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The Encyclopedia of

I

II

Edited by Malcolm Stuart

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In The Encyr' ^edia of Herbs and Herbalism, an enthusiastic

Malcolm

team


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ocfarirf lurvt cjirca tcciTttX*

li rtiu nlatt t^ uino

7mrr Umax

in

reacted instinctively in his rejection of

Cdrra niqia

ftbrr

and foods are only preserved

As a aiirf fbrtr«

m oUd rof*mo frgS

ltmino

nna

bucaf A,

luptu ponti-

survive to give an

ideal conditions, such as particularly dry

„w

i

commonly

•

(rbvrc fuf^

5*

>

boo

urnr cotara Tfunbar^

Tiiairolr*^^

mmjytnffmr^J dLumoftilZ*n^ ruf mdxzun lb ^ nwUifliinc aim riidcra) l

blindfolding us

and continued need

for

tei

herbs,

raw mate-rials or staye-s involved in the we cannol tell commodities we- buy whether the- d\e in blue- jeans is from Incline. e>r India, Efficiency had dictated the

thai

e>|

the-

200,000

spec ies of

plants, only 12 or 13 arc- widely

e

herbs.

clearly a very great misconcep-

is

tion if one thinks of the

massive quantities crude herbs used today >\ both public and professional

interest.

The

culed medic

al

professions

which

herbalism

ineffective

wi\es"

'old

Superstitious

nature

.is

tales'

so ridi-

are-

and

once

an attempt to methods and materials free horn discover tinundesirable side-effects frequently experienced with the modern 'chemically again turning

to

tailored' synthetic drug.

in

New methods

reappraisal are being used to judge

of

the

produced by centuries of practical experience. There ate- signs that the beliefs

revival

of interest

tremely profitable practices ol our i

1

ic

it

ol

in

to

herbs will be ex-

man and

ancestors

the-

herbal

are

being

reasingly vindicated. By careful studies

has been shown that a good proportion the beliefs of the old herb physicians

flowering

were right, and that, for example, plants do indeed posse-ss different properties if

ultivated.

harvested

at

herbs used separately. There has also been a revival

of popular Enthusiasm has been aroused for the charm and serenity of the old fashioned herb garden with its associated culinary and aromatic herbs which

interest

different times ol the da\ 01

in

herbs.

somehow suit the requirements of modern times. Herb gardens provide useful materand

ials

Alter a decline of about two years,

year and that certain combinations of more active than the individual

plants are

minimum

yet

require

not

remain attractive with a

of maintenance, for herbs do

horticultural

special skills.

soils or complex Herbs provide the

vitamins and minerals increasingly sought alter for a healthy diet. They provide an ideal starting-point for a range of home-

made products wines, dyes. use.

such as cosmetics, ales, pot-pourris and

scented sachets,

Not only are herbs cheap and easy but

those in general

advantage of being to

free

to

use have- the

from the dangers

health often contained in

man-made

commodities, be they drugs, food colourings or hair dyes.

Herbalism has become part of the new concern in our society for an ecological balance and an unpolluted 'natural' way of life. This late twentieth-century appreciation of herbs and their immense value in food and medicine truly represents the rediscovery of old wisdom indicating that the biblical expression as true-

today

as

it

'all

flesh

is

grass'

is

always has been. I

I

«

Sfet

Skri

The history #

of herbalism

&& ^*fcm.

a»

sa».

-

mn.

,

—

"-—

Who first used plants we do not know. But someone - more probably, many different

religious belief in a

people - in the earliest mists of history, long before the earliest records that now

the gods, receiving their powers of healing from them. This much is assumption. But it is valid assumption, given our understanding of human nature in general and our knowledge of the earliest communities that archaeologists have been able to trace. It also accords with the first medical records that we have, from India, China, Egypt

survive, discovered that

good

to eat

and

some plants are

that others have healing

i

properties. This

was the

first

step in a

lengthy process of trial and error by which early man in different communities slowly

up a corpus of knowledge about To this gradual process was added, no doubt, experience handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth and a measure of intuition. Why and how a plant should have been capable of curing sickness must have remained a mystery to those early communities, Indeed, only the development of built

plants.

f

sophisticated techniques of chemical an-

century or so has at last provide the solution. So those

alysis in the last

begun

who

to

took a special interest in the healing

qualities of plants

and became especially

gradually gained an honoured place in society. Their skills and knowledge singled them out from the mass as medicine men. Because there were no readily comprehensible explanations of how plants healed, primitive communities tended to attribute the process to a god or gods, as indeed they did any phenomenon that puzzled them. Thus the earliest medicine men became associated with the whole structure of skilled

in

their

application

were

priests

who

community.

Many

acted as instruments of

and Assyria. This very vagueness about the first herbalists points to an important dichotomy in our knowledge of herbs and those who used them. The story that follows inevitably recounts what might be termed the 'official' aspect of herbalism - the only one for which records remain. We can only suppose - but none the less with every confidence - the existence of an 'unofficial' side to herbalism, a succession of ordinary country men and women skilled and knowledgeable about the herbs of their area and their uses - medicinal, culinary and in the preparation of dyes, perfumes and cosmetics. Only rarely do these people emerge in the 'official' story. Finally, in the nineteenth-century industrial revolution in the western world, urbanization and the increasing division of labour gradually caused such rural

Mandrake. For centuries it was thought that if humans dug up the plant it meant certain

wisdom to die out. We know little of the origins of medicine in China and in India. It is thought that the Emperor Chin Nong composed a herbal in about 2700 b.c. and that some 60 years later another Emperor, Huang-

death.

ti,

Left:

A

1

dog uprooting the 'shrieking

wrote a

treatise

on medicine. In India. '3

HISTORY the Rig Yeda. one of the sacred books of

ledge

the Brahmins, mentions the use of medi-

spread

cinal plants.

The

scarcity of

knowledge

about ancient medical practice in these countries should not. however, lead us to assume that no developed system existed there, nor that ideas, beliefs and practices may not have passed across Asia, between these ancient civilizations, in a process of

which we now know nothing. Lack of evidence means that we can only point to China and India and cross-fertilization of

state that a tradition of medicine as old as

that of

Europe does

exist

there, perhaps

one that is even older, and that plants were undoubtedly used as remedies. As a result, an account of the history of herbalism is confined to describing the gradual development of medical know-

in

Egypt and Mesopotamia,

first

its

to the countries of the eastern

Mediterranean and Persia and Armenia, to ancient Greece and then throughout Europe and - two thousand years later to the New World. For many centuries botany and medicine were closely linked, and plants were central to medical practice. They provided the chief,

if

not the only, remedies

other than surgery, and theories

were

addition,

many

many medical

around

them. In ordinary people will have put their faith in the long line of herbalistwho sold their patent remedies made up from different herbs in towns and villages, successful because they were cheaper than doctors and physicians and perhaps also because they appealed to the always very built

potent traditions of folklore and magic.

Only

have and medical scienthe same time medical

since the eighteenth century

the paths of botanists

tists divided: at treatment has become available for everyone, and the old herbal remedies have died out.

EGYPT The Egyptian civilization is the first of which we have any extensive medical knowledge. Much of that is somewhat imprecise, as

is

illustrated in the case of

Imhotep. the first Egyptian physician whose name survives. He served Zoser. a 3rd Dynasty Pharaoh, in about 2980 B.C. and was renowned as an astrologer and magician as well as for his healing powers. His reputation lived on after he died: legends grew up about his work and he was eventually transformed into a god of healing. For the Egyptians some two millennia later, whether Imhotep had actually lived or not would have been unimportant; in fact, his reality would not have been questioned in such terms. Just as a contemporary healer would have been regarded as a priest and instrument of the gods because of his healing

Imhotep.

skills.

who had been the subject of down for many centurie-.

legends handed

would have been regarded as a god. The ground becomes rather firmer by about 2000 b.c. Various medical papyri most important among them being the famous Ebers Papyrus - discovered by archaeologists in the last 100 years

list

a

of medical prescriptions in use after about 1800 B.C. Mineral substances and series

animal products were included, but about five-sixths of the ingredients were of vegetable origin. Each prescription dessymptoms of the disease and

cribes the

gives instructions

on how the cure

One

is

to

be

administered and prepared. prescription, intended "to empty the belly and clear out all impurities from the body typical

of a sick person", required field herbs, honey, dates and uah grain to be mixed together and chewed by the patient for one day. These same papyri demonstrate the central role of the gods in Egyptian medicine - and. of course, in the entire life of Egyptian society. Osiris was worshipped as a god of vegetation. Isis. his twin sister Left: Imhotep (c.2g8o B.C.). the first

known Egyptian physician. A celebrated sage among his contemporaries, he was worshipped as a god after his death. Imhotep was the patron of the sciences and of doctors. For ordinary people he was regarded as the god of healing.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

and mother, was one of the most ancient goddesses of Egypt. She held it in her power to renew life and was reputed to have transmitted the secrets of healing to mankind. As such a powerful magician and healer, it was to her that the Egyptians prayed for deliverance from disease. Thoth was believed to have formulated each healing prescription. He is represented as holding in his left hand the symbol of life and in his right a staff

around which a serpent is coiling itself - a symbol of the physician to this day. So the picture that comes down to us from Egyptian sources is of increasing medical skill confined as it were within a framework of magic. A herbalist carried with him both a casket of medicines and a magician's wonder-working rod; before treatment could begin, the gods had t be called on to cast out the devil which

We

shall find this

association between medic

me and magic How much

possessed the patient.

continuing in ancient Greece. both there and in Egypt it was

,i

resull ol a

genuine belief in the power of the L, ods, how much because of a desire on the herbalist's part to keep his skills secrel through a pio< ess ol mystification we anr

i

uot

now

distinguish. But before

Greece objectiveat

turn to l

we must look Mesopotamia and

medical science

the civilizations of

their

we

also saw the beginnings

which

approach

to

medic

inc.

or vice versa ly,

is

not known. Quite probab-

they both borrowed from a

Asian source

common

in a process of cultural

con-

which is now lost. The earliest Sumerian herbal dates from some time after 2500 b.c. and has come down to us in the form of a copy tact all trace of

dating from the seventh century b.c. Later Assyrian inscribed tablets are

much more

informative. Tablets from the library of

Ashurbanipal. King of Assyria between 668 and 626 B.C.. reveal that knowledge of herbs and their medicinal properties must have been considerable. Some 250 vegetable drugs are mentioned, as well as 120 mineral drugs and some 180 that remain unidentified. This wealth of information makes it reasonable to assume that gardens where medicinally useful plants wen cultivated must have been established. Whether physic gardens in the sense th.it the term came to be used in the Middle Ayes ever existed is uncertain. But we do know that gardens and parks

were

laid out

that in

one

round the royal palaces and herbs were grown.

at least

Language is and spread of ideas, and it is significant that a number of the names \>\ which plants are known today are derived an obvious indicator of the

Above: Tablet depicting Ashurbanipal.

King of Assyria, at work on his herbal. Ashurbanipal was very interested in herbs and their medicinal properties, and large numbers were grown in the royal gardens for his

use.

Aesculapius Like the Sumerians and Egyptians, the Greeks believed that the gods were the first herbalists and physicians and that they had taught the art of healing to man.

Aesculapius was the first, and probably greatest, of them. Historians now

the

believe that he actually lived, but

whether

he did or not is of little importance. Aesculapius must have been a healer whose skills and successes brought him

renown and about

whom

after his

death

legends gradually grew up. His signifi-

cance lies in those legends. They tell that Aesculapius was the son of Apollo and Coronis. Born in Epidaurus in about 1250 B.C., he was slain by Zeus, who was jealous of his success in healing the sick

and

daughter was Another closer link with

raising the dead. His

Hygieia, the goddess of health.

provides

origin

tradition

from the Sumerians, having passed through the Greek and Arabic languages.

Egypt by claiming that Aesculapius was born in the Egyptian city of Memphis and emigrated to Greece, bringing with him Egyptian medical techniques and know-

These include Apricot, Saffron, Cumin, Turmeric, Myrrh, Mandrake, Almond, Poppv. Mulberry and Sesame.

MESOPOTAMIA

a

ledge.

The root-gatherers The

link

with the Egyptian association of

ANCIENT GREECE

healing with magic and mystery

that

The civilization of classical Greece took much from the Egyptian world and from

physicians.

Mesopotamia, including, of course, its knowledge of the practice of medicine. It took much, but it added even more-. It also

demonstrated by the rhizotomists is root-gatherers who wandered from place to place gathering roots and herbs used in medical prescriptions For the most part, they were uneducated and would follow a complex ritual as they went about their work complex in all likelihood, again, to

I

he

Sumerians believed

that sickness

the manifestation of devils

and

was

evil spirits

had attacked the human body. Magic and medicine went hand in hand, and many of the- gods were believed to be

The

similarity of these

beliefs

Egyptians is cleat. Whether the Egyptians influenced die Sumerians

io

diose

ol

began, perhaps most important of basis lor medic

establish a scientific

all.

inc.

to

is

clear.

It

also

'"»

HISTORY He earns

protect their trade from inquisitive out-

known

Certain prayers and chants had to be spoken as the plants were gathered, and specific times were appointed for the task.

this

person to establish and

The

to

learning he took from Egyptian sources.

pharmacopolists, who prepared drugs and other healing remedies for sale in village markets. The rhizotomists and

But he dropped the elements of mystery and magic and, recognizing disease as a natural phenomenon, established for the first time a system of diagnosis and prognosis. Hippocrates used about 400 drugs,

siders.

rhizotomists

sold

their

plants

pharmacopolists of ancient Greece together form the start of a long tradition of what might best be described as dealers in herbs, usually itinerant and always re-

magic and mystery to justify Such people could still be the markets and fairs of Europe in

ferring to

their products.

seen in

the early part of this century.

Hippocrates Despite

the

traditional

framework of ancient Greece

was in that scientific medicine fas we now understand the term) was first developed. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), who was born and practised on the island of Cos, is religious belief,

it

tific

as the father of medicine.

description because he was the set

system of medicine.

down

Much

first

a scien-

of his

mostly of vegetable origin, but he never wrote a herbal. The Hippocratic Oath, to which all doctors until very recently had to swear before they could practise, is of course named after Hippocrates. Its opening words - 'I swear by Apollo, the Physician, by Aesculapius, by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the Gods and Goddesses that to the best of

my power and judgment

BED(pPAI"F5

MEAANTA

.' .

.

demonstrate a close and fascinating link between modern medical practice and the beliefs of the earliest medical

EPE2I DS

scientists.

'

/IlfW'i

/**

m^^mr

W

5

&

I

,'

K

V

——

.

,

L

,

with low osmotic pressures called flavonoids, which happen to be red. A pink colour thus develops in the leaves. After some time when the plant has grown and so needs and can accommodate more sugar, the red substances are removed by reconversion into useful sugars so that the pink hue gradually disappears.

The main types of metabolites The 'active constituents' of plants may categorized according

to

their

be chemical

structure: Alkaloids are distinguished chemically

by

the fact that they contain a basic nitrogen

atom. An alkaloid-containing plant almost never contains just one alkaloid but rather a whole range of closely related chemical components. Thousands of alkaloids are known and they are very widespread in the plant world being present even in certain fungi.

the

Some

Solanaceous

of the best

group

shows

more may serve a protective function. Some compounds are extremely toxic (even in very low concentrations) and a

section through a holly leaf

the 'open' structure

of leaves with good circulation

large air-spaces to promote

bird, for example, which cats a bcrrv which contains these substances and as a result becomes ill soon learns to avoid the fruit from that particular species: the

of gases. Holly, an evergreen, possesses a modification to enable it to withstand drought conditions in winter by having a thick outer cuticle.

merely to exist and these are often ofver) complicated structure. They can sometimes be unique to a single species or a

group of very closely related species. Despite their wide diversity of character and distribution they all have one thing in common and that is that their function in the plant, if they have one at all, is very poorly understood. It is these secondary metabolites, sometimes present in an extremely minute concentration, which exert

the

physiological

logical effects

on

man and

or

pharmaco-

are responsible

and odours of some obvious that it is on these substances that an account of the chemistry of herbs should concentrate. for the strong flavours

species

and

it is

Biosynthesis

The secondary

may

be

regarded as 'end-products' of metabolism have an extremely wide range of chemical structure but their functions are largely unknown. Some coloured compounds have an obvious reproductive role in that they are responsible for the colour of

and the yellow carotenes of sunflowers are good examples and hence attract insects which pollinate and cross-fertilize. Others may have a role in growth regulation the hormones already mentioned while still flowers (the red flavonoids of roses

42

among other

Deadly Nightshade and Thorn Apple. Another much more complex group which includes morphine is found in certain species of poppy. Glycosides are compounds which consist of two parts: a sugar portion attached via a species,

special

linkage to a non-sugar residue.

chances of survival of the plant are thus

They may be

increased.

action of dilute acid. Probably the most

Some

evidence that

these secondary

substances are concerned, however indirectly, with vital processes is given In the fact that not

all

parts of those plants

by enzymes or by the

split

important group are those which exert a powerful physiological effect on heart muscle the cardio-active glycosides

which are special

steroids found,

among

which contain these materials have the same concentration of them. They may.

other plants, in the Foxglove and the-Valley. Second only to the cardiac

for

example, be concentrated in the bark Buckthorn) or the fruits (for example, Caraway). Their concentration, furthermore, varies with the season (and this has obvious important consequences regarding the collection of some medicinal plants and herbs which will be referred to later) and even with the time of day. The concentration of active principles in the

glycosides are those

(as in the

anthraquinone, the purgative substances of Cascara, Rhubarb, Buckthorn and Senna. Saponins are special glycosides which form stable froths or foams when shaken in water. Their physiological action depends on the fact that they break up red blood haemolysis). The Primula is one of cells

medicinally useful plants of the family Solanaceae (particularly the Deadly

the herbs containing saponins.

Nightshade) metabolites which

are

(atropine and

hyoscine, ibr example) from,

Above: This

known

for

instance

show marked

Lily-of-

compounds based on

i

mixtures of oils are complex quite small molecules which are volatile Essential

diurnal variation. Another example in which secondary metabolites may play a

and generally have a pronounced odour.

role in

fundamental metabolism is given by the so-called 'pink flush' of lettuces. When growth and photosynthesis is very active, in young seedlings for example,

many

high concentrations of sugars build up

including Dill, Caraway, Fennel and Anise and the leaves of certain species of Labiatae including Peppermint and Thyme). In addition,

increasing the osmotic pressure of the

some

cell

sap to dangerously high levels. If allowed to proceed the cells could literally explode at this point certain enzymes are activated which divert the metabolism to break

down

these sugars to aromatic

compounds

They

are responsible for the flavours of culinary herbs (for example, the

umbelliferous

fruits

have a therapeutic effect - for example, oil of Clove is antiseptic. Mucilages and gums consist of large molecules made up of several hundred individual sugar units linked together to form chains. They have the special propertv of oils

EXTRACTION being able to form gels with water and thus exert a soothing effect on inflamed

They may

tissue.

also act as laxatives

by

increasing the bulk of the contents of the intestines and hence induce peristalsis. A good example is Marshmallow root. Tannins are complex phenols which react

with protein. Just as a tannin solution is used to prevent putrefaction of animal hides by converting them to leather so may an extract of the Oak (which is high in tannin content) be used to promote wound healing by encouraging the formation of new tissue under the leathery layer formed on broken mucosal surface by the action of tannins. Because of their astrin-

gent

compounds

these

properties

also

have a marked effect on flavour - as in tea, for example. Bitten as the name implies have a strong bitter taste but do not belong to any one special chemical class. They are generally Gentian, used to stimulate the appetite for example, is included for this purpose in a

number of aperitifs.

can be seen that all these different of substances have very different chemical properties. Because of these It

classes

methods used in the preparation of extracts of plants also vary. The extraction procedures obviously dedifferences, the

pend on the types of constituent present and it is worthwhile examining the vari< ius procedures

in detail.

MAKING EXTRACTS OF PLANTS Although it is desirable for all purposes to have 2rmu nt

lvUxipApaucrcuoieocvttSi^montt mouctaf

omm cqvfn mxrc1bmmtme£roaO£>ucvr,

all

before

MEDICAL HISTORY him were

distilled into four

with the 600 best

known

books dealing -i^ ^•s.'

plants by the

greatest figure in the history of herbalism.

•

t;

v>,

^O

^A

Pedacius Dioscorides. Following the col146 B.C. Greek lapse of Corinth in

moved to Rome, and from an army surgeon under Nero

physicians there as

Dioscorides travelled widely and described the herbs he saw in use in what was the first 'materia medica' or

(54-68 a.d.

"pharmacopoeia". Without doubt he was the first real medical botanist, and his work was for 1500 years the standard reference for the medical application of plants.

Galen

a.d.

- whose name meaning had enormous in-

131-201

gave rise to the term galenical, botanical drug - also

fluence until the seventeenth century, but

Galen was a physician, and

his

major

therapy was the introduction of a system of 'polypharmacy' or mixing herbal preparations to treat specific conditions; some forms of

contribution

plant

to

herbalism still retain this type of therapy. Following Galen and Dioscorides. and

and fall of the Roman Empire. European medicine entered a stagnant period which was to last several hundred the decline

years.

To a

large extent the moral ethics ol

physicians were replaced with greed, envy and quackery, and the old incantation and magic of previous ages resurrected. Folklore rose to the surface again, and individuals either treated themselves with

family

visited

recipes,

travelling

bone-

and herb women, or were helped by those in religious orders. Even tin medical work of monks, however, was stopped by the Papal decrees which were setters

issued regularly for a century,

from that

ol

Clermont council 130 to the council ol Le Mans 1247 In early Germany medicine fell largely into the hands ol 'wise women' or 'wild women who employed herbal remedies, magic and amulets, and to the lekeis who were the equivalent ol the Anglo-Saxon leech-men. In Russia the position was similar with the 'wolf-men' or volkhava employing herbs and spells, while the Celtic order ol Druids and Druidesses did likewise. The 1

.

Druids

favoured

seven

magic

herbs

of

which the Mistletoe held pride of place. In the dark ages, however, between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Arabic mechc

ine rose

on the tide of

Mohammedanism,

and physicians ol the standing ofRhazes, Haly ben Abbas and Avicenna. and the Jewish physician Avenzoar, combined the previous Greek work with their own observations and studies ol botanical drugs and pharmacology. Much ol this work was recorded in the thirteenth-

century compilation of Ibn Baitar whose materia medica described 1400 drugs. The proximity of Arabia to the- East led Arabian pharmacists (or sandalani) to the Stud) ol a wide- range of plants and plant products which became of immense importance to later European medicine: they developed the use of Cassia. Senna.

Rhubarb, Camphor. Myrrh. Cloves, and used

the-

flavouring ability

ol

rose-water,

orange and lemon peel and other aromatics

id

mask

unpleasant

medication. Before the advent of printing

tastes

in

the mid-

had already begun the internal wrangling in the medical profession to be exacerbated by the printed word which continued until the nineteenth

century.

Initially

concerned the relative status

in full judicial

The Druids had an

excellent

knowledge of the medicinal application of local herbs, and considered some to possess magical qualities.

Of all plants,

the

Mistletoe held pride of place.

and barbers; the

being increasingly persecuted by the surgeons who tried to pi event them from treating wounds. In latter

England in 1368 the Master Surgeons formed a separate guild, and in 1421 joined forces temporarily with the Physic-

in

fifteenth century there

late

Above: An Arch Druid costume.

ol

this

surgeons

ians,

although

even

these

two

bodies

treated each other with suspicion. This

move

forced

the

barbers

to

obtain" a

separate charter (1462) and led to the beginning of barber-surgery or surgery of the

common

place-

in

people. Similar events took

France and Germany. Under »'•

MEDICINAL USES Henry YIU's act of and surgeons

151

ians

licensed practitioners,

1

While herbal traditions based on

English physic-

became the only and all others were

lore continued, the effect of printing to

mark

folk-

was

the beginning of the Renaissance

excluded from practising medicine, but b\ 1542 the greed shown by the profession caused another act to be passed to allow those common people having knowledge of herbal and folk medicine to minister to

and the continuation of the

scientific

method

The

the poor.

its

started by Dioscorides.

teenth century was

marked by

six-

the emerg-

ence of both 'proto-botany' books and herbals, although the herbal did not reach

peak

in

England

until

1633 when enlarged

Thomas Johnson improved and Below

:

The sumptuous

interior

sixteenth-century apothecary.

of a

As some

apothecaries charged very high prices, people

sought the services of herbalists.

the herbal of

John Gerard,

itself

mostly

employed by apothecaries; the 'materia medicas', pharmacopoeias and dispensatories (the first edition of the

Pharmacopoeia,

for

London

example, appeared

1 6 1 8 Apothecaries were originally drug and herb traders, who managed to develop a special relationship with the medical fraternity. In England they had been associated from 1378 with the Grocers' Company who also sold herbs and drugs,

in

.

derived from a translation of Dodoens.

and who were the

This period also saw the beginning of printed works devoted to those substances

Both the grocers and apothecaries purchased herbs and roots collected from the

original

drug vendors.

HOMEOPATHY countryside, and they also imported drugs and spices from abroad. The apothecaries frequently established their own physic gardens and thus served as a link

between horticulture and medicine by growing their own medicinal herbs. The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London was incorporated in 1617 and the apothecaries soon began to diagnose and prescribe without associating with a physician. They continued to do so until 1886 when medical registration was finally only granted to those candidates qualifying by examination in surgery, medicine, and pharmacy. By the middle of the seventeenth century therefore, herbs were being used in many different ways by physicians, apothecaries, manufacturers of proprietary medicines and a host of traditional country herbalists and town quacks. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, although herbs continued to play an important role in medicine, their importance slowly declined.

The

botanic writers

who amassed

details of plant use included

information

from a host of sources - the Greeks, the Arabs, folklore, early botany, and information received by the grocers or apothecaries from foreign lands. In some cases

mentioned was unand while the real advances of medicine such as anatomy, physiology and clinical diagnosis were progressing, plant-lore became increasingly confused with an assortment of chemical compounds, mixtures, electrical and magnetic treatment, and blind faith in tradition. By the beginning of the nineteenth century scientific investigation was growing apace, and with it came the realization the identity of plants certain,

that specific effects could be demonstrated

when

or

isolated

particular,

purified

substances were applied to living systems.

known

as pharmacology, owes work and inspiration of 803-1 873 ), the father Justus von Liebig

This study,

much

to

the

1

of physiological

chemistry,

who

to

medical

therapeutics:

on

the

effect

specific cells,

Samuel Hahnemann (1 755-1843) and the work of American physicians of the early nineteenth century

medicalism,

a

Homeopathy

is

and

known as physio-

branch

herbalism.

of

a system of healing based

on the supposition that infinitesimally small quantities of a given substance, such as a medicinal plant, will cure a condition in which symptoms exist that would be identical to the symptoms produced in a healthy person who is given large quantities

of the same substance. doctors had an open

Many American

intro-

duced the concept of 'metabolism', and carried forward the development of organic chemistry which had already produced such important isolated substances as morphine ,1806; from the Opium Poppy, strychnine (181 8) from Strychnos nux-vomica and quinine (1820) from Cinchona bark. This approach is the modern rationale specific substances

orthodox practitioner was as eager as the research worker to move away from crude plants to the more 'exact', isolated chemical. Notable exceptions to this in the West were the introduction of homeopathy by

approach to medicine which was unfettered by the historical trappings of their colleagues in the Old World; certainly

them

the early settlers took with

when

traditional remedies

they

their

Eur-

left

ope, but they soon adapted to the rigours

of

new life by adopting some of the remedies of the North American Indians. All these remedies were in continuous use by an oral culture, rather than a culture

in

which

of their

upon

depended

written

(and,

and

the excitement of the nineteenth-century

therefore, often erroneous) records,

development of organic chemistry the

be reliable. This led to many reliable drugs being incorporated into the first American materia medicas and dispensatories.

were therefore found

One group

to

of physicians, led by

Thompson, decided

Samuel

not to interest them-

selves in the isolation of active ingredients

of plants, as was being done elsewhere in

America

and Europe, but simply to administer tinctures of the whole plant, a

system which became known as the physiomedical concept, and which was concerned with assisting the natural power of tissue regeneration which the body possesses. Schools specializing in pliysiomedicalism flourished for a while,

mainly

Chicago, but by the beginning

in

of the twentieth century their influence

declined and retained in

this

concept

now

is

only

some forms of unorthodox

herbalism.

Herbalism as a system of healing exists today in name only as there are various approaches which range from the use of all types of plant material to the use of non-poisonous herbs only. In the West the orthodox employment of medicinal plants is largely restricted to those with strong I.i

ft

:

rural

The less opulent interior of the Swiss pharmacy of Michael Schuppart, an

eighteenth-century apothecary.

examining

the urine

sitting in front

He

is

of the patient who

is

of him. ")'

MEDICINAL USES Right: The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum). The latex, which is obtained by excision of the immature capsules,

25

contains

-

is

of which modern medicine

different alkaloids

morphine - indispensable the strongest

pain

to

reliever (analgesic)

pharmacological action, such as Opium Poppy, Foxglove and their derivatives. The great dependence of Third World nations on traditional plant use has, however, recently stimulated the beginnings of a modern medical appraisal of

and

herbs,

scientific

possible

that

future

reassessment will

lead

to

it

is

the

orthodox utilization of ancient herbal remedies and the discovery of new

wider ones.

MYTHS AND TRADITIONS Many

magical and religious ideas associ-

ated with plants have survived almost unaltered to the present day. In Crete the fat

onion-like bulbs of the Sea Squill maritima) are

(

i'rginea

hung up by farmers

at tin-

entrances to their vineyards to protect the

ripening grapes from harmful influences, a superstition which seems pointless but

which is explained by tracing the Squill back to the days when it was sacred to the god Pan who protected mortals from evil spirits. Similarly, in some parts of central Europe villagers still plant the succulent Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) on the roof tiles to prevent their houses from being struck by lightning. The Romans called

Iovis

it

caulis

or Jupiter's

plant

ancient times, and even todav in

plants were thought not only to protect

are tannins, malic acid and mucilages, and while they may have some minor effect in treating superficial burns and

man from the dangers of the outside world,

diarrhoea they are completely ineffective

but also to preserve him from disease and

in shingles,

In

some

health, so

ill

properties

wielded.

protect plants were carried on the person

for the benefit of their protective qualities.

A

leaf of

Betony

{Stachys officinalis) carried

pocket or purse was said to offer protection from witchcraft. A sprig of in the

Mugwort

[Artemisia vulgaris)

worn

inside

the shoe was thought to prevent a traveller from becoming tired, an old practice which, surprisingly, persisted in East Anglia until the beginning of this century. In southern Europe walking-sticks cut from the boughs of the Chaste tree Vitex agnus-castus) were carried by pilgrims because they believed they were magical and could protect them from both robbers (

and the bites of venomous creatures. These primitive beliefs in the talismanic qualities of plants are, however, by no means confined to the ancient cultures of the world; they abound today in Third World countries, and you can still be stopped in the heart of London by gypsies hawking sprigs of 'lucky heather'. 52

was considered

it

wear a magical plant

because they believed Zeus or Jupiter had given it to man to protect his property from the destructive bolt of lightning he

Some

many

parts of the world,

infusion of

or

better

with

still

of these

The

protective

balism

is

this

partly due to the fact that early

drink

to

an

believed to

thatched roofs of medieval fire from the sky, was also considered to be effective against fire in the body - medicine in the Middle Ages the

houses from

classified diseases into hot

and

cold,

wet and dry. So William Salmon, writing on the medicinal virtues of the Houseleek as late as the end of the seventeenth century was able to say - 'Herba iova is Glutinative and Segnotick; it quenches thirst, allays heat, stops fluxes

and abates

the violence of cholerick Fevers, being

given in a spoonful or two of Wine, or the juice mixt with Sugar.

Balsam

it

is

on the subject received their information by hearsay or accepted without criticism what they read in the works

Outwardly

in a

cures burns, scalds, shingles,

of other authors. This early attitude led to the publication of a large number of

accounts of plants which did not even exist, such as the 'Scythian Lambe' described by John Parkinson, and the 'Fountain tree of water' which Lewis Jackson maintained grew on the CanaryIslands. There was even thought to be a 'Barnacle tree' that bore fruit which eventually hatched into live geese. Of the plants which did actually exist, many were attributed with medicinal properties because of their association in previous a

inflammations.'

examples

these

therapeutic indications are

concerned with other,

and

vividly

how

the

plant

the

in some form or example demonstrates

'heat'

the magical 'primary' use of

dictated

its

'secondary'

or

medical use. We now know that the Houseleek's principal active constituents

who governed One of the best common Myrtle Myrtus

ages with a god or goddess

pains of the gout, creeping ulcers and hot All

of myths and false ideas, and

full

writers

it.

The Houseleek. which was

still

gout and fevers. history of medical botany or her-

logical to

particular

communis

is

disease.

the

.

Myrtle was known

to

the Greeks as

and was sacred to the goddess Aphrodite ^who was also known as 'myrsini'

Myrsini), the goddess of fertility, simply because the pointed elliptical leaves of this plant closely resembled the shape of

METABOLISM As a result of this was chiefly employed in Greek medicine as a herb for treating female complaints - a practice the female genitalia.

association the Myrtle

which was not discredited

until the nine-

teenth century.

Another medicinal plant which earned reputation by association with the Greek gods was the Black Hellebore its

a plant sacred to the

iHelleborus niger |,

'kthonoi' or gods of the underworld. deities, spirits

deified

These

whose number included cave and the souls of the dead and physicians, belonged to an older

and darker

than the

cult

celestial

Olym-

was believed that they possessed the power to inflict enormous suffering on mankind in the form of disease and madness. Black Hellebore, which became linked with their worship, was considered to be the specific remedy for the diseases for which they were held responsible, and the root was. used for pian

deities.

It

treating epilepsy,

and

melancholia, hysteria disorders. In

neurological

other

Shakespeare's time and beyond it continued to be used for 'the falling sicknesses' fepilepsyi,

melancholicke

'all

diseases'

and 'convulsions', besides being employed as a poison, an abortive and a local anaesthetic. Modern examination, how-

Animals,

including

man,

are

very

ever, has suggested that Black Hellebore

similar to plants in this respect, the funda-

neurological

mental difference between the two groups being in the way in which they obtain

does

the general

in

assist

conditions for which the Greeks employed

homeopathic tincture is prepared from the rhizome and used to treat epilepsy, certain psychoses, eclamp-

and today

it,

sia

a

(convulsion

with

associated

preg-

nancy), meningitis and encephalitis. After a period in which herbal medicine

was regarded with the greatest suspicion by the medical profession, many of the

now being

claims of herbalism are

by

stantiated

scientific

sub-

observation and

reinstated.

up their own food from small molecules whereas animals take in large molecules and break them down. All materials ingested by the animal are treated in exactly the same general way: the food is digested in the their food. Plants build

Above: The evergreen Myrtle fMyrtus

communis ) it

was

is

now of little

importance, but

once sacred to the Greek goddess

Aphrodite. In the Middle Ages Myrtle berries It

was

were used as a condiment, also used in the treatment

like pepper.

of

female complaints.

Below : The Christmas Rose or Black Hellebore fHelleborus niger,) contains

gastro-intestinal tract, the small molecules

powerful substances which act on the heart

formed are absorbed through the gut wall and transported via the blood to other parts of the body where they are used to build up new enzymes or cell

rather like Digitalis. These

so

much

too strong for

make

modern herbal

the plant use.

material or act as essential catalysts in

THE INTAKE AND ACTIONS OF

these reactions. Certain foodstuffs contain

MEDICINAL PLANTS

ingredients such as minerals and vitamins

Plants

are

very complicated

composed of millions of

cells

structures

many

per-

forming extremely specialized functions and each contributing to the existence of the organism as a whole. Organisms are 'alive' because of the many chemical reactions which are carried out in each of these cells; thus life is essentially a series of highly controlled chemical changes which consist of building up (anabolismj or breaking down (catabolism processes

known

which are

essential

process to occur.

our diet in

for

some enzymic

deficiency of these in

likely to lead to

some of our

just as

to

is

A

an impairment

basic metabolic functions,

mineral deficiencies

visible

in plants lead

abnormal symptoms such

as

and yellowing. digestive and transportation proesses described above are not capable of discriminating between materials which spots

The

i

way Thus

find their

into the gut from different

metabolism these changes are initiated by chemical catalysts. All these reactions are under the

sources.

direct

because they contain substances which after absorption enter certain biochemical

(collectively

found

as

;

influence of the genetic material in

the nucleus of each

cell.

certain plants are

'good'

foodstuffs because they are rich in starch

or

protein and

some plants are

'toxic'

53

MEDICINAL USES Right

A

:

magnified section through the wall

of the small intestine showing the folded mucous membrane (top, pink) through which food and drugs are absorbed. The rate

of absorption depends on the nature of drug molecule and on the other

the food or

substances present in the tract.

and disrupt them. Similarly the which are medicinally useful contain materials which act in some beneficial way on the fundamental processes in animal cells, either by promoting processes

plants

certain reactions or inhibiting other pro-

may

which

cesses

abnormal.

be

The

practice of medicine with herbal products

no fundamental chemical way different from treatment with synthetic drugs. Both act by the introduction of a foreign molecule into the body (sometimes at a more or less in

this

respect

specific site) so that

The concept

in

is

it

may

exert

its effect.

of herbalism does, of course,

differ theoretically

from the orthodox

in

that herbal medicine attempts to treat the

patient

as

whole,

a

rather

than

the

condition in isolation.

Pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of the manner in which the functions of living organisms can be modified by chemical substances. Since living cells are very complex, many of the factors which control their activities are completely unknown. For this reason a

new

been

science,

pharmacokinetics,

developed

to

study

the

has

factors

hence on the body. This goes to

a long

wa\

explaining the highly specific nature of

some drug actions, as well as why some compounds possess powerful, often dangerous, side-effects, since some drugs may by chance interact with more than one

which would decompose in the acid stomach juices. Other routes which invoke passage of active materials through a mucosal layer are those via the vagina or urethra. Drugs may also be administered by slowly dissolving a lozenge under the orally, or

affecting the absorption, distribution and eventual elimination of drugs from the

type

body and

Routes of drug administration The oral route is the one most frequently

nasal

cheap, easy and convenient and the patient can administer himself tablets which can be manu-

cation

it

largely employs mathematical

models. A theory which has been advanced from simple experimental evidence and has found considerable success in explain-

why

drugs exert their effects is the It was proposed originally by Paul Ehrlich who believed that mammalian cells possessed side chains ing

receptor theory.

which contained receptors (reactive chemical groupings) which combine with another active group on the drug molecule (in a more or less reversible way) to cause the drug effect. This proposal was a great advance and much modern research is based on a modified form of the theory. Simply,

drugs

can

be

considered

as

and the receptors on which may be opened

of

tongue (sublingually) or as snuffs (whereby absorption is effected through the

receptor.

used because

it

is

factured to contain an exact dose. ever,

if

the medicine

liquid or powder,

is

in the

and most herbal pre-

parations are, the dosage inaccurate.

How-

form of a

The drug

is

likely to

be

will also be diluted

by the contents of the stomach and intestine. Since the stomach juices are strongly acid and those in the intestine alkaline this may lead to decomposition of Absorption the active ingredients. through the gastro-intestinal tract may be slow or irregular due to the presence of

precisely cut keys,

the partly digested or undigested food,

the cells as locks

thus delaying the effect.

only by the appropriate keys.

When

the

key turns the lock (that is when the drug reaches and combines with the receptor on the cell) processes are initiated which cause chemical changes and so induce the

drug 54

to exert

its

effect

on the

cell,

and

Some

materials are given as suppositor-

ies and the active ingredients are absorbed through the delicate lining (mucous membrane) of the rectum. This may be

particularly useful for giving substances

which would cause vomiting

if

given

mucosa

When is

i.

a local effect

made

is

required appli-

to the surface

of the skin in

the form of a cream, paste, ointment, lo-

In these cases some occur by penetration through to the subcutaneous tissues. Sterile solutions may, of course, be injected directly into the bloodstream which removes the initial absorption step. The rate and efficiency of absorption of tion

or liniment.

absorption

may

is largely dependchemical nature but also on the method of formulation ^how it is presented for administration). The most obvious factor is the solubility of the substance in

a material from the gut

ent on

its

the gastro-intestinal contents. No substances can be absorbed from the fluid in the gut unless they are soluble in the first place.

Secondly,

the

passage of drugs (that

is

barriers

to

the

the intestinal cell

walls) consist largely of fatty substances,

hence drugs which dissolve well in fats are absorbed more rapidly and completely than those which do not. There are some

DRUG ADMINISTRATION exceptions to this and these depend on the existence of a specific transport mechan-

ism for a particular type of chemical. In addition, some drug molecules contain acidic or basic groupings

which

may

be

ionized (electrically charged) in aqueous solution. Since only non-ionized or elec-

molecules are fat-soluble, governed to some extent

trically neutral

absorption

by

also

is

this factor.

Finally, the presence of substances in

whole plants other than the active ingredients may considerably modify not only the physiological effect of the active substances themselves but also their solu-

and hence absorption.

bility

The

It will

sweat and milk. that when one medicine many-

now be apparent

takes a dose of herbal

the blood

meate

and

drug exerts

its

effect.

but

ingredients

the

also

sub-

'ballast'

body via compounds that perthrough cell membranes

freely

evenly distributed in all parts of the body. Some, however, tend to concentrate at particular sites. Compounds are often bound to carrier molecules - for example, proteins in the blood plasma - or become strongly attached to specific

binding

less

sites

in

tissues.

such active transport processes

Where

exist, the

ordinary physico-chemical principles no longer apply. One particularly effective

mechanism is known as barriei which prevents

the blood-brain

passage of most molecules from the bloodstream into the central nervous system and the the

cerebro-spinal fluid.

Metabolism a drug enters the body,

it

is

acted

upon by enzymes which usually change its chemical structure into substances which have less effect (pharmacological activity on the body. This is why the effects of drugs wear off gradually. These enzymatic reactions

which may exert a modifying on the 'active' substances have first to be made soluble, then absorbed and distributed (perhaps via an active binding process throughout the whole body, to stances effect

reach their active site (receptor) before they can produce an action. Later they are usually metabolized to inactive sub-

and then excreted.

are

known

as

detoxification

and the most important organ concerned is the liver. This does not always happen, however. Pharmacologically active metabolites (products that have been produced l>\ the breakdown of the drug; may be formed from an inactive substance a precursor or or sometimes the metabolites 'pro-drug' may have a type of activity which differs from that of the 'active ingredient in the drug originally administered. The principal route of excretion of drugs and theii detoxified metabolites is the urine. This may be facilitated by metabolic changes

Biological variation

,

measurements

Repeated

of

same

the

quantity do not always give identical results. While this may be due to variations in accuracy, with living systems it is

more

be the result of biological its very nature biological variable. This produces prob-

likely to

variation - by

material is lems in the quantitative biological evaluation of all medicines, and these difficulties are particularly severe in the case of medicinal plants and their extracts. Medicinal plants are usually administered

as tinctures of the

whole plant, which

many different chemical substances, only some of which are active pharmacologically. Not only may the presence of the so-called inactive substances modify the absorption of the active ones (mixtures are in general more soluble than pure compounds), but they may actually modify the pharmacological activity of the active ingredients, either in a potentiating

way

or

former

is

oppositely

known

as

The

retardants.

The modifying substances need come from the same plant.

sometimes found that the particular plant extract

as the detoxification rea< lions

generally produce

than

compounds which

are

soluble in water (hence in urine in fat.

Alternatively, drugs

may

be

excreted into the intestinal trad via the bile and so eliminated in the fae< es. Minor

One

of the problems of this

is that haphazard administration of different plant extracts can produce undesired effects. For this reason orthodox medical authorities sometimes consider such herbal prac-

tices as unscientific

and inexact.

the-

presence

In recent attempts at the scientific evalu-

of one

effect

considerably of greater or

is

therapy, often quite complex,

is

the rule

the

exception.

This

is

the

fundamental difference between herbal and orthodox medicine. Whereas the latter is often symptomatic in approach, the former essentially treats the patient as

whole rather than

isolated

effect.

ation of this approach

amounts of extracts of other plants. This is of paramount importance in herbal medicine where combination

a

bined

herbal combination therapy

not

1

much

helps digestion.

It is

smaller

rather than

Above: Magnification of secretory cells of the stomach, which secrete the fluid which

Evaluating herbal medicines

necessarily

by

*r.flL

as the s\ net gistic effect or

synergism.

altered

J*£

will

consist of solutions in dilute alcohol of

processes,

more

**

r/m&L

and after the Not only the active

processes intervene before

stances

the

become more or

in as

4.

active materials, once absorbed,

are transported throughout the

When

routes of elimination include the lungs, saliva, tears,

conditions.

as a collection of Hence- preparations

containing several different plant extracts are administered with the intention that each component will exert its own specific effect which will produce an overall com-

that

some of

the

it

has been realized

compounds preset

minute concentration

in plants

in

often so

low as to be undetectable by standard techniques may themselves by extremely potent pharmacological agents. This

phenomenon

is

often referred to as the

effect of ballast material.

must be emphasized that everything body can be considered as a drug. This is an easy concept to accept when an active material exerts a pronounced, readily observable pharmacologic al effect on the body such as producing anaesthesia, but some compounds may act in a more subtle way, for example, by promoting efficient working of certain enzymes or by encouraging the development ol a good immunological defence It

ingested by the

55

MEDICINAL USES Plants

system.

belong

the

to

currently

know

producing these effects group about which we least:

traditionally they

were the panaceas or tonics - Ginseng being the best-known example. Today

DISEASES OF THE

HEART AND

blood vessels

The cardiovascular system

is

concerned

difficulties

with the circulation of blood. It consists essentially of a pump, the heart, and a system of tubes, the arteries, veins and capillaries - comprising the blood vessels. Circulation involves two joined systems one in which blood passes from the heart to the lungs where it is oxygenated, and then back to the heart; and another in which this oxygen-rich blood is pumped to the furthest parts of the body, gives up

ticism will

some of its oxygen

they are

known

All these difficulty

in

as

adaptogens.

problems have led deciding

how

to great

herbal pre-

parations should be examined, tested and

standardized and this has contributed to the current scepticism about the efficacy of the herbal approach. When these

have been overcome this scepundoubtedly decline and some aspects of plant medication will assume an even more important role in medicine. Having described briefly the uptake and actions of herbs, four groups of diseases, including their physiology and their treatment with medicinal plants, are

now examined. The

mentioned orthodox and

plants

have found use both in herbal methods and no distinction is made the examples simply between them emphasize the importance of plan's in medicine as a whole.

The commonest

vessels.

CIRCULATION

to the tissue's cells,

and

then returns to the heart. Besides oxygen, which

all tissues need biochemical reactions, the blood carries foodstuffs absorbed from the alimentary tract, and is also responsible for carrying the waste products of metabolism to sites of excretion, such as

for certain of their

the kidneys.

is

disorder of the

arteriosclerosis 'resulting in

narrowing of the arteries), the commonest site being the blood vessels supplying the heart (coronary arteries). This leads to a reduced oxygen supply for the action of the heart, especially during exercise, resulting in chest pain (angina pectoris The coronary blood supply is sometimes so |

.

drastically obstructed that a portion of

and this is known as Another common disorder is in which the blood pressure is

the heart wall dies, heart attack. hypertension,

abnormally raised, causing excessive strain on the heart, rupture of cerebral brain blood vessels causing a stroke, and

damage

to the kidneys.

Both coronary artery disease of which arteriosclerosis is one and hypertension

may

cause heart failure : this action of the heart

pumping

cope with the work load:

is

when

is

unable

the to

this results in

and retenand water (causing ankle swelling, for example) due to a reduced blood-flow to the kidneys. Other causes of

shortness of breath, tiredness,

The treatment of disorders Cardiovascular diseases are concerned with disorders of the heart and blood

of

tion

heart

salt

rheumatic

include

failure

fever,

congenital defects, diseases of the valves

which separate the chambers of the heart, infections and chronic respiratory disease.

The treatment of heart failure includes oxygen, cardiotonic substances (which improve the function of the heart and (substances which cause an increased excretion of salt and water by the kidneys The leaf of the Foxglove Digitalis purpurea is an effective cardiotonic for the treatment of heart failure and millions of people throughout the world diuretics

i.

|

are

still

(or

its

of the

treated with this material today

derivatives

The

|.

active principles

Foxglove are complex steroidal

substances

known

as cardiotonic glycos-

Many

ides or cardenolides.

very closely

Left: Diagrammatic representation of the cardiovascular system

A

Superior vena cava

B

Aorta

D

Right

F

Blood exchange

G

Blood supply within the

C

Right atrium

E

ventricle

Inferior vena cava

in the liver

H

of Pulmonary

vein

I

Pulmonary

arteries

J

Left atrium

K

M A"

the upper part

body especially the brain

Left ventricle

L

Blood exchange

Portal vein in the intestine

Blood exchange within the kidneys and

within the lower parts of the body. Areas of blood exchange consist of arterioles and venules which meet at the smallest subdivisions or capillaries.

v>

DIGITALIS THERAPY compounds of this type are present plant and some of these have a pro-

related in the

nounced strengthening ing heart.

They bind

effect

to heart

on the

fail-

muscle and

increase the force of contraction of the

heart at each beat without increasing

its

for

efficiently.

The need

is

enormous and much modern research

is

for cardiotonic

concerned with the chemical modification of these active molecules in order to produce better drugs. The major glycosides digitoxin and of digoxin are often isolated from

of Digitalis purpurea |

the dried leaves by complex and costly chemical procedures to enable administration to the patient in the form of tablets, but better results, however, are sometimes obtained by treatment with the whole powdered leaf. It is found that the

combined

effect

of

the

highly

active

glycosides together with the less potent

compounds found in the crude drug may provide therapy which is less harsh, more easily controlled, and therefore safer than the

use

minute

A major problem with Foxglove therapy

of isolated

active

compounds

lanata,) which contains steroidal glycosides.

63 different The most important of

these substances is digoxin, often used in

modern medicine

to treat

heart failure.

and diosphenol, Wild Carrot

volatile oil

(Daucus carota) which contains both volatile oil and an alkaloid, daucine, or

which

Dandelion

dangerous side-effects occur). This may be overcome to some extent by the use of the whole dried leaf, as mentioned above. Similar cardiotonic activity is found in the closely related D. lanata and the Yellow Foxglove. D.lutea. Hedge Hyssop

advantage of containing large quantities of potassium salts - substances which are often lost from the body during the process of diuresis, and which need replacing. Several medicinal plants may be used

which belongs

to the

as the Foxgloves, the

Scrop-

(Gratiola officinalis)

same family

hulariaceae, has also been

cardiotonic action, but

shown

it is

to possess

considered too

Almost identical compounds are present in certain Apocytoxic to use medically.

including members of the genera Strophanthus. .Xenum. and Acokanthera),

naceae

which

possesses

cardiac

more genera containing any

than

glycosides

other

so

compounds have been identified in members of the Ranunculaceae, the Nymphaeaceae, the Celastraceae and the Bignoniaceae. Similar

studied.

far

Below: The Woolly Foxglove ^Digitalis

Juniper, however, is too powerful to be used when the kidneys are inflamed, and it can in this case be replaced with Buchu leaves {Agathosma betulina) which contains

that the therapeutic dose (the dose required to produce the desired effect) is almost as high as the toxic dose (the dose which undesirable and sometimes at is

substances

D. lanata

compounds

present in the leaf in concentration may completely alter the physiological effect of the glycosides - this is a good example of synergism. certain

oxygen; the heart thus pumps

need

more

Another explanation may be that

alone.

Digitalis glycoside-like active principles

possesses

make

Taraxacum

(

several

officinale)

substances that

active

one of the most effective of

it

treatment of hypertension, some of which have been shown to be remarkably effective. Hypertension has long been treated in Asia by the root of a shrub, Rauvolfia serpentina, but it was not until

in the

the 1930s that the agent largely responsi-

was isolated. This comon the central nervous system

reserpine,

ble,

pound

acts

by depleting the stores of a vital transmitting substance called noradrenaline (or norepinephrine as it is known in the United States) without this material nerve impulses cannot travel and the resultant loss of smooth muscle tone in the walls of the blood vessels causes their relaxation and so reduces blood pressure, ;

are also found in the morphologically far

thus acting as a hypotensive.

removed monocotyledonous Liliaceae and Cactaceae.

with

Rauvolfia

families, the

Convallaria

all

plant diuretics. Dandelion also has the

alkaloids

synergistically

act

such

hypotensives

other

as

the

and

this

majalis, of the Liliaceae

alkaloids from

the most powerful of

potentiation of the combined effect (syner-

Family, is in fact the cardiac glycoside-containing plants growing in temperate zones, and has an important place in both the folk and orthodox medical treatment of arrhythmia flack ofa regular heart brat especially in eastern Europe. all

.

the

exactly

In

same way

that

gism)

Veratrum species,

very useful since

is

it

enables rela-

low doses of both materials to be used - an important fact since both sub-

tively

stances

may

cause side-effects

when used

on their own.

the

Foxglove glycosides promote regular beatan ing of the heart so does quinidinc

New Treatments

alkaloid isomeric with quinine, the anti-

that only recently has detailed investi-

malarial substance from the same source,

gation of their activity been started. This

the bark of the

Cinchona

tree.

This

dis-

covery was made quite by chance when it was noticed that patients being treated with Cinchona bark for malaria were tree from arrhythmias. As well as cardiotonic agents, diuretics are

essential

failure

and

in

cinal plants possess

Although there

arc-

certain effective

treatment of heart number of medi-

the

a very large

this

is

some

diuretic action.

often not very powerful

Many other

herbs have similar histories in

has shown the presence of other chemical groups in plants which have a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system. The plants under current investigation include the is

Hawthorn

widely used

{Crataegus monogyna), in the

which

treatment of angina

arteriosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension and coronary thrombosis.

pectoris,

Its

major constituents are flavonoids. Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum) (

also

several herbs, notably those with

contains substances beneficially affecting

contents,

which are

The

fruit

cardiovascular system, as well as vitamin P. Hawthorn and Buckwheat are often combined in the treatment of hyper-

volatile in

oil

diuresis.

ripe

of

Juniper Juniperui communis), for example, contains up to two per cent ofa volatile oil plus resins and a bitter principle which, together, act directly on the kidneys.

the

tension they are frequently also ;

with Yiscum

I ilia

x

album

europaea

(Lime

(Mistletoe-

1.

combined tree

Main

and herbs 57

MEDICINAL USES with cardio-active properties contain kaloids.

The hypotensive

tains several, of which the

are protoveratrin

A

and

is

blood pressure

Motherwort

most important B.

Broom

(Saro-

possesses

the alkaloid

employed

to raise the

thamnus scoparius) sparteine

and

al-

Veratrum con-

in

cardiac insufficiency.

(Leonurus cardiaca), however,

Below : A schematic representation of the human digestive system which consists principally of a hollow tube about

g

produced initially by the liver, not only facilitates digestion but is also an important route for the elimination of certain waste products in the faeces. The pancreas, in addition to producing a Bile,

metres

(jo feet) long from the mouth to the anus. Each part, with its specialized structural or cellular form, plays one or

more

digestive juice

roles in the

which

is

discharged into the

gut, also releases directly into the blood-

processes of mastication, maceration,

lowering the blood pressure, and help in angina

processes which all contribute to the

stream a hormone, insulin, which regulates the blood-sugar level. The condition

eventual elimination of unwanted waste

where

insufficient insulin

pectoris.

matter from the body.

known

as diabetes.

contains alkaloids which

assist in

With further detailed study of itional remedies,

it

is

digestion

and absorption offoodstuffs,

is

produced

trad-

possible that new-

groups of compounds will be discovered or certain plant combinations will prove to be useful in cardiovascular disease. cavity of the

DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND LIVER The

mouth vestibule

tongue

digestive system consists of the ali-

pharynx

mentary canal and the accessory digestive organs. Food passing along the tract is broken down by enzymes into small units which are then absorbed into the blood stream by passage across the gut cell-wall. Some substances in the diet need no digesfor example, tion before absorption water, certain vitamins and minerals - but the most important foodstuffs - fats, proall require teins and carbohydrates extensive degradation before they may be

trachea

absorbed.

Some

dietary

constituents,

however,

such as the cellulose of plant cell-walls are not digested at all by man because the appropriate enzymes are lacking, and so these pass through the gut to be expelled

unchanged in the diet

in the faeces; their inclusion is

none the

less

important be-

cause they add bulk to the intestinal con-

and improve peristalsis - the rhythmic contractions which propel the contents from one end of the gastro-intestinal tract

liver

spleen

tents

all

bladder

pancreas

to the other. pyloric orifice

duodenum

The

digestive system alimentary canal comprises the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Although digestion begins in the mouth while the food is being chewed,

The

since saliva contains the

enzyme

ascending colon

descending "colon

ptyalin

which breaks down starch into sugars, by far the most important digestive organs are the stomach and small intestine. The stomach produces a secretion which provides the optimal degree of acidity for the operation of the

enzyme The

pepsin, also secreted in the stomach.

sigmoid colon

appendix

rectum

partly digested food passes to the small

where it meets an alkaline secrecomposed of juices provided by two

intestine tion

glands - the bile from the gall-bladder

and the digestive juices from the pancreas. 58

small intestine

(jejunum and ileum)

is

DIGESTION is thus completed in the small and most of the small molecules so produced - amino-acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol - are absorbed by the time the mass of food (bolus) has reached the far end of the small intestine.

Digestion

(Iceland Moss)

Overactive acid-producing cells in the stomach initially produce heartburn and indigestion. If the excessive secretion of gastric hydrochloric acid is prolonged, peptic ulcer of the wall of the stomach or the

duodenum may

Here a small mucosal lining is

result.

portion of the delicate

digested away, exposing the lower layers

together with their associated nerve-endings,

which are

irritated

by the acidic

produce pain. Ulcers have long been treated with Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and a semisynthetic derivative of its major constituent, glycyrrhizin, has been introducgastric contents to

ed with useful results.

Hops

which was the traditional remedy of North American Indians, and Carlina acaulis (Stemless Thistle). In Europe a favourite is Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) which is often combined with Althaea officinalis (Marshmallowj. The latter contains up to 20 per cent mucilage, which protects the stomach lining, acting in a similar way to the natural mucus. For the same reason (Humulus

the

lupulus)

mucilage-rich

it

Cetraria

islandica

similarly employed.

may

be

desirable

in the elderly

stimulate

to

the

appetite. Usually the agents used for this

ipecacuanha). Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Other plants have been used in this respect but their effect was due mostly to their toxicity - the body simply reacts to the

purpose are bitter tonics containing bitter principles, which increase glandular secretions. Many plants have a history of this use and the most popular come from the family Gentianaceae (which characteris-

presence of a noxious substance in the

contain bitter principles), for ex-

by inhibiting the overactivity of the vomiting centre in the brain. Some of these are found in the family Solanaceae. Their action is drastic however, and often

tically

known and

ample, Gentiana lutea, the best most widely used bitter tonic, phylla, G. punctata, G. purpurea,

G. macro-

Menyanthes

(Buckbean) and Sabatia angularis (American Centaury). Because the tone of the muscle in the

trifoliata

gastro-intestinal

tract

as

well

secretion of the digestive juices

as is

the

con-

by nervous as well as chemical stimulation, an increase in nervous activtrolled

ity

may

acidity

Plants used for indigestion include

is

During convalescence or

intestine

lead or

intestine,

either

spasm

known

in

to all

as colic.

may

in

of

and

is

vomit-

often

com-

bined for this purpose with Filipendula ulmaria, Chamaemelum nobile and Peppermint (Mentha x piperita).

and Wild

Yam

constipation.

cerns

divided

into

Below

Purgatives

main

may

classes

:

be bulk

:

The

performs several

liver

important functions besides producing bile

for use

in the digestive process

:

the removal

of waste products from blood, the destruction

of

substances.

tincture

three

purgatives, which simply increase the volume of the intestinal contents and so

Emesis (vomiting) cases of poisoning by the

effective, especially in

preparations for digestive problems con-

villosa).

be induced

and

safer

ing during pregnancy

parts

Many members

gently acting herbs include mints, Acorus and gentians

administration

associated with side-effects. Ballota nigra is

Purgatives The major use of herbal

More

root (Dioscorea

act

hyper-

which are powerful antispasmodics. Good examples are Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramon-

calamus, Alpinia ojficinarum

Anti-emetics include some herbs containing anticholinergic properties which

of the

hyos.cine,

certain

by the most

it

gastric

of the Solanaceae family contain simple tropane alkaloids, such as atropine and

ium.

stomach and removes rapidly effective means.

of worn-out blood

vital detoxification

cells,

and

the

of drugs and harmful

vena cava

hepatic veins liver

-

spleen

ortal vein

hepatic artery

common bile

duct

intestine

59

MEDICINAL USES promote a

'natural' peristalsis

defaecation act

and hence

lubricant purgatives, which

;

by generally loosening and softening epiglottis

and irritants, which exercise a localized irritant action on the wall of the large bowel, inducing the impacted faecal mass;

reflex evacuation.

Foods which contain a high proportion of indigestible cellulose or 'roughage' such

blood vessels of heart

bran or seeds of Plantago species are not destroyed by digestion and swell by absorbing water; when they reach the lower intestine, therefore, they act as bulk as

right

bronchus

purgatives.

As the name tives

suggests, lubricant purga-

include mucilages and

oils

which are

lobes of right lung

heart

extracted from a variety of plants, including the Psyllium species, Athaea

officinalis.

(Castor Oil Tree) and

Ricinus communis

Olea europaea (Olive Tree). Irritant purgatives are used either because they are toxic hence causing a violent reaction to the presence of the poison, for example, Ricinus communis

and certain Podophylsome specific physiological action. Toxic irritant purgatives are seldom used because they are danseeds (Castor

oil)

lum species, or for

aorta

gerous.

Of those which

cause a specific physio-

most effective are the which contain glycosides based on the anthraquinone nucleus. The main examples are Senna Cassia angustijolia and C. acutifolia), Aloes (Aloe ferox, for and example), Rhubarb Rheum spp logical action, the

species

certain

members

of the

Rhamnaceae such

Rhamnus frangula Alder Buckthorn and Rhamnus purshiana (Cascara

as

|

.

Injection

of extracts of these

plants

Diseases of the liver

may

lead to the

impairment of the metabolism of all kinds of foods and. since the liver is the main organ of detoxification in the body, to an accumulation of waste products. As the liver is closely associated with the gall-bladder problems of these organs are

as Anise.

Fennel and

and certain Labiatae Rosemary, for example).

Mint and

Umbelliferae such Dill,

DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM When we

breathe, air

is

taken

first

into the

Hence

nasopharynx and then into the chest via

but orally they take eight hours or more to exert their effect. This is because the active principles are in the form of inactive

some herbs are accredited with both

the windpipe, or trachea. This divides into two bronchi one for each lung and then

tion of bile,

further into smaller tubes, bronchioles.

These are well absorbed from the small intestine and are then hydrolyzed by enzymes in the blood to give the active aglycones. These latter compounds are excreted into the colon where they irritate the mucosa to produce evacuation.

the liver itself,

The

results in

purgation

in

about 30 minutes

glycosides.

This process takes several hours and for this reason extracts of such plants are best taken at night. Diarrhoea, an increase in the fluidity and frequency of the stools, has usually been treated with plants which predominantly contain astringent tannins.

The

action

of these

compounds

is

to

coagulate protein in a thin layer of the gut lining thereby stopping its secretory action.

Common

Potentilla

examples of such herbs are Agnmonia species.

species,

Rubus idaeus, Polygonum and Ulmus campestris.

Quercus species, bistorta

60

usually considered in association.

choleretic action (stimulating the produc-

and thus working directly on and cholagogue action increasing the release of bile from the gall-bladder Important cholagogues are .

Berberis vulgaris

Balmonv

Barberry Chelone glabra Taraxacum officinale ,

and

Dandelion).

The Dandelion action

and

is

also possesses choleretic

one of the most useful plants

for treating liver disease. It

is

employed

gall-bladder

.

inflammation of and cholelithiasis

also relieve the

first

as alveolar ducts,

each

leading to an alveolar sac. These alveoli

and they commain body of the lung itself. They

are small hollow spheres prise the

have very thin cell-walls which are well supplied with minute blood vessels called capillaries.

The respiratory system Oxygen from

the air contained in the

it

alveoli diffuses across the cell-walls into

stage of cirrhosis.

the blood and in exchange waste products, notably carbon dioxide, are expelled into the air. This exchange of gases is known as respiration. At even breath the air con-

(stones in the gall-bladder or bile duct

may

known

in

jaundice, cholecystitis the

bronchioles branch further into very

fine tubules

;

Another important choleretic is Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke which has also been shown to promote liver regeneration, following damage by poisons. Flatulence can be treated with the carminative plants which contain volatile oils. Important here are the aromatic

tained in the lungs

is

partially

exchanged

for fresh air from the atmosphere. Oxygen is required for nearly all the biochemical processes which occur in the

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM to

bronchiole

lung

air

pulmonary vein

passage

from pulmonary artery

alveolus

:fY

bronchus

^bJ^m ess, ** capillary

alveolus

Left

Diagrammatic

:

representation

of the respiratory system. Increasing magnification of a portion of one lung (above)

show

to

its

internal structure,

and

relationship between blood vessels

which allows

alveoli,

the air

the

an increased activity of these glands. There may, in addition, be spasm of the muscle in the walls of the bronchi adding to the

Arabs.

obstruction.

tussive agents

Another condition of the bronchial system which causes considerable suffering is asthma. This is frequently of allergic

rest

tion

exchange of oxygen

The

blood

is

in

a

high

therefore vital.

rapid removal of carbon dioxide is important because high blond

contribute

also

to

that attacks (pro-

equally

origin,

or tissue concentrations of this substance

nounced constriction of the bronchi and excessively viscous secretions which lead to the characteristic wheezing of asthma

depress many enzyme processes. Most of the oxygen in the blood is not simply dissolved in the body fluid but is actively bound to a special molecule called

may

haemoglobin, found within the red blood corpuscles. This is complex organic ;i

molecule, rather like the light-absorbing of green plants in its structure,

chlorophyll

but

instead

magnesium

of containing

an atom of

as in chlorophyll

it

is

bound

This is the main reason that our diet should contain an adequate quantity of this element, for a deficiency of iron or to iron.

its

to

inefficient utilization in the

body leads

anaemia. As blood passes around the organs ol oxygen from the oxygenated

the body,

haemoglobin passes into the cells to be used up in their chemical processes, and each cell exchanges its waste carbon

The commonest

chronic disordei

ol

the

chronic bronchitis inflammation of the bronchi), which may tract

be associated with

ment

of

that

is

sufferers) are

a

specific

particular

to say

induced by the inhalation of

foreign

type

of

substance, pollen.

often

a

Treatment

bronchi using bronchodilators, and some of the best known of these are Ephedra species.

consists of the relaxation of the

is

emphysema

enlarge-

may

be caused

the alveoli). This

as

Cough

is

foreign

materials.

tussives (like alkaloids

is

effective

in

chronic

asthma for which purpose the North American Indians smoked the leaves. In India the and

related

nicotianaefolia

L.

bronchial

is

used in

the

same way. The following plants are also commonly employed in both asthma and bronchitis often in combination with each other: Drosera rotundifolia

,

Euphorbia hirta,

Polygala

senega,

Symplocarpus foetidus and

Urginea maritima.

A relatively new treatment for asthma depends on the administration of a semisynthetic substance which is a derivative

from Opium, the

dried latex of Papaver somniferum) act by

suppressing

this

reflex.

They

are

thus

widely used in cough syrups. Also used are extracts of Wild Cherry bark (Prunus serotina or P. virginiana) which was once frequently used with a complex bitter compound produced by the Greater

Wild Lettuce (Lactuca virosa) combined action is sedative as well as

Prickly or the

;

phlegm

infiata

may

and promote sleep. Cough is conby a reflex from a centre in the central nervous system, and many anti-

to treat this condition.

Lobelia

and

Anti-cough or antibe needed to facilitate

trolled

anti-tussive.

bronchitis

a natural reflex to help clear

the respiratory system of secretions

which contain ephedrine. Ephedra has been used for 5000 years by the Chinese

Grmdelia camporum, Sanguinaria canadensis,

dioxide-.

respiratory

an anti-asthmatic agent among the

viscous secretions.

and the maintenance of level in the

air pollu-

the

in the blood.

body,

Smoking and

compound isolated from the mediterranean umbelliferous plant Ammi visnaga - a plant which has a long history

of khellin, a

and

with waste carbon dioxide

oxygen

by recurrent episodes of infection which lead to an increased number of the mucus glands and therefore an increase in

For difficulty a

in clearing the chest

class

known

of agents

of as

may

be used. These act cough or by increasing the fluidity of an excessively viscous bronchial secretion. The best-known irritant or cough-inducing expectorant is tincture of syrup of Ipecacuanha used in a much weaker concentration than that for promoting emesis. Other expectorant herbs include Cowslip (Primula verts), Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), Mullein Verbascum thapsus) and Snakeroot (Polygala senega), all of which contain saponins

expectorants

either by inducing

(

(detergent-like substances) that aid dissolution of sputum.

employed

as

Viola odorata

an expectorant;

it

is

also

contains a ()t

MEDICINAL USES glycoside, violarutin, as well as saponins.

Primary infection of the upper respiratory tract is in go per cent of cases caused by minute living particles called viruses. These may be highly infectious (demonstrated by the occurrence of the common cold), and so far few plants have been shown to possess specific anti-viral activity. General resistance to these and other infections in the body may be increased, however, by employing Phytolacca americana, which stimulates the immunological defence system. Where primary viral infection is followed by bacterial infection a

number

of plants are

is

The nervous system That part of the peripheral system which is under active control is called the voluntary system and is concerned with the skeletal muscles while the involuntary or

acts

on the muscles

from min-

controlled by will, such as the heart or the

(Allium

bladder.

Messages are conducted by changes

strongly antibacterial as are

Cone flower Elecampane

autonomic system

of the organs and glands which cannot be

ute plants, the moulds). Garlic sativum)

pulses in the reverse direction.

power of

used, although few possess the antibiotics (originally isolated

and the peripheral nervous system comprising the major nerves which connect the spinal cord with the minute nerve-endings in every part of the body. The peripheral system conducts messages from the organs to the central nervous system and also conveys controlling imcord,

and

{Echinacea angustifoliai, {Inula helenium).

in

the electrical balance of the nerve cells or

neurones concerned. More than one cell involved with each pathway, and the electrical change is transmitted from one cell to another by the release of tiny amounts, or quanta, of a special chemical substance called a transmitter. This process can be illustrated with a specific example. When you burn your

two in

The nervous system grates

all

controls

and

the activities of the body.

inte-

There

are two main parts: the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal

hand, temperature-detecting Below

:

showing

The autonomic

nervous system,

the opposing actions

of the

parasympathetic and sympathetic parts on various organs of the body. receive nerves

Most organs

of both systems

and

are

controlled by impulses from each.

cells in the

skin activate nerve-endings. This is

message

passed along afferent or sensory nerve

fibres

to

changes.

spinal

the

When

cord

by

electrical

the message arrives at the

spinal cord, a chemical transmitter passes it

across the synapse

the junction

between

activates another

cord.

The

'perceived'

and

down

as

a result an impulse

down

the spinal cord

the efferent or

are controlled in distinct regions of the

ies

and brain by two sets of nerve - the sympathetic and the parasympathetic - which, generally speaking,

spinal cord cells

The parasympathetnervous system is responsible, for example, for increased blood-flow to the digestive system after a meal, and the decrease in size of the pupil in bright sunlight. The transmitting substance for these act in opposite ways. ic

is known as acetylcholine. The sympathetic nervous system, which

nerves uses

mainly adrenaline and noradrenaits transmitter compounds, comes

line as

into effect in conditions of stress such as fear

and anger, and

acts antagonistically

of the parasympathetic sympathetic stimulation causes increase both in pupil size and to

stimulation

system.

Thus

heart-rate but, at the

same

time, constric-

and abdominal viscera. All these actions prepare the body for intense activity. tion of the blood-vessels in the skin

At a higher level of activity functions such as consciousness, thought, memory.

saliva

saliva

glands

glands heart

heart

lungs

lungs

stomach

stomach

intestine

intestine

bladder

bladder

spinal

cord

sympathetic trunk

is

and then motor nerve to the muscles of the arm and hand - which is withdrawn involuntarily from the heat. Function of organs autonomic activit-

passes

pupil

pupil

neurone

"message"

sympathetic

parasympathetic

62

and

spinal

transmitted up the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex in the brain. The pain is

is

DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

cells)

the

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM touch receptors central nervous

in

the skin

system

* ^

'6^

K.

effectors and receptors in the muscles and tendons

and reasoning

reside

in

the superficial

layer of the cerebral cortex in the brain. In

man, with

his

high intellectual capacity,

dominate

these portions of the brain

all

Co-ordination of the reflexes is carried out in a smaller region of the brain called the hypothalamus. The mid-brain and medulla are concerned with the maintenance of the wakeful state land hence also sleep temperature regulation,

the

Passion-flower

[Passiflora

incarnata)

which contain the alkaloids passiflorine, harmol. and harmine, are also used as sedatives. Other popular medicinal plants category include Lady's Slipper

others.

in

respiratory regulation

American Valerian; and Tilia species. Drugs acting on the peripheral nervous system may be divided into two groups depending on whether they exert their effect on the sensory or motor neurones. In

.

and maintenance

of blood pressure.

this

(Cypripedium

the

first

pubescens\

class

fall

also

nervous

central

the

which

relieve

pain,

the strongest of these

system

are

those

the analgesics,

known

and

in the plant

kingdom are derived from Poppy Papaver sommjerum

Opium

the

Historically the best-known pain-killer

Mandrake

which,

like

root

Mandragora

Henbane

i

officinarum

Hyoscyamus

nigei

.

contains the alkaloids hyoscyaminc and

scopolamine. Both were used during early

Other analgesics include Bos-

surgery. wellia

serrata,

Chrysanthemum anemijolium.

Ervatamia dichotoma and '

ontain

certain

many

essential

herbs which

oils,

such

as

Erythroxylum

irritants

coca

,

American

the

physiological

of Physostigma venenosum

its

active ingredients arc terpenoid

pounds

t

is :

com-

ailed \;de pot notes, present in the

root-Stock The Indian spe< ies V. wallnhn is even more effective. Extra* ts of fresh

linking with the

via the central nervous system.

The

reflex

response causes the cigarette to be dropped.

Below: Henbane fHyoscyamus rarely used today since

it

contains

niger,)

is

many

powerful substances but, historically,

it

has

been very important.

.

Drugs which act on the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system in the opposite way, that is by inhibiting or

Adrenergic drugs, or those acting on neuromuscular junction, include stimulants such as ephedrine from Ephedra species) and drugs acting

officinalis

pain of a cigarette

pathway (red) effector pathway (green)

the receptor

such as nicotine in the leaves oi .\icotiana (from Pilocarpus jaborandi) or eserine isolated from the beans

hallu-

depressant

and

tabacum.i, pilocarpine

and

A well-known

the reaction to the

burn,

autonomic system include stimulants which act like an excess of acetylcholine

simu-

tincture of Valerian {Valeriana

show

of tin

transmitter

tranquillizers; and, conversely, the

cinogens.

reflex consists

and counter-

antagonizing the effects of acetylcholine, include the tropane alkaloids from many species of the family Solanaceae, for example, Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus

lants such as antidepressants

:

from, for example, the seed of

Wintergreen whose oil comprises mainly methyl salicylate. Other central nervous system drugs include the depressant group comprising the anaesthetics, hypnotics, sedatives and Caultheria procumbens

A

of the and an involuntary muscle movement. The diagrams left

stimulation of a receptor neuron

Mustard and the oil of Wintergreen. Drugs which act predominantly on the cholinergic nerves that is those in which the chemical compound, acetylcholine, is

.

is

shrub,

as

the local anaesthetics

(such as cocaine from the South

Treatment of nervous disorders The most widely used drugs which act on

known

Above and

niger.

the sympathetic

way (antagonists such as from both Rauvoljui rpentina reserpine and R. vomitoria) and ergotamine (from in the

opposite

\

(Jlaviceps purpurea).

63

SELF-HELP

SELF-HELP WITH HERBS

are frequently described as a diuretic, but

mainstream medical profession and unorthodox practitioners have tended to dissuade ordinary people from treating themselves or obtaining the means or information for doing so. This opposition was often concerned with the profit motive and, equally, no doubt because of the need for secrecy to

they must not be used where there is a kidney inflammation. Similarly, some

history both the

Throughout

lack of knowledge, ineffective remedies or even outright charlatanism. The strongest argument today against self-medication is the danger of misdiagnosis. Certain commonplace symptoms, such as vomiting, stiff neck, head-

conceal

ache,

fever

themselves

or

earache,

may seem

in

complaints. But, con-

trivial

sidered in the perspective of other associ-

symptoms and dispositions and case

the

ated

patient's

pre-

symp-

history, such

toms may indicate a much more serious problem. Since any complaint is best treated immediately, it is important to remember that if symptoms do not disappear very quickly, proper qualified advice must be sought. Children must never be treated with herbal remedies, or with any other form of home medication; in children ordinary symptoms such as those of the common cold may develop into a potencondition

tially serious

in as

quickly as 24

may

herbs

person

blood pressure in a suffering from hyper-

raise the

already

more than 12 hours as they may deteriorate. Even under ideal conditions herbs lose their activity: leaves, flowers and fruit

seeds,

should be used within one year; roots and rhizomes within three

and there are some plants which must never be taken internally by preg-

years.

nant women.

weight of remedy used is 30 g. For those remedies containing more than one herb, the combined weight is still 30 g.

tension,

There

is

also the question of correct

how and when the dose should be administered, and the length of time for which a remedy should be taken. Lack of dosage:

In both infusions and decoctions the

Used

Infusion

water-soluble dense parts of leaves, stems and

to extract the

knowledge of correct herb combinations, and the use of incorrect doses, can produce

substances from the

adverse

is also sometimes employed on thin, small or chopped roots and fruits. The method consists of pouring 500 ml

Simply because herbs are natural prodoes not follow that their use in medicine is any easier than the use of

ducts

it

substances - in

It

method

oz to of boiling water on to 30 g (or 20 fl ozs) of the finely cut material con-

for these reasons, therefore, that

tained in a porcelain, stone or glass vessel,

it is

is

many

the

as

the

ways,

synthetic

indeed,

such

herbs

flowers,

effects.

more complicated.

recommended many popular modern 'herb-

1

self-medication cannot be

fitted

and why

volatile substances

als'

less

may

so

be considered with interest, but

be

with a tight

lost

The

lid.

lid

keeps in the

which would otherwise

during the required

not as medical manuals. In this chapter

normally

some examples have been given of plants

straining the liquid

10 for is

or

minutes

15

After

infusion.

allowed

to cool to

below blood heat before the dose

medically effective in disturbances of the

just

cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and

taken,

demonstrate the effectiveness of herbal medicine as administered by a properly qualified prac-

one cup of infusion taken three times a

systems

digestive

titioner.

Some

to

or

it

completely.

may be allowed The normal dose

to is

is

cool

up

to

day, usually before meals.

of these plants are poison-

Hard

hours.

ous even in only moderate doses. There

Decoction

Apart from mis-diagnosis, some individuals do not tolerate certain plant material either because of an intrinsic allergic problem, or because an organ or system in the body is malfunctioning to some extent. Juniper berries, for example.

are,

however, many simple conditions which can be treated at home so long as the warnings above are fully considered.

rhizomes, bark, seed, and

PREPARATIONS

500 ml (or oz to 20 fl ozs) of cold water an enamel or glass vessel and allowing it to soak for 10 minutes. The temperature is raised to boiling point and the mixture then simmered for 10 to 15 minutes; this is

purposes of self-care, only three methods

need be employed. Infusion involves

external application only.

Left

:

There are many

different

ways of

preparing herbal remedies but for the

extraction

tin

of water-soluble substances from

the less dense parts

of a herb, such as

leaves, stems or flowers.

Decoction

extraction

its

is

best

for hard plant parts which will release their

water-soluble parts only after being soaked in hot water. Poultice simply

means

the use

afresh plant by bruising or crushing pulp, which

is

then

it

Other

of

into a

mixed with a

methods

of specific

to

groups of active

materials from a plant, so that alcoholic

may

indicate all three methods, kettle, a

and

include a

good mortar and

of wooden spoons, storage jars, and, most importantly, a wide range of dried and fresh herbs. 1 Other methods

pestle,

)

a fine strainer,

lots

preparing herbal remedies require a

greater knowledge of

pharmacy and

are best left to the experts.)

entire

process

usually one cup

Still

other methods are related to the

physical nature of the herb

itself;

pouring

its

may

constituents,

whereas the same procedure is perfectly satisfactory for most leaves and flowers. A complete understanding of all the

methods of preparation of herbal remedies requires a knowledge of phar-

different

macy, and is thus not relevant to self-care. For this purpose only three methods need be employed, namely infusion, decoction and poultice. These should always be made fresh before use, and never kept for

the

(or slightly less)

Poultice

extract only a fraction of

saucepan and

the

vessel

should be kept covered. After straining and cooling the dose may be taken; this is

released or solubilized in water.

of hot water,

body surface. The variety of containers and implements assembled here

followed by a further 10 minutes steeping.

times a day before meals.

be

boiling water over a thick hard root

in readiness for application

1

1

in

needed to remove therapeutic chemicals which would not be

solutions

moistening material, such as small quantities

directly to the

the

release

more prolonged hot water treatment. This requires adding 30 g of the herbal remedy

During related

are

wood

their water-soluble constituents only after

i(

remedies may be prepared in several different ways. Some methods are directly related to their form of administration - poultices, ointments, creams and salves, for example, are obviously for

Herbal

plant parts such as roots,

This method

may

three

utilize either

which is bruised and a pulp, and then mixed with a

fresh plant material

crushed to small quantity of hot water; or dried herbs which are softened by mixing with host pastes, which act as a suspending material, made from flour, bran, corn meal or other suitable vehicles. If the latter method is employed 60 g of dried herbs are mixed with 500 ml (or 2 ozs to 20 fl ozs) of fairly loose paste. Both fresh and dried plant poultices are best applied indirectly to the skin by sandwiching the paste

between thin cloth prior to application the affected part of the body surface.

to

65

SELF-HELP TABLE

Left

Herb farms, such as

:

the one

shown

here,

can supply the herbs used in the following recipes.

Below

:

is for adults - children Herbal remedies should

The dosage

must not be

treated.

be taken daily for two to three weeks.

No

medication should be taken continuously

sometimes better

The figures

; it is

vary the formulations

to

indicate the proportionate parts

by weight.

Key

ACIDITY

see Dyspepsia

1

1

ANAEMIA

Golden Seal Myrrh rs

Dandelion

Spinach Watercress

As salad herbs,

rs

resin

bd

buds

hb

herb

rt

root

bl

bulb

If

leaf

sd

seed

cl

clove

Witch Hazel,

distilled

Wormwood

1

Angelica

1

Nettle

water of

If

1

If 1

Walnut Sage If

If

Peppermint

Gentian

hb If

Marigold fl Black Bryony hb

cup

1

hr before

European Centaury hb 1 St Johns Wort hb Infusion: 2 cups per day

Linseed sd rt

Sweet Flag Caraway sd

Cuckoopint If Lime bk Herb Robert If Rue hb Fenugreek sd Sanicle hb

rt

1

Agrimony hb

1

Gentian

1

Calumba

1

European Centaury hb

Hemp Agrimony hb Apply hot poultices of any of the

rt

rt

Decoction: ^ cup meals

7

1

Bogbean hb

1

Blessed Thistle hb

1

Mugwort

Infusion: \

If

cup

1

hr before meals

Globe Artichoke If 1 Gentian rt Decoction: \ cup 1 hr before meals 1

Garlic

Rosemary hb

cl

Echinacea rt Juniper by

Poultice or Decoction

Renew

hr before

(external use)

1

above, alone or at least

in

combination.

4 times a day

BURNS

1

1

If

Comfrey If St Johns Wort hb

cups per day

European Centaury hb 1 Thyme hb 1 White Horehound If 1 Hyssop hb Infusion: 2 cups per day

If

Oak If Cabbage

Decoction: ± cup \ hr before

2

fl

Cowslip

meals

Infusion: 2

ANTISEPTIC

hr before meals

cups per day 1

Birch

I

meals

If

2 Nettle

Hyssop hb Arnica

rt

Infusion: 5

Infusion: 2

BAD BREATH

see Halitosis

1

Cucumber

2

Comfrey

1

Oak bk

1

Marigold

ft

If

fl

Johns Wort hb Poultice: renew frequently 2 St

1

Marigold

1

Sanicle hb

1

Plantain

fl

If

Comfrey If 2 Lady's Mantle hb 2

1

Onion Myrrh

1

Melilot hb

1

Thyme hb

1

BILIOUSNESS

bl

see Nausea

rs

Poultice:

Plantain

1

If

2

Poultice 1

Golden Rod hb

1

Wintergreen

1

If

Rue hb Southernwood hb

Poultice or Infusion

66

renew

frequently

BLEEDING

Poultice or Decoction

1

petals

(lack of)

1

or vegetables:

frequently

1

Pt

fruit

Apply on cotton wool

Agrimony hb Infusion: 1 cup

Moss

Iceland

1

flower

ft

BRUISES APPETITE

Nettle

1

ft

berry

Decoction, use diluted

Comfrey

1

bark

by

rt

Chives

1

bk

1

Cranesbill

rt

1

Raspberry

If

1

Bistort

1

rt

Decoction: as a poultice or wash

Chickweed hb Golden Seal rt Irish Moss hb

Poultice:

Burdock Marigold

renew rt fl

frequently

SELF-HELP TABLE

Coltsfoot Plantain

If

Flag

If

Eucalyptus

1

Garlic

1

If

cup before

1

retiring

Severe 3

CONJUNCTIVITIS

1

2

Eyebright hb

1

Infusion: apply as lotion or

Senna If Marjoram

If

Chamomile Sweet Flag

fl

rt

eyewash

Peppermint If Decoction: 7 cup before

Marigold fl Fumitory hb 1 Eyebright hb Infusion: apply as lotion or

4 Senna If 1 Ginger rt 4 Sweet Flag

eyewash

Decoction:

1

retiring

Blessed Thistle hb

Rue hb Mugwort hb

2 Horseradish

1

1

rt

2 Blessed Thistle

Mallow Sage If

1

Coltsfoot

Walnut

2

hb 1

Golden Seal Rose pt

1

Elder

1

If

1

If

2

fl

1 1

2

Chamomil?

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder) 1 Cayenne (powder) 2 Blessed Thistle hb

1

1

Cornflower

Poultice

1

Melilotfl

2 Plantain

Golden Rod hb 2 Yarrow hb 1 Hawthorn fl Infusion: 2 cups a day

Coltsfoot Fennel sd

If

1 1

and

1

Sundew hb Thyme hb Aniseed sd 3 cups per day

Infusion:

Fennel sd

2 Irish

1

Rue

1

If

Moss hb

Thyme

If

4 Elecampane rt 2 Aniseed sd 4 Liquorice rt 4 Lungwort If 1 Fennel sd Decoction: 3 cups per day

Mild

Fruit juices, especially

rt

Elecampane rt White Horehound. hb

fl

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder)

Blood Root

retiring

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Decoction apply as eye compress

prune

Cabbage

Poultice

cup before

Suppressant

1

CONSTIPATION

7

fl

apply as lotion or eyewash

2

rt

rt

If

Infusion: dilute 1:3 with water

Angelica rt 2 Lady's Mantle hb

2

Rhubarb

COUGHS

rt

Decoction: dilute 1:5 with water and apply as lotion or eyewash

If

Poultice

1

Angelica rt Alder Buckthorn bk

Infusion:

cl

the vapour

Poultice

1

1

2 If

Couch-grass hb Borage If Dandelion If

rt

CHILBLAINS

1

1

rt

Decoction: wash carefully with any of the above, alone or in combination

1

Sage If Marjoram

1

Pour on boiling water and inhale

Tormentil

1

1

1

Willow If Elm bk Avens rt

2

2

1

Hound's Tongue Lady's Mantle If

Sweet

Rosemary hb Peppermint If

1

If

Figs

COLDS

Expectorant

Dates Prunes 1

Yarrow

1

Elder

1

Peppermint

1

Raisins

Bran

If

3-4 cups per day

Infusion

2 Coltsfoot

Rhubarb

fl

fl

1

Hyssop hb White Horehound. hb Infusion 3 cups per day

in the diet,

1

2 1

or their intake

2

increased

1 1

Elder

fl

1

Lime

fl

Psyllium sd Alpine Plantain sd Decoction: do not strain, drink 3 cups per day

1

1

Bayberry bk 1 Ginger rt Infusion 2 cups per day.

in

doses

small

1 1

Liquorice sd

Fennel sd Linseed sd

1

Ginger

rt

3 cups per day

Infusion

1

Liquorice

2 Elder 1

Meadowsweet hb

2 Violet 1

rt

fl

Garlic

fl

cl

Decoction 2 cups per day

1

fl

Marshmallow rt Soapwort hb or

rt

Mullein hb Balm of Gilead bd

cups per day

Sage If Marshmallow

1

Coltsfoot

1

Comfrey

rt

If If

Infusion 3 cups per day

Decoction 3 cups per day 4 Boneset hb 4 Elder fl 4 Yarrow fl

rt

1

1

1

1

Cowslip

Infusion: 2

1

Infusion 3 cups per day

Liquorice

Decoction 3 cups per day

Spinach Apples The above should be incorporated

1

If

White Horehound. hb

Turnera hb

Yellow Dock rt 1 Dandelion rt Decoction: 3 cups per day

CUTS

see Bleeding

DIARRHOEA

1

2 Alder 1

Ash

1

Alder

1

Buckthorn bk

Bilberry

If

Bistort

fl

Peppermint

Infusion:

bed

Tormentil

1

If

cup before

retiring to

rt

Agrimony hb Ground Ivy hb Oak bk ft

rt

Elm bk Yarrow hb Lady's Mantle hb

67

MEDICINAL USES Cranesbill

GARGLE

rt

Decoctions of any of the above, alone or in combinations. Up to 2 cups per day taken in small doses

1

Red Sage

1

Valerian

2

Chamomile

rt fl

If

Myrrh rs Marigold fl Decoction: as required 1

Lavender fl Infusion: 2 cups per day 1

1

1

Jambul

1

Oak bk

ft

2 Raspberry

Sweet

1

rt

hb

2 Tormentil

Peppermint

2 Marigold

1

day

hb Rosemary hb Infusion: 3 cups per day 2 Blessed Thistle

fl

1

Marshmallow Sage hb

rt

INDIGESTION

3 or more cups per day

Infusion: 1

If

Marshmallow If cups per day

Infusion: 3

Sanicle hb

1

Lavender

1

Thyme hb

1

Tormentil

1 1 1

If

1

to

fl

2

Dandelion

1

Meadowsweet hb

1

Limefl

1

Marshmallow

rt

Infusion: as required 1

Meadowsweet hb Lemon Balm

Peppermint

cup as required, not exceed 4 cups per day

in

Meadowsweet hb

1

rt

If

Herb Robert hb Decoction: as required

DYSPEPSIA

1

Hops hb Valerian

1

1 Ginger rt Decoction: 3 cups per day, small doses

1

1

1

Infusion: 2 cups per

If

Infusion: as required 1

rt

Thyme hb

Infusion:

1

2 Blackberry

Decoction. 3 cups per day. in small doses

1

Cleavers hb

If

Flag

2 Plantain

1

Golden Seal rt Herb Robert hb Sage If Sea salt

If

rt

Infusion: 4 cups per

Decoction: as required

1

Parsley hb

1

Sage

day

If

Fennel sd Decoction: 2 cups per day 1

1

Sweet Flag

1

Meadowsweet hb

HALITOSIS

rt

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Anise sd

Cardamom

1

sd

Sweet Flag

rt

Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not to exceed 2 cups per day 1

1

Gentian

1

Chamomile

1

Angelica

1

Lemon Balm

Clove Angelica rt Fennel sd Peppermint

rt fl

rt

If

If

Decoction: 3 cups per day

1

Parsley

If 1

Sweet

Flag

rt 1

1

Wormwood

2

Coriander sd

2

Sage

hb

Dill

If

Liquorice rt Infusion: 7 cup per day

see Coughs

sd

of any of the above. combination. Consider the need for a laxative, dental care. treatment of flatulence or stomach little

alone or

in

1

Wormwood

1

Chicory

1

1

Anise sd Fennel sd

1

Orris

1

rt

1

Meadowsweet hb

Caraway sd

in

Sweet Flag

Decoction: gargle frequently 2 Lavender

Peppermint

2

Caraway sd

1

Garlic

1

Yarrow

If

cl

2

Sage

fl

If

to

exceed

Lemon Balm hb Chamomile fl

Peppermint If Infusion: 2 cups per day

HEADACHE

Irish Moss Chickweed

Carrot

1

Lime

1

Lemon Balm hb

Coltsfoot

Borage

1

Rosemary hb

Linseed

Cucumber

Houseleek

Slippery Elm

fl

Infusion: as required.

1-4 cups

per day 1

Caraway sd

1

Fennel sd

1

Mugwort hb

Anise sd Decoction: 3 cups per day 1

1 1

1 1

Lovage

1

1

3 cups per day

Vervain hb Scullcap hb

Infusion:

3 cups per day

rt

Cumin sd Thyme hb

Decoction: 2 cups per day

68

Catmint hb Rosemary hb

Infusion:

1

Winter Savory hb Angelica rt

1

5 cups per day

INFLAMMATIONS cups per day

1

1

7

Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle 3 times per day

Apple

1

rt

Turnera hb 1 Cola ft 1 Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not

1

fl

Infusion: 2

1

taken

small doses

1

Decoction: 3 cups per day 2

rt

2-3 cups per day.

2 Sarsaparilla

rt

hb

rt

hb

2 Basil

acidity.

1

4 Sweet Flag Ginger rt

If

Woodruff hb Decoction: 2 cups per day

Infusion:

FLATULENCE

2

If

1

Chew a

1

EXPECTORANTS

Tarragon

Fennel sd Gentian rt Peppermint

1

Yarrow

1

Scullcap hb

Infusion:

fl

2—3 cups per day

Oats

Purple Loosestrife

Onion

White Pond Okra Lungwort

Parsley

Comfrey Pumpkin

Lily

Marshmallow

Watercress Iceland Moss Any of the above may be crushed and pulped with a little hot water to produce a poultice suitable for application to inflammations or

swellings

INFLUENZA

see Colds

SELF-HELP TABLE Black Horehound hb 1 Decoction: 3 cups per day

INSECT BITES Houseleek

Parsley

Leek Olive

1

1

Golden Rod hb

1

1

Meadowsweet hb

Sage hb Black Horehound hb 1 Vervain hb 1 Pennyroyal hb Infusion: 3 cups per day (not during pregnancy)

If

fl

If

bl oil

Plantain

cl

If

Rue If St Johns Wort Marigold

Garlic

Eaten raw: 2 per day

Infusion: gargle

Summer Savory Infusion: gargle

If

Pennyroyal

If

Comfrey If Crush the fresh plant of any of the above and rub on the sting

Red Sage

1

Raspberry If Ginger rt Peppermint hb

1

Lemon Balm hb

1 1

Bayberry bk

cups per day

Infusion: 2

If

Infusion: gargle

Decoction: gargle

Repellent

Clove

Lavender of Pennyroyal

Oil of Oil

Elder

TONICS

Chew one

slowly

(crushed)

If

see Burns

INSOMNIA SEDATIVES Valerian

Lime

Betony hb

1

Scullcap hb

fl

Fennel sd Aniseed sd Passion flower hb (i cup only)

Infusion:

1 1 1

1 1

1

1

sd Fennel sd Dill

3 cups per day

1 1

1 1

Lime

fl

Hops hb Lemon Balm hb Valerian

Infusion

cup

(see also Gargle)

Poke Root

Lady's Slipper hb

TOOTHACHE

Hyssop hb Lemon Balm hb

Mallow

Eaten raw. 2 per day

Clove

oil

to tooth cavity,

rt

1

Mistletoe hb

2

Scullcap hb

but avoid

gums

cups per day.

in

small

Chamomile

fl

Infusion: repeatedly rinse

doses 2 Mistletoe hb 4 Lime fl

Hawthorn

ft

VOMITING or

2

fl

Decoction 2 cups per day. small doses

in

1

Lavender

1

Orange

1

Lemon Balm hb

1

Basil

fl

1

1

Valerian

2

(see also Nausea)

Peppermint hb Spearmint hb European Centaury hb

2

Chamomile

1

Wormwood

fl

hb

Infusion sip as required, to 3 cups

fl

hb Hops hb

2

mouth

per day

1

Chamomile Lemon Balm hb

1

Peppermint hb

1

Fennel sd

1

European Centaury hb

1

rt

fl

fl

1

Mullein hb Coltsfoot If

1

Marshmallow

1

If

and chew gently

Apply

cl

Mallow

4-5 cups per day

.

2 Valerian

1

Infusion 4 cups per day

1

ft

If

Turnera hb Saw Palmetto by 1 Cola ft 1 Oats sd Decoction: 2 cups per day. in small doses

Hedge Mustard hb

1

Sace

rt

Decoction: gargle

Garlic

1

fl

Soften,

at night

8 Coltsfoot If 4 Blood Root rt 4 Balm of Gilead bd 1

Dog Rose

1

Oats sd Hops hb

Infusion: 2

LARYNGITIS

Hibiscus

Lavender fl Infusion: 4 cups per day

rt

I

1

1

1

3 cups per day

1

1

ft

Infusion 3 cups per day

1 Peppermint hb Decoction I cup at night

1

Dog Rose

Infusn

Lady's Slipper hb Oats sd Scullcap hb

Infusion:

1

1

2

If

Peppermint If Infusion: 3 cups per day

1 fl

Lavender fl Woodruff hb Thyme hb Infusions of any of the above. cup at night

Dandelion Chicory rt

1

rt

Hops hb Chamomile

1

1

SCALDS

Liquorice

Infusion 2 cups per day. Or take alone. 2 cups per day

any one rt

Infusion: as required

SORE THROAT

rt

Infusion 3 cups per day

LAXATIVES

see Constipation

NAUSEA

1

Golden Seal

1

Thyme hb

2

Sage

During Pregnancy

rt

1

If

Iceland

Moss hb

Black Horehound hb Decoction: 2 cups per day

Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle

1

1

Black Horehound hb Infusion: 2

cups per day

1

Galangal

1

Marshmallow

rt rt

1

Bistort

1

Balm

rt

of Gilead

1 Sanicle hb Decoction, gargle

bd

1

Chamomile

1

Meadowsweet hb

1

fl

Black Horehound. hb cups per day

Infusion: 2

69

\

*

'--

c

v

;

•••

*Jk-,

.

Savory (Satureia hortensis), Sesame seeds Sesamum indicum), and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris

.

(left)

and Cinnamon

of their It is

specific

surprising to

how many of the drinks

most and reserve

for

that

special

we oc-

although they may not always be immediately identifiable. Some of the most popular alcoholic drinks, ranging from sweet mead to mulled wines and exotic liqueurs,

derive

their

special

qualities

American iced juleps are made of bourbon whisky, sugar, Mint sprigs and ice and American cobblers and coolers are similarly flavoured with pleasantly additive herbs.

Pimms No.

1

is

decorated with

Borage officinalis and Mint Mentha spp Spices such as Cinnamon sticks (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cloves [Sysprigs (Borago .

zygium aromaticum tana cardamomum

1,

Cardamom

seeds (Ele-

and

sometimes root Ginger (Zingiber officinale are added to mulled red wines and Swedish gldgg.

Many Below: Coriander

much

with

from herbal additives.

Melissa didyma

istic

aperitif

wines owe their character-

flavours to herbs.

(right) plants. Both of these herbs can be

misia absinthium

used for flavouring hone) and mulled nine. Coriander and Cinnamon have both been used

anisum

for thousands ofyears.

Candied Angelica

and cover. Stand

place for one week before use.

sugar

casions owe their desirable taste and smell to the judicious use of certain herbs -

(

and

and newly opened flowers or buds should be good specimens young and unblemished. A sugarboiling thermometer is a useful aid in candying.

may be warmed honey clover or orange blossom Pour the warmed honey conBruised fresh herbs and spices

delicious

leaves, stems

stage (234°F or 94°C).

prize

to

in

Herbs have always provided alcoholic flavour and properties.

Additional

ouring and flavouring can occasionally be added, and the crystallized, as opposed to the candied, forms are encrusted with a surface layer of fine sugar crystals.

can be infused

for use in fruit dishes.

Mark

The leaves, stems, Mowers and buds of many herbs and fragrant flowers can be

The

puddings. Sprigs of Lemon Balm officinalis

realize just

attractively preserved using sugar syrups

be mixed with sugar

HERBS IN ALCOHOL

Herb honeys

and then dried to retain colour and shape making

Ground Cinnamon

biscuits.

Cardamom may

archangelica stems on a wire cake tray. Dry on foil-covered baking trays in a barely warm oven at about 100 F 38 C or

HERB AND FLOWER CONFECTIONS

confections.

is

(Melissa

dark cupboard.

decorative

delicious in ice cream, egg custard,

51

is

Wormwood

(Arte-

used in vermouth and

Anise (Pimpinella Pernod, bitter herbs in Campari, and globe artichokes (Cynara scolyabsinthe

in

production,

HERB WINES Mead

mus) are used in Italian Cynar.

is

flavoured with herbs such as Rosemary [Rosmarinus officinalis and spices such as i

zeylanicum), (Cinnamomum Cinnamon Nutmeg (Myristica jragrans Mace, .

Transfer to a cold place for a further two days. Strain and bottle using robust flasks. Screw the tops down firmly only when fermentation has ceased. Store for

about one week only.

not a brew for

It is

long storage.

with herbs. Creme de Menthe, for example, is flavoured with Mint oils (Men-

Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer

Kiimmel is Cumin [Cuminum cyminum) and Caraway flavoured (Carum carvi) and Green Chartreuse may contain over one hundred different plant flavours. spp

.

Aquavit

[Cuminum

Cumin-flavoured

is

cyminum) and gin

is

flavoured with Juniper

Juniperus communis).

Dandelion plants with taproot demerara or light brown sugar i5g (j oz) crushed root Ginger juice of 2 lemons liquid ale yeast

water

to 4.5I

(

1

berry leaves

Rubus

i

idaeus

Chamomile

,

nobile Burdock Arctium and leaves, Betony \Stachys Agrimony Agnmoma eupatona

(Chamaemelum

,

root

lappa)

officinalis.,

,

Dandelion Nettles

(Taraxacum

(Urtica

officinale)

Hops

dioica\,

leaves,

[Humulus

lupulus, Dock Rumex crispus< and Horehound Marrubium vulgare) leaves. Ground (

•

Ginger Zingiber