• Author / Uploaded
• Micaela Musso Zelaya

Citation preview

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

THE ENGLISH SENTENCE

Profesora: Adriana Herrera

The Sentence – An overview Key Terms Words: a unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation that functions as a principal carrier of meaning. They are called Parts of Speech. Part of speech is a term in traditional grammar for one of the eight main categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences: Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections .In contemporary linguistics, the label part of speech has generally been discarded in favor of the term word class or syntactic category. As discussed below, the parts of speech (or word classes) are commonly divided into open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections).

Closed class words The category of function words--that is, parts of speech (or word classes) that do not readily accept new members Closed-class words or 'function words' are limited in number and act as markers or guides to the structure of a sentence. The role of articles is to signal nouns. Prepositions mark special relationships between persons, objects, and locations. Conjunctions are connectors that link actors or objects, and specify relationships between clauses in the sentence. Open- and closed-class words occupy certain slots in sentences and set up a frame for interpreting the interrelationships between actors, actions, and objects."

open class words The category of content words--that is, parts of speech (or word classes) that readily accept new members. "Examples of open-class words are those belonging to the major part-of-speech classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), which in any language tend to be quite large and 'open-ended.' that is, an unlimited number of new words can be created and added to these classes. . . .

Phrases A phrase is a small group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.

In English there are five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word, or the word that is what the phrase is about, is called the head. In these examples, it is printed in bold. The other words in the phrase do the work of changing or modifying the head. In a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun. 

all my dear children



the information age



seventeen hungry lions in the rocks

In an adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective. 

so very sweet



earnest in her desire



very happy with his work

In a verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb.    

will do have been doing must have been doing is going to do

In an adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb. 

especially softly



formerly of the city of Perth



much too quickly to see clearly

In a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position). 

after a very long walk



behind the old building



for all the hungry children

Clauses A clause is a group of related words containing a subject that tells readers what the sentence is about, and a verb that tells readers what the subject is doing. A clause comes in four types; independent, dependent, relative or noun clause. Independent Clause An independent clause, also called a main clause, is a clause that can stand on its own. It contains all the information necessary to be a complete sentence. An independent clause has a subject that tells you what the sentence is about and a verb that tells you what the subject is doing. It expresses a complete thought, relaying that something has happened or was said. 

For example, in the sentence, 'My dog loves pizza crusts,' the subject is dog, the verb is loves and your reader now knows that 'your dog loves pizza crusts,' making it a complete thought.

Dependent Clause A dependent clause, also called a subordinate clause, is a clause that cannot stand on its own because it does not contain all the information necessary to be a complete sentence. A clause is dependent because of the presence of words such as before, after, because, since, in order to, although, and though). 

For example, if you begin the sentence 'My dog loves pizza crusts' with Because, you still have the subject, dog, and the verb, loves, but it is now an incomplete thought, 'Because my dog loves pizza crusts.'



To complete the thought, you must attach the dependent, or subordinate, clause to an independent, or main, clause. For example 'Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.' The thought is now complete, and your reader knows that 'because he loves pizza crusts, your dog never barks at the delivery man.'

Sentence A sentence is the largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point. The sentence is traditionally defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea and that includes a subject and a verb.

Sentence Types First, the bad news. . . There are billions of sentences out there that we might have to understand Next, the good news. . . All sentences fall into just four categories: Simple Sentence Complex sentence

Compound Sentence

Complex Sentence

Compound-

Let's take them one at a time. Definition A SIMPLE SENTENCE is a sentence with one independent clause Note what the definition does not say. It doesn't say that a simple sentence is short or easy to understand. It doesn't say anything about phrases. A simple sentence can have forty-seven phrases, but only one independent clause. Let's look at an example:

I love simple sentences.

(That's easy enough. It is obviously one independent clause.) But look at this: Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity, I love simple sentences. Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity, I love to read simple sentences upon getting up and before going to bed. (They are longer, more challenging and contains bigger words, but they are still simple sentences. “Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity" is a participial phrase. "With a penchant" and "for syntactical complexity" are prepositional phrases.) Definition A COMPOUND SENTENCE contains two or more independent clauses. Example:

I love conjunctive adverbs, but my students love each other.

(This sentence contains no dependent clauses) Sometimes a compound sentence contains more than two independent clauses. Example: holidays.

I love conjunctive adverbs; my students love each other, and we all love

Sometimes longer linking words can be used. Example: impressed.

I can name several conjunctive adverbs; consequently, my friends are

Definition A COMPLEX SENTENCE is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Example:

Because life is complex, we need complex sentences.

(Because people know that I am an English teacher), they make allowances for (how I dress and what I say). (This sentence contains four dependent clauses. Note that two of the dependent clauses are inside of and part of the independent clause. Don't be alarmed. That happens all the time.) Definition A COMPOUND-COMPLEX sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: Because I am an English teacher, some people expect me to speak perfectly, and other people expect me to write perfectly. (The dependent clause is underlined) Example: Some people tell me that my grading is too tough, and others tell me that my assignments are boring. (Note that the dependent clauses occur within the independent clauses. It often happens.)

Forms of the Sentence Sentences may be classified according to the purpose of the speaker or writer. The four principal purposes of a sentence are 1. The declarative sentence is used to make a statement of fact, wish, intent, or feeling. It can have two forms: affirmative and negative ex. I have seen that movie twice. I wish I could go on the picnic. 2. The imperative sentence is used to state a command, request, or direction. The subject is always "You," even though it may not be expressed in the sentence. ex. (You) Be on time for dinner. (You) Open the window, please.

3. The interrogative sentence is used to ask a question. It is followed by a question mark. It can also be negative-interrogative. ex. Do you have a sweater? Are you having a bad day? Haven’t you seen my keys? 4. An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feelings. It is followed by an exclamation mark. ex. Don't burn yourself out! Keep out! He screamed, “Help!” PARTS OF THE SENTENCE: Subject In general, the subject refers to the part of the sentence which tells whom or what the sentence is addressing. The subject is going to be either a noun or a noun phrase. For example, "Kelly walked down the street." Kelly is the subject, because she is the actor, or subject, in the sentence. Kate is a thin girl. Jeffrey's poem about his mother made the class cry. Paul and Tommy joined the soccer team at the same time. Predicate Let us return to our example "Kelly walked down the street." In this sentence, "walked" is the predicate because it is the verb that tells us what Kelly is doing. A sentence can have just a subject and a predicate. For example, you could just say "Kelly walked" and you have a complete sentence. Harry ate his apple. The mouse slowly ran towards the food. She both laughed and cried at the film. SENTENCE ELEMENTS and LINGUISTIC STRUCTURES THEM There are 5 basic elements in the sentence: subject, verb, complement, object and adverbials.

REALIZING

The SUBJECT and the OBJECT can be realized by a Noun, a Noun Phrase, a pronoun or a pronominal group Sam is an excellent student. (Subject=noun) The boys in the corner were singing and laughing. (Subject=noun phrase) He was expecting her daughters to give him a surprise. (Subject=pronoun) All of them knew things were not right. (Subject=pronominal group)

What is an object? An object in grammar is a part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It is always placed after a transitive verb. It refers to someone or something involved in the subject's "performance" of the verb. It is what the verb is being done to. As an example, the following sentence is given: Subject Leila

Verb wrote



"Leila" is the subject, the doer or performer,



"wrote" is a verb that refers to the action,



"the poem" is the object involved in the action.

Objec the poem

There are two types of objects: direct and indirect objects: Direct object A direct object answers the question "what?" or "whom?" Examples: 

David repaired his car → his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. ( What did David repair?)



He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the verb invited. (Whom did he invite?)

Indirect Object An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"...An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence. In other words an indirect object cannot exist without a direct object. Examples: 

They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom did they send a postcard?)



He bought his son a bike - his son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For whom did he buy a bike?)

The COMPLEMENT is used after linking verbs like be, become, seem, appear and sense verbs like taste, smell, look, sound, feel. It can be realized by a noun, a noun phrase, an

adjective, an adjectival phrase, an adverb, a to-infinitive phrase, an ing-participle phrase and by finite clauses.        

He is Tom (complement=noun) Mark Kenwells was her favourite student. (complement=noun phrase) All of Mark Twain’s books are excellent. (complement=adjective) Sandy has become incredibly intelligent. (complement=adjectival phrase) Let’s be here again in twenty days, shall we? (complement=adverb) The idea is to be as careful as possible. (Complement=to-infinitive phrase) My favourite pastime is walking very early in the morning. (complement=ing-participle phrase) The most desired answer was that we should all get an increase in our salaries. (complement=a finite clause)

A complement is any word or phrase that completes the sense of a subject, or an object. 

A subject complement follows a linking verb; it normally renames or defines in some way the subject. o A glacier is a huge body of ice. o Glaciers are beautiful and potentially dangerous at the same time. o This glacier is not yet fully formed. (verb form acting as an adjective, a participle)



An object complement follows and modifies or refers to a direct object. It can be a noun or adjective or any word acting as a noun or adjective. o The convention named Dogbreath Vice President to keep him happy. (The noun "Vice President" complements the direct object "Dogbreath"; the adjective "happy" complements the object "him.") o The clown got the children too excited. (The participle "excited" complements the object "children.")

ADVERBIALS An adverb is a word which gives more information about when, how, where or in what circumstances something happens. There are different kinds of adverbs: degree (quite, very, rather, etc), manner(skillfully, carefully, beautifully, etc), place (here, there,etc),

time (today, tomorrow, now, etc,), duration (from…to, etc), frequency (always, never, often, etc), focusing adverbs (only, mainly, specially, etc). An adverbial group is a group of words which does the same job as an adverb, thus giving us more information about when, how, where or in what circumstances something happens, e.g. in the street, again and again, in a silent way. Units realizing adverbial functions: The functions of the adverbials are realized by:  Adverb phrases, i.e. phrases whit adverbs as head or sole realization e.g. Drive carefully, please o Peter was playing as well as he could o We’ll stay here o Come as soon as possible  Noun phrases: e.g. Peter was playing last week o I’m coming next Monday  Prepositional phrases e.g. Peter was playing with great skill. o She was reading a book in the park.  Finite verb clause e.g Peter was playing although he was very tired  Non finite verb clauses, in which the verb is : Infinitive : e.g. Peter was playing to win –ing participle: e.g. Wishing to encourage him, they praised Tom –ed participle: e.g. If urged by our friends, we’ll stay  Verbless clause: e.g. Peter was playing, unaware of the danger SENTENCE PATTERNS There are 5 basic patterns: PATTERN 1:

Subject + Verb (Vb-Intransitive) + ADVERBIAL (optional) Adele arrived at 7 o’clock He’s been studying for hours on end! Where are you going?

PATTERN 2: Subject + Verb + Complement (Linking verbs) Mrs Andrews was a loving teacher. Variation: Subject + verb + adverbial complement The meeting will be at 3:30pm PATTERN 3: Subject + Verb + Object (Vb-transitive) My brother plays football. Variation 1 - The following verbs do not take an indirect object, so they can have a direct object followed by to + noun or pronoun, or where the sense permits, for + noun or pronoun:

admit, announce, confess, confide, declare, demonstrate, describe, entrust, explain, introduce, mention, propose, prove, repeat, report, say, state and suggest Let me introduce you to Mr Andreson. Variation 2 – Prepositional verbs are included in this pattern, because they need a preposition to take the object. listen to , look at, argue with, depend on, concerned about, speak with, talk to, complain about, refer to, etc Listen to the news, please. She’s always complaining about what I do. PATTERN 4: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (Vb di-transitive) My mother read me beautiful stories. Variation 1: verbs that can be followed by to e.g He showed me the photo. He showed the photo to me. Bring, give, grant, hand, leave (= bequeath), lend, offer, owe, pass, pay, play, post, promise, read, recommend, sell, send, serve, show, sing, suggest, take, teach, tell, throw and write. Variation 2: verbs that can be followed by for e.g. He bought Jane a present He bought a present for Jane. Bring, buy, build, call, catch, change, choose, cook, cut, do, fetch, find, fix, get, keep, leave, make, order, prepare, reach, reserve, save, sing. PATTERN 5:

Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (Vb complex-transitive) My children drive me crazy

Verbs used in this pattern are often in the passive. Here is a selection of common ones: appoint, baptize, call, consider, christen, crown, declare, elect, label, make, name, proclaim, pronounce, vote e.g. They appointed him chairman - He was appointed chairman They made Sam redundant - Sam was made redundant

SOME PRACTICE I)EXERCISE Identify as many parts of speech as possible Grammar in Rhyme: The Nine Parts of Speech Three little words you often see Are articles a, an, and the. A noun is the name of anything, As school or garden, hoop or swing. Adjectives tell the kind of noun, As great, small, pretty, white, or brown. Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand, Her head, his face, your arm, my hand. Verbs tell of something being done-To read, count, laugh, sing, jump, or run. How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill, or well. Conjunctions join the words together-As men and women, wind or weather. The preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door. The interjection shows surprise, As Oh! how pretty! Ah! How wise! The whole are called nine parts of speech, Which reading, writing, speaking teach. (The Home Book Of Verse, ed. by Burton Stevenson. Henry Holt, 1915) II) Exercise. Identify different types of phrases in the following sentences. Classify them 1. Some of your classmates will attend the conference on Friday. 2. This experience taught me a valuable lesson. 3. Out of the darkness cam a huge, lumbering creature. 4. To everyone’s surprise, Jane and I were not late. 5. The water in the bay seemed very cold. 6. The only people in the water were the children. 7. This morning the mail carrier left this letter for you. 8. He gave me this one, too. 9. Lee Trevino is an excellent golfer. 10. Mechanics had just assembled all parts of the motor. 11. Cheryl gave me her paper to proofread. 12. I wrote this essay in less than an hour. III) Exercise - HOW MANY CLAUSES ARE THERE IN THESE SENTENCES? 1. My brother, who is a technical engineer, came from Australia, where he lived for some years. 2. He found that country fascinating.

3. He met his wife, who is also a technical engineer, in Melbourne and they decided to live in Sidney before they got married. 4. Last year they decided to come and live in Argentina, but when they got to this country, they realized they would never earn as much money as they had earned in Australia. 5. What happened then? 6. They returned to Australia and now they live happily there. 7. They come back to Argentina only when they want to see me, my family and our parents. IV) Exercise: Classify each sentence as simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 1. American Indian culture, which is rich and interesting, is not sufficiently familiar to most Americans. 2. Why is it that I can never find a pencil when I need one? 3. On your way here, did you meet a group of strange people who were wearing space-age outfits? 4. As we walked along the road, we saw the wheat waving in the wind. 5. I don’t care what you think. 6. It was a hot and sunny weekend and all the beaches were packed. 7. The Statue of Liberty, which was given to the United States by France in 1886, stands in New York Harbour and it is regarded as a symbol of American freedom. 8. Do you know that Dr. Robert Goddard was the pioneer of the liquid-fuel rocket? 9. I’m so happy that I could dance and sing! 10. Because of his art work received wide recognition, Pablo Picasso became famous and wealthy. 11. The soup was delicious, but the main course tasted bland. 12. I have concluded that personal freedom involves both self-realization and service to others. 13. The pitcher read the catcher’s signals and then struck out the hitter with a fastball. 14. Please do not talk while the test is in progress or you’ll be awarded a lower mark. 15. As the lights dimmed in the theatre, a hush fell over the audience and the overture began. V) Exercise - Classify sentences according to their form. Example: Susan is a senior. ……………. 1. I wish I could go to Colorado this summer. _____ 2. Please set the table for lunch. _____ 3. The vice-president will visit Egypt next week. _____ 4. Don't you ever get tired of watching television? _____ 5. We bought our car in April, 1975. _____ 6. Didn't I meet you at Rainbow Lake last summer? _____

7. Have you ever roasted a turkey? _____ 8. Ouch! I burned my finger! _____ 9. Turn left at the second stop sign. _____ 10. San Marino is the smallest republic in Europe. _____ 11. Initial the top right-hand corner of each sheet of paper. _____ 12. Richard Martin's short stories have appeared in many magazines. _____ 13. Have you ever read The Red Badge of Courage? _____ 14. You can't be serious! _____ 15. Meet me at seven o'clock in front of the library. _____ 16. Why are you so worried about the exam? _____ 17. Don't close your mind to the other side of the question. _____ 18. Nancy wants to be a doctor. _____ 19. I can't believe it's all over! _____ 20. Do you attend concerts given by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra? _____ VI) Exercise – Identify the subject and the predicate in the following sentences 1. We decided to meet Mr Thomas after we were told he was an interesting man. 2. Russel Crowe and Christian Bale, the famous movie stars, have been accused of having a quite aggressive behaviour. 3. Mary and her children have been waiting for the teacher for hours. 4. The new car I’ve bought was much more expensive than the one my wife wanted. 5. The whole committee was anxiously waiting at the lobby of the hotel. VII) Exercise. Go back to exercise (V) and identify the elements in all the sentences. Say what linguistic structures realize them.

Decide whether the words in bold are subjects, direct objects or indirect objects 1. She sent her friend an email. 2. Sally will help you with your housework. 3. Where did you put the keys? 4. He gave them a bag full of money.

5. Alice wrote a book on the French revolution . 6. I need your help. 7. He offered her a flower. 8. My father bought us a new TV set. 9. John sold me his car. 10. I wish you good luck. Decide whether the words in bold are direct objects or indirect objects 1. I owe you an apology 2. He played soccer with his friends yesterday. 3. I wish you hapiness. 4. I always lend him money, but he never pays me back. 5. Show me your photo album. 6. Will you give me the book ? 7. The teacher gave us a lot of homework. 8. They ate chicken for dinner. 9. He bought her a nice necklace. 10. I sent them an email. 11. They offered me a job . 12. The student asked the teacher a lot of questions. 13. He wrote the book when he was in Spain. 14. They watched the movie together.

READ THE FOLLOWING TEXT AND CLASSIFY THE PHRASES UNDERLINED. Classify the sentence in black into Simple, complex, compound and compoundcomplex

Saint Valentine's Day Saint Valentine's Day is a Hallmark Holiday Hallmark holiday refers to a holiday that is perceived to exist mainly for commercial reasons, rather than to celebrate a traditionally significant religious or secular event. Although many people view these celebrations in a negative way, others have positive views. On the negative side, hallmark holidays don't really celebrate an important event, and only exist for companies to make a lot of money. On the positive side, the term describes the perfect holiday in which family, friends, and fun come first. Everyday problems, worries, and stress can be put aside. Valentine's Day, which is celebrated on February 14, is usually considered to be one of the hallmark holidays. In Valentine's Day billions of cards are sent. It is also an opportunity for customers to buy chocolates, flowers, engagement rings, romantic dinners, and so on. This commercial aspect can be traced back to the 19th century when printing technology improved to cheaply mass-produce greeting cards. But the origin of the celebration is much more ancient and can be traced back to a Roman festival called "Lupercalia" which was held in mid-February every year. The celebration purified new life in the spring. (Around the third century A.D., the holiday became associated with Saint Valentine, although it isn't exactly clear how). Historical Origin of the Celebration (A popular explanation of the link between Saint Valentine and the Holiday says that at the time of the Roman "Lupercalia" Festival marriage was a common tradition, but when Claudius became Emperor he changed all of that). He outlawed all marriages because he was afraid that men would refuse their duty to fight because they would not want to leave their wives behind. Young couples still fell in love though and still wished to marry and they took these desires to the Catholic Bishop Valentine who, understanding love, began to secretly marry couples. When Claudius found out, he arrested Valentine and sentenced him to death. While waiting in prison, Valentine began exchanging letters with the prisoner's daughter and soon had fallen in love with her. The day he was to be beheaded, he wrote her one last note and signed it: "From Your Valentine". In 496 A.D. Christianity had taken over Rome and Pope Gelasius outlawed the pagan Lupercian Festival. Knowing it’s popularity, he looked to replace it with something more "appropriate" and set aside a day in February to honor the martyr St. Valentine. Even though in 1969 the church removed St. Valentines Day from it’s calendar of "official" holidays, it is still widely celebrated today. And although Valentine's Day has become quite commercial, it still contains an important aspect shared by all of the best holidays - time spent thinking of and being with the one you love.

COMPLETE THE SENTENCES ONLY IF NECESSARY. What sentence element have you added? What linguistic structure have you used? 1. Can I borrow …………………………? 2. This cake tastes ……………………………… 3. ………………………… is the best present I’ve ever got! 4. I’ll meet ……….. …………………… ……………………… 5. I suggest that ………………………………………………… 6. The committee has named ……………… ………………………… 7. I’ll be ……………… …………………… 8. Don’t listen ………………………… 9. The door closed …………………………………… 10. Have you seen …………………………………? I don’t know ……………………………… IDENTIFY THE SENTENCE ELEMENTS UNDERLINED AND SAY WHAT LINGUISTIC STRUCTURES REALIZE THEM. 1. Someone is organizing a student trip to the museum. 2. People should plant tomatoes in the spring. 3. One of the most significant inventions in the history of civilization was the wheel. 4. Jane Goodall became famous for her studies of chimpanzees in Tanzania. 5. Please, stop cracking your knuckles! 6. When someone arrives for a meeting, you say he or she shows up. 7. I didn’t understand Janes’s directions last night, so when I was going to her house last night, I got lost. 8. The Romans gave their soldiers special allowances for salt. 9. Many people consider the accidental spilling of salt bad luck. 10. They could have signed that check. ANALYSE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES, IDENTIFYING PARTS (SUBJECT AND PREDICATE), ELEMENTS, TYPE AND FORM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

I saw one of your grandchildren the other day. Well, I can’t promise you that. I’m soaking wet and you call it nice. Her father had called her one evening. They certainly couldn’t tell her the truth. Later, after dark, a boy brought him a plate of food. We should show understanding for the fear of our neighbours. He didn’t get his hair wet.

9. We got home quite late. 10. His job was to predict the next day’s weather. 11. We demand that they take the witness stand 12. After the police arrived, the mob remained calmed. WRITE SENTENCES FOLLOWING THE PATTERNS GIVEN. 1. S (NP=PG) + SFVp + ADVERBIAL (NP) 2. S (NP=NG) + CFVp + DO (NP= NG) + ADVERBIAL (FINITE CLAUSE) 3. S (NP=P) + SFVp + DO (NON-FINITE CLAUSE) 4. S (HIDDEN) + NEG. COMMAND + DO (NP=P) 5. S (NG) + SFVp + SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (ADJECT. Ph) + ADVERBIAL (ADV.Ph) Sentence Analysis. Analyse the sentences below, identifying: PARTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE, ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE, TYPE, FORM and PATTERNS. 1) The children looked very happy as they played in the garden. 2) Could you speak slowly please? The baby is sleeping. 3) I play the piano, but I don’t play it very well. 4) Everyone in the room conference considered this meeting the best they have ever attended. 5) He showed the photos to me and he was obviously satisfied when I told him I liked them. 6) The old man on the car was trying to find his way to the railway station. 7) Tom had a pet mouse and he took it to school. 8) When the teacher found the mouse, she jumped in surprise and she tried to kill it with a book. 9) When I had money, everyone called me brother. (Polish proverb) 10) 11)

Chance makes our parents, but choice makes our friends. (Delille) The best is the cheapest. (Ben Franklin)

12)

Speech is silver, and silence is golden. (German proverb)

13)

There’s no place like home. (J. Howard Payne)

14)

If you’re not jealous, you’re not in love. (St. Augustine)

15)

Strong and bitter words indicate a weak cause. (Victor Hugo)

16)

I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets. (Napoleon)

17)

You should never answer a letter while you’re angry. (Chinese proverb)

18) If you throw a lucky man into the sea, he will come up with a fish in his mouth. (Arab proverb)

19)

You read the paper every day, don't you?

20)

Mathew seems frustrated with his computer.

21)

David finally hit the ball!

22)

Jane and I are going to watch the soccer game together.

23)

Do you want some soda or a snack?

24) After we finish washing the dishes, you can watch the movie with your friends in the living room. 25) 26) 27)

The third chapter in the book really helps me understand English verbs. Trust is an important ingredient for a good relationship. That is not what the professor said during the review session yesterday.

28) The house on the corner with all of the flowers in front and the strange doorknob is for sale. 29)

One of the team captains called you this morning.

30) When I think about when I first came to the United States, my thoughts remind me of many things that I can never forget. 31) 32)

By that time, I didn’t know when I was going to see my family again. Once outside the airport, I was impressed with all that I saw.

33) Special rooms and clothes are used to protect patients from hurting themselves. 34)

In the last few months, fighting in the region has escalated.

35)

Several thousand soldiers attacked villages in the western region.

36)

The area appears calmer now.

37)

In the last two weeks alone, many thousands of refugees fled the area.

38) The government offered the rebels a new deal after many days of heavy shelling. 39)

The customer found a spider in his curry.

40)

They called their new baby Apple.

41)

Last year we were very unlucky.

42)

Because of the weather, we postponed our trip until August.

43)

The company is offering employees a generous severance package.

THE ENGLISH SENTENCE COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION

Compound Sentences: COORDINATION

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS": 

For



And



Nor



But



Or



Yet



So

Examples of compound sentences include the following: 1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late. 2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived. 3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived. 4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus station. How do we form compound sentences? 1. Use a Comma and a Joining Word. [Joining Words (coordinating conjunctions): For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So] The teacher lectured for over an hour, and his students slept soundly. The old man wanted hide his money, for he feared his children would steal it from him. The student had a test the next day, so she studied all night long. Pattern:

Sentence, joining word sentence. Subject + Predicate, joining word Subject + Predicate.

2. Use a Semicolon.

The teacher lectured for over an hour; his students slept soundly. The old man wanted hide his money; he feared his children would steal it from him. The student studied all night long; she had a test the next day. Patterns:

Sentence ; sentence. Subject + Predicate ; Subject + Predicate.

3. Use a semicolon and a transition word. [Transition words (adverbial conjunctions): however, therefore, in fact, on the other hand, nonetheless, besides, instead, then, instead, moreover, similarly, nevertheless, still, etc.] The car had a V-8 engine and a new paint job; however, it had no brakes. The Pit Bull had quite a bite; in fact, its bite was "outlawed" in seven states. Larry studied for the test all weekend; therefore, he expected a good grade on the test. Patterns:

Sentence ; transition word, sentence. Subject + Predicate ; transition word, Subject + Predicate.

What’s the meaning of coordinating conjunctions? When the subject is the same in all parts of the sentence, it is usual not to repeat it. We do not normally put a comma in front of and, but we generally use one in front of the other conjunctions. a) Addition / sequence: and; both … and; not only … but … too / as well; not only … but (also); and then. He washed the car. He polished it. He washed the car and (he) polished it. He not only washed the car, but (he) polished it (too / as well). He washed the car and then polished it. He not only disliked the way we spoke, but also disapproved of the way we dressed. Not only in the last example can begin the sentence, with inversion of subject + operator, thus: Not only did he dislike the way we spoke, but also disapproved of the way we dressed. When the subjects are different, they must both be used. You can wait here and I’ll get the car. Jim speaks Italian, but his wife speaks French. b) Contrast: but; yet He washed the car. He didn’t polish it.

He washed the car, but didn’t polish. She sold her house. She can’t help regretting it. She sold her house, yet / but (she) can’t help regretting it. c) Alternatives: or, either … or; neither … nor He speaks French. Or perhaps he understands it. He either speaks French, or understands it. (I’m not sure which). He doesn’t speak French. He doesn’t understand it. He neither speaks French, nor does he understand it. (Notice the use of Inversion when nor starts the second clause) If the subject in the second clause is stated, the clause can begin which neither or nor with inversion of subject + operator, thus: He didn’t like the way we spoke, neither / nor did he approve of the way we dressed. d) Result: so He couldn’t find his pen. He wrote in pencil. He couldn’t find his pen, so he wrote in pencil. e) Cause: for We rarely stay in hotels. We can’t afford it We rarely stay in hotels, for we can’t afford it. For gives the reason for something that has already been stated. Unlike because it cannot begin a sentence. The subject must be repeated after for. The use of for is more usual in the written language. Linking simple sentences by commas. More than two simple sentences can be joined by commas with only one conjunction which is used before the final clause. The use of a comma before and is optional here. I found a bucket, put it in the sink(,) and turned the tap on. I took off my coat, searched all my pockets, but couldn’t find my key. Sometimes subject and verb can be omitted. In such cases, a sentence is simple, not compound. The hotel was cheap but clean. Does the price include breakfast only or dinner as well? A second question can be avoided by the use of … or not? Does the price include breakfast, or not? (or doesn’t it?) EXERCISE - Compound Sentences Combine each pair of simple sentences to make a compound sentence. Use the conjunction in parenthesis.

1. A small kitten followed me home. I gave it a bowl of milk. (so) 2. We were lost in the woods. My brother had a map in his backpack. (but) 3. The girls were painting animal pictures. Katrina spilled the paint. (and) 4. Would you like to go to the movies? Would you rather stay home tonight? (or) 5. Mr. Sanchez loved his new office. He didn't like the view. (but) 6. Ivana's bicycle had a flat tire. She had to walk to the grocery store. (so) 7. José wants to be an astronaut when he grows up. Maria wants to bea nurse. (and) 8. Dr. Neu told Greg to floss his teeth every day. He didn't listen. (but) 9. The tigers at the zoo are always sleeping. The penguins are fun to watch. (but) 10. His mother has always tell him to behave. He’s always misbehaving. (yet) 11. John and Mark have decided to quit their jobs. They don’t feel comfortable at the office. (for) 12. They didn’t understand the teacher’s explanation. They didn’t ask her to explain again. (nor) 13. We did the homework. We studied. (not only … but also …) Directions: In the following exercises, turn the sentence pairs into single compound sentences, each with a coordinating conjunction. You can rearrange or add words in the sentence to make it sound better, but only if it's necessary. 1. The black dog has won many prizes. He doesn't know many tricks. 2. She saw a cat run in front of her. She fell down while roller-skating. 3. There was a meteor shower. The crew did not know how to avoid the meteors. 4. I wanted to buy a baby Chihuahua. I started to save my money. 5. Gillian did not like to read. She was not very good at it. 6. Pam liked Wayne. Leena also liked Wayne. 7. The little boy did not like going to school. He went anyway. 8. You can cry like a baby. You can clean your room like an adult. 9. She didn't want to play with Jill. She didn't want to play with Tim. 10. Arleen could not play with that boy. Arleen could not play with that other boy. 11. Let's go to the swimming pool. It's hot inside the house. 12. I don’t want to eat. I don't want to drink. 13. I don’t want to practice playing my violin. I don’t want to disobey my mother. 14. I want to own my own company. I want to pay all my workers a lot of money.

15. I need to go to the store. I'm feeling too sick to drive. 16. Rabbits make good pets. They don’t make too much noise and they are clean. 17. I want to go to the circus. I want to ride a pony. 18. I didn’t do my homework. My parents punished me. 19. I have never visited Asia. I have never visited Africa. 20. You can make a big poster. You can make a little clay statue.

Complete the sentences by choosing the best coordinating conjunction for each space 1. Jason was cold,

he put on a coat.

2. Maria tried to read a novel in French,

it was too difficult.

3. To get from Vancouver to Victoria, you can fly,

4. I bought a bottle of wine,

we drank it together.

5. The waiter was not very nice,

6. I went to buy a Rolling Stones CD,

7. Anna needed some money,

you can ride the ferry.

the food was delicious.

I wanted to complete my CD collection.

she took a part-time job.

8. There's so much rain lately! Maybe it's because of El Nino,

9. Julie doesn’t have a guitar,

10. The concert was cancelled,

maybe it's just coincidence.

she can play it really well.

we went to a nightclub instead.

11. Fans love to watch Anna, ………… she dances beautifully. She is a graceful dancer, ……… people enjoy watching her. She hasn't taken dance lessons, ………. does she need to. Her technique is unconventional, ……….. her lines are extraordinary. She can fill an audience with joy, …………. she can bring people to tears. Other dancers try to imitate her style, …………. they have not succeeded. She is talented, ………….. she will attract fans for many years to come.

Complete the sentences. Use appropriate connectors and pay special attention to punctuation 1. On New Year’s Eve I made a lot of resolutions, ………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2. The students don’t take the time to read the material given, …………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. The new teacher of Mathematics wasn’t able to fulfill the headmaster’s expections; …………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… THE COMPLEX SENTENCE: SUBORDINATION Many sentences, especially in written language, are complex. They can be formed by linking sentences together, but the elements in a complex sentence (unlike those of a compound sentence) are not of equal importance. A complex sentence has two or more clauses, at least one of which is subordinate to a main clause. A main clause is one that can stand alone, i.e. is not dependent on another clause. If removed from a sentence, a main clause can often stand on its own. Complex sentences can be formed by joining subordinate clauses to the main clause with subordinating conjunctions  The alarm was raised (main clause) as soon as the fired was discovered (subordinate clause)  If you’re not good at figures, (subordinate clause) it is pointless to apply for a job in a bank. (main clause) A subordinate clause is usually – and always can be – introduced by a subordinating conjunction, e.g. when, that, as soon as, if or by a relative pronoun: who, which. They can be classified under three headings:  NOUN CLAUSES: He told me that the match had been cancelled. 

RELATIVE (or ADJECTIVAL) CLAUSES: Holiday resorts which are very crowded are not very pleasant



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES:

However hard I try, I can’t remember people’s names.

NOUN CLAUSES How to identify a noun clause: Compare: He told me about the cancellation of the match. He told me that the match had been cancelled.

Cancellation is a noun; that the match had been cancelled is a clause (it has a finite verb). The clause is doing the same work as the noun, so it is called a noun clause. We can subdivide noun clauses into THAT-CLAUSES, like: Everyone could see that he was frightened. And a WH-CLAUSE, like: No one knows what caused the accident. A wh-noun clause can begin with any question word. THAT-CLAUSES A that-clause can have four of the functions of an NP. It can be:  The SUBJECT of a verb in another clause. That the driver could not control his car was obvious That-noun clause – SUBJECT V The conjunction that is obligatory when the clause is subject. 

The OBJECT of a verb in another clause; when the clause is the object and comes after its verb that is optional, and is usually omitted in a short sentence. Everyone could see (that) he was frightened. V That-noun clause – OBJECT

In longer sentences, especially when the that-clause is separated from the verb of which it is the object and when there is more than one subordinate clause that is usually obligatory. Everyone could see, I believe, that he was terrified. That-clause Everyone could see what was happening and that poor George was really scared. Wh-clause 

that-clause

The COMPLEMENT of subject + BE The truth is (that) he was very shy. That-clause – COMPLEMENT

Again, that is optional. 

In APPOSITION to a noun like fact, truth, explanation, idea. The noun fact is generally used after the verb face. We must face the fact that we have spent all our money. That-clause – IN APPOSITION



The idea that everyone should be required to vote by law is something I don’t agree with.

That-clause – IN APPOSITION The fact that also follows prepositions and prepositional phrases like because of, in view of, on account of, owing to, due to, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding. His love for literature was due to the fact that his mother read poetry to him when he was a child. That-clause – IN APPOSITION In spite of / Despite the fact that hotel prices have risen sharply, the number of tourists is as great as ever. That-clause – IN APPOSITION Remember: That-clauses in apposition can be RESTRICTIVE – no comma, no break in intonation – and NON-RESTRICITVE: it simply reminds us of what truth, fact, explanation – it is used between commas and there is an interruption of intonation patters of the sentence. The explanation, that it was all a misunderstanding, was satisfactory to all of us. That-clauses after adjectives describing feelings. Many adjectives describing personal feelings (afraid, glad, happy, pleased, sorry) or certainty (certain, sure) can be followed by a that-clause. That can be optional. I’m afraid (that) we’ve sold out of tickets. That-clause That-clauses with should: Verbs like say, think, hope can be followed by that-clauses in which present, past or future can be expressed. I hope (that) you will have a very nice time during your holiday. That-clause Other verbs following this pattern: add, admit, agree, answer, argue, arrange, believe, bet, comment, complain, conclude, confess, decide, declare, dream, doubt, expect, explain, feel, find, find out, forget, guess, imagine, insist, know, learn, mention, notice, remember, repeat, reply, see, show, suppose, suspect, swear, state, understand, write. But verbs like propose, recommend refer only to imagined action in the future, as in We propose that Mr. X (a) = should go / should be dismissed. (b) = goes / is dismissed. ( c) = go / be dismissed. In this example, (a) might be regarded as normal, (b) as informal and ( c) formal and typical of official style, especially in . The ( c) forms are traditionally called subjunctive. Other verbs following this pattern: command, consider, desire, disagree, intend, propose, request, suggest, urge.

Should also occur in That-clauses after verbs and adjectives expressing personal feelings, judgment, etc. as in: 

We are sorry (= regret) that you should feel obliged to resign.

Other adjectives following this pattern: absurd, alarmed, alarming, anxious, angry, ashamed, awful, bad, careful, content, cruel, enough, fair, fortunate, funny, unfair, horrible, natural, unnatural, odd, pleasant, sad, silly, sorry, wrong. WH-CLAUSES These clauses can be derived from yes/no questions and question-word questions Noun clauses derived from yes/no questions Here is a direct question: Has he signed the contract? By putting if or whether in front of it and by changing the word order to subject – predicate, we turn it into a subordinate noun clause that can be used:  As a SUBJECT: Whether he has signed the contract (or not) doesn’t matter. Wh-clause – SUBJECT  As a COMPLEMENT after BE The question is whether he has signed the contract. Wh-clause – COMPLEMENT  As an OBJECT after verbs especially in indirect questions I want to know whether / if he has signed the contract (or not). Wh-clause – OBJECT  As an OBJECT after a preposition. I’m concerned about whether he has signed the contract (or not). Wh-clause – OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION IF is only possible when the noun clause is used as the object of the verb.    Noun clauses derived from question-word questions Here is a direct question-word question: How soon will he know the results? Question-word questions (beginning with who, whom, what, which, when, where, why and how) plus a change in word order can function as noun clauses and can be used:  As a SUBJECT When he did it is a mystery. Wh-clause – SUBJECT  As a COMPLEMENT after BE The question is when he did it. Wh-clause – Complement  After a reporting verb, as OBJECT I wonder when he did it. Wh-clause – Object  The OBJECT of a preposition. It depends on when he did it.

Wh-clause – OBJECT of a preposition I’m interested in when he did it.

EXERCISES Choose the correct option. For each sentence, say what the function of each noun clause is. 1. Last week, our cat gave birth to a litter of kittens, but we didn't know where ________. a. is our cat b. our cat was c. our cat is d. was our cat 2. Now, our cat is home again, and we can't believe how many ________. a. kittens does she have b. kittens has she c. she has kittens d. kittens she has 3. Can you imagine ________ ? a. how cute they are b. how cute are they

c. how they are cute d. are they cute

4. The kittens are so noisy that I can hardly hear what ________. a. are saying you b. that you are saying c. are saying you saying 5. My husband said _________ try to keep them all. a. don’t we b. that shouldn't we c. that we shouldn't

d. you are

d. that we don't

6. The cat belongs to my daughter, so my husband insisted that ________ them for adoption. (give them away) a. she offer b. she offers c. she will offer d. she must offer 7. He told us ________ sad, and that it would be better for everyone. a. don't be b. doesn't be c. not be d. not to be 8. She needed to find new homes for them, but she didn't know whom ________ . a. should she ask b. she should ask c. she ask d. she asks 9. She decided _____________ post some notices around the neighborhood. a. that she b. what she c. what she would d. that she would 10. Neighbors dropped by just to take a look. Everyone picked out ____________ . a. which one he's like b. which one he likes c. which one he liked d. which one they liked 11. One mother told her son, "_______ is daily care. Can you give that?" a. That a pet needs b. What a pet needs c. Which a pet needs d. Whether a pet needs 12. "Adopting a kitten depends on ____________ the ability to care for it."

a. have you

b. whether you have

c. that have you

d. if have you

13. Of course, the child agreed. Is it possible __________ the child would not agree? a. what b. that c. if d. whether or not 14. ___________ a good home is important. a. Should a pet get b. Does a pet get c. If a pet gets

d. Whether a pet gets

15. _________ happened. All but two of the kittens were adopted. (but – except) a. That we wanted b. What we wanted c. Which we wanted d. What do we want Directions: Combine the two sentences into one sentence using a noun clause. 1)

Where is the bank?

Could you please tell me

2)

What time does the next bus come?

Can you tell me

3)

Where did Sara go last night?

Do you know

4)

Where is the nearest supermarket?

Could you please tell me

5)

Why is the Mona Lisa smiling?

Do you know

6)

Whom did you speak to earlier?

Could you please tell me

7)

What is the teacher's name?

Can you tell me

8)

Where are my keys?

Do you know

9)

Where do you live, little girl?

Can you tell me

10)

How do you make a noun clause?

Could you explain

Identify, classify and state the function of Noun Clauses in the following sentences. In some sentences, there is more than one clause. 1. The question is whether he is ready to do what he’s asked for. 2. That she’s not able to speak any other language is unquestionable.

3. We are astonished at the fact that Sue has moved to a small village in the north of the country. 4. Our decision depends on what the boss is going to tell us in the meeting. 5. This conference demanded that the lecturer prepare his speech carefully. 6. She’s not sure what she’s going to wear at the graduation ceremony. 7. The truth is that they will never accept that they were wrong in their assertions. 8. It is advisable that you wear the uniform in that school. 9. The question I couldn’t answer in the exam is when Winston Churchill retired from politics. 10.

Have you heard that the teacher of History is thinking of giving up teaching?

Complete the sentences using an appropriate Noun Clause. Specify the function of the clause. 1. Have you asked the shop assistant ……………………………………………………………………..… 2. The explanation, ………………………………………………………………………, was satisfactorily accepted by the jury. 3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… is a big lie. 4. The businessmen were really interested in ……………………………………………………………… 5. The doctor suggested that ………………………………………………………………………………... 6. What …………………………………………. is what ……………………………………………….. 7. We were all advised …………………………………………………………………………………… 8. I couldn’t listen to ………………………………………………………………………………………. 9. The information ………………………………………………………………… was broadcast in the morning. 10. Could you tell me ……………………………………………………………………………………? 11. It’s important …………………………………………………………………………………………… 12. The manager found out ………………………………………………………………………………… 13. The secret she was keeping was ………………………………………………………………………..

Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death. He said that he would not go. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us. He said that he was not feeling well. I cannot rely on what he says. I don’t know where he has gone. He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes. The news that he is alive has been confirmed. The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal. It is certain that we will have to admit defeat. It was fortunate that he was present. The report that only ten persons were killed in the riots is not true.

Recognizing Noun Clauses You and a friend are writing a screenplay. For each example of dialogue below, underline the noun clause, and say what its function is. EXAMPLE Whatever is making that noise just moved closer. (Subject) 1. You don’t understand how difficult this is. 2. I’m not sure when our air supply will run out. 3. Can’t you tell us why they robbed the bank? 4. Where to set the trap is the most important question. 5. Which safe combination is correct is not clear. 6. I am convinced that cigarette smoking is harmful to your health. 7. I have concluded that smoking a pipe is just as bad as smoking cigarettes. 8. I hope that cigar smokers heed the warnings about smoking in general. 9. I think that fewer people will smoke in the future. Revising with Noun Clauses You and a friend are writing a screenplay, and you want to make the dialogue more specific. Change each underlined word into a noun clause. Write your new sentence on the line. EXAMPLE I refuse to believe that! I refuse to believe that we are trapped! 1. The issue is where.

2. I will find out who. 3. Whatever will excite me. 4. They must reveal which and when! 5. Whoever will solve this mystery. Use the following phrases to write complete sentences containing noun clauses 1. pleased that you 2. surprised that Ann . . . think that she 3. afraid that another . . . convinced that it 4. aware that you . . . certain that I’ll 5. disappointed that my son . . . realize that young people . . . worried that my son’s . . .forget that he’s . . . think that he’ll 6. a fact that some 7. aware that dinosaurs . . . true that human beings 8. a fact that blue whales . . . believe that they

RELATIVE CLAUSES They are also called Adjectival Clauses because they post-modify a noun, which is called antecedent. The antecedent and the relative clause are rarely separated. The house which was built near the cliff belonged to my grandparents Antecedent Relative clause Classification: Relative clauses are classified into: Defining Relative clauses, which are those clauses that limit or restrict the meaning of the noun they modify, so the information they add is essential to complete the meaning of the sentence. They are not written between commas and, in speech, there is no pause in intonation. The baby who was crying was my nephew. (We need to know which baby we are referring to) Non-defining relative clauses, which are those clauses that add extra information about the antecedent they modify because this antecedent is already known to everybody so the information is not essential to understand the meaning of the sentence. They are written between commas and, in speech, there is a pause in intonation.

The house, which belonged to my grandparents, was built near the clif. (We already know which house we are talking about.) Sentential Relative clauses, which are those clauses whose antecedent is the complete main clause. They are always introduced by which and they are always nondefining. Tom has already got his degree, which was really good news for all of his family. Relative clauses are introduced by: 

Relative pronouns:

Who – whom, for personal antecedents – Which, for non-personal antecedents – That, used to replace who, whom or which in more informal style or in particular cases. The man who / that was selling Wireless Internet came to my house yesterday. The teacher of Geography, whom / who / that I had met at the shopping mall, was late for work this morning. The test which / that was planned for Wednesday was put off because most of the students were absent. 

Relative adverbs:

When, to refer to time – Where, to refer to place – Why, to refer to reason This is the time when we have to say goodbye to each other. This is the club where we used to gather to play football. That was the reason why we decided to split. 

Relative determiner:

Whose, which replaces the genitive case or possessive adjectives. We were all surprised by the boy whose mother had visited us last week. Relative Pronouns can have different functions. 

They can be the SUBJECT of the relative clause: The man was my friend. He was wearing a green suit.

In this example, the pronoun HE refers back to “man” and is the subject of the second sentence. If we want to write a complex sentence, the Relative Pronouns WHO / THAT will be used to refer to “the man” in place of the pronoun so it will turn into the subject of the relative clause.

The man who / that was wearing a green suit was my friend. The same happens in the following example: Everybody likes “The Lord of the Ring. It was shot in New Zealand Everybody likes The Lord of the Ring, which / that was shot in New Zealand. 

They can be the OBJECT of the relative clause: The woman was hurt. Everybody saw her.

In this example, the pronoun HER refers back to “woman” and is the object of the verb. If we want to write a complex sentence, the relative pronouns WHOM / WHO / THAT will be used to refer to “the woman” in place of the pronoun, so it will turn into the object of the relative clause. It changes its position because it has to follow the antecedent. The woman whom / who / that everybody saw was hurt. When the relative clause is defining, the pronoun can be omitted. The woman everybody saw was hurt. IMPORTANT: The relative pronoun that is not used in DEFINING relative clauses when it is the object of the clause 

They can be the OBJECT of a PREPOSITION: Mary Simpson decided to give up studying. The teacher had talked to her Mary Simpson, to whom the teacher had talked, decided to give up studying. The decision on which our course of action depends is very hard.

When we use the relative pronouns WHO / THAT or when we omit the pronoun, the preposition goes to end position in the relative clause: Mary Simpson, who the teacher had talked to, decided to give up studying. The CD which I listened to was recorded last year. The CD I listened to was recorded last year.



When is the relative pronoun that obligatory?

After words like all, first, indefinite pronouns, superlative adjectives She’s the most intelligent person that I have ever met. The Pilgrims were the first British people that came to America

Something that I really hate is telling lies. All that I want is your love.

EXERCISES Combine the sentences using a relative clause. Use relative pronouns only where necessary. Note that you have to use commas in some of the sentences. A holiday in Scotland 1. We spent our holiday in Scotland last year. Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. Last year we ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2. People live in Scotland. They are called Scots. The people …………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. We first went to Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland. We first ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories. Arthur Conan Doyle ………………………………………………………………………………… 5. Then we visited a lake. It is in the Highlands. The lake ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 6. Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster. Loch Ness …………………………………………………………………………………………… 7. There we met an old man. He told us that he had seen Nessie. An old man ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 8. We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William. We then ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9. The mountain is the highest mountain in Great Britain. It is called Ben Nevis. The mountain ………………………………………………………………………………………… 10. I sent you a postcard. It was written on the summit of Ben Nevis. The postcard …………………………………………………………………………………………

RELATIVE PRONOUNS Fill in: who - whose - which - where – when. Then, classify each clause (Defining, Non-defining, etc) and analyse the case of each Relative Pronoun. I was on my way to the Odeon Cinema, ……………… I wanted to meet my cousin Fred. I was walking down Richmond Street …………… I heard a loud noise. A man had crashed into a tree ……………… was standing at the corner to Corn Street. The man, ………… car was badly damaged, was in shock. I helped him phone his wife, ……………. arrived shortly after the call. My friend Jimmy, …………….. is very superstitious, loves lucky charms.

One day Jimmy, ……………… room is always an awful mess, decided to do some cleaning. First he tidied his wardrobe, …………… he found a rabbit´s paw. He was very excited ……………… he came over to my place. He showed me the rabbit´s paw, ………………. was light brown and looked very old. Last July, ……………… we had our house-warming party, Mum invited our friend Peer from Norway. Peer arrived at Stanstead Airport, ……………….. we picked him up two days before the party. Peer, ………………. had never been to England before, was very excited. Peer´s suitcases, ………………… were huge, didn´t fit into the car. Peer, ……………….. suitcases had to take a taxi, was very upset. I spent a year in Australia ………………… I was only 23 years old. My first stop was Melbourne, ………………… I have friends. Peter and Kate, …………………. are both teachers, showed me around. One day we went to the aquarium, ……………………. was awesome! Peter, …………………….. band is pretty cool, plays the double bass ADVERBIAL CLAUSES An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb. All adverb clauses start with a subordinating conjunction. Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions used for this purpose are: when, before, after, as, since, as if, as though, because, that, if, unless, whether, as long as, as soon as and as though. How to identify Adverbial Clauses Compare:  I try hard, but I can never remember people’s names.  However hard I try, I can never remember people’s names. Hard is an adverb, however hard I try is an adverbial (or adverb clause): it is telling us about (or “modifying”) can never remember. Adverbs can often be identified by asking and answering the questions when?, where?, how?, To what extent? Under what condition? In what manner? How often? etc. An adverbial clause can be identified in the same way:    

Time: Place: Manner: Reason:

Tell him as soon as he arrives. You can sit where you like. He spoke as if he meant business. He went to bed because he felt ill

(When?) (Where?) (How?) (Why?)

There are ten types of Adverbial clauses: KIND OF CLAUSES - Time clauses Place clauses Manner clauses

USUAL CONJUNCTIONS When, before, after, since, as soon as, while, as until, whenever, once, immediately, the moment, the day, etc. Where, wherever As, like, the way, as if

- Conditional clauses Purpose clauses - Reason clauses Result clauses - Contrast or concession clauses Comparison clauses Qualifying clauses

If, unless, provided (that), providing (that), as/so long as, on condition that In order that, so that, for fear that Because, since, as, seeing that, now that So that, so + adjective/adverb + that, such a/an (+adjective) + noun + that Though, although, even though, even if, while, whereas Than, as/so … as , the same as In that, in so far as

Position You can place an adverb clause in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. 

After the play ended, we sang the national anthem.



I shall wait until you have finished dressing.



I haven’t been to the cinema since I saw ‘The Sound of Music’.



I read because I like reading.



She spoke in such a low voice that few could hear her.

Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town. 

Adverb Clauses with Time

When 

He was talking on the phone when I arrived.



When she called, he had already eaten lunch.



I washed the dishes when my daughter fell asleep.



We'll go to lunch when you come to visit.

'When' means 'at that moment, at that time, etc.'. Notice the different tenses used in relationship to the clause beginning with when. It is important to remember that 'when' takes either the simple past OR the present - the dependent clause changes tense in relation to the 'when' clause.

Before 

We will finish before he arrives.



She (had) left before I telephoned.

'Before' means 'before that moment'. It is important to remember that 'before' takes either the simple past OR the present. After 

We will finish after he comes.



She ate after I (had) left.

'After' means 'after that moment'. It is important to remember that 'after' takes the present for future events and the past OR past perfect for past events. While, as 

She began cooking while I was finishing my homework.



As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking.

'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time'. 'While' and 'as' are both usually used with the past continuous because the meaning of 'during that time' which indicates an action in progess. By the time 

By the time he finished, I had cooked dinner.



We will have finished our homework by the time they arrive.

'By the time' expresses the idea that one event has been completed before another. It is important to notice the use of the past perfect for past events and future perfect for future events in the main clause. This is because of the idea of something happening up to another point in time. Until, till 

We waited until he finished his homework.



I'll wait till you finish.

'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time'. We use either the simple present or simple past with 'until' and 'till'. 'Till' is usually only used in spoken English. Since 

I have played tennis since I was a young boy.



They have worked here since 1987.

'Since' means 'from that time'. We use the present perfect (continuous) with 'since'. 'Since' can also be used with a specific point in time. As soon as 

He will let us know as soon as he decides (or as soon as he has decided).



As soon as I hear from Tom, I will give you a telephone call.

'As soon as' means 'when something happens - immediately afterwards'. 'As soon as' is very similar to 'when' it emphasizes that the event will occur immediately after the other. We usually use the simple present for future events, although present perfect can also be used. Whenever, every time 

Whenever he comes, we go to have lunch at "Dick's".



We take a hike every time he visits. 'Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each time something happens'. We use the simple present (or the simple past in the past) because 'whenever' and 'every time' express habitual action. The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time 

The first time I went to New York, I was intimidated by the city.



I saw Jack the last time I went to San Francisco.



The second time I played tennis, I began to have fun.

The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time means 'that specific time'. We can use these forms to be more specific about which time of a number of times something happened.



Adverb Clauses with Place

Adverb Clauses expressing time answer the question “Where?”. They can be used at the beginning of the sentences - separated from the main clause by a comma, or at the end of the sentence without a comma. 

We may park the car where there is a parking sign.



You may park the car wherever you like.



Adverb Clauses expressing Manner

These clauses answer the question How? They are always used at the end of the sentence.  George drives as his father did.  George drives the way his father did  George drives as if he is left-handed  George drives as if he was left-handed  George drives as if he were left-handed. The way = this is typical of informal style As if + present of “to be” (is/am/are) = it suggests that something/somebody really is … As if + past of “to be” (was) = it suggests that something/somebody might be … As if he + subjunctive = it suggests that something/somebody is not 

Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions

These type of clauses are often called "if clauses" Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: If he comes, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He would have invited me if he had known. If 

If we win, we'll go to Kelly's to celebrate!



She would buy a house, if she had enough money.

'If' clauses express the conditions necessary for the result. If clauses are followed by expected results based on the condition. Even if 

Even if she saves a lot, she won't be able to afford that house.

In contrast to sentences with 'if' sentences with 'even if' show a result that is unexpected based on the condition in the 'even if' clause. Example: COMPARE: If she studies hard, she will pass the exam AND Even if she studies hard, she won't pass the exam. Whether or not 

They won't be able to come whether or not they have enough money.



Whether they have money or not, they won't be able to come.

'Whether or not' expresses the idea that neither one condition or another matters; the result will be the same. Notice the possibility of inversion (Whether they have money or not) with 'whether or not'. Unless 

Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time.



We won't go unless he arrives soon.

'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not' Example: Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time. MEANS THE SAME AS: If she doesn't hurry up, we won't arrive in time. 'Unless' is only used in the first conditional. In case (that), in the event (that) 

In the case you need me, I'll be at Tom's.



I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls.

'In case' and 'in the event' usually mean that you don't expect something to happen, but if it does... Both are used primarily for future events. Only if 

We'll give you your bicycle only if you do well on your exams.



Only if you do well on your exams will we give you your bicycle.

'Only if' means 'only in the case that something happens - and only if'. This form basically means the same as 'if'. However, it does stress the condition for the result. Note that when 'only if' begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause.



Adverb Clauses to express Purpose

Purpose is commonly expressed by an infinitive: I stopped to refuel the car ( Why did I stop?)

But it can also be expressed by finite clauses beginning with so that, in order that, for fear that, lest. SO THAT, purpose, must be distinguished from so that expressing result: He turned on the radio so that everybody could hear the announcement. (Purpose) He turned on the radio so that everybody heard the announcement. (Result) A purpose clause may precede or follow the main clause. 

In order that there should be no misunderstanding, we propose to issue these instructions to every employee, in writing.

IN ORDER THAT is more formal and suggests a more deliberate purpose. 

We issued these instructions in writing, for fear that a spoken message might be misunderstood.

FOR FEAR THAT combines the idea of purpose with that of “afraid that”.  

We erected this memorial, lest our children (should) forget We issued the instructions in writing, lest a spoken message (should) be misunderstood.

LEST is formal in style and is always followed by a subjunctive (or should + verb).



Adverb Clauses to express Reason / Cause-Effect

These type of clauses explain the reasons for what happens in the main clause. Example: He bought a new home because he got a better job. Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: Because he had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late. Adverb Clauses of Reason Because 

They received a high mark on their exam because they had studied hard.



I'm studying hard because I want to pass my exam.



He works a lot of overtime because his rent is so expensive

Notice how because can be used with a variety of tenses based on the time relationship between the two clauses.

Since 

Since he loves music so much, he decided to go to a conservatory.



They had to leave early since their train left at 8.30.

'Since' means the same as because. 'Since' tends to be used in more informal spoken English. Important note: "Since" when used as a conjunction is typically used to refer to a period of time, while "because" implies a cause or reason. As long as 

As long as you have the time, why don't you come for dinner?

'As long as' means the same as because. 'As long as' tends to be used in more informal spoken English. As 

As the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep.

'As' means the same as because. 'As' tends to be used in more formal, written English. Inasmuch as 

Inasmuch as the students had succesfully completed their exams, their parents rewarded their efforts by giving them a trip to Paris.

'Inasmuch as' means the same as because. 'Inasmuch as' is used in very formal, written English. Due to the fact that 

We will be staying for an extra week due to the fact that we haven not yet finished.

'Due to the fact that' means the same as because. 'Due to the fact that' is generally used in very formal, written English.



Adverb Clauses to express Result

Result clauses will usually follow the main clause. I opened the window so that the room got aired. SO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + THAT … will only follow the clause on which it is dependent, and it refers only to result.  The room was so stuffy that I had to open the window.



He spoke so clearly that we could understand every word.

SUCH (A) (+ ADJECTIVE) + NOUN + THAT … will produce a similar sentence to the ones above.  

He was such a clear speaker that we could understand every word of his speech. He showed such great courage that he was elected by everyone

Result clauses can be used at the beginning of the sentence in informal style



Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition, Contrast or concession

These type of clauses show an unexpected or non self-evident result based on the dependent clause. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive. Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: Even though the it was expensive, he bought the car.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive. Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition, Contrast or concession Even though, though, although 

Even though it was expensive, he bought the car.



Though he loves doughnuts, he has given them up for his diet.



Although he course was difficult, he passed with the highest marks.

Notice how 'though, even though' or 'although' show a situation which is contrary to the main clause to express opposition. Even though, though and although are all synonyms. Whereas, while 

Whereas you have lots of time to do your homework, I have very little time indeed.



Mary is rich, while I am poor.

'Whereas' and 'while' show clauses in direct opposition to each other. Notice that you should always use a comma with 'whereas' and 'while'.



Comparison Clauses

A gradable adjective or adverb in the comparative degree is often followed by a clause beginning with the conjunction THAN  George is quicker than I am  He writes more neatly than I do. A gradable adjective or adverb can also fit into the constructions:  George is as quick as John is as quick a writer as John is  John is not so / as quick as John is.  John is not such a quick writer as John is. A comparison of manner can be expressed in the following way: 

George wrote (in the same way) as his father did.

A comparison of quantity can be made thus: 

George has as mush money as I have.

In subordinate clauses like these ones, the operator is used as a pro-form (i.e. replacing the lexical verb)

Exercises Find the adverb clauses in these sentences. What are their meanings (time, place...)? If it is a reduced adverb clause, add the missing words. 1. You seem very happy when you help other people. 2. While you wait, we will detail your car. 3. I am happier than I ever was before. 4. That horse is more obstinate than a mule. 5. The woman took notes while being taught to cook with broccoli. 6. Ben fields baseballs better than he hits. 7. As the lions approached the carcass, the cheetahs retreated once more. 8. While eating, I choked on a bone. Each of these proverbial sayings contains an adverb clause. Identify the adverb clause in each sentence. Enclose the subordinating conjunction in brackets. 1. 2. 3. 4.

While the cat's away, the mice will play. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on. If you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect. Life is what happens when you are making other plans. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.

Finish each sentence and say what type of Adverbial Clause they contain. He arrived before …………………………………………………………………………. After I have finished studying, ……………………………………………………………………… As ……………………………………………………, sea levels will rise. I will keep learning English for as long as …………………………………………………………. While ……………………………………………, I usually listen to the radio. Rates of obesity increase when …………………………………………………………………. Since ……………………………………………………………, I have lost 5 kilos. I will keep learning English until ………………………………………………………………. My English is not improving because ………………………………………………………. Since ……………………………………………………………………, poverty has increased. Pollution is increasing as ………………………………………………………………………. I am studying IELTS in order that ……………………………………………………………… He went to the gym so that …………………………………………………………………. Although ……………………………………………………………, most people still prefer books. The Minister wants to incease taxes though ………………………………………………………... Even though …………………………………………………, I didn't get the score I needed (surprising) Internet usage increased, while …………………………………………………………………… Whereas ……………………………………………………………………………, I do not. No matter how much……………………………………, money is never enough for him Wherever ………………………………………………………, I will go.

I am not sure where ………………………………………………………………. Find Subordinate clauses in the texts below and classify them I go to the health club everyday to work out although I am very often quite lazy to get myself there. What Rachel enjoys is taking long walks in the evening. This year students are required to wear uniforms, which I completely agree with. The abilities to concentrate completely on what another is saying and to understand the emotions behind the words are critically important for good communication. Most people argue that buying a present for someone is often a tricky business since it can take hours for us to choose. The first thing that we have to decide is whether we want to buy something cheap or expensive and the shop where we should go to buy it. It is probably even more difficult to buy a gift for someone we don’t know very well. The problem is that we have to try to find something that he / she would like. Personally, I never know what to buy for somebody who is not my friend. I am always afraid that he / she doesn’t like it and I usually wonder if he would have liked something different. Once you have visited a few countries where the climate is different to yours, you will appreciate the fact that you should carefully plan your holidays before travelling. Not planning well enough is the reason why some holidays can go wrong. A holiday which involves a lot of walking means you need to plan to go with someone who enjoys walking and whose stamina is equal to yours. While she was preparing a meal for the guests, Mrs Grant got rather worried about some unusual mushrooms which a kind friend had sent her from the country. Feeling suspicious, she gave a mushroom to her dog. As the dog ate it with no ill effects, Mrs Grant decided to cook the mushrooms for her guests. That evening the guests greatly enjoyed the mushrooms, commenting on their unusual flavour. They quickly changed their minds after Mrs Grant’s daughter, Jill, burst into the dining-room and announced that the dog was dead. On hearing the news, Mrs Grant now in a state of shock, phoned Dr Craig, who came round immediately and pumped out the stomachs of all those who had eaten the mushrooms – a very unpleasant experience for them. When Dr Craig asked if he could see the dog, he was led out of the house. He soon discovered that the dog had been killed by a passing car. Not knowing anything of her mother’s suspicions about the mushrooms, Jill hadn’t mentioned this important fact when announcing the death of the dog. Identify and classify the subordinate clauses in the following sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

As he was walking to the station, he found a puppy that had been abandoned in a box. He used to speak in public as a good speaker does. My little brother is as tall as my older brother is. He was such a lovely man that every girl in the room wanted to dance with him. The idea that the girls had was really risky. The idea that we could play a joke on the teacher was very risky. We’ve all decided that we’ll speak with the principal tomorrow. We haven’t seen our boss since he decided to go on holidays. Since we don’t have time to finish the research tonight, we’ll meet again tomorrow.

10. I don’t know what you want. 11. He wants to know what your name is.

Analyse coordinate and subordinate clauses in full. 1. We got ready to get on the train which left at 4:45, but it didn’t stop. 2. It’s not surprising that she’s feeling hungry because she hasn’t eaten for two days now. 3. Tell me where you live. 4. The letter has been lost or the postman has delivered it to the wrong address. 5. We realized something had gone wrong as soon as we saw him. 6. Type this again in the way I showed you. 7. No matter how sorry she feels, the damage has been done. 8. The fact that everyone was feeling uncomfortable at the meeting worried the Chairman. 9. We were so late that we missed the first act of the play. 10.It took twenty driving lessons in order that I might pass my driving test first time. B- Complete the following sentences with the subordinators or/and the type od clause indicated in each case. 1. We run out of fuel ………………………………………………………………………………….. (Adv. Clause of reason, “as”) 2. He usually behaves ………………………………………………………………………………… (Adv. clause of manner, “as if”) 3. This is not ………………………………………………………………………………………...... (Relative clause) 4. Whatever …………………………………………………………………………………………… (Nominal Relative clause) 5. It will rain tomorrow ………………………………………………………………………………. (Sentential Relative clause) 6. Nobody can guess …………………………………………………………………………………. (Wh-Noun Clause, DO) 7. You will meet him …………………………………………………………………………………. (Adv. Clause of place, wherever) 8. It may be difficult …………………………………………………………………………………. (Adv. Clause of contrast) 9. My sister walks …………………………………………………………………………………….. (Adv. Clause of comparison) 10. That’s the man ………………………………………………………………………………........

(Relative clause, Relative pronoun in the Possessive case)

Write the sentences following the clues given 1. Complex sentence – (Wh-Noun Clause object of a preposition) 2. Compound-complex sentence expressing contrast – (Defining Relative Clause, Relative pronoun in the subjective case; That-Noun Clause, object) 3. Complex sentence – (Sentential Relative clause) 4. Complex sentence – (Noun clause in restrictive apposition; Non-defining relative clause, Relative pronoun in the Possessive case) 5. Complex sentence (Non-finite Clause – subject) 6. Compound-complex sentence expressing alternative (Non finite clause, object of the verb; non finite clause, subject complement) 7. Complex sentence – (Defining relative clause, R. pronoun in the objective case) 8. Complex-compound sentence expressing addition – (Noun clauses: subject / complement; restrictive Relative clause, R pronoun in the subjective case) 9. Complex sentence – ( N clause; defining R clause, R pronoun in the subjective case; Sentential relative clause) 10. Complex sentence – (N clause, adjectival complement; R clause referring to time) Complete the following sentences using an appropriate clause. 1. …………………………………… is ……………………………………… (two N clauses) 2. She’s always saying ……………………………………………………, …………………………………………… (N clause – Sentential R clause) 3. You should not be interested in …………………………………………. (N clause) 4. I don’t know ………………………………………………. (N Clause) 5. They decided …………………………………………………… (that clause) 6. I cannot get used to the idea …………………………………………………… (Noun clause) 7. The explanation ……………………………………………………………………. was taken as a proof for the trial. (R clause) 8. The explanation ……………………………………………………… was really very clear to all of us. (N Clause) 9. He asked ………………………………………………………… (N clause) 10. The house …………………………………………………… was built last century. (R clause) 11. Lady Di, …………………………………………………………………………, was very much loved by the British people. (R Clause) 12. The Buckingham Palace is the place …………………………………………………… (R Clause) 13. …………………………………………………… was ……………………………… (two Noun clauses) 14. Stratford, ………………………………………, is the city ………………………………… (two R clauses) 15. I am quite happy ………………………………………………… (N clause)