Past participles usually end in -ed, -d, -en, -n, or -t.) Have, has, and had are used as helpers…

to create a perfect tense.

John has eaten six pieces of pie. John had eaten six pieces of pie by ten o’clock last night. John will have eaten six pieces of pie before he goes to bed tonight.

Do, does, and did are used as helpers with the base form of a verb to…

Forms of BE (be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being) are used as helpers…

ask a question.

Did Jerry answer his phone?

emphasize a main verb.

I do enjoy seeing good movies.

express a negative meaning with not or never (or adverbs of frequency such as rarely or seldom).

She never does finish on time.

to form progressive tenses with the present participle (-ing form).

I am wrapping the gifts now.

Note that be and been are preceded by other helpers when used to form progressive tenses. to form the passive voice with the past participle.

He rarely did please his employer.

Joseph was running in the race. We have been working hard this week. She will be going to Italy in the spring. The gifts were wrapped. Bruce was selected for the Slovakian assignment. We are being given two hours to finish the test.

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✦

Verb Substitutes

Just as a pronoun can substitute for a noun, a few verbs can substitute for other verbs or verb phrases. In most cases this is done to avoid repeating a long phrase. The substitute verb is actually the result of an ellipsis, or reduction, of the longer clause.

Do In addition to its functions as a helper, do is probably the most common verb substitute. She dances better than you do. They like swimming, and so does he. I’ll help with the dishes, if you do too. Mary likes all kinds of music, and her sisters do too. He is playing as well as Louis did. She drove as well as you did. They had more time than we do. You don’t want to go to school anymore, do you? Notice that the form of do agrees in tense, person, and number with the subject of the reduced clause, not with the subject of the primary clause.

Other Auxiliaries as Verb Substitutes Modals and other helping verbs are often substituted for main verbs in order to avoid duplication of phrases. They will succeed, and you will too. He has been studying hard, but I haven’t. Fran is going to Bermuda, and I am too.

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5

Adjectives and Adverbs In English, two parts of speech, adjectives and adverbs, are used to modify, or give more information about, other parts of speech.
Adjectives ♦

usually modify nouns or pronouns.

♦

also function as subject complements.


Adverbs modify ♦

verbs (or verbals).

♦

adjectives.

♦

other adverbs.

Adjectives Adjectives often modify nouns by describing them. They may describe by telling which, what kind of, or how many. the blond student

(Which student?)

the antique furniture

(What kind of furniture?)

fifty states

(How many states?)

Adjectives can also be identified by their form and their place in the sentence:
words which come before the noun in a noun phrase,
words which follow a linking verb and describe the subject (subject complements),
words derived from other parts of speech to identify characteristics,
the definite articles a, an, and the.

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✦

Comparative and Superlative

Most adjectives can take comparative and superlative forms:
The comparative reflects the relationship between two entities.
The superlative describes the relationship among three or more entities. The comparative and superlative are regularly formed in one of two ways:
by adding an inflectional ending of -er or -est to the adjective
by preceding the adjective with one of the adverbs more or most Negative comparative and superlative are created in this way:
by preceding the adjective with less or least

Inflected Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Short (one syllable and some two syllable) adjectives usually show the comparative by adding -er and the superlative by adding -est. Commonly, two-syllable adjectives ending in -y add -er or -est.

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Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

rich

richer

richest

great

greater

greatest

high

higher

highest

wise

wiser

wisest

happy

happier

happiest

dear

dearer

dearest

heavy

heavier

heaviest

lively

livelier

liveliest

fancy

fancier

fanciest

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Modified Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Adjectives of three or more syllables and some of two syllables are preceded by more in the comparative form and most in the superlative. Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

interesting

more interesting

most interesting

grateful

more grateful

most grateful

peaceful

more peaceful

most peaceful

lucid

more lucid

most lucid

joyous

more joyous

most joyous

cautious

more cautious

most cautious

sensible

more sensible

most sensible

delicious

more delicious

most delicious

envious

more envious

most envious

thoughtful

more thoughtful

most thoughtful

Caution: In standard English, more is never combined with -er to form the comparative and most is never combined with -est to form the superlative.

✕ ✔

UNIT 5

Chocolate ice cream is more tastier than vanilla ice cream. Chocolate ice cream is tastier than vanilla ice cream.

✕ ✔

Hamed is the most smallest of all the children. Hamed is the smallest of all the children.

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Irregular Comparative/Superlative Forms A few English adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

bad

worse

worst

far

farther

farthest

far

further

furthest

little

less

least

Negative Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Adjectives also take negative comparative and superlative forms. Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

interesting

less interesting

least interesting

grateful

less grateful

least grateful

peaceful

less peaceful

least peaceful

lucid

less lucid

least lucid

joyous

less joyous

least joyous

cautious

less cautious

least cautious

sensible

less sensible

least sensible

delicious

less delicious

least delicious

envious

less envious

least envious

thoughtful

less thoughtful

least thoughtful

Negative comparative and superlative adjectives do not use -er or -est. ✕ The chocolate cookies are less tastier than the oatmeal ones. ✔ The chocolate cookies are less tasty than the oatmeal ones.

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✦

Absolute Adjectives

Some adjectives are absolute by definition—that is, they are in a final or complete form, so they cannot take a comparative or superlative form. Sometimes they may be modified, however. A partial list includes the following: perfect

main

principal

right

chief

wrong

square

last

dead

round

complete

single

supreme

pregnant

unique

Examples: perfect ✕

He brought her the most perfect rose I have ever seen.

✔ He brought her a perfect rose.

(The rose of either perfect, or it is not.) round ✔ The earth is almost round.

(Round is absolute, but the earth is not round; it is almost round)

✦

Adjectives Formed from Other Parts of Speech

Adjectives can be created from nouns, verbs, and participles by adding suffixes. The use of these suffixes is not interchangeable, as each suffix has its own meaning. For example, several different adjectives can be formed from the same noun by adding different suffixes. Example:

UNIT 5

Original noun:

child

with adjective suffixes:

childish

childlike

childless

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Adjectives Formed from Nouns Adjectives can be created from nouns by adding one of these suffixes: -al -ar -ary -ate

-ed -en -esque -ical

-ish -istic -less -like

-ly -ous -wide -y

Selected Adjectives Derived from Nouns

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NOUN

ADJECTIVE

character

characteristic

comic

comical

consul

consular

fame

famous

fool

foolish

fortune

fortunate

history

historical

life

lifelike

nation

national

picture

picturesque

plenty

plentiful

prince

princely

rock

rocky

sense

sensible

station

stationary

storm

stormy

talent

talented

worth

worthy

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Adjectives Formed from Verbs Adjectives can be created from verbs by adding one of these suffixes: -able -al -ant -ate

-atory -ed -ent -ing -ive

-ory -ous -some -y

Selected Adjectives Derived from Verbs

UNIT 5

VERB

ADJECTIVE

adore

adorable

appear

apparent

attract

attractive

bore

bored / boring

censor

censorious

congratulate

congratulatory

continue

continual

disappoint

disappointed / disappointing

excite

excitable

exclaim

exclamatory

exclude

exclusive

exist

existent

jump

jumpy

love

loveable / lovely

please

pleasant

provoke

provocative

satisfy

satisfied

train

trainable

trouble

Troublesome 81

Participles Used as Adjectives (Emotive Adjectives) Both present participles (-ing) and past participles (-en or -ed) are commonly used as adjectives. These forms show either an active or passive emotional impact. Examples: The child enjoyed the amusing story. (The story actively amused the child.) The amused child enjoyed the story. (The child was passively amused by the story.)

Emotive adjectives can be modified by more or most to take the comparative or superlative form. The child found reading more amusing than playing soccer.

Proper Nouns Used as Adjectives Often proper nouns or words derived from proper nouns are used to modify other nouns. These “proper” adjectives are always capitalized. Spanish student Methodist church French restaurant Shakespearean sonnet English course Asian continent Islamic history

✦

Possessive Adjectives

Adjectives which designate ownership are called possessive adjectives. These include the following: my

our

your

his

her

their

its The difference between possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives is that possessive pronouns stand alone, while possessive adjectives must always precede a noun. This (book) is mine. (Mine is a possessive pronoun.) This is my book. (My is a possessive adjective.)

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Placement of Adjectives

Adjectives can occur in any of three positions in relationship to the noun or pronoun they modify:
Before the noun (attributive position) This is the most common position for adjectives. Often several adjectives occur in sequence before a noun. the big gray Lincoln limousine his distinguished cabinet members A chart showing the common order of adjectives in the attributive position can be found on page 85.
Immediately following the noun modified (appositive position) These adjectives are usually either compound (two or more) or a single adjective modified by an adverb or an intensifier. Commas are used to separate the appositive from the noun. Her eyes, unusually blue, were always interesting. We had problems galore during the test! It is also possible for some indefinite pronouns to be modified by adjectives in the appositive position following the pronoun they modify. Something strange happened in the dining hall last night. He can’t tell you anything new about the matter.
After a linking verb (predicative position) In this position, the adjective is a subject complement, describing the noun or pronoun subject. The workers were exhausted at the end of the day. Some of the soldiers seemed dissatisfied.
Immediately following a direct object (predicative position) In this position, the adjective is an object complement, describing the direct object. Only certain main verbs will allow this type of structure. Many people like their pizza crusty. Let’s paint the town red this weekend.

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85

Ordinal

first

last

Article Pronoun

his

these

some

the

a

NUMBER

DETERMINER

six

two

Cardinal

dainty

fascinating

delightful

General/ Abstract

big

Size/ Shape

DESCRIPTIVE

old

warm

Age/State/ Condition

blue

green

Color

Asian

Proper Adj

Common order of cumulative adjectives in the attributive position

china

wooden

Material

tea

spring

NOUN AS ADJ

cups

maps

boat

days

tours

NOUN MODIFIED

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Adverbs The most commonly used definition of an adverb is that it is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. However, this definition is not inclusive enough. An expanded definition states that an adverb normally modifies verbs, verbals (infinitives, gerunds, and participles), adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or complete sentences. Adverbs can be divided into groups by their form and location.
FORM: words derived from adjectives by adding -ly happy – happily stern – sternly
LOCATION: modifying words that may be variously placed in a sentence She often drives to Houston. Often she drives to Houston. She drives to Houston often.

✦

Adverbs of Place, Location, or Direction

UNIT 5

here – there

Where’s my dictionary? It was here a minute ago. It’s there on the table. I borrowed it.

outside

It’s raining outside.

back

We took a wrong turn and had to go back two miles.

away

Don’t go away mad.

upstairs

He ran upstairs.

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✦

Adverbs of Manner

This type of adverb answers the question How? Most of these are formed from adjectives by adding -ly. easily

You can perform mathematical functions easily.

loudly

Please don’t play your boombox so loudly.10

hard

Why does Jane work so hard?

Comparative and Superlative Many adverbs of manner have comparative and superlative forms. The rules for formation are the same as for adjectives:
-er or -est is added to short adverbs John runs faster than Jim. Jerry runs the fastest of all the football players.
Longer adverbs are preceded by more or most in the positive and less or least in the negative He speaks more sincerely than his opponent. He speaks the least sincerely of any person I know.

✦

Adverbs of Time and Duration

This type of adverb expresses when or for how long.

10

soon

Santa is coming soon.

still

Is he still living in Cairo?

later

Please call back later.

eventually

We will eventually be good at tennis.

already

She has already given Gerald three candy bars.

yet

He is not satisfied yet.

In informal American English, especially spoken English, the -ly ending is often omitted. Example: Please don’t play your boombox so loud.

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Some nouns or noun phrases function as adverbs, telling when an action occurred or will occur.

✦

today

Josie didn’t come to work today.

Thursday

We will have the office party Thursday.

last night

I ate too many tamales last night.

next week

We’re going fishing next week.

Adverbs of Frequency

These adverbs indicate how often. always

Jack always leaves his work area in order.

never

I’ve never seen such a short basketball player before.

sometimes

Sometimes height is not important.

often

We don’t go to the movies often.

usually

It’s usually warm in San Antonio.

occasionally Occasionally, it gets very cold.

✦

Interrogative Adverbs

The question words become interrogative adverbs when used in questions. where

Where did the campers pitch their tent?

when

When will they break camp?

why

Why didn’t they bring more fuel?

how

How can they start a fire?

The interrogative adverb how can be combined with certain adjectives and adverbs to ask to what extent about the adjective. How long was the movie? How often do you exercise? How soon will they be here?

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✦

Relative Adverbs

The question words are relative adverbs when they introduce adjective and noun clauses.11
In adjective clauses: That’s the corner where the bad accident occurred. There was a time when flying was a pleasure.
In noun clauses: Do you know where the bus station is? Can you tell me when he will arrive? I don’t understand why he skipped class.

✦

Adverbs of Degree (Intensifiers)

Intensifiers indicate to what degree. very

It was very cold on Tuesday and Wednesday.

quite

This car is quite old, but it still runs.

almost

I almost passed the test.

too

You are speaking too softly.

somewhat

Judy was somewhat concerned about meeting the deadline.

extremely

The pilot performed an extremely difficult maneuver.

nearly

We nearly had a wreck on the way to work.

much

It is much too hot to be exercising outdoors.

Some adverbs are used to emphasize rather than to show degree.

11

even

Even John agrees with me. The food at our favorite restaurant was even better this time than the last time we ate there.

unusually

The truck was moving unusually fast.

how

How kind you are! How seldom we see you all dressed up!

exactly

Cut exactly three pieces of chocolate pie. I don’t know exactly how many people were there.

For an explanation of noun clauses and adjective clauses, see Unit 9.

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✦

Adverbs of Negation, Affirmation, and Probability

These adverbs show affirmation. (They say yes, or show that something is.) certainly

Joseph is certainly cheerful.

positively

It was positively the best party of the year.

undoubtedly

You will undoubtedly have a great time.

These adverbs show negation. (They say no, or show that something is not.) never

The officers are never late.

not

They are not my favorite singing group.

These adverbs show probability or likelihood.

✦

perhaps

Perhaps we will take a tropical vacation.

maybe

Maybe she doesn’t like German chocolate cake.

probably

She has probably already eaten her dessert.

possibly

He will possibly run again.

Adverbial Connectives (Conjunctive Adverbs)

Some words and phrases are used to connect and show the relationship between ideas. These are adverbial connectives, sometimes called conjunctive adverbs. accordingly actually after all anyway as a consequence as a matter of fact as a result besides consequently equally even so finally

first first of all for example for instance for one thing for that reason furthermore hence however in addition in fact in spite of that

in the first place in the meantime in the same way indeed initially instead last(ly) likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next

nonetheless on one hand on the contrary on the other hand otherwise similarly subsequently then therefore thus to begin with to start with

Adverbial connectives often have very precise meanings, and some that appear to be interchangeable may be so only in some contexts. Misuse of these connectives can change the relationship between the ideas connected, so it is important to use them correctly.

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Use of Selected Adverbial Connectives
To express addition besides

He is my best friend; besides, we have known each other for years.

moreover

She graduated with honors; moreover, she already has a great job.

furthermore

He is the tallest on the basketball team; furthermore, he is a great shooter.

in addition

Julia is learning her third language; in addition, she is interested in various cultures.


To express contrast ♦

These connectives simply show contrast:

however

Jane is a great runner; however, she can’t throw.

on one hand/ on the other hand

On one hand, the house is too small; on the other hand, it has a great location.

♦

These connote surprise at the contrast:

nonetheless

Mary was sick; nonetheless, she came to class.

nevertheless

It’s raining; nevertheless, I will walk to school.


To express effect or result

92

therefore

It’s very important to do well on the test; therefore, you need to study.

as a result

Juan violated his curfew; as a result, he is grounded.

for that reason

It snowed for two days; for that reason, the highways were closed.

as a consequence

He missed his plane; as a consequence, he was not at the meeting.

thus

There was not a quorum at the meeting; thus, no decisions were made.

consequently

She hadn’t saved any money; consequently, she couldn’t take the trip.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE


To express sequence of events first

First, go three blocks to the red light.

then

Turn right at the light; then, go past the school and turn left.

next

Next, go half a block to the gym.

finally

Finally, park your car and go into the gym.


To express alternative otherwise

Exercise often; otherwise, you won’t be healthy.

or else

We could see a movie, or else we could go skating.


To introduce supporting information (amplification) in fact

It is a very good class; in fact, all of the students made excellent grades on the test.

for instance

There are many things to do in San Antonio; for instance, there are two nice theme parks.

for example

The recruits are not physically fit; for example, none of them could do more than ten push-ups.

as a matter of fact

It was extremely hot last year; as a matter of fact, we had twenty-two days with temperatures over 100 degrees.


To express substitution instead

UNIT 5

You shouldn’t run everyday; instead, you should try lifting weights.

93

Punctuation Note: When adverbial connectives join two independent clauses, there are two equally correct ways to punctuate.
Create two separate sentences. ♦

Use a period to end the first clause (sentence).

♦

Begin the adverbial connective with a capital letter.

♦

Follow the adverbial connective with a comma.

♦

End the second sentence with a period. You shouldn’t drive to Anchorage. Instead, you should fly.


Show a closer relationship between the two clauses by joining them into one sentence. ♦

End the first clause with a semicolon.

♦

Begin the adverbial connective with a lower-case letter.

♦

Put a comma after the adverbial connective.

♦

End the sentence with a period. You shouldn’t drive to Anchorage; instead, you should fly.

✦

Adverbs and Adjectives Identical in Form

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. ADVERB work daily shop weekly pay monthly visit yearly rest hourly talk fast work hard stay late leave early shoot straight

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ADJECTIVE daily schedule weekly shopping monthly salary yearly visit hourly check fast cars hard work late show early breakfast straight shot

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Adverbs Formed From Other Parts of Speech

Adverbs Formed By Prefix aSome nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be preceded by a- to form adverbs. BASE WORD breast board loft loud lone

ADVERB abreast aboard aloft aloud alone

When children are playing, they are often very loud. Parents should read aloud to their children. After the battle, the lone surviving soldier returned to his camp. He returned to his camp alone.

Adverbs Formed From Adjectives Many adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding -ly. ADJECTIVE careful wise nice correct

ADVERB carefully wisely nicely correctly

He almost always makes a correct forecast. He almost always forecasts the weather correctly. She was wise to put away some money. She wisely put away some money.

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Adverbs Formed From Nouns Adverbs can be formed from nouns in several ways.
By adding -s NOUN ADVERB day days Monday Mondays Louis sleeps days and works nights. The group meets Mondays and Wednesdays.
By adding -wise NOUN ADVERB clock clockwise length lengthwise cross crosswise Put the heavy boards lengthwise and the lighter boards crosswise. Turn the wheel clockwise to close the door and counterclockwise to open it.
By adding -ward NOUN north wind east home

ADVERB northward windward eastward homeward

The suffix -ward can also be added to some adverbs to change their meanings. ADVERB up out

ADVERB upward outward

The wind blew the balloon upward out of reach. They will sail southward in the fall and northward in the spring.

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✦

Positions of Adverbs

Adverbs vary in position more than any other part of speech. Where adverbs are placed in a sentence can be determined by how they work and what they modify.

Adverbs Modifying Verbs Adverbs which modify verbs are placed in several different positions.
After the verb

UNIT 5

Examples:

♦

Immediately after the verb

Drive carefully. We waited patiently. He spoke slowly.

♦

After an object, but modifying the verb

She broke the glass accidentally. I left the book upstairs. We’ll see you later.


Before the verb

He sometimes leaves the office late. We usually sleep late on Saturday. Sam never drives over the speed limit.


Between the BE verb and its complement

Thomas is usually late. John and Meg are always busy.


Between the auxiliary and main verbs

Martha has always been my friend. Jeff has sometimes been wrong. You can usually find the colonel here.


Following the BE verb as complement

Bob is outside. The party is tomorrow.

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6

Determiners and Conjunctions Determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions are sometimes called function words. Function words connect and relate content words – nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives – to each other. These little words can be considered the mortar that creates, from the individual bricks of nouns and verbs, solidly and clearly constructed ideas.

Determiners Determiners are short modifying words (or sometimes affixes) that give specificity to nouns. Articles are the most easily recognizable determiners. Pronouns, number words, and some adjectives can also act as determiners.

✦

Articles

The articles a, an, and the are actually adjectives. They modify nouns by specifying. The rules for using them are fairly simple. Articles are classified as indefinite or definite.

Indefinite – a, an
The indefinite articles a and an are used before nonspecific singular count nouns (see Unit1, page 1). ♦

A is used before count nouns beginning with a consonant sound. a boy, a test, a vacation, a problem

♦

An is used before count nouns beginning with a vowel sound. an apple, an idea, an hour, an onion

John and Judy are looking for a place to live. They hope to rent an apartment by the beach. UNIT 6

99

Definite – the The definite article the is used with nouns, count or noncount, which can be clearly identified.

The apartment John and Judy have found is exactly the place they were looking for.

Notice that, before John and Judy’s apartment is found, its identity and location are unknown, so a and an are used. After the apartment is found, it is identifiable, so the is used. Be careful not to use the with noncount or plural nouns that signify all of a general category. ✕ The sugar is a primary cause of obesity. ✓ Sugar is a primary cause of obesity. ✕ The tests are important in evaluating academic progress. ✓ Tests are important in evaluating academic progress.

✦

Other Determiners

Other parts of speech serve as determiners by giving specificity or quality to a noun.
demonstratives ♦

100

Used before count and noncount nouns this lesson

these lessons

that officer

those officers

this weather

that fruit

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE


possessives ♦

Used before count and noncount nouns my notebook

our friendship

your notebook

their class

his/her notebook

my jewelry

its windows

his knowledge


indefinite adjectives ♦

Used before plural count nouns and noncount nouns some drinks

all commanders

many people

both instructors

enough time


interrogatives ♦

Used before all nouns whose car what food which question


numbers ♦

Used before count nouns six cases fourth row 750 hours

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✦

Confusing Determiners

Some determiners are confusing because a slight change in form can reverse their meanings.
few vs. a few ♦

Few has a negative meaning. Few people are wise enough to avoid tragic mistakes.

♦

A few has a positive meaning. A few people do understand his complex ideas.


little vs. a little ♦

Little has a negative meaning. There is little time left. We must hurry.

♦

A little has a positive meaning. There is a little time left. Let’s play another game

Conjunctions Conjunctions, sometimes called joining words, connect language elements of equal or unequal value and indicate the relationships between these elements. There are three types of conjunctions in English: coordinate, correlative, and subordinate.

✦

Coordinate Conjunctions

The coordinate conjunctions are as follows: and

but

or

not

for

so

yet

Coordinate conjunctions join grammar elements of equal value. They may join the following: ♦

single words Both boys and girls are invited to try out for the team.

♦

phrases He’s at home or at work.

♦

independent clauses I have no appointments after lunch, so I will call you then.

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✦

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs. They are listed here: either – or neither – nor both – and

whether – or not only – but also

Like coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions join equals. The coach asked not only the boys, but also the girls, to try out for the team. We will either go to the lake or go to mountains for our vacation. She wondered both why he had left and where he had gone.

✦

Subordinate Conjunctions

Subordinate conjunctions ♦ begin a dependent (subordinate) clause. ♦

relate the dependent clause to the main (independent) clause.

Some subordinate conjunctions are as follows: after although as as if because before

even though if in order that rather than since

so that than that though unless

until when where whether while

Since you enjoy baking, would you bring the cake for the party? John sings as if he had been studying music all his life. While some people like to complete tasks quickly, others prefer to take their time. Our mechanic does an excellent job, even though he has never studied mechanics.

✦

Adverbial Connectives

Adverbial connectives, such as however, therefore, and besides, are also used as conjunctions. See Unit5, page 92, for an explanation of how they join independent clauses.

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– USER NOTES –

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7

Prepositions Research and classroom experience show that prepositions are the most difficult part of speech for ESL learners to use accurately. Most prepositions do not translate exactly from one language to another. Furthermore, British and American usages of prepositions sometimes vary considerably. Prepositions have meaning in themselves but are used in predictable combinations with adjectives and verbs. That is, certain prepositions follow certain adjectives or verbs to introduce prepositional phrases. Native speakers usually think of prepositions as part of prepositional phrases. (See Unit 9, page 119, for descriptions and uses of prepositional phrases.) English learners, however, find it useful to learn which prepositions appropriately combine with which adjectives and verbs. Example: Many Americans are married to someone they met at college. An English learner needs to know that married is usually followed by to and that met is usually followed by at or in. Appendix C, page 180, lists common adjective/preposition and verb/preposition combinations.

Types of Prepositions Prepositions show relationships between content words and introduce phrases which act as adjectives or adverbs. Even though some prepositions have more than one use, dividing these troublesome function words into usage groups makes them easier to understand. This text groups them as follows:
prepositions of place or location
prepositions of direction or motion
prepositions of time
prepositions of instrument, means, and manner
miscellaneous prepositions

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✦

Prepositions of Place or Location

Prepositions of place answer the question where? The most common of these are listed below: above among behind between in near off out under

over against below beyond inside next to on outside underneath

around along beside by throughout at upon opposite

Examples: Hang the picture above the fireplace. There is one apple among the oranges in the bowl. He is sitting by his sister. There are plumbing leaks throughout the building. City ordinance says you must build a fence around the pool. Prepositions of place used to denote geographical location are often confusing.  One lives in a city, state, or country, but on a military installation, reservation, or campus. The general lives on Lackland Air Force Base, but the colonel lives in San Antonio. They both live in Texas in the USA.  One lives on a street, at a particular address, in a house or apartment. Judy lives at 263 Bell Oak Drive in a yellow brick house. John lives in Apartment 329 at The Embers on Broadway.  One works at a military installation and at or for a company. One works in a department or office. Captain Johnson works at Lackland Air Force Base in Logistics. His wife works at the telephone company in Sales. Roger used to work for an advertising agency.

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Notice how prepositions of place are used in the following paragraphs: This is Steve’s bedroom. His bed is against the window. His dresser is next to the bed. He keeps his clothes in the dresser. There are pillows and books on the bed. There’s a picture on the wall. The dresser is beneath it. There are books on top of the dresser. There is an alarm clock in front of the books. The books are behind it. The door to Steve’s room is opposite the window. A few prepositions of place have additional uses. These multiple uses will be illustrated later in this unit.

✦

Prepositions of Direction or Motion

Prepositions of direction or motion introduce phrases which modify action verbs. Some of the most common are listed below: into

out of

toward

away

past

across

through

around

up

down

Jack and Jill ran up the hill. The girls went across town to find the new theater. The train moved through the tunnel as the car drove over the bridge. The privates ran around the track sixteen times.

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✦

Prepositions of Time

Prepositions of time answer the question when? The most common are as follows: at

on

in

throughout

before

after

since

from – until

during

for

around

from – to

Gerald’s vacation starts on January 16. They’ll be here in twenty minutes. Janice ate three boxes of popcorn during the movie. The party lasts from six o’clock to midnight. At seven, he will phone home.

✦

Prepositions of Instrument, Means, and Manner

Prepositions of instrument, means, or manner answer the question how? Some commonly used ones are listed below: by

through

with

without

via

Contact your family through the embassy. How did he build those shelves without power tools? He built them by hand. We went to Houston by bus via IH10.

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✦

Miscellaneous Prepositions

Preposition type

Function

Examples

Purpose

These prepositions show for what use.

Use your computer for the test.

Possession or Characteristic

These prepositions show ownership or characteristic.

Use the word processor to write your essay. The poetry book contains the work of Frost. The little girl with the red hair sings beautifully.

Measure or Contents

These prepositions relate a countable measure to a noncount noun.

I drank six cups of coffee this morning. I buy my coffee by the pound. I use two teaspoons of sugar per cup.

Comparison or Similarity

Accompaniment

These prepositions show likeness.

He runs like a gazelle.

These prepositions indicate togetherness.

This workbook goes with that text.

Despite our disagreements, we worked as one unit.

He likes to cook with her. Thomas, together with Ann and Steve, finished the report. Passive Voice Agent

The preposition by can show who does something.

This poem was written by Robert Frost. Our holiday dinner will be prepared by my grandparents.

Origin or Source

These prepositions relate a noun to its origin.

Jack has catalogues from several sporting goods stores. Many wines of Texas are now considered excellent. These dresses are from Paris.

Cause

Arithmetic

UNIT 7

These two-word prepositions relate a situation to its cause.

David could not stay in the Navy because of his height.

These prepositions are used in mathematical expressions.

Two plus two is four.

We were delayed due to the weather. Six times two is twelve. Nine minus three is six. 109

✦

Confusing Multiple-Use Prepositions

Some prepositions are used in more than one way or have forms that are very similar but used differently. Here are the most common:

Preposition

Function

Examples

at

as a preposition of time

Meet me at noon for lunch.

as a preposition of place

Meet me at Rose’s Restaurant for lunch.

as a preposition of place (meaning next to)

Meet me by the front entrance.

as a preposition of time (meaning no later than)

Be there by 11:45 am.

as a preposition of means

We will go by bus.

as a preposition of place (meaning set upon)

Put the books on the desk.

as a preposition of time (designating date)

We will complete this training on the fifth.

as a preposition meaning operating

Turn the radio on so we can hear the news.

as a preposition meaning by broadcast media

I heard it on ABC News last night.

as a preposition of place (meaning above)

Hang the clock over the desk.

as a preposition of time (meaning during)

I hope to read several books over the summer.

as a preposition of time (meaning approximately)

Meet me around noon.

as a preposition of place (meaning surrounding)

Build a fence around the pool.

as a preposition of movement or direction

Run around the building, not through it.

as a preposition of time (meaning approximately)

What time is it? I think it is about noon.

as a preposition of content (meaning concerning)

This article is about the new NATO countries.

as a preposition of place (meaning beneath)

The papers you want are under those books.

as a preposition of quantity (meaning less than)

I will buy those shoes if they cost under $100.

by

on

over

around

about

under

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He will deliver the new part on Tuesday.

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8

Sentence Parts and Patterns The Sentence We know certain things about sentences:
They are groups of words.
They always contain a subject and a verb.
They always express a complete thought. Within these restrictions there are many ways a sentence can be formed. A simple sentence can contain only two words. John (subject)

runs. (verb)

This sentence has a subject – the noun John. It has a verb – runs. We understand what it means, so it is a complete thought. The study of sentence formation is called syntax. Here are two ways that linguists who study syntax explain the sentence: Sentence (S) = Noun Phrase (NP) + Verb Phrase (VP) Sentence = Subject + Predicate All of the variations of sentence patterns are based on this simple idea. Linguists explain that each of the phrases within a sentence may consist of other categories (that is, other phrases or single words).12 For instance, we could expand our simple sentence to My brother John NP (subject)

runs ten miles every day. VP (predicate)

Now the subject, John, is expanded, and the verb, runs, is expanded. The basic structure of the sentence is unchanged, but more information has been added to the thought being expressed.

12

See Unit 9 for a more complete explanation of phrases.

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In addition to subjects and verbs, sentences may contain direct objects, indirect objects, complements, and/or various modifiers (adjectives and adverbs). Keep in mind that parts of speech and parts of the sentence are not the same. In fact, parts of speech make up parts of sentences. Another way to look at this is to say that parts of sentences are composed of parts of speech. Look at these two lists:

Parts of Speech

Parts of the Sentence

noun

subject

verb

verb

adjective

direct object

adverb

complement

determiner

indirect object

auxiliary verb

modifiers

preposition pronoun conjunction

NOTE: Only one term, verb, appears in both lists. When we use verb to designate a sentence part, we further designate it as transitive, intransitive, linking, or auxiliary, as explained in Unit3, page 35.

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Parts of the Sentence ✦

Subject
performs the action of the verb or
is the person or thing being described
may be singular, plural, or non-count
may be any of the following: ♦

noun

Jonathan likes to eat fish. The boys like catfish best.

✦

♦

pronoun

He goes fishing every weekend.

♦

infinitive

To fish is his passion.

♦

gerund

Fishing is his favorite sport.

♦

phrase

To go fishing with friends makes Jonathan happy.

♦

clause

Whatever he catches is always eaten.

Verb
Action Verbs – show action or tell what the subject is doing. ♦

Transitive verbs take direct objects. Judy rang the bell.

♦

Intransitive verbs do not take objects. The bell rang.


Linking Verbs – connect the subject to something that describes or identifies it. Those roses smell wonderful. Jacob is very tall.
Auxiliary Verbs – modify the main verbs. I will run six miles today. You should get more exercise.

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✦

Direct Object
receives the action of a transitive verb.
may be any one of the following:

✦

♦

noun

Jonathan catches fish.

♦

pronoun

He cleans and fries them.

♦

infinitive

We like to eat fish.

♦

gerund

We like eating fish.

♦

phrase

I want to broil the fish.

♦

clause

Jonathan insisted that he would fry the fish.

Complement
follows a linking verb
describes or identifies the subject
may be any one of the following: adjective

The weather is cold today.

noun

John is a fisherman.

adverb or adverbial phrase

The soldiers are in the field.

NOTE: It is easy to confuse direct objects and complements. Remember:

114

♦

A direct object receives the action of a verb.

♦

A complement describes or identifies a subject.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Sentence Patterns According to some grammarians all sentences in English can be reduced to five basic patterns composed of the sentence parts just discussed. Those basic patterns are presented here as they are presented in BALIC 705, Unit 3 (March 1995). Appendix D, page 198, presents some of the possible variations of these patterns.

✦

Pattern One

The simplest pattern is S + VI

✦

Subject (S)

Intransitive Verb (VI)

Angela

smiled.

The audience

laughed.

Snow

is falling.

Pattern Two

Probably the most common pattern is S + VT + DO Subject (S)

Transitive Verb (VT)

Direct Object (DO)

Al and Fred

have opened

a new restaurant.

They

serve

delicious food.

The restaurant

attracts

many tourists.

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✦

Pattern Three The third pattern involves a receiver of the direct object, the indirect object. In this pattern the verb expresses an actual action. Pattern three has two variations.

The first is S + VT + IO + DO Subject (S)

Verb Transitive (VT)

Indirect Object (IO)

Direct Object (DO)

Harold

wrote

his father

a letter.

The rich man

built

his son

a new house.

The second uses a prepositional phrase including the indirect object: S + VT + DO + PPwIO Subject (S)

Transitive Verb (VT)

Direct Object (DO)

Prep. Phrase (PPwIO)

Harold

wrote

a letter

to his father.

The rich man

built

a new house

for his son.

✦

Pattern Four

This pattern includes a verb that expresses an idea, rather than an action, and that is followed by a complement: S + VT + DO + OC Subject (S)

Transitive Verb (VT)

Direct Object (DO)

Object Complement (OC)

Claire

considers

paperwork

tedious.

Too much sun

can make

you

ill.

The people

elected

him

President.

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✦

Pattern Five

This pattern has a linking verb and a complement: S + LV + SC Subject (S)

Linking Verb (LV)

Subject Complement (SC) (indicating characteristic)

Mary

is

talented.

John

seems

capable.

San Antonio

is growing

larger. (indicating role)

Mary

became

governor.

John

is

treasurer.

San Antonio

is becoming

a metropolis. (indicating location)

John and Mary

are

at the university.

His mind

seems

elsewhere.

They

were

in San Antonio.

All five of these patterns can be transformed into negative statements, made into questions, and (if they have direct objects) converted to the passive voice. Here are examples using a sentence which follows Pattern Two: Affirmative: The boys saw a UFO last night. Negative:

The boys did not see a UFO last night.

Question:

Did the boys see a UFO last night?

Passive:

A UFO was seen last night.

Appendix D, page 198, gives examples of many possible transformations. See also the sections on various parts of speech for examples of variations.

UNIT 8

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–

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9

Phrases and Clauses The introduction to this book provides the following simple definitions, which specify the minimum requirements for each of these word groups: 1. A phrase is a group of words which lacks a subject, a verb, or both. 2. A clause is a group of words with both a subject and a verb. 3. A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb, expressing a complete idea. In order to understand phrases and clauses, it is helpful to remember some basic facts about sentences. Here are some ideas to keep in mind: Sentences may be
simple (consisting of one independent clause). Bill won the tennis match.
compound (consisting of two or more independent clauses). Bill won the tennis match, and he celebrated.
complex (consisting of a combination of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses or phrases). Bill won the tennis match that he played yesterday.
compound-complex (consisting of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause or phrases). Bill won the tennis match that he played yesterday, and he celebrated by taking us to dinner.

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Clauses and phrases act as various parts of sentences. They can act as any of the following:
subject

That Samuel was interested in engineering pleased his father. Getting enough sleep is essential for everyone.


direct object

Some people believe that chocolate is good for you. I want to sail to the Bahamas. He gave whoever would ask some help. She told whomever she met her story.


indirect object
complement

We consider Gerald to be very amusing. Isabel is at the theater.


modifiers

The man with the yellow hat is George’s father. Be sure to lock the door when you leave.

Clauses A clause has been defined as a group of words with a subject and a verb. Another important characteristic of a clause is that it works as a part of a sentence, just as a part of speech does. A clause may function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

✦

Dependent and Independent Clauses

Clauses may be either dependent or independent. This sentence has two clauses: Whenever he tries, John makes outstanding grades. The first clause, whenever he tries, is a dependent clause. It is dependent because it is not a complete thought. Alone it leaves an unanswered question, “What happens whenever he tries?” A dependent clause must be attached to something else to make sense. Dependent clauses can also be called subordinate clauses. The second clause, John makes outstanding grades, is an independent clause. It is independent because it expresses a complete thought. It leaves no unanswered question. In fact, with a period at its end, it could be a sentence. It is a clause because it is attached to something else – in this case, a dependent clause. The only difference between an independent clause and a simple sentence is that a sentence is complete in itself while an independent clause serves as part of a sentence. Independent clauses are sometimes called main clauses.

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A dependent (or subordinate) clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb working as part of a sentence and expressing an incomplete idea. Since he has come to DLI, his English has improved. Tomorrow we will go to the lake if it doesn’t rain. Jose should have phoned his family when he got home.

An independent (or main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb working as a part of a sentence and expressing a complete idea.

Since he has come to DLI, his English has improved. They like to swim, and they like to fish.

Tomorrow we will go to the lake if it doesn’t rain.

✦

Joining Clauses to Make Sentences

Clauses may be joined in various ways.
A dependent clause may be joined to an independent clause in two ways. ♦

If the dependent clause is placed first, it is followed by a comma. Since he has been at DLI, his English has improved.

♦

If the independent clause comes first, no comma is used. His English has improved since he has been at DLI.

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Two independent clauses may be treated in any one of four ways. ♦

If they are very closely related, they may be joined by a semicolon. He has come to DLI; his English has improved.

♦

They may also be joined by a semicolon and an adverbial connective followed by a comma. He has come to DLI; consequently, his English has improved.

♦

They may be joined by a coordinating conjunction preceded by a comma. He has come to DLI, so his English has improved.

♦

They may be treated as two separate sentences. He has come to DLI. His English has improved.

✦

Noun Clauses

Noun clauses are subordinate, or dependent, clauses occupying noun positions in sentences. They may function as subjects, direct objects, and subject complements. Noun clauses are actually transformations of statements, questions, requests, or exclamations which may be introduced by a variety of subordinators: indefinite relative pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and the conjunctions that, whether, and if.

Noun Clause as Subject Noun Clause as Subject

Verb

Direct Object

That Jack agreed

surprises

me.

That Jack agreed

is

That Mary married

shocked

her family.

Whether or not they pass

determines

their future.

Whether or not they pass

is

Whoever wanted to go

took

What he said

was

Subject Complement

surprising.

important. leave. brilliant.

NOTE: For this position of a noun clause, the conjunction that has the meaning of the fact that. It cannot be omitted from the noun clause. This type of noun clause is found in the typical subject position—before the verb.

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Noun Clause Subject with Anticipatory ‘‘It” A noun clause subject often follows an anticipatory it plus a BE or linking verb and complement. The clause is in the deferred subject position—that is, the noun clause is found after the verb. In this structure, the conjunction that is optional and is frequently omitted in conversation. It

BE

Subject Complement

Noun Clause Subject

It

’s

great

(that) you were promoted.

It

was

shocking

(that) so many were killed in the storm.

It

’s

a fact

(that) heat rises.

Noun Clause as Direct Object This is the most common position for a THAT-noun clause. The conjunction that is optional and is frequently omitted in conversation. Subject

Verb (transitive)

Noun Clause as Direct Object

She

imagined

(that) she was a famous singer.

The President

announced

(that) there would be a tax cut.

I

believe

(that) that is true.

No one

knows

who will be going.

John

doesn’t care

if it snows.

That child

never does

what she is told.

NOTE: The conjunction that should not be confused with the pronoun that. Only the conjunction may be omitted from a clause. In the third example sentence above—I believe (that) that is true.—the conjunction that may be omitted, but the pronoun that, which is also the subject of the clause, must remain.

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Noun Clause as Subject Complement This is not a commonly used structure. Once again, the conjunction that is optional. Subject

Linking Verb

Noun Clause as Subject Complement

The fact

is

(that) the project failed.

Her promise

was

(that) she would be early.

The question

is

whether it’s going to be hot.

The pantry

is

where we keep the onions.

Noun Clause as Indirect Object This particular noun clause is not common and is usually introduced with the indefinite relative pronoun whoever. Subject

Verb

Noun Clause as Indirect Object

Direct Object

She

told

whoever would listen

about her children.

Jacob

asked

whoever came by

their opinions.

Noun Clause as Object of Preposition Direct Object

Preposition

Noun Clause as Object of Preposition

Subject

Verb

The result

depends

on

how much time is spent practicing.

They

talked

about

what their plans for the summer were.

to

whoever13 is in charge.

Give

this message

NOTE: THAT clauses cannot function as objects of prepositions.

13

The subjective case pronoun is used in the clause because the pronoun functions as the subject of the clause even though the entire clause is the object of the preposition to.

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✦

Noun Clauses in Indirect Speech

When a person speaks, his or her words are considered direct speech. There are two ways for one speaker to repeat what another speaker has said – quotation (exact words) or indirect speech (paraphrase).
A quotation contains the exact words of a speaker. These exact words are enclosed in quotation marks when they are written. (For more information on punctuating quotations, see Appendix A, page 160.) “We want to go to the movies,” said John.
Indirect speech is a paraphrase – the repetition of what one speaker has said by another speaker in the words of the second speaker. He said that they wanted to go to the movies. Noun clauses often become garbled when they are repeated as indirect speech. Usually, this occurs because pronouns and tenses are not accurately changed to reflect the intent of the original speaker. A few examples and rules can make this easier. Original Utterance: (Direct Speech)

Chris: “I work at my father’s store.”

Quotation:

Chris said, “I work at my father’s store.”

Indirect Speech:

Chris says he works at his father’s store.

This informal form of indirect speech can be used within a few minutes of the original utterance. Both verbs are in the present tense—says and works. Notice that the pronouns I and my from the original utterance change to he and his in indirect speech.

Indirect Speech:

Chris said he worked at his father’s store.

This more formal form of indirect speech is the one most commonly taught in the ALC. Notice that, once again, the pronouns I and my change to he and his. In this form of indirect speech, the past tense is used because the speaker is reporting something that has already been said. The past tense verb worked agrees with the verb said, which is also in the past.

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This chart illustrates changes in tense from direct to indirect speech as taught in the ALC. Notice also the changes in pronouns.

Direct Speech Tense

➜

Present Chris: “I work at my father’s store.”

Past ➜

Present Progressive Mary: “We’re leaving soon.” Past Bob: “The ship sank.”

➜

➜

➜

➜

➜

Laura told us that they had been cleaning up the kitchen last night.

Mr. Smith said that he had finally completed all his work.

Bill told them that John had been sleeping for only a short while. Past Perfect (no change)

➜

Past Perfect Progressive Larry: “We had been shopping at the mall.”

Bob said that the ship had sunk.

Past Perfect Progressive

Past Perfect Linda: “We had driven for a long time.”

Past Perfect

Past Perfect

Present Perfect Progressive Bill: “John has been sleeping for only a short while.”

Mary said that they were leaving soon.

Past Perfect Progressive

Present Perfect Mr. Smith: “I have finally completed all my work.”

Chris said that he worked at his father’s store. Past Progressive

Past Progressive Laura: “They were cleaning up the kitchen last night.”

Indirect Speech Tense

Linda said that they had driven for a long time. Past Perfect Progressive (no change)

➜

Larry said that they had been shopping at the mall.

See Appendix E, page 211, for further explanations of indirect speech.

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✦

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses, sometimes called relative clauses, are dependent or subordinate. They function as adjectives because they modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause. These clauses are most often introduced by the relative pronouns who, whom, which, or that; the relative adjective whose; or the relative adverbs where or when.

Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Subject
The clause modifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
The relative pronoun is the subject of the adjective clause.
The relative pronouns are used as follows: ♦

who for people,

♦

which for things,

♦

that for both people and things.

Pattern One Main Clause

Adjective Clause with Pronoun as Subject

He was the runner

who

won the race.

He was the runner

that

deserved to win.

He won the match

which

was played yesterday.

He won the match

that

determined the championship.

Pattern Two These dependent clauses may interrupt the main clause in order to place the modifier (the dependent clause) close to the noun it modifies.

UNIT 9

End of Main Clause

Beginning of Main Clause

Adjective Clause with Pronoun as Subject

The woman

that

is by the window

is my sister.

Julie,

who

plays the harp,

will entertain.

John’s project,

which

is due Tuesday,

is not complete.

127

Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Object
The clause modifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
The relative pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition in the dependent clause.
The relative pronouns are used as follows: ♦

who or whom for people,

♦

which for things,

♦

that for people or things.

Relative Pronoun as Object of Verb Beginning of Main Clause

Adjective Clause with Pronoun as Object of Verb

The opera

which

we heard last night

was excellent.

The opera

that

we heard last night

was excellent.

The opera

Ø

we heard last night

was excellent.

The person

who(m)

I met at the party

was from California.

The person

that

I met at the party

was from California.

The person

Ø

I met at the party

was from California.

End of Main Clause

Notice that the object pronoun may be omitted in this pattern. Whenever a relative pronoun functions as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition which comes at the end of the adjective clause, it can be omitted. Conversely, when a relative pronoun functions as the subject of an adjective clause, it cannot be omitted.

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Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Object of Preposition Pattern One In this pattern, the preposition may appear at the beginning of the adjective clause or at the end of the clause. When the preposition is at the beginning of the clause, the relative pronoun cannot be omitted. When the preposition is at the end of the clause, however, the pronoun may be omitted. Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Object of Preposition

Main Clause

prep

object

about

whom

the book was written.

He is the captain

who(m)

the book was written

about.

He is the captain

that

the book was written

about.

He is the captain

Ø

the book was written

about.

He is the captain

prep

Pattern Two Notice that, in the first example below, the relative pronoun which cannot be omitted because it directly follows the preposition to. The pronouns which and that in the subsequent examples may be omitted because the preposition to is placed at the end of the clause rather than at the beginning. Beginning of Main Clause

Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Object of Preposition prep

object

to

which

we went

The movie

which

we went

The movie

that

The movie

Ø

The movie

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prep

End of Main Clause

last night

was too violent.

to

last night

was too violent.

we went

to

last night

was too violent.

we went

to

last night

was too violent.

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Adjective Clause with whose Like all adjective clauses, this type of clause modifies a noun in the main clause. Whose, a relative adjective, shows possession of something in the adjective clause. The possessor (noun in main clause) is usually a person but may be also be a thing, as shown in two of the examples below.

Pattern One Adjective Clause

Main Clause

whose

Julio has an antique car

whose

paint is original.

I saw a clown

whose

costume was made of silver satin.

Pattern Two Adjective Clause

Beginning of Main Clause

whose

The new composer

whose

works we studied

creates astounding music.

The cruise line

whose

ship we are taking

has excellent service.

End of Main Clause

Adjective Clause Introduced by Relative Adverb The following relative adverbs may all be used to introduce adjective clauses: where, when, why, before, and after. These relative adverbs refer to a preceding noun or pronoun which is the antecedent. Main Clause

Adjective Clause relative adverb

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We found a place

where

the food is good and cheap.

Next Thursday is the day

when

we’ll celebrate Jack’s retirement.

He wouldn’t tell us the reason

why

he had never returned home.

John traveled a lot during the years

after

he retired.

I will always remember the week

before

you left.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Substitutes for where Adjective clauses introduced by the relative adverb where modify a place (city, building, country) in the main clause. The prepositional phrase at which conveys the same meaning and is sometimes used in more formal situations. Adjective Clause

Beginning of Main Clause

Ending of Main Clause

where or sub

The base

where

Joe is stationed

is in Florida.

The base

at which

Joe is stationed

trains pilots.

The base

which

Joe is stationed at

is very large.

The base

Ø

Joe is stationed at

will soon be closed.

Substitutes for when Adjective clauses with when modify a noun of time (year, day, month). Other words or phrases may be used to convey the same meaning. Where or its substitute may also be omitted from the clause. Main Clause

Adjective Clause when or substitute

I’ll never forget the year

when

I graduated.

I’ll never forget the year

in which

I graduated.

I’ll never forget the year

that

I graduated.

I’ll never forget the year

Ø

I graduated.

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Punctuation of Adjective Clauses The punctuation of an adjective clause depends on whether the clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive. An adjective clause is considered restrictive if it is absolutely necessary in defining the noun it modifies. Restrictive clauses require no special punctuation. The man who was sitting next to me is my uncle. (The adjective clause is necessary in defining which man.) Flowers which smell beautiful are my favorites. (The adjective clause is necessary in defining what kind of flowers.)

A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives extra information about the noun that it modifies. Unlike the restrictive clause, it is not absolutely necessary in defining the noun. Therefore, a nonrestrictive clause is punctuated with commas before and after the clause. Mr. Peters, who was sitting next to me, is my uncle. (If the adjective clause is removed from the sentence, the sentence retains its original meaning: Mr. Peters is my uncle. The fact that he was sitting next to the speaker is extra information.) Roses, which smell beautiful, are my favorites. (Without the nonrestrictive clause, the sentence retains its original meaning: Roses are my favorites. That roses smell beautiful is additional information.)

The graduate who was chosen to carry the flag is from my hometown. (Restrictive Adjective Clause)

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I had a long discussion with Mr. Johnson, who is a farmer in our community. (Nonrestrictive Adjective Clause)

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✦

Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that can modify a verb, adjective, or adverb in the main clause. It may also modify the entire verb phrase (predicate) of the main clause or the entire main clause. Adverb clauses reflect time, cause and effect, opposition, and condition.

Adverb Clause of Time These words and phrases may introduce adverb clauses of time. They are sometimes called subordinators or subordinate conjunctions: after

since

so long as

before

until

whenever

when

till

every time

while

as soon as

the first time

as

once

the last time

by the time

as long as

the next time

Adverb clauses of time generally come before or after the main clause. The most common position for adverb clauses is at the end of the sentence. Time Clause

Main Clause

While she was away at college,

my niece seldom wrote to us.

After the sun comes up,

we’ll sail.

By the time I graduate,

I will have 130 credits.

Since she has been married,

she hasn’t had time for her old friends.

Main Clause

Time Clause

My niece seldom wrote to us

while she was away at college.

We’ll sail

after the sun comes up.

I will have 130 credits

by the time I graduate.

She hasn’t had time for her old friends

since she has been married.

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Adverb clauses may also be found mid-sentence, although this is not a common position. Beginning of Main Clause

Time Clause

End of Main Clause

My niece,

while she was away at college,

seldom wrote to us.

The news this morning,

when I turned on the radio,

was depressing.

Adverb Clause of Cause and Effect These subordinators may introduce clauses of cause and effect: because

since

now that

as

so long as

inasmuch as

so (that)

in order that

Cause and Effect Clause

Main Clause

So that he would be promoted,

he took on a lot of extra work.

Since the weather was nice,

we went to the coast.

Inasmuch as she doesn’t like to swim,

she didn’t go with us.

Main Clause

Cause and Effect Clause

He took on a lot of extra work

so that he would be promoted.

We went to the coast

since the weather was nice.

She didn’t go with us

inasmuch as she doesn’t like to swim.

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Adverb Clause of Opposition These words and phrases may introduce clauses of opposition. although even though though whereas while These clauses express a result which is opposite of what the main clause suggests. Clause of Opposition

Main Clause

While his brother is very smart,

John has trouble with his schoolwork.

Even though it was February,

the temperature reached 102°.

Although I like parties,

I avoid large gatherings.

Main Clause

Clause of Opposition

John has trouble with his schoolwork

whereas has brother is very smart.

The temperature reached 102°

even though it was February.

I avoid large gatherings

although I like parties.

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Adverb Clause of Condition These words and phrases may introduce adverb clauses of condition: if

in case (that)

in the event (that)

only if

providing (that)

whether or not

even if

provided (that)

unless

Clause of Condition

Main Clause

If I finish this race,

I’ll have run 37 miles this week.

Even if I don’t finish,

I’ve had fun.

Whether or not you like to run,

you should get some exercise.

In the event (that) they don’t come,

we’ll go without them.

Unless we leave early,

we’ll be too late to see the pre-game show.

Main Clause

Clause of Condition

I’ll have run 37 miles this week

if I finish this race.

I’ve had fun

even if I don’t finish.

You should get some exercise

whether or not you like to run.

We’ll go without them

in the event (that) they don’t come.

We’ll be too late to see the pre-game show

unless we leave early.

Punctuation of Adverb Clauses When an adverb clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is followed by a comma. When the adverb clause comes at the end of the sentence, there is no comma between the main clause and the subordinator. Just as the police drove up, the plane took off. The police drove up just as the plane took off. Before you leave, be sure to check the lights. Be sure to check the lights before you leave.

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Phrases A phrase has been defined as simply a group of words without a subject and a verb working as part of a sentence. Four types of phrases work as parts of sentences:
prepositional phrases
participial phrases
gerund phrases
infinitive phrases

✦

Prepositional Phrases

Like prepositions, prepositional phrases can express certain meanings. (See Unit7, page 105, for a review of specific types of prepositions and their uses.) A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, an object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. prep det ↓ ↓

obj of prep. ↓

The cadets quickly walked into the room. The most common functions of prepositional phrases are listed below:
nouns ♦

subject complement

♦

indirect object


adjectives ♦

noun modifier (appositive)

♦

predicate adjective (after BE)

♦

object complement


adverbs

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♦

modifying verb or predicate

♦

modifying an adjective

♦

modifying an independent clause 137

Prepositional Phrase as Noun Subject Complement Subject

Linking Verb

Prep Phrase as Subject Complement

Our lunch time

is

at noon.

The idea place for this chair

is

under this mirror.

The best vacation spot

is

in the mountains.

Prepositional Phrase as Indirect Object Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Prep Phrase as Indirect Object

The general

sent

a new directive

to the troops.

Ms. Paine

gave

a barbecue

for the new officers.

(You)

Deliver

this package

to the man upstairs.

Although it is not very common, a prepositional phrase can also act as a subject, direct object, or object of a preposition. An example of each follows.
subject: In the desk drawer is a safe place.
direct object: For my big meal I like at noon best.
object of preposition: She would not marry except for money.

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Prepositional Phrase as Adjective Prepositional phrases which act as adjectives may be appositives, predicate adjectives, or adjectival object complements.

Appositive Position This type of prepositional phrase directly follows the noun it modifies. Subject

Prep Phrase Adj (appositive)

We The man

to your left

Verb

Direct Object

Prep Phrase Adjective (appositive)

received

a request

for more information.

gave

the speech.

Predicate Adjective This type of prepositional phrase directly follows the BE verb. Subject

BE Verb

Prep Phrase Predicate Adjective

No yard

was

without a dog to guard the house.

The explorers

were

in high spirits.

Adjectival Object Complement This type of prepositional phrase occupies the predicate position following a direct object. Subject

Verb

Direct Object

Prep Phrase Adjective (object complement)

We

found

Grandpa

in a good mood.

I

consider

his jokes

of questionable taste.

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Prepositional Phrase as Adverb These prepositional phrases may modify verbs, adjectives, or entire sentences.

Modifying a Verb Subject

Verb

Prep Phrase Adverb modifying Verb

Jonathan

stood

on the ladder.

The storm

approached

with sudden fury.

Several policemen

charged

into the park.

Modifying an Adjective Subject

Verb

Adjective as Complement

Prep Phrase Adverb modifying Adjective

Bob

is

loyal

to his friends.

Hawaii

was

great

for surfing.

Modifying a Sentence (Independent Clause) These prepositional phrases are usually set off by commas.

140

Prep Phrase modifying Independent Clause

Independent Clause

At ten sharp,

the guards appeared.

Without saying goodbye,

she packed her bags and left.

In ten minutes’ time,

the entire block was destroyed by the storm.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Participial Phrases

A participial phrase is a non-finite verbal structure with an -ing or -ed form which can have a complement and modifiers. A non-finite verb is one that by itself cannot function as the verb of a sentence or clause. The participial phrase functions as an adjectival modifier. A participial phrase consists of the following:
a participle ♦

-ing verb (present)

♦

-ed or -en or irreg. verb (past)


modifiers of the participle Finally finding the answer, she relaxed. The plane, delayed by the storm, was late. Participial phrases are reductions of clauses. CLAUSE

(becomes) ➔

PHRASE

anyone who wants to go

➔

anyone wanting to go

ideas which were presented

➔

ideas presented

alphabet that consists of

➔

alphabet consisting of

the house that was nicely painted

➔

the nicely painted house

Since participial phrases function adjectivally, they may be found in the following positions within sentences:

UNIT 9

♦

before a noun (attributive)

♦

after a noun (appositive)

♦

as introduction to a main clause

141

Participial Phrase in the Attributive Position Participial Phrase—Attributive

Predicate (VP)

The fiercely barking dog

frightened the robbers.

The newly equipped laboratory

is ready now.

The swiftly flowing stream

was difficult to cross.

The highly priced land

produced a good profit.

Subject

Verb

Participial Phrase--Attributive

(You)

Don’t spill

the boiling water.

They

towed

the wrecked car.

Participial Phrase in the Appositive Position Subject

Participial Phrase—Appositive

Predicate (VP)

The man

carrying a briefcase

is Jan’s brother.

The truck,

rolling over and over,

landed right side up.

The people

hurt in the accident

were taken to the hospital.

Subject

Predicate

Participial Phrase--Appositive

He

heard the concert

presented by the university band.

John and Judy

watched the troops

marching in the parade.

Participial Phrase Introducing a Main Clause Introductory Participial Phrase

Main Clause

Realizing he had no money,

Aldo returned home.

Having spent the weekend working,

John took Monday off.

Built by the British in 1725,

the bridge finally collapsed.

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✦

Meanings of Participial Phrases

Even though participial phrases are adjectival in function, because of their verbal quality, they can express certain meanings or relationships. They can show the time of an action, how or why some action is done, or an action that is the result of another action named by the main verb of the sentence or clause. Thus, participial phrases can reflect time, manner, cause, or result.

Time Participial Phrase

Main Clause

Delayed for over an hour,

the plane finally took off.

Main Clause

Participial Phrase

The plane is late,

having just arrived at the airport.

Manner Participial Phrase

Main Clause

Shouting loudly and waving their hands,

the crowd stormed into the courtyard.

Main Clause

Participial Phrase

Mr. Brown came into the office

looking very pleased.

Cause Participial Phrase

Main Clause

Left alone in her room,

the child began to cry.

Main Clause

Participial Phrase

Mel hurt his back

lifting a heavy box.

Result Main Clause

Participial Phrase

Bert got home late,

making his wife angry.

Tim drove recklessly,

ending up in a ditch.

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✦

Special Applications of Participles and Participial Phrases

Participle/Participial Phrase Following a Direct Object A direct object is often followed by a participle or participial phrase. Such a direct object usually follows a verb of perception or cause, such as see, watch, hear, smell, feel, have, and get. Find, discover, leave, catch, and keep are other verbs which may be followed by a direct object and either a present or past participle. The verbs have, make, want, need, order, and would like may be followed by a direct object and a past participle. Subject

Verb

Direct Object

Participle or Participial Phrase

They

watched

the soldiers

marching through the town.

She

saw

a dark figure

climbing through the window.

The mechanic

got

the engine

running smoothly.

Myra

had

the house

cleaned once a week.

Ms. Cross

wants

this exam

given today.

General Jones

ordered

the inspection

completed by August 10.

Nominative Absolute One type of participial phrase, often called a nominative absolute, contain its own subjects. This subject is not the same as the subject for the main clause that follows the participial phrase. A nominative absolute states a condition for the main clause. Participial Phrase

Main Clause

The car having broken down,

we had to walk to town.

His request for a loan having been refused,

he decided not to buy a car.

The city gates being well-guarded,

no one could leave or enter.

Flowers being so expensive,

they decided to have none at their wedding.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Adjective Derived from Participle Some participles and noun-participle combinations have been used for so long as adjectives that some grammarians no longer considered them to be participles. Most of these words can be modified by the intensifiers very, too, extremely, somewhat, more, or most; these intensifiers do not modify participles. Here are a few of these adjectives created from participles. Mike told many amusing stories last night. John was bored. It was a very boring party They considered their trip to Africa an exciting journey. It’s time to put these tired children to bed. The telegram brought our family some extremely disturbing news. He can tell the most fascinating stories.

Dangling Participle Whenever a participial phrase appears at the beginning of a sentence, the noun or pronoun that the phrase modifies should be immediately understandable and clear. The noun or pronoun subject of the sentence should be the performer or receiver of the action of the participial phrase. If it is not, there is a problem with the structure. This problem is commonly referred to as a dangling participle. Dangling Participle: Tired and scared, the rescuers found the lost children. (Who was tired and scared? The rescuers, or the children?) Corrected: Tired and scared, the lost children were found by the rescuers.

Dangling Participle: Costing a great deal of money, our family couldn’t afford such a car. (What cost a great deal of money? Our family, or the car?) Corrected: Costing a great deal of money, the car did not fit our family’s budget.

Dangling Participle: Sizzling and cooked to perfection, the waiter served the steak. (What was sizzling and cooked to perfection? The waiter, or the steak?) Corrected: Sizzling and cooked to perfection, the steak was worth waiting for.

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✦

Gerund Phrases

A gerund is a verbal that works as a noun. A gerund names an activity and always ends in -ing. A gerund phrase consists of
gerund
modifiers of the gerund Gerund phrases work as nouns in sentences. They can function as any of the following:
subject
subject complement
direct object
object of preposition
appositive
gerund adjunct (adjective) Gerund phrases are often reductions of independent clauses. He saw old friends. It was great.

➜

Seeing old friends was great.

Jan runs every morning. It’s her favorite exercise.

➜

Running every morning is Jan’s favorite exercise.

We get together on weekends. We enjoy it.

➜

We enjoy getting together on weekends.

You borrowed ten dollars from me. Did you forget about it?

➜

Did you forget about borrowing ten dollars from me?

NOTE: Gerunds and present participles look exactly alike. They must be identified by their functions. To find a gerund, ask if the -ing word you are considering functions as a noun. If so, it is a gerund.

Gerund Phrase as Subject Gerund Phrase as Subject

Predicate (VP)

Finding the lost money

was an exciting adventure.

Driving at night

makes him nervous.

Sleeping in class

is not permitted.

Running two miles every morning

keeps Jan in shape.

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Gerund Phrase as Delayed Subject This construction is introduced by the anticipatory it and the non-referential there. The gerund phrase is the actual subject of the sentence. It or There

Verb Phrase

Gerund Phrase as Delayed Subject

It

’s great

seeing old friends again.

It

was wise

buying that used car.

There

’ll be

dancing and singing in the streets.

There

’ll be

no smoking in this room.

Gerund Phrase as Subject Complement Subject

Linking Verb

Gerund Phrase as Subject Complement

His favorite sport

is

driving cars at top speed.

The problem

was

being at the right place at the wrong time.

Joe’s worst habit

was

eating while he was talking.

Gerund Phrase as Direct Object This is the most common function of a gerund phrase. In English, only certain transitive verbs can be followed by a gerund object.14 Subject

Transitive Verb

Gerund Phrase as Direct Object

The men

prefer

having dinner at noon.

The watchman

admitted

having been asleep during the robbery.

(You)

please stop

biting your fingernails.

They

will not allow

smoking in their home.

14

In English, some verbs can be followed by gerund objects, others by infinitive objects, and some by either gerund or infinitive objects. There is no rule to determine which verbs can be followed by which form. Refer to the list at the end of this unit, pages 158-159.

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147

Gerund Phrase as Object of Preposition Subject

Verb Phrase

Prep

Gerund Phrase as Object of Preposition

He

usually gets out of breath

from

walking fast.

They

insist

on

leaving early.

Fred

is proud

of

being the best student in class.

Judy

is looking forward

to

visiting her family.

Gerund Phrase as Appositive Subject

Gerund Phrase as Appositive

Predicate

Mary’s hobby,

collecting jars,

seems rather dull.

His good fortune,

finding the money,

was short-lived.

Gerund Adjunct or Present Participle? A gerund adjunct acts like an adjective, but it has primary meaning, so, in fact, it becomes part of a compound noun. There are two possible tests to determine whether an -ing word preceding a noun is a participle or a gerund. First, decide whether the word in question shows action or shows purpose. Then, decide whether the -ing word or the noun carries the primary meaning and, therefore, receives the primary stress.
If the -ing word shows purpose and receives primary stress, it is a gerund. He bought a raêcing horse. (Racing is a gerund because it shows that the horse’s purpose is racing.) Let’s go to the swiêmming pool. (Swimming is a gerund because the pool is for swimming; it is not swimming itself.)
If the -ing word shows action and the noun receives primary stress, the -ing word is a participle. Look at the setting suên. (Setting is a participle because it shows what the sun is doing, not what its purpose is.) The crying baêby annoyed us. (Crying is a participle. It shows what the baby is doing.) 148

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✦

Gerund Phrase with Subject

Because a gerund functions like a noun, it may be modified by a possessive noun or pronoun. Although phrases have been defined as not containing a subject, some grammarians consider this possessive noun or pronoun to be the subject of the gerund. Here are a few examples: Father resents Jim’s spending money foolishly. We didn’t like their staying so late. We are proud of Tom’s winning first prize. Some of us didn’t enjoy your telling boring stories at dinner. I can’t understand the car’s not starting. I don’t like his lying. In today’s informal use, many people do not use possessive nouns or pronouns as modifiers of gerunds. Instead, they use uninflected nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case form. Following are examples of how the above would probably be worded in informal American speech today. Father resents Jim spending money foolishly. We didn’t like it that they stayed so late. We are proud of Tom winning first prize. Some of us didn’t enjoy you telling boring stories at dinner. I can’t understand the car not starting. I don’t like him lying.

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✦

Infinitive Phrases

to-Infinitive As presented in Unit3, an infinitive is the simple form of the verb preceded by to. It is the form from which all other forms of a verb are derived. Here are some examples: to carry, to maintain, to introduce, to laugh. The to-infinitive has four tense forms—present, present perfect, present progressive, and present perfect progressive. The present and present perfect forms may be passive with get and BE. The present active and passive infinitives are the most common forms. The following chart shows the present active and passive forms for the infinitive to plan.

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

present

to plan

to be planned

present perfect

to have planned

to have been planned

present progressive

to be planning

(no passive)15

present perfect progressive

to have been planning

(no passive)16

Bare Infinitive The simple, or base, form of the verb without to is also known as the bare infinitive. Examples are carry, maintain, introduce, laugh. Some structures use the to-infinitive; other structures use the bare infinitive. Bare infinitives often follow causative verbs such as make, and the verbs help and let. The captain made the men march all morning. Let me go with you. Bare infinitives also follow verbs of perception: They watched the enemy troops march into town. He felt someone touch his ear.

15

The present progressive may be made passive on rare occasions. Consider this example: The picnic is supposed to be being planned by George as we speak.

16

The perfect progressive may also be made passive, as in this example: The picnic was supposed to have been being planned by now. Such constructions are extremely rare, however, and often not covered in grammar texts.

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Split Infinitive In common usage, both spoken and written, infinitives are often split. An adverb is placed between the to and the main verb: to finally decide, to completely surrender, to always wonder. Some grammarians consider split infinitives to be incorrect usage. Others, however, believe that split infinitives frequently express thoughts more exactly.

Infinitive Phrases in Sentences An infinitive phrase consists of
an infinitive
modifiers of the infinitive Infinitive phrases may be introduced by
objective pronouns or nouns (him, her, us, them, you) sometimes preceded by for The host urged us to stay a while longer. It’s time for them to go home.
indefinite relative adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs (who(m), what, which, whose, where, when, how else) I can’t decide which car to buy. Do you know how else to get there?
causative verbs or verbs of perception (for simple form or bare infinitive) He heard the doctor say the patient would recover. Please help me find the front door.
negative adverbs not and never The zookeeper told us not to feed the animals. John promised never to drive recklessly again. Infinitive phrases can be any of the following:
nouns

UNIT 9

♦

subject

♦

subject complement

♦

direct object

♦

object complement

♦

object of preposition


adjectives
adverbs
modifiers of independent clauses

151

Infinitive Phrase as Noun Subject Infinitive phrases can function as subjects either before or after the verb. Often when an infinitive phrase is the subject of a sentence, the sentence begins with anticipatory it. We call this infinitive phrase the deferred, or delayed, subject. Infinitive Phrase Subject

Predicate

To listen to good music

is her favorite pastime.

To see his homeland again

will make him happy.

To find a good used car

is difficult.

It

Predicate

Infinitive Phrase as Delayed Subject

It

is difficult

to find a good used car.

It

was kind of you

to invite us for the weekend.

It

was wonderful of our friends

to give us an anniversary party.

Subject Complement Infinitive phrases can act as subject complements after BE verbs and the linking verbs seem and appear. Notice that the infinitive can appear with or without to when it follows a form of BE. Subject

Linking Verb

Infinitive Phrase as Subject Complement

Luke’s aim

is

to finish the course as soon as possible.

Our plan

is

to leave Saturday afternoon.

The best thing we can do

is

walk until we find a gas station.

All Joe ever did

was

think up ways to get rich.

Sam

seems

to be a very good leader.

You

appear

to be a doctor.

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Direct Object This is the most common noun function of infinitive phrases. There are only certain transitive verbs that can be followed by infinitive objects. Refer to the list at the end of this unit. Subject

Transitive Verb

Infinitive Phrase as Direct Object17

(You)

Don’t forget

to give the students a break.

He

promised

to get dinner for us.

The captain

refused

to let the men have liberty this weekend.

Object Complement

17

Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Infinitive Phrase as Object Complement18

Jason

advised

us

to leave after sundown.

The agent

warned

the travelers

not to drive at night.

We

expect

our visitors

to stay for a week.

They

convinced

the teacher

to let them go early.

See list of verbs which take infinitive objects, page 158.

18

Some grammarians interpret this infinitive phrase to be an object complement. Others treat the direct object as a subject of the infinitive phrase and the entire phrase – direct object and infinitive phrase – as object of the verb.

UNIT 9

153

Bare Infinitive as Object Complement Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Infinitive Phrase as Object Complement

The guard

saw

the plane

crash into the mountain.

Judd

felt

the thief

reach into his coat pocket.

Sgt. Jones

made

the soldiers

clean the barracks.

The major

let

them

take a rest afterwards.

Object of Preposition The prepositions except, besides, and but can be followed by a bare infinitive. Subject

Main Verb Phrase

Preposition

Infinitive Phrase as Object of Preposition

We

could do nothing

but

wait for her recovery.

He

could do anything

except

be patient.

What

do you like to do

besides

go to the movies?

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Infinitive Phrase as Adjective Infinitive phrases, like participial phrases, can modify nouns and pronouns. They follow the noun or pronoun they modify. Some infinitive phrases can be introduced with for.

Modifying Subject Subject

Infinitive Phrase as Adjective Modifying Subject

Predicate

Her efforts

to be helpful

were ignored.

Your request

to take Friday off

has been approved.

The best radio

to buy

is the least expensive one.

Modifying Direct Object Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Infinitive Phrase as Adjective Modifying Direct Object

Judy

has

a lot of work

to do today.

I

know

a great magazine

for you to read.

Mr. Tanner

had

a suggestion

to offer.

Modifying Subject Complement Subject

Linking Verb

Subject Complement

Infinitive Phrase as Adjective

Mr. Price

was

the man

to see for the job.

An open field

isn’t

a good place

to be during a storm.

Italy

is

a lovely country

to visit any time of the year.

UNIT 9

155

Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Infinitive phrases can modify a predicate, a sentence, an adjective, or an adverb. These infinitives many times express a cause, reason, or purpose.

Modifying Predicate Subject

Verb

Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Modifying Verb or Predicate

Phil

left his home

to play professional baseball.

Juanita

eats fruit every day

to stay healthy.

I

usually walk

to keep fit.

Modifying Sentence or Independent Clause Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Modifying Sentence

Independent Clause

To reach Medford in time,

we must leave immediately.

To become a ballerina,

Julia practiced constantly.

To get water for his stock,

the rancher had to drill a well.

Modifying Predicate Adjective

156

Subject

Linking Verb

Predicate Adjective

Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Modifying Predicate Adjective

Ben

is

eager

to start his own business.

We

are

happy

to see you again.

Francis

is

certain

to get a promotion next month.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Modifying Adverb or Adjective Phrase These infinitive phrases usually modify adverb or adjective phrases consisting of too + an adverb/adjective or an adverb + enough. Subject

Verb

Adverb/Adjective Phrase

Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Modifying Adverb or Adjective Phrase

It

’s raining

too hard

to have the picnic.

We

didn’t stay

long enough

to make new friends.

His story

sounds

real enough

to be true.

I

am

too tired

to go out tonight.

✦

to – Substitution

In conversation, when an infinitive phrase occurs in an answer to a question, the phrase is often reduced to a single word, to. To, then, substitutes for the entire phrase. Q: Do John and Judy expect to get married soon? A: Yes, they expect to in June. Q: Does Mary want to change jobs? A: Yes, she wants to, but she doesn’t know where to look. Q: Do you intend to sightsee while you’re in Europe? A: Yes, I intend to on the weekends, when I’m not working. Q: Is Jack going to retire soon? A: No, he doesn’t plan to.

UNIT 9

157

✦

Verbs Which Take Gerund Phrases or Infinitive Phrases as Direct Objects

Gerund Phrases or Infinitive Phrases after Certain Verbs

verbs taking only infinitive phrases as objects

verbs taking only gerund phrases as objects

agree appear arrange ask aspire beg bother (in question) care (in negative) choose claim condescend consent decide demand deserve determine elect endeavor expect fail hope offer prepare proceed promise refuse resolve seem strive swear

acknowledge admit advise anticipate appreciate avoid can’t help complete consider defer delay deny detest discuss dislike encourage end enjoy escape evade finish get through give up imagine justify keep keep on look forward to mention mind miss

158

verbs taking either gerund or infinitive phrases as objects afford attempt begin bother (in negative) can’t bear can’t stand cease commence continue decline desire dread fail hate hesitate intend like learn love mean need neglect plan prefer propose start try volunteer

verbs usually taking infinitive, but experienced speakers can justify gerunds learn manage pretend profess struggle threaten

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Gerund Phrases or Infinitive Phrases after Certain Verbs

(cont’d)

verbs taking only infinitive phrases as objects

verbs taking only gerund phrases as objects

verbs that have totally different meanings depending on whether you use the gerund or the infinitive

tend wait want wish

necessitate outlaw postpone practice put off quit recall recollect recommend report resent resist risk stop suggest talk about terminate think about tolerate understand

forget with a gerund shows an action that was forgotten Example: I forgot having met him before. forget with an infinitive shows that one did not remember to do something Example: I forgot to mail the letter. remember with a gerund shows an action remembered Example: I remember putting my keys in my coat. remember with an infinitive shows a duty to do something Example: I must remember to buy stamps today.

regret with an infinitive shows that one is sorry to have to do something or tell bad news Example: I regret to inform you of his death. regret with a gerund shows that one is sad because of something that happens Example: I regret having insulted her. These take the infinitive when followed by a indirect object; otherwise use the gerund. advise allow authorize encourage permit sanction

UNIT 9

159

– USER NOTES –

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Appendix A

Punctuation End Punctuation In English, three punctuation marks – the period, the question mark, and the exclamation point – are used to show the end, or termination, of an idea.

✦

Period

The “dot” ( . ) placed at the end of a sentence, called a “full stop” by the British, is a period in American English. Periods are used
at the end of sentences. ♦

If a complete idea is not definitely a question or an exclamation, use a period at its end.


in certain abbreviations. Mr.

Ms.

B.A.

etc.

A.M.


Periods are not used in abbreviations for states or organizations. TX

✦

LA

NATO

NBA

IRS

Period Look-a-Likes

In American English, the mark which looks like a period has different names in different contexts.
When used above a letter in writing, it is called a dot. Be sure to dot your i’s.
In mathematics it is called a decimal point, or point. sixteen point four percent (16.4%)
In computerese it is called a dot. www dot lackland dot af dot mil (www.lackland.af.mil)

APPENDIX A

161

✦

Question Mark

A question mark ( ? ) is used
after a direct question. What time is it?
after a polite request. Would you please close the door?
after questions in a series, even if incomplete. When will he graduate? Next year? Ten years from now?

✦

Exclamation Point

An exclamation point ( ! ) is used
after a complete emphatic statement. You shouldn’t do that!
after a short exclamation. Halt!

The Comma ✦

When to use a comma ( , )
before a coordinating conjunction to join independent clauses He likes to ride horses, and he likes to drive trucks.
after an introductory clause or phrase19 After he washes the car, he likes to polish it.

19

If the introductory clause or phrase is very short, the comma is optional. Example: Today ( , ) we will work on punctuation.

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after adverbial connectives We often drive to Houston; therefore, we know Interstate Highway 10 well.
between all items in a series (including the last item preceded by and)20 I like bananas, peaches, apples, and mangoes.
between adjectives that modify a noun separately (if they could be joined by and, or if they could be in any order) John is an intelligent, athletic, confident man.
to set off nonrestrictive elements (word groups that do not contain information essential to the meaning of the sentence) My father, who was a fighter pilot, was stationed in India.
to set off parenthetical expressions Relativity, according to Einstein, is relative.
transitional expressions As a consequence, the budget was increased.
contrasts The Air Force, not the Marine Corps, will increase their presence in the region.
direct address John, please close the window.
yes, no, and mild interjections No, you shouldn’t drink and drive. Well, what do you think?
tag questions Jason didn’t go to Florida, did he?
information which gives context to quotations President Kennedy said, “While we shall negotiate freely, we shall not negotiate freedom.”

20

Some style books still prefer to omit the comma before “and.”

APPENDIX A

163

Use commas in the following:
dates On July 4, 1976, our country was 200 years old.
addresses Julie lives at 237 Johnson Blvd, San Antonio, Texas 78215.
titles Janice Johnson, Ph.D., has been promoted to full professor.
numbers (in groups of three) 3,333,333
anywhere it clearly prevents confusion. After eating, the baby fell asleep.

✦

When not to use a comma
after an introductory phrase in an inverted sentence ✕ Inside the closet, he found five pairs of shoes. ✓ Inside the closet he found five pairs of shoes.
before a concluding clause that is essential to the meaning of a sentence ✕ Exercise a lot during the holidays, unless you want to gain weight. ✔ Exercise a lot during the holidays unless you want to gain weight.
to separate a subject from a verb ✕ Running around the block, is one good way to exercise. ✔ Running around the block is one good way to exercise. (In this example, the phrase running around the block is the subject.)
to separate a verb from its object or complement ✕ Capt. Johnson ordered, that the privates be restricted to base. ✔ Capt. Johnson ordered that the privates be restricted to base.
after a coordinating conjunction (but do use one before) ✕ We are going to the lake and, we are renting a sailboat. ✔ We are going to the lake, and we are renting a sailboat.

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with a question mark or exclamation point ✕ “Where are you going?,” she asked. ✔ “Where are you going?” she asked.
with indirect speech ✕ President Kennedy said, we should ask what we can do for our country, not what our country can do for us. ✔ President Kennedy said we should ask what we can do for our country, not what our country can do for us.
before parentheses ✕ Be sure to take a warm coat, (maybe your fake fur). ✔ Be sure to take a warm coat (maybe your fake fur).
to separate coordinating word groups that are not clauses. ✕ He likes to ride horses, and drive trucks. ✔ He likes to ride horses and drive trucks.
between adjectives that are cumulative or depend on each other ✕ This is the first, cold, gray day this year. ✔ This is the first cold gray day this year.
to set off restrictive elements ✕ Use a spoon, with slots, for the vegetables. ✔ Use a spoon with slots for the vegetables.

The Semicolon The semicolon ( ; ) has only a few uses. It always separates grammar elements of equal value.

✦

When to use a semicolon
to join closely related independent clauses, with or without adverbial connectives The weather is beautiful; it hasn’t rained for weeks. It hasn’t rained for weeks; consequently, we decided to have the party outside.
between items in a series when the individual items contain commas John Jones, President; Julia Jeffers, Vice President; and Judy Johnson, Treasurer, will all attend the convention.

APPENDIX A

165

✦

When not to use a semicolon
after a greeting ✕ Dear John; ✓ Dear John, ✓ Ladies and Gentlemen:
before a list or quotation ✕ The menu included the following; steak, chicken, and fish. ✓ The menu included the following: steak, chicken, and fish. ✕ The captain said; “Be on time.” ✓ The captain said, “Be on time.”
to separate a subordinate clause from the rest of the sentence ✕ Without John’s help; Julie won’t finish the project on time. ✓ Without John’s help, Julie won’t finish the project on time.

The Colon A colon ( : ) is usually used to introduce something else: a list, a quotation, a new clause, a formal letter, or a subtitle. It is also used in numerical expressions of time and mathematical ratios.

✦

When to use a colon
before a list following an independent clause Vacation options include the following: Texas, France, and Japan.
before a quotation of more than one sentence My grandmother used to say: “Beauty is only skin deep. If you don’t act beautiful, people will not notice how pretty you look.”
between independent clauses if one explains the other It isn’t very hot: it’s only 82°.
after the greeting in a formal letter Ladies and Gentlemen:

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE


between titles and subtitles Lone Star: A History of Texas
in time expressions 12:30 p.m.
to express ratios The ratio of African to Asian students in my class is 2:1.

✦

When not to use a colon
between verbs and objects or complements ✕ The menu consists of: chicken, meat, and fish. ✓ The menu consists of chicken, meat, and fish. ✕ Vacation options are: Texas, France, and Japan. ✓ Vacation options are Texas, France, and Japan.

The Apostrophe An apostrophe ( ’ ) looks like a comma, but it is placed near the top of a letter rather than on the line.

✦

When to use an apostrophe
in contractions I’m

you’ll

let’s

can’t


for some plurals (symbols, numbers, letters, words used as entities) Some people cross their 7’s. He uses too many okay’s when he talks.
in place of numbers omitted in years I graduated in the class of ’81. In ’42 my grandfather enlisted in the Army.
to designate periods of time A week’s rest will refresh the pilots. We did a year’s worth of work in three months.

APPENDIX A

167


to show possession ♦

If the noun is singular, add ’s. Bill’s book

♦

If the noun is plural but does not end in s, add ’s. the children’s books

♦

the libraries’ books

If a proper noun ends in s, add only an apostrophe. Charles’ golf clubs

♦

the men’s shirts

If the noun is plural and ends in s, add only an apostrophe. the boys’ shoes

♦

the girl’s coat

Texas’ roads

If two or more nouns joined by and indicate joint possession, add an apostrophe or ’s to the last noun. my aunt and uncle’s farm Jane and James’ house

♦

If two or more nouns joined by and indicate separate possession, add an apostrophe or ’s to each. Ron’s, Jack’s, and Lou’s test scores Houston’s and Dallas’ symphonies

♦

If a noun is hyphenated, add ’s to the last word. father-in-law’s business

Apostrophe Look-a-Likes Two symbols look like apostrophes, but have special uses. Foot Symbol He is 6’ tall. Quote within Quote Dr. Jones said, “An important maxim is, ‘Objects in motion tend to stay in motion, and objects at rest tend to stay at rest.’ ” See single quotation marks in next section.

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Quotation Marks ✦

When to use quotation marks ( “ ” )
to enclose direct quotations (direct speech) “Viruses can bring a network to a halt, especially the dangerous kinds like the ‘I Love You’ virus which can replicate itself through personal address books of those who activate it,” said Sergeant Blakes. Lackland Talespinner 05/04/2001

A quotation is the exact words, sentence structure, punctuation, spelling, and grammar of the original writer (or speaker). If these are not exact, quotation marks are not appropriate, unless alterations to the original quote are clearly indicated. (See Other Punctuation Marks – Elipses and Brackets, page 172.) It is important, too, that the original source (writer or speaker) be given credit for an idea put into different words, or paraphrased. Paraphrasing, sometimes called indirect or reported speech, does not take quotation marks. Instead the writer or speaker is mentioned in the text or in a citation. Sergeant Bridge said Sergeant Seveyka, who is a combat arms instructor, was chosen based on his gunsmith experience. Lackland Talespinner, 05/04/2001 Also use quotation marks
around the titles of short works – articles, poems, short stories, songs, chapters. Alice Walker’s “Everyday Use” tells the story of the attitudes of two sisters towards an heirloom family quilt. ♦

but underline or italicize the titles of longer works – movies, novels, textbooks, newspapers, magazines. Alice Walker’s The Color Purple was both a successful novel and a successful movie.


to set off words used as words. He has trouble distinguishing “four” from “for.” NOTE: Words used as words may be underlined or italicized instead of enclosed in quotation marks.

APPENDIX A

169

✦

Single Quotation Marks

As mentioned previously, single quotation marks, which resemble apostrophes, are used for quotes within quotes. “Somebody asked ‘What just happened?’ I felt like, ‘Man, am I lucky.’ But I kept asking myself, ‘Am I doing the best I can do in just keeping everyone alive?’ We tried to get those in pain as comfortable as we could.” HM3 Tayinikia Campbell (aboard USS Cole) All Hands: Magazine for the US Navy, 05/2001

Other Punctuation Marks ✦

Parentheses

Parentheses – ( ) – may enclose extra information such as the following:
appositives The new principal (Dr. Johnston Jones) will arrive tomorrow.
supplemental material The Girl Scouts should be sure to bring enough water (in an appropriate container) for the hike.
afterthoughts Our new president grew up in Texas (unlike his father, the former president).
digressions A significant percentage of students in American universities come from other countries. (These student populations are already ethnically diverse, as Americans of many different backgrounds are now going to college.) Parentheses are used to enclose extra information that is interesting but not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Parentheses are also used to enclose letters or numbers indicating items in a list. In addition to water, the scouts should bring these items: (1) bedroll, (2) flashlight, (3) sweater, (4) extra socks, and (5) assigned food item.

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✦

Dash

Dashes ( — ) are used to emphasize. Dashes share some uses with parentheses, but they call more attention to the added information. They may be used to emphasize the following:
appositives The newly elected club president—crony of last year’s president—will continue previous policies.
supplemental material The privates will be on time—and properly attired in Class A uniform—for their first language class. Dashes may also be used in place of some colons. A dash is less formal and more dramatic than a colon. They may be used in the following ways:
to introduce lists There was far too much food at the party—cookies, cakes, homemade candy, six kinds of meat and seafood, many kinds of cheese, several dips, and unlimited bowls of chips and crackers.
before a restatement or amplification Success at the university requires a lot of time—at least three hours of outside work for every hour of class.
to indicate a sudden change in tone Jack and Julie spent thousands of dollars on airfare, clothes, and luggage, read all they could find about France, and surfed the net looking for the best French restaurants—then their vacation was canceled.

APPENDIX A

171

✦

Ellipses

An ellipsis ( . . . ) is used to show that something has been left out of a quotation. If the omitted material is less than a sentence, three dots are used. If the omitted material includes the end of a sentence or is longer, four dots are used. Quotation marks are not closed before and after an ellipsis. Yesterday’s newspaper reported, “Mr. Barnes signed the ordinance in his first official act as mayor to establish… stricter guidelines for garbage disposal within city limits.”

✦

Brackets

Brackets ( [ ] ) are used to enclose words or phrases added into an otherwise word-for-word quotation. Notice the use of both brackets and an ellipsis in this example. The newspaper continued, “He [Barnes] revoked the ordinance Thursday… The ordinance required homeowners to pay a monthly surcharge for the use of automatic sprinkler systems.” Brackets can also be used to enclose the notation sic to show that the writer is aware that a quotation contains an error in spelling or grammar. Using [sic] shows that the writer has not altered the quotation by correcting the error. Some people consider the use of [sic] to be impolite to the source being quoted. According to Jacobson, “It is necessary to walking [sic] five miles to lose the weight acquired by eating two doughnuts.”

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Appendix B

Irregular Verbs Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

abide

abode / abided

abided

abiding

alight

alighted / alit

alighted / alit

alighting

arise

arose

arisen

arising

awake

awoke

awoken

awaking

be

was / were

been

being

bear

bore

born / borne

bearing

beat

beat

beat

beating

become

became

become

becoming

befall

befell

befallen

befalling

begin

began

begun

beginning

bend

bent

bent

bending

bet

bet

bet

betting

bid

bid

bid

bidding

bid

bade / bid

bid / bidden

bidding

bide

bode / bided

bided

biding

bind

bound

bound

binding

bite

bit

bit

biting

bleed

bled

bled

bleeding

blow

blew

blown

blowing

break

broke

broken

breaking

breed

bred

bred

breeding

APPENDIX B

173

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

bring

brought

brought

bringing

broadcast

broadcast / broadcasted

broadcast / broadcasted

broadcasting

browbeat

browbeat

browbeaten

browbeating

build

built

built

building

burn

burned / burnt

burned / burnt

burning

burst

burst

burst

bursting

buy

bought

bought

buying

cast

cast

cast

casting

catch

caught

caught

catching

choose

chose

chosen

choosing

clothe

clothed / clad

clothed / clad

clothing

come

came

come

coming

cost

cost

cost

costing

creep

crept

crept

creeping

cut

cut

cut

cutting

cybercast

cybercast / cybercasted

cybercast / cybercasted

cybercasting

deal

dealt

dealt

dealing

dig

dug

dug

digging

dive

dove / dived

dived

diving

do

did

done

doing

draw

drew

drawn

drawing

dream

dreamed / dreamt

dreamed / dreamt

dreaming

drink

drank

drunk

drinking

drive

drove

driven

driving

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

dwell

dwelled / dwelt

dwelled / dwelt

dwelling

eat

ate

eaten

eating

fall

fell

fallen

falling

feed

fed

fed

feeding

feel

felt

felt

feeling

fight

fought

fought

fighting

find

found

found

finding

fit

fit

fit

fitting

flee

fled

fled

fleeing

fling

flung

flung

flinging

fly

flew

flown

flying

forbid

forbade / forbad

forbidden

forbidding

forecast

forecast / forecasted

forecast / forecasted

forecasting

forego

forewent

foregone

foregoing

forgo

forwent

forgone

forgoing

foreknow

foreknew

foreknown

foreknowing

foretell

foretold

foretold

foretelling

foresee

foresaw

foreseen

foreseeing

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgetting

forgive

forgave

forgiven

forgiving

forsake

forsook

forsaken

forsaking

freeze

froze

frozen

freezing

get

got

gotten

getting

give

gave

given

giving

APPENDIX B

175

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

go

went

gone

going

greenlight

greenlighted / greenlit

greenlighted / greenlit

greenlighting

grind

ground

ground

grinding

grow

grew

grown

growing

hang (a person)

hanged (regular)

hanged

hanging

hang (a picture)

hung

hung

hanging

have

had

had

having

hear

heard

heard

hearing

hide

hid

hidden

hiding

hit

hit

hit

hitting

hold

held

held

holding

hurt

hurt

hurt

hurting

keep

kept

kept

keeping

kneel

knelt / kneeled

knelt / kneeled

kneeling

knit

knitted / knit

knitted / knit

knitting

know

knew

known

knowing

lay (to place)

laid

laid

laying

lead

led

led

leading

leap

leaped / leapt

lept / leaped

leaping

leave

left

left

leaving

lend

lent

lent

lending

let

let

let

letting

lie (to occupy space)

lay

lain

lying

lie (prevaricate)

lied (regular)

lied

lying

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

light

lit / lighted

lit / lighted

lighting

lose

lost

lost

losing

make

made

made

making

mean

meant

meant

meaning

misspend

misspent

misspent

misspending

mistake

mistook

mistaken

mistaking

misunderstand

misunderstood

misunderstood

misunderstanding

mow

mowed

mowed / mown

mowing

offset

offset

offset

offsetting

overcome

overcame

overcome

overcoming

override

overrode

overridden

overriding

pay

paid

paid

paying

plead

pleaded / plead / pled

pleaded / plead / pled

pleading

prove

proved

proved / proven

proving

put

put

put

putting

quit

quit

quit

quitting

read

read

read

reading

ride

rode

ridden

riding

ring

rang

rung

ringing

rise

rose

risen

rising

run

ran

run

running

say

said

said

saying

see

saw

seen

seeing

seek

sought

sought

seeking

APPENDIX B

177

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

sell

sold

sold

selling

send

sent

sent

sending

set

set

set

setting

sew

sewed

sewed / sewn

sewing

shake

shook

shaken

shaking

shave

shaved

shaved / shaven

shaving

shear

sheared

sheared / shorn

shearing

shed

shed

shed

shedding

shine (shoes)

shined (regular)

shined

shining

shine (light)

shone

shone

shining

shoe (a horse)

shoed / shod

shoed / shod

shoeing

shoot

shot

shot

shooting

show

showed

showed / shown

showing

shrink

shrank

shrunk

shrinking

shut

shut

shut

shutting

sing

sang

sung

singing

sink

sank

sunk

sinking

sit

sat

sat

sitting

sleep

slept

slept

sleeping

slide

slid

slid

sliding

slink

slunk / slinked

slunk

slinking

sneak

sneaked / snuck

sneaked / snuck

sneaking

sow

sowed

sown / sowed

sowing

speak

spoke

spoken

speaking

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Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

speed

sped

sped

speeding

spellbind

spellbound

spellbound

spellbinding

spend

spent

spent

spending

spill

spilled / split

spilled / spilt

spilling

spin

spun

spun

spinning

spit

spit / spat

spit / spat

spitting

split

split

split

splitting

spoil

spoiled / spoilt

spoiled / spoilt

spoiling

spread

spread

spread

spreading

stand

stood

stood

standing

steal

stole

stolen

stealing

stick

stuck

stuck

sticking

sting

stung

stung

stinging

stink

stank / stunk

stunk

stinking

stride

strode

stridden

striding

strike

struck

struck / stricken

striking

strive

strove / strived

strived / striven

striving

swear

swore

sworn

swearing

sweat

sweated / sweat

sweated / sweat

sweating

sweep

swept

swept

sweeping

swell

swelled

swelled / swollen

swelling

swim

swam

swum

swimming

swing

swung

swung

swinging

take

took

taken

taking

APPENDIX B

179

Simple Present (Base Form)

Simple Past

Past Participle

-ing Form

teach

taught

taught

teaching

tear

tore

torn

tearing

telecast

telecast / telecasted

telecast / telecasted

telecasting

tell

told

told

telling

think

thought

thought

thinking

throw

threw

thrown

throwing

thrust

thrust

thrust

thrusting

typecast

typecast

typecast

typecasting

understand

understood

understood

understanding

undertake

undertook

undertaken

undertaking

uphold

upheld

upheld

upholding

upset

upset

upset

upsetting

wake

woke / waked

woken / waked

waking

wear

wore

worn

wearing

weave

weaved / wove

weaved / woven

weaving

wed

wedded

wed / wedded

wedding

weep

wept

wept

weeping

wet

wet / wetted

wet / wetted

wetting

win

won

won

winning

wind

wound

wound

winding

withdraw

withdrew

withdrawn

withdrawing

withstand

withstood

withstood

withstanding

write

wrote

written

writing

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Appendix C

Preposition Combinations As mentioned in Unit 7, it is often easier for English learners to understand prepositions by thinking about them in combination with adjectives or verbs. These content words, the adjectives and verbs, are predictably combined with particular prepositions.

Adjective/Preposition Combinations These combinations are usually preceded by a BE verb and followed by an object of a preposition. Mauve is easy on your eyes. The captain was opposed to the change in plans.

APPENDIX C

absent from

devoted to

kind to

accustomed to

different from

known for

acquainted with

disappointed with/in

married to

afraid of

excited about

opposed to

angry at, with

faithful to

patient with

aware of

familiar with

mad at/about

capable of

fond of

proud of

committed to

friendly to, with

related to

compared to

frightened of

relevant to

content with

grateful to/for

responsible for

dedicated to

guilty of

satisfied with

easy on

impatient with

scared of/about

envious of

innocent of

terrified of

delighted with

jealous of

worried about

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Verb/Preposition Combinations (2-Word Verbs) Verb/preposition combinations are often called two-word verbs because each of the combinations performs the function of a verb alone. There are three groups of these combinations: separable transitive, nonseparable transitive, and intransitive.

✦

Separable Transitive 2-Word Verbs

These are transitive because they take an object. They are considered separable because the object may either follow the combination or separate it into two parts, in which case the verb comes before the object and the adverb after it. When a pronoun is used as the object, the two-word verb, sometimes called a phrasal verb, will usually be separated. Examples: Why do you always bring up that subject? Why do you always bring that up?

bring back (recall) This song brings back memories. (return) Be sure you bring those books back. bring up (mention) He brought up a lot of good ideas at the meeting. Be sure to bring that up at the meeting. (raise) The Johnsons brought up ten children. They had only their father to bring them up. call back (return a phone call) Tell her I’ll call back. Tell her I’ll call her back. call down (reprimand) We were called down for walking on the grass. The guard called them down for trespassing.

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call in (summon) Mother was called in to work at the last minute. Call the sales staff in for a meeting. (report by telephone or radio) Don’t call in sick unless you really are sick. The police called the accident in at 0500. call up (telephone) Call up the doctor! Jack is very sick. I’ll call the doctor up immediately. carry out (complete an action) Be sure to carry out the orders exactly. John will carry the plan out as ordered. check in (return an item) The soldiers checked in their equipment after the exercise. Be sure to check these books in by the fifth of April. (report one’s presence) Be sure to check in at the front desk by nine. The hotel clerk checked us in at 8:30. check off (mark items on a list) The pilot must check off every item on the pre-flight check list. Did you check everything off the list? check out (record borrowed items) Don’t forget to check out some books today. Check these books out for your project. (see that someone is familiar with a process) Joan will check out the new secretary’s computer skills. Today I have to check the privates out on reporting procedures. (inspect; look at) Check out this new website. It’s really good. Check that used car out thoroughly before you buy it. (investigate casually, try) Should we check out that new Cajun restaurant? We won’t go back to that restaurant. We checked it out last night, and it wasn’t very good.

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183

check out of (officially leave) We have to check out of the hotel by noon. The manager will personally check us out before noon. cheer up (improve a mood) Let’s try to cheer Judy up. She seems depressed. (also intransitive meaning become happier) What can we do to help your parents cheer up? cross off (indicate completion of an item on a list) When I have a lot of chores, I cross off each one as I do it. Cross each job off the list as it is completed. do over (do again) I have to do over everything that I thought I had already finished. Do this essay over. It is not your best work. (redecorate or rearrange) Since our office has been done over, we are much more comfortable. We did our kitchen over, and the project took six months to complete. drop off (leave someone or something at a place) When you go by the cleaner’s, would you drop off this pair of trousers? Can you drop me off at the BX on your way to the commissary? (also intransitive meaning fall asleep) I dropped off during the movie. figure out (solve by reasoning) We are trying to figure out why attendance has dropped. I can’t figure it out. get across (make an idea understandable) I wish I could get across to you how important it is to get plenty of sleep. The captain should be able to get his ideas across better. get back (regain) We are hoping to get back much more than what we originally invested in the stock market. Visitors to Las Vegas seldom get their losses back. (also intransitive meaning return to point of departure) My brother will get back to morrow. 184

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get on/get off (of) (enter or leave a means of mass transportation) Get on the bus. It is about to leave. Get the children on the bus. We should get off the train at the next station. I couldn’t get my kids off the bus. get out (of) (leave a car or other small means of transportation) She got out of the taxi at the front gate. It took three men to get her out of the car. give up (quit trying, surrender) Don’t give up trying to get that promotion. The team won because they never gave the game up. hand in (submit) You are to hand in your reports on Friday. Be sure to hand them in before 3:00 p.m. hang up (put on a hanger or hook) I cannot convince my son to hang up his clothes. He never hangs his shirts up. Hang the phone up now! keep on (continue to wear) I’ll keep on my gloves. It’s cold in here. Keep your coat on too. (also intransitive meaning continue) Don’t quit. Let’s keep on. look over (examine) Would you look over these plans and let me know what you think? John has already looked them over. look up (find information in a reference) If you can’t spell it, you should look it up in the dictionary. (find and visit a person) I think I’ll look up my cousin while I’m in New York.

APPENDIX C

185

pay back (return money or a courtesy) Joshua never paid back the money I loaned him. I’ll never be able to pay Jenny back for helping me with this job. pick out (select) My mother used to pick out my clothes every morning. Will you help me pick a new shirt out? (see clearly among others) With everyone in uniform, it is hard for parents to pick out their sons and daughters in the parade. We looked for you, but we couldn’t pick you out. pick up (stop and get) Will you pick up the chips for the party? Be sure to pick the privates up at the dormitory. (learn casually) Some people pick up dialects easily. I can’t believe you know that. Where’d you pick that up? point out (call attention to) The tour guide pointed out most of the interesting sights. I hadn’t realized that one of my tires was low. I’m glad you pointed it out. put across (make ideas understandable) In order to put across your ideas, be sure you understand your audience. Dr. Johnson is good at putting his point across. put aside (save for later) You ought to put aside more money for retirement. Let’s put this issue aside until next month. put away (store) Weapons should be put away securely. Put your personal belongings away before the inspection. put off (delay) Let’s put off that job until tomorrow. Let’s put that off. 186

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(stall) Every time I ask for an answer, he always puts off my questions. He always puts me off when he doesn’t want to answer me. (mild anger) We’re all put off by his attitude. His indifference puts me off. put on (dress) Put on your coat. It’s cold. Put your gloves on too. (turn on, initiate an operation) I’m going to put on the heat. Please put the water on for tea. (pretend, be pretentious) He is never sincere. He is always putting on an act. You can’t be serious! You must be putting me on. put out (extinguish) Put out your cigarette. Smoking is not allowed in here. Be sure to put your campfire out completely. take back (return) I’m going to take back this CD player. It’s not working. You should take that sweater back to the store. It’s too big. (cancel words or an act) I wish I could take back the terrible things I said to John. John wishes he could take what he said back too. take off (reduce) Mike has felt much healthier since he took off all that weight. If you negotiate, he may take a few dollars off the price. (remove) Take off your jacket. Take your jacket off. (also intransitive meaning depart by airplane) We will take off soon. take on (hire) The contractor intends to take on six new workers. Can you believe the company has taken them on? (acquire responsibility) Judy has taken on another committee position. She’s always taking something on. APPENDIX C

187

take out (remove for use) Take out your journals and write about this article. Please take the chicken out of the refrigerator. (entertain away from home, date) He takes out clients almost every night. John is taking Judy out for dinner. take out on (must be separated) (transfer anger) You shouldn’t take your frustration out on your friends. I know you’re angry, but don’t take it out on me. take over (assume power) When his father retires, Jimmy will take over as president of the company. We’re not looking forward to the day Jimmy takes the company over. take up (begin a pursuit) When he has more time, he intends to take up tennis. Dan’s great at basketball. I wonder when he took it up. (reduce in size) The new dress was taken up four inches. Have the tailor take the hem up in those pants. (discuss) We should take up the problem of the missing files at the next meeting. Let’s take this subject up again in the morning. (consume space) Why do you always take up so much room? There’s no space for my luggage. Yours takes it all up. talk over (discuss) We need to talk over this decision. Families function better when the members can talk things over. think over (consider carefully) He thought over all of his options before deciding to go to college. I’d like to think it over before I make a decision. think up (create by thinking) Surely we can think up an interesting plan for the weekend. I thought this story up in less than two minutes.

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think through (consider step by step) If you think through the process of moving, it won’t be so difficult. Think your problem through carefully. throw away (dispose of) Don’t throw away those newspapers. Recycle them. Don’t throw the magazines away, either. try on (put on clothing to test fit and/or appearance) David tried on ten pairs of pants before he finally found one he liked. When you buy by catalog, you can’t try the clothes on first. try out (test by using) I wonder if they would let me try out that computer for a week. Go ahead and try it out. turn down (refuse an offer) Dr. Jenkins turned down an opportunity for private practice. I can’t believe he turned that down! turn in (submit) I have to turn in my report tomorrow. Be sure to turn your homework in before you leave. (also intransitive meaning go to bed) I turned in at nine o’clock. turn off (stop operation) Please turn off the radio. Jason, turn that TV off and do your homework! (also nonseparable meaning leave a road) We didn’t turn off when we were supposed to. turn over (turn top to bottom) Turn over, or you’ll get a sunburn. Can you turn the steaks over for me? (transfer power or goods) Company operations were turned over to Mr. Brown. It is often difficult for a politician to turn power over to his successor.

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189

wake up (arouse from sleep) I usually wake up the children at 6:30 a.m. The garbage truck woke me up at 5:00 a.m. today. (also intransitive meaning stop sleeping) I woke up at 5:15.

✦

Nonseparable Transitive 2- and 3-Word Verbs

These phrasal verbs are considered transitive because they take objects. They are considered nonseparable because they are never separated by those objects. call for (pick up) I will call for you an hour before the movie starts. (require) This recipe calls for six eggs. call on (visit) The doctor called on my grandmother quite often. (request) He often called on Steve to help him with special projects. (ask to respond) Good teachers call on all of the students in their classes. catch up with (overtake) The other runners are so far ahead of us, I doubt we can catch up with them. I missed two weeks of class. How will I ever catch up with my classmates? catch up on (get something done that has been neglected) I hope to catch up on the news today by reading the newspaper. He is going to catch up on his sleep this weekend. check up on (investigate) Did you check up on your son last weekend? chip in (contribute part) If everyone chips in $5.00, we can have a great party. (also intransitive) We can have a great party if everyone chips in.

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come across (find accidentally) I came across the camera I wanted at the BX. (also intransitive meaning leave an impression) He comes across as an uncooperative loner. come along with (accompany) The children can come along with us, but they will probably be bored. come to (total) Your hotel bill comes to $71.40. drop in on (visit unexpectedly) Will you drop in on Jane when you’re in San Francisco? drop out of (quit) Jack seems so discouraged this year. I hope he doesn’t drop out of school. get along with (have a good relationship) The people in the office seem to get along with each other very well. get behind in (not meet a schedule) I am getting behind in my homework. Can you help me catch up? get in (enter a car or other small means of transportation) Get in the front seat. My suitcases are in the back. get on with (continue) Let’s get on with our math lesson. get over (recover from) I can’t seem to get over this sinus infection. get through (endure) I wonder how he got through all the years he spent in prison.

APPENDIX C

191

get through with (finish) I can go with you when I get through with my homework. go on with (continue) Go on with your story. I’m enjoying it. go over (review) Let’s go over what we covered in class this week. go through (look through) I need to go through these papers to see what can be thrown away. (endure) That was the worst experience I have ever gone through. keep on (continue) Keep on practicing and you will become a great musician. (also separable meaning continue wearing) Keep your jackets on. keep up with (remain even with) The children can’t keep up with us when you walk so fast. (remain up-to-date) I try to keep up with my professional development by reading professional journals and attending conferences. look after (care for) Would you look after my cat while I’m on vacation? look down on (think of as inferior) She looks down on everyone who has less education than she does. look forward to (anticipate with pleasure) We always look forward to the graduation speeches. look in on (check on) Would you please look in on Mother this afternoon?

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

look into (investigate) A special committee will look into the problem. look out for (be careful about) Look out for the undertow when you swim at that beach. look up to (respect) Many young people look up to professional athletes. put up with (tolerate) We put up with too many interruptions in our daily routine. run across (find something by chance) When I was cleaning out a drawer, I ran across some old photos. run into (meet by chance) I ran into Captain Jones and her family at the mall yesterday. run out of (deplete a supply) We’re about to run out of milk. Can you go to the store? see about (find out about and do) I’m going to be busy this afternoon. Would you see about our dinner reservations? send for (summon) The general sent for Col. James. They should be meeting now. (order by mail, phone, e-mail) I sent for the CD Gerald asked for. stand by (be available) All officers should stand by until the general’s visit is over. (support) Good friends will stand by you in times of need.

APPENDIX C

193

take after (resemble in appearance or character) George W. Bush takes after his father. take out after (pursue) The troopers quickly took out after the prison escapees. talk back to (answer discourteously) Many children talk back to both their parents and their teachers. turn off (leave a road) Turn off this street at the next intersection and go north on IH10. wait on (serve) The clerks in this store are slow when they wait on customers. (be delayed) I think my next assignment is in Florida, but I’m waiting on official orders. Some two-word verbs are preceded by BE. The two main words are never separated, but they may be separated from BE. be behind in (not meet a schedule) I’m two weeks behind in my paying my rent. be in on (be included) If you’re going to form a new project team, I’d like to be in on it. be out (be deprived of) I’m out $250 because of those car repairs. be out of (have depleted supply) We’re out of coffee. I’m on my way to buy some more. be over (in charge of) The Lieutenant is the company commander, and the Major is over him.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

be under (less than) If that vehicle is under $25,000, I’ll buy it. (under command of) How many soldiers are under Major Parker? be up for (be considered for) He’ll be up for promotion next year. be up on (be current with) Richard is the one who is up on the latest computer programs. be up to (be in physical or mental condition for) I’m not up to going to the gym today. I’m too tired.

✦

Intransitive Two- or Three-Word Verbs

Phrasal verbs which do not take objects are considered intransitive. Note that some of these verbpreposition combinations also appear on the list of transitive two-word verbs. catch up (come up to) She is so far behind schedule that she will never catch up. check in (register) We must check in by 6:00 p.m., or our reservation will be cancelled. check out (sign out to leave) We must check out by noon, or we will be charged for another day. cheer up (become happier) Cheer up! It’s a beautiful day. chip in (contribute) If everyone chips in, we’ll have a great party. come across (leave an impression) He comes across as a very thoughtful supervisor. APPENDIX C

195

come to (regain consciousness) He was in a coma for a month before he came to. come over or come on over (come to visit) If you aren’t busy, come (on) over this evening. drop in (visit unannounced) I was driving by your house, so I thought I would drop in. drop off (decline) Home sales have dropped off considerably in the last year. drop off (fall asleep suddenly) The students are always dropping off during my lessons. (decrease in number) Attendance at Spurs’ basketball games drops off when they lose. get along/get on (progressing) How are you getting along (getting on) in your new job? get back (return) I’m late leaving, so it will probably be late when I get back. get in (arrive) I usually get in from work at about six. get through (finish) I’ve been working on this a long time. Do you think I’ll ever get through? (reach by telephone) I tried to call you last night, but I never could get through. get up (arise) I usually get up at 5:00 a.m. We all got up when the General entered the room. give up (surrender) I give up! What’s the answer? 196

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

hang up (end phone conversation) He was angry when he hung up on his brother. lie down (recline) If you feel sick, you should go lie down. look out (be cautious) Look out when you cross that busy highway. report in (give notice of arrival) You must report in by 7:30 every morning. sit down (be seated) Ask the students to sit down before you take roll. stand by (wait) Stand by for a special report. stand up (get on one’s feet) They stood up when the general entered the room. take off (leave, depart) Our flight will take off at noon. turn in (go to bed) I think I’ll turn in early tonight. turn up (appear unexpectedly) He always turns up when we have a party. wake up (stop sleeping) I usually wake up at 5:00 a.m.

APPENDIX C

197

– USER NOTES –

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Appendix D

More Sentence Patterns The five basic sentence patterns discussed in Unit 8 have many variations. This appendix presents the most common as sub-patterns of those previously explained.

Pattern One Subject (S) + Intransitive Verb (VI)

✦

S

VI

Fred

runs.

The fire

spread.

The plane

will arrive.

They

ate.

Variation One A

In this variation, an adverb or adverbial modifies the intransitive verb.

Subject(S) + Intransitive Verb (VI) + Adverb (Adv) S

VI

Adverb

Fred

runs

every morning.

The fire

spread

rapidly.

The plane

will arrive

at ten o’clock.

They

ate

voraciously.

Transformations: Negative Statement:

Fred doesn’t run every morning.

Affirmative Question:

Does Fred run every morning?

Negative Question:

Doesn’t Fred run every morning?

Question-Word Question: When does Fred run? Tag Questions:

Fred runs every morning, doesn’t he? Fred doesn’t run every morning, does he?

APPENDIX D

199

Pattern Two Subject(S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) S

VT

DO (Noun or Pronoun)

Richard

closed

the windows.

The mechanic

fixed

it.

Many people

like

ice cream.

Transformations: Negative Statement:

Richard didn’t close the windows.

Affirmative Question:

Did Richard close the windows?

Negative Question:

Didn’t Richard close the windows?

Question-Word Question: Who closed the windows? Richard closed the windows, didn’t he?

Tag Questions:

Richard didn’t close the windows, did he?

Variation Two A

✦

In this variation, the direct object is an infinitive phrase or a gerund phrase.

Subj. (S) + Trans. Verb (VT) + Infinitive or Gerund Phrase S

VT

Infinitive or Gerund Phrase

The Browns

plan

to build a big house.

Chris

wants

to be a pilot.

The family

enjoys

fishing in the mountains.

They

dislike

eating out.

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✦

Variation Two B

Since Pattern Two has a transitive verb, it can be made passive. Remember that the agent is sometimes omitted to emphasize the action.

Subj (S) + BE + Past Participle(PP) +Agent (stated or not) S

BE

PP

Agent

The windows

were

closed

(by Richard).

The flat

was

fixed

(by the mechanic).

Pattern Three Subj. (S) + Trans. Verb (VT) + Indirect Object (IO) + Direct Object (DO) S

VT

IO

DO

Joe

gave

Theresa

a gold ring.

His boss

offered

him

a better job.

Transformations: Negative Statement:

Joe didn’t give Theresa a gold ring.

Affirmative Question:

Did Joe give Theresa a gold ring?

Negative Question:

Didn’t Joe give Theresa a gold ring?

Question-Word Question: Why did Joe give Theresa a gold ring? Tag Questions:

Joe gave Theresa a gold ring, didn’t he? Joe didn’t give Theresa a gold ring, did he?

This pattern can be made passive in the following two ways:

APPENDIX D

201

Variation Three A

✦

The direct object becomes the subject.

Subject (S) + BE + Past Participle (PP)+ Prepositional Phrase (pp) + Agent (stated or not) S (former DO)

BE

PP

pp

(Agent)

A gold ring

was

given

to Theresa

(by Joe).

A better job

was

offered

to him

(by his boss).

An award

is

given

for top performance

(by the company).

The first two examples above are grammatically correct but somewhat awkward and uncommon. The third example is more typical.

Variation Three B

✦

The indirect object becomes the subject. This is a more usual construction.

Subject (S) + BE + Past Participle (PP) + Direct Object + Agent (stated or not) S (former IO)

BE

PP

DO

(Agent)

Joe’s wife

was

given

a gold ring

(by Joe).

He

was

offered

a better job

(by his boss).

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Pattern Four This pattern uses transitive verbs with nouns as object complements. The verbs may be verbs of choosing, considering, causation, or perception.

Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) + Object Complement (OC)—Noun S

VT

DO

OC (Noun)

The voters

elected

him

president.

Ms. Lane

appointed

Mr. Green

supervisor.

The crowd

considers

Major Barnes

a hero.

She

thought

her son

a genius.

Transformations: Negative Statement:

The voters didn’t elect him president.

Affirmative Question:

Did the voters elect him president?

Negative Question:

Didn’t the voters elect him president?

Question-Word Question: When did the voters elect him president? The voters elected him president, didn’t they?

Tag Questions:

The voters didn’t elect him president, did they?

✦

Variation Four A

The following four patterns are identical to Pattern Four except for the form of the object complement. Instead of being a noun or pronoun, the object complement may be an adjective, the simple form of a verb (sometimes called a bare infinitive), an infinitive, or a present participle.

Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) + Object Complement (OC)—Adjective S

VT

DO

OC (Adjective)

The audience

thought

the show

amusing.

The neighbors

painted

their house

pink.

Mr. Branch

likes

his steak

rare.

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203

Subject(S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) + Object Complement (OC)—Simple Verb S

VT

DO

OC (Simple Verb)

His jokes

make

most people

laugh.

His mother

had

him

phone.

Subject(S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) + Object Complement (OC)—Infinitive S

VT

DO

OC (Infinitive)

The instructor

advised

the students

to study.

His father

is teaching

him

to hunt and fish.

Major Lee

invited

us

to have dinner.

The instructor

wants

the class

to go on a tour.

Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO) + Object Complement (OC)—Present Participle S

VT

DO

OC (Present Part.)

The mechanic

got

the engine

running.

He

keeps

the fire

going all night.

The crowd

watched

the troops

marching.

I

saw

some kids

fighting.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

✦

Variation Four B

Most variations of Pattern Four can be made passive.

Subject (S) + Be + Past Participle (PP) + Noun/ adjective/ infinitive/ participle + Agent (stated or not) S

BE

PP

Noun/Adjective Infinitive/Participle

Agent

He

was

elected

president

(by the voters).

That man

is

considered

a hero

by the crowd.

The show

was

thought

amusing

by the audience.

The students

were

advised

to study

(by the teacher).

The fire

is

kept

going all night

(by him).

Pattern Five Notice that, in this pattern, the linking verb can be either BE or another verb. The complement, a noun or pronoun, describes or identifies the subject.

Subject (S) + Linking Verb (LV) + Subject Complement (SC)—Noun or Pronoun S

LV

SC

Mr. Land

is

an engineer.

That car

was

mine.

Her sister

became

a general.

Bill

remained

a bachelor.

APPENDIX D

205

Variation Five A

✦

In addition to nouns and pronouns, adjectives and adverbs can be subject complements.

Subject (S) + Linking Verb (LV) + Subject Complement (SC)—Adjective S

LV

SC (Adjective)

That dinner

was

delicious.

Marsha

is

very reliable.

The sky

grew

cloudy.

Jack

seems

happy.

Subject (S) + Linking Verb (LV) + Subject Complement (SC)—Adverb S

LV

SC (Adverb)

The doctor

is

here.

Our sons

were

at the movies.

Graduation

will be

soon.

Your voice

sounds

far away.

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Additional Patterns with There and It In English many sentences begin with a non-referential there or it. These introductory words do not refer to nouns or pronouns. The actual subjects appear later in the sentence.

✦

There

In the pattern below, BE has the meaning of exist; therefore, BE is like an intransitive verb, not a linking verb. There is no subject complement expressed. There

BE

Subject

There

are

nine planets.

There

is

life.

In the there patterns that follow, BE is a linking verb with some type of complement. There

BE

Subject

Subject Complement Adverb

There

is

a taxi

outside.

There

are

bedrooms

upstairs.

There

BE

Subject

Subject Complement Adjective

(Adverb)

There

were

three students

absent

(today).

There

BE

Subject

Present Participle

There

is

a policeman

coming.

There

are

boys

selling newspapers on the corner.

There

BE

Subject

Infinitive

There

is

some work

to do.

There

is

a lot

for us to see there.

When there begins a sentence in the passive voice, a past participle is used. There

BE

Subject

Past Participle

Adverb

There

was

a man

injured

yesterday.

APPENDIX D

207

Transformations: Negative Statement:

There isn’t a taxi outside.

Affirmative Question:

Is there a taxi outside?

Negative Question:

Isn’t there a taxi outside?

Question Word Question: Where is there a taxi? There is a taxi outside, isn’t there?

Tag Questions:

There isn’t a taxi outside, is there?

✦

It

When it begins a sentence, it may be either anticipatory or impersonal. Anticipatory it promises a subject after the verb. That subject may be an infinitive phrase, a gerund phrase, or a noun clause.

208

It

BE

Subject Complement (Adjective)

Subject (Infinitive Phrase)

It

is

good

to relax.

It

was

wonderful

to see him again.

It

BE

Subject Complement (Adjective)

Subject (Gerund Phrase)

It

was

great

meeting her.

It

BE

Subject Complement (Adjective)

Subject (Noun Clause)

It

is

evident

(that) he’s telling a lie.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Transformations: Negative statement:

It isn’t good to relax.

Affirmative Question:

Is it good to relax?

Negative Question:

Isn’t it good to relax?

Question-Word Question: Why is it good to relax? Tag Questions:

It is good to relax, isn’t it? It isn’t good to relax, is it?

Impersonal it uses the pronoun it as subject of the sentence. BE often follows in the form of is. In spoken English this is contracted as it’s. Impersonal it can be used to express time. It (Subject)

BE (Linking Verb)

Noun Complement

It

’s

lunch time.

It

’s

5 o’clock.

Impersonal it can be used to express distance. It (Subject)

BE (Linking Verb)

Noun Complement (Phrase)

It

’s

two miles from my house to the store.

It

’s

a six-hour drive to Dallas.

Impersonal it can be used for identification. It (Subject)

BE (Linking Verb)

Noun

It

’s

your daughter.

It

’s

the colonel.

Impersonal it can be used to relate weather conditions. It (Subject)

Linking Verb

Complement (Adjective)

(Adverb)

It

’s

sunny

(outside).

It

’s

cold

(today).

It

feels

hot

(in here).

APPENDIX D

209

The following is a list of typical adjectives that are often used with this pattern to relate weather conditions: hot

warm

chilly

stuffy

breezy

cold

cool

icy

stifling

calm

pleasant

nice

delightful

mild

rainy

cloudy

sunny

misty

foggy

humid

wet

dry

windy

Transformations: Negative Statement:

It isn’t lunch time.

Affirmative Question:

Is it lunch time?

Negative Question:

Isn’t it lunch time?

Question-Word Question: When is it lunch time? Tag Questions:

It is lunch time, isn’t it? It isn’t lunch time, is it?

Impersonal it may also be used with an intransitive verb. It

Auxiliary Verb

It It

’s

Intransitive Verb

(Adverb)

rained

last night.

snowing

outside.

Transformations: Negative Statement:

It didn’t rain last night.

Affirmative Question:

Did it rain last night?

Negative Question:

Didn’t it rain last night?

Question Word Question: Where did it rain last night? Tag Questions:

It rained last night, didn’t it? It didn’t rain last night, did it?

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GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Appendix E

More on Indirect Speech Indirect speech, or repetition of what another person has said, poses particular problems for nonnative speakers. Especially in the military, where it is often necessary to repeat what a higherranking person has said, it is important that communications be completely accurate. Non-native speakers need to pay particular attention to tense changes and pronoun usage. The most basic patterns of reported speech were introduced in Unit 9. The following is a more complete analysis.

Tense Harmony The “rule of thumb” for tense harmony, also called sequence of tenses, in indirect speech is to use a past tense that reflects the tense used by the speaker. The past tense is used because it shows that something was said in the past. In informal usage, however, this rule is often ignored. The most common main verbs used in indirect speech are said, told, and asked. In these types of sentences, said does not take an indirect object, while told does. He said he went to the post office. He told me that he went to the post office. Asked may or may not take an indirect object. He asked if he could go with us. He asked John if he could go with us. The following examples show how indirect speech sentences are formed, both formally and informally. Verbs are bolded, and pronouns are italicized so that the changes can be seen easily. This more formal pattern follows the rule of tense harmony, or sequence of tenses (as taught in the ALC): John: “I ride my bike at least six miles a day.” Half-an-hour later Judy tells Jason: “John said he rode his bike at least six miles a day.” Two weeks later Judy tells Juanita: “John said he rode his bike at least six miles a day.” Next year Judy tells James: “John told me that he rode his bike at least six miles a day.”

APPENDIX E

211

This more informal pattern ignores the rule of tense harmony. In this pattern, the tense of the verb in the noun clause remains the same as that used in direct speech. This is especially true when the event expressed in direct speech is repeated immediately after it is said. John: “I ride my bike at least six miles a day.” Ten minutes later Judy tells Jason: “John says he rides his bike at least six miles a day.” Next week Judy tells Juanita: “John said he rides his bike at least six miles a day.” Next year Judy tells James: “John told me that he rode his bike at least six miles a day.” For more on tense harmony in indirect speech, see the chart on page 126.

Modals in Indirect Speech The following modals change when reported. Other modals do not change form when reported.
may (possibility) becomes might Jack: “I may go to the movies tonight.

 Jack said he might go to the movies tonight.


can (ability) becomes could Julie: “Jane can run faster than I can.”

 Julie told me that Jane could run faster than she could.


will (future intention) becomes would Janice: “Yes, I will be there on Saturday.”  Janice said that she would be there on Saturday.”
have to (requirement—informal) becomes had to John: “You have to attend the meeting.”

 John told me I had to attend the meeting.


must (requirement) becomes was required to (formal) John: “You must attend the meeting.”

212

 John said I was required to attend the meeting.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Questions in Indirect Speech ✦

Yes/No Questions

In reporting yes/no questions, two additional changes are made.
Whether or if is added.
Word order is changed from question order to statement order.

✦

Direct Indirect

Tom: “Do you need some help?” Tom asked whether I needed some help.

Direct Indirect

Mary: “Is your brother leaving tonight?” Mary asked if my brother was leaving tonight.

Direct Indirect

Bob: “Will the books arrive on Monday?” Bob asked whether the books would arrive on Monday.

Direct Indirect

Mr. Hall: “Can we leave a little earlier tomorrow?” Mr. Hall asked if we could leave a little earlier tomorrow.

Question-Word Questions

In reporting question-word questions, the word order changes to statement order.

Direct Indirect

Mike: “Where did Jim buy his car?” Mike asked me where Jim had bought his car.

Direct Indirect

Frank: “What has happened?” Frank asked me what had happened.

Direct Indirect

Linda: “When do they have to start their new assignment?” Linda asked when they had to start their new assignment.

Direct: Indirect

Mr. Brown: “How will we get there?” Mr. Brown asked me how we would get there.

APPENDIX E

213

General Truths in Indirect Speech When a general truth or a customary action is reported in indirect speech, the present tense of the verb reporting that action may be used with said or told. Compare the following: General Truth/Customary Action: Direct Speech

Reported Speech

Private Sanchez: “It rains a lot in Puerto Rico.”

Private Sanchez said it rains a lot in Puerto Rico.

Commands (Imperatives) in Indirect Speech When a command is reported, the verb is changed to the infinitive.

214

Direct Indirect

Bill: “Turn to page thirty-two.” Bill said to turn to page thirty-two.

Direct Indirect

Mary: “Bob, finish one job before you start another one. Mary told Bob to finish one job before he started another one.

Direct Indirect

Teacher: “Class, bring your essay drafts tomorrow.” The teacher told the class to bring their essay drafts tomorrow.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Glossary A

C

abbreviation – a short form of a word or phrase used in place of its full form. [abbr. for abbreviation, Dr. for doctor]

case – the form of a noun, pronoun, or adjective that shows its relationship to another word – subjective and objective in English.

abstract – a characteristic of something that cannot be seen or touched, such as an idea, process, or feeling.

class – the function group to which a word belongs – nouns are one class, adverbs another.

active voice – (opposite of passive voice) a grammatical construction in which the subject of the verb is the performer of the action described by the verb. [John washed the car yesterday.]

clause – a group of words containing a subject and verb and forming a part of a sentence.

adjective (adj) – a class of words used to modify nouns. [She wore the red dress.] adverb (adv) – a class of words modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. [He spoke rapidly. The weather is unusually cold. You did quite well on the exam.] adverbial – a phrase or clause that functions like an adverb. [She swims like a fish. I’ll call you when I get home.] affix (af) – a bound morpheme (a word part that cannot stand alone) that modifies the meaning and/or syntactic (sub) category of the stem in some way. [un- and –able in undrinkable]. antecedent – the noun or noun phrase on which a pronoun depends for its interpretation. [Mary rode her bike.] antonym – a word with the opposite meaning of another word. [good/evil, ugly/beautiful, hot/cold] appositive – a renaming or identification of a noun directly following the noun in a sentence. [Ms. Jones, my instructor, is not in class today.] article – each of the words a, an, and the used as determiners. auxiliary (helping) verb – a verb that helps a main verb by adding special meaning. These include modals and some verbs which can also function as main verbs.

B

collective noun – a noun naming a group considered to be a single unit. [troop, team, herd, set] common noun – a noun that refers to a class of people, places, or things rather than to an individual specific person, place, or thing. [boy, table, dog, school] comparative – an adjective or adverb form used to describe the relationship between two entities or actions. [-er or more] complement – see subject complement or object complement. complex sentence – a sentence containing a main clause and one or more dependent clauses. compound noun – a noun created from two nouns. [bookcase, airport, bedroom, toothpick] compound sentence – a sentence formed by joining two or more independent clauses. concrete – something that can be seen and touched and usually counted. (as in concrete noun) conjugation – the complete set of inflected forms associated with a verb (also called a verbal paradigm). conjunction (C) – a minor lexical category whose members serve to join categories of the same type. [and, or] conjunctive adverb – an adverb which serves to connect and show a relationship between ideas. [instead, moreover, consequently] consonant – a speech sound in which the flow of breath is narrowed or stopped [/p/, /t/, /d/, etc.]; the letters in English which are not vowels. content word – a word that has meaning in itself: a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. continuous (progressive) tense – a verb tense indicating action in progress, indicated by -ing.

GLOSSARY

215

conversion – the process by which a word’s part of speech (lexical category) is changed without a change in form. [ship (noun) ➞ ship (verb)]

future tense – uses of will or be going to with a main verb to express expected happenings or conditions. [We will play golf Saturday.]

coordinating conjunction – a conjunction which joins word groups of equal value. [and, or, but]

future perfect tense – uses of will, have, and the past participle of a main verb to express happenings or conditions expected to be completed in the future before another future happening. [He will have graduated by the time his wife arrives.]

correlative conjunctions – conjunctions that work in pairs. [either/or, not only/ but also] count noun – a noun that can be counted. [horse, house, girl, chair, apple]

G D demonstrative pronoun – a pronoun indicating which. [this, that, these, those] determiner (det) – a minor lexical category whose members combine with nouns to form noun phrases and specify whether the noun is definite or indefinite. [usually an article, sometimes a pronoun or number] derivation – a word formation process by which a new word is built from a stem, usually through the addition of an affix that changes the word class and/or basic meaning of the word. [form → reform → reformation] direct address (vocative)– the identification of a person or group being addressed. [John, wake up.] direct object – the main receiver of the action of a transitive verb. [The boys ate the pizza.]

E emphatic (intensive) pronoun – a pronoun containing “self” used to emphasize. [I’ll do it myself]. exclamations – a word, phrase, or sentence expressing strong positive or negative feelings or judgments. expletive – a word in the subject position that substitutes for and anticipates the real subject (a word, phrase, or clause) that comes later in the sentence. [There are a lot of people here.]

F finite – limited [as a finite verb which can be limited by person, number, or tense] function – purpose for which a word form is used.

216

gender – the designations of masculine, feminine, or neuter given to some nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. genitive (gen) – the case marker used for possessive nouns. gerund – the –ing form of a verb used as a noun. Gerunds can function as subject, direct object, complement, object of preposition, appositive, and adjunct. gerund phrase – a gerund preceded or followed by related words. get passive – passive voice structure made with forms of get plus the past participle of a main verb. [Tom got hurt in the car accident.] grammar – the system of elements and rules needed to form and interpret sentences. grammatical (sentence) – adj. a sentence that speakers judge to be a possible sentence in their language.

H helping verb – see auxiliary verb. head – the lexical category around which a phrasal category is built and that is always present in the phrase. homophone / homonym – a word that is identical in sound, and sometimes in spelling to another word or words, but different in meaning. [sail/sale, buck/buck, to/too/two]

I imperative mood – a class of verb structures commonly used to order, request, or suggest an action be taken. [Close the window.]

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

indirect object (IO) – the secondary receiver of the action of a transitive verb. [I gave Tom his book.]

L

indefinite pronoun – a pronoun which does not refer to a specific person, thing, or group. [any, some, none, many, everyone]

linking verb – a verb which connects a subject and a complement.

indicative mood – a class of verb structures used to express facts, opinions, and questions. infinitive – the uninflected form of a verb; the base form of the verb preceded by to. [You are not allowed to park next to a fire hydrant.] inflection – a change in a word’s form to mark a change in its grammatical subclass. [sg. wolf→ pl. wolves] initial – the first letter in a name used as a short form. [Arthur Boyd Stevens→ A.B. Stevens or A.B.S]; the position at the beginning of a word or syllable. [The word six has the /s/ sound in initial and final positions.] intensifier – an adverb which indicates “to what degree.” [very, somewhat, nearly] intensive (emphatic) pronoun – a pronoun containing -self used to emphasize. [I’ll do it myself!] interrogative – indicates the case that signifies questioning. interrogative pronoun – a pronoun used to question. [who, what, when, where, which, how] intransitive (verb) – a verb that cannot take a direct object noun phrase. [sleep, exist] irregular plural – a noun that does not form the plural by adding –s or –es to the singular form. [wife/wives, man/men, one fish/two fish, person/people]

lowercase – a designation for letters of the English alphabet which are not capitalized.

M main verb – a verb other than an auxiliary. major lexical categories – lexical classes in which membership is “open” in the sense that new words are constantly being added. [noun, verb, adjective, adverb] minor lexical categories – lexical classes in which membership is “closed” in the sense that it is restricted to a fixed set of elements already in the language (e.g. preposition, pronoun). modal = modal auxiliary – any of the following auxiliaries: can/could, will/would, may/might, shall/should, must, or ought to. modify – to add to or limit the meaning of a word, phrase, or clause. modifier – a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or limits the meaning of another word or word group. mood – a class of verb structures which reflects attitude, idea, or feeling about a subject. In English there are three moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.

N

irregular verb – a class of verbs that do not form their past tense and/or past participle by adding -d or -ed. [swim/swam/swum, go/went/gone, cut/cut/cut]

negative (neg) – opposite of affirmative. [no, not, never, neither/nor, un-, non-]

J

noun (N) – a major lexical category whose members typically name entities, or concrete or abstract things.

joining word – a conjunction

noncount noun – a noun that may be quantified, but can not be counted. [fruit, coffee, knowledge]

K

non-separable verb – a two- or three- word verb that cannot be separated without a change of meaning. noun adjunct – a noun used as an adjective. [dog house, coffee cup] noun phrase (NP) – a phrase built around a noun head. number – a grammatical category marking distinctions between singular and plural.

GLOSSARY

217

O

possessive – a word or structure used to show ownership or responsibility. [his car, Jane’s coat]

object – see direct object (DO) and indirect object (IO).

predicate – the verb phrase (VP) – the part of a sentence containing the verb and its modifiers.

object complement – a word or phrase following an object and describing or identifying it.

prefix – an affix at the beginning of a word which changes the meaning of the word. [unhappy, displace, non-smoker]

objective – the case of a word which receives action of a verb; without bias or opinion, factual.

P participle – either of two verbals. The present participle, which ends in –ing, shows continuing action. The past participle, which has various endings, but most commonly -ed, shows completed action. passive (voice) – a grammatical device wherein the subject does not perform the action of the verb. [The car was washed yesterday.] past participle (pp) – a verb form used as the main verb in perfect tenses [had worked, has finished] and in passive voice structures [is used, was broken]. Also used with nouns as modifiers. [the lost money, devices invented by Edison] past perfect – a tense structure used to indicate an event or condition that existed before another event or condition that is either directly named or understood from the context. [I had been studying English for three years before coming to the States.]

preposition (P) – a minor lexical category that shows a relationship between one word or phrase and another. [in, on, at, above, from, to] prepositional phrase (PP) – a phrase beginning with a preposition. [to the park, behind the house] progressive (continuous) tense – verb tense indicating continuing action, signified by -ing. pronoun (pro) – a minor lexical category whose members can replace a noun or noun phrase. [he, herself, it] proper noun – name of a particular person, place, or thing. All proper nouns begin with capital letters. [Jane Doe, San Antonio, Mississippi River, Holmes High School].

Q question – a sentence whose function is to ask. (ends with ?) quotation – repetition of the exact words of another speaker or writer.

perfect tense – a verb tense relating an action to two points in time. (These tenses always use have, had, or has)

R

person – a grammatical category that typically distinguishes among the first person (speaker), second person (addressee), and third person (anyone else).

reciprocal pronoun – a pronoun used to show a mutual relationship. [John and James exchange gifts with each other.]

personal pronoun – a pronoun substituting for a noun which names a person or group of people (or sometimes an animal whose gender is known). phrase – two or more words that together have meaning, but only as part of a sentence, sentence fragment, or clause. [last night, in spite of the bad weather, to the park] phrasal verb – a verb formed of two or more words. [get off, look up, give back, become of] plural – a noun or verb form used to indicate more than one person or thing or the action of more than one person or thing.

218

reflexive pronoun – a pronoun ending in –self that has an antecedent in the same clause. [himself, itself] regular plural – a noun that forms the third person present tense form by adding –s or –es. [books, potatoes]

S semantics – the various phenomena pertaining to the meaning of words and sentences; the study of meaning in language.

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

sentence (S) – a group of words with a subject, a verb, and a complete idea (noun phrase and a verb phrase) designated by terminal punctuation.

tag question – a sentence that begins like a statement and ends with a short question structure. [You did study, didn’t you?]

singular – a noun or verb indicating only one person or thing or the action of only one person or thing.

two-word verb – See non-separable verb and phrasal verb

statement – any sentence that is not a command, request, question, or exclamation. stem – the unit to which an affix is added. [state in statement]

U uppercase – an alternate designation for capital letters.

structure – any arrangement of words or word parts that facilitates communication. structure word – a word used to show a relationship between content words in a syntactic structure. (preposition, conjunction, determiner) subordinate conjunction – a conjunction which connects a dependent clause to an independent clause and indicates the relationship between the clauses [if, unless, before, even though]. subject – the noun or noun phrase which performs or receives the action of the verb or verb phrase in a sentence. subject complement – a word or phrase following a linking verb and describing or identifying the subject of a sentence. subjective – the case of the word serving as a subject or performing the action of the verb. subjunctive mood – a class of verb structures used to refer to the unreal or conditional. suffix – an affix at the end of a word changing its function. [wind/windy, heat/heater, usual/usually] superlative – an adjective or adverb form used to describe the relationship between three or more entities. [-est or most] synonym – a word with identical meaning to another word. [choose/select]

V verb (V) – a major lexical category whose members designate actions, sensations, and states. verbal – a word form relating to or taken from a verb, such as a gerund or participle. verb phrase (VP) – the phrase built around a verb head. vocative (direct address) – identification of the person or group being addressed. [John, wake up.] voice – the form of a verb which shows whether a subject performs an action or is affected by it (e.g., active versus passive). vowel – a speech sound in which the breath flows freely; the core or central sound of any syllable; a letter naming one of these sounds.

W X Y Z

syntax – pertaining to the form and organization of sentences; the study of sentence formation.

T tense – in syntax and morphology, an inflectional category indicating the time of an action relative to the moment of speaking. (past, present, future) transformation – movement of categories within a syntactic structure. transitive verb – verb which has a direct object.

GLOSSARY

219

– USER NOTES –

220

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

Index A a / an.....................................................................75, 99 a lot............................................................................ 32 absolute adjectives..................................................... 79 active voice................................................................ 63 adjective clauses defined ................................................................ 127 nonrestrictive ...................................................... 132 punctuation of ..................................................... 132 restrictive ............................................................ 132 with where .......................................................... 131 with whose .......................................................... 130 words used to introduce ...............................127, 130 adjective phrases...................................................... 157 adjectives absolute ................................................................. 79 as appositives ........................................................ 83 combinations with prepositions .......................... 181 comparative forms .....................................76, 77, 78 defined .................................................................. 75 demonstrative...................................................... 100 derived from nouns ............................................... 80 derived from participles ...................................... 145 derived from verbs ................................................ 81 emotive ................................................................. 82 identical to adverbs ............................................... 94 indefinite ............................................................. 101 interrogative........................................................ 101 nouns used as ........................................................ 82 participial (-ing / -ed)............................................ 82 placement of (order).............................................. 83 possessive ......................................................82, 101 sequence of ........................................................... 85 superlative forms........................................76, 77, 78 to relate weather conditions ................................ 210 with linking verbs ................................................. 83 adverb clauses defined ................................................................ 133 of cause and effect .............................................. 134 of condition......................................................... 136 of opposition ....................................................... 135 of time (subordinate conjunctions) ..................... 133 position of ....................................................133, 134 punctuation of ..................................................... 136 words used to introduce ...............133, 134, 135, 136 adverbial connectives as conjunctions.................................................... 103 before commas.................................................... 163 defined .................................................................. 91 punctuation of ....................................................... 94

INDEX

use of..................................................................... 92 with semicolons .................................................. 165 adverbials............................................................. 36, 40 adverbs adverbial connectives...............91, 94, 103, 163, 165 comparative forms ................................................ 88 defined .................................................................. 87 derived from adjectives......................................... 95 derived from nouns ............................................... 96 derived from verbs ................................................ 95 identical to adjectives............................................ 94 interrogative .......................................................... 89 modifying verbs .................................................... 97 of affirmation ........................................................ 91 of degree (intensifiers) .......................................... 90 of direction............................................................ 87 of duration............................................................. 88 of emphasis ........................................................... 90 of frequency .......................................................... 89 of location ............................................................. 87 of manner .............................................................. 88 of negation ............................................................ 91 of place.................................................................. 87 of time ................................................................... 88 position of ............................................................. 97 relative .................................................................. 90 superlative forms................................................... 88 after...................................................103, 108, 130, 133 agent .....................................................63, 65, 153, 201 agreement do .......................................................................... 74 indirect speech .................................................... 125 subject-verb........................................................... 32 subjunctive mood .................................................. 69 although ........................................................... 103, 135 animate nouns .............................................................. 8 antecedent ...............................................19, 20, 21, 130 anticipatory it ....................................123, 147, 152, 208 appositives adjective ................................................................ 83 dashes.................................................................. 171 gerund phrases .................................................... 148 noun phrases ......................................................... 16 parentheses.......................................................... 170 participial phrases as ........................................... 142 prepositional phrases as .............................. 137, 139 pronoun ................................................................. 83 punctuation of ....................................... 83, 170, 171 subjective case nouns ............................................ 16 articles as determiners ....................................................... 99 definite .......................................................... 75, 100

221

indefinite................................................................99 rules for their use ...................................................99 as .............................................................................103 as if / as though ........................................................103 as long as..................................................................133 as soon as .................................................................133 auxiliary verbs and adverb position................................................97 as verb substitutes..................................................74 be ................................................................... see be defined ...........................................................70, 113 get passive .............................................................66 have ............................................................. see have in passive voice......................................................64 in perfect tenses .....................................................54

B bare infinitive as object complement ..................................154, 203 as object of preposition........................................154 defined .................................................................150 in subjunctive mood ..............................................69 with causative verbs ....................................150, 151 with modals ...........................................................70 with verbs of perception ..............................150, 151 be and adverb position................................................97 as helping verb ......................................................73 as linking verb .......................................................16 auxiliary.................................................................64 double functions ....................................................73 in adjective/preposition combinations .................181 in mathematical expressions..................................33 in passive voice......................................................66 in past tense ...........................................................46 in progressive tenses..............................................50 in simple present tense...........................................43 in subjunctive mood ..............................................69 intransitive ...........................................................207 linking verb....................................................36, 205 tense in passive voice ............................................64 with anticipatory it...............................................123 with impersonal it ..........................................34, 209 with infinitive phrases .........................................152 with predicate adjectives .....................................139 with there.............................................................207 with two-word verbs............................................194 because.............................................................103, 134 because of.................................................................109 besides .................................................. 91, 92, 103, 154 both... and.................................................................103 by .............................................................................108

222

C can ability/capability ....................................................71 permission..............................................................71 can’t have, past impossibility .....................................72 case nominative .............................................................21 objective .......................... 15–18, 21, 22, 25, 28, 149 possessive .............. 8, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 82, 101, 149 reflexive .....................................................21, 24, 25 subjective .....................................15, 16, 21, 25, 124 vocative..................................................................18 causative verbs .........................................144, 150, 151 clauses adjective.........................................................90, 127 adverb ..................................................................133 as parts of sentences.............................................120 defined .................................................................119 dependent/independent ........................................120 if clauses ................................................................69 joining..................................................................121 noun ...............................................................90, 122 reduction of............................................74, 141, 146 subjunctive mood...................................................69 that clauses ....................................................69, 124 used as nouns .........................................................14 collective nouns............................................................3 colon .................................................................166, 171 commands......................................see imperative mood commands in indirect speech....................................214 commas.......................................................................83 common nouns ...................................................21, 153 comparatives.........................................................76–78 complements defined ..................................................16 complex sentences ....................................................119 compound sentences.................................................119 compound-complex sentences..................................119 concrete nouns..............................................................1 conditional sentences subjunctive mood...................................................69 would .....................................................................72 conjunctions adverbial ..............................................................103 adverbial connectives...........................................103 coordinating .................................103, 122, 162, 164 correlative ............................................................103 subordinate...................................................103, 133 that...............................................................123, 124 conjunctive adverbs ............... see adverbial connectives consequently .................................................91, 92, 122 coordinating conjunctions ................103, 122, 162, 164 correlative conjunctions............................................103 could ability/capability ....................................................71

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

in polite requests ................................................... 71 past tense of can.................................................... 71 possibility.............................................................. 71 count nouns.......................................2, 4, 5, 32, 99, 101

D dangling participles.................................................. 145 demonstrative adjectives.......................................... 100 demonstrative pronouns as determiners ....................................................... 27 this, that, these, those............................................ 26 dependent clauses .................(see also adjective, adverb, noun clauses) as adjectives ........................................................ 127 complex sentences .............................................. 119 compound-complex sentences ............................ 119 defined ................................................................ 120 joining ................................................................. 121 subordinate conjunctions .................................... 103 with relative pronouns ........................................ 128 derivations ..............................................................4, 11 determiners articles................................................................... 99 defined .................................................................. 99 demonstrative adjectives..................................... 100 few / a few ........................................................... 102 indefinite adjectives ............................................ 101 interrogatives ...................................................... 101 little / a little........................................................ 102 numbers............................................................... 101 possessive adjectives........................................... 101 direct speech .............................................125, 169, 212 do agreement.............................................................. 74 as helping verb ...................................................... 73 as verb substitute................................................... 74 double functions.................................................... 73 emphatic................................................................ 73 in affirmative questions ...................................... 199 in negative questions........................................... 199 in negative statements ......................................... 199 in question-word questions ................................. 199 in tag questions ................................................... 199 due to ....................................................................... 109

E each ........................................................................... 30 each other / one another ............................................ 30 -ed forms as adjectives .....................................................80, 81 irregular past ......................................................... 42 participial phrases ............................................... 141

INDEX

past participle .................................................. 73, 82 simple past ...................................................... 42, 46 spellings ................................................................ 73 either.............................................................. 30, 31, 33 either... or ................................................................ 103 ellipsis................................................................ 74, 172 else ............................................................... 29, 93, 151 emphasis .....................24, 51, 71, 73, 90, 162, 171, 201 emphatic do................................................................ 73 enough ..................................................30, 32, 101, 157 even if....................................................................... 136 even though...................................................... 103, 135 -ever words .......................................................... 28, 29

F few / a few .......................................................... 31, 102 finite verbs defined .................................................................. 35 functions of ........................................................... 35 for ...............................................55, 106, 109, 151, 155 for / since ................................................................... 55 frequency adverbs...................................................... 89 furthermore.......................................................... 91, 92

G gender ...................................................... 19, 20, 21, 25 gerunds as appositives ...................................................... 148 as delayed subject ............................................... 147 as direct object .................................... 114, 147, 200 as objects of preposition...................................... 148 as subject............................................................. 146 as subject complement ........................................ 147 defined ................................................................ 146 gerund adjuncts ................................................... 148 gerund phrases .................................... 137, 148, 208 nonfinite verbs ...................................................... 35 part of sentence ................................................... 113 reduced independent clauses ............................... 146 verbs followed by................................................ 158 vs. present participles.................................. 146, 148 with anticipatory it .............................................. 208 with subject ......................................................... 149 get ............................................................................ 175 causative.............................................................. 144 passive................................................................... 66

H have

223

as helping verb.......................................................73 causative ..............................................................144 double functions ....................................................73 in modal perfects ...................................................72 in perfect tenses .....................................................54 in progressive tenses..............................................59 in simple present tense...........................................43 helping verbs .................................... see auxiliary verbs how ......................................................... 40, 75, 88, 108 how long .....................................................................88 how many ...................................................................75 how often ....................................................................89 however ........................................................91, 92, 103

I if / whether........................................................103, 122 if clauses .....................................................................69 imperative mood..................................... 67, 68, 71, 214 imperative sentences .....................see imperative mood impersonal it for identification ..................................................209 to express distance...............................................209 to express time.....................................................209 to relate weather conditions...........................34, 209 with intransitive verbs .........................................210 in case (that).............................................................136 in order that......................................................103, 134 inanimate nouns............................................................8 indefinite articles ........................................................99 indefinite pronouns...................................30, 32, 33, 83 independent clauses and colons............................................................166 and commas .........................................................162 and coordinate conjunctions ................................102 and infinitive phrases...........................................151 and semicolons ....................................................165 defined .................................................................120 in compound sentences........................................119 in compound-complex sentences.........................119 joining....................................................94, 103, 122 reduced to gerunds...............................................146 indicative mood ..........................................................67 indirect speech agreement ............................................................125 comma use with...................................................165 commands in........................................................214 customary action..................................................214 general truth.........................................................214 if / whether...........................................................213 modals in .............................................................212 noun clauses in ....................................................125 questions in..........................................................213 tense harmony..............................................126, 211 infinitive phrases

224

as adjectives.........................................................155 as adverbs ............................................................156 as direct object .....................................................114 as direct objects ...........................................153, 200 as nouns ...............................................................152 as object complements.................................153, 204 as subject .............................................................113 as subject complements .......................................152 as subjects ............................................................208 bare (simple) form .................................................42 bare infinitive.......................................................150 in indirect speech .................................................214 in passive voice....................................................205 in sentences..........................................................151 parts of sentences.................................................137 split infinitives .....................................................151 to substitution ......................................................157 verbs followed by ................................................158 with anticipatory it...............................................208 with non-referential there ....................................207 with too / enough .................................................157 infinitives split infinitives .....................................................151 to-infinitive ..........................................................150 inflection...................................................4, 5, 7, 43, 76 -ing forms as adjectives...........................................................82 dangling participle ...............................................145 future progressive ..................................................53 gerunds ....................................35, 87, 113, 137, 146 nominative absolute .............................................144 participial phrases ................................................141 progressive tenses ..................................................59 with be ...................................................................73 intensifiers ..................................................................90 interjections ..............................................................163 interrogative adverbs ..................................................89 interrogative pronouns................................................28 combinations with -ever ........................................28 intransitive verbs be ..........................................................................36 defined ...........................................................40, 113 determined by function ..........................................40 functions of finite verbs .........................................35 in sentence patterns..............................112, 115, 199 two-word verbs ....................184, 185, 187, 189, 195 verbs normally intransitive ....................................41 irregular noun plurals ...................................................7 irregular verbs.............................................................46 it anticipatory ..................................123, 147, 152, 208 impersonal .............................................34, 209, 210

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

L

N

less / least .......................................................76, 78, 88 let’s ............................................................................ 68 lexical categories content words.........................................99, 105, 181 function words .........................................36, 99, 105 linking verbs and impersonal it................................................... 34 and subject complement........................................ 16 be ......................................................................... 36 defined ...........................................................36, 113 functions of finite verbs ........................................ 35 in sentence patterns............................................. 117 verbs of perception................................................ 39 little / a little .......................................................31, 102

neither.................................................................. 30, 33 neither... nor ............................................................ 103 nevertheless ......................................................... 91, 92 nominative absolute ................................................. 144 nominative case ......................................................... 21 noncount nouns...........................2, 4, 32, 100, 101, 109 nonetheless........................................................... 91, 92 nonfinite verbs defined .................................................................. 35 non-referential there ................................................ 147 not only... but also.................................................... 103 noun adjuncts ............................................................... 8 noun clauses as direct object .................................................... 123 as indirect object ................................................. 124 as object of preposition ....................................... 124 as subject............................................................. 122 as subject complement ........................................ 124 defined ................................................................ 122 in indirect speech ................................................ 125 tense harmony ..................................................... 126 with anticipatory it .............................................. 208 with that .............................................................. 123 noun phrases .................................14, 17, 22, 34, 75, 89 nouns abstract .................................................................... 1 animate.................................................................... 8 appositives ............................................................ 16 as subject............................................................... 15 as subject complement .......................................... 16 categories of ............................................................ 1 collective................................................................. 3 common ........................................................ 21, 153 concrete................................................................... 1 count.............................................2, 4, 5, 32, 99, 101 derivations............................................................. 11 equivalents ............................................................ 14 function of............................................................. 15 inanimate................................................................. 8 inflections................................................................ 8 irregular plurals....................................................... 7 irregular singular..................................................... 8 masculine/feminine ............................................... 12 noncount.................................2, 4, 32, 100, 101, 109 noun adjuncts .......................................................... 8 noun equivalents ................................................... 14 noun phrases ......................................................... 14 number .................................................................... 4 object complement ................................................ 18 phrases .....................................14, 17, 22, 34, 75, 89 pluralization ............................................................ 5 possessive................................................................ 8 proper ........................................................ 2, 82, 168

M main clauses..............................see independent clauses make..................................................................144, 150 many / much..........................................................30, 32 may permission............................................................. 71 slight possibility.................................................... 71 may have, past possibility .......................................... 58 mid verbs (also stative verbs) .................................... 67 might slight possibility.................................................... 71 might have, past possibility........................................ 72 modals as auxiliary verbs .................................................. 70 as verb substitutes ................................................. 74 defined .................................................................. 70 in indirect speech ................................................ 212 modal perfects....................................................... 72 use of..................................................................... 71 modifiers in sentences......................................................... 112 of nouns ...................................................14, 28, 155 participial phrases ............................................... 141 phrases & clauses................................................ 120 prepositional phrases........................................... 137 mood imperative ................................................67, 68, 214 indicative............................................................... 67 subjunctive.................................................67, 69, 70 more / most .....................................................76, 82, 88 moreover...............................................................91, 92 much / many..........................................................30, 32 must deduction or logical conclusion ............................ 72 necessity or obligation .......................................... 72

INDEX

225

spelling patterns.....................................................13 used as adjectives ..................................................80 vocative .................................................................18 now that....................................................................134

O object complement .....................................................18 objective case ....................... 15–18, 21, 22, 25, 28, 149 on the contrary ...........................................................91 on the other hand..................................................91, 92 one another / each other.............................................30 otherwise ..............................................................91, 93 ought to.......................................................................71

P paired conjunctions ........... see correlative conjunctions paraphrase ........................................see indirect speech parentheses ...............................................................170 participial adjectives.................................................145 participial phrases adjectival functions......................................141, 143 as appositives.......................................................142 as reduction of clauses.........................................141 attributive.............................................................142 dangling participles .............................................145 defined .................................................................141 following direct object.........................................144 meanings of .........................................................143 nominative absolute.............................................144 position within sentences.....................................141 parts of speech (see lexical categories) adjectives .........................................................75–84 adjectives, order of ................................................85 adverbs.............................................................87–98 clauses ...........................................................120–36 conjunctions.....................................................102–3 determiners ....................................................99–102 nouns .................................................................1–18 phrases ...........................................................137–59 preposition combinations...............................181–98 prepositions ...................................................105–10 pronouns ..........................................................19–34 punctuation ....................................................161–72 verbs ................................................................35–74 passive voice by agent..........................................................64, 109 defined ...................................................................63 sentence patterns..................................117, 201, 205 stative verbs ...........................................................67 there as subject ....................................................207 transitive verbs.......................................................64 use of .....................................................................65

226

with be .............................................................64, 73 with get ..................................................................66 without designated agent .......................................65 past participles (see -ed forms) after direct object .................................................144 as adjectives...........................................................82 as helping verbs .....................................................73 endings...................................................................73 get-passive .............................................................66 passive voice..................................................64, 201 perfect tenses .........................................................54 with there as subject ............................................207 personal pronouns...................................19, 21, 25, 149 phrasal verbs intransitive ...........................................................195 nonseparable transitive ........................................190 separable transitive ..............................................182 phrases defined .........................................................119, 137 gerund ..........................................................146, 158 infinitive ......................................................150, 158 participial .............................................................141 prepositional ........................................................137 types of ................................................................137 pluralization..................................................................5 possessive adjectives ..................................................82 vs. possessive pronouns .........................................82 possessive case ................... 8, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 82, 149 possessive nouns...........................................................8 possessive pronouns .............................................23, 82 prepositional phrases as appositives...............................................137, 139 as object complement ..........................................137 prepositions combinations with adjectives...............................181 combinations with verbs ..............................182, 190 miscellaneous functions of ..................................109 of direction or motion ..........................................107 of intrument, means, & manner ...........................108 of place or location ..............................................106 of time..................................................................108 with multiple functions ........................................110 present participles as adjectives...........................................................82 vs. gerunds ...........................................................146 present participles (see -ing forms) as object complement ..........................................203 past progressive .....................................................52 present progressive ................................................50 with be ...................................................................73 progressive tenses.......................................................50 pronouns as appositives.........................................................83 classification by case .............................................21 classification by gender .........................................20 classification by person..........................................20

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

demonstrative........................................................ 26 emphatic................................................................ 24 indefinite ............................................................... 30 interrogative.......................................................... 28 personal..............................................19, 21, 25, 149 possessive ........................................................23, 82 reciprocal .............................................................. 30 reflexive ................................................................ 24 relative .................................................................. 34 proper nouns ...................................................2, 82, 168 providing / provided that ......................................... 136 punctuation colon ............................................................166, 171 semicolon.......................................94, 122, 165, 166

Q question words as adverbs.............................................................. 90 in adjective clauses ............................................... 90 in noun clauses...................................................... 90 interrogative pronouns .......................................... 28 questions in indirect speech ................................................ 213 question-word questions ..................................... 213 yes/no.................................................................. 213 quotation marks ................................125, 168, 169, 170

R rather than ............................................................... 103 reciprocal pronouns ................................................... 30 reduction of clauses ....................................74, 141, 146 reduction of phrases................................................. 157 reflexive case ..................................................21, 24, 25 reflexive pronouns ..................................................... 24 relative adverbs.......................................................... 90 relative clauses...............................see adjective clauses relative pronouns ..................................................... 127 reported speech ................................ see indirect speech

S semicolon............................................94, 122, 165, 166 sentences complex............................................................... 119 compound ........................................................... 119 compound-complex ............................................ 119 defined ................................................................ 119 parts of ...........................................................113–14 patterns of ........................37, 111, 115–17, 199–210

INDEX

shall emphasis................................................................ 71 suggestion ............................................................. 71 should expectation ............................................................ 71 opinion/obligation ................................................. 71 possible condition ................................................. 71 simple form of verb ...........................see bare infinitive since ....................................55, 103, 108, 121, 133, 134 since / for ................................................................... 55 so that .............................................................. 103, 134 split infinitives ......................................................... 151 stative verbs (also mid verbs) .................................... 67 subject complements adjectives .................................75, 83, 206, 207, 208 adverbs ........................................................ 206, 207 gerunds................................................................ 147 infinitive phrases......................................... 151, 152 nouns..................................................................... 16 subjective case ..................................15, 16, 21, 25, 124 subjunctive mood conditional sentences ............................................ 69 contrary-to-fact conditions.................................... 69 if clauses................................................................ 69 set expressions ...................................................... 70 that clauses............................................................ 69 wishes.................................................................... 69 subordinate clauses ..................... see dependent clauses subordinate conjunctions ................................. 103, 133 superlatives .......................76, 77, 78, 76–78, 79, 82, 88

T tag questions ............................................................ 199 tenses future............................................................... 42, 48 future perfect......................................................... 58 future perfect progressive................................ 61, 62 future progressive.................................................. 53 irregular past ......................................................... 46 past perfect .................................................... 56, 126 past perfect progressive................................... 60, 61 past progressive............................................... 52, 57 present perfect..................................54, 72, 126, 150 present perfect progressive...................... 59, 60, 150 present progressive.................................. 50, 51, 150 sequence of in indirect speech............................. 211 simple past ............................................................ 46 simple past vs. present perfect .............................. 56 simple present ................................................. 42, 43 that clauses in subjunctive mood ................................. 69 conjunction.................................................. 123, 124 conjunction vs. pronoun...................................... 123 demonstrative pronoun.......................................... 26

227

in adjective clauses ..............................................129 relative pronoun.....................................34, 127, 128 set expressions .......................................................70 the.................................................................75, 99, 100 the fact that...............................................................122 there non-referential .....................................................147 non-referential plus be .................................207, 208 non-referential, defined .......................................207 therefore .......................................................91, 92, 103 though...............................................................103, 135 through .....................................................................108 thus .......................................................................91, 92 time clauses ..............................................................133 to substitution ...........................................................157 to-infinitive...............................................................150 too.....................................................................145, 157 transitive verbs active to passive voice ...........................................66 active voice............................................................63 as object complements.........................................203 defined ...........................................................37, 113 determined by function..........................................40 direct object .........................................................114 followed by gerund..............................................147 followed by infinitive objects ..............................153 functions of finite verbs.........................................35 in sentence patterns.............. 115, 116, 200, 201, 203 passive voice..........................................................64 stative verbs ...........................................................67 verbs normally transitive .......................................41 verbs of perception ................................................39 two-word (phrasal) verbs intransitive ...........................................................195 nonseparable transitive ........................................190 separable transitive ..............................................182 verb/preposition combinations.............................182

U unless................................................................103, 136 until ..........................................................103, 108, 133

of choosing ..........................................................203 of considering ......................................................203 of perception ..........................39, 144, 150, 151, 203 phrasal..................................................182, 190, 195 tense harmony......................................................211 to-infinitive ..........................................................150 two-word..............................................................182 types of ................................................................113 via .............................................................................108 vocative case...............................................................18

W what ............................................................................28 when ...................................................................40, 103 where ..................................................................40, 103 whether .............................................................103, 122 which ..........................................................................28 while .........................................................................103 whom ..........................................................................28 whose..........................................................................28 why .............................................................................40 will determination .........................................................72 expectation.............................................................72 future......................................................................72 modal vs. verb........................................................70 willingness/offers...................................................72 wish.....................................................................69, 159 with ...........................................................................108 without......................................................................108 would contrary-to-fact condition ......................................72 habit now discontinued ..........................................72 polite request..........................................................72

Y yes/no questions .......................................................213 yet .......................................................................88, 102

V verbals defined ...................................................................35 gerund phrases .....................................................146 modified by adverbs ........................................75, 87 nonfinite verbs .......................................................35 verbs causative ...................................... 144, 150, 151, 203 combinations with prepositions ...........................182 objects of .............................................................158

228

GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

– USER NOTES –

INDEX

229