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SYNTAX WORKBOOK Mick Perkins

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q:PP h:pr e p

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q:NP m :A dj P

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h:a dj f i r st

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c our s e i n s y nt a c t i c a na l y s i s

1

Syntax Workbook Mick Perkins

Emeritus Professor of Clinical Linguistics Department of Human Communication Sciences University of Sheffield

© 2011

by the author

2

CONTENTS 7  

INTRODUCTION 1  

SENTENCE AND CLAUSE TYPES

10  

2  

CLAUSE ELEMENTS

11  

2.1   V(VERB)

11  

2.2   S (SUBJECT)

11  

2.3   O (OBJECT)

12  

2.4   Od (DIRECT OBJECT) & Oi (INDIRECT OBJECT)

13  

2.5   C (COMPLEMENT)

14  

2.6   Co (OBJECT COMPLEMENT)

15  

2.7   A (ADVERBIAL)

15  

2.8   Voc (VOCATIVE)

16  

3  

WH- QUESTIONS

18  

4  

PHRASES

20  

5  

6  

7  

4.1   PHRASAL EXPANSION OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

20  

4.2   THE STRUCTURE OF PHRASES

21   22  

VERB PHRASES 5.1   STRUCTURE OF VERB PHRASES

22  

5.2   MAIN VERB: v

22  

5.3   AUXILIARY VERB: aux

23  

5.4   MODAL IDIOMS: aux

23  

5.5   VERB PARTICLE: part

23  

5.6   NEGATOR: neg

24  

5.6   REVIEW

24   26  

NOUN PHRASES 6.1   STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASES

26  

6.2   HEADS (h)

26  

6.3   MODIFIERS (m)

27  

6.4   DETERMINERS (d)

27  

6.5   INITIATORS (i)

28  

6.6   QUALIFIERS (q)

28   31  

ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB PHRASES 7.1  

STRUCTURE OF ADJECTIVE PHRASES

31  

7.2  

ADJECTIVE PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

32  

7.3   ADJECTIVE PHRASES AS MODIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

32  

3

7.4   STRUCTURE OF ADVERB PHRASES

32  

7.5   ADVERB PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

33  

7.6   ADVERB PHRASES AS MODIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

33  

8  

35  

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 8.1   THE STRUCTURE OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

35  

8.2   PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

35  

8.3   PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS QUALIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

36  

8.4   PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS QUALIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

37  

8.5   MULTIPLE EMBEDDED PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

37  

8.6   HEAD OF A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE OR A VERB PARTICLE?

38  

9  

42  

COORDINATION 9.1   COORDINATION OF CLAUSES

42  

9.2   COORDINATION OF PHRASES

42  

9.3   COORDINATION OF WORDS

43  

10  

46  

COMPLEX SENTENCES

10.1  

OVERVIEW

46  

10.2  

TESTS FOR IDENTIFYING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

47  

11  

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

49  

11.1  

SUBJECT

49  

11.2  

DIRECT OBJECT

49  

11.3  

INDIRECT OBJECT

50  

11.4  

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

50  

11.5  

OBJECT COMPLEMENT

50  

11.6  

ADVERBIAL

51  

12  

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN PHRASES

52  

12.1  

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

52  

12.2  

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

54  

12.3  

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

54  

13  

REVIEW EXERCISE

56  

14  

SUPPLEMENTARY SECTION

57  

CHAPTER 1 SUPPLEMENT

57  

CHAPTER 2 SUPPLEMENT

57  

CHAPTER 3 SUPPLEMENT

58  

CHAPTER 5 SUPPLEMENT

59  

CHAPTER 6 SUPPLEMENT

60  

CHAPTER 7 SUPPLEMENT

60  

4

CHAPTER 8 SUPPLEMENT

61  

CHAPTER 9 SUPPLEMENT

62  

CHAPTER 10 SUPPLEMENT

63  

CHAPTER 11 SUPPLEMENT

64  

CHAPTER 12 SUPPLEMENT

65  

ADVANCED REVIEW EXERCISE

69  

15  

71  

KEY TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1.2

71  

EXERCISE 2.1

71  

EXERCISE 2.2

72  

EXERCISE 2.3

72  

EXERCISE 2.4

73  

EXERCISE 2.5a

73  

EXERCISE 2.5b

74  

EXERCISE 2.6

74  

EXERCISE 2.8

75  

EXERCISE 2.9

75  

EXERCISE 3.1

76  

EXERCISE 3.2

77  

EXERCISE 5.1

77  

EXERCISE 5.2

78  

EXERCISE 6.1

79  

EXERCISE 6.2

79  

EXERCISE 7.1

81  

EXERCISE 7.2

82  

EXERCISE 8.2

83  

EXERCISE 8.3

84  

EXERCISE 8.4

85  

EXERCISE 8.5

86  

EXERCISE 8.6

86  

EXERCISE 8.8

88  

EXERCISE 9.1

90  

EXERCISE 9.2

91  

EXERCISE 9.3

92  

EXERCISE 9.4

93  

EXERCISE 10.1

94  

EXERCISE 10.2

95  

EXERCISE 11.1

95  

EXERCISE 11.2

96  

EXERCISE 11.6

97  

5

EXERCISE 11.7

99  

EXERCISE 11.7

100  

EXERCISE 12.1

101  

EXERCISE 12.2

101  

EXERCISE 12.3

103  

EXERCISE 12.5

104  

13 REVIEW EXERCISE

105  

16  

KEY TO SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

109  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.1

109  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.2

109  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.1

110  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.2

110  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.4

110  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.5b

111  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.8

111  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 3

111  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 5

111  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 6

112  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 7.1

113  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 8.6

115  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 8.7

116  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 10.1

116  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 11.6

117  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.1

118  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.2

120  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.4

121  

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.5

125  

SUPPLEMENTARY ADVANCED REVIEW EXERCISE

126  

17  

133  

GLOSSARY

6

INTRODUCTION THE WORKBOOK This Workbook is an integral part of the Syntactic Analysis course. By working through the examples and exercises carefully, you should end up with a good working knowledge of English syntactic structure and, in addition, be able to analyse most English sentences you come across. THE TUTORIALS However, the Workbook is only a part of the Syntactic Analysis course. What it mainly does is show you how to label, analyse and set out your analysis. It is to be used in conjunction with weekly tutorials where you will have plenty of opportunity to ask questions and explore in more depth any aspects which you find problematic or unclear. Don't work too far ahead in the Workbook. You will be told in the tutorials which part you should be working on, and many exercises require knowledge which is not fully spelled out in the Workbook. READING The third key component of the Syntactic Analysis course – in addition to the Workbook and tutorials – is the guided reading which you do by yourself. Throughout the Workbook at the beginning of every chapter you are given reading to do. The reference to Crystal is to his book Rediscover Grammar (see below). This is essential reading, and should be done before you begin the chapter. The reference to Greenbaum & Quirk is to their A Student's Grammar of the English Language (see below). You may find this more heavy going but it will give you a lot of important background detail. More references are given below. SUPPLEMENTARY SECTION The syntax of English (and in fact of any language) is highly complex, and the version you will learn here simplifies much of this complexity, cuts a lot of corners and leaves out many details. The main part of the Workbook covers the basics of English syntax. However, there is also a Supplementary Section which provides additional practice exercises, in case you feel you need them, and also covers a few topics in more depth. You won’t be examined on these topics, but you may find it helpful to work through them anyway as they complement the rest of the Workbook. There are also suggestions for further reading below, and in footnotes, to help you explore areas not covered in the Workbook. EXERCISES AND THE EXERCISE KEYS Most chapters contain exercises – working through them carefully is the only way to achieve a full understanding of the concepts and structures presented. There are exercises on normal adult English and also on typical and atypical child language. There is a key to all exercises which contains suggested analyses. Sometimes there is more than one way of analysing the same sentence: it depends on how you define your categories and what theory of grammar you're using. As the categories used in this Workbook are not defined in a fully formal way and we are not subscribing to any particular theory, that leaves a lot of room for manoeuvre. If you think there are good reasons for analysing any sentence in a different way, say so in one of the tutorials. Discussion of alternatives is an important part of the course. ASSESSMENT

7

The Syntactic Analysis course is assessed by a 1½ hour exam. First, you are given ten ordinary sentences to analyse using tree diagrams as shown in the Exercise Key. In addition, you are required to analyse some child language sentences and to answer a few questions about them. GLOSSARY At the end of the Workbook you will find descriptions and definitions of the major syntactic terms used. REQUEST FOR FEEDBACK This Workbook is revised every year, and I would like to gratefully acknowledge the contribution of former students, and of Carrie Ankerstein, Richard Body, Lisa Clarkson, Christina Lawrence, Hannah Sowden and Vesna Stojanovik who have pointed out errors and shortcomings in previous editions and made helpful suggestions for improvements, many of which I have been able to incorporate in this edition. If, as you work through this book, you should notice any errors or have any ideas on how to improve it further, I would be grateful if you could pass them to via your tutor as a favour to next year's students. READING NB Library references are given in bold A) GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY

Crystal, D. (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (2nd ed) CUP Chapter 16 'Grammar' Q403 & REF403 Palmer, F. (1983) Grammar (2nd ed) Penguin 415 B) REFERENCE GRAMMARS

Crystal, D. (2004) Rediscover Grammar (3rd ed) Pearson/Longman 425 - an excellent, lively, painless (relatively), cheap introduction to English grammar. Its terminology is consistent with LARSP and Quirk et al (see below). Buy it. The first and second editions are still OK - the chapter references are still the same. Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. CUP. 425 - the standard and most comprehensive (1842 pages!) reference grammar of English. Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. (2005) A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar. CUP. 425 - a condensed version of Huddleston & Pullum (2002) with exercises. Worth buying as a grammar reference source. Hurford, J. R. (1994) Grammar: A Student's Guide CUP - less fun than Crystal, but clear, helpful and more detailed 428 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language Longman 425 - until Huddleston & Pullum 2002 (see above) this was the standard reference grammar of English, and is still a worthwhile alternative. Terminology consistent with LARSP and Crystal. Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990) A Student's Grammar of the English Language Longman 425 - A condensed version of Quirk et al. Halfway house between Crystal and Quirk et al. Worth buying as a grammar reference source.

8

C) FURTHER READING

There is no published work which is both notationally and terminologically consistent with the analytical format used on this course and the books referred to above–hence this workbook! However, the following come closest and you may find them useful to refer to: Leech, G., Deuchar M. & Hoogenraad, R. (1982) English Grammar for Today: A New Introduction Macmillan 425 Perera, K. (1984) Children's Writing and Reading: Analysing Classroom Language Blackwell Chapter 2: 'A descriptive framework for grammatical analysis' 372.6 The following are also worth consulting, though beware different terminology and different approaches to that adopted in this workbook: Baker, C. L. (1995) English Syntax (2nd ed). MIT Press. 425.2 Börjars, K., & Burridge, K. (2001). Introducing English Grammar. Arnold. 425 (B) Burton-Roberts, N. (1997) Analysing Sentences: An Introduction to English Syntax (2nd ed) Longman 425.2 Fabb, N. (1994) Sentence Structure Routledge 425.2 Huddleston, R. (1984) Introduction to the Grammar of English CUP 425 Huddleston, R. (1988) English Grammar: An Outline CUP 425 (condensed version of Huddleston '84) Morenberg, M. (1991) Doing Grammar OUP 425 Radford, A. (1997) Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction CUP 415.8 Tallerman, M. (1998) Understanding Syntax. Arnold. 415.8 Thomas, L. (1993) Beginning Syntax Blackwell 425.2 Wardaugh, R. (1995) Understanding English Grammar: A Linguistic Approach Blackwell Also check out: The Internet Grammar of English at the following website: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm. This is an online course in English grammar written primarily for university undergraduates. Visual Interactive Syntax Learning at http://visl.sdu.dk/visl/en/parsing/automatic/ . This website enables you to input sentences and provides an automatic tree-diagram analysis similar to those used in this Workbook.

9

1

SENTENCE AND CLAUSE TYPES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chapter 3. Exercise 1.1 Label the clause elements in the following: (This is only exploratory–if you get some wrong, don't worry–explanation is at hand. The aim of the exercise is (hopefully!) to demonstrate why you need the information presented in Chapter 2.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The sun/rose Grimes/inspected/his fingernails Sometimes/I/feel/a complete idiot They/made/me/a cup of tea They/made/me/blackboard monitor Frankly/I/don't care The cow/jumped/over the moon Hopefully/I/'ll see/you/under the clock/at Charing Cross Station/at eight o'clock/with a briefcase of you know what Acid/turns/blue litmus paper/red Nerys/turned/red/with embarrassment

10

2

CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs. 8-14 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk 10.1-10.18 2.1

V(VERB)

Examples:

I bought a paper V

Shut up! V

They may be late V

Will you help me? V-V

TESTS FOR V: • V is always a Verb Phrase (including single verbs) (see Chapter 5) • V comes after the Subject (S) in declarative sentences • V is the element where tense (eg looked ) and aspect (eg looking ) are shown • V shows 'concord' with the number (singular/plural) and person of the Subject eg The dogs bark The dog barks I/You like it He/She/It likes it • V is the most obligatory of clause elements Exercise 2.1 Underline and label the V element: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2.2

Stop! We missed the bus. Horace disturbed the burglars. Open your mouth. My uncle is arriving tomorrow.1 They can't afford the fare. Can they afford the fare? 2 The candidates paraded themselves in front of us. She would often cough violently. Jerry has been smoking again. S (SUBJECT)

Examples:

We laughed S V

These shoes pinch S V

Writing essays stinks S V

The miserable-looking man in the background might be choking S V

1

Remember that the V element can consist of more than one word. The V element can be discontinuous - i.e. the words that it comprises may not always be next to each other. 2

11

TESTS FOR S: • S is always one of the following: a) a Noun Phrase (see Chapter 6) (including single nouns) - e.g. My ankle hurts b) a Pronoun - e.g. It hurts c) a Clause - e.g. Twisting my ankle hurts • S precedes V in declarative sentences • S can be substituted by a Pronoun - e.g. My ankle hurts -> It hurts • S is the only element identified by a pronoun in a following tag question - e.g. John broke the plates, didn't he? • S shows concord with V- e.g. He goes, They go_ • S typically identifies the origin of any action or the experiencer of any state expressed by V (except in passive sentences - see 2.3 below) Exercise 2.2: Underline and label the S and V elements: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.3

The dog bit me. John wouldn't have said that. It makes me sick. The green man is flashing. Are you sure of that? The strange-looking man is my cousin. Everything on the table looks mouth-wateringly delicious. Peter and Mary have invited us to a barbecue. Mrs Corbett has been attacked by her parrot.3 Have they?

O (OBJECT)

Examples:

Your sister left a message S V O

Eat it! V O

I loathe what you stand for S V O

TESTS FOR O: • O is always one of the following: a) a Noun Phrase (see Chapter 6) (including single nouns) - e.g. The dog bit my ankle b) a Pronoun - e.g. The dog bit it. c) a Clause - e.g. The dog loves biting my ankle ( d) a Prepositional Phrase when it's an Indirect Object - see 2.4) • O typically follows V in declarative sentences • O can be substituted by a Pronoun - e.g. I like your jacket -> I like it. • O becomes S when the sentence is passivized - e.g.: He (S) broke(V) the record (O) -> The record (S) was broken (V) by him (A)4 • O typically identifies the person or thing affected by the action, state, etc expressed by V 3

NB this is a passive sentence, so the final test above does not apply. See Crystal (1996:88-89) and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990:44-46) for more detail on how to convert actives to passives. 4

12

O occurs with a 'transitive' verb (Crystal Ch.8)

•

Exercise 2.3 Underline and label the S, V and O elements: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

He kicked the ball. I hate tennis. Hand over the money. Can I help you? He crashed his brand-new Porsche. Don't you understand plain English? I understand the whys and wherefores. We're planning a fairly casual thing with plenty of wine. They've chosen apples, oranges, grapes and melons. Your 'devil may care' attitude has undermined my confidence.

2.4

Od (DIRECT OBJECT) & Oi (INDIRECT OBJECT)

Examples:

Mary gave John a black cat S V Oi Od

Karen bought me a chicken vindaloo S V Oi Od

TESTS FOR Od • Same as the definition of O in 2.3 above • Od cannot usually be omitted from an S V O O clause without a radical change in meaning TESTS FOR Oi • Oi is semantically equivalent to a Prepositional Phrase (see Ch. 8) e.g.: Give me the book = Give the book to me. • Oi becomes a Prepositional Phrase with to or for if Od becomes S through passivization - e.g.: They bought Ian a car --> A car was bought for Ian. • Oi usually occurs before Od unless it is a prepositional phrase • Oi typically refers to an animate being who is the recipient or beneficiary of the action expressed in V • Oi occurs with a 'ditransitive' verb (Greenbaum & Quirk 16.31) Exercise 2.4 Underline and label the S, V, Od and Oi elements: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 5

I'll tell you the reason. Throw me a towel.5 He threw a towel to me. Give me it. I've bought myself a portable CD player. She prepared my lunch for me. Don't tell him any of your secrets. Hand your mother the money.

Don't forget that this is an imperative sentence.

13

9 10

2.5

Give a prize to the best ones. Have you told Mary the news?

C (COMPLEMENT)

Examples: She looks a fool The government remained very determined Nigel fell ill S V C S V C S V C Mud wrestling is the only thing she will ever be good at S V C TESTS FOR C: • C is typically a Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase (see Ch. 7) or a Clause • C is coreferential (ie refers to the same entity) with S - i.e. it is a Subject Complement (Cs) (But NB this criterion doesn't always work for 'reflexive' pronouns - eg myself, themselves, etc. Although these may be coreferential with S, their inflection – ie 'himself' not *'heself' – identifies them as Objects, which is how you should analyse them here. (But beware sentence 15 in Exercise 2.5b!) • C cannot become S through passivization • C follows be (= the 'copula') or one of the 'copulative' (or 'intensive') verbs - viz: a) 'Current' copulative verbs - e.g. appear (angry), feel (ill), lie (scattered), look (a fool), remain (a bachelor), rest (assured), seem (fine), smell (odd), sound (funny), taste (delicious) b) 'Resulting' copulative verbs - e.g. become (a teacher), get (ready), go (bad), grow (tired), fall (sick), turn (nasty) Exercise 2.5a Underline and label the S, V and C elements: Note: Only label Objects as Od or Oi if both kinds occur in the clause at the same time. If there is only one Object, it will nearly always be Direct and need only be labelled simply as O. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

It's amazing. Don't be an idiot. He's fallen ill. I feel somewhat subdued. That smells good. The president remained totally convinced. It seems a good idea. It's neither one thing or the other. My intentions were entirely honourable. The exercise must be getting tedious.

Exercise 2.5b Underline and label the S, V, C & O elements: Hint: The passivization test (2.3) and the coreference test (2.5) are particularly helpful for telling Objects from Complements 1

Are you alright? 14

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I'm growing tired. I'm growing cabbages. The judges tasted each of the entries. Some of the entries tasted awful. You're looking a lot better. My shares have made a profit. Tanya has gone berserk. Sound the bell.6 Peter Pan stayed young.

2.6

Co (OBJECT COMPLEMENT)

Examples:

We made John chairman S V O Co

The general considered the defeat a disaster S V O Co

TESTS FOR CO: • Co only occurs in SVOC structures • Co is typically a Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase or a Clause • Co is coreferential with O • Co cannot become S through passivization Exercise 2.6 Underline and label the S, V, O and C elements: Note: It is not necessary to label Subject and Object Complements separately as Cs and Co, but simply as C. This is because in SVC clauses the Complement is always Cs, whereas in SVOC clauses it is always Co, so anything more than a simple C label is unnecessary. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2.7

She made him an offer. She made him her deputy. The judge declared the best entries delicious. That hat flatters you. You have become the bane of my life. I found her irascible, meticulous but a civil enough colleague.7 She found me a three-bedroomed house. They elected themselves. They elected themselves another disastrous government. They elected him prime minister. A (ADVERBIAL)

Examples:

On Sundays I frequently ride quickly to Castleton on my bike A S A V A A A

6

Imperative sentences like this don't passivize. In order to try the passivization test you need to turn them into statements by adding a Subject - in this case They sound the bell. 7 Note: a clause can contain no more than one Complement and one Direct Object.

15

TESTS FOR A: • The A element specifies Where, When, How or Why. • A is more peripheral in clause structure than S, V, O and C • A can be an Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase, Noun Phrase or Clause • A is often an optional element • A can sometimes be used in different positions - e.g.: (Sometimes) Bill (sometimes) smokes a pipe (sometimes) • There is no theoretical limit to the number of A elements in one clause • A most frequently expresses time, place or manner, enabling corresponding questions such as: When do you travel? (on Sundays) Where do you travel? (to Castleton) How do you travel? (quickly, on my bike) • A may also express a range of other meanings - eg: I opened it with the master key (instrument) She came with John (comitative) They rested for a few minutes (duration) She often faints (frequency) He worked late to impress the boss (purpose) They stayed in because of the rain (reason) I enjoyed it very much (degree) In my view it's a shambles (viewpoint) Perhaps he likes her (possibility) She resigned however (connectivity)

2.8

Voc (VOCATIVE)

Vocatives are used to identify the person(s) to whom a sentence is addressed. They are not really a clause element like S, V, O, C and A. Examples:

Do it now, Sir Colin Waiter, bring my soup You, John, came top V O A Voc Voc V O S Voc V C

Exercise 2.8 Underline and label the S, V, O, C and A elements and Voc: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Come here, scumbag. They played in the rain. Sometimes I drive too fast. Frankly, I'm quite disgusted. I really mean it this time, ladies. She came across the road in her slippers. She came across the road by chance one fine sunny morning. Because of a serious illness he no longer plays squash. Do it here, now, with the light on. He possibly lives near Sheffield.

16

Exercise 2.9 Underline and label the S, V, O, C and A elements and Voc in the following child utterances. If any clause elements are missing, show them in parentheses. e.g. Want that. (S) V O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Baby eat. Kick ball. Go there. Boy glasses. (describing picture of a boy wearing glasses) He doctor. (referring to appearance of a man in a white coat) Cat jumping. Mummy sad. Jumping now. Me want that. Mommy wear hat. Me did it now. You play snakes and ladders me. Me want make house for Kate. Me did some of those, Mummy. Her won’t be there tomorrow.

17

3

WH- QUESTIONS

Essential reading: Greenbaum & Quirk 11.9 - 11.10 Further reading: Burton-Roberts (1997) Ch. 9 The clause elements S, O, C and A (but not V) can each be represented in questions by means of a 'Wh'-word which is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. This is sometimes called Wh- 'fronting' or 'raising'. E.g.: Nigel has lost his umbrella S V O What has Nigel lost? O V- S -V 'What' is analysed as 'O' since it is an Object as well as a question word. Note that 'has' has also moved in front of the Subject: What has Nigel – lost –?

In some cases8 an appropriate form of 'do' is added to carry the tense of the verb, as this also moves:

Nigel lost his umbrella -> What did Nigel lose– –? Nigel loses his umbrella -> What does Nigel lose– –?

The fronted elements act grammatically as though they are still in the positions they started in. A good way, therefore, to identify whether a Wh-word is acting as S, O, C or A is to move the Wh-word (and any other moved item) back to its starting position and apply the usual tests. Thus: a) What has Nigel lost? -> b) Nigel has lost what? 'What' in b) is an Object since, for example, it becomes S when the sentence is passivized (What has been lost by Nigel?). If it is not possible to move the Wh-word as in: Who said that? -> *Said that who?9 What kept you? -> *Kept you what? this means that the Wh-word is the Subject - i.e. its starting position is already at the front of the sentence. 8 9

i.e. when the verb is not a form of be or have. The asterisk indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical.

18

Since one of the main criteria for defining an Adverbial clause element is whether it gives information pertaining to 'why', 'where', 'when' or 'how', it follows that the words why, where, when and how will always be analysed as A. 'Whom' will always be analysed as O since the '-m' ending is a marker of Object case. The same is true of any instance of 'Who' to which it is posible to add '-m' - e.g. Who(m) did you see? but not: *Whom did that?

Exercise 3.1 Underline and label all the clause elements in the following sentences: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

What are you doing? Why are you here? What did they tell you? Who sent you? How did you get here? Where did you park your car? What is your name? What makes you so angry? Who do you mean? Who is their representative?

Exercise 3.2 Underline and label all the clause elements in the following child utterances. If any clause elements are missing, show them in parentheses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Where go? Man where? Where your car? What he doing? Why those two nother things broke? Why are me so healthy? Why didn’t me get flu ever? Where chair went? Why did her have a runny tummy? What a skinny snake can wiggle really fast? (Attempted repetition of “What can a skinny snake wiggle really fast?”)

19

4

PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 15, 27; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Ch 2.4

4.1

PHRASAL EXPANSION OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

The following diagram shows which phrases can be used to 'expand', 'realize' or 'fill' which clause elements. (The numbers refer to the examples in the box below.)

NP VP AdjP AdvP PP

S 1

V

Od 2

Oi 3

C 4

A 5

6 7 9

10

8 11

NP = Noun Phrase; VP = Verb Phrase; AdjP = Adjective Phrase; AdvP = Adverb Phrase; PP = Prepositional Phrase

The following sentences illustrate these possibilities. The relationship of 'realization' is shown by means of a colon, thus 'S:NP' is shorthand for 'the Subject "slot" of the clause is "filled" or "realized" by a Noun Phrase'. The triangle indicates that we are not analysing the phrase in any more detail.

S:NP

Od:NP

1 Even her best friends wouldn't tell her Oi:NP

2 I blame their lack of awareness C:NP

3 We awarded a third of them a prize A:NP

4 He looks a rather unsavoury person V:VP

5

I was off sick all last week

6

C:AdjP

You might have told me!

A:AdvP

7 She seems very suitable indeed Oi:PP 9 Give the book to Marjorie Smith

8 I rather belatedly withdrew my offer C:PP 10 I' m in a foul temper

A:PP 11 You' ve had them for at least six days

20

4.2

THE STRUCTURE OF PHRASES

All phrases have the following minimum structure: (modifier) head (qualifier) i.e. they consist of a single obligatory core element (head) which may optionally (shown by parentheses) be preceded (modified) or followed (qualified) by other elements.10 In this workbook, the modifying function is labelled as m, the head function as h, and the qualifying function as q. Most phrases will therefore look something like this:

Phrase

m

h

q

You should identify and label these functions for all phrase elements except in the case of the Verb Phrase where functions are more predictable from the type of element. Occasionally, additional functions over and above m, h and q will also be specified. In addition to the 'm h q' role that each element has in a phrase, you should also label what element it is. Role and category are separated by a colon. For example, the following tree diagrams: AdjP

PP

m:int

h:adj

q:int

m:adv h:prep

very

nice

indeed

just

q:NP

behind the door

show that in the Adjective Phrase (AdjP) the head is the adjective nice, the modifier is the 'intensifier' very and the qualifier is the 'intensifier' indeed, whereas in the Prepositional Phrase (PP) the head is the preposition behind, the modifier is the adverb just and the qualifier is the Noun Phrase (NP) the door.

10

NB sometimes the more general terms 'premodifier' and 'postmodifier' are used instead of modifier and qualifier respectively. Also qualifiers are often called 'complements', but this is a different sense to how the term is defined in 2.5.

21

5

VERB PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs. 15-26 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Chs. 3-4

5.1

STRUCTURE OF VERB PHRASES

Verb Phrases have the following structure: m h q n (auxiliary verb) main verb (particle)n i.e. the obligatory head is a main verb; this may be premodified by one or more auxiliary verbs or postmodified by one or more verb particles.11 In addition, negative elements may also precede the main verb. As the structure of the verb phrase is relatively simple (i.e. all main verbs are heads, all auxiliaries are modifiers and all particles are qualifiers), we will only label the items auxiliary (aux), main verb (v) and particle (part) and not their functions (i.e. modifier, head, qualifier). Don't forget, though, that a tree-diagram such as: V:VP aux

v

V:VP part

m:aux h:v

is looking at

5.2

is really shorthand for:

q:part

is looking at

MAIN VERB: v

Many main verbs consist of a single word: Examples:

V:VP v Look!

V:VP v I like that

V:VP v Fred kicked the ball

V:VP v Mind your own business

There are also many other multi-word verbs. Some of these consist of a main verb plus one or more particles (see 5.5 below).

11

Optionality is shown by parentheses, and ‘one or more’ by the superscript n.

22

5.3

AUXILIARY VERB: aux

There are two categories of auxiliary verb: A Primary auxiliaries: i.e. be, have, do B Modal auxiliaries: i.e. can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to Examples:

V:VP

V:VP

aux v

aux

I have seen it

5.4

V:VP v

aux aux aux

Did you hear that?

v

They must have been helping her

MODAL IDIOMS: aux

Modal idioms are an intermediate category between modal auxiliaries and main verbs. The most common ones are had better, would rather, have got to ('gotta'), going to, need to and be to. Analyse these as idiomatic constructions with a triangle and label them 'aux' like auxiliary verbs. Examples: V:VP aux

V:VP v

aux

V:VP

aux v

aux

V:VP v

aux

v

We had better go I would rather have died They have got to leave We are to marry

5.5

VERB PARTICLE: part

Verb particles join with the main verb to form a coherent whole. They may be either adverbs (e.g. go astray) or prepositions (e.g. drink up). Either way, simply label them as part to identify their role in the verb phrase. Some particles can occur after the Object (e.g. He ran me over; I phoned my mother up; She threw it away). NB Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether a word is a verb particle or a preposition in a separate Prepositional Phrase. See Chapter 8.6 for help.

23

5.6

NEGATOR: neg

Examples: V:VP

V:VP

aux neg v I ' m not saying

5.6

aux neg

V:VP aux

v

aux

Couldn' t you have helped?

neg v part

Did they not sit down?

REVIEW

Example:

V:VP aux neg

aux aux aux

v

part part

Couldn't they have been being looked down on by their peers?

EXERCISE 5.1 Analyse the phrase structure of the V element in the following sentences:

V:VP aux

v

e.g. The cat has caught the sparrow 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Wait! Carl left. She forgets everything. Do you mind? I am feeling sleepy. Are you really feeling sleepy? You should have thought of that before. I may have been reading at the time. I've finally given up smoking. Profits have been hit by the recession again.

24

EXERCISE 5.2 Analyse the phrase structure of the V element in the following child utterances. Describe any verb phrase errors. V:VP v E.g. Baby doing. (missing auxiliary) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Teddy bear went. Can me take this to London? Why did her have two sweets?. How did that broke? Why he can’t play with it? Why not me sleeping? What are you did? I going to play this one. Shall me do this floppy thing? Is put some boots on this lady here.

25

6

NOUN PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 27-47. Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Chs 5-6

6.1

STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASES

Noun Phrases have the following structure: n

(Initiator) (Determiner) (Modifier) Head (Qualifier)

n

i.e. there are three categories of premodifying element (initiator, determiner, modifer) and one category of postmodifier (qualifier); all elements apart from the head are optional; there is only one initiator, determiner and head; there may be any number of modifiers and qualifiers.

6.2

HEADS (h)

HEADS (h) may be NOUNS (n) or PRONOUNS (pron) Examples:

S:NP

S:NP

S:NP O:NP

S:NP

Oi:NP Od:NP

h:n

h:n

h:pron h:pron

h:n

h:pron h:n

Grass is green

John arrived

I hate you

Alcohol gives me headaches

Pronouns can be substituted for full Noun Phrases. Since only nouns - but not NPs - can be preceded by a determiner, it follows that any word that appears to be a pronoun but co-occurs with a determiner is in fact acting as a noun, and must be analysed accordingly. For example:

S:NP

S:NP

h:pron

h:pron

One (=' I' ) is not amused Someone shouted.

26

But: NP

6.3

NP

NP

d m:adj h:n

d m:adj

h:n

a big one

a certain someone

m:adj h:pron silly me

MODIFIERS (m)

MODIFIERS (m) may be ADJECTIVE PHRASES (AdjP)12 or NOUNS PHRASES (NP) For the sake of simplicity, we will include cardinal numerals (e.g. one, two, three) and ordinal numerals (e.g. first, second, third) in the category of adjective (when used to modify nouns). Examples:

S:NP m:AdjP m:NP h:n

NP

NP

m:AdjP h:n m:AdjP m:AdjP m:AdjP m:AdjP m:NP h:n

Little rubber men arrived Lucky you! small carved priceless purple stone objects NB There can be an indefinite number of modifiers in a noun phrase, but only one head. WARNING: After this chapter, you will also be required to indicate the head of modifying AdjPs and NPs.

6.4

DETERMINERS (d)

DETERMINERS may be articles (i.e. the, a(n)), demonstratives (e.g. this, that, these, those), quantifiers13 (e.g. some, any, each, every, no, either, neither, a few, a little14), possessives (e.g. my, your, his, her, its, our, their, Fred's15) or wh-words (e.g. which book, what name, whose idea). Determiners cannot co-occur.

12

These are covered in the next chapter. As stated in 6.3, some words expressing quantification are being included under the heading of 'adjective'. As a general rule, if a quantifier cannot cooccur with a determiner, analyse it as 'd'; otherwise as 'adj'. 14 'A few' and 'a little' should be analysed as indivisible units - i.e. with a triangle. 15 Only the possessive forms of proper nouns (i.e. names of people and places) can be determiners. In the cat's whiskers 'cat's' is analysed as 'm:n'. Because it co-occurs with the it cannot be a determiner. 13

27

Here, we will simply label the role these words play within the noun phrase–ie 'd' (determiner)–and not bother to identify the separate subcategories such as 'demonstrative' etc. Examples: S:NP d

h:n

C:NP d

S:NP

h:n

d

O:NP

h:n

d

S:NP

h:n

d

C:NP

h:n

d m:AdjP h:n

The Lord is my shepherd These cups have no handles Which one is the right answer?

6.5

INITIATORS (i)

These are also sometimes called 'predeterminers' (i.e. they occur before the determiner, if there is one) and are usually expressions denoting quantity or degree. As with determiners, for simplicity's sake we will just label their initiating role 'i' and not bother to indicate their form subcategories. Examples

NP

NP

i d m:AdjP h:n i

S:NP

d h:n

i

d

O:NP h:n

i

d

h:n

all the best pots just a minute Nearly half of the group gave some of their time 6.6

QUALIFIERS (q)

A variety of expressions can fill the role of qualifier in Noun Phrases: their defining features are that they occur after the head and are not a constituent of any other phrase or clause element. You will not be asked to analyse these structures yet. Examples:

NP d h:n

NP

q:AdvP

h:pron

NP

q:AdjP

d h:n

q:PP

that man over there something very funny the girl in black jeans NP

h:n q:NP d

h:n

NP d

h:n

q:Cl

Pete the builder the maniac driving a Fiat AdvP = Adverb Phrase; AdjP = Adjective Phrase; PP = Prepositional Phrase; Cl = Clause

28

EXERCISE 6.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: Cl

S:NP

V:VP

d m:AdjPm:AdjP h:n

v

O:NP d m:AdjP h:n

eg The sleek brown fox annoyed the lazy dog Analysis tip: First ,use a ‘top-down’ strategy: identify which words are to be analysed as part of each clause element. Underlining and labelling as follows may help: S V O The sleek brown fox annoyed the lazy dog This will help you to keep in mind the topmost nodes of the tree diagram that you're working down from. Next, work from left to right, labelling the elements of each phrase as you go. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

My head hurts. The accident upset them. No man is an island. The brick wall collapsed.16 Give the next person another turn. Which tall dark-haired man is my big brother? Seven sevens are forty-nine. That stupid fool has hurt himself. All the glazed pots are my own work. Will all the children give their parents another chance.

EXERCISE 6.2 Analyse the following child utterances at clause and phrase level. Describe any errors. NP17 m:AdjP h:n e.g. Big 1 2 3

tree. (no determiner)

My car. Little one. That ball. (in reply to ‘which ball’?)

16

Is brick a noun or an adjective? If it can be modified by an adj or n (e.g. baked/clay brick) then it's a noun. Adjectives can only be modified by an adverb or an intensifier - cf. '*unusually/very brick'. Look up Noun and Adjective in the glossary for more information. Adjectives are covered in more detail in Chapter 7. 17 It’s not possible to give a clause element label without knowing the context.

29

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

He doctor. (referring to appearance of a man in a white coat) Shall I make a funny music? Them got no drivers. We didn’t have much songs. Did her have two sweets? Shall me do this floppy thing? I didn’t see something.

30

7

ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal chs 48-51 & 52-58 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk chs 7-8 7.1

STRUCTURE OF ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Adjective phrases have the following structure: m m h q (negator) (intensifier)/ adjective (intensifier) (adverb phrase) i.e. two optional modifiers and one optional qualifier18. Examples:

AdjP

AdjP

AdjP

h:adj

neg m:int h:adj

m:int h:adj q:int

happy

not very happy

very happy indeed

(AdjP = adjective phrase; adj = adjective; int = intensifier) (Adverb phrase modifiers are exemplified in 7.6 below.) See the Glossary for the defining properties of Adjective. Intensifiers (or degree modifiers) are words like very, quite, nearly, almost, rather, somewhat etc (and indeed in qualifier position). Words like awfully, wonderfully, frightfully etc are also intensifiers when they modify adjectives and mean 'very'. Otherwise, they are adverbs. (Compare frightfully (=very) happy with He sang frightfully (=in a frightful way).) Test for intensifier/adverb: If the following transformation produces an acceptable outcome: terrifyingly angry (expression) -> so angry that it was terrifying then 'terrifyingly' is an Adverb Phrase and not an intensifier. If the transformation does not work - e.g.: highly competent (secretary) -> *so competent that she was high then 'highly' is an intensifier.

18

There is more on qualifiers in adjective phrases in Chapter 12.

31

7.2

ADJECTIVE PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Examples: Cl

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP

S:NP V:VP O:NP C:AdjP

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP

h:pron v

h:pron v

h:pron v m:int h:adj

I

7.3

h:adj

feel ravenous

h:pron h:adj

He made her

happy

You look quite ravishing

ADJECTIVE PHRASES AS MODIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

Examples: NP

NP

d m:AdjP h:n d m:AdjP h:adj

m:int h:adj

NP h:n

NP

d m:AdjP h:n m:int h:adj

m:AdjP m:AdjP

h:n

q:int h:adj m:int h:adj

a great friend a very great friend a very great friend indeed two rather obvious jokes

NB The analysis shown in these examples supersedes the simpler analysis used in Chapter 6 where the constituents of the AdjP were not shown.

7.4

STRUCTURE OF ADVERB PHRASES

Adverb phrases have a similar structure to that of adjective phrases: m m h q (negator) (intensifier) adverb (intensifier) i.e. two optional premodifiers and one optional qualifier19. Examples:

AdvP

AdvP

AdvP

h:adv

neg m:int h:adv

m:int h:adv q:int

happily

not very happily

very happily indeed

(AdvP = Adverb Phrase; adv = adverb; int = intensifier) See the Glossary for the defining properties of Adverb.

19

There is more on qualifiers in adverb phrases in Chapter 12.

32

7.5

ADVERB PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Examples:

Cl

Cl

A:AdvP

S:NP V:VP

S:NP V:VP

A:AdvP

m:int h:adv h:pron aux neg v h:pron v Quite frankly,

7.6

m:int h:adv

I don't know He appeared very quickly

ADVERB PHRASES AS MODIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Example:

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

C:AdjP m:AdvP

h:adj

m:int h:adv He

is almost certainly wrong

EXERCISE 7.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level. Analysis tip: Having identified the clause elements first, some students find it helpful to analyse the most deeply embedded parts first – e.g. in the example in 7.6 above, analyse 'almost certainly'. This can help you to coordinate the different levels correctly. Cl A:AdvP h:adv

S:NP d

h:n

V:VP v

C:AdjP m:int

h:adj

e.g. Fortunately, these exercises are extremely challenging

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

That is very interesting. He rather cautiously opened the door. He warily pushed the door open. She sounded terribly anxious this morning. You very probably find the result completely disastrous. His really insensitive cutting comments offended everyone. They very selfishly offered Margaret an embarrassingly small portion.

33

8 9 10

May I introduce the very lovely, very talented, simply gorgeous Edith Bloggs Personally, I feel overwhelmingly responsible this time. She is supposedly a very devious woman.

EXERCISE 7.2 Analyse the following child utterances at clause and phrase level. Describe any errors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Big one. Quite nice. A big red flower. Make it dry. That a big boat. He go fast. Did Hester be fast asleep, mummy? Can our do it again? Why are me so healthy? What a skinny snake can wiggle really fast?

34

8

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 59-61 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Ch 9

8.1

THE STRUCTURE OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Prepositional Phrases have the following structure: m m h q (negator) - (AdvP) - preposition - Noun Phrase Examples PP PP

h:prep

h:prep q:NP d

q:NP

PP

PP

d m:AdjP h:n

m:AdvP h:prep q:NP

neg h:prep q:NP

h:n

to the lighthouse

h:adj

h:adv

with my four aunts

only

h:pron for

you

h:pron not

to

me

(PP = Prepositional Phrase; prep = preposition) Prepositions are words like in, at, to, of, with, from, down, out, during, since and through which precede a noun phrase and commonly express a relationship of space or time.

8.2

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Examples: Cl

S:NP V:VP h:pron v

Cl A:PP h:prep q:NP

S:NP V:VP

Cl A:PP

h:pron v h:prep q:NP

d h:n He jumped over the wall

h:n They arrive on Sunday

35

S:NP V:VP

C:PP

h:pron v h:prep q:NP d

h:n

They are on their guard

EXERCISE 8.2 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

Give it to me. Without Humphrey, life was meaningless. She looked into his eyes. We are on our best behaviour. In my opinion, it's for the part-timers.

8.3

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS QUALIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

Examples: NP d h:n

NP q:PP

h:prep q:NP m:AdjP h:n

h:pron

NP q:PP

NP

h:n q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

d h:n

d h:n

h:adj

d h:n

q:PP

h:prep q:NP m:AdjP h:n h:adj

the girl with long hair something on my mind

man of the match

a coat of many colours

PPs that qualify the head of an NP specify which one it is. For example, in The book on the floor is mine 'on the floor' specifies which book and is therefore analysed as q:PP as follows:

Cl S:NP

V:VP C:NP

d h:n q:PP

v h:pron

h:prep q:NP d h:n The book on the floor is mine However, in She threw the book on the floor 'on the floor' does not tell us which book but where she threw it, and is therefore analysed as A:PP: Cl S:NP V:VP O:NP h:pron v

d

A:PP

h:n h:prep q:NP d

h:n

She threw the book on the floor

36

EXERCISE 8.3 Analyse the following at phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

something for the weekend a man with an attitude juggling for the complete beginner a mark around 70 the private person behind the public mask

8.4

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

PHRASES

AS

QUALIFIERS

IN

ADJECTIVE

Examples:

AdjP

AdjP

m:int h:adj q:PP

h:adj

h:prep q:NP

q:PP

AdjP

AdjP

h:adj q:PP

h:adj q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:n

h:prep q:NP

h:n

very good at football

h:prep q:NP

h:pron

marvellous with children happy for you

h:n drunk on success

EXERCISE 8.4 Analyse the following at phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

frightened of dogs anxious about the future hungry for stardom taller than his brother fit as a fiddle

8.5

MULTIPLE EMBEDDED PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Examples:

NP d h:n

NP d h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:PP h:prep

q:NP

d h:n q:NP

d h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:PP

q:NP

d h:n

q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

d h:n

d h:n

the boy with his hand in the air

a pig with a ring at the end of his nose

37

Compare the following: A

B

NP

d h:n NP d h:n q:PP

q:PP

h:prep q:PP

d h:n

h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP d h:n

q:NP q:PP h:prep q:NP

d h:n

d

a desk for a lady with no drawers

h:n

a desk for a lady with no drawers

= the desk has no drawers (i.e. furniture)

= the lady has no drawers (i.e. underwear)

Test: If the order of the two Prepositional Phrases can be reversed and the sentence still makes sense and has essentially the same meaning, the structure is as in A; otherwise it should be analysed as in B. EXERCISE 8.5 Analyse the following at phrase level: Analysis tip: When analysing a series of prepositional phrases, some find it best to start labelling from the right. 1 2 3 4 5

a man with a heart of gold a women in her twenties with prospects very pleased about the invitation to dinner born with a lust for life a note on the back of an envelope in unfamiliar handwriting

8.6

HEAD OF A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE OR A VERB PARTICLE?

Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether a preposition is the head of a following prepositional phrase or a verb particle. For example, in: John ran up a hill. is up a preposition qualified by the NP a hill – i.e. is up a hill a single constituent - or is it a verb particle linked to ran – i.e. is ran up a single contituent? There are several ‘constituency’ tests you can use to help you decide.20 20

Taken individually, these tests are not infallible. The more you apply, the surer you can be of the result.

38

1. The Conjunction Test: Assume the word is head of a following PP and see if you can add a similar prepositional phrase with a different preposition, e.g.: John ran up a hill and down a valley If this works–as it does in this case–then up a hill is a consitutent and therefore up is a preposition with the following NP as its qualifier. In the following example, however: John opened up a letter. *John opened up a letter and down a parcel it doesn't work: up a letter is not a constituent and up is therefore a verb particle. 2. The Ellipsis Test: Only whole constituents can be elided: A: Did John walk or run up a hill? B: He ran. therefore up a hill is a consituent and up is a preposition. 3. The Fronting Test: Only constituents can be ‘fronted’: Up a hill John ran. therefore up a hill is a consituent and up is a preposition. 4. The Clefting Test: In a ‘cleft’ sentence everything that comes between is/was and that is a single contituent: It was up a hill that John ran. therefore up a hill is a consituent and up is a preposition. 5. The Insertion Test: You can only insert items at constituent boundaries: John ran quickly up a hill. therefore ran up cannot be a single consituent and up must be a preposition. 6. The Pronoun Test Some particles can be moved after a following NP, particularly if it is substituted by a pronoun: 39

John opened up the letter -> John opened it up John ran up a hill -> *John ran it up therefore opened up is a single constituent (and up is a verb particle), whereas ran up isn’t (and up is a preposition).

EXERCISE 8.6 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: Cl S:NP d

h:n

V:VP A:PP q:PP

h:prep

v h:prep q:NP q:NP

d h:n

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj e.g. The children from the other school ran across the road

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The car cruised along the motorway. On Sundays, I walk to the paper shop for an Observer. See that girl with funny clothes? My cousin is brilliant at chess. I live in the house on the corner. It's nice of you. The man with bushy eyebrows is staring at us. She blew up the horse's nose.21 The man in the black coat threw the ball over the bridge. I have just22 seen a woman on the bus with six children.23

EXERCISE 8.8 Analyse the following child utterances at clause and phrase level. Describe any errors. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Under chair. Me make house for Kate. Can me put it like that? Baby in big bed. (in response to: ‘Where is the baby?’) Been in water. Teddy sitting on the cup.

21

This is ambiguous. Provide a different analysis for each meaning. You may feel more comfortable analysing this adverb as a constituent of the VP since it clearly modifies the verb. Other adverbs like only and temporal adverbs such as never, always and often may be analysed similarly. 23 'on the bus' could be analysed differently depending on whether you see it as indicating 'which' or 'where'. 22

40

7 8 9 10

That not go in there. Me always go with Maggie. I didn’t stand on nothing. Is put some boots on this lady here.

41

9

COORDINATION

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Ch 64. Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Ch 13. Coordination refers to the joining together of two or more units which have the same syntactic status. Coordinated units should be joined to a single higher node with the same label. Note that coordinated units are frequently linked by a coordinator (e.g. and, or, but, either/or) but not always. Compare: John and Jill and Ben. with John, Jill and Ben. 9.1

COORDINATION OF CLAUSES

Examples: Cl Cl

Cl

c

S:NP

V:VP

h:n

v part

Cl

Cl

Cl c

S:NP V:VP S:NP V:VP h:n

v

h:n

Cl

Cl

c

S:NP V:VP V:VP O:NP

v

h:n v

v

d

Cl V:VP

h:n

v

John turned up and Mary fainted. Dan passed but Jan failed. Open the door, then leave

(c = coordinator) EXERCISE 9.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5 9.2

We do all the work but they get all the praise. Shut your eyes and open your mouth. The food was awful yet they said nothing. The bulb may have gone or the fuse could have blown. I came, I saw, I conquered. COORDINATION OF PHRASES

Examples: Cl S:NP NP h:n

Cl V:VP

c

NP d

v

S:NP V:VP h:n

C:AdjP

v

AdjP

h:n

m:int

h:adj

c

AdjP m:int h:adj

Mary and the twins survived. Pete is either extremely brave or totally stupid.

42

Cl S:NP V:VP Cl

h:pron v d

V:VP O:NP v

d

h:n

C:NP h:n

q:PP

A:AdvP AdvP

c

h:adv

PP AdvP

c

h:prep q:NP

neg h:adv

PP neg h:prep q:NP

h:n

h:n

Eat your food quickly but not noisily. She is a supporter of alcohol but not of drugs.

Note that there can only be one S, one V, one C, one Od and one Oi per clause. If there appears to be more than one, it is almost certainly an instance of coordination. EXERCISE 9.2 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

Gavin and his sister are twins. This is a very cheap but temporary solution. James is fascinatingly but not reassuringly untruthful. I've bought a car with an M.O.T but without any tax. Our carrots have been eaten by slugs and other pests.

9.3

COORDINATION OF WORDS

Examples: Cl V:VP v

Cl O:NP

d

S:NP V:VP h:n

n

h:n

n

c

C:AdjP

v

h:adj

n

adj

c

adj

Save the men, women and children. Mary is neither talented nor intelligent. Cl

Cl

S:NP

A:AdvP

V:VP

h:n

h:adv

v

adv

O:NP d

V:VP S:NP

n

v d h:n

c adv

A:PP h:prep

q:NP

prep c prep

d h:n

Harry slowly but surely adjusted the volume. Are the birds inside or outside the cage?

43

Cl S:NP A:AdvP h:n

V:VP

h:adv

O:NP

v v

d

c

n

v

Kathrine quickly opened and closed the door

Note that phrases can only have one head. If there appears to be more than one, it is almost certainly an instance of coordination. It is sometimes not clear whether it is words or phrases that are being coordinated, and therefore both of the following analyses may be possible: Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP h:n

C:AdjP

v

S:NP V:VP

h:adj

h:n

v

C:AdjP AdjP c AdjP

adj c adj

h:adj

h:adj

Denise seems sad and lonely. Denise seems sad and lonely.

Also, different meanings of ambiguous phrases require a different analysis. For example, in old men and women 'old' may refer just to men, or to both men and women. These two cases would be analysed respectively as:

NP NP m:AdjP h:n

c

NP

NP

h:n

m:AdjP

h:adj

h:adj

old men and women

h:n n

c

n

old men and women

EXERCISE 9.3 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

Hand out the pens and pencils. The Algerians set a fast and furious pace. He loved her truly, madly and deeply. Are you for or against the changes? Lisa tried and tried but she couldn't stop the bleeding.

44

EXERCISE 9.4 Analyse the following child utterances at clause and phrase level. Describe any errors. 1 2 3 4 5

Yellow and red. Daddy and a little girl. Fi and Andrea and Jennifer had to write something. Boat going away and that boy’s sad. Once our came back from somewhere and me found it there, mummy.

45

10

COMPLEX SENTENCES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 65-66 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk chs 14 -15

10.1

OVERVIEW

Clauses can be seen as structures consisting of 'slots', with the labels S, V, O, C and A describing the function they perform. So far we have seen how these slots can be 'filled' by phrases. In addition, the S, O, C and A slots may also be filled by clauses. Compare the following: A) Her failure astonished me. S V O B) That she failed astonished me S V O S V The Subject of A) is a phrase, whereas the Subject of B) is a clause. In B) the main clause has the structure SVO whereas the subordinate clause (or embedded clause) has the structure SV. We know that S is filled by a clause in B) because it can be analysed in terms of SVOCA elements. Subordinate clauses are often introduced by a subordinator (e.g. that in B) (see Crystal p.205 for a list) and are labelled as 's' - as in: That she failed astonished me S V O s S V though they can also occur without any formal marker of subordination as in: Playing the piano is good for the soul S V C V O Wh-words can also be used to introduce subordinate clauses, as in: What he said surprised me. S V O O S V

I don't know which piece you want. S V O . O S V

Analyse the pronouns who, what, whoever, whatever and the adverbs where, when, how, why, wherever, whenever, however as clause elements where appropriate. Re-read Chapter 3 to remind you how to decide which clause-element label to apply to wh-words - the rules are the same whether they're used as question words or subordinators. Analyse whether, whereas, while and whilst simply as 's'.

46

10.2

TESTS FOR IDENTIFYING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

• Count the number of main verbs in the sentence. Every clause has one main verb, so a sentence with, say, 3 main verbs will consist of 1 main clause and 2 subordinate clauses. • Because S, Od and Oi (when it precedes Od) are substitutable by a pronoun, any subordinate clause in the S and O slots are similarly replaceable. (This does not apply to the main clause.) For example: That she failed (-> It) astonished me S V O I gave her what she requested (-> it) S V Oi Od Give whoever wants one (-> them) a free copy V Oi Od • Similarly, C is substitutable by a pronoun or adjective and A often by an adverb, as in: The question is whether we want one (-> this) S V C Call me whatever you like (-> that/stupid) V O C Drop by whenever you get a chance (-> then) V A Put it where you won't lose it (-> there) VO A They cut it how they wanted it (-> thus) S V O A No-one scored, though it was a good game (-> however) S V A EXERCISE 10.1 Underline all the clause elements in the following: e.g. Tell me what you mean V Oi Od O S V

He said that he would come S V O . s S V

Doing exercises isn't my idea of fun S V C V O 1 2 3 4 5 24

That he was unstable was never mentioned. I hate doing the dishes. When you come, bring a bottle. Who you are doesn't bother me. To improve your game is my sole intention.24 'To' here is an infinitive particle. Label to as 'inf' and as a constituent of VP. See Glossary.

47

6 7 8 9 10

Carla told them that she had finished it. Give whoever comes last a piece of your mind. The outcome is what we expected. I think Keith is drunk. Although she's lived here for years, she still can't speak the language.

EXERCISE 10.2 Underline all the clause elements in the following child utterances. Describe any errors. 1 2 3 4 5

Me want daddy come down. Me don’t know where box is now. I thought it going to be today. That lady posting cos it’s too big. He fell off his bike cos he bumped into something on his bike.

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11

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Essential Reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 65-66; 19 Further Reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Chs 14-15; 3.18

11.1

SUBJECT

Example:

Cl S:Cl

V:VP O:NP

s S:NP V:VP

v

h:pron

h:pron v That she failed astonished me (s = subordinator)

EXERCISE 11.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: Analysis tip: Analyse the constituents of each clause element from left to right. An alternative strategy: some (but not all!) students find it easier to get the levels right by analysing the most deeply embedded parts of the sentence first. 1 2 3 4 5

That you came is a miracle. What you said is a lie. Touching slugs disgusts me. To solve the mystery was his aim. Where you live is beautiful.

11.2

DIRECT OBJECT

Example: Cl S:NP V:VP Oi:NP h:pron v

Od:Cl

h:pron O:NP S:NP V:VP h:pron h:pron v

I

asked

her

what she did

49

EXERCISE 11.2 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

Tell us what you know. He said that he was tired. They like living dangerously. Deirdre explained why she came. Finish what you're doing.

11.3

INDIRECT OBJECT

Example: Cl V:VP

Oi:Cl

v

Od:NP

S:NP V:VP O:NP d m:AdjP h:n h:pron

v

h:n

h:adj

Give whoever wants one a free copy

11.4

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

Example: Cl S:NP d

V:VP

n

C:Cl

v

s

S:NP V:VP O:NP h:pron v

h:pron

The question is whether we want one

11.5

OBJECT COMPLEMENT

Example:

Cl V:VP O:NP

C:Cl

v h:pron O:NP S:NP V:VP h:pron h:pron v Call me whatever you like

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11.6

ADVERBIAL

Example:

Cl V:VP O:NP

A:Cl

v h:pron A:AdvP S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:adv h:pron aux neg v h:pron Put

it

where

you won' t lose it

EXERCISE 11.6 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Eating people is wrong. I knew that they would explain the situation. I don't like what you're wearing, Mrs Stubbs.25 Whether I should have telephoned is not clear. When you've finished your painting, phone the garage. Our main concern is that everyone should achieve satisfaction. You have made me what I am today. Although they hadn't settled down, the concert began. Because you have not settled the account, we are withdrawing your overdraft facility. I found him a crashing bore.

EXERCISE 11.7 Analyse the following child utterances at clause and phrase level. Describe any errors. 1 2 3 4 5

Me going to watch you doing your riding lesson. Me don’t know where box is now. Ask me if I not made a mistake. He got to take his medicine cos his mommy cross. He not behind the cup cos he standing next to the cup.

25

Here, Mrs Stubbs is a Vocative (see Chapter 2.8). It should simply be labelled as 'Voc' and not linked into the structure of the clause.

51

12

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN PHRASES

Essential reading: Crystal (2004/1996) Chs 41-42; 68 Further reading: Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) Chs 17; 15.36-41 Like clauses, phrases too can be seen as structures consisting of 'slots', but in this case with labels such as 'm', 'h' and 'q' describing the functions they perform. So far we have seen how these slots can be filled by phrases. In addition, the q slot of noun phrases and prepositional phrases may also be filled by clauses. Compare the following: A) a man on a bike d h q B) a man riding a bike d h q . V O The qualifier in A) is a phrase, whereas the qualifier in B) is a clause. We know that q is filled by a clause in B) because it can be analysed in terms of SVOCA elements.

12.1

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASES

Clauses which qualify the head of a Noun Phrase are like prepositional phrases in that they provide information about the head specifying which one it is (see Chapter 8.3 above). For example, compare: A) The man who arrived late caused some annoyance B) Because he arrived late, the man caused some annoyance The underlined subordinate clause in A) (called a relative clause) specifies which man, and is therefore qualifying 'man'. The underlined subordinate clause in B) tells us the reason for his late arrival, but not which man, and is therefore an Adverbial clause.

52

Examples:

Cl S:NP h:n

V:VP q:Cl

aux neg

O:NP v

h:n

S:NP V:VP A:PP h:pron v h:prep q:NP m:NP h:n h:n People who live in glass houses shouldn' t throw stones Cl

S:NP d h:n

V:VP q:Cl

C:NP

v d h:n

V:VP

O:NP

v

h:n

q:Cl S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron v

h:adv

The woman doing press-ups is the one I admire most

EXERCISE 12.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

The answer that he gave was suspect. The things you say amaze me. Show me the clothes you've bought. Don't trust anyone wearing a wig. The book that you borrowed is the one I want.

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12.2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Example: Cl Cl

S:NP V:VP

V:VP Od:NP v

Oi:PP

h:pron h:prep

h:pron v

C:AdjP h:adj

q:Cl

q:PP

h:prep

S:NP V:VP O:NP h:pron v Give them

h:pron

to whoever wants one

She is

q:Cl

V:VP

O:NP

v

h:n

clever at explaining things

EXERCISE 12.2 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

He left without closing the door. I sent the flowers to where you live. Since learning karate, she's become more confident. Peter is worried about driving in the snow. Are you interested in going to the match?

12.3

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Example:

Cl S:NP d

h:n

V:VP

Cl C:AdjP

v h:adj

S:NP V:VP q:Cl

h:pron v

s S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP h:adj

q:Cl V:VP

h:pron v

inf aux

The committee is grateful that you attended.

I

v

am delighted to have attended.

EXERCISE 12.3 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

We are surprised that you should have reacted like that. It is now certain that she will be arrested. I am sorry to hear it. It is unclear what we should do. It is important to be extremely careful about this.

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EXERCISE 12.5 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

The man that we saw on the television was talking rubbish. The snails he eats so voraciously are incredibly expensive. That's the man I saw. The woman blowing bubbles is Maureen. I want to introduce Arnold, the man I intend to marry.

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13

REVIEW EXERCISE

Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3

6 7 8

You shouldn't be doing that! Couldn't you have been sorting this mess out? All the red-headed muscular athletes are wearing attractive multi-coloured shellsuits. That big boy there told those silly little girls something very naughty indeed. Our most illustrious visitor is devouring an extremely mouth-watering date and walnut cake. Unfortunately, alcohol makes Marjorie almost incoherently violent. On Sundays, we go on the tram to Meadowhall with our granny The girl on your right gave the man behind her a punch in the face.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Mrs Smith, Millie and the vicar really have it in for you, don't they Igor? Will either you or your friend open the window please. He told me that he loved me. That he didn't mean it became obvious when he stole my car. I'd rather avoid people who hide their true feelings. Can the man without a swimming costume doing butterfly please leave the pool. David, my best friend, had badly broken his ankle.

4 5

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14

SUPPLEMENTARY SECTION

CHAPTER 1 SUPPLEMENT Exercise 1.1: Label the clause elements in the following: (This is only exploratory–if you get some wrong, don't worry–explanation is at hand. The aim of the exercise is (hopefully!) to demonstrate why you need the information presented in Chapter 2.) 11 12 13 14 15

The book/was given/to me/by my cousin Some people/foolishly/hide/their money/under the mattress On Saturday night/we/certainly/painted/the town/red That/sounds/a good idea If you're not careful/you/will end up/ in jail

Exercise 1.2 Read Crystal (2004/1996) Chs. 1-7 and write down your own example of the following. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Major sentence Simple sentence Multiple sentence Minor sentence Statement Yes-no question Wh- question Alternative question Tag question Exclamatory question Rhetorical question Directive Exclamation (minor) Exclamation (major) Echo

CHAPTER 2 SUPPLEMENT Exercise 2.1: Underline and label the V element: 11 12 13 14 15

Did you understand that? Don't look now. The troublemakers have been singled out by the teacher. She might have been being helpful. What can they have been doing?

57

Exercise 2.2: Underline and label the S and V elements: 11 12 13 14 15

Pass me the screwdriver.26 The children and their teachers really need more protection. Would you accept? Stuff your argument about tax differentials! 27 The antagonism of the judge couldn't have been anticipated.

Exercise 2.4 Underline and label the S, V, Od and Oi elements: 11 12 13 14 15

Your shady deals have caused us no end of embarrassment. Don't give the money to me. Bring Mr and Mrs Smith and their children the set menu for four. Will you do a favour for me? Tell the police your feeble excuses.

Exercise 2.5b Underline and label the S, V, C & O elements: 11 12 13 14 15

The sky is turning grey. The bus is turning the corner. She turned into a pumpkin. I've cancelled my subscription. I'm not feeling myself.28

Exercise 2.8 Underline and label the S, V, O, C and A elements and Voc: 11 12 13 14 15

I find her an interesting person for the wrong reasons. According to your horoscope your prospects are bleak. Mom, save me a seat this afternoon. The encore brought them to their feet in hysterical screams. One day, I will probably live in the country with two cats and a goldfish.

CHAPTER 3 SUPPLEMENT Exercise 3.1 Underline and label all the clause elements in the following sentences: 11 12 13 14 15

When are they arriving? What did she buy her mother for Christmas? Who did they elect leader? How could they possibly know? What did the wizard turn into?

26

This is an 'imperative' sentence - i.e. it has no overt subject. See previous footnote. 28 Be careful - this is ambiguous and has two possible analyses. 27

58

CHAPTER 5 SUPPLEMENT Note that the definition of Verb Phrase given in Chapter 5 differs from that found in many other accounts where it is taken as including O and C elements as well as V. Such an 'Extended Verb Phrase' (see Huddleston (1984:112-114)) is often called a Predicate (see Glossary and Chapter 9.3). The more restricted version used here is equivalent to what some (e.g. Burton-Roberts (1997) Ch. 6) call the 'Verb group'. Multi-word verbs In addition to the multi-word verbs referred to in 5.2, there is also an important class of idiomatic verbs where the main verb consists of more than one word - e.g. put paid to, cross swords with, take account of. These can be identified by their invariance - i.e. you can't subsitute other words (cf *place paid to, *clash swords with, *obtain account of) and their overall meaning is typically not predictable from that of the individual words.29 Analyse idiomatic verbs with a triangle to indicate their integral nature. Examples:

V:VP

V:VP

V:VP

v

v

v

His hard work bore fruit.

The house caught fire. The idea took root.

Verb particles Some multi-word verbs have more than one particle: Examples:

V:VP v part I got off

V:VP aux

v

V:VP

part part

aux

I am getting out of this

v part part

How do you put up with it?

Exercise 5.1 Analyse the phrase structure of the V element in the following sentences: 11 12 13 14 15

Alice had better not give vent to her emotions. These repairs could have been carried out better by a chimpanzee. Why couldn't you have looked up the word in a dictionary? James gave short shrift to their complaints Don't do that!30

29

Things are not always this clear cut. Idioms start out as variable, productive constructions but gradually become fixed over time and lose their original literal meaning. Many expressions are therefore only part way through this process, and one may often be justified in analysing expressions such as turn the corner and let off steam (in their figurative senses) either as idiomatic verbs or as Verb-Object structures. 30 Note that do can be a main verb as well as an auxiliary. So can have - e.g. She has (aux) had (v) one, and be - e.g. She is (aux) being (v) good.

59

CHAPTER 6 SUPPLEMENT Compound nouns Many nouns consist of single words. However, there are also some compound nouns which consist of more than one word. Sometimes they have coalesced into one word e.g. babysitter, blackbird. Some are hyphenated when writing - e.g. mother-in-law, but some are not - e.g. post office, woman doctor. The difference is not clear cut. Compound nouns start out as variable, productive combinations but gradually coalesce over time. Many expressions are therefore only part way through this process, and one may often be justified in analysing expressions such as paper bag or coffee table either with a triangle as compound nouns or as modifier-head structures. Exercise 6.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 11 12 13 14 15

Most of my best ones have suffered the same sad fate. The large glass vase was an exceptional example. My botanist cousin keeps strange tropical man-eating plants. He bought some expensive hand-made Italian designer underware.31 We didn't hope for such a huge improvement.

CHAPTER 7 SUPPLEMENT Exercise 7.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level. 11 12 13 14 15

You have quite unintentionally made me a very happy man indeed.32 Polly has chosen the attractive antique gold earrings.33 He nearly always spends his Saturdays here. Their unusually generous contribution brought me some relief. He gave her a rather unnervingly expensive present.

31

Regarding the analysis of 'Italian' and 'designer', see previous footnote. Consider the difference between 'Italian underware' and 'an Italian'. Opinions may differ on whether 'designer' is being used here as an adjective or noun. 32 One could argue that indeed modifies all of 'a very happy man' since we can also say 'indeed a very happy man' - and one would be right! The suggested analysis is a simpler compromise but will do for present purposes. 33 This is actually ambiguous. Is it the gold or the earrings that are antique? Also, is antique a noun or an adjective? Look these up in the glossary if you don't remember.

60

CHAPTER 8 SUPPLEMENT PREPOSITIONS WHICH CAN OCCUR BY THEMSELVES

Most prepositions require an NP qualifier, though a few - e.g. up - can occur by themselves. Compare, for example: Cl S:NP V:VP

A:PP

Cl

h:pron v h:prep q:NP

S:NP V:VP A:PP

d h:n

h:pron v h:prep

They climbed up the hill.

They climbed up.

Other examples are : We decided to stay in; Can you see over?34 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES WITH 'WH-' QUALIFIERS

The qualifying NP in a prepositional phrase can be questioned using a wh-word. When the wh-word is moved to the front of the sentence it is still syntactically part of the prepositional phrase and should be analysed accordingly, as follows:

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP A:PP

S:NP V:VP A:PP

q:NP aux h:pron v h:prep

q:NP aux h:pron v h:prep

h:pron

h:pron

Who are you going with?

What did they climb over?

These sentences are equivalent to You are going with whom? and They climbed over what? respectively. They can also be expressed more formally as With whom are you going? and Over what did they climb? in which case the preposition as well as the whword move to the front of the sentence. Refer back to Chapter 3 for information about wh-questions. Exercise 8.6 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 11 What35 is Daisy hiding behind? 34

Prepositions that can occur by themselves are very similar to adverbs, and are in fact sometimes called prepositonal adverbs (see Quirk & Greenbaum (1990:189-90)). It is also acceptable, therefore, to analyse them as adverbs. 35 NB ‘what’ is a pronoun here. It’s the interrogative version of ‘that’.

61

12 13 14 15

The lady with a parrot on her head is my mother. Tom placed the lid on the jar with a hole in it. Have you seen the jacket with the leather collar in Next? Put the book on the floor by the table in your bag.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AS QUALIFIERS IN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Examples:

PP h:prep

PP q:PP

h:prep

h:prep q:NP

d

q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:n

d h:n

from behind the cupboard

down into the ground

NB Don't confuse examples like these with complex prepositions (Crystal Ch.60) such as instead of and except for. The latter are fixed expressions and don't allow substitution. Although we can say 'from under the cupboard' we can't say '*except to me'. Analyse complex prepositions with a triangle as single lexical items. EXERCISE 8.7 Analyse the following at phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

back over the fence due to the alterations since before the war up through the mountains on behalf of the committee

CHAPTER 9 SUPPLEMENT INTERMEDIATE UNITS

Chapter 9 presents a rather simplified account of coordination. As well as clauses, phrases and words there are several other intermediate grammatical units which can be coordinated. Coordinated predicates (see Glossary) as in David opened the drawer and took out his revolver can be analysed as follows:

62

Cl S:NP

Pred

h:n

Pred V:VP v

c O:NP

d

Pred V:VP

h:n

O:NP

v part d

h:n

David opened the drawer and took out his revolver. (Pred = predicate)

There are also other intermediate units between word and phrase level. For example, the single node to which coordinated units are linked is not in fact completely identical to them as is suggested above by giving it the same label. However, a full treatment of such units is not provided in this workbook. See Burton-Roberts (1997) or Baker (1995) if you wish to know more.

CHAPTER 10 SUPPLEMENT It is stated in 10.2 that every clause has a main verb. The only exceptions to this are elliptical sentences - e.g. I brought the salad and John the dessert (i.e. 'brought' is ellipted from the second clause) - and so-called verbless subordinate clauses (analysed earlier as phrases) where the verb (and often the Subject) is missing. For example: Too nervous to reply (A), he (S) stared at (V) the floor (O)

and

Pat (S) sat (V) in the front (A), her hands in her lap (A). It is also stated that C is substitutable by a pronoun or adjective and A often by an adverb, but there are exceptions to this too. For example, If you put the baby down I’ll scream; I shouted because I felt like it; I only did it in order to help you. Exercise 10.1 Underline all the clause elements in the following: 11 12 13 14 15

I know where you're going.36 We shall go where you wish.37 Are you who you say? What I said was what I meant. When you leave, put the key where I showed you.

36

Note that in this sentence although 'where' is an Adverbial in the subordinate clause that it introduces, the role played by this subordinate clause in the main clause is not A but O. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, it can be substituted by a pronoun such as 'it' or 'that'. Secondly, it becomes S as a result of passivization - i.e. Where you are going is not known by me. 37 Here, 'where you wish' is an Adverbial since it can be substituted by the (pro-)adverb 'there'. Unlike in no.9 the sentence can't undergo passivization - i.e. *Where you wish shall not be gone by us.

63

CHAPTER 11 SUPPLEMENT Exercise 11.6 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 11 12 13 14 15

Oceanographers know that reefs play a crucial role in an ocean's ecosystems. Give whoever hands in their essay early five Mars Bars. A woman with an outrageously large hat is restricting what we can see.38 To make the perfect omelette you need a very good quality frying pan.39 What I don't know is where you have put it and why you took it.

CATENATIVE VERBS

Catenative verbs are verbs such as appear to, manage to, seem to, fail to, want to, mean to which are followed by an Object, Complement or Adverbial subordinate clause beginning with an infinitive verb. There are also catenative verbs which are followed by subordinate clauses beginning with either a present participle verb - e.g. start walking, like working, keep on moaning - or a past participle verb - e.g. get beaten. Examples: Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP

O:Cl

h:pron v V:VP v I

S:NP O:NP

d

V:VP

h:pron aux neg v

h:n

O:Cl V:VP inf v d

like doing these exercises

I

O:NP h:n

A:AdvP m:int h:adv

don' t want to do these exercises any more

Cl Cl S:NP

c

V:VP

O:Cl

h:pron aux neg v V:VP inf

Cl S:NP V:VP

O:NP h:pron

v

v h:pron

C:Cl V:VP

O:NP A:PP

A:NP

inf v

d h:n h:prep h:n q:PP h:prep q:NP h:n

I

don' t mean to bother you but you appear to have your shirt on back to front

38

With regard to laying out your analysis, note that the most deeply embedded section here is not the subordinate clause but the phrase 'outrageously large'. 39 Is frying pan a modifier-head construction or a compound noun? See Chapter 6.2 if you don't remember.

64

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron

C:Cl

v

V:VP inf

O:Cl v

V:VP inf

O:Cl

v

V:VP inf

A:Cl

v

V:VP inf

v

O:NP d

h:n

He appeared to fail to want to come to see the show

Exercise 11.7 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5

You promised to come I want to ask you something. We hate doing this to you40. I managed to sell everything I really enjoy trying to confuse them.

CHAPTER 12 SUPPLEMENT Relative clauses simply provide additional information about the head noun (e.g. People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones). A further type of subrdinate clause is the appositive clause which re-expresses the idea contained in the head noun (e.g. The rumour that he has resigned is groundless). In appositive clauses, the subordinator that cannot be replaced by which. Both types of clause, however, are analysed in exactly the same way. Example:

Cl S:NP d

V:VP C:AdjP

h:n

q:Cl

v

h:adj

s S:NP V:VP Oi:NP h:pron v The suggestion that I

pay

h:pron part you back is ludicrous

Exercise 12.1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 6 We don't accept applicants who smoke or drink. 7 He propounded the theory that the universe is expanding. 40

See the footnote to Exercise 11.6, sentence 2.

65

8 Have you heard the rumour that lectures have been cancelled? 9 I appreciate the fact that you apologised. 10 Do you know the man doing frog imitations and wearing a Batman cape? Exercise 12.2 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 6 As far as I'm concerned, you can stuff your advice.41 7 He passed as a result of cheating.42 8 I'm bored with peeling potatoes. 9 Jenny is very close to finishing her novel. 10 My family and I are nonchalantly unafraid of calling your bluff. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS QUALIFIERS IN ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Some semi-auxiliary verbs are similar to adjective phrases with a subordinate clause qualifier - e.g. be able to, be likely to, be supposed to. However, others such as be bound to, be about to, have to and used to are more obviously idiomatic. If in doubt, analyse expressions like these as idiomatic verbs43 with a triangle - e.g. Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

h:pron

aux

O:NP v

d

S:NP

h:n

h:n

V:VP aux

v

O:NP A:AdvP d

h:n h:adv

They are supposed to feed the ducks. John has to catch the train now.

Exercise 12.5 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 6 7 8 9 10

You're more gullible than I thought you were. This student has prepared his report so well that I can find nothing to criticize. What I meant to tell you was that I've flushed my teeth down the toilet. The Grand Jury received information that contradicts the committee's report. Don't try to tell me that you didn't reach the pub before last orders.

COMPARATIVES

Comparative forms of adjectives, adverbs and certain pronouns can also take subordinate clauses as qualifiers. The simplest form involves a prepositional phrase with a noun phrase qualifier such as: A) I am older than my brother. NP but the qualifier can also be a clause, as in: 41

As far as is a complex preposition (see Crystal (1996) Ch. 60) and should be analysed with a triangle. As a result of is also a complex preposition. Although cheating is a single verb, it is also at the same time the head of a VP which fills the V slot of a clause. Cheating could also be regarded as a noun since it could be modified by an adjective such as 'covert'. 43 See Chapter 5. 42

66

B) I am older than my brother is. S V The comparative form can either be expressed as the word-ending -er plus than, or as a separate word as in: more/less _ than, as _ as. More and less are syntactically very versatile. For example, more is an adjective in more grapes,44 an adverb in more interesting and more interestingly, and a pronoun in I have more than you. Comparative Adjective Examples:

Cl S:NP V:VP

Cl S:NP V:VP

h:n

C:AdjP

h:pron v h:adj

C:AdjP

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP

q:PP

h:prep q:Cl

h:prep q:NP

S:NP V:VP

h:pron I

h:pron v part

am older than you.

Sheila is more inhibited than she lets on.

Cl Cl S:NP S:NP V:VP h:n

C:AdjP

d h:n

V:VP C:AdjP v neg m:AdvP h:adj

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

h:adv q:PP

h:prep q:Cl

h:prep q:NP h:n Julian is as

q:PP

S:NP V:VP h:pron v

tall as Tristan. That vase is not as

valuable as you think.

Comparative Adverb Examples 44

More may also be regarded as a determiner in cases like this as it cannot cooccur with another determiner.

67

Cl S:NP V:VP h:n aux

A:AdvP

v

m:AdvP h:adv h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP A:NP h:pron v Time is passing less quickly than it Cl

S:NP V:VP h:n

d

h:n

did this morning.

C:AdjP

v

m:AdvP

h:adj

m:AdvP h:adv h:adv

q:PP h:prep q:Cl S:NP V:VP h:n

v

Kelly is more severely handicapped than Peter is.

Comparative Pronoun Example: Cl S:NP

V:VP

h:n

v

O:NP h:pron

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl S:NP

d

V:VP A:AdvP

h:n aux

h:adv v

Mr Bridges knows more than his father will ever know.

EXERCISE 12.6 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 He's bigger than me.

68

2 She works harder than she used to. 3 She's as tough as old boots. 4 Be as discreet as you can manage. 5 Your candidate is less truthful than he will admit. 6 Angie has eaten more grapes than I have. 7 You drink more in a day than my whole family does in a week. 8 Corinne looks less elegantly dressed than her mother is. 9 His assessment was as positive as it could have been. 10 I've failed more exams than you've had hot dinners.

ADVANCED REVIEW EXERCISE Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 45

Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level. Please enter your Access number on reverse of cheque. Rattle's ear for glissandi in la Valse produces unaccustomed menace from the very start. This seems strange coming from someone whose image is rock star by Central Casting. What makes you such an out-and-out little cad, do you think? Currie Express offers you a unique opportunity to sample the oriental tastes of traditional Indian food. Surely you wouldn't resort to emotional blackmail? The contortions achieved by the face of Rowan Atkinson are legendary. Add a little sparkle to the season with this luxurious scoop-neck, one-size lurex sweater. Jamaican fishermen are uncannily good at seeing in the dark. Christian Lacroix's45 fragrance C'est la vie! is so vibrant that it could have been made for the festive season. This matching of inner and outer selves seems to be the key to the facelift business. Ackroyd's magnificent biography sets the seal on Dickens' acknowledged supremacy in the English novel. Explain the role of the hypothalamus and its relationship to the sympathetic and parasympathetic division. There was once a velveteen rabbit, and in the beginning he was really splendid. Dublin needed something like the Commitments, to get U2 out of its system. Larger orders will take longer to cook so please ring in plenty of time.

Proper names in the genitive (i.e. with ‘s) are determiners. See Footnote 21 on p.24.

69

18 19 20

The Worcester tray, shown here, is available in Armacast and comes in a range of colours. A reduction in the cover offered by Bupa has caused fears for the future of private psychiatric hospitals. A man who turned into a human torch ten days ago after snoozing in his locked car while smoking his pipe has died in hospital.

70

15

KEY TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1.2 1 The sun/rose S V 2 Grimes/inspected/his fingernails S V O 3 Sometimes/I/feel/a complete idiot A S V C 4 They/made/me/a cup of tea S V O O 5 They/made/me/blackboard monitor S V O C 6 Frankly/I/don't care A S V 7 The cow/jumped/over the moon S V A 8 Hopefully/I/'ll see/you/under the clock/at Charing Cross Station/at eight A S V O A A A o'clock/with a briefcase of you know what A 9 Acid/turns/blue litmus paper/red S V O C 10 Nerys/turned/red/with embarrassment S V C A EXERCISE 2.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Stop! V We missed the bus. V Horace disturbed the burglars. V Open your mouth. V My uncle is arriving tomorrow. V They can't afford the fare. V Can they afford the fare? V-V The candidates paraded themselves in front of us. V

71

9 10

She would often cough violently. V-V Jerry has been smoking again. V

EXERCISE 2.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The dog bit me. S V John wouldn't have said that. S V It makes me sick. S V The green man is flashing. S V Are you sure of that?46 V S The strange-looking man is my cousin. S V Everything on the table looks mouth-wateringly delicious. S V Peter and Mary have invited us to a barbecue. S V Mrs Corbett has been attacked by her parrot. S V Have they? V S

EXERCISE 2.3 1

He kicked the ball. S V O

2

I hate tennis. S V O Hand over the money. V O Can I help you? V- S -V O He crashed his brand-new Porsche. S V O Don't you understand plain English? V- S -V O I understand the whys and wherefores. S V O

3 4 5 6 7

46

sure is not part of V. See preceding footnote.

72

8 9 10

We're planning a fairly casual thing with plenty of wine.47 S V O They 've chosen apples, oranges, grapes and melons.48 S V O Your 'devil may care' attitude has undermined my confidence. S V O

EXERCISE 2.4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I'll tell you the reason. S V Oi Od Throw me a towel. V Oi Od He threw a towel to me. S V Od Oi Give me it. V Oi Od I've bought myself a portable CD player. S V Oi Od She prepared my lunch for me. S V Od Oi Don't tell him any of your secrets. V Oi Od Hand your mother the money. V Oi Od Give a prize to the best ones. V Od Oi Have you told Mary the news? V- S -V Oi Od

EXERCISE 2.5a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

It's amazing. SV C Don't be an idiot. V C He's fallen ill. S V C I feel somewhat subdued. S V C That smells good. S V C The president remained totally convinced. S V C It seems a good idea.

47

If you think that 'with plenty of wine' refers to the manner of planning rather than the nature of 'the casual thing', then you can analyse it separately as an A (Adverbial). 48 A clause can only have one Direct Object.

73

8 9 10

S V C It's neither one thing or the other. SV C My intentions were entirely honourable. S V C The exercise must be getting tedious. S V C

EXERCISE 2.5b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Are you alright? V S C I 'm growing tired.49 S V C I'm growing cabbages.50 S V O The judges tasted each of the entries. S V O Some of the entries tasted awful. S V C You're looking a lot better. S V C My shares have made a profit. S V O Tanya has gone berserk. S V C Sound the bell. V O Peter Pan stayed young. S V C

EXERCISE 2.6 1 2 3 4 5 6

She made him an offer. S V Oi Od She made him her deputy. S V O C The judge declared the best entries delicious. S V O C That hat flatters you. S V O You have become the bane of my life. S V C I found her irascible, meticulous but a civil enough colleague. S V O C

49

tired is not an Object because the passivization test doesn't work - cf. *Tired is being grown by me. The passivization test does work here: Cabbages are being grown by me. Try the passivization test on every sentence in the rest of this exercise, if you haven't already done so. 50

74

7 8 9 10

She found me a three-bedroomed house. S V Oi Od They elected themselves.51 S V O They elected themselves another disastrous government. S V Oi Od They elected him prime minister. S V O C

EXERCISE 2.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

Come here, scumbag. V A Voc They played in the rain. S V A Sometimes I drive too fast. A S V A Frankly, I'm quite disgusted. A SV C I really mean it this time, ladies S A V O A Voc She came across the road in her slippers. S V A A She came across the road by chance one fine sunny morning52 S V O A A Because of a serious illness he no longer plays squash. A S A V O Do it here, now, with the light on. V O A A A or: Do it here, now, with the light on. V O A He possibly lives near Sheffield. S A V A

EXERCISE 2.9 1 2

Baby eat.53 S V Kick ball.54

51

If you're confused by this analysis, read the Tests section of 2.5 again. Here 'came across' is equivalent in meaning to 'discovered' and 'across' is part of the verb. There is a test in Chapter 8 which will help you to distinguish examples like this from those like in the previous sentence where 'across' is not part of the verb. 53 If the adult target was ‘The baby is eating his dinner’ then we would put SV(O). Without the context, this is not clear. 52

75

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

V O Go there. V A Boy glasses. (describing picture of a boy wearing glasses) S (V) O He doctor. (referring to appearance of a man in a white coat) S (V) C Cat jumping. S V Mummy sad. S (V) C Jumping now. V A Me want that. S V O Mommy wear hat. S V O Me did it now. S V O A You play snakes and ladders me. S V O A Me want make house for Kate. S V Od Oi Me did some of those, Mummy. S V O Voc Her won’t be there tomorrow. S V A A

EXERCISE 3.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

What are you doing? O V- S -V Why are you here? A V S A What did they tell you? Od V- S -V Oi Who sent you? S V O How did you get here? A V- S -V A Where did you park your car? A V- S -V O What is your name? C V S What makes you so angry? S V O C

54

Likewise, this could match a number of contexts – e.g. ‘Kick the ball’ (VO), ‘She’s kicking the ball’ (SVO), ‘Kick the ball here’ (SVA).

76

9 10

Who do you mean? O V- S -V Who is their representative? C V S

EXERCISE 3.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Where go? A (S) V Man where? S (V) A Where your car? A (V) S What he doing? O S V Why those two nother things broke? A S V Why are me so healthy? A V S C Why didn’t me get flu ever? A VS -V O A Where chair went? A S V Why did her have a runny tummy? A V- S -V O What a skinny snake can wiggle really fast? O S V A

EXERCISE 5.1

V:VP

V:VP

V:VP

v

v

v

1 Wait

2 Carl left

V:VP aux

3 She forgets everything?

V:VP v

aux

V:VP v

aux

v

4 Do you mind? 5 I am feeling sleepy 6 Are you really feeling sleepy? V:VP aux 7

aux

v

V:VP part

aux aux aux

v

You should have thought of that before. 8 I may have been reading at the time.

77

V:VP aux 9

V:VP

v part

aux aux v

I' ve finally given up smoking. 10 Profits have been hit by the recession

EXERCISE 5.2 V:VP

V:VP

v 1

aux

Teddy bear went.

2

v

Can me take this to London?

V:VP aux 3

V:VP

v

aux

Why did her have two sweets?.

4

How did that broke? (past participle error)

V:VP

V:VP

aux neg v 5

Why he can’t play with it? (No Subject-auxiliary inversion)

neg 6

7

V:VP v

aux

What are you did? 8 (Past tense instead of present progressive)

V:VP aux 9

v

Why not me sleeping? (missing auxiliary)

V:VP aux

v

v

I going to play this one.

V:VP v

Shall me do this floppy thing? here.

aux v 10

Is put some boots on this lady (No progressive ending on main verb)

78

EXERCISE 6.1

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP d h:n

v

1 My head hurts

Cl

S:NP

V:VP O:NP

d h:n

v h:pron

S:NP V:VP C:NP d h:n v

d h:n

2 The accident upset them 3 No man is an island Cl

Cl S:NP

V:VP

V:VP

Oi:NP

d m:NP h:n

v

v

d m:AdjP h:n

4 The brick wall collapsed

d

h:n

5 Give the next person another turn.

Cl S:NP

Od:NP

Cl

V:VP C:NP

S:NP

d m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n v d m:AdjP h:n

V:VP C:NP

m:AdjP h:n v

h:n

6 Which tall dark-haired man is my big brother. 7 Seven sevens are forty-nine. Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

O:NP

d m:AdjP h:n aux v h:pron

S:NP i

V:VP C:NP

d m:AdjP h:n v d m:AdjP h:n

8 That stupid fool has hurt himself. 9 All the glazed pots are my own work.

Cl S:NP aux i

d

V:VP h:n

v

Oi:NP d

h:n

Od:NP d

h:n

10 Will all the children give their parents another chance? EXERCISE 6.2

1

NP

NP

d h:n

m:AdjP h:n

My car.

2

Little one. 79

Cl

3

NP

S:NP C:NP

d h:n

h:pron h:n

That ball.

4

He doctor. (verb element omitted)

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP aux h:pron 5

v

O:NP

S:NP V:VP O:NP

d m:AdjP h:n

h:pron v

Shall I make a funny music? (indefinite article used with mass noun)

d

6 Them got no drivers. (wrong Subject pronoun; auxiliary omitted)

Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux neg v 7

d

S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:n

aux h:pron v m:AdjP h:n

We didn’t have much songs. 8 (wrong determiner – mass/count confusion)

Did her have two sweets? (wrong Subject pronoun)

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP aux h:pron v 9

h:n

O:NP

S:NP

d m:AdjP h:n

Shall me do this floppy thing? (wrong Subject pronoun)

V:VP

h:pron aux neg v 10

80

O:NP h:pron

I didn’t see something. (wrong agreement between neg and Object pronoun)

EXERCISE 7.1

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron v m:int

S:NP

h:adj

A:AdvP

O:NP

v

d h:n

h:pron m:int h:adv

1 That is very interesting.

2 He rather cautiously opened the door.

Cl

Cl

S:NP A:AdvP V:VP h:pron h:adv

V:VP

O:NP

v

S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

d h:n part h:pron v

m:int

h:adj

A:NP d

h:n

3 He warily pushed the door open. 4 She sounded terribly anxious this morning. Cl

S:NP

A:AdvP

h:pron m:int h:adv

V:VP O:NP v

C:AdjP

d h:n

m:int

h:adj

5 You very probably find the result completely disastrous. Cl S:NP d

m:AdjP m:int

6 His

really

m:AdjP

h:adj

h:n

V:VP

O:NP

v

h:pron

h:adj

insensitive

cutting

comments

offended

everyone.

Cl S:NP A:AdvP h:pron m:int h:adv

V:VP v

Oi:NP h:n

Od:NP d

m:AdjP m:AdvP

h:n

h:adj

h:adv 7 They very selfishly offered Margaret an embarassingly small portion.

81

Cl S:NP V:VP aux h:pron v

O:NP d

m:AdjP

m:AdjP

m:AdjP

m:int h:adj m:int h:adj

m:int

h:n h:adj

8 May I introduce the very lovely, very talented, simply gorgeous Edith Bloggs Cl A:AdvP S:NP V:VP h:adv

C:AdjP

h:pron v

m:AdvP

A:NP

h:adj

d h:n

h:adv 9 Personally, I

feel overwhelmingly responsible this time. Cl

S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron v

h:adv

C:NP d

m:AdjP

h:n

m:int h:adj 10 She

is supposedly a very devious woman.

EXERCISE 7.2 NP

NP

m:AdjP h:n

AdjP

h:adj 1

Big

d m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n

m:int h:adj one.

2

h:adj

Quite nice.

3

A big

h:adj red flower.

Cl Cl

S:NP

V:VP O:NP C:AdjP v 4

h:pron h:adj

Make it

dry.

C:NP

Cl

h:pron d m:AdjP h:n

S:NP V:VP A:AdvP

h:adj 5 That a big (V omitted)

h:pron v boat.

82

6

h:adv

He go fast. (No Subject-Verb agreement)

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP aux 7

h:n

Voc

S:NP V:VP O:NP A:AdvP

v m:int h:adj

aux h:pron v h:pron h:adv

Did Hester be fast asleep, mummy? (wrong use of auxiliary to form past tense of ‘be’)

8

Can our do it again? (wrong Subject pronoun) Cl

Cl

O:NP

A:AdvP V:VP S:NP C:AdjP h:adv 9

v

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron d m:AdjP h:n aux

h:pron m:int h:adj

A:AdvP v

m:int h:adv

h:adj

Why are me so healthy? 10 What a skinny snake can wiggle really fast? (wrong Subject pronoun; wrong (No Subject-auxiliary inversion) Subject-Verb agreement)

EXERCISE 8.2

Cl V:VP Od:NP

Cl

Oi:PP

A:PP

v h:pron h:prep q:NP

h:prep

to

me.

h:n

v

h:adj

2 Without Humphrey, life was meaningless.

Cl S:NP V:VP A:PP h:pron v h:prep q:NP d

q:NP h:n

h:pron 1 Give it

S:N P V:VP C:AdjP

h:n

3 She looked into his eyes.

83

Cl S:NP V:VP C:PP h:pron v h:prep

Cl q:Np

A:PP

d m:AdjP h:n

S:NP V:VP

C:PP

h:prep q:NP h:pron v h:prep q:NP

h:adj

d

h:n

d

4 We are on our best behaviour. 5 In my opinion, it

's for the part-timers.

EXERCISE 8.3

NP h:pron

NP q:PP

d h:n

h:prep q:NP d

q:PP h:prep q:NP

h:n

d h:n

1 something for the weekend

2 a man with an attitude

NP h:n

q:PP h:prep

NP q:NP

d h:n

d m:AdjP

h:n

h:n

3 juggling for the complete beginner

4 a mark around 70

NP d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

q:PP h:prep q:NP

h:adj

q:PP h:prep

q:NP d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

5 the private person behind the public mask

84

h:n

EXERCISE 8.4

AdjP

AdjP h:adj

AdjP

q:PP

m:int

h:adj q:PP

h:adj

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

h:n 1 frightened of dogs

AdjP q:PP

h:adj

hungry for

stardom

q:PP

h:prep

h:n

q:NP d

4

h:n

taller than his brother

AdjP h:adj q:PP h:prep q:NP d h:n 5 fit as

d

h:n

2 anxious about the future 2 rather anxious about the future

h:prep q:NP

3

h:prep q:NP

d h:n

AdjP h:adj

q:PP

a fiddle

85

EXERCISE 8.5

NP d h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:NP d h:n

NP

q:PP

d h:n

h:prep q:NP

q:PP

q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

h:n 1 a man with a heart of AdjP m:int h:adj

d

gold

h:adj q:NP

d

h:n

h:n

2 a woman in her twenties with prospects AdjP

q:PP h:prep

h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:PP

q:NP

d h:n

h:prep q:NP

q:PP h:prep q:NP

h:n

h:n

3 very pleased about the invitation to dinner 4 born with a lust for

NP d h:n

q:PP

h:prep

q:PP

q:NP d h:n

h:prep

q:NP

q:PP

m:AdjP

h:prep q:NP

h:adj

d

h:n

h:n

5 a note on the back of an envelope in unfamiliar handwriting EXERCISE 8.6

Cl S:NP V:VP d h:n v

A :PP

h:prep q:NP d

h:n

1 The car cruised along the motorway. 86

life

Cl A:PP

S:NP V:VP A:PP

A:PP

h:prep q:NP h:pron v h:prep q:NP h:n 2

d

h:prep q:NP

h:n

d

h:n

On Sundays, I walk to the paper shop for an Observer. Cl Cl

V:VP

O:NP

v d h:n

S:NP V:VP

q:PP

d h:n

C:AdjP

v h:adj q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

m:AdjP h:n

h:n

h:adj 3 See that girl with funny clothes? Cl S:NP V:VP

4 My cousin is brilliant at chess.

A:PP

h:pron v h:prep

q:NP

d h:n

q:PP h:prep q:NP d

5

h:n

I live in the house on the corner

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron v h:adj q:PP h:prep q:NP

S:NP d h:n

V:VP A:PP q:PP

h:prep

h:pron

aux v h:prep q:NP q:NP

h:pron

m:AdjP h:n h:adj

6 It

's nice of you.

7 The man with bushy eyebrows is staring at us.

87

Cl S:NP V:VP

A:PP

h:pron v h:prep

Cl q:NP

S:NP V:VP

d m:NP h:n

O:NP

h:pron v part d m:NP h:n

h:n

h:n

8a She blew up the horse's nose

8b She blew up the horse's nose (explosion version!)

Cl S:NP d h:n

V:VP

q:PP

v

O:NP

A:PP

d h:n h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

d h:n

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj 9 The man in the black coat threw the ball over the bridge Cl S:NP A:AdvP V:VP h:pron aux h:adv

O:NP

v d h:n

q:PP

q:PP

h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP d h:n

m:AdjP h:n h:adj

10 I have just

seen a woman on the bus with six children.

EXERCISE 8.8 Cl PP

S:NP V:VP Od:NP

h:prep q:NP

h:pron v

h:n 1

Under chair. (missing determiner)

Oi:PP

h:n h:prep q:NP h:n

2

Me make house for Kate. (wrong Subject pronoun; missing determiner)

88

Cl Cl

S:NP

S:NP V:VP O:NP aux h:pron v

A:PP

A:PP

h:n h:prep

h:pron h:prep q:NP

m:AdjP h:n

h:pron 3

h:adj

Can me put it like that? (wrong Subject pronoun)

4 Baby in big bed. (missing Verb; 2 missing determiners)

Cl V:VP

q:NP

Cl A:PP

S:NP V:VP A:PP

v h:prep q:NP

h:n

v h:prep q:NP

h:n 5

d h:n

Been in water. 6 (missing Subject; missing auxiliary; missing determiner)

Teddy sitting on the cup. (missing auxiliary)

Cl S:NP V:VP

Cl A:PP

S:NP A:AdvP V:VP A:PP

h:pron neg v h:prep q:AdvP

h:pron h:adv

v h:prep q:NP

h:adv 7

That not go in (missing auxiliary)

there.

h:n 8

Me always go with Maggie. (wrong Subject pronoun)

Cl S:NP

V:VP

Cl A:PP

h:pron aux neg v h:prep q:NP

V:VP aux v

h:pron 9

I didn’t stand on nothing. 10 (wrong Object pronoun after neg)

O:NP d

A:PP

A:AdvP

h:n h:prep q:NP h:adv d

h:n

Is put some boots on this lady here. (missing Subject; missing –ing inflection)

89

EXERCISE 9.1 Cl Cl

c

Cl

S:NP V:VP O:NP

S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:pron v i d h:n

h:pron v i d h:n

1 We do all the work but they get all the praise. Cl Cl

c

Cl

V:VP

O:NP

V:VP

v

d h:n

v

O:NP d

h:n

2 Shut your eyes and open your mouth. Cl Cl

c

Cl

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP d

h:n

v

S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:adj

h:pron v

h:pron

3 The food was awful yet they said nothing. Cl

Cl S:NP d

c

Cl

V:VP

h:n aux aux

S:NP v

d h:n

V:VP aux aux

v

4 The bulb may have gone or the fuse could have blown. Cl Cl

Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP S:NP V:VP S:NP V:VP h:pron v 5

I

h:pron v

came, I

saw,

h:pron I

v

conquered.

90

EXERCISE 9.2 Cl S:NP NP

V:VP C:NP

c

NP

h:n

d

v

h:n

h:n

1 Gavin and his sister are twins.

Cl S:NP V:VP

C:NP

h:pron v d

m:AdjP AdjP

c

h:n AdjP

m:int h:adj

h:adj

2 This is a very cheap but temporary solution. Cl S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:n v

m:AdvP AdvP

c

h:adv

h:adj AdvP

neg

h:adv

3 James is fascinatingly but not reassuringly untruthful.

Cl S:NP h:pron aux

V:VP v

O:NP d h:n

q:PP PP

c

h:prep q:NP

PP h:prep

d h:n

q:NP d h:n

4 I 've bought a car with an M.O.T but without any tax.

91

Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

A:PP

aux aux v h:prep

q:NP

NP

c

NP

h:n

d

h:n

5 Our carrots have been eaten by slugs and other pests.

EXERCISE 9.3 Cl V:VP

O:NP

v part d

h:n n

c

n

1 Hand out the pens and pencils.

Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

O:NP

v d

m:AdjP

h:n

h:adj adj c

adj

2 The Algerians set a fast and furious pace. Cl S:NP V:VP O:NP

A:AdvP

h:pron v h:pron

h:adv

adv adv

c

adv

3 He loved her truly, madly and deeply. Cl V:VP S:NP

C:PP

v h:pron h:prep prep c prep

q:NP d

h:n

4 Are you for or against the changes?

92

Cl Cl

c

S:NP

V:VP

h:n

v v

Cl S:NP

V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux neg v

c

d

h:n

v

5 Lisa tried and tried but she couldn' t stop the bleeding.

EXERCISE 9.4 NP AdjP

NP

h:adj

h:n

adj

c

NP d m:AdjP h:n

c adj

h:adj

1 Yellow and red.

2 Daddy and a little girl. Cl

S:NP

V:VP

h:n n 3

c

n

aux c

O:NP

v

h:pron

n

Fi and Andrea and Jennifer had to write something. Cl Cl S:NP h:n

c

Cl

V:VP v

part

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP d

h:n v

4 Boat going away and that boy’ s (missing determiner and auxiliary)

h:adj sad.

93

Cl Cl A:AdvP S:NP V:VP

Voc c

Cl

A:PP

S:NP V:VP O:NP A:AdvP

h:adv h:pron v part h:prep q:NP

h:pron v

h:pron h:adv

h:pron 5 Once our came back from somewhere and me found (wrong Subject pronoun in both clauses)

EXERCISE 10.1 1

That he was unstable was never mentioned. S V- A -V s S V C

2

I hate doing the dishes. S V O V O

3

When you come, bring a bottle. A V O A S V

4

Who you are doesn't bother me. S V O C S V

5

To improve your game is my sole intention. S V C V O

6

Carla told them that she had finished it. S V Oi Od . s S V O

7

Give whoever comes last a piece of your mind. V Oi Od S V C

8

9

The outcome is what we expected. S V C O S V I think Keith is drunk. S V O . 94

it

there, mummy.

S 10

V

C

Although she's lived here for years, she still can't speak the language. A S A V O s S V A A

EXERCISE 10.2 1

Me want daddy come down. S V O S V (wrong Subject pronoun; missing infinitival particle)

2

Me don’t know where box is now. S V O A S V A (wrong Subject pronoun; missing determiner)

3

I thought it going to be today. S V O S V C/A (missing auxiliary)

4

That lady posting cos it’s too big. S V A s SV C (missing Object and auxiliary)

5

He fell off his bike cos he bumped into something on his bike. S V O A s S V O A

EXERCISE 11.1

Cl S:Cl

Cl

V:VP C:NP

s S:NP V:VP v d

S:Cl

h:n

O:NP S:NP V:VP v d h:n

h:pron v

h:pron h:pron v

1 That you came is a miracle.

2 What you said is a lie.

Cl S:Cl V:VP O:NP v

V:VP C:NP

V:VP O:NP v h:pron

h:n

3 Touching slugs disgusts me.

Cl S:Cl V:VP inf v

V:VP C:NP O:NP

d

v

d h:n

h:n

4 To solve the mystery was his aim.

95

Cl S:Cl

V:VP C:AdjP

A:AdvP S:NP V:VP v

h:adj

h:adv h:pron v 5 Where you live is beautiful.

EXERCISE 11.2

Cl

Cl

V:VP Oi:NP

Od:Cl

S:NP V:VP

v h:pron O:NP S:NP V:VP

h:pron v

O:Cl s

h:pron h:pron v 1 Tell us

what

you know.

h:pron v

h:adj

2 He said that he was

Cl

tired.

Cl

S:NP V:VP

O:Cl

h:pron v V:VP v

A:AdvP

S:NP

V:VP

h:n

v

h:adv

3 They like living dangerously.

A:AdvP S:NP V:VP

4 Deirdre explained why

O:Cl

v O:NP S:NP V:VP h:pron h:pron aux v 5 Finish what you

O:Cl

h:adv h:pron v

Cl V:VP

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP

' re doing.

96

she came.

EXERCISE 11.6 Cl S:Cl

V:VP C:AdjP

V:VP O:NP v v

h:adj

h:n

1 Eating people is wrong.

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron

v

O:Cl s S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux

2

I

O:NP

v

d

knew that they would explain the situation.

Cl S:NP

h:n

Voc

V:VP

O:Cl

h:pron aux neg v O:NP S:NP

V:VP

h:pron h:pron aux v 3

I

don' t like what you ' re wearing, Mrs Stubbs. Cl S:Cl s

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux 4

V:VP C:AdjP

aux

v neg h:adj v

Whether I should have telephoned is not clear. Cl A:Cl A:AdvP S:NP

V:VP

h:adv h:pron aux 5

When

V:VP

v

O:NP d

v

O:NP d

h:n

h:n

you ' ve finished your painting, phone the garage.

97

Cl S:NP

V:VP

d m:AdjP h:n

v

C:Cl s

h:adj 6

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron

aux

O:NP v

h:n

Our main concern is that everyone should achieve satisfaction. Cl

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux

O:NP

C:Cl

v h:pron C:NP S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron h:pron v

7

You have made me what Cl A:Cl s

S:NP

I

am today.

S:NP V:VP

h:pron aux neg v

d

h:adv

V:VP

h:n

v

part

8 Although they hadn' t settled down, the concert began.

Cl A:Cl s

S:NP

V:VP

S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:pron aux neg v

d

h:pron aux

h:n

O:NP v

d

m:NP

h:n

h:n

9 Because you haven' t settled the account, we are withdrawing your overdraft facility. Cl

S:NP V:VP O:NP h:pron v

C:NP

h:pron d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

10 I found

him

a crashing bore

98

EXERCISE 11.7 Cl S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux

O:Cl

v

S:NP V:VP h:pron

v

O:NP d

m:NP h:n h:n

1

Me going to watch you

doing your riding lesson.

Cl S:NP

V:VP

O:Cl

h:pron aux neg v A:AdvP S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:adv 2

h:n

v

h:adv

Me don’t know where box is now. (wrong Subject pronoun; missing determiner) Cl V:VP Oi:NP v

Od:Cl

h:pron s S:NP

V:VP

h:pron neg 3

O:NP

v

d

h:n

Ask me if I not made a mistake. (missing auxiliary; wrong past participle) Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron aux v

O:NP d

h:n

A:Cl s

S:NP d

4

h:n

C:AdjP h:adj

He got to take his medicine cos his mommy cross. (missing auxiliary; missing Verb in subordinate clause)

99

Cl S:NP V:VP

A:PP

A:Cl

h:pron neg h:prep q:NP d

s S:NP V:VP

h:n

A:PP

h:pron v

h:prep

q:NP d h:n

5

He not behind the cup cos he standing next to the cup. (missing Verb in main clause; missing auxiliary in subordinate clause)

EXERCISE 11.7

Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

h:pron

O:Cl

v

S:NP V:VP

V:VP inf

O:Cl

h:pron v V:VP Oi:NP Od:NP

v

inf v

1 You promised to come

h:pron h:pron

2 I want to ask you something.

Cl S:NP V:VP

O:Cl

Cl

h:pron v V:VP O:N

Oi:PP

S:NP V:VP

v h:pron h:prep q:NP h:pron v h:pron 3 We hate doing this

to

you.

4 I

h:pron h:adv

v

O:Cl V:VP v

5 I

O:Cl V:VP

O:NP

inf

h:pron

v

V:VP

O:NP

inf v

h:pron

managed to sell everything.

Cl S:NP A:AdvP V:VP

O:Cl

really enjoy trying to confuse them.

100

EXERCISE 12.1

Cl S:NP d

h:n

Cl V:VP C:AdjP

q:Cl

v

S:NP

h:adj

d h:n

s S:NP V:VP

V:VP O:NP q:Cl

v

h:pron

S:NP V:VP

h:pron v

h:pron v

1 The answer that he gave was suspect. 2 The things you say amaze me.

Cl

Cl

V:VP Oi:NP

Od:NP

v h:pron d

V:VP

h:n

q:Cl

O:NP

aux neg v

h:pron

S:NP V:VP

q:Cl V:VP O:NP

h:pron aux v

v

d h:n

3 Show me the clothes you 've bought. 4 Don't trust anyone wearing a wig.

Cl S:NP d

h:n

V:VP q:Cl

C:NP

v d h:n

s S:NP V:VP h:pron

q:Cl S:NP V:VP

v

h:pron v

5 The book that you borrowed is the one I want.

EXERCISE 12.2

Cl S:NP V:VP

Cl A:PP

h:pron v h:prep

S:NP V:VP O:NP q:Cl

h:pron v d

A:PP

h:n h:prep

q:Cl

V:VP

O:NP

A:AdvP S:NP V:VP

v

d h:n

h:adv h:pron v

1 He left without closing the door. 2 I sent the flowers to where you

101

live.

Cl A:PP h:prep

S:NP V:VP q:Cl

C:AdjP

h:pron aux v m:int h:adj

V:VP

O:NP

v

h:n

3 Since learning karate, she' s become more confident. Cl S:NP V:VP h:n v

C:AdjP

h:adj

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl V:VP

A:PP

v h:prep q:NP d

h:n

4 Peter is worried about driving in the snow.

Cl V:VP S:NP

C:AdjP

v h:pron h:adj

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

V:VP A:PP v h:prep q:NP d

h:n

5 Are you interested in going to the match?

102

EXERCISE 12.3 Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

C:AdjP h:adj

q:Cl s S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux

A:PP

aux

v

h:prep q:NP h:pron

1 We are surprised that you should have reacted like that.

Cl S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron v

C:AdjP

h:adv h:adj

q:Cl s

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux aux v 2 It

is now certain that she will be arrested. Cl

S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:pron v h:adj

q:Cl V:VP O:NP inf v h:pron

3 I

am sorry to hear it. Cl

S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:pron v h:adj

q:Cl O:NP S:NP

V:VP

h:pron h:pron aux 4 It

is unclear what

v

we should do.

103

Cl S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:pron v h:adj

q:Cl V:VP inf v

C:AdjP m:int

h:adj

q:PP h:prep q:NP h:pron

5 It

is important to be extremely careful about this.

EXERCISE 12.5 Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

q:Cl s S:NP V:VP h:pron

aux

v

h:n

A:PP

v h:prep d

1

O:NP

q:NP h:n

The man that we saw on the television was talking rubbish. Cl S:NP d h:n

V:VP q:Cl

v

C:AdjP m:int

h:adj

S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron 2

v m:int h:adv

The snails he eats so voraciously are incredibly expensive. Cl Cl

S:NP V:VP C:NP h:pron v d h:n

S:NP

q:Cl

d

S:NP V:VP

's the man I

saw.

h:n

q:Cl V:VP

h:pron v 3 That

V:VP C:NP

v 4

v

h:n

O:NP h:n

The woman blowing bubbles is Maureen

104

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron

v

O:Cl V:VP

inf

O:NP v

h:n

q:NP d h:n

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP O:Cl h:pron v

V:VP inf v

5

I want to introduce Arnold, the man I

intend to marry.

13 REVIEW EXERCISE

Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

O:NP

S:NP

h:pron aux neg aux v h:pron

aux neg h:pron aux aux

1 You shouldn't be doing that!

d

V:VP

m:AdjP

m:AdjP

h:adj

h:adj

O:NP v

d h:n part

2 Couldn't you have been sorting this mess out? Cl

S:NP i

V:VP

h:n

aux

O:NP v

m:AdjP h:adj

m:AdjP

h:n

h:adj

3 All the red-headed muscular athletes are wearing attractive multi-coloured shellsuits. Cl

S:NP

V:VP

d m:AdjP h:n q:AdvP v h:adj

h:adv

O i:NP

Od:NP

d m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n h:adj h:adj

4 That big boy there told those silly little

105

h:pron

q:AdjP m:int h:adj q:int

girls something very naughty indeed.

Cl S:NP d

m:AdjP m:int

V:VP h:n aux

O:NP v

d

m:AdjP

h:adj

m:NP

m:int

h:adj

h:n

h:n n c

n

5 Our most illustrious visitor is devouring an extremely mouth-watering date and walnut cake.

Cl A:AdvP

S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:adv

h:n

h:n

v

C:AdjP m:AdvP m:int

h:adj

h:adv

6 Unfortunately, alcohol makes Marjorie almost incoherently violent. Cl A:PP

S:NP V:VP A:PP

A:PP

A:PP

h:prep q:NP h:pron v h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP h:n

d h:n

h:n

d

h:n

7 On Sundays, we go on the tram to Meadowhall with our granny

Cl S:NP d h:n

V:VP q:PP

v

Oi:NP d h:n

h:prep q:NP

Od:NP q:PP

d h:n

h:prep q:NP

d h:n

h:pron

q:PP h:prep q:NP d h:n

8 The girl on your right gave the man behind her a punch in the face. Cl

Voc

Cl S:NP NP

NP

h:n

h:n

Cl A:AdvP

c

NP

h:adv

V:VP O:NP V:VP S:NP v

part h:pron v neg h:pron

d h:n

9 Mrs Smith, Millie and the vicar really have it in for you, don' t they Igor?

106

Cl S:NP aux

NP c

V:VP

NP

h:pron

d

v

O:NP d

A:AdvP

h:n

h:adv

h:n

10 Will either you or your friend open the window please.

Cl S:NP V:VP Oi:NP

Od:Cl

h:pron v h:pron s S:NP V:VP O:NP h:pron v h:pron 11 He told me that he loved me. Cl S:Cl s

V:VP

S:NP V:VP

O:NP v

C:AdjP h:adj

A:Cl A:AdvP S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:pron aux neg v h:pron

h:adv

h:pron v

12 That he didn' t mean it became obvious when Cl

S:NP V:VP

d h:n

he stole my car.

O:NP

h:pron aux

v

h:n

q:Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

O:NP d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

13 I' d rather avoid people who hide their true feelings. Cl S:NP

A:AdvP V:VP O:NP  

aux d

h:n

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl

q:NP d

h:adv

v

d

h:n

V:VP O:NP h:n

v

h:n

14 Can the man without a swimming costume doing butterfly please leave the pool.

107

Cl S:NP h:n

q:NP

A:AdvP V:VP O:NP aux h:adv

v

d h:n

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj 15 David, my best friend, had badly broken his ankle.

108

16

KEY TO SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.1 11 The book/was given/to me/by my cousin S V Oi A 12 Some people/foolishly/hide/their money/under the mattress S A V O A 13 On Saturday night/we/certainly/painted/the town/red A S A V O C 14 That/sounds/a good idea S V C 15 If you're not careful/you/will end up/in jail A S V A

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.2 Here are some possible examples: 1 This is a major sentence. 2 This is a simple sentence. 3a This is one clause and this is another. (2 coordinated clauses) 3b It is obvious that this is a multiple sentence. (1 main clause and 1 subordinate clause) 4 Never the twain shall meet. 5 This is a statement. 6 Is this a yes-no question? 7 What kind of question is this? 8 Is this a yes-no question or a wh-question? 9 This isn't a tag question, is it? 10 Is he stupid! 11 Could I just point out that this is a rhetorical question. 12 Don't lean out of the window. 13 Jesus wept! 14 How stupid he is! 15 How stupid who is?

109

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.1 11 12 13 14 15

Did you understand that? V-V Don't look now. V The troublemakers have been singled out by the teacher. V She might have been being helpful.55 V What can they have been doing? V-V

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.2 11 12 13 14 15

Pass me the screwdriver.56 V The children and their teachers really need more protection. S V Would you accept? VS -V Stuff your argument about tax differentials. V O The antagonism of the judge couldn't have been anticipated. S V

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.4 11 12 13 14 15

Your shady deals have caused us no end of embarrassment. S V Oi Od Don't give the money to me. V Od Oi Bring Mr and Mrs Smith and their children the set menu for four. V Oi Od Will you do a favour for me? V- S -V Od Oi Tell the police your feeble excuses. V Oi Od

55

There is no verb 'be helpful' - helpful is an adjective and a Complement. This will become clearer when you have completed 2.5 and Chapter 7. 56 This is an 'imperative' sentence (see Crystal Ch.6) and has no subject. Imperative sentences have an implicit 'you' subject which can be used for emphasis - e.g. You pass me the screwdriver

110

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.5b 11 12 13 14 15

The sky is turning grey. S V C The bus is turning the corner. S V O She turned into a pumpkin. S V C I 've cancelled my subscription. S V O I'm not feeling myself. S V C/O57

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2.8 11 12 13 14 15

I find her an interesting person for the wrong reasons. S V O C A According to your horoscope your prospects are bleak. A S V C Mom, save me a seat this afternoon. Voc V Oi Od A The encore brought them to their feet in hysterical screams. S V O A A One day, I will probably live in the country with two cats and a goldfish. A S VA -V A A

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 3 11 12 13 14 15

When are they arriving? A V- S -V What did she buy her mother for Christmas? Od V- S -V Oi A Who did they elect leader? O V- S -V C How could they possibly know? A V- S A -V What did the wizard turn into ? C VS -V

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 5

57

The different versions depend on whether 'feeling' refers to a mental state (C) or an action (O).

111

V:VP aux

neg

v

part

11 Alice had better not give vent to her emotions. V:VP aux aux aux

v

part

12 These repairs could have been carried out better by a chimpanzee.

V:VP aux neg

aux

v

part

13 Why couldn' t you have looked up the word in a dictionary?

V:VP v

part

14 James gave short shrift to their complaints V:VP aux neg v 15 Don' t do that!

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 6

Cl S:NP i

V:VP

d m:AdjP h:n aux

v

O:NP d m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n

11 Most of my best ones have suffered the same sad Cl S:NP

V:VP

d m:AdjP m:NP h:n v d

C:NP m:AdjP

h:n

12 The large glass vase was an exceptional example.

112

fate.

Cl S:NP d

V:VP

m:NP h:n

v

O:NP m:AdjP m:AdjP m:AdjP

h:n

13 My botanist cousin keeps strange tropical man-eating plants.

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

O:NP d

m:AdjP

m:AdjP m:AdjP m:NP

h:n

14 He bought some expensive hand-made Italian designer underware.

Cl S:NP

V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux neg v part i

d m:AdjP h:n

15 We didn't hope for such a huge improvement.

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 7.1 Cl S:NP

A:AdvP

h:pron aux m:int

h:adv

V:VP O:NP v h:pron d

C:NP m:AdjP h:n m:int h:adj

q:int

11 You have quite unintentionally made me a very happy man indeed.

113

Cl S:NP V:VP h:n aux

O:NP v

d

m:AdjP

m:NP

h:n

h:adj m:AdjP h:n h:adj 12 Polly has chosen the attractive antique gold earrings. Cl S:NP

A:AdvP

h:pron m:int 13

V:VP

h:adv

v

O:NP d

h:n

A:AdvP h:adv

He nearly always spends his Saturdays here.

Cl S:NP d

V:VP Oi:NP Od:NP

m:AdjP m:AdvP

h:n

v

h:pron d

h:n

h:adj

h:adv 14 Their unusually generous contribution brought me some relief. Cl S:NP V:VP Oi:NP

Od:NP

h:pron v

m:AdjP

h:pron d

m:AdvP m:int 15 He gave her

h:n h:adj

h:adv

a rather unnervingly expensive present.

114

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 8.6 Cl S:NP V:VP q:NP aux h:n

v

A:PP h:prep

h:pron 11 What

is Daisy hiding behind?

Cl S:NP d h:n

V:VP C:NP

q:PP h:prep

v d h:n q:NP

d h:n

q:PP h:prep q:NP d h:n

12 The lady with a parrot on her head is my mother.

Cl S:NP V:VP O:NP h:n

v

A:PP

d h:n h:prep

q:NP

d h:n

q:PP

h:prep q:NP d h:n

q:PP h:prep q:NP h:pron

13 Tom placed the lid on the jar with a hole in

115

it.

Cl S:NP V:VP

O:NP

aux h:pron v d h:n

q:PP

q:PP

h:prep

q:NP

h:prep q:NP

d m:NP h:n

h:n

h:n 14 Have you seen the jacket with the leather collar in Next?

Cl V:VP v

O:NP d h:n

A:PP

q:PP

q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP d h:n

d

h:n

d h:n

15 Put the book on the floor by the table in your bag. SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 8.7

PP h:prep

PP q:PP

PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep

d h:n

q:NP d

1 back over the fence PP h:prep

h:prep

h:prep

3 since before the war

PP h:prep

h:n

4 up through the mountains

q:NP d

h:n

5 on behalf of the committee

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 10.1 11

d h:n

2 due to the alterations

q:NP d

h:prep q:NP

h:n

q:PP

q:PP

I know where you're going. S V O A S V

116

12

We shall go where you wish. S V A A S V

13

Are you who you say? V S C O S V

14

What I said was what I meant. S V C O S V O S V

15

When you leave, put the key where I showed you. A V O A A S V Od58 S V Oi

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 11.6 Cl S:NP

V:VP

h:n

v

O:Cl s

S:NP V:VP h:n

v

O:NP

A:PP

d m:AdjP h:n h:prep h:adj

q:NP

m:NP d

h:n

h:n

11 Oceanographers know that reefs play a crucial role in an ocean' s ecosystems. Cl V:VP v

Oi:Cl S:NP h:pron

12 Bars.

58

V:VP v

Od:NP

O:NP

part d

A:AdvP m:AdjP h:n

h:n

h:adv

Give whoever hands in their essay early

h:adj five Mars Bars

This could also be analysed as A since it could be substituted by there as well as it ('the place').

117

Cl S:NP

V:VP

d h:n

q:PP

aux

h:prep

O:Cl v

O:NP S:NP V:VP

q:NP d

h:pron h:pron aux v

m:AdjP m:AdvP

h:n h:adj

h:adv 13 A woman with an outrageously large hat is restricting what we

can see.

Cl A:Cl

S:NP V:VP

V:VP

O:NP

inf v

d m:AdjP

h:pron v

O:NP d

m:NP

h:n

m:AdjP

h:adj

h:n h:n

m:int h:adj

14 To make the perfect omelette you need a very good quality frying pan. Cl S:Cl

V:VP

O:NP S:NP

V:VP

h:pron h:pron aux neg v

15 What

I

C:Cl Cl

c

A:AdvP S:NP V:VP O:NP

A:AdvP S:NP V:VP O:NP

h:adv h:pron aux v h:pron

h:adv h:pron v h:pron

don' t know is where you have put it and why you took

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.1

Cl S:NP

Cl

V:VP

h:pron aux neg v

O:NP h:n

q:Cl S:NP

V:VP

h:pron

v v

c

v

6 We don' t accept applicants who smoke or drink.

118

it.

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron

O:NP

v

d

h:n

q:Cl s

S:NP d

V:VP

h:n aux

v

7 He propounded the theory that the universe is expanding. Cl S:NP V:VP aux h:pron v

O:NP d

h:n

q:Cl s

S:NP

V:VP

h:n

aux aux

v

8 Have you heard the rumour that lectures have been cancelled? Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

O:NP d h:n

q:Cl s S:NP V:VP h:pron v

9 I appreciate the fact that you apologised. Cl

S:NP V:VP aux h:pron v

O:NP

d h:n

q:Cl Cl V:VP v

c O:NP

m:NP

h:n

h:n

Cl V:VP

O:NP

v

d m:NP h:n h:n

10 Do you know the man doing frog imitations and wearing a Batman cape?

119

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.2 Cl A:PP h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux v

d

h:n

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron v 6 As far as I

h:adj

'm concerned, you can stuff your advice.

Cl S:NP V:VP

A:PP

h:pron v

h:prep

q:Cl V:VP v

7 He passed as a result of cheating.

Cl S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:pron v h:adj

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl V:VP O:NP v

h:n

8 I ' m bored with peeling potatoes.

120

Cl S:NP V:VP h:n

C:AdjP

v m:int h:adj

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl

V:VP

O:NP

v

d h:n

9 Jenny is very close to finishing her novel.

Cl

S:NP NP d

h:n

V:VP

C:AdjP

c NP v

m:AdvP

h:pron

h:adv

h:adj

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl

V:VP v

O:NP d h:n

10 My family and I are nonchalantly unafraid of calling your bluff.

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.4

Cl S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron v h:adj q:PP h:prep q:NP h:pron 1 He 's bigger than me.

121

Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

A:AdvP h:adv

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP h:pron aux 2 She works harder than she used to. Cl

S:NP V:VP

C:AdjP

h:pron v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP h:prep q:NP m:AdjP h:n h:adj

3 She ' s

as

tough as old boots.

Cl V:VP

C:AdjP

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl S:NP V:VP

h:pron aux v 4 Be as

discreet as you can manage.

122

Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

C:AdjP

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron aux v

5 Your candidate is

less truthful than he will admit.

Cl S:NP V:VP h:n aux

O:NP

v m:AdjP h:n h:adj

q:PP h:prep q:Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron aux

6 Angie has eaten more grapes than I

have.

Cl S:NP V:VP

O:NP A:PP

h:pron v h:pron h:prep q:NP

q:PP

d h:n h:prep

q:Cl S:NP

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

V:VP

A:PP

v h:prep q:NP d h:n

7 You drink more in a day than my whole family does in a week.

123

Cl S:NP V:VP h:n

v

C:AdjP m:AdvP

h:adj

m:AdvP h:adv h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl S:NP V:VP d

h:n v

8 Corinne looks less elegantly dressed than her mother is.

Cl S:NP d

h:n

V:VP

C:AdjP

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP

V:VP

h:pron aux aux v 9 His assessment was as positive as it

could have been.

Cl S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux v

m:AdjP h:n h:adj

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux v m:AdjP h:n h:adj 10 I

' ve failed more exams than you ' ve had hot dinners.

124

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 12.5

Cl S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron

v m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

S:NP V:VP h:pron v

O:Cl S:NP V:VP h:pron v

6 You

' re more gullible than I thought you were. Cl

S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

aux

O:NP

v

d

A:AdvP

h:n m:int h:adv

q:Cl

s S:NP V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux v h:pron

q:Cl V:VP inf

7

v

This student has prepared his report so well that I can find nothing to criticize.

Cl S:Cl S:NP V:VP

V:VP O:Cl

Od:NP h:pron v V:VP h:pron 8 What

v

Oi:NP

C:Cl s S:NP V:VP h:pron aux v

inf v h:pron I meant to tell

O:NP

A:PP

d h:n h:prep q:NP d h:n

you was that I 've flushed my teeth down the toilet.

125

Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

O:NP

v

h:n

q:Cl s

V:VP

O:NP

v

d

m:NP

h:n

h:n 9 The Grand Jury received

info

that contradicts the committee's report.

Cl V:VP

O:Cl

aux neg v V:VP Oi:NP inf v

Od:Cl

h:pron s S:NP

V:VP

O:NP

h:pron aux neg v

A:PP

d h:n h:prep q:NP m:AdjP h:n h:adj

10 Don' t try to tell

me that you didn' t reach the pub before last orders.

SUPPLEMENTARY ADVANCED REVIEW EXERCISE

Cl V:VP v

O:NP d

m:AdjP

A:PP h:n h:prep

q:NP

h:adj

m:NP

h:n

h:n n

c

n

1 Analyse the following sentences at clause and phrase level.

126

Cl A:AdvP V:VP h:adv

O:NP

v

A:PP

d m:NP

h:n h:prep

h:n

q:NP h:n

q:PP h:prep q:NP h:n

2 Please enter your Access number on reverse of cheque.

Cl S:NP

V:VP

m:NP h:n q:PP h:n

q:PP

v

O:NP

m:AdjP h:n h:prep

h:prep q:NP h:prep q:NP h:n

A:PP

h:adj

q:NP d m:AdjP h:n

h:n

h:adj

3 R's ear for glissandi in la Valse produces unacc'd menace from the very start. Cl S:NP V:VP C:AdjP h:pron

v

h:adj

q:Cl V:VP

A:PP

v h:prep

q:NP h:pron

q:Cl S:NP d

h:n

V:VP v

C:NP h:n

q:PP h:prep q:NP h:n

4 This seems strange coming from someone whose image is rock star by C Casting. NB There are perhaps grounds for analysing the highest 'q:Cl' as 'A:Cl' in the main clause.

127

Cl Cl

Cl

S:NP V:VP O:NP

C:NP

h:pron v h:pron i

d

S:NP V:VP

m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n aux h:pron v h:adj

h:adj

5 What makes you such an out-and-out little cad, do you think? Cl S:NP V:VP Oi:NP h:n

Od:NP

v h:pron d m:AdjP h:adj

h:n

q:Cl V:VP inf

v

O:NP d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

q:PP

h:prep

q:NP

m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n h:adj h:adj 6 CE offers you a unique opportunity to sample the or' tal tastes of

'to' could also be analysed as a preposition

Cl A:AdvP S:NP

V:VP

O:NP

h:adv h:pron aux neg v part m:AdjP

h:n

h:adj 7 Surely

you wouldn't resort to emotional blackmail?

128

trad Indian food

Cl S:NP d

V:VP C:AdjP

h:n

q:Cl V:VP

v

h:adj

A:PP

v h:prep

q:NP

d h:n

q:PP

h:prep

q:NP h:n

8 The contortions achieved by the face of Rowan Atkinson are legendary. You could also analyse 'achieved' as an adjective qualified by the PP 'by the face of Rowan Atkinson'. The whole of this would then be q:AdjP.

Cl V:VP v

O:NP d

A:PP

A :PP

h:n h:prep q:NP h:prep d h:n

q:NP d m:AdjP m:N P h:adj

h:n

m:NP m:NP h:n h:n

h:n

9 Add a little sparkle to the season with this lux' scoop-neck, one-size lurex sweater. Cl S:NP m:AdjP h:adj

h:n

V:VP v

C:AdjP m:AdvP h:adj h:adv

q:PP

h:prep

q:Cl

V:VP A:PP v h:prep q:NP d h:n 10 Jamaican fishermen are uncannily good at seeing in the dark.

'Seeing in the dark' could also be analysed as an NP, with 'seeing' as the h:n and 'in the dark' as a q:PP.

129

Cl S:NP m:NP

h:n

h:n

V:VP

q:NP

C:AdjP

v m:int h:adj

h:n

q:Cl

s S:NP

V:VP

A:PP

h:pron aux aux aux

v h:prep

q:NP d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

11 C L's fragrance C' l' v'! is so vibr' that it could have been made for the fest' season. Cl S:NP d

V:VP

h:n

q:PP h:prep

v q:NP

m:AdjP

C:Cl V:VP

C:NP

inf v d h:n h:n

h:prep

h:adj adj c

q:PP q:NP

d

m:NP h:n

adj

h:n

12 This matching of inner and outer selves seems to be the key to the facelift bus' .

Cl S:NP

V:VP O:NP

A:PP

d m:AdjP h:n v d h:n h:prep h:adj

d

q:NP m:AdjP h:adj

h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:NP

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj 13 A's mag' biog' sets the seal on D' acknowledged supremacy in the English novel.

130

Cl V:VP

O:NP

v

NP

c

NP

d h:n q:PP

d h:n

q:PP

h:prep q:NP

h:prep

d h:n

d

q:NP m:AdjP

h:n

h:adj adj

c

adj

14 Explain the role of the hyp' and its rel' to the symp' and parasympathetic division. Cl Cl

c

S:NP V:VP A:AdvP h:pron v

Cl

C:NP

A:PP

h:adv d m:AdjP

h:n

S:NP V:VP C:AdjP

h:prep q:NP

h:adj

d

h:pron v

m:int h:adj

h:n

15 There was once a velveteen rabbit, and in the beginning he was really splendid. Cl S:NP V:VP h:n

v

O:NP h:pron

A:Cl q:PP

h:prep

V:VP q:NP

d

inf v

O:NP

A:PP

h:n h:prep

h:n

q:NP d

16 Dublin needed something like the Commitments, to get

U2 out of its system.

Cl Cl S:NP m:AdjP h:n h:adj

V:VP

c A:AdvP

Cl SYN V:VP

aux v h:adv q:Cl

A:PP

v h:prep

V:VP

q:NP i

h:n

inf v 17 Larger orders will take longer to cook so please ring in plenty of time. 131

h:n

Cl S:NP

Pred

d m:NP h:n

q:Cl

h:n

Pred

c

Pred

V:VP A:AdvP V:VP C:AdjP v h:adv

v h:adj

V:VP

q:PP

A:PP

v h:prep q:NP

h:prep q:NP

d h:n q:PP

h:n

h:prep q:NP h:n

18 The Worcs tray, shown here,

is available in Arm' and comes in a range of col' s.

Cl S:NP d h:n

V:VP q:PP

h:prep

O:NP

aux v h:n q:NP

d h:n

q:PP h:prep

q:Cl

q:NP

d h:n

V:VP A:PP

q:PP h:prep

v h:prep q:NP

q:NP

m:AdjP m:AdjP h:n

h:n

h:adj h:adj

19 A red'n in the cover off'd by B' has c'd fears for the future of private psych' hosp's. Cl S:NP

V:VP

d h:n

q:Cl S:NP

V:VP

h:pron v

aux v h:prep q:NP

C:NP

A:NP

A:PP

part d m:NP h:n m:AdjP h:n q:AdvP h:prep h:n

A:PP

h:adj

h:adv

A:PP

Cl

V:VP v h:prep

h:prep

h:n q:Cl

A:PP

V:VP

O:NP

q:NP

v

d h:n

d m:AdjP h:n h:adj

20 A man who turned into a human torch ten days

ago

after snoozing in his locked car while smoking his pipe has died in hospital.

132

17

GLOSSARY

A (Adverbial) (clause element) • • • • • •

more peripheral than S, V, O and C realised by an Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase, Noun Phrase or Clause most frequently expresses time, place, manner or reason often an optional element can sometimes be used in different positions no theoretical limit to the number of A elements in one clause

adj (adjective) (phrase element) • • • • • •

obligatory head of an adjective phrase (AdjP) most can occur in the frame d __ n many can be made into an adverb (adv) by adding -ly may be modified by an intensifier (int) or an adverb phrase (AdvP) may be qualified by an intensifier (int), prepositional phrase (PP) or a clause can often be made comparative and superlative by adding -er and -est

AdjP (Adjective Phrase) • can be a complement (C) • has an adjective as its head • can modify a noun

adv (adverb) (phrase element) • • • • •

obligatory head of an adverb phrase (AdvP) often ends in -ly if it ends in -ly can be made into an adjective (adj) by dropping the -ly may be modified by an intensifier (int) or an adverb phrase (AdvP) may be qualified by an intensifier (int)

AdvP (Adverb Phrase) • • • •

can be an adverbial (A) has an adverb (adv) as its head can modify an adjective (adj) can modify an adverb (adv)

aux (auxiliary verb) (phrase element) • • • •

is either a form of be, have or do, or one of the modal auxiliaries always precedes the main verb if it's the only auxiliary verb it will carry the tense marking if there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first one will carry the tense marking

c (coordinator) • usually and, or or but • conjoins clauses, phrases and words of the same type

133

Cl (Clause) • is made up of the elements S, V, O, C and A

Co (Object Complement) (clause element) • • • • •

is coreferential with O only occurs in SVOC structures cannot become S through passivization realised by a Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Prepositional Phrase or a Clause substitutable by a pronoun or adjective

compound noun • nouns which consist of more than one word - e.g. babysitter, mother-in-law, post office • examples like paper bag or coffee table may be analysed either with a triangle or as modifier-head structures.

Cs (Subject Complement) (clause element) • • • • •

coreferential with S follows the copula be or a copulative verb cannot become S through passivization realised by a Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Prepositional Phrase or a Clause substitutable by a pronoun or adjective

d (determiner) (phrase element) • most common ones are a, the, some, any, no, this, that, each, every • occurs in the frame __ (m) n • cannot immediately follow or precede another determiner

h (head) (phrase element) • the obligatory element of a phrase

idiomatic verb • main verb which consists of more than one word - e.g. put paid to, cross swords with, take account of. • identified by its lack of productivity • overall meaning typically not predictable from that of the individual words

i (initiator) (phrase element) • anything which occurs before a determiner (d) in a noun phrase (NP)

inf (infinitive particle) • to used before a verb in non-finite forms - e.g. to go; to have gone

int (intensifier) (phrase element) • modifies adjectives (adj) and adverbs (adv) • often equivalent in meaning to very

134

modal idiom • intermediate category between modal auxiliaries and main verbs - e.g. had better, would rather, have got to ('gotta') and be to. • analyse with a triangle and labelled 'aux' like auxiliary verbs.

m (modifier) (phrase element) • precedes the head of a phrase

neg (negator) (phrase element) • a premodifying element in all phrases • in the verb phrase can combine as -n't with auxilaries and be and have

n (noun) (phrase element) • • • • •

occurs as the head of a noun phrase (NP) some can inflect for plural by adding -s or -es common nouns can occur in the frame (d) (m) __ (q) can be modified by an adjective phrase (AdjP) or a noun phrase (NP) can be qualified by a prepositional phrase (PP), adverb phrase (AdvP) a noun phrase (NP) or a clause

NP (Noun Phrase) • can be a subject (S), object (O), complement (C) or adverbial (A) • has a noun (n) or pronoun (pron) as its head • can modify and qualify a noun (n)

Od (Direct Object) (clause element) • • • • • •

may become S when the sentence is passivized typically follows V in declarative sentences cannot be omitted from an S V O O clause without a radical change in meaning typically identifies the goal of the action, state, etc expressed by V realised by a Noun Phrase or a Clause substitutable by a pronoun

Oi (Indirect Object) (clause element) • • • • • • •

can be moved after Od and transformed to a Prepositional Phrase with to or for typically follows V in declarative sentences typically occurs before Od may become S when the sentence is passivized typically identifies the beneficiary of the action, state, etc expressed by V realised by a Noun Phrase or a Clause substitutable by a Pronoun

part (verb particle) (phrase element) • usually a spatial adverb or a preposition • occurs after the main verb (v) • fails the conjunction test: *John opened up a letter and down a parcel (i.e. up is a verb particle and not a preposition (prep))

135

PP (Prepositional Phrase) • • • •

can be an Adverbial (A) or a Complement (C) can qualify a noun (n), an adjective (adj) or a preposition (prep) has a preposition (prep) as its head is not embedded in a preceding PP if both can be reversed without a change in meaning

Pred (Predicate) • all obligatory elements of the clause minus the Subject (S) • substitutable by the pro-form so (e.g. John opened the door -> So did Fred) • substitutable by one of the pro-forms do, have, be in tag-questions (e.g. John opened the door, didn't he?)

prep (preposition) (phrase element) • • • •

obligatory head of a prepositional phrase (PP) qualified by a noun phrase (NP) or a clause can be modified by an intensifier (int) or an adverb phrase (AdvP) passes the conjunction test: John ran up a hill and down a valley (i.e. up is a preposition and not a verb particle (part))

pron (pronoun) (phrase element) • can occur as head of a noun phrase (NP) • can substitute for a Subject (S), Object (O) or Complement (C)

q (qualifier) (phrase element) • follows the head of a phrase

s (subordinator) • introduces a subordinate clause

S (Subject) (clause element) • precedes V in declarative sentences • typically identifies the origin of any action or the experiencer of any state expressed by V (except in passive sentences) • realised by a Noun Phrase or a Clause • substitutable by a Pronoun

v (main verb) (phrase element) • obligatory head of a verb phrase (VP) • follows any auxiliary verbs (aux) and precedes any verb particles (part) • inflects for tense, aspect and number if there is no auxiliary

V (Verb) (clause element) • realised by a Verb Phrase • comes after the Subject (S) in declarative sentences • is the most obligatory of clause elements

Voc (Vocative) 136

• a means of referring to the addressee of a sentence • not a syntactic element

VP (Verb Phrase) • only occurs as Verb (V) • has a verb (v) as its head

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