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1. PARTS OF SPEECH 

Introduction In English Language words are divided into different kinds or classes called “Parts of Speech” depending upon their use in a sentence. Parts of Speech are the basic building blocks of sentence formation. Whatever you speak or write belongs to some part of speech. A good and complete understanding of the various parts of speech will ensure that you are equipped to deal effectively with grammar portion of any aptitude test. The parts of speech covered in this chapter are 1) Noun 2) Pronoun 3) Verb 4) Adjective

5) 6) 7) 8)

Adverb Preposition Conjunction Interjection

1.1 NOUN Definition: Noun is a word that refers to the name of a person, animal, place or thing. Examples: RAHUL, DELHI, KANGAROO, TABLE, ROSE, KING, TRAIN, JAMES.

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Kinds of Noun : 1) Proper Nouns : A Proper noun is a name of some particular person or place. The Proper noun is unique to the entity & no other entity shares the same characteristics as that of the proper noun. Examples: CHANAKYA was a great strategist. (Even if there is one more CHANAKYA, their characteristics are different.) MUMBAI is the capital of MAHARASHTRA. The LILY is a beautiful flower. The train to KOLKATA is late by an hour. NOTE - Proper nouns begin with a capital letter. 2) Common Nouns : A common noun is a name given to every person or thing of the same class or kind. Thus, common noun is a set of characteristics and all the entities under that common noun will possess those characteristics. Example - Tiger. Any tiger in the world will be a wild animal, will roar, will be carnivorous, etc. Examples: Raj is a brave boy. This boat will cover 20 nautical miles in an hour. She is a beautiful girl. 3) Collective Nouns : A collective noun is the name given to a collection (number) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as a whole. The group that the collective noun refers to can be a homogeneous group or heterogeneous group Examples: A swarm of bees decimated the paddy fields.

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The dead deer was a feast for a murder of crows.(homogeneous group) A company of parrots sits on a tree daily in front of my balcony. (Homogeneous group) I received a bunch of flowers. (Heterogeneous group as they include different kinds of flowers) 4) Abstract Nouns : An abstract noun is the name given to a quality, action or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs. It cannot be seen but can be felt. Examples :Wisdom and Beauty is rare. Her joy knew no bounds, when she learnt she was first in class. Oliver twist is sorrow personified. Nouns can also be classified as countable and uncountable nouns: All nouns are measurable. But there are some nouns which can be counted with the naked eye and these are countable nouns. Countable nouns are the names of objects, people etc. that one can count. Note - Countable nouns have plural forms. Examples : Book, boy, dog, etc. These books belong to Friends Library. The unknown bags were finally offloaded to Airport Terminal 3. A colony of rabbits was spotted in the cane. For others, man has predicted certain measures but they cannot be counted by just looking at them. They are called Uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms. Examples : Milk, Water, Weather, etc. Milk is a good source of calcium. The Ganges basin is a rich source of minerals. The weather at Chennai is 270 C.

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THE NOUN-NUMBER A noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be Singular Number. Examples: pen, boy, table etc. A noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be Plural Number. Examples: pens, boys, etc The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding-s to the singular;as, boy, boys; girl, girls; book, books; pen, pens; desk, desks; cow, cows; But nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch (soft), or -x form the plural by adding –es to the singular; as class, classes; kiss, kisses; dish, dishes; brush, brushes; match, matches; watch, watches; branch, branches tax, taxes box, boxes Most nouns ending in -o also form the plural by adding es to the singular; as, buffalo, buffaloes; mango, mangoes; hero, heroes; potato, potatoes; cargo, cargoes; echo, echoes; negro, negroes volcano, volcanoes A few nouns ending in -o merely add -s,; as, dynamo, dynamos; solo, solos; canto, cantos; memento, mementos;

ratio, ratios; quarto, quartos;

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kilo, kilos

logo, logos

commando, commandos

Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing -y into i and adding -es; as baby, babies; lady, ladies; city, cities; army, armies; story, stories; pony, ponies; The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -f or -fe into v and adding -es; as, thief, thieves; wife, wives; wolf, wolves; life, lives; calf, calves; leaf, leaves loaf, loaves; knife, knives; shelf, shelves; half, halves; elf, elves; self, selves The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf and wharf take either -s or –ves in the plural. dwarfs or dwarves; hoofs or hooves; scarfs or scarves;

wharfs or wharves.

Other words ending -f or -fe add -s; as, chief, chiefs; safe, safes; proof, proofs; gulf, gulfs; cliff, cliffs; handkerchief, handkerchiefs. A few nouns form their plural by changing the inside vowel of the singular; as, man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; mouse, mice; louse, lice. There are a few nouns that form their plural by adding -en to the singular; as, ox, oxen; child, children. Note- The plural of fish is fish or fishes. In current English, fish is the usual plural. Fishes is sometimes used to talk about different kinds of fish. Other example is ‘Risk’. Eg. The risks involved in this work are too much.(We are talking of risks-risk of losing life ,risk of losing money ,risk of losing reputation ,risk of losing future business., Etc.) Some nouns have singular and plural alike; as,  Swine, sheep, deer; cod, trout, salmon; series, species.  Pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand (when used after numerals).  I bought three dozen oranges.  Some people reach the age of three score and ten.  The sari cost me five thousand rupees.  Stone, hundred, weight  He weighs over nine stone.  Twenty hundredweights make one ton.  This furniture is very old. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Names of instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair; as, Bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, spectacles. Names of certain articles of dress; as, Trousers, drawers, breeches, jeans, tights, shorts, pyjamas. Certain other nouns; as, Annals, thanks, proceeds (of a sale), tidings, environs, nuptials, obsequies, assets, chattels Some nouns originally singular are now generally used in the plural; as, Alms, riches, eaves. Riches do many things.

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The following nouns look plural but are in fact singular: Names of subjects - Mathematics, physics, electronics, etc. The word news. Names of some common diseases - Measles, mumps, rickets. Names of some games - Billiards, draughts. Mathematics is his favourite study. No news is good news. India won by an innings and three runs. Measles is infectious. Billiards is my favourite game. Usually in English, most words form a plural with the additions of -s or -es at the end. However, some words form an irregular plural: Singular Sheep Mouse Index Crisis Radius Phenomenon Father-in-law

Plural Sheep Mice Indices Crises Radii Phenomena Fathers-in-law

Note: Some of these irregular plurals do not follow certain rules, e.g., mouse - mice, louse - lice. But even these rules are somewhat arbitrary and have many expectations, e.g., the plural of house is not hice. It is best to be aware of these irregular plurals. 

THE NOUN - GENDER

Nouns can be classified into four categories of gender: Masculine gender Feminine gender Common gender Neutral gender Masculine gender Words indicating male people or animals are nouns belonging to masculine gender. Examples: Raja eyed me suspiciously. The horse was in the stable when the fire broke out. My father scolded me. God is present everywhere. Note: Objects associated with strength, vigour and violence etc are sometimes regarded as male/masculine gender. For example - The sun, winter, death, time, summer etc. Other examples of masculine gender are bull, tiger, boar, brother, king, enchanter, inspector, traitor, waiter, tailor, viscount, poet, priest, Ram, monk, lord, etc.

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Feminine gender : Words indicating female people or animals are nouns belonging to feminine gender. Examples: The woman eyed me suspiciously. Nur Jahan was a famous actress. The Enchantress was the first person to enter the hall. The princess of Jhansi was beautiful. Note : The feminine gender is often applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness and gracefulness. For example: The moon, the spring, autumn, earth, peace, liberty, nature, etc. Other examples of feminine gender are Mayoress, preceptress, waitress, traitress, tigress, abbess, negress, jewess, heiress, etc. Common gender : Words indicating either male or female people are nouns belonging to the common gender. Examples : The students are moving from one class to another. (Students include girls and boys) Raju is Rita’s cousin. Infanticide should be banned. Birds were perched on the branch. Other examples of common gender are Neighbor Calf Bird Baby Servant Friend Thief Mouse Neutral gender : Words indicating neither male nor female are nouns belonging to neutral gender Examples: Can I borrow that copy? The ocean flows westwards. The table and the chair are in the room. Note: Collective nouns, even when they denote living beings are considered as the neutral gender. Young children, abstract noun, lifeless things and the lower animals are also referred to as the neutral gender.

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HOW FEMININES OF NOUNS ARE FORMED There are three ways of forming the feminine of noun By adding –ess after the entire Masculine word; Masculine Author Count Host Heir God Jew Lion Mayor Parton

Feminine Authoress Countess Hostess Heiress Goddess Jewess Lioness Mayoress Patroness

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Viscount Tailor Poet Peer Priest

Viscounts Tailoress Poetess Peeress Priestess

By adding –ess after dropping the vowel of the Masculine ending as, Masculine Waiter Tiger Negro Inspector Director Traitor Semester Prince Hunter Actor Instructor Benefactor

Feminine Waitress Tigress Negress Inspectress Directress Traitress Seamstress Princess Huntress Actress Instructress Benefactress

By adding ‘ess’ in a less regular way as; Masculine Abbot Master Governor Duke Marquis Murderer Sorcerer Emperor

Feminine Abbess Mistress Governess Duchess Marchioness Murderess Sorceress Empress

By replacing a word before or after the masculine word as Masculine Beggar – man Milkman Landlord He – goat He – bear Grandfather Peacock Man – servant Jack – ass He – devil Washerman Buck – rabbit

Feminine Beggar –woman Milkmaid Landlady She – goat She – bear Grandmother Peahen Maid – servant Jenny – ass, she - ass She – devil Washerwoman Doe – rabbit

Note : Dog, horse and fox are now common used for both males and females

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FEMININES OF SOME FOREIGN WORDS : Masculine Viceroy Sultan Signor Prosecutor Czar Monsieur

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Feminine Vicereine Sultana Signora Prosecutrix Czarina Madame

EXCEPTIONAL CASES : Masculine Bridegroom Mr. Master Widower Lad Hero

Feminine Bride Mrs. Miss Widow Lass Heroine

Exercise 1.1 : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Identify the types of underlined nouns : V. S. Naipaul was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2001 Honesty is the best policy. The police are searching for the gangster. A group of students is going to school. There lived a tiger, a lion and an elephant in the jungle. The table is made of wood. Air pollution is increasing day by day. When a man begins to think seriously of saving for a rainy day, it’s probably a rainy day. Prosperity destroys generosity. Aamir Khan is a talented actor. London is on the river Thames. Cleanliness is next to godliness. Winston Churchill was one of the greatest Prime Ministers of England. King Solomon was famous for his wisdom.

1.2 PRONOUNS Definition : A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, mainly to void repetition of nouns. Examples : John is a great dancer, he sings well too. Mallika is a bright student, she writes excellent essays. Mumbai is a cosmopolitan city, it depicts its rich heritage. 

Types of pronouns 1) Personal Pronouns : I, me, you, she are called Personal Pronouns as they stand for three persons. 1] the person speaking - the first person 2] the person spoken to - the second person 3] the person spoken of - the third person

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1stperson 2ndperson

Nominative case Singular Plural I We You You

Objective case Singular Plural Me Us You You

3rdperson

He, She, It

They

Relative/ Interrogative Pronoun

Who

Whom

Him, Her, It Whose

Them

Used as Possessive Mine, Ours Your, Yours His, Hers Its, Theirs

Reflexive/Emphatic Singular Plural Myself Ourselves Yourself Yourselves Himself, Herself, Itself

Themselves

Examples: I will attend the convocation. We watched Mission Impossible IV together. Theirs was a continued team effort. 2) Reflexive Pronouns: The pronouns that are used when the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject are called Reflexive Pronouns. In short the receiver of the action in reflexive pronoun is the subject itself. Examples: You will hurt yourself. The dog bit itself. She looked at herself in the mirror. 3) Emphatic Pronouns: The pronouns that are used to indicate emphasis are called Emphatic Pronoun. In general, emphatic pronouns immediately follow their antecedent noun/pronoun forms. They are used to indicate that the subject has done the action independently without any other persons help. Examples: He himself finished the work. They themselves are responsible for their fate. (No one else is responsible for their fate other than them.) She herself started the agitation. (No one forced her to start in or no one helped her to start it.) 4) Demonstrative Pronouns: The pronouns that are used to demonstrate/point out/show out to the referred objects are called Demonstrative pronouns. They always refer to a specific object. Examples: This is the phone that I bought. This is the pen I was writing with. That is the leaning Tower Of Pisa. 5) Indefinite Pronouns: The pronouns that are used to refer to persons or things in a general way but do not refer to any person or thing particularly are called Indefinite pronouns. This pronoun is the exact opposite of demonstrative pronouns. Examples: Nobody was there to rescue the animal. One must not praise oneself. Some people are born leaders. 6) Relative Pronoun: The pronouns that refer or relate to their preceding noun forms, which are called Antecedents, are called Relative pronouns. Few relative pronouns like “who” play a role of a pronoun as well as a conjunction. Examples: I watched the movie with Jackson who is my cousin. I bought a book which I had lost.

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The man who is diligent will reap the benefits. 7) Distributive Pronouns: The pronouns that refer to persons or things one at a time are called Distributive pronouns. Examples: Each and every one of us will go to the party. Either of these routes will go to Pune. Neither of the movies releasing this weekend is interesting. 8) Possessive Pronouns: The pronouns that indicate possession while taking the place of a noun are called Possessive Pronouns. Examples: The pen is his. The responsibility is theirs. Is this his pen? (Here his is treated as an adjective) Note that with an apostrophe it means – ‘It is’ eg., It’s raining today. Exercise 1.2 : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Underline/Identify the pronoun: It was she at the window. The prize will be given to whoever writes the best essay. Did you hurt yourself? I myself finished the task. She is a girl of great potential. Are you the author of this book? Somebody is following me. Raja, you are a dishonest guy. This house is mine. Each of the girls will get a prize.

Select the right pronoun 11. The book about Gandhiji, that/which was discovered in the basement of the college, will be published this year. 12. Give the information to whoever/the person who requests it. 13. The tiger who/which was hurt was left in the jungle. 14. The dog hurt its/their leg. 15. The bag is too heavy for his/her comfort.

1.3 VERB Definition: A verb is a word used to denote an action or state of being. Examples: The girls were singing. He kicked the football. The boys started running at the whistle. The lion was sleeping under the tree. They jumped to avoid accident. There are three kinds of verbs: A. Transitive B. Intransitive C. Auxiliary

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A. TRANSITIVE VERBS A transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes from subject/doer to an object. Examples : The dog ate the biscuit. They ran after the thief. He writes songs. Usually the verb answers the question ‘what ’? What did the dog eat? What did the dog do with the biscuit? B. INTRANSITIVE VERBS Intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which does not pass over from the doer/subject to an object. Examples: The girl sings sweetly. The baby sleeps on a mat. The car screeched to an abrupt halt. C. AUXILARY VERBS An auxiliary verb is a helping verb. It is used along with the main verb to form tenses, moods and voices. The auxiliary verbs have 24 finite forms. Present tense Be, is, am Has, have Do, does

Past tense Was, were Had Did

Be, do and have are used with main verb and also function as main verb. Modal auxiliary verb like can, could, may, might, will, would, must, ought are helping verbs which also lend meaning to the sentence. Note: Progressive form of ‘be’ – being The progressive form of be is used to speak about behavior and actions. Examples: She was being careful. (Behaviour) I am being careful. (Action) 

Use of “BE” i. Be is used with ‘do’ to form negative imperative sentences. Examples: Don’t be stupid. Don’t be such a bore. ii. ‘Do be’ is used to form emphatic imperative sentences. Examples: Do be careful. Do be ready for the shot. iii. ‘Be + infinitive’ is used to speak about plans and arrangements. Examples: The American President is to visit the company next week. We are to receive a bonus this year. iv. Things that are fated to take place have a ‘be + infinitive’ Examples: We thought they will live together forever. But they were to part again.

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v. Be is added to a passive infinite to form instructions and notices Example: This book is not to be sold. vi. Be is used to speak about height, age, weight, length, shape, colour, size. Example: The pit was to be 10 meters deep. 

Use of “DO” i. Auxiliary ‘do’ is used to make questions, negative verbs, emphatic sentences and short form Examples: He does not like cakes and pastries. I do not like your dress. Did you watch the movie? She does not enjoy swimming. ii. ‘Do’ is used as a main verb when it comes after an auxiliary. Examples: Do (aux) you think he will hit me? He might do that. (main verb) iii. ‘Do’ can also be non- auxiliary verbs that can be used to indicate an activity. Examples: I have completed the pending assignments, and I’ll do the proof reading tomorrow. iv. Auxiliary and non-auxiliary “do” can be used together in a sentence. Example: The organization did not do very well in the last five years. v. ‘Do’ is used with main verb to make negative sentences. Example: I don’t eat this kind of food. vi. ‘Do’ is used with the main verbs to make questions, but not with other auxiliary verbs. Example: Can you come with me? vii. ‘Do’ is used for emphasis in affirmative sentences. Example: You do seem upset today. viii. ‘Do’ is used in inverted structures where the verb comes before the subject. Example: Never before did he speak so rudely to me.

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Uses of “Have” i. ‘Have’ is used to make perfect verb forms. Examples: Have you read about the Chinese circus? (Present perfect) Having met the principal before, he knew what to say. (Past perfect) ii. ‘Have’ is used to make questions. Example: Have you been here before?

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iii. The non- auxiliary ‘have’ is used to speak about experiences and actions. Example: Let’s have a game of tennis. iv. ‘Have’ is used to speak about possession, illnesses, relationships, characteristics and similar ideas. Example: The man had a charismatic personality. 

AUXILIARY VERBS : MODAL VERBS i. Modals do not have –s in the third person singular : Examples: He can call his mother. I may go to India. ii. Negatives and questions are made without the use of do. Examples: He cannot come. She may not be well. iii. Modals do not have infinites and participles. Examples: Incorrect: To can, canning, musting, to should, coulding etc. iv. Other than ‘ought’, all the modals precede an infinitive of other verbs without ‘to’. Examples: I must see you tomorrow. I can play with you.

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TYPES OF MODALS : Will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need to, have to, has to, had to, need not, dare not, had better, would rather. 1. CAN AND COULD i. “Can” and “could” are used for permission, ability and requests. Examples: Could I have some biscuits? (Request) You come at 9:30 am tomorrow. (Permission) ii. “Can” is used to say what is typical or common. Example: Sita can really irritate my brother sometimes. iii. “Could” is used to speak about the past. Example: Everybody could see the royal statue in those days. Note: “Could” is not always used as the past form of “can”. Could is also used like ‘would be’ and ‘able to’. Example: He could get a better salary if he had a degree.

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iv. When “can” is used in direct speech, it turns to “could” in indirect speech. Examples: Can you write? (Direct) He asked me if I could write. (Indirect) 2. MAY AND MIGHT i.

“May” and “might” are used to speak about probabilities and permission. Examples: He may come tomorrow. The student may be present in the class.

ii. “Might” is not always the past form of “may”. “Might” is usually used when the degree of probability is very less. Examples: I may visit the museum in Australia. (More likely) Sita might accompany me to the museum. (Less likely) iii. If “may” is used in a direct speech, it turns to “might” in indirect speech. Examples: I may go to America. (Direct) He said he might go to America. (Indirect) iv. “May” and “might” are used to make suggestions and requests. Example: It is possible that I might borrow your dress for a day? 3. “MUST” i.

“Must” is used when there is high degree of probability or certainty. Example: Lucy must have a headache. She looks pale.

ii. “Must” is used to express necessity, give orders and to advise. Examples: You must stop blaming each other. You must be in office by 11:00am tomorrow. iii. “Must” is used in indirect speech after a past reporting verb. “Must” in this case acts like a past tense. Example: The people said that he must forgive his children. 4. “OUGHT” i.

“Ought” is used to advise. It acts like “should”. Examples: He ought to care for his children. You really ought to speak to your parents.

ii. When “ought” is used in a sentence , the regular structure that is used is ought + to + infinitive Example: She ought to take medicines.

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iii. “Ought” is used in case of conjectures or probabilities : Example: This climate ought to be favorable for rice. iv. Ought + to have + past participle is used. Examples: Chelle ought to have gone to the anniversary. She was speaking about it yesterday. (Indicating probability about those events that are not certain to have taken place) It is 9:00 am. Reena ought to have woken up by now. (Indicating events that should have taken place by now) Nancy ought to have attended her music class. (Indicating things or events that were supposed to take place but did not) 5. “SHOULD” i.

It is used to indicate obligation and probability. Example: He should be back by 8:00 or 9:30pm.

ii. “Should” is used in those clauses which follow particular nouns and adjectives. Example: It is necessary that she should go home now. iii. “Should” does not change its form when used in indirect speech. Example: I should tell the truth. (Direct) iv. Should + have + past participle is used to speak about past actions that may or may not have taken place. Example: I should have spoken to the gardener this morning, but I forgot. 6. “WILL” i.

“Will” is use as an auxiliary verb to speak about the future. Examples: I will miss you. I will complete my assignment by tonight.

ii. Indicates certainty about events that take place in the present or future. Example: Don’t disturb him. He will be in his study room at this time. iii. It indicates willingness or declares something. Example: I will come with you to the store. iv. It indicates an intention, a threat or a promise. Example: I will definitely speak to him. v.

It is used about a typical behavior. Example:

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He will watch T.V. the entire evening. 7. “WOULD” i.

It is used as a past of ‘will’ in some instances. Example: I would go to the park often.

ii. “Will” used in direct speech, turns “would” in indirect speech. Examples: I will invite Mrs. Rao to the party. (Direct) She said she would invite Mrs. Rao to the party. (Indirect) iii. “Would” used in direct speech, does not change its form in indirect speech. Examples: Would you come with me? (Direct) She asked whether I would go with her. (Indirect) iv. “Would” is used as an auxiliary with the main verb to indicate unreal situations. Examples: She would tell you if she knew. They would like to play with us. 

AUXILIARY VERBS : USAGE 1. To form tenses Examples: He is shopping in the mall. (Present tense) She has gone to market. (Present perfect tense) I have been working hard. (Present perfect progressive tense) 2. To form moods Examples: India is a developing nation. (Indicative mood) I had hoped to visit the museum. (Subjective mood) Don’t remove your shoes. (Imperative mood) 3. To form voices Examples: He will be removed from office. (Passive) Hindi is spoken in India. (Passive) Rex is playing in the garden. (Active) 4. To make a request Example: Please do not disturb. 5. To order/give advice. Example: Do not smoke here. Expressing agreement and disagreements with remarks. I.

Agreements with affirmative remarks:

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Yes, of course + pronoun + auxiliary We use: Yes– for simple agreement So - for surprise Of course – for something obvious.

II.

Examples: It is very hot today. Yes it is. She is a senseless fool. Of course, she is. She is beautiful. Yes, she is. Agreement with negative remarks: No + pronoun + (auxiliary + not) Examples: He isn’t skilful. No, he isn’t. The children are not clean. No they aren’t.

III.

Disagreement with an affirmative remark: No, oh no + pronoun + (auxiliary + not) To disagree, with assumptions and questions, ‘but’ is used. Examples: You will fall down. No, I won’t. You can surely buy a house. But, I can’t.

IV.

Disagreement with negative remarks: Yes + oh yes + pronoun + auxiliary Examples: He doesn’t know anything. Oh yes, he do. She isn’t very social. No, she is. Additions to remarks made.

V.

Affirmative additions of affirmative remarks: So + auxiliary + subject So + do + I. Examples: They will stay as guests. So will our friends. They play basketball. So do I.

VI.

If there is no auxiliary in the sentence, we use : Does – In place of the main verb in third person singular in the present tense. Example: How does she speak? Do – In place of the main verb in all other cases in the present tense. Examples: How do you speak? Did – In place of the main verb in all cases in the past tense. Example: How did/ you/ she/ they speak?

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Exercise 1.3: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

As soon as she saw the smoke, Laura________ (run) into the house to save the dog. How much calcium is _________ to prevent bone loss? (very, enough) When you get here, the valet ________ (show) you to your room. Will returned the book and ________ (got) a receipt from the clerk. By the time we arrived on the scene, the cars _______ (tow) away. Real estate prices have increased dramatically over the past year; I _______ (bring) that property months ago. The horse ________ (race) across the finish line as we are speaking. Bill saw the movie a week after he ________ (read) the book. Ria ______ (take) ballet for three years now. By the time you finish this project, we _______ (grow) very old. The hot and sour pork was _______ spicy for me to eat. (very, too) I am just _______ tired to work anymore. (too, very) Is this box light _______ for you to carry? (enough, very) Thank you ______ much for your nice words. (very, enough) Do you have ______ money for emergencies? (very, enough)

1.4 ADJECTIVE Definition: A word used with a noun to add something for its meaning is an adjective. Alternatively, a word that describes/ defines/ adds value to a noun is an adjective. Examples: Amsterdam is a scenic place. The crowded trains of Mumbai are difficult to travel. The people/ministers of Kishkinda were intelligent. 

KINDS OF ADJECTIVES: 1. Adjectives of quality: The words which describe the kind or quality of a person or thing are called Adjective of Quality. Examples: The honest people of the village were taken for a ride. The grand old uncle of the Pandavas was Bhishma. Shimla is a small town. 2. Adjectives of quantity: The word which signifies how much of the thing is mentioned are called Adjectives of quantity. Examples: At the party, I ate some noodles. He has enough wealth to last a lifetime. There are few hurdles before you read Golconda. 3. Distributive adjectives: The words which refer to each one of a number or distribution of something are called Distributive adjectives. Examples: each, every, either, neither etc. On the either side of backwaters, are good resorts. Neither of this writing is original. Every employee should get his share of recognition in this project. 4. Demonstrative adjectives: The words used to specify/ point out which person or thing is meant are called Demonstrative Adjectives. Examples: that, this, these, those, etc. This house belongs to Kapoors. These bunches of grapes are imported from Amsterdam.

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Such acts of crime are unpardonable. 5.Interrogative adjectives: The words, which are used to ask questions to the nouns, are called Interrogative Adjectives. Examples: Whose book is this? Which group won the tournament? What a great idea! Adjectives ending in “ing” and “ed” (boring/ bored) There are many adjectives ending in “ing” and “ed”. Study this: Alice is bored. (With her job) Alice’s job is boring. Somebody is bored if something/ somebody else is boring. Or, if something is boring, it makes you bored. Alice is bored because her job is boring. Note: that in the above context it is wrong to say “Alice is boring”. It would always change the meaning of the sentence. Now please note the following:Jack always talks about the same thing. He’s really boring. Some other examples of the same are:*disappointing The film was disappointing. I expected it to be much better. *shocking Her behavior was shocking. *interesting Alice feels politics is interesting. As against:*disappointed I was disappointed with the film. It did not meet any expectations. *shocked We were shocked with her behavior. *interested Alice is interested in politics. Please note that ‘-ing’ adjectives tell you about the activities whereas ‘-ed’ adjectives tell you how somebody feels (about the activity) 

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES 1.

An adjective can be used before a noun as well as after a linking verb. Adjective placed before a noun is called attributive adjective. Adjectives placed after linking verb is called predicative adjectives. Examples: She is an ambitious woman. (Predicative) An ambitious person will strive for excellence in every field. (Attributive)

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2.

Some adjectives are placed after the object when the sentence structure consists of a verb, an object and an adjective. Examples: Let us paint the cleaning room light blue. Can you get the car ready?

3.

Some adjectives come after a noun in a similar manner to relative clauses. This is usually the case with adjectives that end in –able or –ble. Examples: Purchase all the science books available. I feel this is the only method possible.

4.

Adjectives can also be located after measurement nouns. Examples: The woman was five feet tall. I am 3 years younger than Roopali.

5.

Adjectives follow words like everything, something, anything, somebody etc. Examples: Have you noticed something strange today? Is everything perfect?

6.

When a sentence has words like “as, so, how, too, this/that, which, indicate, so”, the adjective are followed by “a”. Example: He belongs to as good a family as you.

7.

The order of descriptive adjective is not wholly fixed. Words indicating origin and material come last. Adjectives indicating size, age and shape go before colour. Examples: A tall, black, Indian horse stood gazing on the field. Size: tall; colour: black; origin: Indian; noun: horse Please pass me the round, black, plastic dishes. Shape: round; colour: black; material: plastic

8.

Numbers are generally followed by adjectives. Examples: Give me two sets of cup and saucer. The last three layers are filled with cement.

9.

Noun modifiers generally go before adjectives. Example: The guide showed us an ancient Indian cloth mill.

10. Nouns are usually not stated after superlative adjectives. Examples: He is the tallest in our class. Exercise 1.4: Fill in the blanks with ‘-ing/-ed’ adjectives. 1.

Mona is going to Kashmir this week. She has never been there before. (excit --) a. Going to unexplored place is really ________.

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b. She is really ________ about going to Kashmir. c. It will be an ________ experience for her. 2. The film wasn’t good as we had expected. (disappoint --) a. The film was ________ b. We were ________ with the film. 3. Are you interesting/ interested in cricket? 4. Why do you look so bored/ boring? Is your life so boring/bored? 5. I was really amazed/ amazing. When I was offered the job. 6. I seldom go to visit Jehangir Art Gallery. I’m not particularly ________ in art. (interesting/ interested) 7. The toilet hadn’t been cleaned for ages. ____ in art. It was really _________ . (disgusted/disgusting) 8. This is a beautiful table. (wooden/round) (Put the adjectives in the brackets in the correct position) 9. The grand old place of Ram was beautiful. (Identify what kind of adjective is the underlined one) 10. Every man has to pay for his deeds. (Identify the underlined adjective) Insert the suitable adjective from the option given: 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

The _______ prize was won by a Hindu. (good, first) The _______ man lives in a wretched hut. (rich, poor) This is a very _______ matter. (light, serious) The injured man wants ________ advice. (serious, medical) Rohit is a ________ reader. (live, voracious)

1.5 ADVERB Definition: A word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb is called an adverb. 

KINDS OF ADVERB 1. Adverbs of Manner: The words which show how or in what manner. Examples: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well, etc. The dedicated team did the work quickly. Shivaji ruled Maharashtra wisely for many years. The cake is beautifully baked. 2. Adverb of Time: The words that answer the question when. Examples: They shall meet tomorrow evening for a discussion He danced merrily at the party last night. He practiced hard for the match today. 3. Adverbs of Place: The words that answer the question where . Examples: They searched everywhere for the ring. Please! Take this glass there. They went to Mumbai last week. 4. Adverbs of Frequency: The words that answer the question how often. Examples: They generally parched squash in the evening. Often we have tea at ‘The Midtown’. She never tells lies.

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5. Adverbs of Affirmation or Negation: The words that assert the action emphatically. Examples: He always arrives on time for meetings. They are usually not occupied during holidays. I completely agree to your point. 6. Adverbs of Degree: The words which show how much or in what degree or to what extent. Examples: The ravenous child ate the food completely. The dress for the bride was stitched perfectly. The food down here tastes much better. 7. Adverbs of interrogation: The words that refer to question words like when, where, why. Examples: Where had you been this summer? Why are you so sad today? When is this bus supposed to come? 8. Adverbs of Relation The words that refer back to their antecedent noun forms. Examples: Because of proper rains, the farmers had a good harvest. He had a toned body because he exercised regularly. They went to the party because it was for freshers. 9. Adverbs of Reason: These refer to words that justifies an antecedent cause. Examples: I play outdoor games because I love to play in open air. I go to temple because I find peace there. I work as I have to succeed. Study the examples:*Our vacation was too short – the time went very quickly. *The rider of the motorcycle was seriously injured in the accident. “Quickly” or “Seriously” are adverbs. Many adverbs are made by adding- ‘ly’ Adverb= Adjective+ ly Quickly= Quick+ly Carefully= Careful+ly Badly=Bad+ly Heavily=Heavy+ly … (Here, the “y” of “heavy” is replaced with an “i” of “heavily”) Please note that there are some adjectives that end in ‘-ly’ too. Example: friendly, lonely, lovely The key to distinguish whether it is an adverb or an adjective is to note what it qualifies. If it qualifies a noun then it is an adjective.  She hurt the elderly lady.  That is a lovely house. If it qualifies a verb then it is an adverb.  The time went quickly.  I was disappointed that I did so badly in the exam.

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“Good” is an adjective Eg. Your English is good. “Well” is an adverb. Eg. You speak English well. Fate/late/hard are adjectives as well as adverbs. Adverb Adjective Paula works hard. Paula is a hard worker. I got up late this morning. The train is late. 

FORMS OF ADVERBS A. Certain adverbs have the same form as adjectives– Examples: He is a fast learner. (Adjective) The water is rising fast. (Adverb) B. Certain adverbs assume the same form as in the adjectives and also assume –ly at the end Examples: The woman was sleeping soundly. (Adverb) She is badly hurt. (Adverb) C. In some cases adverbs are used as nouns after prepositionsExamples: I work hard. (Adverb) I hardly work. (Adverb) D. In some cases adverbs are used as nouns after prepositionsExamples: I wish to go home from here. I see the sun from above. E. Nouns that express relations of degree, value, place, distance and time also function as adverbsExamples: The food lasted a month. The t-shirt cost a hundred rupees.



ORDER OF ADVERBS Adverbs of time and manner are located next to verb. In case a sentence contains an object, the adverbs are located next to that object. Examples: Seema sings melodiously. (Sings- verb and melodiously- adverb) All of us are studying hard. (Studying- verb and hard- adverb) When two or more adverbs follow a verb, there is a particular order in which the adverbs are located. Adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of time Examples: He was playing happily there yesterday -- Manner place time I hope to play well tomorrow. -- Manner time Adverbs of frequency are positioned between subject and verb. When there are two verbs, the adverb is placed after the first verb. Example: He always arrives at 8:00 pm.

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In case there are verbs like “are, am and is” in the sentence, adverb is located next to the verb. Example: The atmosphere is rather cold. If auxiliaries like “have to, need to and used to” are used in a sentence, the adverb goes before the auxiliary. Example: I rather need to be careful. When an adverb modifies an adjective or an adverb it goes before the modified word. Example: She picked up the bag quite carelessly. The adverb “enough” is always located after the word modified by it. Examples: The drink is sweet enough. The adverb “only” is always located immediately next to the word modified by it. Example: The club is for members only. Exercise 1.5: Pick out the adverbs from the following 1. He speaks quite good English, he could have helped you! 2. She often goes to the fast food restaurants with her friends. 3. I have never been to America; I would like to go over there. 4. I will probably be able to see my girl friend after work. 5. Do they usually read their lessons in the evening? Fill in the correct adverb form (comparative or superlative) of the adjectives in brackets. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

I speak English _______ (fluent) now than last year. She greeted me _______ (polite) of all. She smiled ________ (happy) than before. The girl dances _______ (grace) of all. Could you write ________ (clear)? Planes can fly ______ (high) than birds. He had an accident last year. Now, he drives ______ (careful) than before. Jim can run _______ (fast) than John. Our team played _______ (bad) of all. He worked ________ (hard) than even before.

1.6 Preposition Definition: A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation the person or things denoted by it stands in regard to something else. Examples: The cat jumped off the table. The girl sitting on the last bench is very talkative. The phone is kept on the table.

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KINDS OF PREPOSTION 1.Simple Preposition: At, by, in, on, from, till, to. Examples: They are staring at the new watch in showroom. The drive from Mumbai to Nasik is 200 kms. The contingent arrived in Mumbai in a Lincoln. 2.Compound Preposition: The prepositions which are formed by prefixing a Preposition (a=no or be=by) to a noun, an adjective or an adverb. About, beneath, inside, underneath etc. Examples: Beneath the old building is an ancient monument. Can you please come inside and talk? This idea is beyond his capacity to understand. 3.Phrasal Preposition: Groups of words used with a force of a single preposition. Examples: The order of the high court is in accordance with the safety norms. Can I borrow your ‘Mont Blank’ in lieu of my ‘cross ’? Let’s go to ‘Islanders’ instead of Pizza Hut. Exercise 1.6: Underline the preposition in the following sentences: 1. Little Jack Horner sat in a corner. 2. Old mother Hubbard, she went to the cupboard. 3. She sat by the fire and told me a tale. 4. A fair little girl sat under the tree. 5. He worked and sang from morning till night. 6. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, from the seas and the streams. 7. The actor, along with his girl friend, came to the film’s opening. 8. Marshall cut the rope with the knife. 9. We are not in favor of the proposed rules. 10. The couple rode to the theater in a taxi. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Insert the correct preposition: Your new coat will be finished ______ Monday. The two children knocked the toy into the table ______ purpose. With so many disturbances, I cannot concentrate ______ my work. Joan insisted ______ inviting two more people to the party. Hillary found the entrance to the cave ______ chance.

1.7 Conjunction Definition: A conjunction is a word which joins together sentence and sometimes words. Conjunction joins sentences and often makes them compact. Examples: Ram wore a blue shirt. Ram wore a blue tie. Ram wore a blue shirt and tie.

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

KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS: 1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions join words or sentences of equal rank. The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or etc. Examples: We plan good and execute our plan better. Our pattern of teaching is simple but very effective. She must go to Bombay or to Pune. 2. Subordinating and Conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. These join the subordinating clause to the main clause. Examples: They ate the burgers because they were hungry. The employees made merry as it was Diwali. You will succeed if your efforts are sincere. 3. Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are the conjunctions that are used in pairs. Examples: Either they fight or they perish. The presentation was neither up to the point nor had statistics. Whether it rains or it snows, we have to cross the river. 4. Compound Conjunctions: Compound conjunctions are groups of words that function as joiners in a sentence, for e.g., as if, as soon as, as though, in as much as, etc. Examples: He took off his blazer as soon as the meeting ended. They were preparing for the exam as if, gearing up for a battle. The entire college was cleaned so that the administrators could rate its five star. Exercise 1.7: Fill in the blanks with these words: although, and, because, but, or, since, so, unless, until, when. Things were different ______ I was young. I do it _____ I like it. Let us wait here _____ the rain stops. You cannot be a lawyer _____ you have a law degree. That was years _____ years ago. She has not called _____ she left last week. I saw him leaving an hour _____ two ago. This is an expensive _____ very useful book. We were getting tired ______ we stopped for a rest. He was angry ______ he heard what happened. Walk quickly ______ you will be late. He had to retire ______ of ill health. We will go swimming next Sunday ______ it’s raining. I heard a noise _____ I turned the light on. Would you like a coffee _____ tea? 1.8 Interjection Definition: An interjection is a word or phrase which expresses some sudden feelings or emotions. Interjections may express. Joy: hurray ! Grief: alas !

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Surprise: aah! What! Etc. Examples: Alas! Prof. Banerjee is no more. Hurray! We won the semifinals. Oh! What a great fight. Note: Interjections are not commonly used in formal academic prose, except in case of direct quotations. Exercise 1.8 1. An interjection is _______. a. an exclamation which shows thoughts or feelings b. a meaningless string of sound. c. The same as an adjective. 2.

Which of the following interjections is NOT an expression of surprise or wonder? a. Gee! b. Gosh! c. Boo!

3.

You are a vegetarian and you are offered a dish of raw meat. What would you think? a. Ugh! b. Hurrah! c. Yippee!

4.

Somebody has just stepped on your toe. What interjection would best fit the situation? a. Yoo-Hoo! b. Ouch! c. Eh!

5.

You are most likely to hear or use the interjection boo ____ . a. at a theatrical performance b. while listening to a political speech c. on both of the above mentioned occasions

6.

_____ , Mary! Come here! I want to talk to you. a. Hey b. Mmm c. Oops

7.

“Ta” is synonymous of ____. a. Take it easy b. Thank you c. Tra-la-la

8.

The interjections ‘blimey’ and ‘crickey’ imply ____. a. joy b. surprise or wonder c. irritation

9.

Your children are making a lot of noise and you want to hear the news on the radio. How do you urge silence? a. Shh! b. Tut Tut

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c.

Ow!

10. Which of the following interjections is not used when cheering for a team? a. Rah! b. Yay! c. Yikes! 11. ____! The spinach soup is out of the world. a. Mmmm b. Yuk c. Uh 12. A: I scored 660 points at the TOEFL test! B: ____! That’s amazing! a. Wow b. Aha c. Woe 13. Which is the odd man out? (Which words fits in different group?) a. Hey b. Yoo-hoo c. Oops 14. Paraphrase the interjection used in the following dialogue. A: I’ve forgotten to tell John about the party. B: Eh? a. What did you say? b. Really? c. How come? 15. The interjection ‘woe!’ is a synonym of ____. a. Alas! b. Bother! c. Really!

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2. PHRASES AND CLAUSES PHRASES:

A group of words which makes some indications but not complete sense is called a phrase. Examples: He is a man of wealth. Reena was playing with her doll. There are four types of phrases: Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase and Adverb phrase. 1. Noun Phrase: A noun phrase is made up of a noun and its accompanying modifiers. Examples: The narrow and winding lane. Any wooden bridge. The noun phrase is made up of one piece. All words that comprise a noun phrase are very close to the Noun. Note: Sometimes noun phrase is broken into two parts and the latter part is placed at the end of a sentence. This part is usually a modifying phrase like a participle or a prepositional phrase and is located at the end to emphasize that part. 2. Adjective Phrase: The adjective phrase describes a quality or an attribute in the phrase and functions as an adjective. If there is more than one adjective in the sentence then they are taken consecutively and constitute a phrase. Examples: They belong to a tribe dwelling in hills. A handsome young man won the race. 3. Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase functions as an adverb. It is made up of a single adverb or a group of words that functions as an adverb. It is called an adverbial phrase. Examples: He spoke to me in a rude manner. She is sleeping at this very moment. 4. Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition, a noun or a pronoun (that is the object of the preposition) and, usually, an adjective that modifies the object. Prepositional phrase tell where or when: “in twenty minutes,” “in the dark”, etc. Exercise 2.1: Pick out the Adjective Phrase in the following sentences: 1. A man in great difficulties came to me for help. 2. A man without any enemy is a man with few friends. 3. He tells a tale with a ring of truth in it. 4. A stitch in time saves nine. Pick out the adverbial phrase in the following sentences: 5. Nothing can live on the moon. 6. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 7. He has painted him in his proper colours. 8. Honesty is written on his face.

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9.

The shoe is pressing my toe.

Pick out the noun phrase in the following sentences: 10. His father wished to speak to the Headmaster. 11. Thinking good thoughts precedes good actions. 12. He refuses to answer the question. 13. He denies stealing the money. Pick out the prepositional phrase in the following sentences: 14. At thirty a change came over him. 15. His house is near the temple. CLAUSES: Definition: A group of words, which forms a part of the sentence and contains subject and predicate, is called a clause. Examples: We should live where the climate is good. I do not know what she eats. The bus is before time and passengers will be put to trouble. TYPES OF CLAUSES: There are two types of clauses: a. Independent clauses b. Dependent clauses a. Independent clauses/main clauses: Clauses that can study by themselves as complete sentence are known as main clauses or independent clauses. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate that makes complete sense. Examples: She’s got beauty and brains. Naina is wearing a shirt. Clauses are connected in three ways: 1. Coordination 2. Subordination 3. Semicolon 1. Coordination means joining independent clauses with the use of a co-ordinating conjunction. Examples: For, or, nor, yet, so and but. 2. Subordinating means making a subordinate cause with the use of a subordinating conjunction. When the clause starts with a subordinating conjunction, it is called a subordinate clause, as it depends on the main/independent clauses for its complete sense. Example: Although Roma often thought about joining the film industry, she did not speak to her parents about it. 3. Semicolons connect two independent clauses. Semicolons are used only when the two independent clauses are closely related. Example:

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Gita sings melodiously; her teacher asks her to sing at the annual connect. b. Dependent clauses/ subordinate clause: 1. Adjective clause: Adjective clauses modify/add value to a noun or a pronoun of the main clause. It starts with relative pronouns like whose, who, whom, which or a subordinate conjunction like where and when. These introductory words of the adjective clause modify the words that follow them. The only exception is the preposition which is placed between the introductory word and the word modified by it. Examples: She is the woman who scolded Pratap. The boy with the tattoo was missing. In both the sentences, the clause describes an object and therefore, functions as an adjective. Note: The adjective clause must be placed very close to the word modified by it. If an adjective clause is misplaced, the sentence becomes confusing to the reader. 2. Adverb clause: An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that functions like an adverb; it answers the questions like where, when, why under what conditions etc. it contains a subject and a predicate that makes complete sense. Examples: You can leave when he comes. I will not speak to him till he telephones me. An adverb clause modifies an adverb, verb or an adjective in the main clause. 3. Noun clause: A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun. A clause can be predicate, subject, nominative, appositive, direct object, object of preposition or an indirect object. Examples: I hope I pass the examination. She does not understand what you speak. Exercise 2.2: Pick out the clauses from the following and identify them: 1. The King ordered that the traitor should be put to death. 2. He said that he would not go. 3. Since he always did well on his English teats, his parents were not surprised that he got an A. 4. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us. 5. You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, so that it doesn’t go bad. 6. He said that he was not feeling well. 7. I cannot rely on what he says. 8. The man who was speaking to us was very tall. 9. Do you know anyone that/who speaks Japanese? 10. You should say goodbye to your brother before you leave for Europe. 11. Although he thinks he is smart, he isn’t. 12. Those people whose flight was cancelled were upset. 13. The man whose car we bought was from Texas. 14. That’s the cat which we say yesterday. 15. Since my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats.

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3. SENTENCE AND ITS TYPES SENTENCE Definition: A group of words so arranged as to make complete sense is called a sentence. A sentence is made up of a subject and a predicate. Examples: The dog ate the biscuits. (Subject) The subject of the sentence is always a noun or a pronoun or set of words that acts as a noun. We all went for a movie. (Subject) The part of the subject which describes the subject is a predicate. The predicate must necessarily contain a verb. The only word that qualifies a predicate is the verb. The dog entered the house. (Predicate) BASIC STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE Sentence is made up of three elements: i. Subject (S) ii. Verb (V) iii. Object (O) i. SUBJECT (S): The subject is the noun or a pronoun that the sentence speaks out. Example: The girl is reading a book. What is the sentence speaking about? – “The girl” “The girl” is thus in the sentence is the subject. ii. VERB (V): The verb is an action that is performed in the sentence or the state of being expressed in the sentence. Example: The girl is reading a book. “Reading” is an action performed in above statement, so, “Reading” is thus the verb in the sentence. iii. OBJECT (O): The object is the noun/pronoun to whom or for whom a particular action is performed in the sentence. The object may be direct, indirect or any objective phrase. Example: The girl is reading a book. In the above example, the action of the verb (reading) is performed on the book (object) by the girl (subject). “Book” is thus the object in the sentence. RULE: [Subject = who/what + verb]

[Object= S + V + whom/what]

SENTENCE ORDER: For a sentence to make sense, it is constructed in a particular order. A. In a sentence the verb follows the subject and the order comes after the verb. Examples: Correct: I see the moon S V O Incorrect: the moon I see O S V

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B.

When an adjective or an adjectival phrase in a sentence acts as the predicate, it comes after the noun. Examples: Correct: Ramu is happy. S V Adjective Incorrect:

C.

Happy is Adjective V

Ramu S

In a sentence above, the verb is located near the word it modifies. If an adverb or an adverbial phrase is used to modify an entire sentence, it is located at the beginning. Examples: Correct: I am very happy. S V Adverb Adjective (modified by the adverb) Incorrect: Very I Adverb S

am V

Correct: Laughing gaily Adverbial phrase Incorrect: D.

Sita S

Sita S

tickled V

tickled V

the cat. O

the cat O

laughing gaily. Adverbial

In a sentence, the adjective come before the noun it qualifies. Examples: Correct: The noble Queen lives here. Adjective noun/subject V Incorrect: The Queen Noun/subject

E.

happy. Adjective (modified by the adverb)

noble adjective

lives here. V

When there is a direct object and an indirect object on a sentence, the indirect object comes before the direct object. Examples: Correct: Swati passed Ravi the book. S V O (indirect) O (direct) Incorrect: Swati S

passed V

the book O (direct)

Ravi O (indirect)

Exercise 3.1: Pick out the adverb clause in the following sentences: 1. You may sit wherever you like. 2. He behaves as one might expect him to do. 3. If you eat too much you will be ill. 4. Take a lamp because the night is dark. Pick out the adjective clause in the following sentences: 5. Mary had a little lamp whose fleece was white as snow. 6. The dog that bites does not bark. 7. He tells a tale that sounds untrue. 8. I remember the house where I was born. 9. He laughs best who laughs last.

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Pick out the noun clause in the following sentences: 10. I fear that I shall fail. 11. He saw that the clock had stopped. 12. I do not know what he wants. 13. I went to see what had happened. 14. I do not understand how it all happened. 15. No one knows who he is. TYPES OF SENTENCES: Sentences are classified into four types. 1. Simple 2. Compound 3. Complex 4. Compound complex 1. SIMPLE SENTENCES: A simple sentence contains a single independent clause. It contains a single subject and a single verb. A simple sentence may also have adverbs and adjectives. A simple sentence cannot contain a subordinate clause or another main clause. Examples: The budget was a disappointment. Subject verb [One subject and one verb] The water evaporated quickly in the sun. Subject verb [One subject and one verb] 2. COMPOUND SENTENCES: Compound sentences are made u of two parts which are connected with conjunctions. Both the parts contain a subject and a predicate. Examples: Both the teachers and the student clapped and cheered for the cricket team. Subject subject verb verb Ram Subject

was worried predicate

for

Sita had not come home. subject predicate

All the above sentences also contain two independent clauses called main clause. Example: [The dog bark barks] and [the cat meows]. Main clause main clause 3. COMPLEX SENTENCES: A sentence that is made up of main clause and one or more subordinate clause is called a complex sentence. The clauses are connected with subordinating conjunctions. Example: As my father entered the house, Swadesh quickly hid the box in the cupboard and went towards the door. [As my father entered the house] subordinate clause, [Swadesh quickly hid the box in the cupboard] main clause [And went towards the door] subordinate clause. The above example is constructed with one main clause and two subordinate clauses.

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Note: Subordinate clause cannot stand on its own, so main clause lends meaning to it, Example: The two ladies began to discuss with interest the strange things which they had been listening to. [The two ladies began to discuss with interest the strange things] main clause [Which they had been listening to] subordinate clause. 4. COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCE: A compound complex sentence consists of two main clauses and one subordinate clause. The subordinate clause can be a part of the main clause. Examples: Nancy wanted to go to the college, but she couldn’t until her college bus came. [Nancy wanted to go college] main clause, [She couldn’t] main clause, [Until her college bus came] subordinate clause. When night fell and the cockroaches crept out of their hiding places, Madhvi was very scared. [When night fell] subordinate clause [The cockroaches crept out of their hiding place] main clause [Madhavi was very scared] main clause Exercise 3.2 Classify the following sentence into simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentence: 1. I returned home because I was tired. 2. He came oftener than we expected. 3. He blushes; therefore he is guilty. 4. He must have done his duty, for he is a conscientious man. 5. Man proposes, but God disposes. 6. Where ignorance is bliss, ‘tis folly to be wise. 7. He tried hard, but he did not succeed. 8. She must weep or else she will die. 9. They serve God well who serve his creatures. 10. Sheena went to play, but Reena stayed back at home because of high fever. 11. The person who is standing is my uncle, and he will be staying with us. 12. Dinesh wanted to come but he cannot come as his car is at the garage. 13. Anna and Ria planned to come back to the hostel. 14. God made the country and manmade the town. 15. The horse reared and the rider was thrown.

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4. ARTICLES Definition: A word which is used at the beginning of a noun phrase is called an article. An article is a word that combines with the noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles play an important role in the sentence formation. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun. Among the classical parts of speech, articles are considered a special category of the adjectives. Some modern linguists prefer to classify them within a separate part of speech - determiners. There are two types of articles: a. Definite article ‘the’ – the word preceding a noun and implying a specific or known instance. b. Indefinite article ‘a’ and ‘an’ – the word preceding a noun and specify to anything. a. Definite article ‘THE’ – the definite article ‘THE’ is used 1) When we know the listener knows or can work out what particular person/thing we are talking about. Examples: The apple you ate was rotten. Did you lock the room? I did not enjoy the movie. He arrived in the 11:00 o’clock train. Note: In the above examples, the speaker and the listener know the things that are being spoken about. Therefore, ‘the’ is used to indicate them. 2) The speaker and the listener know the things because: a. Things have been mentioned already. Examples: She’s got two children- a girl and a boy. The boy is fourteen and the girl is eight. Shut the box. Call the boy. A girl entered the house. In the house lived a man who loved the girl. b.

When we are singling out the things we are speaking about: Examples: Who are the girls over there with shinny hair? I shall wear the black suit. Tell Lucy the story of Robin Hood.

c.

Things mentioned are understood from the situation. Examples: Will you shut the window? I am in the study room. Did you like the car?

3) When the reader knows the things that are stated because there is no other choice, there is only one of those types of thing. So the reader knows and understands what is meant by ‘the’ in context. Examples: I haven’t seen the sun today. Can you see the clouds above? What is the size of the earth? 4) In case of superlatives-

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Examples: Chimmanlal is the tallest boy in my class. He is the youngest in his family. 5) After a name is identifying an expression to further describe the person/thingsExamples: Mahatama Gandhi, the national leader, preached non-violence. Alexander the great; George the fifth; Edward the eighth. I once met Shobhaa De, the novelist and columnist. You don’t mean you met the ‘Tony Blair’, do you? Harry’s bar is the place to go. 6) When the members of a group are generalized, no article is used. However, when a sentence speaks about a specific group ‘the’ is used. Examples: Teachers are usually underpaid. The teachers planned to go on a strike. Monks are not attached to material things. The monks were standing outside the church. 7) When the physical environment is indicated ‘the’ is used and suggests that the listener/reader knows what is being spoken about. Examples: My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains. I love to play football in the rain. We love the weather in the country. 8) Used before other proper nouns consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of + noun. Examples: The Asiatic society. The Gate Way of India. 9) Used as an adverb with a comparative. Examples: The more, the merrier. The sooner, the better. 10) Before certain geographical names. Examples: The Punjab The United States 11) Before the names of certain books and scriptures. Examples: The Vedas The Ramayana The Mahabharata 12) Before numeral adjectives showing order. Example: All the students of the fifth class were absent. 13) Used with singular forms of the musical instruments that is spoken about in general. Examples:

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We have learned to play the violin. They sent me to learn the guitar. 14) Used with different places names. Examples: Deserts (the Sahara) Rivers (the Nile) Island (the Caribbean islands) INDEFINITE ARTICLES ‘A’ AND ‘AN’ a) The indefinite articles ‘a’ is used before a word beginning with a consonant or a vowel with a consonant sound. Examples: -A woman -a university -A mat -a one way lane b) The indefinite article ‘an’ is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, I, o, u) or words beginning with a mute consonant or before individuals letters spoken with a vowel sound. Examples: -An over -an umbrella -an apple -An hour -an egg -an island USAGE OF ‘A’/ ‘AN’ i. ‘a’/‘an’ is used before a singular noun which is countable, and exclamations containing singular countable nouns. Examples: -A dog -an elephant -A plant -I need a pen. ii. Before a vowel ‘an’ is used instead of ‘a’. Examples: -An umbrella -An elephant -An idea iii. ‘a’ is used before vowels which have a consonant sound. Examples: -A university -A one man army Note: The vowel ‘u’ has two sounds. – Europe union (sounds like ‘yoo’). In this case ‘a’ will be the preceding articles: a European girl, a union leader. The second sound is usher, umbrella (sounds like ‘uh’) In this case ‘an’ will precede the noun an usher, an umbrella. iv. ‘an’ is used before consonant which has a vowel sound. Examples: -An hour -An MP -An honest man v.

‘a’/ ‘an’ is used in certain expressions of quality with certain numbers and in expression of price.

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Examples: - A lot of - A great many - A hundred - 60 kms an hour vi. ‘a’/ ‘an’ is used in negative expressions and other prepositions. Examples: - I don’t have a shirt. - Do not step out o the house without a security guard. vii. ‘a’/ ‘an’ can be used in descriptions of something. Examples: - Such a lovely queue! - It was a warm day. - It is an extremely hot day. Note: the indefinite articles cannot be used before plurals A man – men (not a men) An ostrich – ostriches (not an ostriches) CORRECT USAGE OF ARTICLES1. An article is used before a common nounExample: -Behave like a gentleman. 2. Definite article ‘the’ is also used as an adverb with adjectivesExample: -Always expect the unexpected. 3. Omitted before Proper, Material and Abstract NounsExamples: -Socrates was a great philosopher. -A woman is tender-hearted. 4.

In the following case too, the article is not useda. Before names of relationi. Mother is the best creation of God. (not ‘the’/ ‘a’ mother) b. In some phrases likei. To catch fire. ii. To take breath. c. Titles do not have articlesi. King Alexander rode on his horse. (not ‘the king’/ ‘a king’) ii. I met President Pratibha Devi Patil. (not ‘the President’)

5. Definite article is not used before bothExample: -Both women were good wrestlers. (not ‘the’ both) 6. Articles are not used in abbreviated formatsExamples: Picture captions: Roots and Stems Dictionary entries: head part of the be

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Headlines: introduction, chapter three, section D 7. Definite article is not used when ‘day before’ , or ‘day after’ is spoken aboutExamples: -What are your plans for next September? (not ‘the next September’) -I will meet you on Friday. (not ‘the Friday’) 8. ‘a’/ ‘an’ is not used with exclamations containing uncountable nounsExamples: -What nonsense! (not ‘a nonsense’) -What luck! (not ‘a luck’) 9. Definite article is used to talk about body parts if it comes after prepositions: Examples: - I was shot in the leg. - I was injured above the chin. 10. Man and woman can be used with or without an articleExamples: - Man and woman are the creations of God. - A woman is incomplete without a man. 11. Definite article is not used to talk about a person’s body parts or his possessionsExamples: - Have you broken your arm? (not ‘an arm’) - He nodded his head in deal. (not ‘the head’) 12. When a noun modifies a noun, the first noun does not have an articleExample: - I want you to give me piano lessons. (not ‘the piano’) Exercise 4.1: Insert the appropriate articles. (a, an, the) 1. It was ___ excellent meal last night. 2. We usually have ____ dinner at eight. 3. I’m against _____ Capital punishment. 4. ______ Underground is very convenient way of getting around London. 5. Only ____ best quality is sold by us. 6. It was _____ proudest moment of my life. 7. ____ pupil should obey his teacher. 8. _____ woman is more sensitive than ____ man. 9. He was _____ the last man to arrive. 10. ___ bird in ____ hand is worth two in ____ bush. Tell whether the following sentence requires articles or not. If yes, which one? 11. What time do you have lunch? 12. Young girls like fairy tales. 13. I learnt French at school. 14. College is very near my home. 15. He was elected chairman of Board.

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5. MODIFIERS MODIFIERS: A word used with another word to add to or limit its meaning is called a modifier. There are 3 most common modifiers 1. Dangling Modifiers: A dangling modifier is a modifying word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. To correct a dangling modifier we sometimes need to add a subject. Example: Incorrect: After finishing the work, the television was turned on. Correct: After finishing the work, we turned on the television. In the above example the subject ‘we’ is introduced and the second sentence is corrected. Few examples of dangling modifiers which can be rectified as follows: Insertion of the subject next to the modifier. Incorrect: Having hiked all day, my backpack was killing me. Correct: My backpack was killing me as I hiked all day. Inserting the subject into modifier phrase and converting it into a clause with a finite verb, subject and predicate. Incorrect: While talking on the phone, the doorbell rang. Correct: While John was talking on the phone, the door bell rang. 2. Misplaced Modifiers: A misplaced modifier is a word/ phrase describing something but not placed near the word it is supposed to modify. Unlike dangling modifier, a new subject need not be added, only the places of words have to be interchanged. Examples: Incorrect: Bob nearly ate the whole chicken. Correct: Bob ate nearly the whole chicken. Incorrect: Piled up to the washer, I began to do the laundry. Correct: I began doing the laundry piled up next to the washer. Incorrect: We read that Janet was married in her last letter. Correct: In her last letter, we read that Janet was married. 3. Squinting Modifiers: When the adverb modifier is misplaced and results in confusing meaning, it is called a squinting modifier. Example: Incorrect: Student who practice writing often will benefit. Correct: Students will often benefit when they practice writing. 4. Which/that: A modifier that is introduced by ‘which’ should add only non-essential details. A modifier that is introduced by ‘that’ should add essential meaning to the sentence. Example: Incorrect: Please bring the black T-shirt which is mine. Correct: Please bring the black T-shirt that is mine. Exercise 5.1: Identify and rectify the error in each of the sentences: 1. Standing on the balcony, the ocean view was magnificent. 2. Alice almost spent Rs. 5000 on a new CD player.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

The faulty alarm nearly sounded five times yesterday. I heard that there was a revolution in the evening news. Running across the floor, the rug slipped and I lost my balance. Rony has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye. After walking for hours, the car looked wonderful. While watching a classic film, commercials are irritating. At the age of twelve, my mother entered me into the contest. Budgeting his money carefully, his debts were finally paid. By digging test wells, new oil sources were located. To lose weight, fatty foods should be avoided. Dropped in the bushes, the child found the missing keys. To please the children, some fireworks were set off early.

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6. SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT Definition: Subject – verb agreement means that the subject and verbs should agree in the same number (singular or plural) and person. The correctness of the sentence depends on the correct usage of the verb. Examples: 1. The quality of the material used was not good. 2. The oil needs to be changed. 3. A high percentage of the people were voting for the new school. 4. Each of the untrustworthy men were interrogated. 5. Vedic and the dharmic cultures are both taught in our school. Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement: 1. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural verb. Examples: a. Each boy and girl were given a toy. b. The prime minister and the cabinet members are on a vacation this week. c. Are your parents at home this evening. d. Fire and water do not agree. e. Mother and the child were playing. Exception to the above rule: The noun suggests to one idea or refers to the same person or thing the verb is singular. Example: The rise and fall of the tide is due to the lunar influence. The horse and the carriage are at the door.

NotePhrases such as “together with”, “as well as” and “along with” are not the same as “and”. The phrases introduced by “as well as” or “along with” will modify the earlier word (“mayor” in this case), but it does not compound the subject (as the word “and” would do). Examples: The mayor as well as his brother is going to prison. The mayor and his brother are going to jail.

2. Words joined with the singular subject by with, as well as etc. are not of any major importance. Therefore we put in the singular. Examples: a. Gold as well as silver has risen in the price. b. The ship, with its crew, was lost. c. The minister with his followers is to be present. d. Sanskrit as well as Hindi was taught there. e. The house, with its contents, was gutted in fire. 3. The subject joined by or nor require a singular verb. Examples: a. Either the dog or the cat has been there.

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b. c. d.

Neither Neena nor Sheena admits to have eaten the chocolate. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him. No stone was left unturned.

Note: Because a sentence like “Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.” Sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is possible.

4. One of the subject joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ is plural require a plural verb. Example: a. Neither the teacher nor the students are present. b. Either of the students checks the list twice. c. Neither my brother nor my parents stay in London. d. Neither the Chairman nor the members are present. 5. Either, neither, each, every, one, many a, must be followed by a singular verb. Examples: a. Neither of the two candidates was smart. b. Each of these apples is rotten. c. Every one of the rooms is full. d. Each of the orchestra members has a solo in this song. e. Many a man has done so. 6. Two nouns with each and every, though connected with and require a singular verb. Examples: a. Every boy and every girl was scrutinized. 7. Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. Examples: b. My brother is a nutritionist. c. My sisters are mathematicians. Note: Some nouns having meaning in singular and plural form take a singular verb. Science is a branch of study in every school. Treating patients still takes up most of my day. No news is good news. The audience is in for a real surprise in the second act. Kane and Able by Jeffry Archer is my favorite novels.

8. Pains and means take either the singular or plural verb but income with means always take a plural form. Examples: a. Great pains have been taken to achieve the goals. b. The means employed by you is sufficient. c. The proprietor’s means were much reduced compared to the loss and damage.

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d. The jeweler’s means are ample. 9. Some nouns which are singular in form and plural in meaning take a plural verb. Example: a. According to the present market rates twelve dozen cost one hundred rupees. “None”, though singular, takes a plural verb. Examples: b. None of the jewels are real. c. None of his excuses are legitimate, but all of them are creative. d. None are so deaf as those who will not hear. Note- the indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and, therefore, requires singular verbs. Everyone has done his or her homework. Somebody has left his purse.

10. If the subject is collective noun, it takes singular verb, and when the collection is thought of as a whole, it takes plural verb. Examples: a. The committee has issued its report. b. The committee meets on Friday at noon. / The committee meet on Friday at noon. c. A majority is needed to pass the bill. d. A majority of students feel unsafe on school grounds. e. The jury members are divided on the minor point. 11. If the plural noun is a proper name or specified phrase, it must be followed by a singular verb. Examples: a. The Three Musketeers was written by Dumas. b. The principle of gravity is explained by Newton. c. 3 Idiots is a good movie. d. The Gulf has a big oil refinery. e. Once upon a time is a usual way to start a story. 12. If the plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole then it is generally followed by a singular verb. Examples: a. $1 million is a large sum. b. 2 minutes is given to each child to speak in the topic. c. Two tons of tin cost thousand rupees. 13. Some indefinite pronouns- such as all, some- are singular or plural depending on what they’re referring to. (is the thing referred to countable or not?) Examples: a. Some of the beads are missing. b. Some water is gone. Note: Sometimes modifiers will get between the subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb. Examples: The Mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

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14. Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all, any more, most and some acts as subject.) sums and products of mathematical processes and expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression “more than one” (oddly enough) takes a singular verb. More than one student has tried this. Some of the voters are still angry. A large percentage of the older population is voting against her. Two- fifths of the troops were lost in battle. Note: The expression “A large number of….” Is always followed by a plural verb and expression “the number of…..” is always followed by a singular verb. A number of students have failed the test. The number of students failing the test is large.

Exercise 6.1: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb given in the parenthesis. 1. Politics _____ (is/are) a dirty game. 2. No news _____ (is/ are) good news. 3. He _____ (is/ are) mistaken. 4. He and not you ______ (deserves/ deserve) this favor. 5. You and he _____ (has/ have) played a dirty game in this matter. 6. Burning dung cakes ____ (kills/ kill) mosquitoes. 7. It _____ (is/ are) they who ______ (is/ are) to blame. 8. I _____ (am/ is/ are) in the wrong lane. 9. Boys _____ (is/ are) taking the test. 10. They _____ (has/ have) not finished their test. 11. Mary ______ (is/ are) reciting a poem. 12. They _____ (is/ are) good speakers. 13. You too ______ (is/ are) mistaken. 14. I ______ (am/ is/ are) sure to win a scholarship. 15. It _____ (was/ were) very hot yesterday. Exercise 6.2: Complete the following passage. Trees ______ (is/ are) the wealth of our country. Almost all the trees ______ (is/ are) useful in many ways. They ______ (absorb/ absorbs) carbon dioxide and ______ (give/ gives) out oxygen which _______ (is/ are) necessary for the survival of human life. They _____ (purify/ purifies) air and ______ (gives/ give) fruits, shade, firewood and timber. The lush greenery of the forests _____ (add/ adds) to both the beauty and the joy of nature. When we ______ (looks/ look) at this, we ______ (is/ are) fascinated and our heart ______ (jumps/ jump) with extreme joy. The melodious songs of birds _____ (serve/ serves) as a soothing balm to the tired nerves of the people. In the spring season, trees ______ (splashes/ splash) colour and ______ (scatter/scatters)beauty round. Exercise 6.3 Correct the form of the verb in the following sentences in order to confirm to the subject verb agreement. 1.

Ocean currents, moisture- bearing winds, and air temperature all contributes to rainfall, which is one of the primary factors of climate.

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2.

A few months after they are born, a baby start looking into the eyes of the adults, and adults’ facial expressions very basic one such as smiling—draws responses from the infants.

3.

Macroeconomics deal with the behavior of the economy as a whole.

4.

Adding extra passengers cause a boat to settle deeper in the waters.

5.

Archeologists have found records more than two thousand years old that shows the amount of precious metal people deposited in a temple in Babylon.

6.

A number of important services for individual and corporations is provided by a bank, which is more than just a safe place to sore money.

7.

John and his parents is at the movies.

8.

Mary, along with her twenty friends, are planning a party.

9.

Much information about the cross- cultural facial expressions have been published in the psychology journals.

10. Forensic scientists, who work in crime laboratories, carry out testing that help law enforcement agencies solve crimes. Exercise 6.4: Correct the verb forms in the passage, if they are wrong. 1.

Everyone who have ever been to a graduation know how exciting it can be for the graduates. In our town, nearly the whole population come each year. There is one thing that both graduates and guests enjoys: the awarding of scholarships. This ceremony, along with the closing exercises, make attending the graduation worthwhile. Several of the students who receives awards plans to attend the community college. Many former graduates is grateful for opportunities that such an award provide.

2.

Foe many writes the worst part of writing experience are the very beginning, when they is sitting at the kitchen table staring at the blank sheet of paper or in front of that unblinking and perfectly empty computer monitor. “I has nothing to say”; is the only thing that comes to mind. “I is XX years old and I have done nothing, discovered nothing, been nothing, and there is absolutely no thoughts in my head that anyone would ever want to read about.” This is the Censor in your brain, your Self-Critic, and sometimes that Censor is bigger than you is. Who knows that caused the ugly Censor to be there a bad experience in the third grade? Sometimes your mother said once during potty training? – it don’t matter. The Censor is there for all of us, building and rebuilding this thing called Writher’s Block, one of the Censor’s many self-limiting toys. It might be some comfort to know that even professional writers suffer from Writer’s Block from time to time. Some of the greatest writers in literature Leo Tolstoy, Virginia Woolf, Katherine Mansfield, Joseph Conrad and Ernest Hemingway war tormented by momentary lapses in their ability to produce text although you wouldn’t think it possible if you’ve ever tried to pick up War and Peace with one hand.

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7. PRONOUN AGREEMENT 

Pronouns must agree in the number, person and gender with their antecedent. An antecedent is what a pronoun replaces or refers to. Example: 1. Jose parked his car on the street. 2. I think these are the most interesting photographs. 3. Are all of her children asleep? 4. Ria bought a dress and wanted to show it to her friends. 5. I am impressed by Guruji’s ability to control his temper.



Collective nouns will take up a singular pronoun if considered as a single entity. Its members or individuals will take up a plural pronoun. Example: 1. Both the children have finished their homework. 2. The house and garage both have developed cracks in the foundation.



Compound Antecedents: The rule for the compound antecedents are a. If the antecedent is connected by and, the pronoun should be plural, for eg. Ram and Shyam have finished their homework. Mother and daughter are playing in their garden. b.

If the antecedent is connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ and both are singular, the pronoun should be singular. For eg. Neither Ram nor his friends has finished his homework. Neither the house nor the garage has a crack in its foundation.

c.

If the antecedent is connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, the pronoun must agree with the nearest antecedent. For eg. Neither Ram nor his friends have finished their homework. Neither the mother nor the twins have had their breakfast. Indefinite pronouns: following indefinite pronouns require a singular verb and singular pronoun. Anybody Everybody Each Nobody Somebody Anyone Everybody Either No one Someone Anything Everything Neither Nothing Something

If the gender is the same, then only a common pronoun can be picked, otherwise it changes. Examples: 1. Does everyone have his/ her password? 2. Rewrite so that the antecedent is plural: Do all the students have their password? 3. Rewrite to eliminate the pronoun: Does every student have a password? Other examples for the above pronoun: 1. Anybody can do it if he tries to. 2. Everyone ran as fast as they could. 3. Each of them had their share of ice-cream. If a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents, such sentences are unclear and lead to ambiguity. Example: Incorrect: Sia and Tara are going to her house after school. Correct: Sia and Tara are going to Sia’s house after school.

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Incorrect: Rajni walks to work because it takes her 20 minutes. Correct: Rajni walks to work because the trip takes her only 20 minutes. Relative pronoun: Use “who”, “whom”, “whose” to refer to people. Use “which” and “that” to refer to animal or thing. (If you are referring to a pet, “who” can be used) Pronoun case: Subjective case I You He, she, it We You (plural) They Who

Objective case Me You Him, her, it Us you (plural) Them Whom

Pronouns should be consistent in person, number and gender. Example: If you are thinking of buying a new car, you should carefully consider the safety rating of the cars you’re considering. If one is thinking of buying a new car, one should carefully consider the safety ratings of the cars they’re considering. Exercise 7.1 Fill in the blanks from the given options. 1. Five of (we, us, ourselves) took a cab to the play. 2. Are you and (they, them, themselves) attending the meeting. 3. No one is more concerned about the matter than (she, her, herself). 4. (who, whom) can I go out with tonight? 5. Margaret and (I, me, myself) hope to be roommates. 6. The committee told Smith and (they, them, themselves) to write a new resolution. 7. Is he the one for (who, whom) the note is intended? 8. We discovered that it was (they, them, themselves) who started the fire. 9. Everyone asked Joan and (he, him, himself) to speak at the convention. 10. A person as young as (she, her, herslf) should not be given too much responsibility.

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8. TENSES Definition: The tense of a sentence indicates the ‘time’ in which a verb is located. The tense also indicates ‘state or action’ of the verb. A change in the tense brings about a change in the form of the verb. There are three types of tenses: PRESENT TENSE: I see. PAST TENSE: I saw. FUTURE TENSE: I will see. A verb that refers to present time is said to be in the PRESENT TENSE. I see, They drink A verb that refers to past time is said to be in the PAST TENSE. I saw, I wrote, They read A verb that refers to future time is said to be in FUTURE TENSE. I will see, They will eat The three tenses can be further classified as Simple present tense: The verb shows that the action is mentioned simply, without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action. Present continuous tense: The verb shows that the action is mentioned as incomplete or continuous i.e. as still going on. Present perfect tense: The verb shows that the action is mentioned as finished, complete or perfect at this present moment. Present perfect continuous tense: The verb shows that the action is going on continuously and not completely at this present moment. Tenses SIMPLE CONTINUOUS/ PROGRESSIVE PERFECT

Present I WATCH I AM WATCHING

Past I WATCHED I WAS WATCHING

I HAVE WATCHED

I HAD WATCHED

PERFECT CONTINUOUS/ PROGRESSIVE

I HAVE BEEN WATCHING

I HAD BEEN WATCHING

Future I SHALL WATCH I SHALL BE WATCHING I SHALL HAVE WATCHED I SHALL HAVE BEEN WATCHING

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH This chapter contains construction of sentences in direct and indirect speech. Direct speech: When actual thoughts or words of people are reported exactly as they spoke within the quotes, the sentence construction/ formation is known as direct speech. Examples: He said, “I am unwell.” Gopal said to Krishna, “This is my basket.”

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Note- A comma is always used between the reporting verb and the direct speech. If indirect speech is followed by reporting verb, a comma is used instead of a full stop before the end quotation mark. Quotation marks are used in direct speech when there are quotations inside quotations, double quotation marks used inside a single quotation marks are used outside or vice-versa. Example: Sita said, “He told me he will miss you.” Indirect speech: When actual thoughts or words of people are reported without using their exact words, the sentence construction is called indirect speech. Examples: He said that he was unwell. He said that he passed the examination. Note: Direct and indirect sentences can never be mixed in a single sentence. Examples: Incorrect- I said I am unwell. Correct- I said I was unwell. SPEECH

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE (REPORTING PORTION)

JOINED BY

DIRECT

He said to me. (Reporting portion)

(comma)

INDIRECT

He said to me.

That

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE (CHANGE OF SPEECH) (ACTUAL SPEECH) (within inverted commas) “I am too ill to speak now” He was too ill to speak then.

Conversion of direct to indirect speech: When a speech is converted from direct to indirect speech, there are certain grammatical differences between the two. 1.

Change in speech entails a change in the pronoun. Examples: Direct speech- The woman said, “I have come for an interview with the principal.” Indirect speech- The woman said that she had come for an interview with the principal.

2.

There is a change of time and place with a change in the speech some words like “here” and “now” are dropped in indirect speech. Examples: Direct speech- Nancy said, “I don’t feel comfortable here.” Indirect speech- Nancy said that she did not feel comfortable there. Note: Nancy is no longer at the place where she does not feel comfortable, so ‘here’ is not used in indirect speech. Direct speech- Nihal said, “I am too ill to speak now.” Indirect speech- Nihal said that he was too ill to speak then. now

becomes

then

tonight

This

That

Tomorrow

These

those

becomes

That night The next day The

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Here

There

Hither

Thither

Hence

Thence

Ago

Before

Come

Go (not

Today

Always) That day

Yesterday

Last night

Next week

(or) the same Day

following day The previous day (or)the day before the night before (Or)the previous Night The following week (or)the next Week

3.

Change in time brings about a change in the tense of the sentence. Examples: Direct speech- She said, “My master is writing letters.” Indirect speech- She said that her master was writing letters. Direct speech – He said, “I am speaking the truth.” Indirect speech- He said that he was speaking the truth.

4.

The conjunction “that” is used in indirect speech. Examples: Direct speech- She said, “I am not attending the party.” Indirect speech- She informed me that she was not attending the party. Note: That is not used after usual reporting verbs like “think” and “said”. Examples: I said I was speaking the truth.

5.

When questions are stated in indirect speech, the subject goes before the verb. If the question has an auxiliary “do” to it, it is omitted in indirect speech. Examples: Direct – Where are you going? Indirect- I wanted to know where he was going. Direct- What do you want? Indirect- He asked what I wanted.

6.

“Yes” and “no” questions are stated with an “if” or whether in indirect speech. Examples: Direct- Do you want an ice- cream? Indirect – She asked me if/ whether I wanted an ice cream. “Say” and “tell” can be used in case questions are answered. Examples: I told him that he was a liar. He never says where he is going. Please tell me if you want an ice cream.

7.

Question marks are omitted in indirect speech.

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Examples: Direct- What do you think of yourself? Indirect- I asked what he thought of himself. 8.

Usage of infinitives in indirect speech. A. When a speech is related to an action like promises, order, request etc, it is reprted with an infinitive in indirect speech. Examples: He had planned to leave at night. They were ordered to sit down. B. An infinitive follows an object when verbs like asks, tell, order or advise are used but there is no object in case of verbs like offer and promise. Examples: She promised to come early. She ordered me to close the door. C.

An infinitive follows a question word in indirect speech when “should” is used in indirect speech. Examples: Direct: When should I reach the venue? Indirect: He asked the manager when to reach the venue.

D. An infinitive is not used after “suggest” or “say”. A modal verb is used along with a thatclause when these words are used. Examples: Correct: I said that she should come to the office on time. Incorrect: I said to him to come to the office on time. 9.

Tenses in direct and indirect speech. A. “will” becomes “would” in indirect speech. Examples: Direct: I will miss you. Indirect: He said he would miss me. B. Simple present tense becomes simple past tense in indirect speech. Example: Direct: He wants to meet Mr. Rao. Indirect: He said he wanted to meet Mr. Rao. C.

Present continuous becomes past continuous tense in indirect speech. Example: Direct: I am waiting for my wife. Indirect: I said I was waiting for my wife.

D. Present perfect tense becomes past perfect tense in indirect speech. Example: Direct: This has been an exciting weekend. Indirect: They said it had been an exciting weekend. E.

Past becomes past perfect in indirect speech. Example: Direct: I stayed at my house all day.

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Indirect: I said that I had stayed at my house all day. F.

“Can” becomes “could” in indirect speech. Example: Direct: Can you pass me the bottle? Indirect: He asked if I could pass him the bottle.

G. “May” becomes “might” in indirect speech. Examples: Direct: I may become a great singer one day. Indirect: He said that he might become a great singer one day. H. Past perfect tense does not change when it is converted into indirect speech. Examples: Direct: She scolded me because I had arrived late. Indirect: He said that she scolded him because he had arrived late/ I.

Past modal verbs do not change when converted into indirect speech. Example: Direct: It would be wonderful if I could meet her. Indirect: He said it would be wonderful if he could meet her.

Exercise 8.1 Use the correct form of tense given n the brackets and complete the sentences to make it meaningful. 1. My house (be) warmer if the furnace worked. 2. If I had the necessary ingredients, I (make) spaghetti. 3. Mary (find) the missing key if you give her enough time. 4. If he frames the pictures correctly tomorrow, it (look) good. 5. If Joe had taken the right train, he (arrived) in Paris by now. 6. Tom would see the sights better if he (sit) in the front seat. 7. If you (add) water to the powder, you will create a delicious drink. 8. Gene (pass) the test if he had studied for it. 9. If Mr. Smith had come on time, we (meet) him at the station. 10. Bob (reach) the city by tomorrow if he drives all day today. 11. If you polish the silver today, it (look) nice for the party tomorrow. 12. If Da Vinci were painting today, he (be) famous. 13. The car (be) clean now if you had washed it yesterday. 14. Your vocabulary (improve) in the future if you read a lot now. 15. If you had left earlier, you (arrive) on time. 16. We (have) plenty of space if we lived in that big house. 17. If you (sleep) more, you would have more energy. 18. If James (eat) all of his food, he would have felt satisfied by now. 19. We would have less strife in the world if people (be) kinder to each other. 20. If the gardeners plant that tree, it (bloom) next spring. MOODS AND VOICES MOOD: Mood is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by a verb is expressed. There are four types of moods:1. THE INDICATIVE MOOD:

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The indicative mood is used:A. To start or indicate a fact. The sun rises in the east. They came to our house yesterday. B. To ask questions. Why are you late? Does he want to go? C.

To express a supposition regarding it as fact or possibility: If there is a strike, the school will remain closed. If you want it, I shall surely do it.

2. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD: The imperative mood is used:A. To express a command: Go away. Don’t make a noise. B. To express a request:Please give me your pen. NOTE:- the imperative mood is used in second person, because the person commanded is the person you are addressing or speaking to. (i.e. , you) The subject ‘you’ is usually omitted in the imperative mood. C.

To express prayer or entreaty: Have mercy upon us. May you always be happy.

3. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: The subjunctive mood is used:A. To express an imaginary or improbable condition with its consequences: If I were a king, I would have established Ram Rajya. B. To express a doubt or supposition: Suppose he loses the game what will he do? C.

To express a wish or desire: I wish I were a millionaire.

D. To express a purpose: Work hard that you may pass. 4. THE INTERROGATIVE MOOD: In interrogative mood, the subject is usually placed after the auxiliary verb and before the main verb. Are you going to Delhi? Have I done this already? VOICE: Voice is that form of verb that tells whether an action is performed by the subject or is done to the subject. 1. ACTIVE VOICE: The verb that expresses the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.

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Examples: Sita paints a picture. She loves me. The hunters shot the tiger. Yashaswi is singing a song. In all the above examples, the subject is performing an action. The subject is active. So the sentence is in active voice. 2. PASSIVE VOICE: The verb that expresses what is done to the subject is said to be in passive voice. Examples: I am loved by him. The tiger was shot by the hunters. The child will be taught by Ravi. Sita is helped by Ram. In all the above examples, the subject undergoes an action. A specific action is performed on the subject instead of the subject performing it. The subject is passive. So the sentence is in passive voice. 3. CHANGE OF VOICE: When a sentence is changed from an active to a passive voice, the object of the verb in the sentence turns into subject of the verb. Examples: ACTIVE: The teacher is teaching the students. [“the teacher”, subject of the verb, “is teaching”] PASSIVE: The students are taught by the teacher. [“the teacher”, object of the verb, “taught”] Active: They knew it. Passive: It was known to them. When a sentence contains an indirect as well as a direct object, either objects turn into the subject of the verb. Examples: ACTIVE: Miss Daisy gave me a book. PASSIVE: A book was given to me by Miss Daisy. PASSIVE: I was given a book by Miss Daisy. In the above example, “a book” (direct) and “I” (indirect) becomes the subject in the passive voice. Note:- Sentences in the passive voice include a “by the ……” phrase which follows the verb if the agent of action is named. The passive forms of a verb are created by adding a form of the verb “to be” to the past participle of the main verb. USES OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE: The active voice is used when the subject is to be made prominent; the passive, when the object is to be made prominent. The passive voice is preferred to the active voice in the following cases:A. When the doer is not known, or when it is not intended to name him. B. When the subject in the active voice is clear from the context. C. When we mean to take the greater interest in the sufferer than in the doer of the action.

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9. PARALLELISM & COMPARISON PARALLELISM Parallelism means that two or more sentences (or parts of the sentences) have the same grammatical structure. A parallel structure is used when you have two or more comparable ideas or items. Types of parallelism wherein any deviation from these causes errors of parallelism: 1. Parallelism of Tenses: Actions controlled by the same subject, and denoting the same time frame within the same sentence, should be denoted by the same tense. Example: Incorrect: I enjoy biking and to walk down by the pier. Correct: I enjoy biking and walking down by the pier. 2. Parallelism of Gerunds and Infinitives: When the first item in the list is a gerund or an infinitive, the rest of the items should also follow the same pattern. Examples: Incorrect: She likes cooking, jogging and to read. Correct: She likes cooking, jogging and reading. Incorrect: Maria likes hiking, swimming and to ride a bicycle. Correct: Maria likes hiking, swimming and riding a bicycle. 3. Parallelism when conjunctions are used: Conjunctions join words that are comparable and parallel. When the correlative conjunctions are used in a sentence they will join comparable and parallel words structures. Examples: Incorrect: Not only did Goldilocks eat their porridge, but also made a mess as well. Correct: Not only did Goldilocks eat their porridge, but she also made a mess as well. Incorrect: Either Monty repents for his actions or faces punishment. Correct: Either Monty repents for his actions or he faces punishment. 4. Parallelism of Clauses: When clauses are used in a sentence they are usually expressed in a parallel structure and all should be either in the active voice or in the passive voice. Examples: Incorrect: The doctor advised that the patient take adequate rest, not worry too much, exercise regularly and a good nutritious diet be taken by him. Correct: The doctor advised that the patient take adequate rest, not worry too much, exercise regularly and follow a good and nutritious diet. (All the expressions are in the active voice.) 5. Parallelism of Structure: When the ideas are expressed as a list in a sentence, they should be grammatically parallel. Examples: Incorrect: We found the film repulsive, offensive and we thought it was embarrassing. Correct: We found the film repulsive, offensive and embarrassing. Incorrect: The science journal showed us how the experiments are done and implemented. Correct: The science journal showed us how the experiments are done and how they are implemented.

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COMPARISON 1. Basic comparisons: When a comparison is being made in a sentence, care must be taken to see that the elements being compared are comparable and parallel in structure. Example: Incorrect: The population of India is greater than America. Correct: The population of India is greater than that of America. 2. Comparison of an element with its class: When something is compared to the class it belongs to, care should be taken to exclude it from the said class by using the word ‘any other’ when using the comparative degree of comparisons. Examples: Incorrect: Mumbai is larger than all cities in India. Correct: Mumbai is larger than any other city in India. Incorrect: Mary is beautiful than any girl in her class. Correct: Mary is beautiful than any other girl in her class. 3. Ambiguous comparison: Ambiguous comparisons should be avoided. Example: Incorrect: Geeta hates pizzas as much as her husband. Correct: Geeta hates pizza as much as her husband does. 4. Incomplete expressions: When both the positive and the comparative degree of the comparison are used in the same sentence, care should be taken to avoid incomplete expressions. Examples: Incorrect: Ria is as good if not better than Tia. Correct: Ria is as good as, if not better than, Tia. Exercise 9.1: Revise each sentence to correct the faulty comparisons. 1. The dolphin performed fewer tricks at this show. 2. Randy worked so hard. 3. His work ethics are much like his dad. 4. Lucinda now weighs forty pounds less. 5. Michelangelo’s artwork is no more beautiful than Vincent Van Gogh. 6. Ralph played football so long. 7. I write more than anyone in my class. 8. English professors often have more paperwork. 9. The house’s shutters are as weather beaten as the shed. 10. Richard offered more pay to Jim than Harry. 11. The tie you’re wearing looks like my father. 12. Harold was smarter than anyone in his class. 13. This soup tastes like Campbells. 14. The windows in the attic work like the basement. 15. My brother has boasted that he can run faster than anyone we know. 16. Baked potato chips have 50% less fat. 17. Millie was more polite to the policeman than her mother. 18. Candidate A’s speech was a half hour longer than Candidate B’s. 19. Millard talked so fast. 20. I enjoy hockey more than my friends.

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Exercise 9.2: Rewrite each sentence to fix all parallelism errors. 1. An actor knows how to memorize his lines and getting into character. 2. Tell me where you were, what were you doing, and your reasons for doing it. 3. Clark’s daily exercises include running, swimming and to lift weights. 4. To donate money to the homeless shelter is helping people stay warm in the winters. 5. Jim not only likes working outside but also getting dirty. 6. We followed the path through the forest, over the hill and we went across the river. 7. The writer was brilliant but a recluse. 8. After the party, we want to either go to a movie or the dinner. 9. She told Jake to take out the trash, to mow the lawn and be listening for the phone calls. 10. Marcie studied for the test by reviewing her class notes and she read her textbook. 11. It is easier to tell the truth than lying to people you love. 12. For her birthday, Marsha received a cake, some clothes, and she got a new CD player. 13. Jim wanted to scare us by telling us a ghost story and he shows us a horror movie. 14. The witness described the suspect as tall, light skinned and with a beard. 15. Spending the day with you is better than if we were apart. 16. Brian disliked not only playing baseball but also to run long distance. 17. The new house has a large porch, an-eat in kitchen and the floors are carpeted. 18. This plan is creative but a risk. 19. I want neither your sympathy nor do I want your pity. 20. Managing your money well is to be prepared for the future.

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10. IDIOMS & REDUNDANCY IDIOMS Certain standard forms of expressions are used to convey certain fixed ideas. These are called idiomatic expressions. They play an important role in all languages. It is important to identify and conform to these standard forms of expressions. Phrasal verbs: These are verbs used in combination with specific prepositions to express certain ideas, which need not be the literal meaning of the words. Examples: A. Rania was getting late for work so I dropped her off at her office. (‘dropped off’= gave a lift to someone) Sheena was very exhausted when she reached the seminar, and dropped off in he middle of the lecture. (‘dropped off’= fall asleep) B. A burglar broke into my house last night. (‘broke into’+ forcibly entered) The car broke down on the way to picnic. (‘broke down’= non-functioning of machinery) Certain words are generally followed by certain prepositions. dispose of acquainted with conform to account for

boil over break in/ out/ into call for/on care for

clean up clear up come away carry on

REDUNDANCY: The expression in formal written English should be as concise and unambiguous as possible. Constructions that are awkward, wordy, redundant or imprecise should be avoided, but care needs to be taken not to compromise on the clarity and effectiveness of communication. Examples: Incorrect: The professor repeated again that it was absolutely essential to refer back to the notes that he had given, before appearing for the test. Correct: The professor repeated that it was essential to refer back to the notes that he had given before, appearing for the test. Exercise 10.1 Insert a suitable idiom phrase of the meanings given in the brackets. ask out – at least – be hard on – break down – call off catch on – do a favor – in the meantime – keep in mind out of one’s mind – over and over – without question 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

If the car (ceases to function) we will walk to a gas station. We couldn’t eat dessert, but (in the minimum) we enjoyed the dinner. Bill baked the fish for twenty minutes; (during the same time) he read a book. I practiced singing this song (repeatedly) to remember the words. His strange ideas made me think he might be (insane) (Unquestionably) he is the most talented dancer in our class. John (invited) Amber (to go on a date) to see a movie. Amber (treats herself harshly) when she does not do well in school. You must (not forget) that making mistakes is part of learning. If the storm doesn’t end, we will have to (cancel) our fishing trip.

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Exercise 10.2 Choose the correct idiom from the given options and replace the same for the meanings given in the brackets. at least – call up – eat out – get over hold off – keep track of – let down – look forward to make up one’s mind – on the verge of – take after – think over 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Ellen (decided) to finish reading the book that afternoon. Happiness is (earning money to live on) by doing what you love. I need some time to (consider) your question. Some people (keep control of) medical expense for tax purposes. When I (recover) from this flu, we should see a movie. To avoid washing dishes, the Smith’s (ate at a restaurant) Ryan is (anticipating with pleasure) his high school graduation I hope the rain (delays) until we finish our picnic. Micheal (telephoned) his sister to share the good news. The actor does not want to (disappoint) his fans.

Exercise 10.3 (REDUNDUNCY) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The coastal region is an exception and it enjoys a flourishing tourist industry. Recent analyses of available historical records show why the European settlement of Greenland failed. In the year of 1988, there were renewed efforts to boost the government’s popularity. These aspects serve to distort some of the elements of the architecture, such as structure and envelope. He contributed to research that led to the finding a cure for malaria. Additionally, the majority of most critics gave the film negative reviews. The territory’s path of evolution has been challenge for the government. Sport is a compulsory activity for all students; teams usually have training two times twice a week.

IDIOMS A debate over A responsibility to A result of A sequence of As good as/ or better than As great as Believe A to be B Both A and Y Concerned with Consider A B Credit with Depends on whether Different from/ differ from Distinguish from Either…. Or Fascinated by Identical with/to Independent from Modeled after More than ever

as much as attend to attributes A to Y agree with as an instance of based on both X and Y centers on conform to created with defined as depicted as distinguished between a and b doubt that enable to forbid X to do Y in contrast to indifferent towards/ to (no)more….than/(no)less……than neither……nor

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Not only….. but also Prohibits X from doing Y Range from X to Y Regardless of Resulting in So X as to be Y Subscribe to The same to X as to Y To contrast X with Y To result in

not so much…..as potential to regard as responsible for retroactive to so (adjective) that such …..as the reason is that to mistake X for Y to sacrifice X for Y

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11. ANSWER KEY CHAPTER 1 Exercise 1.1 1. Proper noun 2. Abstract noun 3. Collective noun 4. Collective noun 5. Common noun 6. Material noun 7. Material noun 8. Common noun 9. Abstract noun 10. Proper noun 11. Honesty: abstract noun; policy: abstract noun 12. London: proper noun; river: common noun; Thames: proper noun 13. Cleanliness: abstract; godliness; abstract noun 14. Winston Churchill: proper noun; Prime Ministers: common noun; England: proper noun 15. King: common noun; Solomon: proper noun; Wisdom: abstract noun.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Exercise 1.2 She Whoever Yourself Myself She You Somebody, me You Mine Each Which Whoever Which Its His

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Exercise 1.5 Fast Always Hardly Probably Yesterday More fluently Most politely More happily Most gracefully More clearly Higher

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Exercise 1.3 Ran Enough Will show Got Had been Should have been Is racing Had read Has taken Will have grown Too Too Enough very Enough

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Exercise 1.6 In To By Under From For, from With With On In By

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Exercise 1.4 a) exciting b) excited c) exciting a) disappointing b) disappointed interested Bored…. boring amazed interested disgusting A beautiful round wooden table Adjective of quality Distributive adjective First poor serious medical voracious Exercise 1.7 When Because Until Unless And Since Or But So When Or

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Exercise 1.8 A C A B B C B B A C A

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12. 13. 14. 15.

More carefully Faster Worst Harder

12. 13. 14. 15.

On On On By

12. 13. 14. 15.

Because Unless So Or

12. 13. 14. 15.

A C A A

CHAPTER 2 Exercise 2.1 1. in great difficulties 2. without any enemy; with few friends 3. with the ring of truth in it 4. in time 5. on the moon 6. on the bridge, at midnight 7. in his proper colours. 8. On his face 9. On my toe 10. To speak to the head master 11. Thinking good thoughts 12. To answer the question 13. Stealing the money 14. Change came over him 15. Near the temple. Exercise 2.2 1. Noun clause 2. Noun clause 3. Adverb clause 4. Noun clause 5. Adverb clause 6. Noun clause 7. Noun clause 8. Adjective clause 9. Adjective clause 10. Adverb clause 11. Adverb clause 12. Adjective clause 13. Adjective clause 14. Adjective clause 15. Adverb clause CHAPTER 3 Exercise 3.1 1. Wherever you like 2. As one might expect him to do 3. If you eat too much 4. Because the night is dark 5. Whose fleece was white as snow- qualified ‘lamb’ 6. That bites-qualifies dog 7. That sounds untrue- qualifies ‘tale’ 8. Where I was born-qualifies ‘house’

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9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Who laughs last qualifies ‘he’ That I shall fail The clock has stopped What he wants That day was hot How it all happened Who he is

Exercise 3.2 1. Complex 2. Complex 3. Compound 4. Compound 5. Compound 6. Complex 7. Compound 8. Compound 9. Complex 10. Compound- complex 11. Compound- complex 12. Compound- complex 13. Simple 14. Compound 15. Compound CHAPTER 4 Exercise 4.1 1. An 2. The 3. The 4. The 5. The 6. The 7. A 8. A 9. The 10. The, the, the 11. No article required 12. No article required 13. No article required 14. The college 15. The board CHAPTER 5 Exercise 5.1 1. Standing on the balcony, we had a magnificent ocean view. 2. Alice spent almost Rs. 5000 on a new CD player. 3. The faulty alarm sounded five times yesterday. 4. On the evening news, I heard that there was a revolution 5. As I was running across the floor the rug slipped and I lost my balance.

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Rony has annoyed nearly every professor he has had. By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger. After we walked for hours, the car looked beautiful. While I am watching a classic film, commercials are irritating. When I was twelve, my mother entered me in the contest. Because he budgeted his money carefully, his debts were finally paid. By digging test wells, they located new oil sources. To lose weight, you should avoid fatty foods. Dropped in the bushes, the missing keys were found by the child. To please the children, they set off some fireworks early.

CHAPTER 6 Exercise 6.1 Is Is Is Deserves Have Kills Is, are Am Are Have Is Are Are Am Was

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Exercise 6.2 Are Are Absorb Give Is purify gives adds Look Are jumps serves splash scatter

Exercise 6.3 1. Ocean currents, moisture- bearing winds, and air temperature all contribute to rainfall, which is one of the primary factors of climate. 2. A few months after they are born, a baby start looking into the eyes of the adults, and adults’ facial expressions very basic one such as smiling—draw responses from the infants. 3. Macroeconomics deals with the behavior of the economy as a whole. 4. Adding extra passengers causes a boat to settle deeper in the waters. 5. Archeologists have found records more than two thousand years old that show the amount of precious metal people deposited in a temple in Babylon. 6.

A number of important services for individual and corporations are provided by a bank, which is more than just a safe place to store money. 7. John and his parents are at the movies. 8. Mary, along with her twenty friends, is planning a party. 9. Much information about the cross- cultural facial expressions have been published in the psychology journals. 10. Forensic scientists, who work in crime laboratories, carry out testing that helps law enforcement agencies solve crimes.

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Exercise 6.4 1. Everyone who has ever been to a graduation knows how exciting it can be for the graduates. In our town, nearly the whole population comes each year. There is one thing that both graduates and guests enjoy: the awarding of scholarships. This ceremony, along with the closing exercises, makes attending the graduation worthwhile. Several of the students who receive awards plans to attend the community college. Many former graduates are grateful for opportunities that such an award provides. 2.

Foe many writes the worst part of writing experience is the very beginning, when they are sitting at the kitchen table staring at the blank sheet of paper or in front of that unblinking and perfectly empty computer monitor. “I have nothing to say”; is the only thing that comes to mind. “I am XX years old and I have done nothing, discovered nothing, been nothing, and there are absolutely no thoughts in my head that anyone would ever want to read about.” This is the Censor in your brain, your SelfCritic, and sometimes that Censor is bigger than you are. Who knows that caused the ugly Censor to be there a bad experience in the third grade? Sometimes your mother said once during potty training? – it doesn’t matter. The Censor is there for all of us, building and rebuilding this thing called Writher’s Block, one of the Censor’s many self-limiting toys. It might be some comfort to know that even professional writers suffer from Writer’s Block from time to time. Some of the greatest writers in literature Leo Tolstoy, Virginia Woolf, Katherine Mansfield, Joseph Conrad and Ernest Hemingway were tormented by momentary lapses in their ability to produce text although you wouldn’t think it possible if you’ve ever tried to pick up War and Peace with one hand.

CHAPTER 7 Exercise 7.1 1. Us 2. They 3. She 4. Whom 5. I 6. Them 7. Whom 8. They 9. Him 10. She CHAPTER 8 Exercise 8.1 1. Would be 2. Would make 3. Will find 4. Will look 5. Would have arrived 6. Sat 7. Add 8. Would have passed 9. Would have met 10. Will reach 11. Will look 12. Would be 13. Would have been

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14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Will improve Would have arrived Would have Slept Had eaten Would have Will bloom

CHAPTER 9 Exercise 9.1 1. The dolphin performed fewer tricks at this show than the last show. 2. Randy worked so hard that they threw out his back. 3. His work ethics are much like his dad’s work ethics. 4. Lucinda now weights forty pounds less than she did last summer. 5. Michelangelo’s artwork is no more beautiful than Vincent Van Gogh’s artwork. 6. Ralph played football so long that he collapsed. 7. I write more than anyone else in my class. 8. English professors often have more paperwork than professors in other subjects. 9. The house’s shutters are as weather beaten as the shed’s shutters. 10. Richard offered more pay to Jim than to Harry. 11. The tie you’re wearing looks like my father’s tie. 12. Harold was smarter than anyone else in his class. 13. This soup tastes like Campbell’s soup. 14. The window in the attic work like the windows (those) in the basement. 15. My brother had boasted that he can sun faster than anyone else we know. 16. Baked potato chips have 50% less fat than fried potato chips. 17. Millie was more polite to the policeman than she was to her mother. 18. Candidate A’s speech was half hour longer than candidate B’s speech. 19. Millard talked so fast that we could not understand him. 20. I enjoy hockey more than my friends do. Exercise 9.2: 1. An actor knows how to memorize his lines and how to get into character. 2. Tell me where you were, what were you doing, and why were you doing it. 3. Clark’s daily exercises include running, swimming and lifting weights. 4. To donate money to the homeless shelter is to help people stay warm in the winters. 5. Jim not only likes working outside but also getting dirty. 6. We followed the path through the forest, over the hill and across the river. 7. The writer was brilliant but a reclusive. 8. After the party, we want to either a movie or the dinner. 9. She told Jake to take out the trash, to mow the lawn and to listen to the phone calls. 10. Marcie studied for the test by reviewing her class notes and reading her textbook. 11. It is easier to tell the truth than to lie to people you love. 12. For her birthday, Marsha received a cake, some clothes and a new CD player. 13. Jim wanted to scare us by telling us a ghost story and he showing us a horror movie. 14. The witness described the suspect as tall, light skinned and bearded. 15. Spending the day with you is better than spending it apart. 16. Brian disliked not only playing baseball but also running long distance. 17. The new house has a large porch, an eat-in kitchen and carpeted floors. 18. This plan is creative but a risky. 19. I want neither your sympathy nor your pity. 20. Managing your money well is being prepared for the future.

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CHAPTER 10 Exercise 10.1 1. If the car breaks down we will walk to a gas station. 2. We couldn’t eat dessert, but at least we enjoyed the dinner. 3. Bill baked the fish for twenty minutes; in the meantime he read a book. 4. I practiced singing this song over and over to remember the words. 5. His strange ideas made me think he might be out of his mind. 6. Without question he is the most talented dancer in our class. 7. John asked Amber out to see a movie. 8. Amber is hard on herself when she does not do well in school. 9. You must keep in mind that making mistakes is part of learning. 10. If the storm doesn’t end, we will have to call off our fishing trip. Exercise 10.2 1. Ellen made up her mind to finish reading the book that afternoon. 2. Happiness is earning a living by doing what you love. 3. I need some time to think over your question. 4. Some people keep track of medical expense for tax purposes. 5. When I get over from this flu, we should see a movie. 6. To avoid washing dishes, the Smith’s ate out. 7. Ryan is looking forward to his high school graduation 8. I hope the rain holds off until we finish our picnic. 9. Michael called up his sister to share the good news. 10. The actor does not want to let down his fans.

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