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Introduction By Martin Tomitsch and Cara Wrigley Design is no longer a discipline limited

their way into physical environments and

to the concerns of a singular, specific

products, from smart cities to internet-of-

domain. Like most other industries,

things and medical devices. Technological

the field of design is being challenged

advancements are changing the process

by the arrival of the fourth industrial

of design. As a result, we must integrate

revolution. Systems are becoming more

the requirements of all the domains,

complex, requiring more intuitive user

aspects and features that make up the

interfaces and multiple touch points,

most innovative solutions worldwide. We

from wearable screens to virtual reality

must design – think – make – break – and

headsets. Digital systems are weaving

then repeat.

Design evolution The responsibility of design has

As our global and lived environments

evolved over time along with industrial,

are becoming more complex, the role

technological and market shifts (Owen,

of design is changing yet again. We are

1991). For almost a century, design has

facing unprecedented global challenges,

been used to achieve a competitive

such as population growth and mass

advantage across industries. At the

urbanisation, and technology is advancing

beginning of design as a profession, this

and penetrating all aspects of our lives at

involved designers working with engineers

a rapidly increasing rate.

to achieve better construction techniques. Design is now seen as a pathway for

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Introduction

As markets changed and caught up with

solving complex, nonlinear problems,

this trend, the role of design shifted to

which can’t be solved with technological

delivering a strategic advantage by having

or scientific approaches alone. It provides

products with better appearance, better

a framework for understanding the needs

human factors or usability, and better

of the people, as well as the space to

performance. Around the turn of the

translate these needs into solutions. For

century, the role of design changed again,

the first time, in the evolution of design

with companies seeking designers to help

as a field, the use of such methods

them develop better ideas and better

is no longer limited to skilled design

integration, now also including better

professionals. Using design as a way of

experiences and social inclusion.

thinking provides a strategic advantage

across many professions. Design is,

diamond encourages divergent thinking

therefore, becoming a capability-

followed by convergent thinking. The first

enhancing skill, equipping people with

diamond starts from a problem situation

the ability to deal with uncertainty,

and ends with a problem definition and

complexity and failure.

focuses on understanding the problem. The second diamond uses the resulting

The last two decades have seen much

problem definition as design brief and is

excitement around the term ‘design

concerned with finding the right solution.

thinking’, largely due to its adoption into business as an alternative approach to

Despite being criticised by some scholars

business strategy development. Herbert

for their simplified view of design as a

A. Simon first referred to design as a ‘way

process, models like the honeycomb

of thinking’ in his book ‘The Sciences of

and double diamond offer distinctive

the Artificial’ (Simon, 1969), proposing a

perspectives and considerations. They

structured approach for translating an

allow organisations to adopt their own

existing situation into a preferred situation

formalised design approach to inform how

using design methods – helping to

they operate and design their products

connect different elements contributing

and services.

to a final solution. In the 1980s the term ‘design thinking’ was used to describe the process of designing in architecture and urban planning (Rowe, 1991). Since then several frameworks have been formulated to provide guidance for when, how and which methods to apply at the various stages of a design process. These early works have laid the foundation for today’s role and place of design as an innovation method. Two popular design models that translate this way of thinking into a framework are the ‘honeycomb’ model proposed by the d.school at Stanford University and the ‘double diamond’ model published by the UK Design Council. The honeycomb model involves the stages of empathise, define, ideate, prototype and test, and stresses the importance of iteratively moving between those stages while working on a design project. The double diamond model entails the phases of discover and define (the first diamond), and develop

The changing role of design to provide a competitive advantage by achieving products, services, systems and environments of better quality. Levels 1 to 3 based on an original diagram by Owen (1990).

and deliver (the second diamond). Each

Design. Think. Make. Break. Repeat.

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Design. Think. Make. Break. Repeat. Arriving at an innovative solution is

than investing a lot of time in each step,

usually not a clear, straightforward

it is more productive to go through

pathway. Design requires learning about

the process as quickly and as often as

the context (the thinking part), building

possible (the repeating part). The earlier

prototypes as tangible representations

an idea or concept is broken, the quicker

(the making part) and testing potential

we can focus on improving it.

solutions (the breaking part). Rather

Design thinking For an innovation to be successful, it is

for and how to address their needs that

critical to not only have the technical

companies find most challenging.

and business opportunities in place but to also ensure that there is a real

To understand who we are designing for

need, a desire, for the product or service.

(users, customers or other stakeholders),

According to Eric von Hippel, a Professor

it is important to develop the skill of

at the MIT Sloan School of Management,

empathy. Design thinking uses a wide

70 to 80 percent of new product

array of methods to develop empathy

developments that fail do so not for lack

by collecting data from and about real

of advanced technology, but rather a

people and for translating this data into

failure to understand users’ needs. It’s

ideas and concepts.

understanding who we are designing

Design making Data and ideas collected during the

referred to as the minimal viable product

design thinking phase can be turned

(MVP). A concept, prototype or MVP

into concepts and prototypes – the

can be a representation of a specific

design making part of the process.

scenario, the entire user interface, or just

This is where we build a tangible

one feature built as a technical proof of

representation (or many representations)

concept.

of the solution. In some cases, this is also

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Introduction

The model for designing products or services used in this book. The methods are not limited to one of the phases; many of them can be applied at different stages of a design project.

The steps of a design process are linked and interconnected. They don’t happen in isolation from each other. The better the research data collected initially, the more useful the tangible representation of the solution will be.

Design breaking One way to find out whether an idea

attempts, the prize went unclaimed for

works is to put it in front of potential users

over 17 years. In 1976, Paul MacCready,

or customers. Sometimes it might be

an aeronautical engineer, completed the

necessary to let go of an idea or concept

challenge by looking at the problem from

to make room for even better ideas

a different perspective. While everyone

to emerge. To break a design solution

else was trying to build a human-powered

requires embracing failure. Taking a

plane that can fly a figure eight around

different perspective and exploring many

two poles, he built a plane that could be

approaches rapidly can effectively solve

crashed and re-built within hours. His team

complex problems.

would often break the plane several times a day, and from those failures learn how to

In 1959, British industrialist Henry Kremer

improve their approach. The solution was

created a prize for designing a human-

to build a lightweight plane that could

powered aircraft that could fly a figure-

fly very slowly. Constantly breaking their

eight course around two poles half a

concept sped up the process of finding a

mile apart. Despite more than 50 official

new, successful solution.

Design. Think. Make. Break. Repeat.

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Repeating the steps The final step is to repeat all or some

that all those who sat on the left side

of the previous steps. Every iteration

of the studio would be graded based

leads to new insights, and the new

on the number of works they produced,

insights are what will set a product or

while the right side would be graded

service apart from other solutions in the

based on quality. When it came to

market. Designing, thinking, making and

grading the students’ submissions,

breaking many different representations

he found that those focusing on

quickly rather than striving to create

quantity had come up with much

one perfect solution leads to a more

more interesting and novel works than

innovative outcome.

those striving to develop a high-quality submission. Not getting fixated on one

According to David Bayles and Ted

idea allowed the students to try out

Orland a ceramics teacher one day

many different ideas quickly and that

announced that he would divide his

way producing overall higher-quality

class into two groups (Bayles & Orland,

works.

2001, p.29). He explained to the groups

Who we are designing for In interaction design, the end consumers

are different from the customers, who

of the designed products are commonly

are paying, for example, for targeted

referred to as users. This notion is also

advertising. The design of Facebook as

reflected in terms used to describe

a platform needs to consider and target

emerging design disciplines, such as user

both. A design process may also need

experience design, and methodologies

to consider other stakeholders, who

like user-centred design. However, this is

are individuals or organisations with

not always an accurate reflection of who

an invested interest or stand to gain or

is purchasing or engaging with an end

lose from the solution. The terms user,

design solution. Within the business and

customer and stakeholders are not

commercial world, the term customer is

always equally interchangeable and

frequently used instead. In some cases,

have been carefully selected and used

the user might not be the customer of a

throughout this book.

product. For example, users on Facebook

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Introduction

How to use this book This book is written as a learning

which provides printable versions of

resource and reference guide to

templates as well as further resources

scaffold the reader’s understanding

to illustrate the use of the methods.

of the design process as a method for complex problem-solving and

As well as being a rich resource of

developing innovative solutions.

design methods and materials, the

The methods included in the book

book supports the teaching of students

are applicable to a variety of design

and readers from all disciplinary

projects and across a range of domains

backgrounds. It provides everyday

and industries. This cross-perspective

tools that assist with developing an

approach is also reflected in the choice

understanding of design thinking

of design briefs and case studies

by practically applying the methods

included in the book, which ranges

through exercises. The methods

from autonomous vehicles to designing

included in the book have been

the future shopping experience.

contributed by leading experts in the field. The exercises are based on many

The book is divided into methods that

years of experience in teaching the

include a full description along with

methods. All methods are grounded in

step-by-step exercises and ready-to-

research and link to academic articles

use blank templates. The methods are

that provide more detail on each

included in alphabetical order, rather

method.

than structured by phases, to reflect that they can be flexibly used and

The authors encourage researchers,

adopted across multiple phases. Icons

practitioners and learners to use,

indicate the phases, in which each

modify, re-interpret and critique the

method is typically used. However,

contents of this book. We welcome any

there is no hard rule about when a

feedback, suggested improvements or

method can or cannot be applied.

experiences with successes – and most definitely failures! In the spirit of the

Templates can be photocopied or

book, we look forward to its ongoing

used inside the book. The book

development through conversations

is accompanied by a website

with you.

(designthinkmakebreakrepeat.com), References Bayles, D., & Orland, T. (2001). Art & fear: Observations on the perils (and rewards) of artmaking. Image Continuum Press. Owen, C. L. (1990). Design education and research for the 21st century. Design Studies, 11(4), 202-206. Owen, C. L. (1991). Design education in the information age. Design Issues, 7(2), 25-33. Simon, H. A. (1969). The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Rowe, P. G. (1991). Design thinking. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Design. Think. Make. Break. Repeat.

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