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BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND VOCABULARY

TECHNICAL ENGLISH COURSE

M.Sc. Rosa Elena Cabrera Toapanta

LATACUNGA - ECUADOR

AERONAUTICAL CAREER

This content has been prepared as a teaching guide for students of the aeronautical career, who need to master the English grammatical structures to develop an understanding of the technical information regarding various aircraft, all this through a collaborative and personal work.

M.Sc. Rosa E. Cabrera T. ENGLISH TEACHER AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATOR AT ECUADORIAN AIR FORCE

Email: [email protected]

Methodological Suggestions

1.

Read, study and comprehend the grammatical rules included in the different units.

2. Solve the exercises. 3. Check, verify and correct the answers. 4. Study and comprehend the lists of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, etc.), which appear at the end of each unit.

UNI 1

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES A. A/AN have the same meaning, and are used before singular nouns. A repair has the necessary structural strength. An airplane is delivered for repair. B. The indefinite articles a, an depends on the pronunciation of the words that follow the articles, not their spelling. “AN” is used before a consonant sound (a, e, I, o, u) and a before consonants (all the other letters i.e., b, c, d, f, g). C. When u is pronounce as /ju:/, use a. a unit Use an before h, when h is not pronounced. an hour an “HEPA” (High Efficiency Particle Arrestor) D. Do not use a or an before plural nouns. There could be some cracks. Corrosion inhibitors are materials. E.

Weak forms of one are: a / an. We use the full form one when we emphasize the number – one, not two, three, four, etc. One plane arrived late, not two. Apply one layer of paint not two. PLURAL COUNT FORMS

-es to words ending in: ch; ; s ; z ; sh ; x

-es changing y to i to words ending in a consonant + y

-s to other words

Irregular plurals have different forms:

Nouns ending in –f or –fe, delete the –f/fe and add –ves

boxes switches classes

capabilities responsibilities impurities

drills coils tables

children feet men

Shelf=shelves Life=lives

inches brushes

libraries discrepancies

tires plugs

DEMONSTRATIVES SPEAKER Close to Farther from

SINGULAR This That

PLURAL These Those

A. We can use this, that, these and those: Before a noun (Adjective)

Without a following noun (Pronoun)

This report is for you. That connector is rated for the specified operation. These inserts shall be retained within the shell. Those contacts eliminate damage from abuse.

This is for you. That is circular threaded. These are of a void construction. These help to misaligned pins engagement.

correct during

less any the

SOME, ANY, NO A. Some and any are used to talk about an indefinite quantity. This section gives some data about the types of mechanical fasteners. Do not cut into any surrounding structures. B. Some and any are used before uncountable nouns (oil, fuel, grease) and plural nouns (clamps, blades, nuts). C. Some is generally used in affirmative sentences and any in negative sentences. Q Q

There are some blisters or evidence of scaling and flaking. Cracks or holes are not allowed in any web of bulkhead stations 294.50 and 1156.

D. Any is used in affirmative sentences that really have a negative meaning; for instance, with words like never, without, hardly. Q Q Q

It never gives any good results. The plane got there without any trouble. There’s hardly any oil left.

E. Any can also mean “it doesn’t matter which”. (Affirmative sentence) Q Q

Scratches may be oriented in any direction. Damage is defined as any visible change to the surface of an airplane part.

F. No is used before a noun while not is used after the auxiliary verb. No means not a / not any. Q Q

There are no scratches or missing primer on the fuselage. There are not any scratches or missing primer on the fuselage. THE POSSESSIVE CASE (‘S AND –S’)

A. This possessive case is used to show ownership. Q Q

The pilot’s bag = the bag of the pilot (singular) The passengers’ passports = the passports of the passengers (plural)

B. Normally of is used for things. Q Q

Preparation for removal and installation of transformerrectifier Apply a light coat of lubricant to both sides of gasket ONE, ONES

A. Use one instead of repeating a singular noun. A: The mechanic is removing the old fastener. B: Did you order the new one? (= the new fastener) B. Use ones instead of repeating a plural noun.

A: Do you need large bolts or small ones. (= small bolts) B: Large ones. (= large bolts) C. Only use one and ones in place of countable nouns. ANTICIPATORY IT In some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the subject of a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing; it only takes the position before the verb usually filled by the subject. I T I T I T

VERB (BE) ADJECTIVE is

anticipated

was

essential

THAT NOUN CLAUSE the circuit can be affected by another circuit. all turnbuckle terminals be (that) screwed into the barrel. (that)

CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS A. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. B. A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. C. Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs. Either...or

Neither...nor

both...and

Not only...but also

And is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal importance and both conditions exist. It shows addition, complementary (+) and furthermore moreover in addition also Each seat back is you can manually fold as well as hydraulically reclining, the back forward. besides in fact similarly likewise The conjunction 'but' is used to show contrast, contradiction or concession between two phrases. The first phrase leads you to expect a

certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory outcome. Difference, comparison, incompatibility (-) But

The system was inoperative;

however, whereas, whilst, although, despite, in spite of, nevertheless even though, in contrast, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, regardless of

the aircraft took off.

Notice the punctuation. If the word(s) begin the sentence, a comma follows the dependent clause. However, if all AC generators are lost, the aircraft battery will continue to supply DC electrical power to operate vital systems. Condition () These terms are used to introduce a conditional clause of provisionality. This clause states a requirement, a demand, or an essential condition.

The back jaw can be used as an anvil All dimensions are in inches,

DO not return the cylinder to

if, unless, provided (that), providing (that), only if, whether or not, should, while

Time () until after

the work being done is light. otherwise specified.

the test has been accomplished.

before since when whenever while as soon as as long as

service

Used to introduce clauses that state the purpose for which something is done. Consequence, result: ()So The flame should be kept moving; Small openings are created at the edges of the tape; The skins are so thin;

so that, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, hence, accordingly,

the metal does not overheat. air can escape. they do not block the radar signals.

Reason, explanation ( ) As Blades that have been heated for any repair must be rejected;

since, because, because of due to,

only cold straightening is authorized.

Objective () I'll use a digital clock Hydraulic pressure must be regulated

so as to, to, in order to

not be confused the hours. use it to perform the desired tasks.

A summation is a brief summary of main points or a restatement of the main idea. It can also be a statement which combines effect or results with a summary. Most summations begin with an adverbial phrase. Consequently, longeron repair is similar to stringer repair.

In brief, All in all, In all, In conclusion, To conclude, To put it briefly, In short, To summarize, In other words, In summary,

light can produce electricity using a solar cell.

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES “THAT-WHICH” Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns. That/which/who and relate to the subject of the clauses. In this type of structure, the clauses are linked to part or all the main clauses. WHICH/ THAT/ Adjective clauses may be introduce by the relative pronouns which/that and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be omitted. Q Q Q Q Q

A paint booth may be a small room in which components of an aircraft are painted. The aircraft’s voltage depends on which battery is selected for that aircraft. These conditions can cause arcing, which may result in a fire or system failures. Terminal strips should be mounted in such a manner that loose metallic objects cannot fall across the terminals or studs. Some aircraft have nacelles that are designed to house the landing gear when retracted. WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.

Someone adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs. Where/ when are relative to the place or time. Q Q

A specifically designed switch should be used in all circuits where a switch malfunction would be hazardous. Contact burning or welding may occur when the switch is closed.

Q Q

The speed brake control in the cockpit can deploy all spoiler and speed brake surfaces fully when operated. Fixtures and/ or jigs should be used where possible. EMPHATIC DO

When we want to stress or emphasize an action, we can use do, does, or did before the verb. Schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components. The rib lacks a cap strip, but does have a flange around the entire piece. The oxidizing flame does have some specific uses. IMPERATIVE A. Use the imperative form in: Q Q Q

Instructions Warnings Invitations

Q Q Q

Offers Advice Requests

Do not perform wire repair while using explosive solvent/paint products on the aircraft. Remove 12 mounting nuts (3) (and washers, if installed) and discard. B. To make imperative more polite, we can use the word please. Tighten the nut, please. C. The imperative has exactly the same form as the infinitive without TO: it is used for giving orders, making suggestions, and encouraging people to do thing. Sand off any excess and prepare the area for refinishing. D. An imperative can be made more emphatic by putting do before it. Do protect the interiors of structural steel and aluminum tubing against corrosion. E. Negative imperatives are constructed with do not (or don’t)

Don’t worry. Do not lean out of the window. TENSES Present Tense of the Verb Be A. There are three basic completions for sentences that begin with a subject + the verb be: Q

A noun, as in:

The manager is an Air Force officer. The technicians are airmen.

Q An adjective, as in: The inspection of rib upper chord is applicable Q

An expression of place, as in:

The manager is in the hangar. The airmen are in the hangar too. Present Simple A. The present tense is the fundamental tense of technical English and is the basic tense of all technical documentation. It is mostly used in the 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they). The fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor. Hand tools include rivet cutters, bucking bars, hand riveters, countersinks, and dimpling tools. B. The present simple is used to describe all generalities, systems, processes, recurring phenomena, laws, etc. A transformer changes electrical energy. Connector backshells come in a wide variety of types depending on the application. C. The present simple is used to talk about things that happen repeatedly – for example, every day, usually, often or sometimes.

The rivet head often breaks away and climbs the drill, which is a signal to withdraw the drill. D. The present simple is also used to talk about facts that are generally true. Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas. E. After he/she/it, verbs end in –s or –es, e.g. he works; she goes. -es after –s/ch/-sh:

passpasses finishfinishes do does study  studies

watch watches go goes carry  carries

A light illuminates inside the button to indicate that it is pressed. F. Use do/does + not for negative sentences. Aluminum alloys do not possess the corrosion resistance of pure aluminum. The neutral flame is used for most welding because it does not alter the composition of the base metal. Present Continuous A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The present continuous is used to talk about something that is happening at the moment we speak. Examples: The use of structural adhesives is becoming widespread within the aircraft field, both for repair and for initial fabrication. C. Spelling: work  working remove  removing

run  running be  being

lie lying

Past Tense of the Verb Be A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The past tense of the verb be (was/were) is used to talk about a definite time in the past e.g., last week, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc. Examples: The damage became readily apparent when the cable was removed and bent. When the spark plugs are removed from the engine, identify them to coincide with the cylinder and location from which they were removed. Take care to ensure the electrolyte is returned to the cell from which it was extracted. Were any malfunctions reported in-flight involving true airspeed? Past Simple A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The past simple is used to talk about a definite time in the past, e.g., last year, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc. C. Many verbs are regular. The past simple of regular verbs ends in – ed, e.g., work  worked. Example: The color code and contact size corresponded to the information contained on the data plate. GTC (Gas Turbine Compressor) did not sustain rotation when GTC control switch was released to RUN. D. Some verbs have irregular past simple forms e.g., go  went.  See page 238.

Past Continuous A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The past continuous is used for something that was in the middle of happening at a past time or to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. C. Spelling: work  working remove  removing

run  running be  being

lie lying

Present Perfect A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The present perfect is used to talk about something that started in the past and continuous up to the present. I have worked in CEMA for three years. (I work in CEMA now) C. The past simple is used for something that started and finished in the past. I worked in CEMA for three years. (I do not work in CEMA now) D. The present perfect is also used to talk about experiences in our lives, up to now. E. The present perfect is also used to talk about a past action, when we can see the result of the action now. The pilot has damaged the plane. (The plane is damaged now) Q

have/has + past participle.

Q

The past participle of regular verbs ends in –ed e.g., work  worked

Q

Some verbs have irregular past participle forms, e.g., be (been)

Going To A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. We use going to talk about something that we have already decided to do in the future. C. We also use going to when we can see a future action coming because of the present situation. A thorough review of the aircraft manufacturer’s service instructions is going to provide many helpful suggestions on inspections. Modals WILL - SHALL A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The modal auxiliary verb “‘will” is used to express a mandatory declaration of purpose or when it is necessary to express a future event. The modal auxiliary verb “‘shall’’ is used to express a provision that is compulsory. Maintenance personnel shall refer to specific aircraft maintenance technical order for special instructions for use of these bolts. Overheating will cancel the memory and melt the filaments. Coatings other than dope will not increase fabric tension after aging. CAN A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The modal auxiliary verb “Can” is used to express ability. C. Can is also used to physical or technical capacity. Examples:

These dimensional changes can have detrimental effects upon a wood structure, particularly when two parts are bonded together with grains in different directions. Over tightening of fittings can also cause crushing of the underlying wood member and possible bending of the metal fitting. COULD A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. The modal auxiliary verb “Could” is used to express possibility. Consult the local fire department for authority to use specific equipment. Noncompliance could cause personnel injury. If the water touches molten magnesium, a steam explosion could occur. B. Could is also used as the past form of can: A man fell into the technicians couldn't save him.

fuel

tank

yesterday.

The

MUST A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) are mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation. B. The modal auxiliary verb “Must” something is necessary.

is used when we think that

Shop procedures must follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. C. Must is also used to talk about the present, e.g., I must change the tire now, or the future e.g., I must change the tire tomorrow. D. To talk about the past, we use had to : Example: I had to change the tire yesterday. E. Must not is used to tell someone not to do something.

F. In technical and legal English, shall does not indicate the future, but an idea of necessity. Shall = must. G. Must, shall and have to are commonly used to express necessity. The repair parts must not cause a blockage of any floor beam holes. Remove maximum depth of a scratch or gouge must not exceed that given for pressurized fuselage skins. MAY, MIGHT A. The modal auxiliary verbs “May and Might” express probability and are used to indicate that an action or event could happen. B. In a technical context, these apply more to natural phenomena, unplanned technical incident, malfunction, etc., and also indicate an acceptable or suggested means of accomplishment. Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib, and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure. The surface might be difficult to wet due to the presence of wax. SHOULD A. The modal auxiliary verb “Should” is used to express a recommendation or advice rather than a necessity, about the present or the future. “Should” also indicates a non-mandatory but preferred method of accomplishment. Electrical junctions should be mechanically and electrically secure. B. If "should" comes at the beginning of a sentence, and the sentence is not a question, then it can be replaced with "if". There is no difference at all. Should freezing or seizing occur, a sharp twist of the operator’s wrist usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal. If freezing or seizing occurs, a sharp twist of the operator’s wrist usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal. VERB TENSES

We can find few tenses in technical documents, and the verb forms are variants of the infinitive form. Verbal Forms

Infinitive To repair To cut To write

Present repair repairs cut - cuts write - writes

Present participle

Past

Past participle

repaired

repaired

repairing

cut wrote

cut written

cutting writing

A. The infinitive form in technical language is used to express an action that is a purpose of something. Example: The purpose is to prevent back-flow through the pressure relief valves. B. The present form in technical English is used in the present simple tense with the 3rd person singular (it) or 3rd person plural (they). It describes generalizations, systems, processes, etc. Example: The performance of the system depends on the quality of the design. C. The past form of technical information is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Example: The mechanic followed manufacturer’s instructions wherever applicable to prevent injury D. The past participle form is used in perfect tenses, in both present and past tense, and they are also used for passive voice. Examples: Tear is a discontinuity which has progressed through the full thickness of the material. In areas where minor amounts of oil or grease have penetrated the wood surface, removal may be accomplished by use of an absorbent type of cleaner Many of the illustrations have been provided by the manufacturers. E. The present participle form is used with the progressive tenses and also as adjective or noun. Examples:

This is essential in order to clearly see the parts you are inspecting. Burnishing is the polishing of a surface by sliding contact with another smooth, harder metallic surface. A cable cutting blade has no teeth. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE A. The passive voice is used in writing much more often than in speech. It can be found in newspapers and magazine articles, and it is very common in scientific and technical writing. B. In the active voice the subject does the action. C. In the passive voice the subject receives the action. Passive Verb-Forms A. Passive verb-forms are made with the different tenses of to be, followed by a past participle. TENSE Present simple Present progressive Past simple Past progressive Present perfect Present perfect progressive Past perfect Past perfect progressive Future Future progressive Future perfect Future perfect progressive Going to Modal structure Modal structure

Passive voice: Q

PASSIVE VOICE English is taught here. The aircraft is being painted. I was not informed. I felt as if I was being watched. The rudder has been repaired. The scan has been being started. I knew why I had been chosen. I have known how long the aircraft had been being inspected. You’ll be told in advance. You’ll be being nominated in the near future. Everything will have been done by the 20th. By next year, the new hangar will have been being built. Who is going to be trained? He ought to be careful. He should be careful.

Maximum paint thickness was determined by lightning testing.

Perfect tenses:

Q

Wipe off MEK before it has evaporated with a clean cloth.

As an adjective form:

Q Today, scientists are also interested in how the atmosphere affects the performance of the aircraft and its equipment. PARTICIPLES There are two kinds of participles in English: present participle and past participle. A. Q Q Q Q Q

Present Participle: The present participle is the ing-form. Progressive / continuous tenses: I am speaking. As an adjective form: The film is interesting. As a gerund: He is afraid of flying. As a noun: Improper functioning of brakes could cause serious consequences.

B. Spelling rules for the formation of the Present Participle. RULE Base form of the verb + '-ing ': If a one or two syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel + consonant, double the final consonant and add '-ing ': When a verb ends in '-l ' the '-l' is doubled and '-ing' is added (in British English): When a verb ends in silent '-e ', the silent '-e' is dropped and '-ing' is added: When a verb ends in an '-e ' which is not silent, the final 'e' is not dropped and the ending '-ing ' is added: When a verb ends in '-ie ', the '-ie ' is changed to '-y' and the ending '-ing ' is added: Q

I use a knife for cutting leather.

EXAMPLE working fixing running stopping occurring beginning travelling cancelling closing moving being agreeing seeing tie – tying lie - lying

Q Q

After completing a few inspections you will be surprised at how familiar you will be with your aircraft. Oxidation is called rusting when talking about ferrous materials. Participles used as adjectives

A. Many adjectives can be identified by their endings. Another major subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings, this time by -ed or -ing endings: -ed form -ing form

Q

computerized, determined, placed, deleted, cracked, misunderstood, unknown annoying, exasperating, gratifying, misleading, worrying

Remember that some -ed forms, such as misunderstood and unknown, do not end in -ed at all.

B. We use the -ed participle as a subject adjective; it describes how the subject of a sentence feels or how we feel about something: Q Q

He was interested in the program. The technician is exhausted.

C. We use the -ing participle as an object adjective; it describes the object of the sentence or talks about the person or thing that makes us feel interested: Q Q Q Q

The program was interesting (for him). If a story is exciting, you are excited when you read it. After a tiring day, you feel tired. You may be worried if you have a worrying problem.

D. When we put participles before a noun, it usually expresses some more permanent characteristic: it is more like an adjective than a verb: a broken window, an interesting handbook. E. Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively: Attributive

Predicative

That's an irritating noise This is an exciting film

That noise is irritating This film is exciting

When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish between the adjectival and verbal uses: Consider the following pair: [1] The noise is annoying [2] The noise is annoying the employees In [1], we can modify annoying using very: [1a] the noise is (very) annoying But we cannot modify it in the same way in [2]: [2a] *the noise is (very) annoying the employees Q

We can also identify -ing forms as verbal if it is possible to change the -ing form into a non-progressive verb: Progressive

Non-progressive

The inspectors are working The paint is drying Q

The inspector work The paint dries

The presence of a by-agent phrase (by the manufacturer’s manual, by the schematic diagram) indicates that the -ed form is verbal. Conversely, the presence of a complement, such as a that-clause, indicates that it is adjectival. -ing form

A. -ing form after verb.- The most common verbs usually B. followed by the –ING form in technical contents are: advise – allow – anticipate – appreciate – admit – attempt – avoid – begin – carry on - complete - can’t help - can't stand - consider – continue – defer - delay - deny – detest – dislike -discuss – endure enjoy – escape - excuse – face - feel like – finish – forbid – forget -

get through - give up - go on - have – help – imagine – intend – involve - keep – like – leave off - mention - mind – miss – permit – postpone – practice - prefer-propose - put off – quit – recall – recommend – remember – regret – resent - remember – report –

resist - resume - risk - see – spend (time) - start – stop – suggest – tolerate – try – understand - waste (time) - watch To lower potential fire hazards, avoid using electric sanders around dope, paints, and adhesives. C. -In form after a preposition. - The –ing form is used after all prepositions. You should check the oil before starting. D. -ing form special cases.- Use the –ing form after: as, like, than, any/some/no. Q Q

Any binding or malfunctioning of an engine control system should be traced to its source and corrected. Why don’t you do something useful, like cleaning the hangar?

E. -ing form or infinitive.- Some verbs can be followed by either an –ing form or an infinitive. The most important are: attempt- can afford – can’t bear – begin – cease – commence – continue – dislike – dread – hate – intend – like – loathe – love – neglect – prefer – propose – remember – (can’t) stand – start – try – undertake Some people hate working/to work in the early morning. F. When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same. When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund: Q

Gathering and distributing various air pressures for flight instrumentation is the function of the pitot-static system.

Q

Heating the probe must not affect the resistance of the sensor element.

ADJECTIVES A. An adjective always has the same form to talk about singular, plural, masculine, feminine. B. Adjectives say what something is or seem like. They can be used in two ways: 1.

Before nouns. This is called “attributive position”

a

typical

repair

When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, this order is usually followed:

a

Age

Color

Origin

Material

Purpose

Noun

new

black

Swiss

plastic

army

knife

2. In the complement of a sentence –This is called “predicative position”. This happens when we are really describing the subject of the sentence, not the “action” of the verb. the old unit

the unit is old

the faulty panel the panel is faulty the electrical wiring the wiring is electrical C. Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain institutionalized expressions: The Director General Times past D. We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:

something

useful

everyone

present

those

responsible

COMPARISONS Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs A. The comparative form is used to compare two thing or people. These fasteners have a shank diameter larger than hex-drive bolts. B. The superlative is use to compare three or more things or people. The depth of rework is the largest. C. The word than is used after the comparative and the before the superlative larger than………

the largest

D. Form of comparative and superlative adjectives: Short adjectives (adjectives of one syllable), add –er / -est

thick loose

COMPARATIVE thicker looser

SUPERLATIVE thickest loosest

E. Longer adjectives (adjectives of three or more syllables), need more / most.

important (im – por tant) expensive (ex – pen –

COMPARATIVE more important

SUPERLATIVE the most important

more expensive

the most expensive

sive)

F. Adjectives of two syllables ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take out the –y and add –ier / - iest.

dirty (dir – ty)

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

dirtier

the dirtiest

G. Most other adjectives of two syllables use more / most.

modern (mo – dern) careful (care – ful)

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

more modern

the most modern

more careful

the most careful

H. Some words have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

good bad far I.

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

better worse further/farther

the best the worst the furthest/farthest

The correlative construction as ... as is an excellent method of indicating similarity, or dissimilarity: The ferritic steels are not as tough at cryogenic temperature as at room temperature.

J.

Double comparative Q

There is a method of comparison with the idiomatic construction of: the …….., the:

Q

Two comparatives are used to express two parallel progressions, states, etc. The larger the contact, the larger the difference The lower the temperature, the more brittle the steel becomes. The socket inside diameter will be from 0.002 to 0.005 inch larger than the pin outside diameter. The larger the contact, the larger the difference ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The mechanic is careful.

All personnel must observe the danger areas carefully.

It is a bad opinion.

It functions badly.

A. Compare: He is a very slow worker. He is working very slowly. B. An adjective (slow, clear, heavy etc.) describes the qualities of people or things; used before nouns or after the verb be (is, are). He is a very cautious technician. The nozzle is very large. It is very old. C. Adjectives always have the same form for singular, plural, masculine or feminine. Examples: a new cylinder a new valve

two new cylinders two new valves

D. An adverb of manner (carefully, periodically, directly) describes how something happens. He submits information carefully. They must be inspected periodically. Place a short sleeve directly over the spray nozzle. Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

E.

Adjective

slow quick soft sudden gradual slowl quickl Adverb softly suddenly gradually y y adverbs of manner are formed by adding –ly to the adjective.

ADJECTIVE slow careful

M o st

ADVERB slowly carefully

F. Words ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take away y and add -ily.

ADJECTIVE greasy steady

ADVERB greasily steadily

G. Words ending in –le, change the le to –ly.

ADJECTIVE adjustable comfortable

ADVERB adjustably comfortably

H. Some words are also used as both adjectives and adverbs. You are a fast worker. You are a hard worker. I.

You work fast. You work hard.

The following verbs can only be used with adjectives: Q

Be, become, get, grow, keep, remain, seem, sound, stay, turn. ADVERBS

A. Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: [1] The pilot flies carefully [2] The mechanics are extremely clever [3] This plane goes incredibly fast In [1], the adverb carefully tells us how the pilot flies. In [2], extremely tells us the degree to which the mechanic is clever.

Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the plane goes. B. With verbs, we use adverbs to give more information about the action – to say how, where or when it is done: Carefully inspect the entire air system periodically. The engine is very quiet. It runs very quietly. C. Other words that end in –ly can be both adjectives and adverbs (daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early). A daily report is published daily. We get up early to catch an early plane. D. But some words that end in –ly are adjectives, not adverbs. For example: costly, timely, kindly, oily, orderly, quarterly. These words cannot be used as adverbs. He works in a very orderly way. NOUN ADJUNCTS Adjectives usually modify or describe A loose bolt A heavy aircraft Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts. They are always singular. A hangar that repairs aircraft is a repair station. My brother drives trucks. He is a truck driver. 1. A tank for fuel. A fuel tank 2. Maintenance for an aircraft. Aircraft maintenance 3. A tank that has oil in it. Oil tank The Noun as “Adjective” Structure A. The word order in technical English is very important. Aeronautical technical terms use a lot compound words. They have a head word

and the words before it are a qualifier that is a chain of words (they function as adjectives). NOUN AS ADJECTIVE Fuel

HEAD WORD control

control of the fuel

Flight

plan

plan for flight

Empennage

structure

structure of the empennage

Aviation Safety

mechanic clips

mechanic of aviation clips for safety

MEANING

B. The exact relationship between the first word and the second depends on the particular expression. For instance: Q

Place. - The first noun gives the place that the second comes from, or is found in, or is used in, or happens in. the office party the skin crack a traffic jam

Q

Time. - The first gives the time when the second happens, or the time when the second is meant to be used. day vision night glasses night watch

Q

Material. - The first noun says what the second consists of. aluminum fuselage magnesium surface paint film

Q

Functional relationship. - The first noun says something about the function, job, or role of the second: what it is used for. hinge support control tower maintenance technician

Q

Direct object. - The second refers to an activity. The first noun is the direct object of the verb that describes that activity. traffic control (somebody controls traffic) damage repair ( somebody repairs damages) hardness tester (somebody tests hardness)

Q

Complement.- If the second noun was the subject of a clause, the first noun would be the complement (after be) a man driver ( the driver is a man)

Q

Part.- The second noun refers to a part or section of the first. a table leg the plane door a panel button

Q

Measurement.- we usually use the “noun as adjective” structure. a ten-pound box a five-liter can two 20-liter tanks

C. The basic principle in a compound word is that one word is the key word or the head word, the smallest item in the chain, and the other words are the qualifiers (nouns or adjectives) used to identify it. QUALIFIER

Lower

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

HEAD WORD

Aircraft

Maintenance

Manual

Forward

Fuselage

Windshield

Sealing

Horizontal

Stabilizer

Training

Edge

Panels

Main

Landing

Gear

Door

Allowable

Damage

Aft

Nacelle

Access

Door

Latch

Adjustment

D. The sense of compound words depends on the word order; the head word is the last word. The interpretation must be logical, avoid translating literally.

COMPOUND WORDS Stall warning transmitter Superchrgae control system Thread ring gage Carburetor air temperature Cold tank system

MEANING a device which produces a signal to warn the system of controlling the supercharger a ring-type gage used for checking external threads the temperature of the induction air before it enters the carburetor a lubrication system wherein the oil cooler is located in the scavenge oil subsystem PREPOSITIONS

A. They are used to show the relationship of a noun or the object of the preposition to some other word in the sentence. B. Prepositions typically come before a noun: across hangar after work at home before Tuesday by Shakespeare

for lunch in Latacunga on fire to school with pleasure

C. The prepositions which we have looked at so far have all consisted of a single word, such as in, of, at, and to. We refer to these as SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. D. COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples: according to along with apart from because of contrary to

due to except for instead of prior to regardless of

Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a noun:

according to the FAR contrary to my advice due to complaint E. Three-word combinations often have the following pattern:

Simple Preposition

Noun

Simple Preposition

We can see this pattern in the following examples: in aid of on behalf of in front of in accordance with in line with

in line with in relation to with reference to with respect to by means of

Again, these combinations come before a noun: in aid of contributions in front of the window in line with inflation

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE? Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

at

in

on

under

opposite

1 above, 2 below

44 33 11

beside, next to

between

11 22

1 behind, 2 in front of

1 among, 2 in the middle

22

1 by, 2 near 3 not far from 4 a long way

of of

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE TO? Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

past

up

down

11

round, around

1 over, 2 under 22

22

along

1 onto, 2 off

back to

through

11

33

11 22

1 into, 2 out of

1 to, 2 towards, 3 from

across

SUFFIXES & PREFIXES Many words in English are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to base forms. A base form, or stem, is the most basic form of a word. To this base form, we may add a prefix at the beginning or a suffix at the end. Base form:

rely

Suffix -able:

reliable

Prefix un-:

unreliable

SUFFIXES –FUL AND –LESS We can add the suffixes –ful and –less to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffixes –ful and –less have opposite meanings: Useful “full or having”; and Useless “without” or “not having” SUFFIX –LY Adjectives are changed into adverbs adding –LY. correct careful easy

correctly Carefully easily

slow immediate reasonable

slowly immediately reasonably

SUFFIX-ER The suffix-er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express the meaning of “one who” or “that which” He teaches students to read. He´s a teacher She operates radios. She is a radio operator. *Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with –or.

SUFFIX -WARD

The suffix -ward (s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a direction in time or space. EXAMPLES: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward (s), downward (s), backward (s). SUFFIXES –ENT / - ANT We can add the suffixes – ent / - ant to some verbs to make adjectives. They express that has, shows or does absorb insist

absorbent insistent

differ assist

different assistant

ADJECTIVES SUFFIXES The following suffixes can be added to nouns to form adjectives: -y -ly -ful -less -ern -al -ary

silk/silky friend/friendly use/useful home/homeless north/northern monument/monumental station/stationary

-ous -ic -ical -ish -like -ar

danger/dangerous hero/heroic mechanic / mechanical style/stylish child/childlike family/familiar

NOUN SUFFIXES The suffixes –ion, -ation, -tion, and –sion are added to verb to make noun which name an action, condition, quality, or result instruct observe intend decide

+ ion + ation + tion + sion

instruction observation intention decision

THE SUFFIX -ERN The suffix -ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a certain direction. It is added to nouns to form adjectives: northern, southern, eastern, western. -EN SUFFIX (ADJ---VERB)

strength short wide deep tight sharp length loose sad

-en

strengthen shorten widen deepen tighten sharpen lengthen loosen sadden

(to make stronger) (to make shorter) (to make wider) (to make deeper) (to make tighter) (to make sharper) (to make longer) (to make looser) (to make sadder)

SUFFIXES: -ABLE/-IBLE The following suffixes may be added to nouns and / or verbs to form adjectives: -able -ible -ive

accept force protect

acceptable -tive produce forcible -ative talk protective SUFFIXES Y, TY, HY

productive talkative

The suffixes Y, TY, HY, form adjectives into abstract nouns.

-Y -TY -ITY -ITY -ILITY

ADJECTIVE

NOUN

honest certain electric secure responsible

honesty certainty electricity security responsibility

SUFFIX – NESS We can add the suffix – ness to some adjectives to make nouns. dark darkness great greatness ready readiness quick quickness friendly friendliness NOUN SUFFIXES

The suffixes “–AL; -ANCE; -ENCE; MENT and –Y” are added to verbs to make nouns which name an act, condition, quality or result. VERB

SUFFIX

Approve

+ - al

Allow Refer Employ Recover

+ - ance + - ence + - ment +-y

NOUN approval allowance reference employment recovery

SUFFIX -FY / -IFY The suffixes –fy and –ify can also be added to some adjectives and nouns to make verbs. They have the meaning of “to make, become, or cause to become”. clear electric just

clarify electrify justify

liquid solid

liquefy solidify SUFFIX –IST

The noun suffix –ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning “one who” or “that which”. Violin Type Biology

+ -ist + - ist + - ist

violinist typist biologist

The PREFIX COCo- is a prefix which has the meaning of “Joint” and “Together with”. Cooperate, coordinate, coworker, coauthor, coexist. SUFFIX -AL

We can form nouns by adding the suffix –al to certain verbs. When we add this suffix, it has the meaning of “the act of or the process of “. approve arrive deny disapprove

approval arrival denial disapproval

dismiss refuse remove withdraw

dismissal refusal removal withdrawal

SUFFIX –Y The meaning of certain verbs may be changed to express “an act or action of “by adding the suffix– y to the verb, changing the verb into a noun. discover recover

discovery recovery

deliver inquire

delivery inquiry

SUFFIX - IZE The suffix - ize can be added to various nouns and adjectives to make verbs that mean “make or cause to be.” equal familiar modern item

+ - ize

equalize ( make equal) familiarize ( cause to be/ become familiar) modernize = ( make modern) itemize (to make a list of items) SUFFIX – LIKE

We can add the suffix –like to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffix “like”, expresses the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of something. Cuplike (resembling a cup/ having the characteristics of a cup) Fencelike Fanlike When-like is added to words ending in double “L” the words are hyphenated. Gel-like SUFFIXES –AL AND -IAL

The suffixes –al and –ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives. They have the meaning “of, like, or suitable for”. accident commerce

accidental commercial

addition manager

additional managerial

NEGATIVE PREFIXES un-

The opposite of

Unable, unbelievable, undo, unfair, unreliable,

de

The opposite of

deactivate, decode, decompose, deconstruct, decontaminate, decrease, deflate, deform

non-

Not

Non-smoker, nonconformist, non-essential, non-fiction

in-

The opposite of

Inaccessible, incomplete, incorrect, inevitable, insane

il-

The opposite of (before l…)

Illegal, illegitimate, illicit, illiterate, illogical

im (before m or p)

The opposite f

Immature, impatient, imperfect, impolite, impossible

ir (before r)

The opposite of

Irrational, irregular, irrelevant, irresistible, irresponsible

The opposite of

Incomplete, intolerable, incorrect, instability, inability, inaccessible, inadequate

dis

The opposite of

Disconnect, dishonest, dislike, disloyalty, disobedient, disobey, dissatisfied

mis-

Wrong, bad

Misbehave, misconception, misunderstand

anti-

against

Antibody, anticlimax, anti-nuclear, anti- racist, antisocial

a-

The opposite of

Atypical, atonal

re-

Again, back

React. Re-apply, rebuild, recycle, re- use

inter-

Between, among

Interactive, intercontinental, international

super-

More than, very special

Superimpose, supermarket, supernatural, supersonic, superstar

over-

Too much

Overconfident, overeat, overestimate, overpopulated, overreact, overwork

under-

Too little

Undercharge, undercook,

pre-

before

Pre-Christmas, pre- Raphaelite, prewar

post-

after

Postgraduate, postmodern, post- war

extra-

Exceptionally, outside

Extracurricular, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

one

mono-, uni-,

monopropellant, unidirectional

two

bi-, du-

biaxial, duplex

ten

deci-

decimal

many

poly-, multi-

polyphase, multifunctional

in + other consonants or vowel

PREFIXES OF POSITION

PREFIXES OF NUMBER

CONTENTS THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES--------------------------------------1 PLURAL COUNT FORMS-------------------------------------------1 DEMONSTRATIVES-------------------------------------------------2

SOME, ANY, NO------------------------------------------------------2 THE POSSESSIVE CASE (‘S AND –S’)----------------------------3 ONE, ONES------------------------------------------------------------3 ANTICIPATORY IT---------------------------------------------------4 CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS------------4 RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES “THAT-WHICH”------7 WHICH/ THAT/............................................................7 WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.................................7 EMPHATIC DO-------------------------------------------------------8 IMPERATIVE---------------------------------------------------------8 TENSES----------------------------------------------------------------9 Present Tense of the Verb Be---------------------------------------9 Present Simple--------------------------------------------------------9 Present Continuous-------------------------------------------------10 Past Tense of the Verb Be------------------------------------------11 Past Simple----------------------------------------------------------11 Past Continuous-----------------------------------------------------12 Present Perfect------------------------------------------------------12 Going To--------------------------------------------------------------13 Modals----------------------------------------------------------------13 WILL - SHALL.............................................................13 CAN...........................................................................13 COULD.......................................................................14 MUST.........................................................................14 MAY, MIGHT...............................................................15 SHOULD.....................................................................15

VERB TENSES------------------------------------------------------16 Verbal Forms--------------------------------------------------------16 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE-----------------------------------17 Passive Verb-Forms------------------------------------------------17 PARTICIPLES-------------------------------------------------------18 Participles used as adjectives-------------------------------------19 -ing form-------------------------------------------------------------20 ADJECTIVES--------------------------------------------------------22 COMPARISONS-----------------------------------------------------23 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs-------------------------23 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS------------------------------------25 Formal Characteristics of Adverbs------------------------------26 ADVERBS------------------------------------------------------------26 NOUN ADJUNCTS-------------------------------------------------27 The Noun as “Adjective” Structure-------------------------------28 PREPOSITIONS-----------------------------------------------------30 SUFFIXES & PREFIXES-------------------------------------------34