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Harvard Dictionary of Music

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged

Willi Apel

The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cam bridge, Massachusetts

©Copyright 1944 and 1969 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Eighth Printing, 1974 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 68-21970 ISBN 0-674-37501-7 Burton L. Stratton, Typographer Composed on the Intertype Fotosetter by Graphic Services, Inc. Printed & Bound by Halliday Lithograph Corporation Printed in the Lnited States of America

Preface to the Revised Edition In the twenty-five years of its existence, the Harvard Dictionary of Music has become a standard book of music literature. Contrary to my assumption -stated in the initial sentence of the original Preface-that it was "predestined to be read without leisure and to be consulted (somewhat like a dentist) in the case of an emergency only," many people have read it extensively, and not a few from cover to cover. The interest aroused by the book has been reflected by the extraordinarily great number of comments made by colleagues, students, professional musicians, and amateurs, who have expressed approval or disapproval, indicated mistakes, questioned statements, or suggested emendations of various kinds. Moreover, a large amount of research published in books and periodicals has been taken into consideration. All this material has been incorporated in the Second Edition. In addition, the editorial staff of the Harvard University Press has eliminated a great many errors. In the years since the original publication of this dictionary, the field of musicology has grown enormously, so that it has become virtually impossible for a single individual to be conversant with all the specialized branches of the field. This new and greatly enlarged edition of the dictionary includes the efforts of many persons who gave generously of their time and talents to contribute new articles and revise old ones. Many are eminent scholars, as a glance at the list of contributors will reveal. In numerous instances, contributors assisted with the preparation of articles other than their own. Without the painstaking research and careful checking of all those involved, this edition would be considerably less complete and less accurate. Since the publications consulted in preparing this revision number in the thousands, it is impossible to cite them in detail. For spellings of composers' names and dates of birth and death, I have relied largely on Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, Fifth Edition, except in the article Editions, for which the sources themselves were followed exactly. Some of the illustrations of instruments are based on N. Bessaraboff's Ancient European Musical Instruments, for which grateful acknowledgment is made to the Harvard University Press. In addition to those whose names appear as contributors, I am especially grateful to the following for their valuable assistance in the preparation of

v

PREFACE

the Second Edition; Luciano Berio, Juilliard School of Music; David Burrows, New York University; Hans Busch and Ralph T. Daniel, Indiana University; Phyllis A. Cooper, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Alice P. Davison, Lincoln, Massachusetts; Hans Eppstein, Stocksund, Sweden; Paul Hooreman, Lausanne, Switzerland; David G. Hughes, Nino Pirrotta, and John M. Ward, Harvard University; Janet Knapp, Brown University; R. B. Lenaerts, Louvain, Belgium; Mary Lou Little, Loeb Music Library, Harvard University; Caroline Lockwood Busch, Bloomington, Indiana; WilliamS. Newman, University of North Carolina; Mary Rasmussen, Durham, New Hampshire; David Stone, Temple University; James Reginald Wilson, Rutgers University; illustrator Carmela Ciampa; research editor Camilla H. Conley; and researchers Henry Gibbons, James Hinchliff, Kathleen Kohl, Keith Larsen, Joel Lazar, Beth Petrow, Margaret Radin, Carl Schmidt, Elizabeth Kady Schmidt, and Paul van Sickle. Willi Apel Bloomington, Indiana Note to the Sixth Printing: It is hardly possible that a publication consisting of specific and detailed information on several thousands of subjects and terms should be free of errors. The Harvard Dictionary of Music, Second Edition, is no exception to this rule. In the present printing, many-1 would not dare say all-of these errors have been corrected.

W.A.

vi

Contributors A.B. A. E. A. G.

AT. D. A.T.M. A.W. B.J.O. B.N. B.S. C.B.F. C.G.R. C.T.

D.D. D.J.G. D.M. D.P.McA. D.S. E.A.L. E. B. H. E. C. G. E.C.K. E.M.R. E.R.

Andre Boucourechliev, Paris (Aleatory music; Atonality; Electronic music; Expressionism; Musique concrete). Alfred Einstein, Smith College (Madrigal comedy). Anne Gombosi, All-Newton Music School, West Newton, Mass. (rev. Switzerland). Archibald T. Davison, Harvard University (Glee; Hymn, English; Psalter). A. Tillman Merritt, Harvard University (Harmonic analysis). Allen Winold, Indiana University (Music therapy). Barbara J. Owen, Organ Historical Society (Fuge tune; Organ XII; Riickpositif,· rev. Tremulant; add. to Vocabulary; Zymbelstern). Bruno Nettl, University of Illinois (rev. American Indian music I). Bence Szabolcsi, Bartok Archivium, Budapest (Hungary). Charles B. Fisk, Gloucester, Mass. (Organ and related articles). Clare G. Rayner, California State College, Long Beach (add. to Dictionaries). Caldwell Titcomb, Brandeis University (rev. Orchestration, various percussion instruments). Dorothea Doig, Athens, Greece (Tests and measurements in music). Donald J. Grout, Cornell University (Ballet in opera; Comic opera; Opera and related articles). David Morton, University of California, Los Angeles (Thailand). David P. McAllester, Wesleyan University (American Indian music II). Donald Sur, Seoul, Korea (Korea). Edward A. Lippman, Columbia University (Sociology of music). Everett B. Helm, Musical America (Degrees; Profession of music; Scholarships; Societies). Eunice Crocker Gilmore, Wellesley Hills, Mass. (Canzona). Ernst C. Krohn, Webster Groves, Mo. (Dulcimer 2). Edwin M. Ripin, Forest Hills, N.Y. (Clavichord; Electronic instruments; rev. Piano). Eduard Reeser, Instituut voor Muziekwetenschap, Utrecht (rev. Netherlands).

VII

CONTRIBUTORS

E.S. E.V. E.W.F. E.Z. F.A.K. F.B.Z. F.H. F.N. F.W.S. G.C. G.W.W. H.C.S. H.G.M. H-J.H. H.K. H.L. H.N. H.P. I.B. I.H. J.P. J.F.O. J.H.

J.LAR. J.M. J.O-S. J.R.W. J.S. J.T.H. J.W.

Ezra Sims, Cambridge, Mass. (Microtone and related articles). Edith Vogl, Brookline, Mass. (Czechoslovakia). Edward W. Flint, Lincoln, Mass. (Organ I-XI). Ella Zonis, University of Chicago. (Persia). Fritz A. Kuttner, New York, N.Y. (Stroboconn). Franklin B. Zimmerman, University of Pennsylvania (rev. England, Ireland, and related articles). Frank Hubbard, Waltham, Mass. (Harpsichord; Pedal harpsichord; Spinet 1). Frederick Neumann, University of Richmond (Inegales). Frederick W. Sternfeld, Oxford University (Film music). Grosvenor Cooper, University of Chicago (Accent 1; rev. Meter, Rhythm, and related articles). G. Wallace Woodworth, Harvard University (Music appreciation; Symphony). H. Colin Slim, University of California, Irvine (rev. Ricercar). Henry G. Mishkin, Amherst College (Academy). Hans-Jorgen Holman, Andrews University (Norway). Helmut Kallmann, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Canada). Hugo Leichtentritt, Harvard University (Music criticism). Hugo Norden, Boston University (Bowing). Henri Pousseur, Malmedy, Belgium (Period; Serial music). Ingrid Brainard, West Newton, Mass. (rev. Ballet; Dance music and related articles). Isobel Henderson, Oxford University (Greece 1-111; Pyknon). John Ferris, Memorial Church, Harvard University (Organ I-XI). John F. Ohl, Northwestern University (Recorder). John Horton, Brentwood, Essex, England (rev. Denmark, Finland, Sweden). Jan La Rue, New York University (Computer; Plate numbers; Style analysis). Jose Maceda, University of the Philippines (Philippines). Juan Orrego-Salas, Indiana University (Latin American music articles). John Reeves White, Pro Musica Antiqua, New York, N.Y. (Aleatory music; Klangfarbenmelodie; rev. Music criticism). Joel Sheveloff, Boston University (Mazurka; rev. Poland). John Tasker Howard (Negro music; American Indian music 1). James Walker, Harvard University (Band; Brass band; Military music; Symphonic band).

viii

CONTRIBUTORS

J.W.W. K.L. K.N. L.B.S. L.E. L.G. L.G.R. L.H. L.H.M. M.H. M.K. M.V. N.P. N.S. O.A. O.W. P.A. P.L.M. R.A. R.A.R. R.B. R.C.P. S.B. S.K. T.J.Y. T.V.K. V.H.D. V.P.D.

John Wesley Work, Fisk University (add. to Negro music; Jazz and related articles). Kenneth Levy, Princeton University (rev. Russia 1). Kalman Novak, South End Music Center, Boston (rev. Sightreading). Lincoln B. Spiess, Washington University (Tune book). The Rev. Leonard Ellinwood, Washington, D.C. (Anglican chant; Anglican church music and related articles). Lawrence Gushee, University of Wisconsin (rev. Tonus, Trope 1, 3). Leonard G. Ratner, Stanford University (Development). Lloyd Hibberd, West Texas State University (Blues; Dictionaries). Lawrence H. Moe, University of California, Berkeley (Passamezzo, Romanesca, and related dances). Mantle Hood, University of California, Los Angeles (Bali; Ethnomusicology; Java). Masakata Kanazawa, Tokyo (Japan and related articles). Milos Velimirovic, Yale University (Bulgaria; Gusle; Yugoslavia). Norman Phelps, Ohio State University (Theory). Nicolas Slonimsky, University of California, Los Angeles (Russia II). Olga Averino, Longy School of Music, Cambridge, Mass. (rev. Voice). Owen Wright, University of London (Arab music). Putnam Aldrich, Stanford University (Ornamentation and related articles). Philip Lieson Miller, New York Public Library (Phonograph). Ross Allen, Indiana University (Radio and television broadcasting). Robert A. Rosevear, University of Toronto (Music education). Rose Brandel, Hunter College of the City University of New York (Africa). Rulan C. Pian, Harvard University (China and related articles). Steven Barwick, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (rev. Spain and related articles). Sylvia Kenney, Smith College (rev. Descant; Discant). T. J. Young, Wellington, New Zealand (Australia II). Tran Van Khe, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique, Paris (Vietnam). Vincent H. Duckles, University of California, Berkeley (rev. Libraries). Vernon Perdue Davis, Courtland, Virginia (Liturgical books III; Response; Suffrages).

IX

CONTRIBUTORS

V.Y.

v.z. w.c. W.D.D. W.H.C. W.K.

W.P.

Victor Yellin, New York University (United States). Victor Zuckerkandl, St. John's College, Annapolis (Schenker system). William Christ, Indiana University (add. to Degrees). William D. Denny, University of California, Berkeley (Bohm system; Orchestration; various instruments). William H. Cavness, WGBH, Boston (rev. Radio and television broadcasting). Walter Kaufmann, Indiana University (India). Walter Piston, Harvard University (Harmonic rhythm).

X

Abbreviations Abbreviations used in this dictionary are grouped in the following sections below: Periodicals; Books; Collective Publications; Signs and Symbols.

Periodicals Reference is usually made by annual volume numbers (i, ii, iii), if a list of contents is given with the volume. Otherwise, copy or page numbers are added. Special methods of reference (e.g., when volume numbering is inconsistently used) are indicated below. When the title of an article is essentially identical with that of the subject under consideration, this title is usually omitted. "Editions" refers to the article on Editions, historical, in the body of the book. AM AMF AMW AnM AnnM BAMS BJ BSIM

BUM DM

GSJ JAMS JMP JMT JMW KJ LRM MA MD MF MJM ML MM MQ MR Notes

Acta musicologica, 1928-; the first two volumes were published as Mitteilungen der internationalen Gesellschaft for Musikwissenschaft. Archiv for Musikforschung, 1936-43. Archiv fur Musikwissenschaft, 1918-27; 1952-. Anuario musical, 1946-. Annates musicologiques, 1953-. Bulletin of the American Musicological Society, 1936-48. Bach Jahrbuch, 1904-.

Abbreviation for a monthly publication that appeared from 1905 to 1914 under five different titles, as follows: i-iii, Le Mercure musical· iv-v, Bulletin fram;ais de Ia Societe internationale de musique; vi-vii, S.l.M. revue musicale mensuelle; viii-ix, Revue musicale S.I.M.; x, La Revue musicale S.l.M. See also RMC. Bulletin de Ia societe "Union musicologique," 1921-26. Die Musik, 1901-15 in 24 copies per year, numbered i.l-i.24 to xiv.l-xiv.24; 1922-42 in 12 copies per year, numbered xv.l-xv.l2, etc. The Galpin Society Journal, 1948-. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 1948-. Jahrbucher der Musikbibliothek Peters, 1894-1940. Journal of Music Theory, 1957-. Jahrbacher for musikalische Wissenschaft, 2 vols., 1863, 1867. Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch, 1886-1938, 1950-; preceded by Ciicilien Kalender, 1876-85. La Rassegna musicale, 1928-. The Musical Antiquary, 1909-13. Musica disciplina, 1948-; the first volume was published as Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music, 1946-47. Die Musikforschung, 1948-. Monatsheftefor Musik-Geschichte, 1869-1905. Music and Letters, 1920-. Modern Music, 1924-46. The Musical Quarterly, 1915-. The Music Review, 1940-. Notes for the Music Library Association, Series One, nos. 1-15, July 1934December 1942; Second Series i, I, December 1943. xi

ABBREVIATIONS

PAMS PMA RBM RCG RdM

RG

RM RMC RMI SIM SJ

StM TG TV VMW ZIM ZMW

Papers Read by Members of the American Musicological Society, 1936-41; this periodical appeared under various similar titles. Proceedings of the [Royal] Musical Association, 1874-; the designation Royal was added beginning with vol. lxxi. Revue beige de musicologie, 1946-. Revue du chant gregorien, 1892-1939. Revue de musicologie, 1922-; preceded by Bulletin de Ia Societe fram;aise de musicologie, 1917-21. Three volumes (1942-44) appeared under the title Societe franr,;aise de musicologie, rapports et communications. References are made by year ' and page. The volume numbering is inconsistent. . Revue gregorienne, 1911-; there was an English language edition for the years 1954-58. La Revue musicale, 1920-. References are made to year (1920, etc.) and number. La Revue musicale, ed. J. Combarieu, 1901-10; the first volume was called Revue d'histoire et de critique musicales; in 1911 it was merged with BSIM. Rivista musicale italiana, 1894-1955. Sammelbiinde der internationalen Musikgesellschaft, 1899-1914. Schweizerisches Jahrbuch fUr Musikwissenschaft, 1924-38. Studien zur Musikwissenschaft (Beihefte der Denkmliler der Tonkunst in Osterreich), 1913-34, 1955-. La Tribune de Saint-Gervais, 1895-1929. Tijdschrift der Vereeniging voor Noord-nederlands Muziekgeschiedenis, 1882-. Vols. xviiff entitled Tijdschrift voor Muziekwetenschap. Vierteljahrsschrift fUr Musikwissenschaft, 1885-94. Zeitschrift der internationalen Musikgesellschaft, 1899-1914. Zeitschrift fUr Musikwissenschaft, 1918-35.

Books G. Adler, Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, 2 vols., 1930. W. Apel, Gregorian Chant, 1958. W. Apel, Musik aus frilher Zeit fUr Klavier, 2 vols., 1934. W. Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900-1600, 5th ed., 1961. Antiphonale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae, 1949 (no. 820A, edition in neumatic signs). BeMMR H. Besseler, Die Musik des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, 1931 (part of BuHM). BG Bach-Gesellschaft, Johann Sebastian Bachs Werke, 46 vols., (1851-1900). BuHM E. Biicken, ed., Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, 13 vols., 1927-31. BuMBE M. F. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era, 1947. BWV W. Schmieder, ed., Bach- Werke- Verzeichnis, 1950-61. cs C.-E.-H. de Coussemaker, Scriptorum de musica medii aevi novam seriem a Gerbertina alteram collegit nuncque primum edidit E. de Coussemaker, 4 vols., 1864-76; fac. ed., 1931, 1963. DdT Denkmliler deutscher Tonkunst, 65 vols., 1892-1931 (see Editions XIII). DTB Denkmliler der Tonkunst in Bayern, 36 vols., 1900-31 (see Editions XIV). DTO Denkmliler der Tonkunst in Osterreich, 115 vols., 1894- (see Editions XV). EiBM A. Einstein, Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte, 1930 (incorporated in his A Short History of Music, 2nd ed., 1938). GD G. Grove, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 4th ed. (H. C. Colles), 5 vols., 1940. GDB G. Grove, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed. (E. Blom), 9 vols., 1954. AdHM ApGC ApMZ ApNPM AR

xii

ABBREVIATIONS T. Gerold, Histoire de Ia musique des origines a Ia fin du XIV• siecle, 1963. Graduale sacrosanctae Romanum ecclesiae, 1961 (no. 696, edition in neumatic signs). GrHWM D. J. Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960. M. Gerbert, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, 3 vols., 1784; GS fac. ed., 1931, 1963. HAM Historical Anthology of Music, ed. A T. Davison and W. Apel, 2 vols., rev. ed., 1949, 1950. A Lavignac, Encyclopedie de Ia musique, 1913-31; Histoire: i.l-5; Technique: LavE ii.l-6. LBCM P. Lang and N. Broder, ed., Contemporary Music in Europe, 1965 (also in MQ li). LU Liber usualis missae et officii, 1961 (no. 801, edition in neumatic signs). MaMI S. Marcuse, Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, 1964. MGG Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, ed. F. Blume, 13 vols. to date, 1949-. Neue Ausgabe Siimtlicher Werke [J. S. Bach], 1954; 8 ser. (projected c. 84 vols.); NBA each vol. has a summary (Kritischer Bericht) in a separate vol. NOH New Oxford History of Music, vols. i-iii, 1954-60. The Oxford History of Music, vols. i-vi, 1901-05; mainly vol. i. OH ReMMA G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, 1940. ReMR G. Reese, Music in the Renaissance, rev. ed., 1959. RiHM H. Riemann, Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, 5 vols., 1904--13. RiMB H. Riemann, ed., Musikgeschichte in Beispielen, 1912. RISM Repertoire international des sources musicales, 1960-. SaHMI C. Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments, 1940. SaRM C. Sachs, Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, 1913. SchGMB A Schering, ed., Geschichte der Musik in Beispielen, 1931. SSR 0. Strunk, ed., Source Readings in Music History from Classical Antiquity through the Romantic Era, 1952. TaAM G. Tagliapietra, ed., Antologia di musica . .. per pianoforte, 18 vols., 1931-32. WoGM J. Wolf, Geschichte der Mensural-Notation von I250-1460, 3 vols., 1904. J. Wolf, Handbuch der Notationskunde, 2 vols., 1913-19. WoHN

GeHM GR

Collective Publications The abbreviation CP is used for the following collective publications (reports of congresses, and Festschriften): CP 1900 Congres international d'histoire de Ia musique tenu a Paris ... 1900 (1901). CP 1906 Bericht iiber den zweiten Kongress der internationalen Musikgesellschaft zu Basel . .. 1906 (1907). CP 1909 Haydn-Zentenarfeier: III. Kongress der internationalen Musikgesellschaft, Wien ... 1909 (1909). CP 1911 Report of the Fourth Congress of the International Musical Society, London ... 1911 (1912). CP 1924 Bericht iiber den musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress in Basel ... 1924 (1925). CP 1925 Bericht iiber den I. musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress der deutschen Musikgesellschaft in Leipzig ... 1925 (1926). CP 1927 Beethoven-Zentenarfeier Wien . .. 1927: Internationaler musikhistorischer Kongress (1927). CP 1930 Societe internationale de musicologie, premier congres, Liege 1930 (1931 ). CP 1939 Papers Read at the International Congress of Musicology ... New York ... 1939 (1944). XIII

ABBREVIATIONS

CP 1949 CP 1950 CP 1950a CP 1952 CP 1953

Societe internationale de musicologie, quatrieme congres, Bale ... 1949 (n.d.). Atti del congresso internazionale di musica sacra ... Roma ... 1950 (1952). Kongress-Bericht Gesellschaft fur Musikforschung Liineburg 1950 (n.d.). Societe internationale de musicologie, cinquieme congres, Utrecht . .. 1952 (1953). Bericht iiber den internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress Bamberg 1953 (1954).

CP 1955 Les Colloques de Wegimont: J/-1955: L'Ars nova (1959). CP 1956 Bericht iiber den internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress Wien Mozartjahr 1956 (1958). CP 1956a Bericht iiber den internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress Hamburg 1956 \ (1957).

CP 1958 Bericht iiber den siebenten internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress KO!n 1958 (1959). CP 1961 International Musicological Society: Report of the Eighth Congress New York 1961, vol. i (1961). CP 1962 Bericht iiber den internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress Kassel 1962 (1963).

CP Abert Gedenkschrift for Hermann Abert (1928). CP Adler Studien zur Musikgeschichte: Festschrift for Guido Adler ( 1930). CP Angles Misceldnea en homenaje a Monseiior Higinio Angles, 2 vo1s. (1958, '61). CP Ape! Essays in Musicology: A Birthday Present for Willi Ape! (1967). CP Bartok Studia memoriae Belae Bartok sacra (1956). CP Besseler Festschrift Heinrich Besseler zum sechzigsten Geburtstag (1961). CP Blume Friedrich Blume Festschrift (1963). CP Borren Hommage a Charles van den Borren (1945). CP Borren, 1964 Liber amicorum Charles van den Borren (1964). CP Closson Melanges Ernest Closson (1948). CP Davison Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison (1957). CP Fellerer Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag (1962). CP Kretzschmar Festschrift Hermann Kretzschmar (1918). CP Kroyer Theodor Kroyer-Festschrift (1933). CP Laurencie Melanges de musicologie offerts a M. Lionel de Ia Laurencie (1933). CP Liliencron Festschrift . .. Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (1910). CP Masson Melanges . .. offerts a Paul-Marie Masson, 2 vo1s. (1955). CP Nef Festschrift Karl Nef(1933). Festschrift Alfred Ore! (1960). CP Ore! CP Osthoff Festschrift Helmuth Osthoffzum 65. Geburtstage (1961). CP Reese Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: A Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese (1966).

CP Riemann Riemann-Festschrift (1909). CP Sachs The Commonwealth of Music in Honor of Curt Sachs (1965). CP Sandberger Festschrift ... Adolf Sandberger (1918). CP Schering Festschrift Arnold Schering (1937). CP Scheurleer Gedenkboek aangeboden an Dr. D. F. Scheurleer (1925). CP Schmidt-Gorg Festschrift Joseph Schmidt-Gorg (1957). CP Schneider Festschrift Max Schneider zum 60. Geburtstag (1935). CP Schneider, 1955 Festschrift Max Schneider zum achtzigsten Geburtstage (1955). CP Seiffert Musik und Bild: Festschrift Max Seiffert (1938). CP Waesberghe Organicae Voces: Festschrift Joseph Smits van Waesberghe (1963). CP Wagner Festschrift Peter Wagner (1926). CP Wolf Musikwissenschaftliche Beitriige: Festschrift for Johannes Wolf (1929).

xiv

ABBREVIATIONS

Signs and Symbols For the method employed to indicate octaves, see under Pitch names. *indicates that this subject is covered in a separate article (whose exact title sometimes differs slightly from the starred word, e.g., *Greek music is covered under Greece, *intermezzi under Intermezzo, etc.) t indicates publication consisting mainly or exclusively of music abbr. add. app. Arab. bibl. BibI. Brit. Brit. Mus.

c. Cat. cent. ch. comp., compl. comp. ed. Cz. Dan. diss. E., Eng. ed. ex. F. fac. fac. ed. G. Gael. Gr.

abbreviation, abbreviated addition appendix Arabic bibliography Bibliotheque, Biblioteca, etc. British British Museum circa Catalan century, centuries chapter(s)

Hung. Icel. ill. It. Jap. L.

lit. movt. opp. pl. Pol. Port. Prov. Ps. pub. rev. rev. ed. repr. Rus. ser. Sp. sup. sup pl. Swed. trans. transcr. unpub. vol(s).

complete complete edition Czech Danish dissertation English editor, edited, edition example French facsimile facsimile edition German Gaelic Greek

XV

Hungarian Icelandic illustration Italian Japanese Latin literally, literature movement opposite, facing plural Polish Portuguese Proven~al

Psalm published revised revised edition reprinted, reproduced Russian senes Spanish supplement supplementary Swedish translated (by) transcribed unpublished volume(s)

Harvard Dictionary of Music

If you want to understand the invisible, look carefully at the visible. The Talmud

xviii

Harvard Dictionary of Music

A A. (l) See Pitch names; Letter notation; Hexachord; Pitch. (2) On the title page of *partbooks of the 16th century A stands for altus. In liturgical books it stands for antiphon. (3) A; a [It.; F.], to, at, with; e.g., *a piacere; a 2, a 3 uoci, etc. Ab [G.]. Off, with reference to organ stops or mutes. Abandonne [F.], con abbandono [It.]. Unrestrained, free. A battuta [It.]. See Battuta. Abbellimenti [It.]. Embellishments, *ornaments. Abbreviations. The most important abbreviations used in musical notation are indicated in the accompanying illustration.

f ,,

d1J d1J ., 1 if r r r r r r r r 1

(pianoforte)

1@!

g (violin)

I& p n xxl pn i

segue

!@g:rJ HI

Abdampfen [G.]. To mute, especially kettledrums. Abduction from the Seraglio. See Entfohrung aus dem Serail, Die. Abegg Variations. R. Schumann's Variations for piano op. l, dedicated to his friend Meta Abegg. The first five notes of the theme, a'b'b e"g"g", read, in German pitch names, A-B-E-G-G. Abendmusik [G.]. Evening musical performances, usually of a religious or contemplative nature. The term applies particularly to the famous concerts started in 1673 by Dietrich Buxtehude in the Marienkirche of Liibeck in North Germany. These took place annually on the five Sundays before Christmas, following the afternoon service, and consisted of organ music and concerted pieces of sacred music for orchestra and chorus [see DdT 14]. They continued untill8l0. In 1705 J. S. Bach walked 200 miles from Arnstadt to Liibeck to hear the Abendmusik. Lit.: C. Stiehl, Die Organisten an der St. Marienkirche und die Abendmusiken zu Lubeck (1885); W. Stahl, Die Liibecker Abendmusiken (1937); W. Maxton, in ZMWx. A bene placito [It.]. Same as *a piacere. Abgesang [G.]. See Bar form.

}11)

p1J I

JPJ6JitJii

(@1t f[3] 1111 J J J J J JJJ rrn11

Abnehmend [G.]. Diminuendo. Abschieds-Symphonie [G., Farewell Symphony]. Popular name for Haydn's Symphony no. 45 in F-sharp minor, composed in 1772. It refers to the last movement, whose closing section is so designed that the players can leave one by one, the last measures being played by only two violins. This charming jest was meant to inform the Prince of Esterhaza, whom Haydn served as a conductor, of the orchestra's desire to leave his summer palace in the country and return to Vienna. Abschnitt [G.]. Section.

Abbreviations

Absetzen [G.]. (l) To separate, either notes [detache; see Bowing (b)] or phrases. (2) In 16th-

ABSOLUTE MUSIC

ACADEMY

century terminology, absetzen in die Tabulatur means to transcribe (vocal music) into *tablature.

standard pitch has gradually changed (greatly in the case of Bach), usually to become higher, it could be said that, from the standpoint of absolute pitch, all present-day performances of music written prior to the general acceptance of the modern concert pitch [see Pitch (2)] are "wrong." If a musician with absolute pitch who lived one hundred years ago were alive today, he would be horrified to hear Beethoven's Fifth Symphony played in what would be to him C-sharp minor. Lit.: C. H. Wedell, The Nature of the Absolute Judgment of Pitch (1934); L. A. Petrau, An Experimental Study of Pitch Recognition (1932); A. Wellek, Das absolute Gehor und seine Typen (1938), bibl.; C. E. Seashore, The Measurement of Musical Memory (1917); 0. Abraham, in SIM iii, viii; F. Auerbach, in SIM viii; H. Riemann, in ZIM xiii; J. Kobelt, in AMW ii, bibl.; G. Revesz, "Uber die beiden Arten des absoluten GehOrs" (ZIM xiv); N. Slonimsky, in American Mercury xxi; W. K. Sumner, "A History of Musical Pitch" (Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book vii); E. B. Hartman, 'The Influence of Practice ... on the Absolute Identification of Pitch" (The American Journal of Psychology lxvii).

Absolute music. Music that is free from extra-

musical implications. The term is used most frequently in contradistinction to *program music, in which pictorial or poetic ideas are portrayed. It usually excludes vocal music, especially the type in which the text clearly influences the musical language and structure (e.g., a song by Schubert). Occasionally the term is employed in a stricter sense, excluding not only program and vocal music but also music of a definite emotional character (romantic music), so that Bach and, to some extent, Mozart are considered composers of absolute music. Absolute pitch [G. absolute TonhOhe]. Properly, "the position of a tone in reference to the whole range of pitch ... , conceived as independently determined by its rate of vibration" (Webster). Usually, however, the term is used for what might more accurately be called "absolute judgment of (absolute) pitch," i.e., the capacity of a person to identify a musical sound immediately by name, without reference to a previously sounded note of different pitch [see Relative pitch]. This faculty, called in German absolutes Gehor, is a tonal memory that is sometimes innate but can also be acquired by training, as recent experiments have shown. The faculty, whether innate or acquired, is found chiefly in persons possessing some degree of musical experience or aptitude but can by no means be considered a yardstick of musical talent. Many instrumentalists have absolute pitch (probably acquired through years of training), but among outstanding composers and performers it is probably as often lacking as not. While Mozart had an extremely acute sense of absolute pitch, Wagner and Schumann are reputed to have lacked it. Absolute pitch is in various respects a valuable asset to a musician, particularly to a conductor, but it may prove a real inconvenience when music must be transposed in performance to another key, as often happens in vocal music to accommodate the range of the singer. Whether it is an advantage or a disadvantage to hear a composition "all wrong" simply because it is a half-tone higher or lower is indeed questionable. All the discussions about the "true pitch" of Beethoven's C-minor Symphony, for example, are entirely pointless unless the standard pitch of Beethoven's day is taken into account. Since

Absonia [L.]. See under Musicaficta II. Abstossen [G.]. (l) In violin playing, same as abgestossen, i.e., detache [see Bowing (b)]. (2) In organ playing, to take off a stop [see Ab]. Abstract music. Same as *absolute music. Abstrich [G.]. Down-bow. Abzug [G.]. *Scordatura. Also, older term for

*appoggiatura. Academic Festival Overture. See Akademische

Festouverture. Academy. A term used for scholarly or artistic

societies and musical organizations of various types. The rediscovery, in the late 15th century, of Greek antiquity and Greek literature led to the foundation in 1470 of an Accademia di Platone at the court of Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence, in direct imitation of Plato's Academy. In the 16th century a number of academies were established in France, among them BaiT's Academie de Poesie et Musique (1567), which played a role in the development of the *vers mesures. With the beginning of the 17th century, the movement spread enormously in Italy; every place of some repute had its accademia, and larger cities had numbers of them. They were of 2

ACADEMY

ACCELERANDO

Music; Berlin, Staatliche Akademie fUr Kirchenund Schulmusik; Munich, Konigliche Akadernie der Tonkunst (founded 1846); Philadelphia, Academy of Music (1870); New York, Academy of Allied Arts (School of Music, 1928). For a medieval institution of a similar nature, see Puy. See also Societies. Lit.: M. Maylender, Storia delle accademie d'ltalia, 5 vols. (l926ff); F. A Yates, The French Academies of the Sixteenth Century (1947); N. Morini, La Reale Accademia filarmonica di Bologna (1930); G. Turrini, Riordino della biblioteca ... della societa L 'Accademia Filarmonica di Verona ... 1543-1600 (1933); A Einstein, in BAMS vii, 22; H. Burton, in RdM 1955, p. 122 (France, 18th century); id., in M L xxxvii. H.G.M. and W.A.

two types: (a) Learned societies founded for the promotion of science, literature, and the arts, part of whose activity was the encouragement and cultivation of music. The most famous of these was the A dei Arcadi of Rome (founded 1692), which included among its members the musicians Marcello, Corelli, A Scarlatti, and Gluck. Handel attended many meetings but as a foreigner was not eligible for membership. Other institutions of the same type existed in Florence: A della Crusca (1588), A dei Filarmonici; in Bologna: A dei Gelati (1588), A dei Concordi (1615), A. dei Filomusi (1622); in Venice: A Pellegrina (1550), A degli Olimpici; in Verona: A. Filarmonica (1543), probably the earliest musical academy; and elsewhere. (b) Organizations of professional and amateur musicians whose sole purpose was the cultivation of music. The activities of these groups were varied; they gave public and private concerts, carried on research in the history of music and in the science of sound, founded music schools, and even launched operatic enterprises. The most important of these was the A. dei Filarmonici of Bologna, founded in 1666 by Count Vincenzo Carrati, which included among its members such distinguished figures as Bassani (c. 1657-1716), Corelli (1653-1713), Torelli (1658-1709), Domenico Gabrielli (c. 1650-90), Padre Martini (1706-84), Mozart (1756-91), Rossini (1792-1868), and Busoni (1866-1924). Today there are many similar institutions (some no longer using the name "academy"), which can be divided into three categories: (a) Learned associations, part of whose activity is the promotion of musical studies. They usually have a membership limited to those of demonstrable ability, hold periodic discussions and proceedings that often are published, and generally offer honors, medals, or prizes for achievement in composition or research. Many of these are state-supported: Paris, Institut de France, division Academie des Beaux Arts; Berlin, Akademie der Kiinste; Brussels, Academie Royale; others in Stockholm and Moscow. (b) Organizations for the presentation of operas and concerts: Paris, Theatre national de l'Opera (formerly Academie nationale de Musique); London, Royal Academy of Music and Academy of Ancient Music; Munich, Akademie der Tonkunst; New York, Metropolitan Opera Association (formerly the Academy of Music); Brooklyn, Academy of Music (founded 1861), etc. [see Opera houses]. (c) Institutions of musical education: London, Royal Academy of

Acalanto [Port.]. A Brazilian cradle song, also known as cantigas de ninar. These have developed within a great variety of folk traditions, including some originating in northeastern Indian cultures that still retain pure Portuguese influences. J.O-s. A cappella [It.]. Designation for choral music without instrumental accompaniment. Originally the name referred to unaccompanied church music like that written by Palestrina. Today it is used for all unaccompanied choral music, whether sacred or secular. Historians of the 19th century believed that all "early music" -i.e., music before 1600-was a cappella. Recent investigations, however, have clearly shown that instruments played a prominent role in the performance of medieval music, at least as an ad libitum addition to or substitution for one voice-part or another [see Performance practice]. Probably it was not until 1450 (motets and Masses of Ockeghem) that purely choral performance became generally accepted and universally practiced in the field of sacred music. Often the term a cappella has the connotation of a specific style, namely that of Palestrina. Lit.: J. Handschin, "Die Grundlagen des a cappella-Stils," in Hans Hiiusermann und der Hiiusermannsche Privatchor (1929), p. 109; T. Kroyer, "Acappella [sic] oder Conserto?" (CP Kretzschmar); id., in AMW ii; id., in AM vi. Acathistus. *Akathistos. Accacciatura. Erroneous spelling for *acciacca-

tura. Accelerando [It.]. Becoming faster.

3

ACCENT

ACC/ACCATURA of *Nachschllige. In Bach's table of ornaments (Klavierbiichlein for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach), a long appoggiatura. (3) Signs used in ancient Greek writing to indicate a change of pitch of the voice in recitation: accentus acutus ·, for a rise; a. gravis ', for a lowering; a. circumfiexus ', for an inflection (rise, followed by lowering) of the voice. These signs are now thought to be the origin of the (accent) neumes [see Neumes II] and certain other related systems of notation, called *ecphonetic notation. (4) The notational signs used in Jewish chant (I) by G.c. [see Jewish music II].

Accent (1) Emphasis on one note or chord. In this sense, the term is equivocal, because the emphasis may be physically discernible, or it may lie solely in the way the listener perceives musical movement. Physically, a note or chord may be louder than its surroundings (dynamic accent), or it may be higher (*tonic accent), or of longer duration (*agogic accent). See Ex. l. On the other hand, since the listener perceives music as sound in motion, an upbeat (or a more extended anacrusis) is felt as leading somewhere, and the note or chord to which it leads is thus emphasized (accented) in the mind, even if the goal of motion should be softer, lower, or shorter than its surroundings; in like manner, a feminine rhythm is perceived as an accent followed by a movement away from it. In measure-music [see Measure], both physical and mental accents normally fall on the downbeat, with secondary accents occurring in the middle of the measure in compound meters, e.g., on the third beat in 4/4 time. Frequently, however, irregular accents are found on weak beats [see Syncopation]. Irregular dynamic accent is usually indicated by signs such as sf, Ex. 2 (Mozart, Symphony in G minor no. 40) shows an irregular dynamic accent that is at the same time tonic and agogic. The emphasis on the weak beat is often enhanced by means of striking dissonances, as in Ex. 3. The tonic accent has played a role in the discussions on Gregorian chant and other types of medieval monophonic music.

Accentualists. See under Gregorian chant VI. Accentuation. The proper placement of accents, especially in music set to a text. See Text and music. Accentus, concentus. Terms introduced (?) by Ornithoparchus (in his Musicae activae micrologus, 1517) for two opposite types of plainsong: the simple recitations, such as lesson tones, psalm tones (accentus); and the chants having distinctive melodic contours, such as antiphons, responsories, hymns, Mass chants, etc. (concentus). The terms also imply a distinction between two kinds of performer: the accentus is sung by the priest; the concentus by the trained musicians (schola, with soloists and choir). See P. Wagner, EirifUhrung in die Gregorianischen Melodien, iii (1921), 4.

>, -.

>

F F FI f F F Do - mi - no

3

I@

I!;~

Ir I!

Do - mi - no

r·

Acciaccatura. Italian name for an ornament of keyboard (harpsichord) music (c. 1675-1725) that calls for the playing, together with the normal note, of its neighboring tone (usually the lower second), which is to be released immediately "as if the key were hot" (Geminiani). This ornament usually occurs in connection with chords, the chords often including two and occasionally even three acciaccatura tones. The tones are written as ordinary notes, so that the chord takes on the appearance of an extremely dissonant *tone cluster [Ex. 1]. Such formations occur in several compositions by A. Scarlatti [*Editions X, 13, p. 90] and figure prominently in a sonata by D. Scarlatti [Ex. 2; see HAM, no. 274]. A simpler example occurs in the Scherzo of Bach's Partita no. 3 [Ex. 3]. The French counterpart is the arpegement figure, in which the dissonant tone (usually only one) is indicated by a diagonal dash, and which, as the name implies, is performed as an arpeggio [Ex. 4]. A sonata by Blasco de Nebra (c. 1750-84) contains similar

FI F

Do-mi-no

~~ I r~ I

See G. W. Cooper and L. B. Meyer, The Rhythmic Structure of Music [1960],passim; V. d'lndy, Cours de composition musicale, 2 vols. in 3 pts. [1902?-10], vol. i, pp. 29-46. (2) [F.]. In French music of the 17th and 18th centuries, an ornament belonging to the class 4

ACCIDENTALS

ACC/DENTALS

signs ~. b, q answer the purpose [Ex. 1]. In modem practice a sign affects the note immediately following and is valid for all the notes of the same pitch (but not in different octaves) within the same measure. Modem composers frequently add bracketed accidentals to those demanded by this rule in order to clarify complicated passages or chords. (~

q)

F qr I f I II. History. All the signs used for chromatic alteration developed from the same sign, namely, the letter b, which indicates the whole tone above a. The fact that in the diatonic scale no perfect fourth above f is available necessitated, as early as the lOth century, the introduction of another b, a semitone lower than the diatonic b [see Hexachord]. These two b's were distinguished by their shape, the higher one being written in a square form and called b quadratum (also b durum; L. durus, hard, angular), the lower in a rounded form and called b rotundum (also b molle; L. mollis, soft, round). It is from these designations that the German names Dur and Moll for major and minor mode are derived.

forms, in which, however, the dissonant note is obviously intended to be held [Ex. 5; see HAM, no. 308]. For an erroneous usage, common in modem writings, of the term acciaccatura (often misspelled accacciatura), see Appoggiatura III. Accidentals. I. General. The signs used in musical

notation to indicate chromatic alterations or to cancel them. The alterations valid for the entire composition are contained in the *key signature, while the term "accidentals" refers specifically to those alterations introduced for single notes. The signs for chromatic alteration, together with their names in English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish, are given in the following table:

b = b quadratum b = b rotundum When in the ensuing period the introduction of other chromatic tones became necessary, the square b (b durum) and its later modifications (q, ~) were used to indicate the higher of two sernitones, and the rounded b (b molle) or b the lower one. Thus, in early music, qf is not f natural but f-sharp; likewise, bf is not f-fiat, but f (in contradistinction to a previous f-sharp; see Ex. 2, from Frescobaldi's Canzone, 1628). Bach

~

b

E. F. G. It. Sp.

sharp diese Kreuz diesis sostenido

fiat bemol Be bemolle bemol

bb

~

E. F. G.

double fiat double bemol Doppel-Be doppio bemolle doble bemol

natural becarre Auflosungszeichen, Quadrat bequadro becuadro

I:>= r 'F ~r l1fJ d d If d f Id hJlJ diJ I

The sharp raises the pitch one sernitone, the fiat lowers it one semitone; the double sharp and double fiat raise and lower two sernitones respectively; the natural cancels any of the other signs. The use of the compound signs q~, qb, qq to cancel partly or entirely a previous x or bb is quite common but unnecessary. The simple

continued to use the sign b for the cancellation of a previous f~. In Germany, during the 15th century, the square b for b durum was erroneously interpreted as the letter h, to which it bears some visual resemblance. Hence, in German terminology h denotes the b natural, and b the b-fiat.

It. Sp.

X double sharp double diese Doppelkreuz doppio diesis doble sostenido

2

D Db

5

c cb

c~ c

ACCOMPANIMENT

ACCLAMATION In the printed books of the 16th century the sharp sign usually occurs in a diagonal position. The double sharp (used as early as 1615 in G. M. Trabaci's II Secondo Libro de ricercare) originally appeared as a sharp with doubled lines, in either a straight or a diagonal position. The present sign is a simplification of the latter. E I h ar Y s apes

{'llf* *

Sharp Double sharp Double sharp

In music prior to 1700 (probably even later) an accidental is not valid for the entire measure but only for the next note and immediate repetitions of the same note [see Ex. 3]. This practice 3 1

@· v" ttt1 w

¢E£1J ur

was still observed by Bach, as seen in Ex. 3, reproduced from his autograph of the Fantasia super Komm heiliger Geist (fac. ed. by P. Wackernagel, 1950; alto of meas. 6). Note that Bach did not write a fiat for the E at the beginning of meas. 7, although it is separated from the preceding E-fiat by a bar line. For the problem of accidentals in music of the 13th to 16th centuries, see Musica ficta. See F. Niecks, "The Flat, Sharp, and Natural" (PMA xvi). Acclamation. A type of Byzantine poetry and music that served as a salutation for the emperor (also the empress and the Patriarch) in the ceremonial of the Byzantine court of the 9th and lOth centuries. The acclamations are practically the only type of nonliturgical Byzantine music known today. Acclamations are still used in Russia and the Balkans for welcoming high church dignitaries. Those beginning with the traditional phrase "Many be the years" were called porychronia. [See the examples in ReMMA, p. 77, and in MQ xxiii, 207.] Lit.: AdHM i, 128; E. Wellesz, A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography, rev. ed. (1961), passim; H. Tillyard, in Annual of the British School of Athens xviii. Accolade [F.]. *Brace. Accompagnato [It.]. See Recitative II (c). 6

Accompaniment. I. The musical background provided for a principal part. For instance, in piano music the left hand often plays chords that are an accompaniment for the melody played by the right hand. Similarly, a solo singer or instrumentalist may be accompanied by a pianist or an orchestra. The auxiliary role of the accompaniment frequently leads to underestimation, by the soloist as well as the audience, of its musical and artistic importance. Vocalists especially are inclined to demand undue subordination of their accompanists, condemning them to complete slavery in questions of interpretation, tempo, dynamics, etc. The modern church organist, as well as the leader of a choir, is frequently confronted with the problem of providing suitable accompaniment, either improvised or written out, for the singing of the congregation or the chorus. Following are a number of books on this subject: J. F. Bridge, Organ Accompaniment of the Choral Service [1885]; D. Buck, Illustrations in Choir Accompaniment (1877); W. Hickin, Pianoforte Accompaniment (1923); A H. Lindo, The Art of Accompanying (1916); C. W. Pearce, The Organist's Directory to the Accompaniment of Divine Service (1908); AM. Richardson, Modern Organ Accompaniment (1907); E. Evans, How to Accompany at the Piano [1917]; J. R. Tobin, How to Improvise Piano Accompaniments ( 1956). See also Vamp. In Roman Catholic services Gregorian chant, although properly monophonic, is usually considered to need organ accompaniment, frequently in the style of 19th-century harmony. Attempts have been made to replace this style with modal harmonies, e.g., H. Potiron, Practical Instruction in Plainsong Accompaniment (1949); J. H. Arnold, Plainsong Accompaniment [1927]; E. Evans, The Modal Accompaniment of Plain Chant [1911] or with even more archaic idioms, such as *quartal harmonies or parallel organum [see Bernard Jones, An Ambrosian Mass (1962)]. II. There are many references to instrumental accompaniment of songs in the Bible (accompaniment on some stringed instrument is suggested by the term "Neginoth" in the heading of Ps. 6 in the King James Version; see also Pss. 91 [92] and 143 [144]) and in the writings of the ancient Greeks. Pictorial reproductions and literary documents of the Middle Ages show the use of harps, fiddles, bells, small drums, trumpets, etc., in connection with the monophonic songs of the troubadours and minnesingers, and in conjunction with dance music. In neither

ACCORDION

ACCOMPANIMENT

ancient nor medieval music was this improvised type of accompaniment ever of a harmonic nature; it was merely a unison (or octave) doubling of the voice-part, with occasional heterophonic elements [see Heterophony]. The same type of accompaniment is to be found in the East, especially China, India, and Arabia. While the texture of polyphonic music of the 9th to 13th centuries (organa, motets) does not permit its separation into parts of greater or less importance, such separation does occur in the French secular compositions of the 14th and early 15th centuries (ballades, virelais by G. de Machaut and his successors [see Ars nova]; chansons of Dufay and his contemporaries [see Burgundian school]). It disappears again with the rise of Flemish sacred music and Flemish counterpomt (Ockeghem, Obrecht), which are essentially opposed to any distinction between principal and auxiliary parts. The instrumental doubling · of vocal parts that was occasionally practiced in this period can scarcely be considered an accompaniment. In the 16th century the renewed emphasis on the secular immediately led to a revival of accompanied melody, e.g., in the lute songs of the German Schlick (1512), of the Spanish Valderrabano (1547), and of the English Dowland (1597). III. A new era of accompaniment began with the period of thoroughbass (baroque period, 1600-1750), which called for a harmonic accompaniment to be improvised upon the notes of the bass. Moreover, the growing interest in florid and singable melody brought about a gradually increasing separation of the musical substance into a predominant melody with subordinate accompaniment (e.g., in the aria). While throughout the baroque period the written-out accompaniment (and consequently also the improvised one) shows many traits of contrapuntal and harmonic interest, it degenerated in the second half of the 18th century into a stereotyped pattern of plain chords, arpeggios, *Alberti-bass figures, etc. As a curiosity it may be mentioned that, about 1760, sonatas were frequently written for the "pianoforte with the accompaniment of a violin or flute" (Mondonville, 1734, see Editions XLIX, 9; Schobert, see DdT 34; Edelmann, see HAM, no. 304), that is, with the violin or flute merely duplicating the upper part of the piano. Thus Samuel Wesley speaks of J. S. Bach's violin sonatas as "six sonatas for harpsichord with an obbligato violin accompaniment." IV. About 1780 Haydn and Mozart evolved a new type of accompaniment known as accom-

7

panimento obbligato, characterized by a greater individuality of the lower parts, by the occasional introduction of fugal elements, by the occasional shift of the melody from the higher part into a lower part, etc. This style is particularly evident in the quartets written in this period. Because of these efforts Beethoven was able to say of himself: "Ich bin mit einem obligaten Accompaniment auf die Welt gekommen" (I was born with an obbligato accompaniment). What Haydn and Mozart did in the field of instrumental music, Schubert achieved in the field of song, freeing the piano accompaniment from the slavery of mere chord-filling and making it an independent (sometimes the most interesting) part of the composition. Composers such as Schumann, Brahms, and H. Wolf adopted his method, whereas others (e.g., Tchaikovsky) rarely went beyond a chordal accompaniment in lush harmonies of rather ephemeral interest. Other composers (Mahler, Strauss) have repeatedly used the whole orchestra as an instrumental background for a solo singer. V. The extraordinary growth of accompanied melody in the songs of the 19th century had a deplorable effect upon the minds of musical scholars and editors engaged in the study and publication of early monophonic music (Greek music, exotic melodies, Gregorian chant, the songs of the trouveres, minnesingers, etc.). Numerous volumes have been published in which the melodies of the pre-Christian era or the Middle Ages are coupled with cheap accompaniments in the style of Schumann, Brahms, or Debussy. Even well-known scholars have not withstood this temptation [see 0. Fleischer, Reste der altgriechischen Tonkunst (1899) or J. Ribera's edition of the *cantigas]. For literature on the 17th-century accompaniment see Thoroughbass. See also Additional accompaniment. Accord [F.]. (l) Chord. (2) Manner of tuning, especially of such instruments as the lute, for which various systems of tuning were in use during the 17th century [see WoHN ii, 91; ApNPM, p. 7lf]. See Scordatura. Accordare [It.], accorder [F.]. To tune. Accordatura [It.]. See Accord (2). Accordion. A portable musical instrument consisting of two rectangular headboards connected by a folding bellows. Inside the headboards are metal tongues that act as free-beating reeds. The instrument has pushed-out and drawn-in reeds,

ACCORDO

ACOUSTICS

the former sounding when the headboards are moved outward (expiration), the latter when they are moved inward (inspiration). The modem accordion has a keyboard on the right side for playing melody notes, while buttons on the left side operate bass notes and full chords. See ill. under Wind instruments. The earliest instruments of this type were made by Buschmann (1822), Buffet (1827), and Damian (1829). A similar instrument, preferred in England, is the concertina, invented by Wheatstone in 1829. It is hexagonal in shape and has a number of studs on each side. It possesses a full chromatic scale and produces the same note whether the bellows are pressed or drawn. Artistically, this instrument is superior to the accordion and has occasionally been used in the orchestra (Tchaikovsky, Orchestral Suite op. 53). Much solo music has been written for it by such virtuosos as G. Regondi, W. B. Molique, G. A. Macfarren, and E. Silas. The bandoneon is an Argentine variety of accordion with buttons on each side, for single tones only.

of acoustics are: (l) the nature of musical sound; (2) intervals; (3) consonance and dissonance; (4) resonance; (5) architectural acoustics. Only the first subject will be treated here; for the others, see the respective entries. [For the method of indicating the different octaves, see Pitch names II.] I. Vibration. The generation of sound is invariably bound up with the vibration of an elastic body, i.e., a body that, when displaced from its normal position, develops internal forces that tend to restore the body to its original position. (The body may be a solid, like a violin string, or a gas, like the air in an organ pipe.) When the body has returned to its rest position, it is still moving and its momentum carries it past its rest position so that a new contrary displacement results. This leads to a repetition of the whole movement in the reverse direction and, in fact, to a succession of movements back and forth that would continue indefinitely were it not for friction, which causes the successive displacements to diminish and finally to stop. A tongue of steel fastened at one end may serve as an example [Ex. 1]. The movement A-B-A (or A-C-A orB-A-C) is called a "single vibration" (half vibration); the movement A-B-A-C-A (orB-A-C-A-B) is called a "double vibration" or simply a "vibration" or "cycle" (in modem writings usually the double vibration is used as the unit of measure). The distance A-C [Ex. 1] is called the amplitude. The number of double vibrations or cycles made in one second is called the frequency. Ex. 2 represents a vibration of three cycles per second. In order to understand the relation of this graph to the vibration it is meant to represent, one may imagine the lowest point of the tongue, A, to be made luminous and then photographed. If during the exposure the film is moved rapidly downward, the picture will show a wavy curve [Ex. 3] of the same shape as that of Ex. 2. If the same tongue is plucked with different degrees of force, the initial displacements will be different. Then the vibrations will have different amplitudes and the sounds heard by the ear will have different loudnesses [see Bel]; the greater the amplitude of the vibration, the louder the sound. As the amplitude diminishes [Ex. 4] the sound fades away. If the photographic experiment described above is repeated with a shorter tongue, the vibrations will be more rapid-of higher frequency- so that (if the speed of the moving film is the same) the waves of the curve will be closer

Accordo [It.]. Chord. Accuse [F.]. With emphasis. Achromatic. *Diatonic. Achtel, Achtelnote; Achtelpause [G.]. Eighth note; eighth rest. See Notes. Achtfuss [G.]. Eight-foot (stop). See Foot (2). Acis and Galatea. A dramatic cantata composed by Handel (about 1720) for the Duke of Chandos. Originally designated as masque, pastorale (pastoral play), or *serenata, it was intended to be sung in costume but without action. Based on the Greek legend, the work includes some selections for a chorus, which plays the role of commentator as does the chorus in ancient Greek drama. Acoustic bass (also called resultant bass). On organs, a 32-foot stop that is obtained as a differential tone of a 16-foot stop and a l0¥.J-foot stop. According to the acoustic phenomenon of the differential tones [see Combination tones], the simultaneous sounding of C (produced by the 16-foot) and of G (produced by the l0¥.J-foot) produces the tone C1 (32-foot). The acoustic bass is frequently used where the great expense of the large 32-foot pipes is prohibitive. Acoustics. The science that treats of sounds and therefore describes the physical basis of music. For the musician the most important problems

8

ACOUSTICS

together [Ex. 5] and the pitch of the corresponding sound will be higher. In fact, the pitch of a sound depends only on the frequency of the vibration that produces it. A sound of sufficient loudness is audible if its frequency is between approximately 16 and 20,000 cycles per second; the tones of the piano vary from about 30 to 4,000, those of the violin from about 200 to 3,000 cycles per second. The frequency of middle a (a') at concert pitch is 440 cycles per second. In the italicized statement above, the word only is of particular importance. As every musician knows, the pitch of a vibrating string is not altered by altering the force with which the string is set into vibration. In other words, the pitch does not depend upon the amplitude. The piano player obtains a tone of the same pitch regardless of whether he uses a pianissimo or fortissimo touch. Similarly, the pitch of a sound does not change as the loudness decreases and the sound dies away. II. Vibrating strings. If a violin string is plucked or bowed, each single point of the string will make a back-and-forth vibration comparable to that made by the lowest point of the steel tongue previously described. All these vibrations have the same frequency but differ in amplitude. For the purpose of our explanation, we can fix our attention on the point of the string that has the largest amplitude, i.e., the point at which the string is plucked. If this is the middle point of the string, the resulting phenomenon can be roughly illustrated by Ex. 6. III. Frequency, vibrating length, and pitch. The pitch of the sound produced by a vibrating string depends upon its weight per unit length (i.e., its material and its diameter), its tension, and its length. For the present purpose it is sufficient to consider only the last factor, the others being regarded as constant. These conditions are realized in the case of a single string whose vibrating length can be changed by stopping (violin) or by means of a movable bridge (*monochord). The following fundamental law results: The frequency of vibration of a string is inversely proportional to the vibrating length. This means that if a string one yard long gives a sound of the frequency 600 cycles per second, a string one-half yard long gives a sound of the frequency 1200 cycles per second, while a string two-thirds of a yard long produces a frequency of 600 X ~ = 900 cycles per second, and so on. The results have a more general application, however, if they are expressed in terms of fre-

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=

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9

ACOUSTICS

ACOUSTICS

quency rather than in terms of vibrating lengths. Thus expressed, they remain unchanged regardless of whether the sound is produced by a vibrating string or by a vibrating air column in a pipe, and they do not depend upon additional factors, such as the tension, thickness, or material of the string. The fundamental principle is: If the frequency of a tone is n, that of its octave is 2n, that of the fifth is ~n, and that of the major third is ¥-ln. From these tones, all the others of the diatonic scale can be derived [see Intervals, calculation of, II]. The result is as follows: c d e f g a Frequency (n = 1): I % ~ o/1 ¥.! Sf, Frequency (n = 24): 24 27 30 32 36 40 Vibrating length: 1 % ~ % ~ f5

~~~~ ~~~~ harmonics, produced simultaneously. The harmonic of lowest frequency is called the fundamental, and because it is louder than the others it determines the pitch of the composite tone. The frequencies of the other harmonics are exact multiples of the frequency of the fundamental; thus if the frequency of the fundamental is n, the other harmonics have frequencies of 2n, 3n, ... , 20n or more. The illustration [Ex. 8] shows the first 16 harmonics of the tone C. The harmonics above the fundamental are also called overtones. If the terms are properly used, the first overtone is the second harmonic, the second overtone is the third harmonic, and so on. Another term for the harmonics is partial tones, or partials. Although the terms harmonics and partials are frequently used as if interchangeable, the latter term has, in scientific studies, a wider significance, since it also includes nonharmonic overtones like those that occur in bells and in the complex sounds called noises. With the exception of the octaves (2, 4, 8), no harmonics are tones of equal temperament. Those that result from the factors 3 and 5 (3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, etc.) are tones of just intonation (see the table of frequencies above), whereas the harmonics 7, 11, 13, and 14 (indicated by black notes) can be only approximately identified with tones available in our system of tuning and notation. As can easily be seen, the 7th harmonic, which is 7 = 6 %, is lower than the b-flat ofjust intonation, which is 1% x 4 = 6 %; this, in tum, is slightly lower than the b-flat of equal temperament (the three tones form intervals, from c, of 969, 996, and 1000 *cents respectively). Similarly, the 11th harmonic, which is 11 = 4 +4, is lower than the f-sharp of just intonation (I~ x 3h = 4 ¥.1) and, in fact, is as close to the f as to the f-sharp of equal temperament (f = 500, 11th harmonic= 551, f-sharp = 600 cents). Finally, the 13th harmonic is 13 = 3 %, whereas the a of just intonation is ¥.1 x 8 = 4 %. Thus the 13th harmonic is actually closer to the g-sharp than to the a of equal temperament (g-sharp = 800, 13th harmonic = 840, a = 900 cents).

b c' 1% 2 45 48 '!-\, If.!

The illustration [Ex. 7] shows a number of frequencies calculated for the tone f' = 360 (the correct frequency for f' is 352). It must be noted that these frequencies give the tones of *just intonation, not of equal temperament [see Temperament]. IV. Harmonics, overtones. A string or other elastic body vibrating in the manner described above would produce what is called a pure tone, consisting of a single frequency. However, practically no vibrating body produces a pure tone. All musical instruments produce composite tones, consisting of many pure tones, called

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ACOUSTICS

ACOUSTICS

The harmonics are the cause of three important musical phenomena, namely, *timbre, the natural tones of *wind instruments, and the *harmonics of the violin. V. Pipes. In pipes (organ pipes, and all wind instruments) an enclosed air column is caused to vibrate. The molecules of air vibrate (in directions parallel to the length of the pipe) in such a way that the density of the air at any point in the pipe changes regularly from a highest to a lowest value and back again. In an open pipe (i.e., one open at both ends) the changes in density of the air are greatest; these points correspond to antinodes. Between them is a place where the density does not change; this is a node (N). The wavelength of the fundamental tone of an open pipe is therefore twice the length of the pipe (l = 2AB). In a stopped pipe (i.e., closed at one end and open at the other) there is a loop (L) at the open end and a node (N) at the closed end. The wavelength of the fundamental is therefore four times the length of the pipe (l = 4AB). Since wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, the open pipe has a fundamental an octave above that of a closed pipe of the same length. An open pipe sounding C measures approximately eight feet [see Foot (2)]. Like a vibrating string, an air column vibrates not only as a whole but also in parts (Y2, Y:J, II.!, 1-5, etc., of its length), thus producing harmonics. While an open pipe produces all the harmonics (as does a string), a stopped pipe segments so as to give out only the odd-numbered harmonics, 1, 3, 5, etc. The reason is that an even harmonic (e.g., 2) would call for an antinode at both ends of the pipe, while in a stopped pipe there must

The physical cause of the harmonics is that a vibrating body, such as a string, vibrates simultaneously as a whole and in sections of one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc., of its entire length [Ex. 9]. The secondary vibrations, however, have a much smaller amplitude, approximately onefifth to one-fiftieth of that of the fundamental, and the tones they produce are correspondingly less loud. Points on the string, such as the fixed ends, where the displacement is always zero, are called nodes; points midway between adjacent nodes, where the amplitude of vibration is greatest, are called antinodes or loops. The distance from one node to the next is one-half wavelength [cf. Ex. 2]. The existence of these additional tones in what the ear believes to be a single sound was shown first by Helmholtz (1821-94), who used *resonators of various sizes that reinforce one frequency and eliminate all the others. The harmonics can be easily demonstrated by the following simple experiment on the piano: depress the key for C without producing the sound, i.e., merely raise the damper of the string for C; then strike forcibly the key for C1 and release it at once; the higher C, corresponding to the tone of the depressed key, will be clearly heard. The experiment can be repeated by depressing the keys for G, c, e, g, etc., and striking each time the key for C1 . In every case, the tone corresponding to the depressed key will be heard. The explanation of this phenomenon is that the harmonics C, G, c, ... produced by the fundamental tone C1 generate, by way of resonance, sympathetic vibrations in the shorter strings corresponding to these tones.

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ACOUSTICS

ADDED SIXTH

always be a node at the closed end [see Wind instruments III; Organ IX]. VI. Interference. This is the technical term (not a very apt one) for the numerous phenomena resulting from the superposition of two or more air vibrations. The general principles of this very complex phenomenon can be grasped from the drawing [Ex. A], showing two original vibrations (I, II) of the same frequency as well as one possible result of their superposition (III = I + II). More important is the interference of vibrations of different frequencies, e.g., of 2 and 3 cycles per second, or of 12 and 14 cycles per second [Ex. B]. The example illustrates the manner in which *beats are produced, in the present case 2 (14 - 12) per second. For a more complicated phenomenon of interference, see Combination tone.

A

III

Musical Acoustics (1941); H. Lowery, The Background of Music (1952), bibl.; H. Simbriger, Handbuch der musikalischen Akustik (1951); H. Burris-Meyer, "The Place of Acoustics in the Future of Music" (Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, July 1947, p. 532); A. Small, "The Partnership between Music and Modern Acoustics" (JAMS ii). See also under Architectural acoustics; Electronic instruments. Additional bibliography in D. H. Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodical Literature in Musicology (1940), pp. 117ff. Action. Any kind of mechanism used in instruments as a means of transmitting the motion of the fingers (or feet) to the sound-producing parts; in other words, a sort of artificial extension of the fingers (or feet). On keyboard instruments, the action forms an essential, even the characteristic, part of the instrument [see Piano I; Organ II]. The term is applied to the key mechanism of woodwind instruments, which enables the player to control holes that are beyond the hand's reach (e.g., the *Bohm system for the flute). The action of the harp is the mechanism, controlled by the player's feet upon the pedals, by which a transposition of a semitone or a whole tone can be effected [see Harp]. Act tune. See Entr'acte. Actus tragicus [L.]. An early cantata (no. 106) by Bach, composed in Weimar (1708-17) for an occasion of mourning. The German title is Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit (God's Time Is Best).

B

Adagietto [It.]. (I) A tempo somewhat faster than adagio. (2) A short composition in slow speed. Related articles: Architectural acoustics; Beats; Bel; Cents; Combination tone; Comma; Consonance, dissonance; Intervals, calculation of; Just intonation; Pitch; Pythagorean scale; Resonance; Savart; Temperament; Timbre. Lit.: W. T. Bartholomew, Acoustics of Music (1942), bibl.; P. C. Buck, Acoustics for Musicians (1918); H. Lowery, A Guide to Musical Acoustics [1956]; A. Wood, The Physics of Music, rev. ed. by J. M. Bowsher [1947]; E. G. Richardson, The Acoustics of Orchestral Instruments and of the Organ (1929); J. Jeans, Science and Music (1937); D. C. Miller, Science of Musical Sountb(l916); J. Redfield, Music: A Science and an Art (1928); S. S. Stevens and H. Davis, Hearing (1938); A. H. Davis, Modern Acoustics (1934); N. W. McLachlan, The New Acoustics (1936); H. F. Olson and F. Massa, Applied Acoustics (1934); C. A. Culver, 12

Adagio [It.]. (I) Designation for slow tempo, between andante and largo. See Tempo marks. (2) A composition in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement of a sonata, symphony, etc. Adagissimo. Extremely slow. Adaptation. *Arrangement. Added sixth. The sixth added to a triad, or the entire chord thus obtained; e.g., c-e-g-a. In classical harmony, the chord of the added sixth occurs preferably on the fourth degree, i.e., with a subdominant function (f-a-c'-d' in C major; also f-a~ -c'-d'). It is usually explained as the first inversion of the seventh chord on the second degree (d-f-a-c'). Although according to strict rules the chord must be resolved into the dominant or the tonic, it is used in some works (*im-

ADDITIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT pressionism) as a color modification of the triad that does not call for resolution. Jazz musicians have abundantly availed themselves of this cloying effect, especially for the final chord of a piece. Additional accompaniment. Designation for 19th-century revisions or enlargements of earlier orchestral scores, especially of the 17th and 18th centuries. With the ever increasing size of the 19th-century orchestra and concert hall, the need was felt for expanded instrumentation; but with the ever diminishing understanding of true baroque style, many stylistic incongruities were perpetrated. Thus, not only were admissible and sometimes necessary changes made (replacement of obsolete instruments by newer ones, doubling of certain parts, etc.), but the voice leading was changed, the writing was "improved," new parts were added, and in many instances the original intention of the composer was thoroughly misunderstood or disregarded. The composers whose works were most frequently subjected to arrangement were Handel and Bach. The Messiah of Handel has been particularly unfortunate in this regard. Mozart was among the first to make a more modern arrangement of it; subsequently various other musicians made further arrangements of Mozart's arrangement. Many other works of Handel's have fared similarly, e.g., at the hands of Mendelssohn, who later expressed regret for having published his arrangements. Bach's cantatas suffered mistreatment by Robert Franz. Wagner made arrangements of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Gluck's Iphigenie en Au/ide, etc. The 20th century has witnessed a growing understanding of the baroque style and a consequent demand for authentic, unarranged performances. See Performance practice. See N. Kilburn, "Additional Arrangements to Handel's Acis" (SIM iii); A. Hutchings, "A Note on the 'Additional Accompaniments'" (MR vii, 161). Adelaide. A famous song by Beethoven (op. 46), composed in 1795 or 1796 to words by F. von Matthisson. Adelaide Concerto. A violin concerto attributed to Mozart and edited by Marius Casadesus from a violin part dedicated to the French Princess Adelaide. The orchestral accompaniment was added by Casadesus. Although it is known that Mozart did write such a piece for the Princess, it is almost certain that this is not the work.

AEOLIAN HARP Adeste, Fideles [L.]. A Latin hymn usually sung today in the English translation, beginning "0 come, all ye faithful." The words and music are attributed to John F. Wade, and it was published in 1750 for use in the English Roman Catholic College in Lisbon; hence, the tune name "Portuguese Hymn."

Adeux [F.]. See A

due.

Adieux, Les [F.]. Beethoven's Sonata for piano op. 8la, in E-fiat (1809), entitled (in full) Les Adieux, !'absence, et le retour (Farewell, Absence, and Return). Also known as the Farewell Sonata, it was inspired by the Archduke Rudolf's departure from Vienna. Ad libitum [L.]. An indication that gives the performer liberty to: (1) vary from strict tempo (contrast a *battuta); (2) include or omit the part of some voice or instrument (contrast *obbligato); (3) include a *cadenza according to his own invention. Adoracion. See under Aguinaldo. Adriana Lecouvreur. Opera in four acts by F. Cilea (libretto after E. Scribe and Legouve), produced in Milan, 1902. Setting: Paris, 1739. A due [It.]. Direction in orchestral parts indicating that two instruments notated on one staff (e.g., Flute 1 and 2) should play in unison (All'unisono) [see Unison]. However, the term is also used in the almost opposite meaning, synonymous with *divisi. The same ambiguity exists with the French term a deux. A due corde, see Due corde. A due mani, for two hands; a due voci (cori, stromenti, etc.), for two voices (choirs, instruments, etc.). Aeolian, aeolian mode. See under Church modes; Modality. Aeolian harp. A sound-producing contrivance consisting of a long narrow box with six or more gut strings stretched inside over two bridges. The strings are tuned in unison but vary in thickness and, therefore, tension. If the box is placed in a free current of air (preferably in an open window), the strings vibrate differently, according to their different tensions, and thus produce a large variety of harmonics over the same fundamental (cf. the "singing" of telephone wires). The sound varies considerably with the changing force of the wind and produces a romantic, mysterious effect. The instrument was known in ancient China and India, and in Europe during the Middle Ages. It enjoyed special popularity in

13

AEOUNE

AESTHETICS OF MUSIC

the romantic period about 1800. Its intimate charm is beautifully described in Eduard Morike's poem "Die Aeolsharfe" with musical settings by Brahms and (especially) Hugo Wolf. Various attempts have been made to harness this elusive sound to a keyboard, with an artificial jet of wind provided by foot bellows (J.-J. Schnell's Anemocorde or Aeroclavichord, 1789; H. Herz's Piano eolien, 1851). See SaRM, p. 16; J. G. Kastner, La Harpe d'Eole (1856). Aeoline. Old name for mouth organ [see Harmonica]. Also, an early type of *harmonium (aeolodicon). Aeolopantalon. An instrument invented in 1825 by Joze Dlugosz, Warsaw; it was a combination of a harmonium-like instrumnet (aeolomelodikon, with brass tubes affixed to the reeds) and a piano, so that both instruments could be used in alternation. It is remembered largely because the young Chopin played on it in various recitals. Aequalstimmen [G.]. (I) The eight-foot pipes of the organ. (2) *Equal voices. Aer. See under Aria II. Aerophon. See Aerophor. Aerophones. See under Instruments III. Aerophor. A device invented by B. Samuel in 1912 that provides the player of a wind instrument with additional air from a small bellows operated by the foot. By means of a tube with a mouthpiece, air can be supplied to the player's mouth whenever his breath is not sufficient for long-held tones or long melodies in full legato. R. Strauss has written passages requiring this device, as in his Alpensinfonie (where it is incorrectly called "aerophon"). Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is generally defined as the philosophy or study of the beautiful. Musical aesthetics, therefore, should be the study of the beautiful in music, the ultimate goal of such a study being the establishment of criteria that would allow us to say whether or not a particular composition is beautiful, or why one is beautiful while another is not. The main objection to such a point of view is that beauty is by no means the only (and possibly not even the foremost) criterion of what may be roughly described as "merit" or "artistic worth." Music, like other works of art, may be aesthetically satisfying without necessarily being "beautiful." Therefore a definition such as the following provides a much better basis for the study in

14

question: Musical aesthetics is the study of the relationship of music to the human senses and intellect. This definition corresponds to the original meaning of the Greek word aisthesis, i.e., feeling, sensation. The following words by Robert Schumann (Gesammelte Schriften Uber Musik und Musiker, rev. ed., 1914, i, 44) adequately describe the peculiar problem of musical aesthetics [trans. by W. A.]: "In no other field is the proof of the fundamentals as difficult as it is in music. Science uses mathematics and logic; to poetry belongs the decisive, golden word; other arts have taken nature, whose forms they borrow, as their arbiter. Music, however, is a poor orphan whose father and mother no one can name. But, perhaps, it is precisely this mystery of her origin which accounts for the charm of her beauty." II. For more than two thousand years philosophers have tried to solve the mystery of music. Among them we find Pythagoras (550 B.C.), who explained music as the expression of that universal harmony which is also realized in arithmetic and astronomy; Plato (400 B.C.), to whom, like Confucius, music seemed the most appropriate means of social and political education; Plotinus (d. 270), who interpreted music as a mystic and occult power; Boethius (d. 524), who divided music into three fields, musica mundana (the Pythagorean harmony of the universe), musica humana (the harmony of the human soul and body), and musica instrumentalis (music as actual sound), a classification that prevailed in musical theory for more than ten centuries; J. Kepler (Harmonices mundi libri v, 1619), who erected a great edifice of ideas in which he correlated musical tones and intervals with the movements of the planets and their astrological functions; G. W. Leibnitz (16461716), who paved the way for the psychological system of musical aesthetics by interpreting music as an "unconscious exercise in arithmetic"; A. Schopenhauer (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, 1819), who considered music the purest incarnation of the "absolute will" and the expression of human feelings (love, joy, horror) in their abstract interpretation as metaphysical ideas; G. T. Fechner (1801-87), called the founder of experimental aesthetics, who insisted that music is the expression of "general mood" rather than specific "feelings"; and finally C. Stumpf (Tonpsychologie, 2 vols., 1883, '90), who inaugurated the scientific study of musical psychology on the basis of experiments and statistics, especially with regard to the problem of

AESTHETICS OF MUSIC

consonance and dissonance. Stumpf's procedure has been the point of departure for many inYestigations along similar lines, especially in America, e.g., C. E. Seashore, Psychology of Jfusic (1938); M. Schoen, ed., The Effects of .\fusic (1927), and others [see Tests]. For a criticism of these methods, see C. C. Pratt, The _\leaning of Music (1931), pp. 13lff. Not until the advent of the 19th century did these theories of music begin to accord with the present-day interpretation of musical aesthetics as defined above. This statement should not be construed as deprecating the much broader and, in a sense, more profound views-cosmic, political, or theological-held by the philosophers of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Whereas in those periods justification for music was considered to have its origin in the state, in the universe, or in God, today music has lost these transcendental affiliations but has gained instead a secure place in everyday life. III. Musicologists, as might be expected, aim at a more technically detailed penetration into the subject of musical aesthetics, usually being concerned with the study of specific techniques or compositions rather than with music in the abstract. Their various theories of aesthetics can be divided into two groups, according to whether they consider music (1) as a heteronomous art, i.e., as the expression of extramusical elements, or (2) as an autonomous art, i.e., as the realization of intrinsic principles and ideas (F. Gatz). (a) In the former class are the Affektenlehre (doctrine of *affections), according to which music in its various manifestations is the expression of human temperaments, passions, moods, etc. In the 17th century, music was frequently treated as an oratorical art (Figurenlehre, doctrine of *figures), its structural and stylistic elements (such as repetitio, fuga, climax) being related to corresponding rhetorical devices. In the romantic period the interpretation of musical compositions was largely based upon programmatic and allegorical concepts. Music was thought of as a sort of psychological drama and explained in terms such as "desperate struggle," "the knocking of Fate," "threatening fortissimo," or "gloomy minor." An early exponent of this school of thought was A. B. Marx, in his Ludwig van Beethoven (1859). A more intelligent use of this approach was attempted by H. Kretzschmar, the inventor of musikalische Hermeneutik [see Hermeneutics]. He considered music a Sprachkunst, i.e., a language, of less clarity but with finer shades and deeper effects than ordi-

AESTHETICS OF MUSIC

nary speech. He harked back to the "affects" of the 18th century, which, according to him, should be based upon the study of musical elements (themes, intervals, rhythm, etc.). He also related the composer's music to his life (Beethoven's "period of happiness," etc.). The last point was emphasized by H. Riemann, who maintained that the written composition as well as the actual performance is nothing but a means of transferring an experience (Erlebnis) from the fancy of the composer to that of the listener. Kretzschmar's method has been elaborated by A. Schering. An American book, E. Sorantin's The Problem of Musical Expression (1932), represents an example of 20th-century Affektenlehre. (b) In strong contrast to all these theories is the more recent school of thought that rejects the allegorical, emotional, programmatic, poetical foundation of musical aesthetics and explains music as a purely musical phenomenon, as an autochthonous and autonomous creation that can be understood only in its own terms. An early "autonomist" was M. de Chabanon, who in 1785 published a book entitled De Ia Musique consideree en elle-meme. The main representative of musical autonomy has been E. Hanslick, who, in his Vom Musikalisch-Schonen (1854), formulated the sentence: "Musik ist tonend bewegte Form"-"music is form in tonal motion" (trans. by D. Ferguson; the term *form, naturally, must be taken in its broadest sense, including all structural and stylistic elements of music). He admits the use of designations such as "powerful," "graceful," "tender," "passionate," but only in order to illustrate the musical character of the passage, not to suggest a definite feeling on the part of composer or listener. Still further in this direction went A. Halm (Von zwei Kulturen der Musik, 1913), one of the most outstanding writers on musical aesthetics. The following quotation from the Talmud, given at the beginning of his book, is a very apt expression of the central thought of musical autonomy: "If you want to understand the invisible, look carefully at the visible." Halm, as well as his successors, E. Kurth, H. Mersmann, F. Jode, and others, advocated the separation of the musical work from the emotional worlds of both composer and listener and the emancipation of musical thought from "sensuous intoxication and hallucination." See also Affections; Figures; Hermeneutics; Musica reservata; Psychology of music. Lit.: H. H. Britan, The Philosophy of Music (1911); H. Scherchen, The Nature of Music 15

AEVIA

AFFINALES

(1950); V. Zuckerkandl, Sound and Symbol (1956); id, The Sense of Music (1959); D. Ferguson, Music as Metaphor (1960); L. Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music (1956); S. K. Langer, Feeling and Form (1953); R. W. Lundin, An Objective Psychology of Music [1953]: D. Cooke, The Language of Music (1959); F. M. Gatz, !!d., Musik-Asthetik in ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929); R. Schiifke, Geschichte der Musikiisthetik (1934); E. G. Wolff, Grundlagen einer autonomen Musikiisthetik, 2 vols. (1934, '38); H. Pfrogner, Musik: Geschichte ihrer Deutung (1954); H. J. Moser, Musikiisthetik (1953); C. Lalo, Elements d'une esthetique musicale scientifique, rev. ed. (1939); G. Brelet, Esthetique et creation musicale (1941); id, Le Temps musical: Essai d'une esthetique nouvelle de Ia musique, 2 vols. (1949); H. Besseler, "Grundfragen der Musiklisthetik" (JMP xxxiii); A. Einstein, "Musical Aesthetics and Musicology," in Music in the Romantic Era (1947), pp. 337-55; R. Tischler, "The Aesthetic Experience" (MR xvii, 189). For additional bibl. see "Musik-Asthetik" in MGG. Aevia. An artificial word, consisting of the vowels of *alleluia (u = v). It is occasionally used as an abbreviation in manuscripts of Gregorian chant. See Euouae. AffabUe [It.]. Gentle, pleasing. Affannato, affannoso [It.]. Excited, hurried, agi-

were fully familiar with this aesthetic approach and often incorporated its tenets in their compositions. A basic aspect of the doctrine of affections is the principle that each composition (or, in the case of composite forms, each movement) should embody only one affection. Although the term Affektenlehre is associated with the 18th century, the close relationship between music and the human affections has often been recognized and emphasized not only in Western music (Plato, Aristotle, Isidore of Seville, Ramos de Pareja, Glareanus, Monteverdi, Descartes) but also in that of the Orient, especially in the Hindu conception of the ragas [see India 1]. Also see Aesthetics of music Ill( a); Musica reservata. Lit.: H. Goldschmidt, Die Musikiisthetik des 18. Jahrhunderts (1915); W. Serauky, Die musikalische Nachahmungsiisthetik im Zeitraum von 1700 his 1850 (1929); E. Katz, Die musikalischen Stilbegriffe des 17. Jahrhunderts (1926); F. T. Wessel, "The Affektenlehre in the Eighteenth Century" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); M. Kramer, "Beitrage zu einer Geschichte des Affektbegriffs in der Musik von 1550-1700" (diss. Halle, 1924); H. Abert, in AMW v; H. Kretzschmar, in J MP xviii, xix; F. Stege, in ZMW x; A. Schering, in JMP xlv; H. Lenneberg, in JMT ii (Mattheson ); R. Schlifke, in A MW vi (Quantz); G. Frotscher, in CP 1925 (Bach).

tated.

Affektenlehre [G.]. See Affections, doctrine of.

Affections, doctrine of [also doctrine of affects; G. Affektenlehre]. An aesthetic theory of the late baroque period, formulated by A. Werckmeister (Harmonologia musica, 1702), J. D. Heinichen (1711), J. Mattheson (1739), J. J. Quantz (1752), F. W. Marpurg (Kritische Briefe, vol. ii, 1763), and other 18th-century writers. It was treated in greatest detail by Mattheson (Der vollkommene Capel/meister, 1739), who enumerates more than twenty affections and describes how they should be expressed in music, e.g.: "Sof!"OW should be expressed with a slow-moving, languid and drowsy melody, broken with many sighs," and "Hate is represented by repulsive and rough harmony and a similar melody." He also describes the affections (characteristic emotions) of numerous dances, saying that the gigue expresses "heat and eagerness," the courante, "sweet hope and courage." These rather trite explanations reveal the difficulty involved in any attempt to formulate the doctrine of affections. There can be no doubt, however, that musicians of the late baroque, particularly in Germany,

Affetti [It.]. The term appears in the title of vari-

16

ous publications of the late 16th and early 17th centuries [Dolci Affetti, 1582; S. Bonini, Affetti spirituali . .. in istile di Firenze o recitativo, 1615; B. Marini, Affetti musicali, op. 1, 1617; G. Stefani, A.lfetti amorosi, 1621, see Editions V, 3], probably to emphasize the affective character of the music. It is also used in early violin sonatas to designate a certain type of ornament, either tremolo or arpeggio [see SchGMB, no. 183; RiHMii, 2, 120]. Affettuoso [It.]. Tender.

Affinales [L., sing. affinalis]. In medieval theory of the church modes, name for the pitches a, b, and c', which occur as the finals of transposed chants [see Speculum musicae; CS ii, 248a]. In a Tonale ascribed to Bernard of Clairvaux (10911153), it is stated that the first *maneria has the finals d and a, the second e and b, the third f and c', the fourth only g [see GS ii, 266a]. Many of the Ambrosian chants close on the affinales, including the d'. See Transposition II.

AFFRETTANDO

AFRICA

Affrettando [It.]. Hurrying. Africa. The musical cultures of Africa may be very broadly classified as North African (essentially Islamic; see Arab music) and sub-Saharan. The latter is considered here in its traditional aspects. I. Background. The interpenetration of subSaharan tribal Africa with Western and Eastern civilization has resulted in a vivid cultural dualism, reflected in a fast-diminishing body of traditional, tribal music on the one hand and a slowly emerging nucleus of art and "city" music on the other. Unfortunately, a historic view of the tribal music remains vastly limited, owing to the relative sparsity, prior to c. 1950, of notated examples, and the fact that recorded evidence, such as that supplied to E. M. von Hornbostel by the Czekanowski Central African Expedition of 1907-08, begins only with the 20th century. However, some of the history may be reconstructed by tracing the musical legacies of past contacts with other cultures. Preliminary observations concerning possible legacies of the Malaya-Polynesian migrations (c. 2000 B.C.C. A.D. 500) to Malagasy (Madagascar) and the African mainland, for example, include the following: (I) C. Sachs shows that several instruments of Malagasy, including an idiochordic tube zither tuned in thirds (valiha) and a free-log thigh-supported xylophone, are of Malayan origin (the xylophone especially is known from Celebes to the Molucca islands). He also relates the resonated xylophones of the African mainland to those of Indonesia. (2) Certain African xylophone tunings, as pointed out by J. Kunst (PMA lxii) and others, strongly resemble (but may not necessarily derive from) some "ideal" (theoretic) isotonic tunings of the Far East, notably the five-step Indonesian stendro and the seven-step isotonic scale of Thailand [see III C below]. (3) The use of double xylophone beaters in one hand, held or fastened at an angle, has been noted among some African peoples, e.g., the Azande of the Congo-Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and the Venda of South Africa, and also in Indonesia. Musical ties, particularly rhythmic, with the Middle East and India may be even stronger than those with the Far East. Such ties may have been gradually defined through early migrations, invasions of ancient Egypt south of the Sudan, the South Indian trade on the East African coast during the third or second centuries B.C., and, of course, throughout the period of Islamic spread in Africa.

17

Sub-Saharan Africa includes a large variety of tribes and languages. While anthropologists and linguists have been able to map important culture and language areas (which, incidentally, are generally not congruent-e.g., Bantu languages cut across both cattle and agricultural areas), a similar delineation of musical style areas has thus far not proved practicable. For example, although there is, at first glance, a preponderance of polyphony in parallel fourths and fifths in the eastern and southern regions and in parallel thirds in the central and western regions, further study reveals greater intermingling of intervals than hitherto believed. II. Social function and professionalism. Music and dance permeate nearly all phases of African tribal life. They are vital to the many rituals, such as those concerned with birth, puberty and secret-society initiation, marriage, etc., and rituals of "livelihood," e.g., hunting, farming, etc. Ceremonial music, costumes, masks, and instruments usually attain an aura of sacredness. Each of the Watutsi (Watusi) royal drums, for example, has been thought to possess a "soul," represented by a large pebble inside the drum, that can do away with evil spirits. Music may also serve in legal, political, and historical capacities. Thus, there are public litigation ceremonies, such as those of the Bambala (Congo-Kinshasa), in which the litigants present portions of their legal briefs in song; there are songs of criticism, or of praise, directed at chiefs, employers, governments, etc.; and there are songs narrating historical or current events, such as the warrior epics of the Watutsi of Rwanda. There is also a great deal of music and dance for entertainment. This ranges from the highly informal to a more "theatrical," prepared type, such as the chikona, the leading ceremonial and social dance of the Venda (South Africa), which features a circle of men playing vertical flutes of reed in hocket and dancing counterclockwise around drummers, most of whom are women. Various levels of musical professionalism, engaged in mostly by men but also by women, have long been apparent in African tribal life, in addition to communal music-making. Thus, there are trained instrumentalists, dancers, master instrument builders, and tuning specialists (composing is usually subsumed under the performer's craft), some attached to a chief's or king's court, others traveling as paid performers, as well as the skilled leaders of a singing or dancing community group, who are perhaps also official or semi-

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official religious leaders. Training, which may be long and involved, is generally informal and based on rote learning, often with such mnemonic aids as the singing of nonsense or stylized syllables (especially for drum patterns). Such aids recall similar methods in Hindu drumming and Japanese *gagaku. III. Style. Although diversity of style is evident, there are certain elements that represent a reasonably common musical denominator. A. Rhythm and tempo. Probably the most outstanding feature of much Mrican music is the complexity of rhythmic structure, a complexity no doubt well comprehended by musicians trained in unequal-beat styles (Sachs' "additive" category), such as those of the Middle East and India and of the Western Renaissance and 20th century. The essence of what the present writer has termed the "African hemiola style" lies in the contrast of two unequal "conductor" beats in a 2: 3 length-ratio, e.g., JJ. or JJ., both horizontally and vertically. Horizontally, the 2:3 contrast may be texturally (1) concentrated, i.e., the two unequal conductor beats appear close to each other within a short space, as in a pattern of 6/8 + 3/4 (the European hemiola; see Ex. 4, line 2) or in measures (appearing individually or in any combination) such as 5/8, 7/8, 8/8 (e.g., the dochmiac J.J.J), 12/8 (e.g., JJJ.JJ.; see Ex. 4, top line and Ex. 2, line 2), etc.; or the 2:3 contrast may be (2) wide-paced and sectiona~ involving change from the short to the long beat (or vice versa) by sections, one section (several measures) perhaps featuring the J in 3/4 time and another the J. in 6/8 ; or (3) the 2:3 contrast may be entirely absent in an individual line, so that equal-beat rhythm prevails, as in the steady reiteration of the dotted-quarter beat in 3/8 figures (e.g., Ex. 1, line 1; Ex. 2, lines 3, 4). Furthermore, whatever the type of beat contrast, a line often features one distinctive rhythmic pattern constantly repeated [see Ex. 1·, line 1; Ex. 2, lines 2-4; Ex. 4, lines 1, 2], somewhat like the Hindu tiila patterning. However, patterns are open to variation, especially in vocal music (owing to text requirements) and in certain "leader" parts, such as that of the master drummer. Vertical realization of the hemiola style is a direct concomitant of the strong Mrican propensity for "orchestral," polyphonic music. The contrast of the two unequal conductor beats in their multipart setting may then take on the greatest intricacy, an intricacy deriving from true vertical *polyrhythm. In such polyrhythm each line maintains a certain degree of rhythmic

independence, especially with respect to the organization of the conductor beats. Specifically, in Mrican polyrhythm [see Ex. 1-4] each line may carry its own distinctive beat pattern (in Hindu music all parts are controlled by one common beat pattern). This means that beats may not coincide vertically: the two unequal beats obviously cannot coincide, because one beat is one and one-half times as long as the other, and equal beats may not coincide because each line pattern may enter at a different point (Ex. 2, lines 3 and 4). In other words, there may be vertical overlapping of entire patterns and of their internal beats. Clearly, this is not syncopation, in which all lines are subsumed under one underlying regular beat and in which any kind of lineindependence is considered to derive from "offbeat" stress of the one equal-beat base.

J

= 189

J.

= 126

>

11::: Ja1~: JJ: JJ: Jl >

2 J = 336 Solo ll

I

e-ni t'o Kanango drum

ba m'o-gun o

ko rna d'a-le

ll

oJ

,___......

--

Aguda drum

......-......

-

....

Iyd itu "mother" or master drum

~~~ 1. Watutsi royal drums excerpt (Rwanda) [R. Brandel]. 2. Yoruba song with dundun drums of Ogun, war god (Nigeria) [A. King].

18

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J. = c. 96 Right hand forefinger_ ______ thumb

special attention to the part of the master drummer, which may give rhythmic signals for changes in dance steps, changes in tempo, type of section to be performed, etc., and frequently I, Left hand (thumb only) to the part of some over-all tempo-setter, such as the adawuraa, the boat-shaped iron idiophone I b b of the Akan (Ghana), which may perhaps also act as a central "rhythmic post" for the entire ensemble. Dance rhythms may also play an J = c. 177 J. = c. 118 4 important "governing" role. Boat-shaped rrg~~~~~ij~~~~~j Tempo, as judged from the speed of the basic iron idiophone IF units, such as the ever-present "running eighths" from which the J and J. beats are constructed, tends on the whole toward the very rapid (in Gourd rattle distinct contrast with music of the Middle East and India). The eighth-note units may average roughly from J = c. 240 to c. 450, thus giving conductor beats of J = c. 120 to c. 225, and J. = Feet (knee lift c. 80 to c. 150. on eighth-note, B. Polyphony. Another distinguishing characstep on quarter teristic of African music is a strong tendency toward polyphony, both vertical ("harmonic") and horizontal ("contrapuntal"). The codevelopShoulders (wi thlf1+--#!.-h,__.._,,___._~-...4J.'.'t*--4-! ment of polyrhythm and some degree of harelbows bent) mony in this music is an interesting contrast with Shoulders back (with stomach the nonharmonic but rhythmically complex release) music of the Middle East and India. A further 3. Lembo deze, i.e., sanza (South Africa) [P. R. comparison may be made with the polyrhythmic Kirby}. 4. Ewe dance figure with portion of en- emphasis of the Western Renaissance and its gradual movement toward harmonic and equalsemble (Ghana) [R. Brandel]. beat emphasis. The vertical tug between the two unequal The principal African polyphonic types are beats and between the simultaneous independ- parallel intervals (mainly thirds, fourths, fifths), ent patterns in which they are set is further com- overlapping choral antiphony and solo-choral plicated by the appearance of a subtle rhythmic response (particularly the latter), ostinato and Gestalt, the "over-all perception" pattern, or drone-ostinato (but not the Hindu continuous composite, of all (or some) of the lines. Mainly drone), and, less frequently, polymelody (mainly through timbre and pitch accents, especially double). The types may often intermingle within v,.ivid in tuned drum ensembles, this composite one piece and may appear in any vocal and pattern is ever fluid and changing, sometimes instrumental combination. The characteristic resulting from the variation techniques of the orchestral attitude frequently results in the piling master drummer, sometimes from changing up of parts, so that vertical densities of three orchestral density and texture, and also from and four different pitches are not uncommon, other factors. The performer, particularly, must whether achieved through parallel block motion to some extent be aware of such an over-all pat- or through contrapuntal techniques [see Ex. 6]. tern for the sake of ensemble coordination (or Such densities are in constant flux, however, else each part would theoretically require its own even in parallel motion, so that continuous triads conductor). But no doubt there are various throughout an entire piece, for example, are Gestalt perceptions, depending on the type of rare. "Spot" or intermittent fullness resulting participation (dancer's, singer's, etc.), the skill from sudden choral divisi or solo interjection of of the performer, and the kind of material he variational segments, often at strategic cadential executes (variations, unchanging ostinatos, one or phrase points, is a favored practice. Parallel thirds, which frequently move diatonior two lines at a time-in the last case, as singerplayer, dancer-player, player of "harmonic" cally, are found in numerous areas [see I, above]. instrument, etc.). An ensemble usually pays Ex. 5 illustrates parallel fourths and fifths, to3

19

AFRICA

AFRICA gether with responsorial technique. Whether overlapping or not, the responsorial or antiphonal section in African music may be a repetition of the first phrase (Ex. 5), which may result in canonic imitation, or the section may contain new melodic material, such as a brief punctuating refrain, a completion of the first phrase, or a distinctly contrasting melody. The African ostinato, usually quite small in length and pitch range, may be continuous or intermittent, vocal or instrumental, and may appear above or below the main line. Frequently there is a multi-ostinato, two or more ostinatos moving contrapuntally, with or without a longer melodic line. The African propensity for *hocket (especially favored by the Mambuti Pygmies) is often allied to multi-ostinato. In Ex. 6, five ivory horns (part of a professional band), playing one note (pitch) each, execute melodic and harmonic hocket (largely through sustaining notes) in two ostinato lines, the top line being a kind of forecast of the vocal melody. Although complex polymelody (simultaneous independent melodies of some length and inner organization) is not common, there are many simple varieties, involving phrases longer than those of the multi-ostinato. Also, there are certain types ofheterophonic variations on a theme, which often achieve a distinctness of line movement approaching genuine polymelody. There are hints of some functioning "chordal" relationships in African polyphony, although these are not the Western major-minor system, nor are they formally and verbally articulated. The type of functioning, involving concepts of tension-relaxation, dissonance-consonance (which are by no means fixed universals), cannot as yet be gauged. It is clear, however, that there are varieties of "chord" clusters (as there are varieties of scales), and that some level of harmonic patterning may be aimed at through oral tradition. A few samples, resulting either from parallel or contrapuntal motion, follow (all hyphenated notes are to be read vertically). It should be noted that interval sizes are not those of equal temperament: (1) a repeated tritonic (augmented fourth) "chord" in a minor seventh or larger span, e.g., a-c'-eb'-f'g'-a' of Ex. 6 (cents given in the next section below), popular among the Mambuti Pygmies and in many parts of Central Africa, and also appearing elsewhere; (2) a cadential sequence resting on parallel major thirds, with roots a major second apart, e.g., Gangele (Angola), c'-e'-g', bb-d'-f', c'-e'-g', and Baduma (Congo-

20

Brazzaville), bb-d', c'-e'; (3) another cadencelike sequence of the Baduma (bracketed notes ....--. are the most important), e'-g', a-d'-f#', a-c'-~'; (4) "plagal" motion with roots (or focal notes) a fourth apart, e.g., Babinga Pygmies

(Congo-Brazzaville), bb-eb'-~",

c'-eb'-g'-a', and a related (reversed and inverted) form of the Venda (South Africa), g'-c"-eb", f'-a'-c"-eb". See also the patterning of Ex. 5, e.g., (meas. 6), g' -c", eb' -bb', c' -g'.

5. Wasukuma wedding song (Tanzania) [R. Brandel]. ivory horns (Congo-Brazzaville) [R. Brandel].

6. Kukuya

C. Scale and melody. Among the large variety of African scales there is no one scale that is more idiomatic than the others. However, scales and melodies of very small range, two or three notes spanning the interval of a second or a third, appear somewhat infrequently (other than in ostinato accompaniments, which are usually part of pieces with larger scale gamuts). Tetrachordal and pentachordal spans are common, while scales and melodies of even larger range are quite prevalent. (A ladder of thirds spanning a ninth, F-A-C-E-G, may be found in a Batwa Pygmy song of Rwanda.) Furthermore, scales and melodies may be chasmatonic (gapped) or diatonic, within any span. Thus, there are chasmatonic five-note octaves, e.g., C-D-Eb-GBb-C of Ex. 5, and A-C-Eb-F-G-A of Ex. 6 with its tritonic melodic and harmonic emphasis (the diatonic upper tritone tends to descend, as in Ex. 6 and among the Mambuti Pygmies; see also the vocal line of a Chopi piece in Kirby, p. 65); chasmatonic five-note hexachords, e.g., C-D-E-G-A, often featuring triadic tunes; dia-

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tonic octaves, e.g., C-D-E-F(F#)-G-A-B(B0)C; diatonic hexachords, e.g., G-A-B-C-D-E, etc. In addition, there appear to be some equalstepped or isotonic scales, e.g., some Uganda harps with a four-step octave (among the Bagwere) or with a five-step octave (among the Baganda), and some xylophones with a five-step octave (parts of both Congos, Uganda) or with a seven-step octave (among the Chopi of Mozambique). Scales and melodies are frequently constructed in a "plagal" manner, featuring a central pivot note with a lower fourth and an upper fifth, e.g., G-C-G. Interval sizes vary greatly, pointing up a variety of scale temperaments, especially evident in the tuning of instruments. (Ex. 6 horn intervals in cents reveal two small "minor" thirds and a large and a small "major" second: 279, 283, 227, 191.) Temperament norms, however, are not always easy to gauge. The influence of the tonal languages (Bantu, etc.) on melody is marked but not rigid. Although high-pitched and low-pitched speech syllables (pitch height governs meaning and grammar) tend to be set to correspondingly pitched melodic notes [see Ex. 2], melodic flow is often controlled by purely musical considerations. Over-all melody shapes are varied, octave tunes often curving downward and tunes sometimes zigzagging through interlocking thirds. D. Form. The most prevalent form is the litany type, i.e., immediate (but not necessarily exact) repetition of a musical idea throughout a piece. The length of melodic phrases, however, will vary from the very brief (one or two measures) to long-lined melodies of several measures. Frequently the length and inner organization are such that a two- or three-sectional "sentence" with contrasting phrases is apparent, often executed in the popular antiphony or response. There is also evidence of some verse forms, such as those found in various Akan songs of Ghana. A sense of larger sectional formation and contrast is often achieved through the repetition of two or more melodies, e.g., A ... B ... A, .. C ... etc. (the form of the complete piece of Ex. 5). Such sectional contrast is heightened by some abrupt shifts in tonality in a Mangbetu choral piece (Brandel, The Music of Central Africa, p. 111). Lengthy ceremonies may provide even broader formal contrast through a series of musical "acts," each consisting of a piece repeated numerous times. Variation is common, but developmental techniques are rare. 21

E. Performance style. Density and motion are perhaps the best clues to over-all performance texture, both vocal and instrumental: masses of sound tend to pile up "orchestrally," timbresoften pungent and staccato-are contrasted, tessiture are juxtaposed, dynamic levels are usually high, and motion is constant, hurried, and complex as melodies, musical rhythms, and rhythms of dancers' and players' muscles converge with as much "action" as possible within a short span of time. This is, of course, a broad generalization. The qualities of speed and concentration are not always present. An evening story-singer, a private session on the musical bow or on the sanza may be quite different. Vocal styles often point up emphatic, fullvoice singing, at times punctuated by shouts and screams. Timbres are often tense-hoarse, somewhat guttural, and tenorlike for the men, owing to a predominant use of the arytenoid vocal muscles at great intensities and at high pitch ranges, as well as to some laryngeal constriction by neck muscles. Women's voices frequently are strident, owing to a predominant use of the thyroid group of vocal muscles at great intensities and at generally lower pitch ranges. Special effects may include glissando (especially at phrase endings); excessive nasality (perhaps for disguise or spirit imitation); excessive breathiness (often as a timbre accent); Sprechstimme; among some peoples, yodeling (e.g., Babinga Pygmies and N'Gundi of Congo-Brazzaville, and Bushmen) and humming (as in some Watutsi bard songs), and a variety of animal imitations. Most singing is highly syllabic (nonmelismatic), vibratoless, and nonornamented, except where Arab influence is evident (e.g., in some Watutsi bard songs). Hocket is a favorite instrumental and vocal device, and, in its achievement of rapid timbre contrast, decidedly contributes to the over-all performance texture. Dance styles include broad, outflowing motions, often part of depictive dances, and self-contained, sometimes convulsive movement, usually set within abstract or symbolic contexts. IV. Instruments. Orchestral emphasis is an important feature of African music. An ensemble consisting of hand-clapping singers, several different instruments, often including a set of one type, and usually dancers (or dancer-singers, dancer-players) is very common. A cappella as well as purely instrumental performance is also prevalent. In addition, certain instruments, notably the sanza and instruments of the chordo-

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phone family, are frequently used in a solo, nonensemble capacity, particularly to accompany a singer (who may be his own instrumentalist). Ensemble instruments center about idiophones (especially rattles, xylophones, bells) and membranophones, although aerophone bands are also popular. Many instruments (mainly slit drums, but also membrane drums, bells, horns, flutes, etc.) are used also for the purpose of telegraphy, which usually consists of duplication of actual speech tones and rhythms, particularly of stylized proverbs. Idiophones include a variety of rattles, single or strung, manually operated or tied to the body, made of gourd, woven fibers, skin, etc. Percussion sticks and pounded bamboos occasionally occur in "tuned" sets (as in Southeast Asia). Iron bells are of many sizes and forms and are usually clapperless and struck; two-toned double bells, joined by an arch or a common handle, are found mainly in western, central, and south central regions. West Africa (and also parts of Ethiopia and Egypt) features a double bell, such as the nnawuta of Ghana, with two unequal components, pitched perhaps a fifth or more apart. There is also a type of folded, flattened iron, sometimes bell-like (Uganda, Congo-Kinshasa) and sometimes reminiscent of the slit drum and somewhat banana- or boat-shaped (e.g., the kende of the K.issi of Liberia; it is also found in West Central Africa and has been excavated in Rhodesia). Kunst has noted the same splitbanana shape in the metal kemanak of Java and considers a common origin in the East Mediterranean or the Caucasus. The metal disk of the Far East, the gong, seems to be entirely absent from Africa. The idiophonous slit drum, important in signaling, is made of wood and is stick-beaten; it may be cylinder-shaped, wedge-shaped, or footed and animal-shaped. The edges of the slit are usually of different thickness to produce two pitches. The trapeze-shaped lukumbi of the Batetela (Congo-Kinshasa) can emit six different pitches, three on each side of the drum. Xylophones are quite widespread and are frequently played in ensembles, both small and large. Chopi timbila bands, popular in mining camps, may contain 20 to 30 xylophones in three or four different sizes, ranging from "soprano," with c. 15 slabs, to "bass," with c. 4 slabs. There are two main types of xylophone: (a) The rudimentary loose-key xylophone, without resonators, resting on tree trunks, is found in both Congos, Uganda, Central African Republic,

22

Cameroon, etc. A root name in the northern Congo-Kinshasa is padingbwa; (b) the fixed-key xylophone, sometimes suspended from the shoulders, usually has resonators and is found in most areas. A root name in the southern Congo-Kinshasa is malimba or madimba. The wooden slabs are fixed to a frame, and beneath each slab is an acoustically matched resonator, usually of calabash, which may be round (e.g., Mandingo people, Liberia; Chopi, Mozambique) or long (e.g., Yaswa, Congo-Brazzaville; Venda, South Africa). The latter recalls the vertical resonance tubes of the Indonesian gender. Buzzing timbres are often produced by fixing spider-webbing over a small lower-end hole in the calabash. The xylophone is frequently played by two or more persons, and one or two mallets may be used in each hand. The number of keys may exceed 20, and tunings, some of which appear to be isotonic, vary considerably in different areas [see III C above]. Indigenous to Africa is the sanza (Central Africa, Mozambique, etc.), mbira (Southeast Africa), kembe (Central Africa), or limba (East Central and Southeast Africa), a relatively small plucked idiophone with a set of flexible iron (sometimes bamboo) tongues fixed across a board or box; underneath, a calabash resonator may be attached or may loosely enclose the board. Tuning is accomplished by shifting the tongues, thereby altering their vibrating lengths. The number of tongues varies greatly (c. 5 to 25 or more), as do the tunings; unlike the xylophone, the lowest-pitched tongues not infrequently are set in the center of the board and the upper ones to either side, or tongues may be intermingled in various ways. Thumbs, and at times other fingers, produce a delicately metallic, hocketlike pizzicato [see Ex. 3], sometimes enlarged by the rattling or buzzing of attached devices. The sanza may be played singly or in sets of two or three. · Membranophone drums, usually used melodically as well as rhythmically, are of numerous sizes and shapes; single- and double-headed; with laced, nailed, or glued skins; hand-beaten (fingers, palms, base, fist), stick-beaten, and rubbed; and are commonly played in tuned sets of various numbers. Pitch (and timbre) contrast may also be obtained on a single drum by utilizing different striking points or by altering membrane tension (pressing on the skin or its fastenings). The long, conelike single-headed drum, such as the ndungu of the Babembe (CongoBrazzaville), is one of the most popular. Others

AFRICA

AFRICA

include the kettledrum, e.g., the hemispherical, stick-beaten ngoma of the Venda (South Africa), and the West African hourglass "pressure" drum (also found in ancient and modern India and in the Far East), e.g., the professional shouldersuspended dundun types (Ex. 2) of the Yoruba (Nigeria), which are played with a hooked stick and are capable of variable pitch via elbow or hand manipulation of the thongs connecting the two skins. (In Ex. 2 this method is used only for the master drum.) There are also barrel and goblet drums; footed, stool-like drums with open lower ends, e.g., the igbin of the Yoruba and the ganda of the Digo (Kenya); clay-pot drums, e.g., the bompili, a women's drum of the Mbole (Congo-Brazzaville); frame drums, of Arab origin, e.g., the mantshomane of the Thonga (South Africa); and many others. Drums are among the major ceremonial instruments, although they are also used for secular purposes, and skilled drummers (especially the master drummer) may be trained from childhood. Aerophones include vertical wooden or bamboo flutes (often without finger holes); whistles; mirlitons; the typically African transverse trumpets and horns of ivory (frequently with raised embouchures), e.g., the bompate of the Nkundo (Congo-Kinshasa), or of animal horn, wood, or gourd; and ocarinas. Ensembles of c. 5 or more horns (Ex. 6) or flutes (with or without other instruments), often playing in hocket, are common in many areas. Winds also include flutes with finger holes, e.g., the 4-holed notched endere of the Baganda (Uganda), panpipes, transverse flutes, end-blown trumpets, occasionally nose flutes, and the free aerophone, the bullroarer, often associated with circumcision rites. Chordophones are important solo and songaccompanying instruments. One of the most common is the musical bow, frequently appearing with attached resonator at one end or at a midpoint where the string is divided in two; the mouth often acts as resonator. Partials above the fundamental may be emphasized, melodically and harmonically, through fingering or changing mouth resonance. Related to the bow and especially prevalent in Central Africa is the multiplebow lute (Sachs: Bogenlaute), which consists of 5 to 8 one-stringed bows a,ttached at one end (the strings above, the bows below) to a resonance case. Mainly playing with a vine plectrum rolled around the thumb, a professional longombe player of the Nkundo (Congo-Kinshasa) used to be carried around the village on a plat-

23

form, singing and playing for an all-night celebration. Zithers, frequently with resonators, exist in stick, board, raft, trough, and frame forms (e.g., the 6-stringed triangular frame zither of the Bassa of Liberia, which recalls the Persian chank). The trough is especially characteristic of Central East Africa (e.g., the inanga of Rwanda). Harps (usually arched) and lyres, possibly based on Egyptian models, are generally not common below the Equator. Rudimentary one-stringed fiddles are in many instances derived from Arab sources. As for Western instruments, the guitar, frequently used in nightclub ensembles (e.g., "high life"), has become one of the most popular. Modern trends in art music include use of traditional material in Western symphonic, operatic, church, and other forms. Lit. (selected and generally recent; for other works and bibl., see Brandel, Gaskin, Thieme, Wolff): R. Brandel, The Music of Central Africa (1961; music, bibl.); L. J. P. Gaskin, A Select Bibliography of Music in Africa (1965); W. V. Brelsford, African Dances of Northern Rhodesia (Rhodes-Livingstone Museum Papers 2, 1959); E. M. von Hornbostel, African Negro Music 0.928); A. King, Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti (1961); P. R. Kirby, The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of South Africa, rev. ed. (1965); D. L. Thieme, African Music; a Briefly Annotated Bibliography (1964); K. M. Trowell and K. P. Wachsmann, Tribal Crafts of Uganda (1953; instr.); C. Sachs, Les Instruments de musique de Madagascar (1938); B. SOderberg, Les Instruments de musique au Bas-Congo et dans les regions avoisinantes (1956); R. Gunther, Musik in Rwanda (1964); J. H. K. Nketia, tFolk Songs of Ghana (1963); J. Blacking, "Problems of Pitch, Pattern and Harmony in the Ocarina Music of the Venda" (African Music ii, no. 2); R. Brandel, "The African Hemiola Style" (Ethnomusicology iii); id., "Types of Melodic Movement in Central Africa" (ibid. vi); id., "Polyphony in African Music," in CP Sachs; J. Kunst, "The Origin of the Kemanak (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 116, 1960); id., "A Musicological Argument for Cultural Relationship between Indonesia ... and Central Africa" (PMA lxii); G. Rouget, "Un Chromatisme africain" (L'Homme i, no. 3, 1963); K. P. Wachsmann, "An Equal Stepped Tuning in a Ganda Harp" (Nature clxv); id., "A Study of Norms in the Tribal Music of Uganda" (Ethnomusicology i, pt. 11); H. C. Wolff, "Die Musik Afrikas" (Deutsches Jahrbuch der Musikwissenschaft ix

AIR

AFR/CA/NE, L'

[1964]). See also "Current Bibliography, Africa," in all issues of Ethnomusicology. Disc.: Publishers (1) Folkways Record Corp., N.Y.; (2) International Library of African Music, Roodepoort, Transvaal, South Africa; (3) Musee de l'Homme, Dept. d'Ethnomusicologie, Paris; and (4) UNESCO-Collection: An Anthology of African Music; see also An International Catalogue of Published Records of Folk Music ("Africa," pp. 1-13), ed. K. P. Wachsmann (International Folk Music Council, 1960). R.B. Africaine, L' [F., The African Woman]. Opera in five acts by G. Meyerbeer (libretto by E. Scribe), produced in Paris, 1865. Setting: Lisbon and Madagascar, end of 15th century. Afternoon of a Faun, The. See Apres-midi d'un faune, L'. Agende [G.]. The German Protestant counterpart of the Roman Catholic liturgy or the Anglican rites, i.e., the entire ritual of the service of the German Protestant Church. See R. von Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste vom 1523 bis 1700 (1893); F. Smend, Neue Beitriige zur Reform unserer Agenden (1913). Agevole [It.]. Easy, smooth. Agiatamente [It.]. With ease. Agilmente [It.]. Nimbly, with agility. Agitato [It.]. Excited. Agnus Dei. The last item (except for the "Ite, missa est") of the Ordinary ofthe Mass [see Mass A and B III]; therefore, the final movement in Mass compositions. It consists of three invocations: "Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi: miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, ... miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, ... dona nobis pacem." It was introduced into the Roman Mass by the Greek Pope Sergius I (687-701). There exist about 300 melodies, 20 of which are in present-day use. The most common structure of the music is a a a or a b a. See ApGC, p. 418. The Agnus Dei was retained in the first English Prayer Book (1549) but was suppressed in the second (1552). It is now commonly used in the Anglican service. In the polyphonic Masses of the 16th century, the third invocation is often composed in a more involved style, using special contrapuntal devices, particularly canons. Examples are found in *L'Homme arme Masses of Josquin and La Rue (triple, quadruple mensuration canon; see

24

HAM, no. 89; ApNPM, p. 181) and in many of the Masses of Palestrina.

Agogic. An accent is said to be agogic if it is effected not by dynamic stress or by higher pitch but by longer duration of the note [see Accent]. The German term Agogik (translated "agogics") is used to denote all the subtleties of performance achieved by modification of tempo, as distinct from Dynamik (dynamics), i.e., gradations that involve variety of intensity. Thus, the use of rallentando and accelerando, of tempo rubato, the dwelling on certain notes, as well as rests, breathing signs, fermatas, etc., all fall under Agogik. The term was introduced by H. Riemann (Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik, 1884) to describe those deviations from strict tempo and rhythm that are necessary for an intelligent rendering of the musical phrase. Agrements [F.]. The ornaments introduced in French music of the 17th century, which were finally adopted into all European music and were generally indicated by stenographic signs or notes in small type. The agrements are characterized by a definitely stereotyped melodic contour, a close relationship with a single note of the melody to be ornamented, and a small meP.A. lodic range. See Ornamentation II. Aguinaldo [Sp.]. Religious folksong of Spanish origin based on texts praising Jesus, the saints, or the angels, sung throughout Latin America. Prevailingly modal, it has a simple melodic structure and follows the conventional pattern of refrain (estribillo)-stanza (cop/a)-refrain (estribillo). Also called alabanza, adoraci6n, and *villancico. J.o-s. Xida. Opera in four acts by Verdi (libretto by A. Ghislanzoni), commissioned by the Khedive of Egypt for the celebration of the opening of the Suez Canal and produced in Cairo., 1871. Setting: Egypt under the Pharaohs. Although reputedly making use of a few Egyptian musical themes, the general style is that of Italian grand opera. Striking features are the brief atmospheric prelude (in place of a conventional operatic overture) and the use of a few *leitmotivs. Air. (1) French 17th- and 18th-century term for song in general [see under Chanson]. Air a boire, drinking song. (2) In French opera and ballet of the 17th-18th centuries, an instrumental or vocal piece designed to accompany dancing but not cast in one of the standard dance patterns such as the minuet, gavotte, etc. Some-

AIR DE COUR times the composer (e.g., Rameau) qualifies it as air tendre, air gracieux, etc. (3) In the suites written about and after 1700, a movement, found in the optional group, of a melodic rather than dancelike character-in a way, a "song without words" [cf. Bach's Partitas nos. 4 and 6]. Early examples occur in the suites of Locke and Purcell. (4) See Ayre. Air de cour [F.]. A type of short strophic song, sometimes with a refrain, for one or more voices with lute or harpsichord accompaniment, which was cultivated in France in the late 16th and in the 17th centuries, and which appears for the first time in Le Roy and Ballard's Livre d'airs de cour (1571). The songs are in simple syllabic style and binary form. The texts are chiefly love poems in affected precieux language, some of them in *vers mesure. The repetition of each of the two sections was frequently ornamented at will by the singer. Principal composers are Pierre Guedron (c. 1565-1625), Antoine Boesset (c. 1585-1646), Jean de Cambefort (d. 1661), and Michel Lambert (1610-96). Lit.: T. Gerold, L'Art du chant en France au XVIIe siixle (1921); L. de La Laurencie, A Mairy, and G. Thibault, Chansons au luth et airs de cour fram;ais duX VIe siecle (1934); t*Editions V, 7; D. P. Walker, "The Influence of Musique mesuree . .. on the Airs de cour" (MD ii, 141ft); J. Dodge, "Les Airs de cour d' Adrien Le Roy" (BSIM 1907, p. 1132); 0. Chilesotti, "Gli 'Airs de court' ... di J. B. Besard" (Atti del congresso internazionale di scienze storiche viii [1905], 131 ); A Arnheim, in SIM x. D.J.G. Aire [Sp.]. Dance-song form cultivated in Argen-

tina and Chile between 1830 and 1860 and almost extinct today. It consisted of two sections. The first, called relaci6n or estrofa, was always sung to a kind of pantomime in which men and women dancers approached each other from opposite comers but never actually touched. The second section, much livelier and purely instrumental, accompanied a sort of tapping dance, which usually ended with shouts of "Aire!" when the man, kneeling on the floor, looked at his partner circling around him. Most of the examples preserved are bimodal, and only a few J.o-s. use the major mode.

AKOWTHIA in one of his letters says: "Heute keine Akademie," i.e., "No concert tonight." Akademische Festouvertiire [G., Academic Fes-

tival Overture]. Orchestral composition by Brahms, op. 80, written for the University of Breslau in appreciation for the degree of doctor of philosophy conferred on him in 1879. It includes several German student songs, skillfully arranged and connected. Akathistos [Gr.]. A famous hymn of the Byzan-

tine Church in honor of the Virgin, originally sung on the Feast of the Annunciation (March 25), now sung in part during certain Matins of Lent and in its entirety during the vigil of the fifth Saturday of Lent. According to one of several legends, it was written by the Patriarch Sergios in 626 on the occasion of the deliverance of Constantinople from the Persians and was sung by the choir and congregation standing throughout a nightlong service of thanksgiving [Gr. Akathistos, not seated]. The Akathistos belongs to the general species of Byzantine poetry known as kontakion [see Byzantine chant II] and consists of a prologue and 24 stanzas whose initial letters comprise the Greek alphabet (acrostic). It is the only kontakion that has remained intact, the rest having been reduced to the prologue and first stanza. The authorship of the Akathistos has not been settled, although some indications point to Romanos (ft. 500-555), one of the greatest Byzantine hymnographers, who joined the clergy of the Theotokos Church in Constantinople at the time of Anastasius I (491-518). Lit.: E. Wellesz, A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography, rev. ed. (1961), pp. 191ft' and passim; id., tThe Akathistos Hymn (1957); *Editions XXIX, C, 9; G. G. Meerssemann, Der Hymnos Akathistos im Abendland, 2 vols. (1958, '60); E. Wellesz, in MF vi, xi, xiv, id., in Dumbarton Oaks Papers ix, x. Akkord [G.]. Chord. Akoluthia [Gr.]. The order of service of the

Byzantine Church, particularly that of the Office, thus usually not including the Mass (which was called leiturgeia, "liturgy"). The term was also used for the sequence of eight odes that form the kanon [see Byzantine chant II]. The theory advanced by W. Christ (Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum, 1871, p. lvii) that the medieval term "sequence" was the Latin translation of akoluthia is without foundation.

Ais, aisis [G.]. A-sharp, a-double-sharp; see Pitch names. Akademie [G.]. *Academy. About 1800 the term

was also used for concerts or recitals. Beethoven

25

ALEATORY MUSIC

AKZENT

Albert Herring. Comic opera in three acts by B. Britten (libretto by E. Crozier after "Le Rosier de Madame Husson" by De Maupassant), produced in Glyndebourne, 1947. Setting: England, late 19th century.

Akzent [G.]. Accent. Akzentneumen Neumes II. AI [It.],

[G.].

Accent

neumes.

See

a Ia [F.]. To the, at the; see, e.g., A I fine.

Alberti bass. Stereotyped figures of accompaniment for the pianist's left hand, consisting of broken chords [see also Murky]. They are named

A Ia. See AI; Alia. Alabado [Sp.]. Originally, a Spanish hymn in praise of the Eucharist, brought to the New World by the Franciscans, probably during the 17th century. It became a hymn in praise of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and other saints. Some forms of alabado (occasionally called alabanza) have survived in numerous Roman Catholic communities of Mexico, New Mexico, etc., especially in the unusual rites of the Penitent Brothers. See J. B. Rael, The New Mexico Alabado (1951); A. B. McGill, "Old Mission Music" (MQ xxiv); L. T. Shaver, "Spanish Mission Music" (Proceedings of the MTNA [1919]). Alabanza [Sp.]. See under Aguinaldo; Alabado. Alahi. A type of folksong from northwest Spain (Galicia) expressing passion and longing. Older examples use syllables such as "Ia-la" or "ai-lelo-la" and are interesting because of the preservation of plainsong-like elements. See F. Pedrell, tCancionero musical popular espafwl (1918-22), ii, 127ff.

I:J:

t£12 Ft£11 I ttJ

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for Domenico Alberti (1710-40?), who used them extensively. Similar broken-chord patterns occur in the works of the virginalists (c. 1600) and in various keyboard compositions of the 17th century, e.g., the fourth variation of the G-minor aria in Pachelbel's Hexachordum Apollinis of 1699 [see DTB 2; TaAM ix, 46]. They are still common in the works of Haydn, Mozart, and the early Beethoven. See G. A. Marco, "The Alberti Bass Before Alberti" (MR xx).

A Ia mi re, alamire. See under Hexachord III. Alba [Prov.]. In the repertory of the troubadours, a poem dealing with the lover's departure in the early morning. It is usually cast in the form of a dialogue between the lover and a watchman (gaite de Ia tore, guard of the tower), who warns him of approaching danger. The oldest known prototype is an 11th-century Latin poem, "Phebi claro nondum orto." Three Proven~al a/bas are preserved with music: Guiraut de Bornelh's "Reis glorios" [HAM, no. 18c], Cadenet's "S'anc fui belha," and an anonymous "Gaite de Ia tor" [see ReMMA, p. 214f]. The minnesinger counterpart of the alba is the Tagelied [G., day song] or Wiichterlied (guard song), which Wagner revived in the second act of Tristan und Isolde (Brangane's warning call). Many examples of the Tagelied, however, are of a more devotional nature, serving as a sort of morning prayer [see, e.g., "Ein ander tagwyss (Tageweise) graff Peters von Arberg," in P. Runge, :j:Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift (1896), p. 173]. See also Alborada; Aubade.

26

Albisiphone. See under Flute I (d). Alborada [Sp.]. A type of Spanish (Galician, particularly) music, played on the dulzaina (rustic oboe) and tamboril (small drum), originally a morning song [see G. Chase, The Music of Spain, 1941, p. 237]. Ravel's Alborada del gracioso (The Jester's Morning Song; 1905) derives certain features from the Spanish alborada. See also Alba; A ubade.

Albumblatt [G., album leaf]. A fanciful name for a short piece of 19th-century music, such as might be inscribed in an autograph album. Alceste. Opera in three acts by Gluck (Italian libretto by R. di Calzabigi, based on Euripides' tragedy), produced in Vienna, probably 1767. Rev. French version produced in Paris, 1776. Setting: Thessaly, in legendary times. Written in simple, non virtuoso style, Alceste was one of the first of Gluck's "reform" operas, embodying his theories about the proper relation of drama and music. Its French version touched off the famous quarrel between the "Gluckists" and the "Piccinnists" (supporters of Niccolo Piccinni), who favored traditional Italian operatic style. Aleatory music. Music in which the composer introduces elements of chance or unpredictability with regard to either the composition or its performance. The terms aleatoric, chance

ALEATORY MUSIC

AL FINE

music, music of indeterminacy have been applied to many works created since 1945 by composers who differ widely as to the concepts, methods, and rigor with which they employ procedures of random selection. Chance may be involved in the process of composition, in performance, or in both. In the composition process, pitches, durations, degrees of intensity, etc., and/ or their distribution in time may be chosen by dice throwing, interpretations of abstract designs (Cage), etc., or according to certain mathematical laws of chance (Xenakis). In performance, chance is allowed to operate by leaving some elements and/or their order of appearance to the performer's discretion (Boulez, Stockhausen, Pousseur, et al. ), thus introducing the idea of choice. Most of these procedures are derived from and motivated by new general concepts of music, according to which form and structure are no longer regarded as definitely fixed and final but as subject to partial or total transformations from one performance to another (open forms, mobile forms). The composers adhering to such ideas are part of a general movement-in science and philosophy as well as in the artsthat tends to consider, and therefore to express, the world in terms of possibility rather than necessity. "Dice music" was well known in the 18th century. The most famous example is a Musikalisches Wiirfelspiel of unknown authorship but attributed by several publishers to Mozart (K. Anh. C 30.01). It appeared in London in 1806 with the description: "Mozarts Musical Game, fitted in an elegant box, showing by an easy system to compose an unlimited number of Waltzes, Rondos, Hornpipes, and Reels." It consists of a set of first measures, second measures, etc., from each of which a measure is selected by a throw of the dice. J. P. Kirnberger contributed to this entertainment in his Der allezeit fertige Polonaisen- und Menuettenkomponist of 1757. A number of similar publications followed, among them one ascribed to Haydn, one to K. P. E. Bach, and the Wiirfelspiel mentioned above. See P. Lowenstein, "MozartKuriosa" (ZMW xii, 342); 0. E. Deutsch, ibid, p. 595; H. Gerigk, in ZMW xvi, 350; A. Laszlo, The Dice Composer (1941). The first well-known example of 20th-century aleatory composition was John Cage's Music of Changes for piano (1951). In this work the pitches or pitch aggregates are precisely notated, while their duration and frequency of occurrence are dictated by the !-Ching (Book of Changes),

27

an ancient Chinese prescription for arriving at random numbers by throwing coins or sticks. In other compositions Cage has employed templates (Music for Carillon) and incidental imperfections of the music paper (Music for Piano 21-52) to determine compositional elements. Cage's Concert for piano and orchestra (1958) is a prime example of indeterminacy in performance. Its 63-page piano part contains 84 different sound-aggregates to be played in whole or in part and in any sequence. The wind and string parts are of a similar nature, and the Concert includes an "Aria" for soprano that may or may not be sung simultaneously. Considerably less license is given in some scores involving alternatives from which the performer may-indeed, must-choose, preferably at the moment of performance. Karlheinz Stockhausen's Klavierstiick XI (1956) has nineteen sections to be played in any order, and the pianist may choose from six different tempos, dynamics, and kinds of touch (legato, staccato, etc.). His Zyklus (1959) for one percussion player is a spiral-bound score that may be read from any point clockwise or counterclockwise and even upside down. The work ends when the player returns to his starting point. Perhaps the ultimate in indeterminacy of performance is reached in Mauricio Kagel's Sonant for guitar, harp, and percussion, where one is told, "the player may mimic his part or rebel against it entirely." The use of mathematical laws of chance, such as theory of probability, games theory, etc., is represented by the Greek composer Yannis Xenakis, most of whose works belong to this general category, which he calls stochastic music. In such works as STI 10-1,080262 and Strau!gie (both 1962), he also uses the assistance of computers. Lit.: U. Eco, Opera aperta [1962]; J. Cage, Silence; Lectures and Writings [1961]; W. Mellers, Music in a New Found Land [1964], pp. 177-93; Die Reihe (German ed. [1955-], English ed. [1958-], passim; Incontri musicali nos. 1--4 (1956-60), passim; Perspectives of New Music [1962-],passim; J. Cage, "To Describe the Process of Composition Used in 'Music for Piano 21-52'" (Die Reihe, Eng. ed., iii, 4lff); P. Boulez, "Sonate, que me veux-tu?" (Perspectives of New Music i, 32); id., "Alea" (Incontri musicali iii, 3); Y. Xenakis, "Musiques Formelles" (RM nos. J.R.W. and A.B. 253-4, 1963).

Al fine [It., to the end]. Indication to repeat a composition from the beginning (da capo) or

ALLEMANDE

AliQUOT STRINGS

Allegro [It.]. (l) General indication for fast speed [see Tempo marks]. Originally the term was employed primarily as an expression ~ark _[It., cheerful, joyful], as appears from designations such as "allegro e presto" (M. Cazzati, II Secondo Libro delle sonate, op. 8, 1648) or "andante allegro" (first movement, Handel's Organ Concerto no. 6, op. 4). (2) A composition in fast tempo, especially the first and last movements of a sonata, symphony, etc.

tioned by Tertullian, St. Jerome, and particularly St. Augustine, who describes and extols it _as an "old tradition of the Church." Jerome says 1t was sung at festive meals and also by the plowmen in the fields. Sidonius Apollinaris (born c. 430) says that it was sung by the boat~en on th_e Loire, and Bede reports that the Bntons used 1t as a battle cry in 448. In liturgical use it occurs as an expression of rejoicing added to antiphons, introits, offertories, communions, etc., during Eastertide and on Christmas Day, Corpus Christ~ and other feast days. A special type of chant is the alleluiatic antiphon, consisting of the word "alleluia" repeated three or more times [e.g., LU, p. 776kk]. More specifically, Alleluia refers to an elaborate chant sung as the third item of the Proper of the Mass. (Concerning its alleged introduction by Pope Damasus I, reigned 366-84, see A_pGC, p. 376f.) There is evidence that about 450 1t was sung in Rome only once during the year, on the first day of Easter; that before St. Gregory (reigned 590-604) it was sung during the period from Easter to Pentecost (Paschaltide), and that Gregory extended its use, probably from Advent to the last Sunday after Epiphany. Finally it was introduced into all Masses except during Lent, for which the original *tract was preserved. During Paschaltide (more correctly, from Saturday after Easter to Friday after Pentecost) the Mass includes two Alleluias, one in place of the Gradual. The Alleluia of the Mass consists of the word "alleluia" followed by a brief sentence referring to the occasion, the so-called verse (versus alleluiaticus, abbr. Jl), e.g.: "Alleluia. W Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro" [see LU, p. 790; also HAM, no. 13]. The music for the word "alleluia" closes with a long vocalization on the final "a," the so-called *jubilus [see also Neuma]. In nearly all Alleluias the music of the jubilus (often that of alleluia plus jubilus) recurs at the end of the verse [see Rhyme]. The jubilus melodies and also the melismas found within the verses frequently show repeat structures such as a a b, a a b b c, etc. [see ApGC pp. 386fl]. Many Alleluia melodies reveal their relatively late date (1Oth, 11th cent.) by their use of extended scale formation_s, usually in descending motion. See also Gregonan chant III; Psalmody II; Sequence II.

Alleluia [L.]. An exclamation of praise to God (from the Hebrew *hallelujah, praise ye the Lord), which occurs at the beginning or end of Psalms 110-118 (111-113, 115-117). It is men-

Allemande [F.]. A dance in moderate duple time that first appeared in the early 16th century. Early examples occur in T. Susato's Het derde musyck Boexken (Third Music Book) of 1551; in

from the sign§ (dal segno) to the place marked fine.

AHquot strings, aliquot scaling. *Sympathetic strings added by some piano makers (first by Bliithner) above the strings of the upper register in order to produce a fuller sound through resonance. Alia, all' [It.], a Ia, a I' [F.]. In the manner of; e.g., alia *turca, alia *zingarese, etc.; al'espagnol, in the Spanish manner. Alia breve [It.]. A tempo mark (¢) indicating quick duple time, i.e., with the h~lf note rather than the quarter note as the beat; mother wo~ds, 2/2 instead of 4/4. Both the name and the s1gn are a vestige of *mensural notation and of the *proportions (tempus imperfectum diminutum). Originally (and properly) alia breve meant that the unit of musical time (tactus) was represented by the brevis (corresponding to our double whole note), not, as was usual, by the semibrevis (corresponding to our whole note). Today it means that the half note should be regarded as the unit of time, instead of, as is usual, the quarter note. It should be noted, however, that at least in earlier practice this unit could be fairly slow. ~ exam_ple in point is the overture to Don Gwvanm, marked andante and ¢. Mozart obviously wanted the music to be interpreted in a more animated tempo but, at the same time, in much broader terms than is customarily done by modern conductors, who play it largo and often employ eight beats to the measure instead of two. Allargando [It.]. Slowing down, usually accompanied by a crescendo at a climax. Allegretto [It.]. (I) A tempo between andante and allegro; see Tempo marks. (2) A short piece in fast (allegro) tempo.

28

ALPENS/NFONIE, E/NE

ALLEMANDE

C. Gervaise's Troisieme Livre de danceries (1556; see HAM, no. 137); in B. Schmid, Zwey Biicher einer neuen kunstlichen Tabulatur (1571; see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbiichern, 1927, p. Ill); and in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book (c. 1620), where the name "Alman," "Almayne," is used. Arbeau, in his Orchesographie (1589), considers the dance already outmoded [see Dance music II]. The l_6th-century all~mande shows a plain, essent~ally homophomc style. The dance steps were s~ple, as appears from the following description by T. Morley (A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical! Musicke, 1597, p. 181): "The Alman is a more heavie daunce then this [i.e., the galliard] (fitlie representing the nature of the people [German], whose name it carieth) so that no extraordinarie motions are used in dauncing of it." Like the pavane and passamezzo, the allemande was frequently followed by a jumping I

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I I

1

dance in triple meter (called trip/a, Proportz) or, in the 17th century, by the courante. In the 17th century the allemande became a stylized dance type that was regularly used as the first movement of the *suite. These allemandes are in very moderate 4/4 time, with a short upbeat, and frequently make use of short running figures that are passed through the various voices of a pseudocontrapuntal fabric. The examples here (I. Ammerbach, 1571; 2. Purcell, c. 1660; 3. J. K. F. Fischer, c. 1690) illustrate the stylistic development of the dance [examples in HAM, nos. 216, 232, 250, 253]. In the late 18th century the name Allemande was used in South Germany as an equivalent for deutscher Tanz, a quick waltzlike dance in 3/4 or 3/8 time. Cf. Beethoven's "a !'Allemande" in his Bagatellen op. 119, and his Zwolf deutsche Tiinze (1795) for orchestra. See Dance music III. Lit.: E. Mohr, Die Allemande (1932); A. Anders, "Untersuchungen iiber die Allemande als Volksliedtyp des 16. Jahrhunderts" (diss. Frankfurt, 1940). Allentando [It.]. Slowing down.

1

Alliteration. A characteristic feature of ancient

1

I I

I

North European poetry (Beowulf, Edda), consisting of the use of words with the same initial letter. This principle was adopted by Wagner in Ring des Nibelungen, e.g., "Nach Welten-Wonne mein Wunsch verlangte aus wild webendem Ban gen."

r

All' ongarese. See Ongarese. All' ottava [It.]. See Ottava. All' unisono [It.]. See Unison. Alman, almayne. A 16th-century English corrup-

tion of *allemande. Alma Redemptoris Mater [L.]. One of the Marian

antiphons; see Antiphon 2. Dunstable, Dufay [see HAM, no. 65], Ockeghem, Obrecht, Josquin, and others composed polyphtmic settings. Leonel's Missa Alma Redemptoris Mater is the earliest known cantus .firmus Mass. Almerie [F.]. A variety of lute invented c. 1650 by Jean Lemaire (not c. 1750 by Louis Lemaire).

The name is an anagram on the inventor's name. See M. Brenet, Les Concerts en France sous !'ancien regime (1900), p. 54. Alpensinfonie, Eine [G., An Alpine Symphony].

A long symphonic poem in one movement by R. Strauss, op. 64 (1911-15), describing a day of

29

ALTHORN

ALPHABET

Alpine climbing. Particularly noteworthy for its time is the extreme dissonance and daring use of instruments in the section entitled "Erscheinung." Alphabet (in music). See Pitch names; Letter notation; Tablature. Alphorn, alpine hom. A primitive wind instrument, still used by herdsmen in the Alps for signaling over a great distance and for simple melodies. Made of wooden staves bound with strips of birch bark, it is 3 to lO feet long and appears in various shapes, straight or bent. The tones produced are the harmonics [see Acoustics IV], somewhat modified by the material and the irregular width of the inner tube. In particular, the fourth (11th harmonic) is halfway between f and f-sharp (Alphorn fa) [see Ranz des uaches]. Similar instruments are found in Scandinavia, Poland, Rumania, and among the South American Indians. See SaRM, p. 7; H. Szadrowsky, in Jahrbuch des schweizer Alpenclub iv; K. Nef, in De Muziek v. See ill. under Brass instruments. Alpine Symphony, An. See Alpensinfonie, Eine. AI segno. See Segno. Also sprach Zarathustra [G., Thus Spake Zarathustra]. *Symphonic poem by R. Strauss, op. 30, completed in 1896. It is based on Nietzsche's work of the same name. Alt. (1) Term for the tones of the octave above the treble staff (g" to f"'), which are said to be "in alt." The tones of the next higher octave are called "in altissimo." (2) In German, the lower of the two female voices, i.e., the contralto [see Alto]. In connection with instruments, the term denotes the second highest member of the family (Altklarinette, alto clarinet; Altsaxophon, alto saxophone). See the various instruments. Altgeige is the viola alta [see Violin family (d)], rarely the ordinary viola. Alta [It., Sp.]. The alta, or alta danza, is a dance of the 15th century, which, according to the Italian theorist A Cornazano ("Libro dell' arte del danzare," 1455?), was the Spanish equivalent of the Italian saltarello, the French pas de Brabant (It., passo brabante). Each of the numerous basse danse melodies could also be used for the alta [see Basse danse]. An Alta by Francesco de la Torre (for three instruments; HAM, no. l02a) is based on the basse danse melody Il Re di Spagna [see Spagna]. The term also occurs in the phrase alta musica

(Tinctoris, c. 1435-1511) as a designation for an ensemble ofloud instruments, such as trombone, shawm, bombarde. Alteration. (1) See Mensural notation III. (2) The raising or lowering of a note by means of a sharp or fiat, also called chromatic alteration. See Accidentals; Chromaticism; Harmonic analysis V. Altered chord. See Harmonic analysis V. Alternation (alternatim). A term used with reference to early liturgical compositions (12th-16th cent.), primarily to indicate the alternation of polyphony and plainsong, a method that developed from a similar practice in Gregorian chant of alternation between the soloists (cantores) and choir (schola) [see Responsorial singing; Psalmody II]. Polyphonic composition of such chants (Graduals, responsories, Alleluias) was restricted to their solo sections, which therefore alternated with sections sung in plainsong by the choir. Among the earliest examples is an "Alleluia Angelus Domini" from c. 1100 [Chartres, MS 109; see HAM, no. 26]. Consistent application of this principle occurs in the organa of the school of Notre Dame [see Organum V]. In the 15th and 16th centuries the alternatim method was used particularly in psalms and the *Magnificat but also for sequences and hymns. An interesting example of a relatively late date is Tallis' setting of the responsory "Audivi vocem" [HAM, no. 127]. The practice of alternation is even more important in liturgical organ music. Here not only the psalms, the Magnificat, the *Salve Regina, and the hymns consisted of organ music alternating with plainsong, but also the various items of the Mass [see Organ Mass]. The normal scheme for the Kyrie was as follows (organ music in italics): Kyrie Kyrie Kyrie Christe Christe Christe Kyrie K yrie Kyrie. Altemativo [It.]. altemativement [F.]. Indication for one section to alternate with another, as in an A B A structure (ternary form; see Binary and ternary form). In the suites of Bach, an indication such as "Bourn!e I, alternativementBourree II" calls for repeat of section A (first boum?e) after section B (second boum?e). Schumann occasionally used the term alternatiuo as a designation for an internal section. Altgeige [G.] See under Alt (2). Althorn. See under Brass instruments III (f).

30

AMBROSIAN CHANT

ALTISSIMO

the ambitus is the chief mark of distinction between an authentic and a plagal mode. [See Gregorian chant V (b); Church modes.] See F. Krasuski, Vber den Ambitus der gregorianischen Messgesiinge (1903); ApGC, pp. 133ff, 144ff.

Altissimo [It.]. See Alt. Altistin [G.]. A contralto singer. Alto [It.]. (1) A female voice of low range, also called contralto. See Voices, range of. (2) Originally the alto was a high male voice [It. high], which through use of *falsetto nearly reached the range of the female voice (contralto). This type of voice, also known as *countertenor, was cultivated especially in England, where the church music of the 16th and 17th centuries definitely implies its use. [For an explanation of the term, see Contratenor.] (3) The second highest part of the normal four-part chorus; L. altus. (4) In French and Italian, the second highest instrument of the violin family, i.e., the viola. (5) Applied to clarinet, flute, saxophone, etc., the term refers to the third or fourth highest member of the family. Lit.: G. E. Stubbs, The Adult Male Alto or Counter-Tenor Voice (1908); A. H. D. Prendergast, 'The Man's Alto in English Music" (ZIM i); W. J. Hough, "The Historical Significance of the Countertenor" (PMA lxiv).

Amboss [G.]. *Anvil. Ambrosian chant. A repertory of liturgical chant named after St. Ambrose (340?-397), Bishop of Milan, and still in use today in the cathedral of that city; therefore also called Milanese chant. It constitutes one of the four (or five) branches of Western Christian chant [see Chant]. Its connection with St. Ambrose is even more nominal than that of Gregorian chant with St. Gregory, modern investigations having made it seem probable that most of its melodies are even later than those of the Gregorian repertory, perhaps belonging to the lOth and 11th centuries [see ApGC, p. 508f]. Like the Gregorian Mass, the Ambrosian includes ten musical items, only three of which, however, belong to the Ordinary, there being no Kyrie or Agnus (the Credo is called Symbolum). The seven items of the Ambrosian Proper are shown here together with the corresponding items of the Gregorian:

Alto clef. See Clef. Alto Rhapsody. See Rhapsodie aus Goethe's 'Harzreise im Winter.' Altra volta [It.]. Encore.

Ambrosian Ingressa Psalmellus Hallelujah (Cantus) Post Evangelium Offertorium *Confractorium Transitorium

Altschliissel [G.]. Alto clef. Altus [L.]. See under Alto (3). Alzati [It.]. Indication to remove the mutes. Amabile [It.]. Amiable, with love. Amahl and the Night Visitors. Opera in one act by Gian Carlo Menotti (to his own libretto), produced in New York by N.B.C.-TV Opera Theater on Christmas Eve, 1951, the first opera commissioned specifically for television. Stage premiere, Indiana University, 1952. Setting: near Bethlehem, birth of Jesus. Ambitus [L.]. The range of the melodies of Gregorian chant, varying from a fourth (in some of the simple antiphons) to an octave or more (Graduals, Alleluias, etc.). In the Graduals the ambitus of the verse is often one or two tones higher than that of the respond, e.g., in "Universi" [L U, p. 320]. The same is true of the Offertories and their verses (no longer used). The largest ambitus is found in the Offertory "Tollite portas" and its two verses, namely two octaves (from F to f'). In the theory of the church modes 31

Gregorian Introit Gradual Alleluia (Tract)

Offertory Communion

Among the Ambrosian offices, that of Vespers is noteworthy for its elaborate structure, including (in addition to the Gregorian items) the *lucernarium, responsorium (two), psallenda (two), and completorium (four), as well as a threefold Kyrie. The Ambrosian psalm tones lack the mediation [see Psalm tones] but are much more diversified and flexible than the Gregorian in the selection of the reciting tone and termination (clausula), both of which are determined in a rather intricate manner by the antiphon. They contain no reference to the eight-mode or eighttone system of Gregorian chant, and neither antiphons nor any other chants are ever assigned to a mode. A considerable number of chants close on the *affinales, that is, a, b, c', d'. In contrast to the Gregorian repertory there is very

AMBROSIAN HYMNS

AMBROSIAN HYMNS

little uniformity of style within a given category of chant. Thus, some of the ingressae are very simple and short and others quite long and highly melismatic. In many other details as well, the Ambrosian repertory lacks the thorough organization of the Gregorian (or, from another point of view, shows greater freedom from strict rule and system). Selective quotation has done much to spread the misconception that Ambrosian chant in general is prolix and ornate in the extreme, whereas in fact most of its melodies are comparable to those of the Gregorian repertory. Occasionally, however, one encounters extraordinarily long melismas (up to 200 or more notes), particularly in the responsories of Matins. A number of Ambrosian chants have Gregorian counterparts, and in these cases the Ambrosian version is always much more elaborate than the Gregorian [see HAM, no. 10; SchGMB, no. 2; BeMMR, p. 58; LavE i.l, 561; 0. Ursprung, Die katholische Kirchenmusik, 1931, p. 20; A. Gastouc!, Cours ... de chant gn?gorien, 1917, pp. 67, 128, 149]. Possibly these chants represent a later stage characterized by a tendency toward amplification and paralleling the period of troping in Gregorian chant. See Ambrosian hymns. Lit.: ApGC, pp. 465ff; M. Huglo, Fonti e paleograjia del canto ambrosiano (1956); R. Jesson, "Ambrosian Chant: The Music of the Mass" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); R. G. Weakland, in CP Reese; K. Ott, "L'Antifonia ambrosiana," in Rassegna gregoriana v ( 1906), and similar articles in v-viii, x (1906-11); t*Editions XLII, A, 5, 6; tAntiphonale missarum ... sanctae ecclesiae M ediolanensis ( 1935); tLiber vesperalis ... sanctae ecclesiae Mediolanensis (1939).

Ambrosian hymns. The hymns of the Roman and Milanese (Ambrosian) rites written by St. Ambrose (340?-397), or others of the same type written later. I. Text. Formerly nearly all the hymns (c. 120) of the antiphonarium were ascribed to Ambrose, under the generic name hymni Ambrosiani. Actually the number of true Ambrosian hymns is much smaller, hardly more than a dozen. With four of them Ambrose's authorship is placed beyond doubt by the testimony of St. Augustine; these are "Aeterne rerum conditor," "Deus Creator omnium," "Jam surgit hora tertia," and "Veni Redemptor gentium." [See J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, Latin series, 221 vols. (1844-64), xxxii, col. 618; xxxii, col. 777; xliv, col. 284; xxxix, cols. 1662-63]. Two others,

"Illuxit orbi" and "Bis ternas horas," are mentioned by Cassiodorus (d. c. 583). The scheme of all the Ambrosian hymns is simple, consisting of eight stanzas of four lines each, in iambic tetrameter, e.g.: Veni Redemptor gentium Ostende plirtiim virginis Miretiir omne seciiliim Tlilis decet plirtiis deiim.

[For the early history of hymnody, see Hymn I, II.] II. Music. The earliest source for an Ambrosian hymn is the * "Musica enchiriadis" of c. 900, which contains, in *daseian notation, a melody for "Aeterna Christi munera" [see GS i, 154; HAM, no. 9b]. In these circumstances the question of whether this or other melodies are compositions of Ambrose, "early Christian folksongs" (as has been surmised), or products of a later period remains entirely open. Scholars who believe that they date from the 4th century have reconstructed an "original form," i.e., strictly syllabic (the melodies as preserved often contain groups of two or three notes over a a

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syllable) and in triple meter. The accompanying example shows a melody (a) in its 9th-century form and (b) in its hypothetical reconstruction [see also HAM, no. 9]. The rhythmic interpretation rests on a passage in Augustine's De musica, which defines an iambic foot as "a short and a long, of three beats" (brevis et longa, tria temporum). Since Augustine's work is a treatise not on music but on poetic versification, this evidence is of rather doubtful validity [see ApGC, p. 428f]. The term "Ambrosian hymn" [G. Ambrosi-

32

AMBROSIAN MODES

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

anischer Lobgesang] is erroneously used for the *Te Deum. Lit.: L. Biraghi, Inni sinceri . .. di S. Ambrogio (1862); E. Garbagnati, Gli Inni del breviario ambrosiano (1897); G. M. Dreves, Aurelius Ambrosius (1893); G. Bas, in Musica divina xvii; J. Jeannin, in TG xxvi, 115. Ambrosian modes. See under Church modes II. Arne [F.]. The sound post of the violin. Amelia al ballo [It., Amelia Goes to the Ball]. Opera in one act by Menotti (to his own libretto), produced (in English) in Philadelphia, 1937. Setting: Milan, 1910. Amen. A Hebrew word, meaning "so be it," which occurs in the Scriptures as an affirmative expression (e.g., in Numbers 5:22 and at the end of Ps. 40 [41]) and is widely used in Christian rites. It is usually spoken by the congregation (or recited by the choir) as a confirming answer to the lection or the prayer of the priest [see AR, p. 35*]. In Gregorian chant it occurs at the end of the lesser *doxology ("in saecula saeculorum. Amen.") and in the Mass at the end of the Gloria ("in gloria Dei Patris. Amen.") as well as of the Credo ("Et vitam venturi saeculi. Amen."). In the polyphonic Masses of the 17th and 18th centuries the confirming character of the Amen led to the writing of extensive closing sections in fugal style, called Amen fugue or Amen chorus, in which the word is repeated over and over. This practice began with Antonio Bertali (1605-69; see AdHM i, 516) and continued throughout the periods of Handel (Amen chorus in Messiah), Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, etc. In Cherubini's D-minor Mass, at the end of the Credo the soprano alone repeats the word 107 times. Also noteworthy is the parodistic Amen chorus in Berlioz' Damnation de Faust (Part II). For Amen cadence, see Plagal cadence. Amener [F.]. A 17th-century dance in moderate triple time with phrases of six measures (three plus three or four plus two) as a characteristic feature. It occurs in the suites of Heinrich Biber, J. K. F. Fischer, Alessandro Poglietti, in the instrumental suites edited by Ecorcheville (Vingt Suites d'orchestre, 1906), etc. The derivation of the amener from the basse danse, given in most reference books, is very questionable. More likely, it is one of the numerous species of *branle, a branle a mener, i.e., a branle in which one couple led while the others followed. See also Minuet.

33

American Guild of Organists. See Societies, musical, I ( 1). American Indian music. I. North America. Although the collection and scientific study of North American Indian music did not commence until the late 19th century, numerous earlier references to it are found, beginning shortly after the coming of the English colonists. In the 18th century, F. W. Marpurg, the German music historian, published Remarks on Three Songs of the Iroquois (Berlin, 1760), and an early attempt at adaptation of an actual Indian melody, called Alknomook or Alkmoonok ("The death song of the Cherokee Indians"), was first published in London in 1784. In America, James Hewitt included Alkmoonok in the score he arranged and composed for the ballad opera Tammany ( 1794). The first serious study of Indian music was undertaken by Theodore Baker, a GermanAmerican student at the University of Leipzig, who chose as the subject for his doctoral thesis the music of the North American Indians. In his Vber die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882), he analyzed some forty songs, discussing their poetry, systems of notation, vocalization, scales, melodic progressions, and rhythms. A little later, Alice C. Fletcher visited the Omaha and Pawnee tribes. She was assisted by John C. Fillmore of Harvard University, who provided piano accompaniments for the melodies she transcribed. Miss Fletcher's findings were published at intervals from 1883 to 1911 by the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University and by the U. S. Bureau of American Ethnology. B. I. Gilman and J. W. Fewkes were pioneers in applying the scientific method to the analysis of Indian melodies. Gilman, who joined the Hemenway Southwestern Expedition, measured the interval structure of Zuii.i and Hopi melodies by a mechanical device. Fewkes was one of the first to use the phonograph to record Indian singing (1890). Further studies of Pueblo songs were made by Natalie Curtis Burlin, and music of the Ojibways in Minnesota and Wisconsin was transcribed by Frederick R. Burton. In 1911, the United States Government first undertook the perpetuation of Indian tribal melodies by appointing trained investigators to make phonograph recordings of the melodies with annotations for the Smithsonian Institution. Reports on research have been issued by the Bureau of American Ethnology. The most

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

prominent worker under these auspices was Frances Densmore, who studied the music and customs of the Chippewa, Teton Sioux, Northern Ute, Mandan, Hidatsa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Nootka, Menominee, and other tribes. Among later students of this field are Helen H. Roberts, George Herzog, David P. McAllester, Bruno Nettl, Alan P. Merriam, and Gertrude P. Kurath. It is inaccurate to refer to American Indian music as though it were a unified body of material with a single style. The Indians of North America comprised more than fifty basic linguistic stocks and some six or eight distinct culture areas. However, a number of traits are common to the musical culture of all or most tribes. Music is rarely performed for its own sake; generally, songs are associated with some specific activity or with the performance of some tribal custom or religious rite. There are ceremonial songs, songs for treating the sick, for bringing success in battle, for singing at the time of death, to accompany passage from one age-grade group to another. There are game and gambling songs, songs learned in dreams or visions, children's songs, and songs of courtship. Common to some tribes was the idea of regarding a song as the property of its composer. Some tribes regarded all songs as having supernatural origin; others accepted the idea that songs could be performed by human beings, or "found" in dreams, or learned from other tribes. Some regarded accuracy in performance essential, others considered it possible to make coincidental and intentional changes. Although there are important regional differences, the following traits characterize most North American Indian music: Most of the music by far is vocal. There is hardly any melodic instrumental music except for flute pieces, many of which may also be sung. Most singing is accompanied by drum or rattle but is monophonic. Men have the leading role in singing, which has a relatively tense, harsh, strident character. Scales are often (but not always) pentatonic, hexatonic, or tetratonic (in order of frequency). Most tribes also have a group of simple two- or three-tone melodies used for children's and gambling songs. The most prestigious instruments in many tribes are the drums, beaten with sticks, but rattles exceed them in number and variety. In some tribes, each ceremony has its own type of rattle. The regional styles coincide to some extent with the culture areas, but not with the language families. Six main musical areas have been 34

identified north of Mexico: (l) the EskimoNorthwest Coast style, whose chief characteristics are complex rhythm, especially in the drumming, and relatively small intervals such as minor seconds; (2) the California-Yuman area, which includes most of California and the Yuman-speaking tribes of the Southwest, characterized by a type of form in which a short, sometimes repeated section alternates with one at higher pitch; (3) the Great Basin area (Ne- • vada, Utah, northern California), characterized by a form in which each phrase is repeated, e.g., a a b b; (4) the Athabascan area, comprising the Navaho and Apache, characterized by the use of simple rhythms with only two note values, e.g., eighths and quarters, and occasional use of a clear falsetto voice; (5) the Plains-Pueblo area, which combines the complex songs of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona with the simpler ones of the Great Plains, and which is characterized by harsh, tense, pulsating vocal technique, descending, terrace-like melodic movement, and forms in which the stanza consists of two sections that are identical except that the second is an incomplete repetition of the first; and (6) the East, in many ways similar to (5) but distinguished by the occasional use of responsorial singing, by more regular rhythmic units, and some isorhythmic structure. The areas of greatest complexity are the Pueblo, theN orthwest Coast, and the area adjoining the Gulf of Mexico. Little is known about aboriginal Mexican Indian music. Presumably the Aztecs and Mayans had a very advanced musical culture that greatly influenced the North American Indians. South American Indian music is in many respects similar to that of North America, but more variety of style and many more instruments seem to have been developed in South America. [See II below.] There is evidence that the various tribal styles have changed greatly in the last several hundred years, partly because of the impact of Western civilization. The fact that there is some variety in each of many tribal repertories indicates that change also occurred in earlier times, and indeed one cannot assume that Indian music was static for thousands of years. Western civilization has affected Indian music mainly in an indirect fashion, causing different tribes to be thrown into intimate contact and giving rise to new religious movements. The most important of the latter, the Peyote cult, is known to many tribes and is accompanied by a special musical style that uses a more complex .version of the Plains form

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

together with Athabascan rhythm, a rapid accompaniment of drum and rattle, and a high, whining singing style. Also of recent origin is a pan-Indian movement that mixes tribal traditions and uses a musical style similar to that of the Plains for many tribes, who evidently feel that Indian culture can best be preserved by the merging of tribal differences. Considering the fact that there were never more than about one million Indians in North America, their large musical repertories and the fullness of their musical lives are truly amazing. Certainly music played a great role in even the simplest Indian cultures. Indian music has had some impact on art music in the United States. Edward MacDowell used Indian melodies in his Second Orchestral ("Indian") Suite of 1896, C. S. Skilton in his Two Indian Dances and Suite Primeval, C. W. Cadman in Thunderbird Suite and other works, Frederick Jacobi in his Indian Dances, C. T. Griffes in Two Sketches on Indian Themes, and Victor Herbert in the opera Natoma; H. W. Loomis, Arthur Farwell, Thurlow Lieurance, Carlos Troyer, Henry F. Gilbert, and others have made many settings of tribal material. Among European composers, Dvorak with his symphony "From the New World" and F. B. Busoni with his Indianisches Tagebuch may be mentioned. II. Central and South America. Native American music south of the United States border is more difficult to distinguish. For one thing, the native city-states of Central and South America, with their populations in the millions, had a far different history from the relatively isolated tribes of North America. The Spanish conquest was followed by 400 years of ready mingling of races and cultures. Conquistadors married into royal native families, and patents of nobility were granted by Spain to Indians who had helped the adventurers assume control. Today, in the cities, composers who may be of Indian or European descent, or both, write symphonies and cantatas drawing on a combination of European and Indian sources. In the villages as well as in cities, the violin and harp may play dance tunes of 16th-century Spain, or one may hear guitars accompanying huapangos, fast fiesta songs that are thought to derive from Andalusia during the early colonial period. At church festivals in Mexico the danza del arco is accompanied by the fiddle, but also by rattles and a percussion instrument sounded by snapping the 35

string of a small bow, and feather headdresses (traditionally Indian) are part of the costume. European influence tends to diminish in more rural areas. In relatively isolated Indian communities, celebrations like the Yaqui deer dance in northern Sonora, Mexico, are aboriginal in purpose and performance, including the music, but still they are performed under the aegis of the Church. Dances incorporating native features into Catholic ritual are common in Central and South America, particularly in Mexico and Guatemala. The Pascola dances are performed at festivals, especially during Easter week. A man, wielding rattles and often wearing other rattles as part of his costume, like the strings of pebble-filled cocoons of the Yaquis, performs a high-stepping dance to the accompaniment of various combinations of flutes, harps, violins, and drums. The Matachines, also part of the Easter Week celebration, are danced in parades or in church; the figures are quadrille-like, and the music may be in responsorial sequences between two instruments, such as a pair of violins or a violin and a harp. In the Andes, the dance of the Chunchus and Qollas portrays incidents from the Conquest, as do the Danza de Ia Conquista and the Moros y Christianos of Mexico and the Tecum Uman of Guatemala. The Chunchus represent Spanish soldiers, led by the king, and the Qollas are Indians betrayed by the white man. The Chunguinada is fiesta music to accompany processions in which images of the saints are carried, and it also serves as dance music. The harp provides a base in old church chord progressions against flutes carrying characteristic Peruvian melodies in parallel minor thirds. In Andean music a major role is played by the flute and drums, which may be played simultaneously by one man, and by batteries of panpipes in ensembles of up to 50 or 60 performers. The chief differences between North and Latin American Indian music are the urban quality of all the latter as well as the profusion and manner of use of musical instruments. Early Spanish accounts of religious observances and state occasions mention processions of instrumentalists. The orchestra with the addition of European instruments has continued to be a feature of Central and South American Indian musical life. The list of musical instruments depicted in inscriptions and recovered from archaeologic excavations, numbering into the hundreds, includes trumpets of shell, pottery, and bamboo,

AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC

ANALYSIS

whistles and panpipes, and many kinds of drum, flute, rattle, and bell. Many of these are in use today in recognizable forms. Musical instruments, used solo or in orchestral combinations, are found even in the hinterlands of the Amazon jungle and the Mato Grosso, where the social organization is tribal and vocal music is often somewhat similar to that of the North American Indians. At many cultural levels, then, a wide spectrum of musical forms has to be recognized as "Indian." However unclear it may be for definition, there is no doubt as to its vitality and its manyfaceted appeal. Lit. For I: F. R. Burton, American Primitive Music (1909); N. Curtis (Burlin), ed., The Indians' Book (1907); F. Densmore, Chippewa Music, 2 vols. (1910, '13), and many other books published by the Bureau of American Ethnology; B. Nettl, North American Indian Musical Styles (1954); id., Music in Primitive Culture (1956); A. P. Merriam, The Anthropology of Music (1964); K. G. Izikowitz, Musical and Other Sound Instruments of the South American Indians (1935); G. Herzog, "African Influences in North American Indian Music" (CP 1939) and many articles; D. P. McAllester, Peyote Music (1949); H. H. Roberts, Musical Areas in Aboriginal North America (1936). Extensive bibliographies in G. Herzog, Research in Primitive and Folk Music in the U. S. (1936); J. Kunst, Ethno-Musicology, rev. ed. (1958); C. Haywood, A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong, vol. ii (1961). Authentic recordings in large numbers have been issued by the Library of Congress Archive of Folksong and by Ethnic Folkways Library. For II: R. and M. D'Harcourt, La Musique des Incas et ses survivances (1925); A. Genin, "Notes on the Dances, Music and Songs of the Ancient and Modern Mexicans," Smithsonian Annual Report (1920); K. G.· Izikowitz, Musical and Other Sound Instruments of the South American Indians, in Goteborgs Kung!. Vetenskaps- och Vitterhets-Samhiilles Handlingar, 5 foljden, ser. A, band 5, no. l (1935); S. Marti, Canto, danza y musica precortesianos [1961]; N. Slonimsky, Music of Latin America [1945]; J. E. Nunez, "Musica precolombina" (Boletin Bibliograjico xxvi, 70-81); L. F. Ramon y Rivera, "Musica indigena de Venezuela," Boletin del Instituto de Folklore (1960); G. Chase, A Guide to the Music of Latin America, rev. ed. (1962). I by J.T.H., rev. B.N.; II by D.P.MCA.

36

American in Paris, An. See under Symphonic

poem IV. American Musicological Society. See under

Societies I (2). American Negro music. See Negro music. American organ. See under Harmonium. Amfiparnaso, L'. See under Madrigal comedy. Am Frosch [G.]. Indication to use the portion of

the violin bow nearest the right hand. Am Griftbrett [G.]. In violin playing, bowing near the fingerboard (*sui tasto). See Bowing (l). Amor brujo, El [Sp., Love the Sorcerer]. Ballet

by Manuel de Falla, produced in Madrid, 1915. The music includes numerous dance pieces inspired by folk dances, the best known being the "Ritual Fire Dance." A unique feature is the inclusion of two songs for the ballerina. Amorevole, con amore [It.]. Amiable, with love. Amorschall [G.]. See under Horn II. Amour des trois Oranges, L'. See Love for Three

Oranges. Ampbibrach [Gr.]. See under Poetic meter I. Amplitude. See under Acoustics I. Am Steg [G.]. In violin playing, bowing near the bridge (*sui ponticello). See Bowing (k). Anabole [Gr.]. Humanist (16th-century) name

for prelude. Aoacrusis. Upbeat. Analysis. With reference to music, the study of

a composition with regard to form, structure, thematic material, harmony, melody, phrasing, orchestration, style, technique, etc. Analysis of composition plays a predominant part in musical instruction (as a practical application of technical studies in harmony, counterpoint, orchestration) and in writings on music. Analysis is of little value if it is mere enumeration of statistics; such methods, frequently encountered in modern writings, overlook the synthetic element and the functional significance of the musical detail. Another drawback is the one-sided application of only one point of view, for instance, that of form (D. F. Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven's· Pianoforte Sonatas, 1931) or of phrasing (H. Riemann, L. van Beethovens siimtliche KlavierSolosonaten, 3 vols., 1919-20). In present-day education special emphasis is placed on analysis

ANAPEST

ANGEL/TO Andantino. Diminutive of andante, used mainly

of harmony and of form; melodic analysis, however, perhaps the most important and most informative of all, is all too often neglected [see Melody]. Also see Style analysis. Lit.: A. J. Goodrich, Complete Musical Analysis (1889); J. Chailley, Traitf! historique d'analyse musicale (1951); M. McMullin, "The Symbolic Analysis of Music" (MR viii); K. Westphal, in DM xxiv; A. Halm, in DM xxi; W. Karthaus, in DM xxi; I. Krohn, in CP 1911, p. 250.

to characterize a short piece of andante tempo or character. If used as a tempo mark, it means a slight modification of andante, whose direction is, unfortunately, a matter of divergent opinion [see Andante]. Beethoven was puzzled by the question of whether andantino was to be understood as meaning faster or slower than andante, as appears from a letter he wrote to George Thomson [see Thayer's Life of Beethoven, ed. E. Forbes, 2 vols. (1964), i, 555]. Most modern musicians apparently use the term to indicate a tempo quicker than andante.

Anapest, anapaest. See under Poetic meter I. Anche [F.]. *Reed. Anche battante, beating reed;

anche double, double reed; anche libre, free reed. Also anches, reed stops of the organ; trio d'anches, trio for reed instruments.

An die ferne Geliebte [G., To the Distant Beloved]. Song cycle by Beethoven, op. 98 (1816), consisting of six songs to poems by A. Jeitte1es.

Ancia [It.]. *Reed. Ancia battente, doppia, etc., as

Andrea Chenier. Opera in four acts by Umberto

under *anche.

Giordano (libretto by Luigi Illica), produced in Milan, 1896. Setting: Paris, French Revolution.

Ancora [It.]. Once more (repeat). Ancora piu

forte, still louder.

Anemochord. See under Aeolian harp; Soste-

nente piano.

Ancus. See under Neumes I (table).

Anenaiki. The term refers to an abuse of Russian

Andachtig, mit Andacht [G.]. With devotion. Andamento [It.]. In 18th-century writings: (1)

*Sequence. (2) A special type of fugal subject [see Soggetto]. (3) In more recent writings the term is used (preferably) to denote fugal episodes. Andante [It.]. Tempo mark indicating very mod-

erate walking speed, between allegretto and adagio [see Tempo marks]. To the present day there is no agreement among musicians as to whether andante belongs to the quick or the slow tempo. While this question as such would seem to be rather irrelevant, it becomes important in the case of terms such as piu andante, meno andante, molto andante, andantino. According to the former interpretation, which is supported by the literal meaning of the word, piu andante and molto andante indicate a tempo quicker than the normal andante, while meno andante indicates a slower speed. Brahms was undoubtedly aware of this meaning of the term when, at the end of his Andante from the Piano Sonata op. 5, he wrote "andante molto"; the tempo of this closing section is, of course, quicker than that of the preceding andante espressiuo. However, other composers (perhaps the majority) use molto andante to mean a tempo still slower than andante. See Andantino. Andante con moto. See M oto.

37

chant [see Znamenny chant], practiced chiefly in the 16th and 17th centuries, in which long coloraturas were sung to meaningless syllables such as a-ne-na. This method was also known as chomonie, a term referring to the replacement of the Slavic half vowels by the full vowel o, resulting in syllables such as chom or chomo [see 0. von Riesemann, in CP Riemann, p. 196f]. A similar method used in the Byzantine chant of the same period is known as teretism, owing to the use of such syllables as te-re-rem for the same purpose. The Russian syllables are probably related to the early Byzantine enechamata [see Echos]. They appear in a manuscript as early as the 12th century [see ReMMA, p. 99, n. 17]. See also Noeane. Anfang [G.]. Beginning; uom Anfang, same as

*da capo. Angelica [L.], angelique [F.]. See under Lute III. Angelito [Sp.]. A kind of Latin American funeral

song performed for the death of a child. Also called cantos de velorio, they originated in the idea that a dead child goes to heaven and becomes a guardian angel to his living relatives. The songs, monotonous and repetitious in rhythm, vaguely follow certain liturgical modes. In the Barvolento region in Venezuela, they are known among Negroes as mampulorios and accompany a strange funeral game in which a member of the audience tries to blow out a can-

ANGKWNG

ANGLICAN CHURCH MUSIC

dle held in front of the dead child's face while naming various objects being dropped into a hat on his lap. Among Colombian Negroes these J.o-s. songs are known as chigualos.

the following will give an example to fit the tune above. (The strokes coincide with the bar lines. The dot following the word "unto" indicates that those two syllables have to be sung to a single note, preferably by singing that measure as if it contained a triplet of three half-notes. The boldface type on the syllable "va" indicates that it must be extended over two notes, i.e., a full measure of the chant.)

Angklung. See under Java. Anglaise [F.]. A 17th- and 18th-century dance in

fast duple time, obviously derived from the *country dance. It occurs in J. S. Bach's French Suite no. 3 and, under the name "balet anglois" or "air anglois," in J. K. F. Fischer's Musicalischer Parnassus of c. 1690. The name was also used for other dances of English origin or character, e.g., the (syncopated) hornpipe and, c. 1800, the country dance and the ecossaise. See Dance music III.

I unto. the I Lord; II let us heartily rejoice in the strength of sal I va I tion.ll

0 Come let us sing

When sung in speech rhythm by well-trained choirs, Anglican chant can be as aesthetically satisfying as Gregorian chant. Unfortunately, it is most often judged on the basis of untrained congregational singing, where there is a tendency to hurry the initial reciting tones, putting a heavy "Anglican thump" on the last syllable before the bar line, and to stress unduly the final syllable· of each line. Until the 20th-century revival of the use of Gregorian plainsong, Anglican chant was used by churches of many denominations, including Roman Catholic churches. With the return to unison hymn singing among many Protestant congregations, there has been a corresponding trend toward Gregorian chanting in the vernacular, using the editions of Winfred Douglas, Francis Burgess, and others. Lit.: I. M. McWilliam, Steps toward Good Chanting (1938); A. Ramsbotham, in ML i, 20817; R. Bridges, in MA ii, 125-41, iii, 74-86; L. Ellinwood, "From Plainsong to Anglican Chant," in Essays on Church Music in Honor of Walter E. Buszin, ed. J. Riedel (1966); introduction to American Psalter (1929), etc. L.E.

Anglican chant. The harmonized singing of prose

psalms and *canticles, so called because it is extensively used in the Church of England. Extended four-part settings by Tallis, Byrd, and Gibbons, which had the Gregorian psalm tone in the tenor and which were referred to as "festival psalms," were published in John Barnard's The First Book of Selected Church Musick ( 1641 ). These correspond to the falsobordone settings of Josquin des Pres, Victoria, and others on the Continent. The modern abbreviated form was first published in 1644 in the second edition of James Clifford's The Divine Services. The psalm tone remained in the tenor part until the 18th century, when all memory of plainsong singing had passed and melodies were shifted to the treble or soprano part. The following example is "Christ Church Tune," psalm tone 14 , as printed in William Boyce's Cathedral Music (1760):

sing Jn-

- J I

I

fo

Anglican church music. The music of the churches in various countries that derive from the Church of England (e.g., the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S. A.), known collectively as the Anglican Communion. For the liturgy of the various services, each national church uses its own Book of Common Prayer, which is closely patterned on the original 1549 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, in turn basically an abridgment of the Roman Catholic Breviary and Missal. In most parish church services, music consists largely of congregational hymn singing and the *chanting of certain Psalms and *canticles [see Anglican chant]. Organ compositions are played

the Lord:

J -

I our

-

I

This is a "single chant," designed for use with a single verse of the psalm at a time. "Double chants" are twice as long and take two verses at a time. [Ex. also in P. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music (1955), p. 32.] The prose texts to be sung with these chants are "pointed" to indicate the manner in which the words fit the music. The actual method of pointing varies somewhat among Psalters, but

38

ANGLICAN CHURCH MUSIC as "preludes" and "postludes" before and after services. Until the late 19th century, it was customary to play an organ "voluntary" after the Psalms at Morning and Evening Prayer; this was often an improvisation. Cathedrals and the larger urban churches employ professional organist-choirmasters and trained singers. In these churches, *anthems are sung during the collection of alms, and varying amounts of *service music are used. When the *Preces, Psalms, *Suffrages, and *Collects are chanted in Morning Prayer, the service is frequently called Matins, while that of Evening Prayer is called Evensong. In a fully choral Eucharist (the service of Holy Communion) the proper Collect, Epistle, Gospel, and Sursum Corda are intoned by the celebrant, while the *Decalogue or *Kyrie, *Sanctus, *Benedictus qui venit, *Agnus Dei, and *Gloria are sung by the choir. On some occasions a choral setting of the Creed will be sung by the choir. At other times, it and the Lord's Prayer may be intoned by the entire congregation. Most of the chanting is done as *Anglican chant, but since c. 1850 there has been considerable use of plainsong (the medieval Gregorian *psalm tones and other melodies) adapted to English texts. Service music is always sung with English or other vernacular texts. While the works of Anglican composers are favored, anthems, cantatas, motets, etc., by other composers (Palestrina, Bach, Franck, Tchaikovsky, etc.) also are used. These are sometimes sung in the original language, with translations provided for the congregation to follow. Mixed choirs of men and women are commonly found in parish churches. Most cathedrals and some larger city churches continue to use the traditional choir of men and boys. Although at the end of the 16th century Byrd and Gibbons extended the tonal range of choral music somewhat, that of the modern Anglican choir of men and boys dates only from the Restoration, when the Chapel Royal choir was revived under Captain Henry Cooke (c. 1616-72). In addition to the bass and tenor parts, men are used for the alto parts, singing either in falsetto or natural countertenor. Boys sing only the treble or soprano parts, with a clear, extremely flexible head tone and a range up to c"'. The boys' voices, blended with the men's voices, give a purity of choral tone that can be matched by no other ensemble. Important early collections of Anglican church music are Certaine Notes ... to be Sung at the Communion, and Evening Praier, 2nd ed.

ANSATZ (1565); John Barnard, The First Book of Selected Church Musick (10 partbooks; 1641); William Boyce, Cathedral Music, 3 vols. (1760-73; 2nd ed. 1788; 3rd ed. enlarged and ed. by Joseph Warren, 1849); Samuel Arnold, Cathedral Music, 4 vols. (1790; 2nd ed. 1847 by E. Rimbault). For a list of leading composers, see under Service and Anthem. Lit.: J. S. Bumpus, A History of English Cathedral Music, 1549-1889,2 vols. [1908]; E. H. Pellowes, English Cathedral Music from Edward VI to Edward VII, rev. ed. (1945); W. Douglas, Church Music in History and Practice, ed. by L. Ellinwood (1962); E. Walker, A History of Music in England, rev. ed. (1952); G. L. H. Gardner and S. H. Nicholson, A Manual of English Church Music, rev. ed. (1936); Papers of the Church Music Society (1913~). Also see under Church L.E. music. Angoscioso [It.]. Sorrowful, grieved. Anhemitonic. An anhemitonic scale (also called

tonal scale) possesses no semitones, e.g., one of the four pentatonic scales (c-d-f-g-a-c') or the whole-tone scale. Anmutig [G.]. Graceful. Annees de pelerinage [F., Years of Pilgrimage].

Collective title for three volumes of piano music by Liszt. Each volume contains several pieces with descriptive titles. Anonymous. Of unknown authorship. The medieval Latin word Anonymus (abbr. Anon.)

stands for certain unknown writers of medieval treatises in the collections of Gerbert and Coussemaker [see Scriptores], in which they are referred to as Anon. I, Anon. II, etc. It should be noted, however, that the same numbering begins anew in each of the several volumes edited by Coussemaker and Gerbert. Therefore, to prevent possible confusion with another Anonymous IV, the famous treatise known as Coussemaker's Anon. IV [see Theory II, 11] should be more precisely referred to as Anon. IV of Coussemaker i (CSi). Anreissen [G.]. Forceful attack in string playing. Ansatz [G.] (1) In singing, the proper adjustment of the vocal apparatus. (2) In playing wind instruments, proper adjustment of the lips [see Embouchure (2)]. (3) Crook or shank of brass instruments [see Wind instruments IV (b)]. (4) In violin playing, *attack.

39

ANSCHLAG

ANTHEM

Anschlag [G.]. (1) In piano playing, touch. (2) An ornament explained by K. P. E. Bach [see Ap-

poggiatura, double, III]. Anschwellend [G.]. Crescendo. Answer. In fugal writing, the answer is the sec-

ond (or fourth) statement of the subject, so called because of its relationship to the first (or third) statement. Hence, the succession of statements is subject-answer-subject-answer. See M. Zulauf, in ZMW vi. See Fugue; Tonal and real; Antecedent and consequent. Antar. Symphonic suite (op. 9) composed in 1868

(rev. 1875, '97) by Rimsky-Korsakov. In four movements, it is a descriptive piece based on the legend of Antar, an Arabian hero of the 6th century. Antara. Quechuan name for a Peruvian panpipe

of Nazca origin made of three to fifteen reeds or clay tubes that are tied or cemented together. In Peru the instrument is also known by the Spanish name zampona, while in Ecuador it is called rondador, in Colombia capador, and in Bolivia sico. J.o-s. Antecedent and consequent. The terms are usu-

ally applied to melodic phrases that stand in the relationship of question and answer or statement and confirmation, as in the accompanying example (Beethoven, String Quartet op. 18, no. 2).

1:>='rF 1r·u1 cEI!IfniiJ J1h:J 1PJ]I;,rll Cello

Violin

Here, as in other examples, the dialogue character of the melody is emphasized by its distribution between two instruments [see Durchbrochene Arbeit]. The terms are also used as synonymous with subject and answer in fugues and canons [see Answer]. Ante-Communion. The initial portion of the Anglican Holy Communion, usually ending with the Creed or the Prayer for the Whole State of Christ's Church. It is used as a separate service, similar to the Roman Catholic Mass of the Catechumens. Anthem. A choral composition in English, with words from the Bible or some other religious text, performed during the worship service of Protestant churches, where it holds a position

40

similar to that of the motet in the Roman Catholic rites. An anthem may be unaccompanied or accompanied by the organ or orchestra. The anthem dates from the Reformation and the consequent establishment of English as the liturgical language of Great Britain. Although the anthem developed from the Latin motet, the first anthems, written by Christopher Tye (c. 1500-c. 1573), Thomas Tallis (c. 1505-85), and Robert White (c. 1530-74), are markedly different in style from previous and contemporary motets. They are rhythmically square, more harmonically conceived, more syllabic, and in shorter phrases, all features resulting from the greater consideration given to text and pronunciation. However, a few anthems are merely motets with texts translated into English (e.g., Tallis' "I call and cry" from 0 sacrum convivium; Byrd's "Bow thine ear" from Civitas sancti tw). Toward the end of the 16th century a new form, the verse anthem, was introduced by William Byrd (regarding an isolated earlier example, by Richard Farrant, see G. E. P. Arkwright, in MA i, 65n) and developed by Thomas Tomkins (15721656) and Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625) [see HAM, nos. 151, 169, 172]. This form, in which sections for full chorus alternate with sections for one or more solo voices, was preferred throughout the 17th century, with the full (i.e., completely choral) anthem returning to prominence in the subsequent period. Whereas in the Elizabethan verse anthem the parts are contrapuntally conceived, with the solo part accompanied by instruments, about 1630 a new declamatory arioso style of Italian origin [see Monody] was introduced in the anthems of Monteverdi's pupil Walter Porter (c. 1595-1659; see Arkwright, in MA iv, 246f), Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656), and, particularly, William Child (1606-97; see the list of his anthems in GD i, 623; GDB ii, 210; ex. in OH iii, 206). The Restoration anthem is represented by Henry Cooke (c. 1616-72), Matthew Locke (c. 1630-71), Henry Aldrich (1647-1710), Pelham Humphrey (1647-74; HAM, no. 242), Michael Wise (c. 1648-87), John Blow (1648/9-1708; see GD i, 396; GDB i, 772ft), Henry Purcell (c. 1659-95), and Jeremiah Clarke (c. 1673-1707). Blow and Purcell introduced instrumental interludes into the anthem, an innovation whereby it came to resemble the cantata. Another characteristic feature of the Restoration anthem, adopted in numerous later works, is a concluding hallelujah chorus, often in fugal style. The use of two choruses, called "dec(ani)" and "can(toris)," pre-

ANTIPHON

ANTHEM

vails in the anthem as well as in service music Lit.: E. H. Fellowes, English Cathedral Music from Edward VI to Edward VII, rev. ed. (1945); [see Polychoral style]. The baroque anthem reached its high point M. B. Foster, Anthems and Anthem Composers in the grandiose anthems of Handel, nearly all (1901); E. A. Wienandt, Choral Music of the of which were written for special festive occa- Church (1965); R. T. Daniel, "The Anthem in sions where an unusual display was possible and New England before 1800" (diss. Harvard Univ., appropriate (Chandos anthems, 1716-18; coro- 1955); W. J. King, "The English Anthem from nation anthems, 1727; Dettingen Te Deum, the Early Tudor Period through the Restoration 1743). Other composers of this period were Era" (diss. Boston Univ., 1962); G. E. P. ArkWilliam Croft (1678-1727; HAM, no. 268), John wright, "Purcell's Church Music" (MA i, 63, Weldon (1676-1736), and Maurice Greene 234); H. W. Shaw, in ML xix, 429ff (Blow); L.A. (1695-1755; HAM, no. 279). Their anthems, as Gill, in MD xi (Tomkins); R. T. Daniel, in JAMS well as those of William Boyce (1710-79; see xii, 49ff; W. Palmer, in ML xxxv, 107. For anGD i, 441; GDB i, 864), are modeled after the thologies, see under Anglican church music. rev. L.E. somewhat simpler style of Purcell. The outstanding figure of the 19th century was Anticipation. See under Nonharmonic tones I; S. S. Wesley (1810-76), whose two volumes of also Nachschlag. anthems, published in 1853, contain such standard works as "Blessed by the God and Father." Antienne [F.]. (1) *Antiphon. (2) *Anthem. In America from 1762 until the mid-19th Antimasque. See Masque. century, one or more simple anthems was included in most of the tune books that were used Antiphon. A term denoting various categories of in churches and singing schools. Until the advent Gregorian chant, all of which are remnants of of octavo-size sheet music, they were almost the the early method of antiphonal psalmody (see sole outlet for anthems by both native-born and under (3) below]. foreign composers. Prolific but mostly inferior (1) Short texts from the Scriptures or elsecomposers were John Goss (1800-80), Joseph where, set to music in a simple syllabic style and Barnby (1838-96), John Stainer (1840-1901), sung before and after a psalm or canticle. On George M. Garrett (1834--97), Arthur Sullivan greater feasts the entire antiphon is sung both (1842-1900), Charles Lee Williams (1853-1935), before and after the psalm; at other times only George C. Martin (1844-1916), and the Ameri- the first word or so is sung before, and the whole cans Dudley Buck (1839-1909), Harry Rowe after [for more details, see under Psalm tones]. Shelley (1858-1947), and James Hotchkiss The repertory of Gregorian chant includes more Rogers (1857-1940). than 1,000 such antiphons. The melodies are not Early 20th-century composers of distinction all different and can be classified into about 40 who moved away from the insipid harmonies of (according to Gevaert, 47) groups of chants rethe Victorians were Charles Villiers Stanford lated to each other through an identical begin(1852-1924), Charles Wood (1866-1926), Ed- ning and sometimes through additional common ward Elgar (1857-1934), Edward Bairstow material. (See F. A. Gevaert, La Melopee antique (1874-1946), Henry Walford Davies (1869- dans le chant de !'eglise latine, 1895, pp. 225ff; 1941), John Ireland (1879-1962), and, most W. H. Frere, Antiphonale Sarisburiense, 4 vols., important throughout his long life, Ralph 1901-25, i, 64ff; P. Ferretti, Esthetique gn!goriVaughan Williams (1872-1958). Across the At- enne, 1938, pp. 112ff; ApGC, pp. 394ff.] The lantic, there are the Canadian Healey Willan antiphons for the canticles, particularly the (b. 1880) and the Americans H. Everett Titcomb Magnificat, are somewhat more elaborate textu(b. 1884), David M. Williams (b. 1887), Joseph ally as well as musically than the psalm antiW. Clokey (1890--1960), and Philip James phons [see LU, pp. 326, 333, etc.; see also 0 antiphons]. (b. 1890). (2) The name "antiphon" is also used for two Among the more important later composers of anthems in England are Herbert Howells (b. other types of chant that are not strictly anti1892), Edmund Rubbra (b. 1901), Michael Tip- phons, since they do not as a rule embrace a pett (b. 1905), and Benjamin Britten (b. 1913); psalm or canticle but are independent songs of in America, Randall Thompson (b. 1899), considerable length and elaboration. The first of Samuel Barber (b. 1910), and Vincent Persichetti these types includes the antiphons that are sung at certain feasts (Palm Sunday, Purification) (b. 1915).

41

ANTIPHONAL

APOLLO CLUB

during processions (processional antiphons). They are usually of a narrative character, containing verses from the New Testament referring to the occasion, e.g., for Palm Sunday: "Occurrunt turbae cum fioribus et palmis" [LU, p. 584]. Comprising the second class of pseudoantiphons are the four antiphons B.M. V. (Beatae Mariae Virginis) or B.V.M. (Blessed Virgin Mary): *Alma Redemptoris Mater," *"Ave Regina caelorum," *"Regina caeli laetare," and *"Salve Regina" [see LU, pp. 27376]. Each of these chants, also known as Marian antiphons, is sung during one of the four seasons of the year, at the end of Compline (said at the end of each other Office hour). Although of a relatively late date (11th, 12th centuries), they are justly famous for their beauty. In the 15th and 16th centuries they were frequently composed polyphonically, for voices or for organ [see HAM, nos. 65, 100, 139]. (3) While the chants mentioned above are the only ones called antiphons in present-day liturgical books, in historical studies the name is also applied to certain chants of the Mass Proper, namely, the Introit (Introit antiphon, antiphona ad introitum), the Offertory (antiphona ad offerendum), and the Communion (Communion antiphon, antiphona ad communionem). The justification for this terminology is that these chants originally sprang from the same method of antiphonal psalmody that also survives, in a different form, in the antiphons embracing a psalm or a canticle [see Psalmody III]. History. In Greek theory, antiphonia (literally, countersound) means the octave, in contradistinction to *symphonia, the unison, and *paraphonia, the fifth. In the early Christian rites, antiphonia came to denote the singing of successive verses of a psalm by alternating choruses. This meaning of the term probably originated in the fact that the second chorus consisted at first of women or boys who repeated the melody at the higher octave. In the 4th century antiphonal psalm singing was enriched by the addition of a short sentence sung by the whole choir and repeated after each verse or pair of verses as a refrain. It was this additional text and melody that finally came to be known as antiphon. For a survey of the various forms that sprang from antiphonal psalmody, see Psalmody III; also Gregorian chant IV (c).

A piacere [It.]. Indication for the performer to use his discretion, particularly as to tempo and rhythm.

Antiphonal, antiphonary, antiphoner [L. antiphonale, antiphonarium]. A liturgical book containing all the chants for the Office as opposed to

Apollo Club. A name given to American male singing organizations, generally amateur, corresponding to the French *Orpheon and the German *Mii.nnergesangverein. Remarkable for 42

a gradual, which contains all the chants for the Mass. Originally, antiphonale (fiber antiphonarius) was a general designation for books containing the texts (and later texts and music) of the musical items of the Roman rite, as opposed to those containing the spoken texts (lectionaries, evangeliaries-readings from the Scriptures, the Gospels). Books consisting of the musical items for the Office or for the Mass were distinguished respectively as antiphonale officii ( = antiphonal) and antiphonale missarum ( = gradual). See Gradual (2); Liturgical books I (4). Antiphonal singing. Singing in alternating choruses. Originally and properly the term should be applied to plainsong [see Antiphon, under History]. Regarding the present-day use of antiphonal singing in Gregorian chant, see Responsorial. The term is also used with reference to polyphonic music composed for two or more alternating groups (polychoral). Antiphonarium Mediceum. A name formerly applied to a famous MS of the Medicean library at Florence (Bibl. Laur., plut. 29.z). Actually, it is not a book of plainsong but the most extensive collection of polyphonic music of the school of Notre Dame. See Sources, no. 3. Antipbonia. In Greek theory, the octave. See Antiphon, under History. Antony and Cleopatra. Opera in three acts by S. Barber (libretto by F. Zeffirelli), produced in New York, 1966. Setting: Alexandria and Rome, 1st century B.C. Antwort [G.]. Answer, in fugues. Anvil. Small steel bars struck with a hard wooden or metal mallet that have sometimes been used as a percussion instrument in operas, usually as a stage property (Auber, Le Mar;on, 1825; Verdi, II Trovatore; Wagner, Das Rheingold).

Apeine entendu. See Peine entendu. Aperto [It.]. Open. (I) In horn playing, the opposite of *chiuso. (2) In 14th-century music, see Ouvert.

APOLLONICON

APPOGGIATURA

their high ambitions are the Apollo clubs of Boston (founded in 1871), Brooklyn (1878), Chicago (1872; see L. Edlund, The Apollo Musical Club of Chicago, 1946), Cincinnati (1882), and St. Louis (1893). Some of the clubs were expanded into mixed choruses. Apollmdcon. See under Mechanical instruments III. ApoiiQn Musagete [Apollo, Leader of the Muses]. Ballet for string orchestra by Stravinsky, produced in Washington, D.C., 1928 (rev. 1947). It consists of a prologue depicting the birth of Apollo, a group of allegorical dances in neoclassical ballet style, and a final apotheosis in which Apollo leads Terpsichore and the Muses to their eternal home on Mt. Parnassus. Apostropha. See under N eumes I. Apotheose. See under Lament (2). Apotome. See under Pythagorean scale.

tones II]. (2) Originally, appoggiatura [F. port de voix; E. forefall, backfall, half-fall; G. Vorschlag; Sp. apoyadura] was an ornamental note, usually the lower second, that was melodically connected with the main note that followed it (i.e., the appoggiatura was sung in the same breath or played with the same stroke of the bow or articulation of the tongue or, in the case of keyboard instruments, slurred to the following note). It was indicated by means of a small note or special sign but was also frequently introduced extemporaneously in performance. The interpretation of the appoggiatura has varied considerably since the 17th century, when it first became a conventional ornament. I. In the baroque period the appoggiatura was exceedingly flexible as regards both notation and rhythmic execution. Ex. lA shows the various ways of indicating the appoggiatura and Ex. IB the methods of performance that were prevalent around 1700. The choice among these interpre-

Appalachian Spring. See under Ballet III.

1A

Apparebit repentina dies [L., Suddenly shall the day appear]. Cantata for full chorus and brass instruments by Hindemith, commissioned in 1947 for the Harvard Symposium on Music Criticism. The text is a medieval Latin poem describing the day of judgment [see The Oxford Book of Medieval Latin Verse, ed. Stephen Gaselee (1928)]. The music is in a series ofneoclassic forms and includes a lengthy recitative for the entire bass section of the chorus.

I f I I f I(

Appassionata, Sonata appassionata [It.]. Name customarily given to Beethoven's Piano Sonata op. 57, in F minor. The title was not his but was added by a publisher. The original title is "Grande Sonate pour Piano" (1805). It may be said to form the "dark" companion piece to the *Waldstein Sonata composed two years earlier. Strikingly contrasted in character, the sonatas are similar in structure: each consists of three movements, the first and the last very long, the second forming a lyrical interlude leading directly into the final movement. Applicator. An 18th-century German term for fingering. Appoggiando [It.]. "Leaning," i.e., emphasized; also, full legato. Appoggiatura [It.]. (1) In modern parlance, a rhythmically strong dissonant note occurring in place of a harmonic note [see Nonharmonic

43

r r I f/IrI f Itr I p· mil pPHil Ba

c

d

ir

1

I

a· r n 11

b

f

e

r

1

EJII 0· ~

1

n

11

tations was left to the discretion of the performer-a "discretion," however, that was not haphazard but was governed by rules (based upon the conduct of the melody and other parts, the tempo and phrasing of the passage in question, and the expression of the accompanying text) that were formulated in textbooks (e.g., B. Bacilly, Remarques curieuses sur !'art de bien chanter, 1668) and taught to every student of performance. With the exception of a and b [Ex. lB], which are exclusively French, these interpretations were taken over by musicians of all nationalities, and they are valid for the per-

APPOGGIATURA

APPOGGIATURA

formance of music by J. S. Bach, Handel, Purcell, D. Scarlatti, etc. Ex. 2 illustrates the application of these principles to the music of J. S. Bach (a: Little C-minor Fugue; b: Goldberg Variations, aria; c: St. Matthew Passion, bass aria no. 66; d: Sinfonia no. 3). See also Appuy; Port de voix. II. After 1750 the performance of the appoggiatura was systematized by the German teachers and writers K. P. E. Bach, Leopold Mozart, F. W. Marpurg, and D. G. liirk. The ornament was then divided into two types: the long, or variable, appoggiatura (verilnderlicher Vorschlag), and the short appoggiatura (kurzer Vorsch/ag), both to be performed upon the beat. The duration of the long appoggiatura was proportionate to that of the main note with which it was connected, according to the following rules: (a) if the main note can be divided into two equal parts the appoggiatura takes half its value; (b) an appoggiatura to a dotted note takes

J~

In der spiegelnden

I; I

Flut

44

two-thirds of its value; (c) in 6/8 or 6/4 meter an appoggiatura to a dotted note tied to another note takes the whole value of the dotted note; (d) if the main note is followed by a rest, the appoggiatura takes the whole value of the main note, the latter is played in the time of the rest, and the rest ceases to exist. In Ex. 3 these four rules are illustrated by quotations from the works of Mozart and Beethoven (a: Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 311; Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 2, no. 1, Minuet; b: Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 332; c: Mozart, Piano. Sonata K. 332; d: Beethoven, "Adelaide"). The short appoggiatura was to be performed as a short note, regardless of the duration of the main note. It was to be used only in the following circumstances: (a) when the main note is itself an appoggiatura (i.e., a nonharmonic note occurring on the beat); (b) when the main note accompanies a suspension or syncopation; (c) when the appoggiatura fills up the intervals in a series of descending thirds; (d) when the main note is a short note that is followed by more notes of the same value; (e) when the main note is one of a series of reiterated notes (see Ex. 4-a: K. P. E. Bach; Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 2, no. 3; b: K. P. E. Bach; c: Mozart, Rondo in D, K. 485; d: Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 22, Minuet; e: Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 547a). The notation of the appoggiatura in this period had no definite relationship to its performance. A few composers wrote the long appoggiatura as a small note of the exact value in which it should be performed and distinguished the short appoggiatura from it by means of a single stroke across the stem (for a 16th note) or a double stroke (for a 32nd note), but this practice was by no means consistently carried out. In music by K. P. E. Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the rules given above constitute a far surer guide to performance than does the physical appearance of the ornament, even in the most reliable editions. For an 18th-century practice of improvised appoggiatura, see Ornamentation I. III. The 19th century brought still further changes in the treatment of the appoggiatura. The long appoggiatura became absorbed in the ordinary notation, and the short appoggiatura was invariably indicated by a small note with a single stroke across its stem, called a grace note or (erroneously) an *acciaccatura. The question then arises whether this grace note should be performed on the beat or in anticipation of the beat. The latter possibility had already been admitted

APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE

APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE

by some late 18th-century authorities (who referred to it as a durchgehender Vorschlag, distinct from both the Ianger and the kurzer Vorschlag) for certain exceptional circumstances. After 1800 this execution became decidedly more popular; it seems to be indicated for most of the grace notes in the works of Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, etc. (Schumann often prescribes it by placing the grace note before the bar line), but lack of material evidence leaves the matter open to controversy in many cases. In modern music it is customary to snap the grace note sharply onto the following note, so that it slightly anticipates the beat and imparts a decided accent to the P.A. main note. See Ornamentation. Appoggiatura, double. The term "double appog-

giatura" has been applied to each of the three distinct ways in which two appoggiaturas can be used: first, two appoggiaturas performed simultaneously, at the interval of a third or sixth; second, two conjunct appoggiaturas approaching the main note from the interval of a third above

played

u llJ u'r u

UJ

I

or below it; and third, two disjunct appoggiaturas, one being placed below the main note, the other above it. I. Little need be said of the simultaneous double appoggiatura save that each of its components is performed as though the other were not present, as in Ex. l (Bach, Suite in Eb, Sarabande; BG xxxvi, 10). II. The conjunct double appoggiatura, or slide, was a common *agrement in the 17th and 18th centuries. The 17th-century English lutenists and viol players referred to the ascending slide as an elevation or whole fall and called the descending slide a double backfall. The signs and execution of these ornaments are illustrated in Ex. 2 and 3. Their German equivalent is the Schleifer, which is indicated in the music of the baroque period by either a *direct (custos) or two grace notes [Ex. 4]. It should always be played on the beat.

1f

6

~~-J

7~

00---S-i

l(r If Ir) I JJwa IB

u JJ 011

1&

3

+

2'

J

r EJ

IJ I

r ~f

played

r or

en J

11

r

played

14 r arc 5'

•

_.....--...._

I{?§ Jl If ~ nC" I F played

I'~;~ If p

U 00J l

&•'L'rt@ ill t/lif'E fll J fl lJJI

1

I

fCFtu U On ) I • 45

I

rl£jil@' ffii}lt:!}JI 1

APPRECIATION OF MUSIC

ARAB MUSIC

The punctierte Schleifer, or dotted slide, is a complicated ornament very popular with rococo composers between 1750 and 1780. Its performance is shown in Ex. 5 (by K. P. E. Bach). Another special form of slide, peculiar to keyboard music, is that in which the first note is held throughout. Introduced by the French clavecinists, who called it coule sur une tierce or tierce coute, this agrement is indicated and performed as shown in Ex. 6. It was adopted by Purcell and other English composers, who used the same notation but called it a slur. In romantic and modern music this execution of the slide is indicated with a tie, as in Ex. 7 (Schubert, Moments musicaux op. 94, no. 3). The performance of the slide in general has changed very little since the 18th century; it is still begun on the beat, as in Ex. 8 (Beethoven, Bagatellen op. 119, no. 5). III. The disjunct double appoggiatura was written in ordinary notes until the last half of the 18th century, when K. P. E. Bach gave it the name Anschlag and introduced the two tiny grace notes that have since been used to represent it [Ex. 9]. The first of the two notes that make up the Anschlag may be at any distance from the main note, but the secon4 is only one degree removed from it. The ornament should always begin on the beat, as in Ex. 10 (Chopin, Rondo op. 16) and Ex. 11 (Chopin, Polonaise P.A. op. 44). Appreciation of music. See Music appreciation. Apprenti sorcier, L' [F., The Sorcerer's Apprentice]. Symphonic poem by Paul Dukas, composed 1897, based on Goethe's ballad, "Der Zauberlehrling." Appuy [F.]. An 18th-century term for a note having the quality of an appoggiatura. It usually refers to the appoggiatura that constitutes the first note of the tremblement or cadence [see P.A. Trill]. Appuye [F.]. With emphasis. Apres-midi d'un faune, L' [F., The Afternoon of a Faun]. Symphonic poem by Debussy, composed 1894, a musical interpretation of a poem by Mallarme. It portrays a faun dozing in the warm sunshine of the Apennines, his dreams interrupted by a vision of fleeing nymphs. The complete title, Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un faune, has given rise to the theory that Debussy planned additional sections. The work, in which the sensuous atmosphere of the poem is captured with consummate skill, is one of the first and

46

most convincing realizations of musical *impressionism. ApsidenchOre [G.]. The two choirs of a cora spezzato, so called because they were placed in the two apses of the church [see Cori spezzati]. Aquitanian neumes. The neumatic script from southern France (Aquitaine). See Neumes II (table, col. III). Arabella. Opera in three acts by Richard Strauss (libretto by H. von Hofmannsthal, after his short novel Lucidor), produced in Dresden, 1933. Setting: Vienna, 1860. Arabesque [F.; G. Arabeske]. A fanciful title used by Schumann, Debussy, and others for pieces of a more or less casual nature. The term is also used in the sense of figuration, ornamentation of a melody. Arab music. The music of the Arab nations and tribes of Arabia, North Africa, and the Near East. Our knowledge of the history of this music is derived chiefly from theoretical treatises since there are very few examples of notated compositions, and none prior to the 13th century. Among the most important treatises are those of AlKindi (c. 796-c. 873), Al-Farabi (872-950), Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037), ~afi al-Din (d. 1294), and 'Abd al-Qadir (d. 1435). The Kitiib almuslqii al-kablr of Al-Farabi in particular [trans. D'Erlanger, La Musique arabe i and ii] contains a detailed presentation of theory (going beyond its Greek models), information on practice, and an exemplary account of the main instruments. Material on musicians and the social background may be found in works of a more general nature, notably the Kitiib al-aghanl. There is also a considerable literature on the legal status of music, much of it hostile. Most theorists discuss intervals and tetrachord species at great length, often presenting them through various frettings on the 'ud, a shortnecked lute with four (later five) strings, which is the ancestor of the European lute. In the 8th and 9th centuries, according to Ibn al-Munajjim, its fretting was: open string first finger second finger third finger fourth finger

g (0) c' f' a (204) d' (702) g' (1200=0) b0' (294) e0' (792) a0' (90) e' (906) a' (204) c' (498) f' (996) b0' (294)

b0' c" (498) d0" (588) d" (702) e0" (792) e" (906)

ARAB MUSIC

ARAB MUSIC

The notes f'-e" formed a normative series from which eight diatonic modes were derived, the second and third finger notes being mutually exclusive. Al-Farabi also gives a quite different fretting on another instrument (the tunbur baghdiidi, a long-necked lute with 2 strings) producing a series of approximate quarter tones within a range of little more than a minor third. He attributes this problematical fretting to the pre-Islamic period (6th and early 7th centuries), but it can hardly have represented the dominant tradition of that time. During the 9th and lOth centuries Persian influence again made itself felt. There arose rival schools of musicians, those led by Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi welcoming change and artistic freedom, while Isb.iiq al-Maw~ili (d. 850) and his followers adhered to the classical style. The most far-reaching innovation was the introduction into court music of a neutral third (perhaps of indigenous origin), which led to the disruption of the diatonic modal system. By the 11th century the notes found within the tetrachord (i.e., on any one string of the 'ud) were g ab ail a bb bi5 b c' ('~> is halfway between b and q). Various empirical formulas were given for locating frets for the neutral intervals. In the 13th century these were, however, integrated into the Pythagorean system by ~afi al-Din, being placed one comma below the diatonic intervals so that the tetrachord becomes in theory g (0), ab (90), a-e (180), a (204), bb (294), b-e (384), b (408), c' (498). In practice the neutral intervals of course remained, and ~afi al-Din's notation of the twelve main modes (shudUd, later maqiimiit, sing. maqiim) may be amended to (f*is halfway between ~ and~):

'Ushshiiq

g a b c' d' e' f' g' g a ~ c' d' eb' f' g' g ab bb c' db' eb' f' g'

Nawii

g a b-o c' d' i!' f' g'

Riist

g ::! b-o c' d-o' i!' f' f#' g'

'Iraq

ga

11 c' d' i!' f' f#' g'

g ::! bb c'

lfD' eb' i!' f*' g'

The b in Buzurg and Riihawi, and e' in Zangftla and lfijiizi, are notated as b-e and e'-e respectively. These octave scales are to a certain extent artificial since the melody was articulated essentially in terms of tetrachords and/or pentachords, one being developed after another. By the beginning of the 16th century about forty modes were in use, and many were in fact notated in the form of melodic matrices [see D'Erlanger, iv, 429-52]. The rhythmic modes, characterized by the distribution of strong and weak beats as well as by the number of time units within the cycle, had also evolved throughout this period, increasing in number from eight (9th century) to more than twenty (16th century). From our sources it would appear that from the 13th to the 16th centuries most of these melodic and rhythmic modes were common to Persia and the eastern Arab world [see Persia]. The 16th to 19th centuries were a time of cultural stagnation and political decline for the Arabs, and the few extant treatises of this period are somewhat uninformative. They attach especial importance to the doctrine of ta'thir (ethos) first mentioned by Al-Kindi, whereby music is integrated through complex series of associations (e.g., the twelve maqiimiit with the zodiac, the four strings of the 'ud with the humors, elements, etc.) into the macrocosmic scheme [see Farmer, The Influence ofMusic:from Arabian Sources]. A similar attitude is evident in Sufi writings on music. Arab music has not remained static since the 16th century; nevertheless the remarks above on the structure of the melodic and rhythmic modes are also valid for the present-day classical idiom (although not necessarily for folk music). I

E9 l r Hl r r =r r r ow · It J J J 3 .r J J J JJ J Jijj J J 11 1

Bftsalik

-J

@1 ~

7

~= $

1

7

Iyahiin Ziriijkand

g a-D b c' c#' d' e' f*' g' g a b-D c' d-o' e' f' g'

Buzurg

g::! b c' lfD' eb' f' g' g ::! bb c' d-o' eb' f' g' g ::! bb c' lfD' e' f' g'

Riihawi

Zangftla

1. The beginning of a composition notated c. 1300 and ascribed to Safi ai-Din (d. 1294). The mode is Mu~ayyir ~usayni, the rhythm Khafif. 2. The beginning of an improvisation in the mode Bayatf (recorded c. 1930?).

lfusayni lfijiizi

47

ARAB MUSIC

Ex. 1 and 2 develop just one pentachord and tetrachord respectively. The modem maqiim may be made up of a considerable number of these, arranged in a fixed sequence, and may in addition be characterized by the position of prominent notes and by certain melodic features. In the eastern Arab world solo improvisation is generally unmeasured (taqsim), but may be in a rhythmic cycle of 8 units (taqsim 'alii al-waJ:uia). A rondo form, bashraf, is also important. In North Africa the most characteristic form is the nawba, comparable in the set order of its movements to the 18th-century suites of European classical music. The most important instruments today are the 'ud and the qiinun (*kanun), followed by: the rabiib, a boat-shaped fiddle (but a spike fiddle in the eastern regions); the niiy, a vertical flute; the kamiinja, a violin or viola; the darbukka, a vase-shaped drum; and the duff (or riqq), a tambourine. Translations of treatises are: (French) AlFarabi, Ibn Si'na (Avicenna), ~afi al-Din, and others in R. d'Erlanger, La Musique arabe, 6 vols. (1930-59); (German) Al-Kindi in R. Lachmann and Mahmud el-Hefni, Ja'qUb ibn IsJ:uiq al-Kindi (1931); (English) Al-Farabi in H. G. Farmer, Al-Fiiriibi's Arabic-Latin Writings on Music. Lit.: J. B. de La Borde, Essai sur Ia musique ancienne et moderne (1780); G. A. Villoteau, in Description de l'Egypte xiii, xiv (1823, '26); E. W. Lane, The Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians, rev. ed. (1954; orig. pub. 1836); A. Chottin, Tableau de Ia musique marocaine [1939]; H. G. Farmer, A History ofArabian Music to the XIIIth Century (1929; repr. 1967), bibl.; id., The Arabian Influence on Musical Theory (1925); id., Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence (1930); id., Sa'adyah Gaon on the Influence of Music (1943); id., An Old Moorish Lute TUtor (1933); id., The Sources of Arabian Music (1940); id., The Influence of Music: from Arabic Sources (1926; also in PMA lii); id., "Ghina'" and "Musiki'' in The Encyclopaedia of Isliim, ed. M. T. Houtsma et a/., 4 vols. (1913-38); M. alJ:Iifni (also El-Hefni), Ibn Sina's Musiklehre [1931]; H. G. Farmer, in NOH i, 42lff; J. Rouanet, in LavE i.5, 2676ff; A. Berner, Studien zur arabischen Musik auf Grund der . gegenwiirtigen Theorie und Praxis in A'gypten (1931); K. Schlesinger, Is European Musical Theory Indebted to the Arabs? (1925); X. Collangettes, "Etude sur la musique arabe" (Journal Asiatique, ser. 10, no. 4 [1904], no. 8 [1906]); A. Z. Idelsohn,

ARC# CEMBALO

"Die Maqamen der arabischen Musik" (SIM xv); R. Lachmann, in CP Wolf; id., in AMW v; 0. Ursprung, in ZMW xvi; M. Schneider, in CP 1953; id., in AMi and ix; B. Bartok, in ZMWii; J. Rouanet, in RM v; J. B. Thibaut, in BSIM (1911) vii, 24. O.W. Arada drums. Set of three drums, one about 48 inches high, the others 26 and 20 inches high, made of hollow logs with cowhide skins held in place by hardwood pegs. They are used in Haiti primarily in connection with *voodoo religious dances and are played with special sticks, either straight or hooked. J.o-s. Aragonaise [F.], aragonesa [Sp.]. See under Jota. Arcata [It.]. See under· Bowing (a); arcato, bowed. Archet [F.], archetto [It.]. Bow (of the violin). Architectural acoustics. The study of the acoustic properties of a room or building (particularly of concert halls, opera houses, broadcasting studios), concerning resonance, reflection, echo, etc. Recent investigations have raised this field of study from the former stage of experimentation to an important branch of science. Lit.: L. L. Beranek, Music, Acoustics & Architecture (1962); H. Bagenal and A. Wood, Planningfor Good Acoustics (1931); A. H. Davis and G. W. C. Kaye, The Acoustics ofBuildings (1927); P. R. Heyl, Architectural Acoustics (1930); V. 0. Knudsen, Architectural Acoustics (1932); P. E. Sabine, Acoustics and Architecture (1932); F. R. Watson, Acoustics of Buildings (1923); H. H. Statham, in PMA xxxviii; A. Elson, in MQ vii. Archives des maitres de l'orgue. See Editions '1. Archivium musices metropolitanum mediolanense. See Editions II. Archlute [F. archiluth; G. Erzlaute; It. arciliuto; Sp. archilaudj. A lute 'Xi.th two pegboxes, one for the fingered strings, the other for the bass courses (theorbo, chitarrone). See Lute III. Arcicembalo, arciorgano [It.]. Microtonic instruments of the 16th century, described by N. Vicentino in his L'Antica Musica (1555) and Descrizione dell' arciorgano (1561). Each had six manuals containing 31 keys to the octave, and these gave all the tones of the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic genera of ancient Greek theory. A simplified instrument of greater practical importance was built by the Belgian Charles Luython (1556-1620); it had 18 keys in each octave, namely-in addition to the diatonic 48

ARCO

ARGENTINA

tones-c~ and db, d~ and eb, f~ and gb, g~ and ab, b~, e~,

and b~. This instrument, called "clavicymbalum universale" (M. Praetorius, in his Syntagma musicum, vol. ii [1618], praises it as "instrumentum perfectum, si non perfectissimum"), permitted enharmonic change and modulation in all the keys, without the compromise of equal temperament. Compositions such as John Bull's fantasia on the hexachord "Ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la" (Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, i, 183; see Hexachord IV) are evidently written for this instrument. In the preface to his Correnti, Gagliarde e Bailetti . .. libro quarto (1645), Martino Pesenti mentions two other instruments, one built by Domenico de Pesaro in 1548, the other by Vido Trasentino in 1601, the former with 24, the latter with 28 keys in the octave. Lit.: A. Koczirz, in S/M ix; Shobe Tanaka, in VMW vi, 66ff; W. Dupont, Geschichte der musikalischen Temperatur (1935), pp. 5lff. Arco [It.]. Bow (of violins, etc.). See Col arco. Arditamente [It.]. Boldly. Ardore, con [It.]. With warmth. A re, are. See under Hexachord III. Areito. A dance of the West Indies. The music consists of alternating solo and group singing accompanied by percussion instruments. It is also known as batoco, and in Mexico as mitote. J.O-S.

Argentina. The beginnings of musical activity in Argentina are associated with a number of ministriles (Martin Nino, Juan Andres Mendoza, Juan Jara, Rodrigo Melgarejo, and others) who joined Spanish expeditions to the New World. The ministriles were servants trained in the art of singing and playing certain instruments, such as the vihuela, lute, organ, and clavichord. Most of them lived in Asuncion but were sent for short periods to Buenos Aires, then a small village. Argentine musical life first began to have some continuity with the establishment of Jesuit missions in the Parana River region and the arrival of trained musicians who joined these missions at the time Father Pedro Comental (1595-1665) founded the first school of music in this area. Accordingly, the earliest accomplishments in professional music education are linked with the names of Belgian-born Father Juan Vasseau (Vaseo or Vaiseau, 1584-1623) and to that of the French Father Luis Berger (15881639). Berger's activities extended throughout Argentina and Paraguay, and even to Chile. In

49

1691, the Austrian-born Father Antonio Sepp (1655-1733), who had participated for many years in the imperial court choir in Vienna, arrived in Buenos Aires. He was assigned to the Mission of Yapeyll, which he made one of the most important music centers by the end of the 17th century. The most distinguished musician to be assigned to the missions was the Italian composer and organist Domenico Zipoli (16881726), who arrived in Buenos Aires in 1717. He was stationed in Cordoba and became the organist of the Jesuit chapel there. References to "30 motets by Brother Zipoli" have been found in the National Archives, but so far only the manuscript of a Mass for four voices and continuo has been discovered. During the remainder of the 18th century Jesuit priests such as Martin Schmid ( 1694-1773), Juan Mesner ( 1703-68) and Florian Paucke (1719-80) played a role in Argentina's musical development. In the 19th century a number of native composers were strongly influenced by Italian opera, especially by Bellini and Rossini. Among these were Amancio Alcorta (1805-62), Juan Pedro Esnaola (1808-78), and Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84). Alcorta, an economist and politician, became active as a composer after 1822, writing largely songs, piano pieces, chamber and church music. Esnaola, a native of Buenos Aires, founded the Academia de Musica y Canto and composed a number of piano pieces, songs, hymns, church music, and two symphonies. Alberdi was a prominent writer who composed a number of songs and piano pieces on the side. He also wrote an essay, "The Spirit of Music," and in 1832 published a piano method for amateurs. Between 1850 and 1880 a considerable number of composers of semiprofessional status, most of them living in Buenos Aires, produced salon music and a few orchestral and stage works. The most representative members of this group were Saturnino F. Beron (1847-98), author of a Treatise of Modern Music (1859); Luis Jose Bernasconi (1845-85); Juan Gutierrez (18401906), founder and first director of the Conservatorio Nacional de Musica (1880); Francisco A. Hargreaves (1849-1900), the first native Argentine composer of operas (La Gatta Bianca, 1875; Los Estudiantes de Bologna, 1897; L'Assedio and Psyche, unpub.); and Zenon Rolon (1856-1902), who also wrote operas (Solane, Le Prove, Fides) as well as a number of operettas and *zarzuelas. By 1880 a new generation of composers had emerged in Argentina, most of them professional and winning recognition abroad. All of them

ARGENTINA

ARGENTINA

cultivated the major symphonic forms as well as chamber music and opera. Herman Bemberg (1861-1931) composed an opera, Elaine, that was performed in London (1892) and New York (1894); Justin Clerice's (1863-1908) opera Figarello was introduced with great success in Paris (1889), Antonio Restano's (1860-1928) Un milioncino in Turin (1885), and Eduardo Garcia Mansilla's (1866-1930) Ivan was staged in Russia (1905). The most important composer of this generation was Alberto Williams (1862-1952), closely followed in prestige by Arturo Berutti (1862-1938), Ettore Panizza (b. 1875), and Constantino Gaito (1878-1945). Williams, a grandson of Alcorta, studied in Paris for seven years. In 1889 he returned to Buenos Aires, where he devoted his time to teaching, giving piano concerts, conducting, and writing some 136 compositions, including nine symphonies, several symphonic poems, orchestral suites, chamber music, choral and piano works, and songs. Julian Aguirre (1868-1924) is the most important of the immediate followers of Williams' early nationalist trends. The desire to create styles relatively free from European influences was shared by a group of composers active at the turn of the century, among them Carlos L6pezBuchardo (1881-1948), Gilardo Gilardi (18891963), and Athos Palma (1891-1951). The development of opera in Argentina was particularly stimulated by the Teatro Colon (founded 1908) in Buenos Aires. Pascual de Rogatis (b. 1881), Raul H. Espolle (b. 1888), Enrique M. Casella (1891-1948) and Felipe Boero (b. 1884), the last-named the composer of El Matrero, which describes life in the Argentine pampas, are some of the outstanding figures of 1900-30 who produced operas strongly influenced by Italian verismo. Nationalism remained an active force in Argentine symphonic and chamber music throughout the first half of the 20th century. It influenced not only those composers who still support the use of folk material in art music but also a number of those who, after 1950, gradually withdrew. Juan Carlos Paz (b. 1897) was among the first to lose interest in nationalism. By 1930 he was a strong supporter of serial techniques. As founder of the Grupo Renovacion, he attracted many younger followers and his influence remains strong in Argentina. Juan Jose Castro (1895-1968) and his brothers Jose Maria Castro (1892-1964) and Washington Castro (b. 1909) represent a stream of composition that moved from the nationalism of the 50

early 20th century toward greater universalism. This group also includes Floro M. Ugarte (b. 1884), Jacobo Ficher (b. 1896), Honorio M. Siccardi (b. 1897), Luis Gianneo (b. 1897), Carlos Suffern (b. 1905), Roberto Garcia Morillo (b. 1911), Carlos Guastavino (b. 1914), Guillermo Graetzer (b. 1914), the Spanish-born Julian Bautista (1901-60), and Alberto Ginastera (b. 1916), the last-named becoming one of the leading creative forces in Latin American music. From Ginastera's earliest nationalist compositions, such as his ballets Panambi (1937) and Estancia (1941), to the neoclassical approach of his Sonata for Piano (1952), Variaciones Concertantes (1953), and his two String Quartets (1948, '58), and thence to his more recent interest in atonal and serial techniques (Cantata para America Mdgica, 1960; Concerto for piano, 1961; Concerto for violin, 1963; the opera Don Rodrigo, 1964), his work showed a considerable and important evolution. As head of the Center for Advanced Musical Studies established in Buenos Aires in 1962, Ginastera has helped train many of Latin America's most talented young composers. Today a large group of outstanding musicians is continuing Argentina's musical development through the paths of the most advanced compositional techniques. Representative of this group are Roberto Casamafto (b. 1923); Antonio Tauriello (b. 1928); Mario Davidowsky (b. 1934), a composer of electronic music; Alcides Lanza (b. 1929); Mauricio Kagel (b. 1931), a native of Argentina and developer of electronic and aleatory techniques who has worked in Germany since 1960; Carlos Tuxen-Bang (b. 1932); Gerardo Gandini (b. 1936); and Armando Krieger (b. 1925). The folksongs and dances of Argentina are linked to three chief traditions: the indigenous music of Andean origin, exemplified by the *huaiiio and *carnavalito from the province of Jujuy and the *baguala and *vida/a of the northeast; the Creole tradition, which developed mainly in the north, exemplified by such types as the *triste, *gato, •zamba, and *estilo; and the European tradition, exemplified by the alabanza, [see Aguinaldo], *villancico, polca (polka), and vals (waltz). The modem *tango, which took on its present form at the tum of the century, is more an expression of popular music from urban Buenos Aires than of folk music. Lit.: A. T. Luper, The Music of Argentina [1953]; J. Subira, Historia de Ia musica espanola e hispanoamericana [1953]; V. Gesualdo, Historia

ARIA de Ia mus1ca en Ia Argentina, 2 vols. [1961]; I. Aretz, El Folklore musical argentino [1952]; G. Furlong, Musicos Argentinas durante Ia dominaci6n hispdnica [1944]; C. Vega, Panorama de Ia Musica Popular Argentina [1944]. Also see under Latin America. J.o-s. Aria. I. An elaborate composition for solo voice (occasionally for two solo voices; see Duet) with instrumental accompaniment. The aria figures prominently in the cantatas and oratorios of the 17th and 18th centuries and in opera up to the end of the 19th century except for the Wagnerian type. It is distinguished from the air, song, or lied by (a) generally greater length; (b) nonstrophic form (except for its earliest development; see II); and (c) emphasis on purely musical design and expression, often at the expense of the text. In fact, the small regard that many aria composers have shown for the text has evoked serious criticism of the form and, in some instances, has led writers of operas to banish the aria from the stage. By and large such criticism cannot be justified. Although at certain periods the aria style has been characterized by conventionalism and exaggeration, the great majority of arias represent a treasure of great musical value. Moreover, in opera the aria has a definite and important function, in representing lyric episodes that temporarily relieve the dramatic tension of the action. II. The word "aria" is derived from Gr.-L. aer (air), a term that came to mean mode or manner, scheme, model, etc. [see Ayre (3)]. In 0. Petrucci's Strambotti, ode, frottole, sonetti ... libra quarto ( 1505) a composition is called "Aer de versi Iatini," and one in his Frottole libra nona (1508) is marked "Aer de capitoli." Each represents a model melody to be used for a variety of texts having the same poetic structure. M. A Ingegneri's II Secondo Libra de' madrigali . .. a quattro voci (1579) includes two "Arie di canzon francese per sonare" (for four instruments); M. Facoli's II Secondo Libra d'intavolatura di balli (1588) has twelve arie for harpsichord, among them one "da cantar terza rima"; and G. M. Nanino's II Primo Libra delle canzonette (1593) has an "Aria di cantar sonetti" and an "Aria da cantar in ottava rima." Designations such as "Aria di Ruggiero" and "Aria di Firenze" probably refer to strophic songs, in which the same melody was used for the different stanzas of the poem. This meaning is clearly present in G. Caccini's Le Nuove Musiche (1601), where the term "aria" is used for short mo-

ARIA nodic melodies to be repeated with a number of stanzas [see K. Jeppesen, La Flora, vols. i, iii], whereas the longer, more elaborate, and through-composed monodies are called madrigals. Caccini's type of aria was cultivated by such German composers as Johann Staden (15811634; see DTB 12 and 14), Heinrich Albert (1604-51; see DdT 12/13; HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no. 193), Adam Krieger (1634-66; see DdT 19; HAM, no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209), and J. Philipp Krieger (1649-1725; see DdT 53!54). Those of A Krieger [see Ritornello (2)] especially are important forerunners of the German strophic lied of the 18th and 19th centuries [see RiHMii.2, 33lff]. III. One of Caccini's arias, "Ard' il mio petto," consists of three stanzas having the same bass but varied melodies [SchGMB, no. 172]. This is the earliest known example of the *strophic-bass aria, which became the most important type in the period up to c. 1630. The strophic-bass aria occurs in: Jacopo Peri, Le Varie Musiche (1609); Alessandro Grandi, Canlade et arie a voce sola ( 1620; see RiHM ii.2, 39f); Stefano Landi, Arie a una voce (1620); Girolamo Frescobaldi, Primo Libra d'arie musicali ( 1630; see Jeppesen, La Flora, vol. iii, no. 35); and other collections of arias. To the same type belongs the Prologue of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1609; La Flora, vol. ii, no. 1), in which each varied stanza is followed by an instrumental ritornello. Shortly after 1630 a new type appeared in the ostinato aria, which is through-composed over a short basso ostinato, usually in descending motion. Among the earliest examples is an aria, "Io son pur giovinetta," in Benedetto Ferrari's Musiche varie of 1633, based entirely on an ostinato that descends through an octave. Many other examples are found in his Musiche [e poesie] varie (1637, 1641; see RiHM ii.2, 55ff, 64ff). Monteverdi employed this type in the final duet of L'Incoronazione di Poppea (1642; see SchGMB, no. 178), which at the same time is an early example of a tripartite da capo aria. The ostinato type, actually a "vocal passacaglia" [see Chaconne and passacaglia], continued to be used frequently by Italian, English, and French composers of the second half of the 17th century, among them Carissimi, Stradella, Provenzale [HAM, no. 222], Purcell, and F. Couperin [see also the Crucifixus of Bach's B-minor Mass]. IV. The next stage (c. 1650-1750) is characterized by the establishment of the da capo aria as the preferred form. It consists of two sections followed by a repetition of the first, resulting in 51

ARIADNE AUF NAXOS

ARIA

a' T

a"

A a -----T D T

B

~

b -------R DR R

Scheme of the da capo aria: T = tonic; D

a tripartite structure A B A. An early example is the above-mentioned duet from Monteverdi's L'Incoronazione. Numerous others occur in the cantatas of Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; see HAM, no. 203), Giacomo Carissimi (1605-74; see Jeppesen, La Flora, vol. i), or in the operas of Pietro Francesco Cavalli (1602-76), Marc' Antonio Cesti (1623-69), Agostino Steffani (16531728; see HAM, no. 244), and others. These arias are usually of small dimension (brief da capo aria) and in triple meter, sometimes suggestive of dance rhythms. A special feature, introduced c. 1660 by Cesti and Legrenzi, was the use of a so-called motto (G. Devise], that is, two introductory announcements of the beginning of the melody, first by the singer (a'), then by the instruments (a"), after which the full melody (a) is sung (see Motto (b)]. The early 18th century saw the rise of the grand da capo, characterized by considerably larger dimensions, virtuoso style of singing, and the use of a three-part modulatory scheme in the over-all form (B usually in the relative key, R) as well as in each section. The material of B is generally different from that of A but not of a strongly contrasting character. This type was developed by Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725; see HAM, no. 258) and universally adopted by other late baroque composers, including Bach and Handel. The grand da capo aria became the basic ingredient of the so-called Neapolitan opera (see Opera VIII], which usually consisted of some twenty arias of a highly virtuoso character, connected by secco recitatives. In keeping with the strict conventions of 18th-century Italian opera, the arias were codified and classified according to typical situations of the plot, e.g.: aria di bravura (quick, deliberately difficult, sung to express passion, vengeance, rejoicing, triumph); aria di mezzo carattere (moderate tempo, expression of gentle feelings); aria cantabile (slow, expression of grief or longing); aria par/ante (emphasis on the text, often with only one note to the syllable). The desire of great singers to show their ability in various musical styles led, about 1750, to the double aria, a form consisting of two separate arias of contrasting character, the first usually dramatic, the second lyrical. V. After 1750 the conventionalized da capo aria was gradually replaced by arias written in

(a' T

A a T D relative key.

a")

= dominant; R =

T

a variety of forms and showing more individual expression. This tendency probably received its first impulse from the opera bu.ffa, which by its very nature had no use for the aria types of the opera seria. An early example of the new kind of aria is the *cavatina "Godi l'amabile" from K. H. Graun's Montezuma (1755). Many others are found in the operas of Jommelli, Traetta, and, of course, Gluck and Mozart. The aria remained in favor with operatic composers throughout the first half of the 19th century (Beethoven, Auber, Rossini). While Wagner discarded it (except in his earliest operas, Rienzi, Der jliegende Holliinder, Tannhiiuser, which still contain a few well-defined arias), Verdi continued to make full use of it except in his last two operas ( Otello, 1886; Falstaff, 1893). The term "aria" was also used for short instrumental pieces of a songlike character, e.g., movements of a suite [Muffat, Handel; see Air (3)] or a theme for variations (aria con variazioni; see Bach's "Goldberg" Variations, Pachelbel's Aria Sebaldina). Lit.: K. Jeppesen, ~La Flora: arie &c. antiche italiane, 3 vols. (1949); L. Landshoff, ~Alte Meister des Bel Canto, 5 vols. (1912-27]; H. Riemann, ~Kantaten Frnhling, 4 vols. (19-]; M. Zanon, ~Venti Arie ... di Fr. Cavalli [n.d.]; L. Walther, Die Ostinatotechnik in den Chaconneund Arienformen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts (1940); I. Schreiber, Dichtung und Musik der deutschen Opernarien, 1680-1700 (1934); B. Hjelmborg, in CP Jeppesen; B. Flogel, "Studien zur Arientechnik ... Handels" (HiindelJahrbuch, 1929); L. Torchi, "Canzoni ed arie ... nel secolo xvii" (RMJ i, 581); J. Godefroy, "Some Aspects of the Aria" (ML xvii, 200). See also under Cantata; Opera. Ariadne auf Naxos. Opera in one act and a pro-

logue by R. Strauss (libretto by H. von Hofmannsthal), originally produced in Stuttgart in 1912 as an entr'acte for Moliere's play Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, for which Strauss also wrote the incidental music. Setting: Vienna, 18th century, and Naxos, ancient Greece. In 1916 it was produced in Vienna as an independent work, with the addition of an introductory scene representing the stage rehearsal of the work.

52

ARIBU

ARITHMETIC AND HARMONIC MEAN

Arib6. An Afro-Brazilian dance song of rural origin, performed during harvest celebrations to the accompaniment of guitars and castanets. It is also called lundu. See bibl. under Brazil. J.o-s.

tata by Marc' Antonio Cesti (c. 1650), reproduced in AdHM, pp. 439ff. Historically, the arioso came earlier than the speechlike recitative. All the composers of the Florentine opera (Per~ Caccini, Monteverdi) employed the recitativo arioso, the expressive and quasimelodic recitative. Bach often uses the arioso for the concluding section of a recitative in order to give it a particular expression of assurance or confidence [see Cavata]. The accompanying example is taken from his cantata Ein' feste Burg. Beethoven, in the final movement of his Piano Sonata op. 110, uses the term for an accompanied recitative played on the piano. Arithmetic and harmonic mean. The arithmetic mean a of two numbers m and n is determined by the equation m - a = a - n, and the harmonic mean h by the same relationship between · . m I - hI = hI - I Hence, a = the reCiprocals.

Arietta [It.], ariette [F.]. (I) A small aria, usually

in binary form and lacking the musical elaboration of the aria; thus rather a song or a *cavatina. (2) In French operas before 1750, an aria to Italian words, usually in brilliant coloratura style. (3) In the opera comique of the second half of the 18th century, a solo song (aria) in French, preceded and followed by spoken dialogue, the work being known as a comMie melee d'ariettes. D.J.G.

Arioso [It.]. Properly, recitativo arioso, that is, a

recitative of a lyrical and expressive quality, not, as usual, narrative and speechlike. The arioso style, therefore, is midway between that of a recitative and an aria. A good example showing the difference among these three styles is a canS

t

dei

ne

j):lll~ 7 )l I

Be - reu - e

n.

t ,

1

+ n), and h =

2mn . The musical signifim +n cance of these two means was recognized by Boethius, who pointed out that the arithmetic mean (L. medietas) of the octave (frequencies I and 2) is the fifth: 1 2 = while its har-21 (m

Schuld

i f·

monic mean is the fourth: 2

~: :{'

2

= ~. Of

even greater importance was the discovery, made by Zarlino, that the two corresponding divisions of the fifth {m

(Arioso)

mit

(v

Schmerz

ltf~

l

I

I

daB

Chri

.#J.'

:t:

I

I

I

I

1; n

= i) lead respectively to

sti

the major and minor thirds: a

-,/1-

h

I

=

3 -) ( 2 x t x2 { 3) 1 +2

=

(• +]_)2 2

= -i;

. tna "d"1s rep= 56 . Teh maJor

I

resented by the arithmetic progression 1 :

.

:

~

r.:.

rr,..,

r

:

•

I

%= 40 : 50 : 60;

1::::1

Geist mit dir sich fest ver-bin

I

-

=

-oc•-

r

'.#J.

.

~

- -

r

the minor triad by the har-

monic progression 1 :

r -

de daB

ff.

t:

%:%= 40 : 48 : 60.

It

may be noted that the above measurements are in frequencies (octave = 2), and that the opposite correspondences are correct if the tones are determined by lengths of strings. Therefore Zarlino (who, of course, knew nothing about frequencies) quite properly calls the major triad c-e-g harmonica and the minor triad d-f-a arithmetica.

-.L' -1'-

LJ-l-'

53

ARLESIENNE, L'

ARPEGGIO

Arh~sienne,

L' [F., The Woman of Aries]. Incidental music by Georges Bizet (1838-75) to Alphonse Daudet's play L'Arlesienne. It is usually played in the form of two orchestral suites [see Suite V], the first arranged by Bizet in 1872 and the second by E. Guirand after Bizet's death.

Armenia. Since Armenia was the first country officially to adopt the Christian faith (A.D. 303), the history of Armenian sacred literature and music has attracted much attention. The Armenian liturgy, like that of Byzantium, consists chiefly of hymns. The oldest of the hymns were in prose. Later, versified hymns became prominent, especially through the activity of the great poet Nerses Schnorhali (11th cent.). The official book of hymns, called sharakan, contains 1,166 songs. The earliest preserved liturgical manuscripts containing musical signs date from the 14th century. The notation is a highly developed system of neumes (Armenian neumes), which certainly was the result of a long evolution [examples in LavE i.l, 552; J. Thibaut, Origine byzantine de la notation neumatique de !'eglise latine, 1907, pl. 4], but the lack of treatises explaining this notation renders the Armenian neumes undecipherable. In the early 19th century a new system of musical notation, similar to that of present-day Greek church music, was introduced, and it is still in use. Whether the present-day melodies are identical or similar to those of the early books cannot be ascertained, but the fact that the modem chants are grouped according to an oktoechos [see Echos] suggests an ancient origin for the melodies. The continuity of tradition is more doubtful so far as the rhythmic interpretation of Armenian chant is concerned. The melodies of the present liturgy are based upon strict time, with the temporal unit (ket, i.e., beat) divided into an elaborate system of rhythmic formations of smaller values, including 32nd and 64th notes. Whereas scholars such as R. P. Dechevrens and J. C. Jeannin have considered this rhythm of great antiquity and have used it as an argument in favor of strictly rhythmical interpretation of Gregorian chant, P. Aubry considers it a fairly recent innovation due to Turkish influence (15th century). The purest source of Armenian church music is undoubtedly the music in use at Echmiadzin, which is also used at Tiflis and Erivan. The collections issued by European and American communities differ widely from the traditional forms, chiefly owing to the use of cheap modem harmonizations. 54

Lit.: A. K. Torossian, ed., The Divine Liturgy . .. According to the Rites of the Holy Apostolic Church of Armenians (1933); P. Bianchini, Les Chants liturgiques de !'eglise armenienne (1877); M. Ekmalian, Les Chants de la sainte liturgie (1896); A. Apcar, Melodies of the Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia (Calcutta, 1897); Nerses Ter-Mikaelian, Das armenische Hymnarium (1905); P. Aubry, Le Rhythme tonique (1903); A. Gastoue, in LavE i.l, 54 Iff; P. Aubry, in TG vii, viii, ix; E. Wellesz, in AdHM i, 139; id., in JMP xxvii; K. Keworkian, in SIM i; A. Gastoue, in RdM (Aug. 1929), p. 194; G. Kaftangian, in CP 1950; L. Dayan, ibid. Secular music: K. H. Aiguni, Songs ofArmenia (1924); K. Keworkian (Komitas), Musique populaire armenienne, 5 vols. (1925-30); F. Mader, La Musique en Armenie (1917); G. H. Paelian, The Music ofArmenia ( 1939), bib!.; R. Pesce, La Musica armena (1935); S. Poladian, Armenian Folk Songs (1942). See "Bibliography of Asiatic Musics, Fifth Installment" (Notes vi, 122). Armonica. See Glass harmonica. Armure [F.]. Key signature. Arpa [It., Sp.]. Harp. See also under Psaltery. Arpegement [F.]. Older term for arpege (arpeggio). For arpegement figure, see Acciaccatura; Arpeggio. Arpeggio [It.; F. arpege; Sp. arpegio]. The notes of a chord played one after another instead of simultaneously. In modem music the arpeggio is indicated by one of the signs given in Ex. 1. Its execution always starts with the lowest note, and as a rule it should begin at the moment when the chord is due (i.e., on the beat), whether indicated by sign or by tiny notes [Ex. 2, Mozart, Sonata in C major, K. 309 (K. Einstein 284b); Ex. 3, Chopin, Nocturne op. 62, no. 1]. There are cases, however, in which the melody carried by the top note of the arpeggio will not bear the delay caused by this execution, so that the last note of the arpeggio must then be made to coincide with the beat [Ex. 4, Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, no. 30]. The latter performance is generally to be recommended in piano music whenever the arpeggio occurs in the left hand alone, as in Ex. 5 (Chopin, Mazurka op. 7, no. 3). A distinction should be made between an arpeggio played simultaneously with both hands. [Ex. 6] and a long arpeggio in which the right hand succeeds the left [Ex. 7]. The latter is (or should be) indicated by a long arpeggio sign, joining

ARPICORDO

ARPEGGIO

the two staves. For the violin arpeggio, see Bowing (i). In the music of the 17th and 18th centuries the execution of the arpeggio varied considerably (often at the discretion of the individual performer) in respect to direction and number of notes. The French clavecinists used the signs shown in Ex. 8 to indicate the arpegement en montant (ascending arpeggio) and those in Ex. 9 for the arpegement en descendant (descending arpeggio). Other special signs were used to indicate various kinds of arpegement figure, or arpeggios in which unwritten notes are introduced [see Ex. 10, II, 12]. In performance of these arpegements figures all the notes are held except those that are foreign to the chord, which are immediately released [see Acciaccatura]. An appoggiatura to an arpeggio chord is incorporated in the arpeggio, occasioning a delay of the particular note to which it belongs, as in Ex. 13. A combination of arpegements figures and an appoggiatura is shown in Ex. 14, from Bach's Partita in E minor. In music of the. time of Bach and Handel the word "arpeggio" is sometimes found written at

55

the beginning of a sequence of chords. In this case, the player is at liberty to break the chords up and down several times, to extend them, and to interpolate extraneous notes as he sees fit [see Handel's own notation of the last four bars of the Prelude to his keyboard Suite in D minor]. The note values, and even the tempo of such passages, are left entirely to the player's discretion. These chords (e.g., those in Bach's Chromatic Fantasia) are written in measured time only to facilitate reading, the style of performance being derived from the unmeasured preludes of the lutenists and early French clavecinists (Louis Couperin, D'Anglebert, etc.; see P.A. Prelude II). Arpeggione (also called guitar violoncello, gui-

tare d'amour). A stringed instrument the size of a cello but with a guitarlike body and six strings tuned E, A, d, g, b, e', invented in 1823 by G. Staufer. It is played with a bow. Franz Schubert wrote the only existing composition for it, a sonata for arpeggione and piano (1824; see Franz Schuberts Werke, 1888-97, ser. viii). Arpicordo. Italian 16th-century name for a

harpsichord that differed in some unknown detail from the clavicembil.lo [see Harpsichord II]. Note the title of a publication of 1551: Intabolatura nova di varie sorte de balli da sonare per

ARPITARRONE

ARS ANT/QUA

arpichordi, claviciembali, spinette et manachordi; also G. Picchi, Intavolatura di balli d'arpicordo (1620; *Editions V, 2). See "Arpichordum" in SaRM. Perhaps it is identical to theArpichordum as described by M. Praetorius (Syntagma musi· cum, 1619, ii, ch. 43), "a jack-action instrument or virginal on which a harplike sound is produced by means of a special stop which governs brass hooks under the strings." S. Virdung in his discussion of the Claviciterium in Musica getutscht (1511 ), J. Adlung (Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit, 1758, note r to Par. 246), and P. N. Sprengel (Handwerk und Kiinste in Tabelen, Berlin, 1773, xi, 265) all mention versions of the device. It seems to have produced a buzzing tone sometimes considered to be harplike and sometimes compared to the reed stops of the organ (Schnarrwerk). Metal pins or hooks were moved close to the strings so as to jar against them. add. by F.H. Arpitarrone. N arne given by Adriano Banchieri to an instrument (made for him by Michel de Hodes) with the form of a harpsichord and the sound of a *chitarrone. See his L'Organo suonarino (1611), p. 57. Arrache [F.]. Forceful pizzicato.

Arrangement. The adaptation of a composition for a medium different from that for which it was originally written, so made that the musical substance remains essentially unchanged. From the early 14th to the end of the 16th century, we have evidence of an ever increasing practice of arranging vocal music (motets, Mass items, madrigals, chansons, etc.) for a keyboard instrument or for lute in order to make such compositions available for domestic performance and enjoyment [see Intabulation]. In the baroque era this practice largely disappeared, no doubt because of the greatly reduced importance of vocal music. It is interesting to note that the greatest creative genius of this period, Bach, was almost the only one to take considerable interest in the recreative activity of arranging compositions of his own or others. Well-known examples are his arrangements for the harpsichord and organ of violin concertos by Vivaldi and others, and his transcription of the Fugue from his solo Violin Sonata in G minor for the organ (D minor; BG xv, 148). This last is of interest as being one of the earliest instances of an arrangement from a limited medium to one of ampler resources. To this category also belong Rameau's arrangements of his harpsichord pieces for an instru-

mental ensemble (Pieces de clavecin en concerts, 1741, for harpsichord, flute, and viol). Other noteworthy examples are Haydn's Die Sieben Letzten Worte . .. am Kreuze [see Seven (Last) Words], Liszt's concert arrangements of operatic scenes and of Schubert's songs, Brahms' transcription for two pianos of his orchestral Variations on a Theme by Haydn, etc. In a different category are the customary piano arrangements of operas, symphonies, string quartets, etc., which are primarily designed for study purposes. The first such arrangements of symphonies by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were made by F. Mockwitz (1785-1849). Since about 1910 there has been an extraordinary amount of activity in transcribing Bach's organ works for the piano and the orchestra. Although this must be welcomed as a token of the ever growing interest in the work of the great master, the development has taken on forms that have recently led to a sharp reaction against the "business of arrangement." This opposition, however, is justifiable only with regard to certain methods of transcription. Several transcribers (e.g., Respighi), impelled by the richness of modern orchestration or piano technique, have tried-and certainly with success-to give Bach's organ pieces an impressionist lushness or a romantic emotionalism that is inconsistent with the intrinsic clarity of his style. Lit.: K. Grunsky, Die Technik des Klavierauszugs (1911); E. Friedlander, Wagner, Liszt und die Kunst der Klavierbearbeitung (1922); M. Hansemann, Der Klavier-Auszug von den Anfiingen his Weber (1943); H. Hering, "Bachs Klavieriibertragungen" (Bach-Jahrbuch, 1958); id., "Obertragung und Umformung" (MF xii); E. Howard-Jones, in ML xvi, 305.

56

Arrescu [Sp.]. See Aurresku. Ars antiqua [L.]. I. The term ars antiqua (ars veterum) was used by writers of the early 14th century (e.g., "Speculum musicae" c. 1325; see CS ii, 429) to distinguish the late 13th-century school (Franco, c. 1260; Petrus de Cruce, c. 1290) from that of their own day, which was called *ars nova (or ars modernorum). Today, both terms are usually employed in a wider sense, denoting music of the 13th and 14th centuries respectively. The ars antiqua, then, includes the school of *Notre Dame with its two masters, Leoninus (second half of 12th cent.) and Perotinus (c. 1160-1220), and the ensuing period, which, for want of other names, may be divided into the period of Franco (middle 13th cent.) and

ARS ANTIQUA

ARSIS AND THESIS

that of Petrus de Cruce (late 13th cent.). The school of Notre Dame was preceded by the school of *St. Martial (c. 1100-50). Leoninus, called "optimus organista" by the English Anon. IV [CS i, 342]-i.e., "greatest composer of organa," not, as some modern writers believe, "very able organist"-was the creator of the *"Magnus liber organi," which in its final form represents a complete cycle of twopart organa (organa dupla) for the ecclesiastical year, about 90 in all. Perotinus, "optimus discantor" (i.e., greatest composer of *discantus), enlarged this repertory by composing organa in three and occasionally four parts (organum triplum and organum quadruplum; see AdHM i, 226, 228-32). He and his collaborators also added a large number of short compositions, mostly in two parts, the so-called clausulae, which were designed to be used as substitutes for corresponding sections in Leoninus' organa. These clausulae constitute the link with the following period, since they were frequently transformed into motets. The motet is the representative form of the middle and second half of the 13th century, when it was cultivated almost to the exclusion of any other type of music. The propensity of the 13th-century musicians (practically all anonymous) for this form would be difficult to understand were it not for the fact that the motet, which originally was a strictly liturgical form (a clausula provided with a full text in the upper part), soon underwent secular influence, partly from the tradition of the trouveres, which brought with it fresh impulses and even various heterogeneous elements (mixture of Latin and French, of liturgical tenors and love lyrics). The repertory of the school of Notre Dame also includes a large number of *conductus, i.e., Latin songs in one to four parts, mostly to devotional texts, but without plainsong cantus .firmus, such as occurs with all the organa, clausulae, and motets. II. The 13th-century technique of composition may be described as "successive counterpoint." The composer starts out with one complete voice, the tenor, which is either a preexistent plainsong melody (this is the case with organa, clausulae, and practically all motets) or one written by the composer himself (this is the case with conductus). To this fundamental part the others are added successively, first the duplum (called motetus in a motet), then the triplum. [Regarding the principles of consonance and dissonance, see Harmony II A.] The most important contribution of the ars

57

antiqua lies in the field of rhythm. While the organa of the school of St. Martial employ for their upper part melismas in free, unmeasured rhythm, the period around 1180 marks the establishment of strict rhythm, based on the rhythmic modes [see Rhythm III (b), (c)]. This new rhythm presents itself clearly in the discant sections of Leoninus' organa, whereas the organum sections are written in a transitional style whose rhythmic interpretation is still a matter of controversy [see Organum]. With Perotinus, modal rhythm (usually reproduced in modern editions as 2 x 3/8 = 6/8 meter) was universally adopted for the entire organa and their derivative types. For the most important sources of 13th-century polyphony, see Sources, nos. 3-7. For more complete lists see F. Ludwig, in AMW v; also ApNPM, p. 20lf, sections II, III. Related articles: Cantiga; Clausula; Conductus; Discant; Estampie; Hocket; Lauda; Minnesinger; Modes, rhythmic; Motet A, I, II; Organum; Square notation; "Sumer is icumen in"; Troubadour; Trouvere. Lit.: F. Ludwig, Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili (1910); G. D. Sasse, Die Mehrstimmigkeit der Ars antiqua in Theorie und Praxis (1940); OH, vol. i (preferably the edition of 1901); ReMMA, pp. 272-330 (bibl. pp. 445-56); AdHM i, 214-65 (bibl. p. 294); BeMMR, pp. 112-35 (bibl. p. 180); ApNPM, pp. 215-337; GrHWM, pp. 68-105 (bibl. pp. 671-72); t.HAM, nos. 28-42; "t.SchGMB, nos. 16-20; H. Gleason, t.Examples of Music before 1400 (1942), pp. 36-76; W. G. Waite, t.The Rhythm of Twelfth-Century Polyphony (1954); J. H. Baxter, t.An Old St. Andrews Music Book (1931); fac. ed. of MS Wolfenbiittel 677); L. Dittmer, tyacsimile Reproduction ofthe Manuscript Madrid 20486, with an Introduction (1957); id., t.Facsimile Reproduction of the Manuscript Wolfenbiittel1099 (1206) [1960]; E. Thurston, 't.The Music in the St. Victor Manuscript Paris lat. 15139 (1959); J. Handschin, "Zur Geschichte von Notre Dame" (AM iv); H. Schmidt, "Zur Melodiebildung Leonins und Perotins" (ZMW xiv); M. Schneider, "Zur Satztechnik der NotreDame Schute" (ZMW xiv); W. A pel, "From St. Martial to Notre Dame" (JAMSii); W. G. Waite, "Discantus, Copula, Organum" (JAMS v); R. Ficker, "Polyphonic Music of the Gothic Period" (MQ xv); E. H. Sanders, "Peripheral Polyphony of the 13th Century" (JAMS xvii).

Arsis and thesis [Gr.]. Arsis means "lifting" [G. Hebung] and thesis means "lowering" [G.

ARS NOVA

ARS NOVA

Senkung]. In Greek poetry, these terms were used in the sense of bodily movement, such as the lifting and lowering of the foot (as in dancing) or the hand (in conducting). Consequently, thesis meant the long syllable, or upbeat, of a simple metrical foot (e.g., dactyl: - --),while the remainder of the foot was regarded as the arsis. Unfortunately, Roman and medieval writers reversed the meaning of the terms, interpreting them as referring to the raising and lowering of the voice, not the foot. Since with a pair of tones the higher one is usually accented more than the lower, the term arsis (high) was identified with accent, and thesis (low) with lack of accent:

a

t

a

t

a

t

It is in this sense that the terms are usually employed in French writings on meter and metrical music. The usage also persists in German terminology, in which Hebung (arsis) means strong beat, Senkung (thesis), weak beat [see Vierhebigkeit]. Modern English writers have returned to the original and proper meaning of arsis and thesis [see, e.g., Webster's Collegiate Dictionary]. This usage is observed in this book. See Poetic meter. To 16th- and 17th-century theorists (G. Zarlino, C. Butler, T. Morley), the phrase per arsin et thesin meant "by contrary motion," i.e., by inversion. The same phrase was used later by F. W. Marpurg (Abhandlung von der Fuge, 175354) to designate a fugue in which the answer is in contrary rhythm, i.e., what had been on a strong beat in the subject was now on a weak beat. Ars nova [L.]. I. General. Generic name for the music of the 14th century, in contradistinction to the *ars antiqua, i.e., music of the 13th century. Properly, the name should be restricted, as it originally was, to French music of the first half of the 14th century, represented by the most recent compositions in the "Roman de Fauvel'' [see Sources, no. 8] and by the works of Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361). Indeed, compositions of the late 14th century, especially French ones, show features of intellectual refinement, affectation, and even decadence that are scarcely compatible with the term [L., new art]. In the early 14th century, however, the ars nova began as a novel movement whose chief champion was Philippe de Vitry. About 1325, he employed the term ars nova as the title of a treatise, which unfortunately deals primarily with the notational

58

rather than the musical innovations of the period [CS iii, 13; trans. by P. Bohn, in MFM xxii]. More illuminating from a general point of view are the discussions in the "Speculum musicae," whose author, Jacques de Liege [see Theory B, no. 13], gives extremely interesting information regarding the stylistic contrast between the ars antiqua and the ars nova, although he speaks from a decidedly antimodernist point of view, always extolling the ars veterum (Franco of Cologne and Petrus de Cruce) over the "unnatural" innovations of the moderni [Book VII, ch. 43-46: "Collatio veteris artis ... ad novam"; see CS ii, 383, 427-32]. On the other hand, Johannes de Muris, who was formerly thought to have written the "Speculum musicae," actually was another leader of the new movement, as was the contemporary Italian writer Marchetto da Padua, who in his "Pomerium in arte musicae mensuratae" contrasts the Italian and the French notation of the 14th century and decides in favor of the latter. In the field of musical composition the 14th century saw continued activity in France and the rise of a new school of polyphonic music in Italy. There are also a limited number of English compositions of the 14th century whose main interest lies in their extended use of *voice exchange and in their early employment of *sixth-chord style [see England III; Worcester, school of]. II. The French ars nova. The main achievement of the ars nova (and at the same time the point of attack by its adversaries) was the conquest of new territory in the field of rhythm and meter. While the music of the late 13th century was dominated by the principle of triple division (modus peifectus and tempus peifectum; modem equivalent 3/4 time with eighth-note triplets), the binary divisions were now admitted, so that the composer could choose from a variety of meters-2/4, 3/4, 6/8, and 9/8. Another important difference is the replacement of the rhythmic formula JJ by its inversion, JJ. Jacobus strongly defended the former, saying that it "conforms a

ll j

3

3

m I~ j j trn I J I

b

I§Jij

~j ~1m

j

~~

Jl

Typical rhythms of (a) ars antiquo; (b) ars nova.

ARS NOVA with nature, which is always stronger at the end than at the beginning," but it is the latter that prevails in the motets ofVitry and of the greatest French composer of the 14th century, Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-77). Still another important aspect of the motets of this period is the use of isorhythm, regularly in the tenor and occasionally in the upper parts as well. Even more radically new is the style ofMachaut's secular works, the polyphonic ballades, rondeaux, and virelais, most of which are probably of a later date than his motets. These secular pieces show free contrapuntal texture, supple rhythms, and expressive melodies, and generally bear the stamp of high refinement, delicacy, individuality, spontaneous creation, and even personal feeling, so that one is almost tempted to speak of a "14thcentury romanticism." Toward the end of the 14th century there flourished in southern France (papal court of A vignon; secular courts of Orleans, Navarre, Berry) and also in northern Spain (court of Aragon) a group of French and Italian composers (Solage, Senleches or Selesses, Grimace, Cordier, Matteo da Perugia, Antonello da Caserta, and others) who constitute the "mannerist school," so called because of its tendency toward exaggeration and overrefinement. They cultivated a style characterized by almost unbelievable rhythmic complexities (cross rhythms, extended syncopations, writtenout rubatos), equally complex methods of notation [see ch. ix, "Mannered Notation," in ApNPM], extravagant harmonies, bold dissonances, etc., resulting in "a musical texture ... as disintegrated as ... Webern's" [GDB, s.v. "Ars nova"]. An entirely different segment of French music of the late 14th century is represented by the Codex Apt [see Sources, no. 19], which includes liturgical compositions written in a simple style, among them historically important settings of hymns. The harmonic style of the ars nova shows some advance over that of the ars antiqua insofar as thirds are introduced more frequently. Of special interest is the treatment of dissonances, which frequently reminds one of the dissonant counterpoint of modern composers (e.g., Hindemith). The polyphonic texture stands, as it were, under the influence of "points of magnetic attraction," at which the parts start and converge in perfect consonances, mainly octaves, fourths, and fifths, while in between the lines move with a remarkable degree of individuality and independence from harmonic considerations. III. The Italian ars nova. In the tradition of

ARS NOVA Italian 14th-century music two schools can be distinguished, the earlier of which is represented by Magister Piero, Giovanni da Cas cia (or Johannes de Florentia), and Jacopo da Bologna, and the later by Francesco Landini (1325-97), Paolo Tenorista, Ghirardello da Firenze, and others. Musical as well as notational features indicate that Italian polyphonic music branched off from the French tradition of the late 13th century, particularly from the style of Petrus de Cruce. However, in the half-century 1275-1325 it developed special traits that led to a decidedly national repertory and style. The forms of the earlier school are the madrigal and the caccia, while in the later school the ballata (the French virelai) prevails. The style of the earlier compositions may be described as an "ornamented conductus style." The voices, usually two and having the same text, move simultaneously, the lower part in longer note values, the upper frequently in quick figurations that remind one of the coloraturas of the 17th and 18th centuries. With Landini much of the elaborate texture and rhythmic refinement of French music (Machaut) appears in Italy. He largely abandoned the madrigal in favor of the ballata and often added an instrumental contratenor to the vocal duet formed by the discant and the tenor. Combining French subtlety and spirituality with Italian fullness and warmth, he created works that foreshadow the transparent beauty of early 15thcentury music (Dunstable, Dufay). Paolo Tenorista is noteworthy for his fairly extensive use of imitation. At the end of the 14th century there appeared in Italy a Flemish composer, Johannes Ciconia (c. 1335-1411), who figures prominently in the development leading to the 15th century. In general, Italian music of the 14th century is much simpler than the French. Syncopations are rare or, if present, take place within the confines of a measure. Dissonances are much less pronounced and the feeling for tonality is considerably more developed, particularly through the frequent use of well-defined cadences. Related articles: Ballata; Ballade [F.]; Caccia; Estampie; Isorhythmic; Madrigal I; Rondeau (1); Syncopation; Virelai. See also Sources, nos. 8-19. Lit. General: GrHWM, pp. 106-29, bibl.; ReMMA, pp. 331-86, bibl.; AdHM i, 265-94, bibl.; BeMMR, pp. 136-80, bibl.; ApNPM, pp. 338-435; M. Schneider, Die Ars nova ... in Frankreich und Italien [1930]; HAM, nos. 43-55; SchGMB, nos. 22-28; WoGM iii, nos. 13-62; F. Ludwig, "Die mehrstimmige Musik des 14.

59

ART OF FUGUE, THE

ART BALLAD

Jahrhunderts" (SIM iv); V. Gunther, "Das Ende der Ars nova" (MF xvi); F. J. Smith, "Ars nova-a Re-definition?" (MD xviii). France: E. Dannemann, Die spiitgotische Musiktradition in Frankreich und Burgund (1936); F. Ludwig, ed., tGuillaume de Machaut, musikalische Werke, 4 vols., i-iii (1926-29); vol. iv, ed. H. Besseler (1943; 1954); L. Schrade, ed., tPoryphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, 4 vols. to date: vol. i (1956, Roman de Fauvel, Vitry), vols. ii and iii (1956, Machaut), vol. iv (1958, Landini); W. Apel, ed., tFrench Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth Century (1950); A Gastom!, ed., tLe Manuscrit de musique du tresor d'Apt (1936); M. Johnson, ed., f'The Motets of the Codex Ivrea" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); H. Besseler, "Studien zur Musik des Mittelalters" (AMW vii, viii); G. Perle, "Integrative Devices in the Music of Machaut" (MQ xxxiv); W. Apel, "The French Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth Century" (AM xviii/xix). Italy: K. von Fischer, Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento und frnhen Quattrocento (1956); M. L. Martinez, Die Musik des frilhen Trecento (1963); N. Pirrotta, ed., tThe Music of Fourteenth-Century Itary, 4 vols. to date (1954-63); L. Ellinwood, ed., tThe Works of Francesco Landini (1939); J. R. White, ed., t"The Music of the Early Italian Ars Nova" ( diss. Indiana Univ., 1952); W. T. Marrocco, ed., Pne Music ofJacopo da Bologna (1954); G. de Van, ed., tLes Monuments de l'ars nova, i [1939?, Italian liturgical pieces]; J. Wolf, Der Squarcialupi-Codex (1955); id, "Italian Trecento Music" (PMA lviii); L. Ellinwood, "Origins of the Italian Ars Nova" (PAMS, 1937); id, "The Fourteenth Century in Italy" (NOH iii, 3lff); F. Ghisi, in MD i (Codex Lucca); id., in MD ii (Siena Fragment); N. Pirrotta and E. Li Gotti, in MD iii (Codex Lucca); N. Pirrotta, "'Dulcedo' e 'subtilitas' ... al principio del '400" (RBM ii); various articles in CP 1955; K. von Fischer, "On the Technique, Origin and Evolution of Italian Trecento Music" (MQ xlvii). Art ballad. See Ballade [G.]. Arte musicale in ltalia, L'. See Editions III. Articulation. A term used to denote (or demand) clarity and distinct rendition in musical performance, whether vocal or instrumental. Correct breathing, phrasing, attack, legato, and staccato are some of the aspects involved. See Phrasing and articulation.

60

Art of Fugue, The [G. Die Kunst der Fuge]. The last work of J. S. Bach, written in 1749 and published posthumously, in a rather careless manner, by his sons in 1750. It contains some 20 fugues and canons, called contrapuncti, all based on the same theme [Ex. 1], in which the various devices of imitative counterpoint, such as inversion, stretto, augmentation, diminution, canon, double fugue, triple fugue, etc. are exploited in the most elaborate and ingenious manner. The number of pieces varies in the different editions, some of which combine two related pieces under one number. Formerly The Art of Fugue was considered chiefly a magnificent manual of advanced counterpoint, but it is now universally recognized as one of the greatest musical creations. The turning point was the first public 1

l@ 9 j j I j j I;J J d ILR J] I j

A

C

H

performance, promoted by W. Graeser (190628) in Leipzig in 1927. This event was the beginning of a sensational revival that has since spread over the entire musical world. The inaccuracy of the first printed edition has given rise to a century or so of controversy concerning the proper order of the contrapuncti, a controversy in which historical, paleographic, and artistic arguments as well as metaphysical speculations and mathematical abstractions have been advanced without yielding a final answer [see Lit., Hauptmann, Rust, Graeser,

ART OF FUGUE, THE

A TEMPO

David, Tovey, Apel]. A special problem is presented by the last (unfinished) fugue, which has frequently been considered extraneous to the work, since none of its three subjects (the last of which is *B-A-C-H) is the principal subject of The Art of Fugue [see A. Schweitzer, J. S. Bach, 2 vols. (1911), i, 424]. G. Nottebohm (1817-82), however, showed that this subject can be contrapuntally combined with those of the last fugue [Ex. 2]. This is sufficient reason for assuming that the unfinished "triple fugue" was planned as a gigantic quadruple fugue, a fitting climax to the whole work. The chorale "Wenn wir in hochsten Noten sein," which was added by the editors "as a recompense for the incomplete fugue," does not belong to the work; yet, if played after the abrupt breaking off of the preceding fugue, it takes on a symbolic significance that may outweigh historical scruples. According to Mizler (1754), Bach planned to write still another quadruple fugue that could be reversed (crab motion) in all its parts [see GD, Sup. Vol., p. 10]. Another problem of The Art of Fugue is that of medium and performance-the question as to whether it is keyboard, orchestral, or chamber music. The lack of instrumental specifications in either the autograph or the first edition, together with the use of the scholarly contrapunctus as a designation for the various pieces, characterizes The Art of Fugue as a work that is not dependent upon specified medium or sound. Therefore any kind of performance that conforms to the austere spirit of the composition must be considered justifiable. On the other hand, it should not be overlooked that all the pieces, with the exception of the mirror fugues (nos. XII and XIII of the Peters ed.), are within reach of the hands of a keyboard player. Evidently, in composing the work, Bach was thinking of keyboard performance, if only for instructive purposes. F. Busoni, in his Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910), has offered a congenial modern version, fantastically expanded, of Bach's last fugue. Lit.: BG xxv; other editions by Czerny, W. Graeser, H. T. David, D. F. Tovey (with completion of the unfinished fugue), Roy Harris (for string quartet), E. Schwebsch (for 2 pianos); M. Hauptmann, Erliiuterungen zu Joh. Sebastian Bachs Kunst der Fuge (1841); D. F. Tovey, A Companion to "The Art of Fugue" (1931); B. Martin, Untersuchungen zur Struktur der 'Kunst der Fuge' (1941); G. M. Leonhardt, The Art of Fugue, Bach's Last Harpsichord Work (1952); C. S. Terry, in MQ xix; H. David, in JMP xxxiv; W. Apel, in DMxxii.4; H. Husmann, inBJxxxv; 61

J. A. Burns, "L'Impiego della partitura e l'Arte della Fuga di J. S. Bach" (L'Organo ii, 163ff.). Art song. A song of serious artistic intent written by a trained composer, as distinct from a folksong. See Song; Song cycle.

As, ases [G.]. A-fiat, a-double-fiat; see Pitch names. ASCAP. American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers, a society founded in 1914 by Victor Herbert mainly to protect copyrights and performing rights. About 10,000 composers, authors and publishing firms belong to it. Asia. See Mesopotamia; China; Japan; etc. See R. A. Waterman, et.al., "Bibliography of Asiatic Musics" (Notes v-viii; 15 installments). Aspiration [F.]. See under N achschlag. Assai [It.]. Much, e.g., allegro assai, quite fast. Assassinio nella Cattedrale [It., Murder in the Cathedral]. Opera in two acts and an intermezzo by I. Pizzetti (libretto by A. Castelli after T. S. Eliot's play), produced in Milan, 1958. Setting: Canterbury Cathedral. Assez [F.]. Enough, e.g., assez vile, fairly quick. Assyria. See under Mesopotamia. Atabal. Name for a set of three single-headed drums found in rural districts of the Dominican Republic. Also known as palos, the set consists of a palo mtryor (large drum) about 48 inches high and 22 inches in diameter, a palo segundo (middle-sized drum) 42 inches high and 16 inches in diameter, and a palo auxiliar (small drum) 36 inches high and 12 inches in diameter. The drums are placed upright, the larger two being beaten with the palms and fingers and the smallest with a pair of palitos (drumsticks). J.O-S.

Atabaques. Set of three single-headed upright barrel drums used mainly in the candomble ritual dances in Bahia, Brazil. All three are beaten with the palm and fingers. They also are known as tabaques. J.o-s. Atem [G.]. Breath. Atempause (breathing pause), a very short rest used in instrumental performance for the sake of articulation or phrasing. It is sometimes indicated by an apostrophe: '. A tempo [It.]. Indicates return to normal tempo after deviations such as ritenuto, piu Iento, ad libitum, etc.

ATONALITY

AUFSCHNITT

Atonality. Literally, absence of tonality. Tonality is a particular expression of the general principle of relaxation of tension, tension being a particular state that implies its "resolution," i.e., areturn to relaxation, a stable state. Harmonically, the fundamental expression of tonality is the dominant-tonic relationship. When the harmonic relationships of a composition can be considered to derive from this fundamental relationship-remotely or closely, for a long or a short time-the music is said to be tonal. In the history of Western music, tonality dominates a period of about two centuries, from the end of the 17th to the end of the 19th century. More precise limits cannot be set, since the development is a continuous one. The works of J. S. Bach represent a peak of this development. It is in the works of Wagner, Debussy, and many of their contemporaries that a progressive breakdown of tonality begins to appear: constant modulations denying, in the long run, any possible reference to a tonal center; harmonic structures that are less and less reducible to a cadential scheme; piling up of chords without polarity, i.e., without definite tension toward a resolution, like the chords of a diminished seventh, ninth, etc. Tonality was used less and less by Wagner's successors, notably Schoenberg, and thereafter the evolution from tonality to atonality continued. It might be said that the harmonic framework of Tristan-a fortiori that of Schoenberg's Verkliirte Nacht-is already atonal, insofar as the tonal centers are no longer clearly evident to the listener. Nevertheless, the term atonal is generally (and preferably) confined to music that totally banishes tonality. Thus atonality, both as a concept and as a descriptive term, although at first challenged by Schoenberg himself, begins with the works he composed after 1909 (Pierrot lunaire, etc.). The conscious suspension of tonality did not, however, at once bring a single substitute for it. It was only years later that Schoenberg proposed a new principle of organization [see under Serial music]. It is significant that c. 1900 the American composer Charles Ives, working quite independently of Schoenberg, wrote sections in certain chamber compositions in which tonality is practically suspended. Lit.: R. Reti, Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality [1958]; G. Perle, Serial Composition and Atonality (1962); R. Leibowitz, Schoenberg, et son ecole [1947]; K. H. Ehrenforth, Ausdruck und Form, SchOnbergs Durchbruch zur Atonalitiit (1963); H. Eimert, Atonale Musiklehre (1924);

L. Rognoni, La Scuola musicale di Vienna [1966]; T. W. Adorno, Philosophie der neuen Musik

(1949); P. Boulez, Releves d'apprenti (1965); id., Penser la musique aujourd'hui [1964]; Incontri musicali, nos. 1-4 (1956-60), passim; Die Reihe (German ed., 1955-, English ed., 1958-), passim; Perspectives of New Music [1962-],passim; D. Milhaud, "Polytonalite et atonalite" (RM 1923, no. 4); A. Machabey, "Dissonance, polytonalite, a tonalite" (RM 1931, no. 116). See also under Tonality; Serial music. A.B. Attacca, attacca subito [It.]. Attack suddenly, an indication at the end of a movement that the next movement should follow without break. Attacco. See under Soggetto. Attack [F. attaque]. Promptness and decision in beginning a phrase, especially in forte passages. In orchestral parlance, attack means precise entry of the instruments. In French orchestras, the concertmaster is called chef d'attaque. Aubade [F.; Sp. alborada]. Morning music, as distinct from *serenade, evening music. In the 17th and 18th centuries aubades were played in honor of royal or princely personages, at levees. The term has been used by various composers (e.g., Bizet, Rimsky-Korsakov) to denote a sort of idyllic overture. The beginning of Beethoven's "Pastoral" Symphony and Wagner's Siegfried Idyll may be considered idealized aubades. See Alba. Auctoralis [L.]. Same as authentic (*church modes). Audition. (1) A hearing given to a performer; a performance (particularly by students). (2) Faculty of hearing. Aufforderung zum Tanz [G., Invitation to the Dance]. Piano composition by C. M. von Weber, op. 65 (1819), in the form of a waltz, preceded by an introduction (the "invitation") and concluded with an epilogue. It is the first example of a true waltz in art music. Auft""tihrungspraxis [G.]. See Performance practice. Aufgeregt [G.]. Excited. Auflosung [G.]. (1) Resolution (of a dissonance). (2) Cancellation (of an accidental). Auflosungszeichen, the natural sign, q. Aufsatz [G.]. Tube of an organ reed pipe.

62

Aufschnitt [G.]. The mouth of an organ pipe.

AULOS

AUFSTRICH

in detail by theoretical writers (J. de Muris, Prosdocimus de Beldemandis) and is used almost regularly in the motets of G. de Machaut, the tenor having the cantus firmus twice, the second time in halved values [see Isorhythmic]. With the beginning of the 15th century, augmentation and diminution become notational devices, since the change of note values is no longer indicated by longer or shorter notes but by proportional signs [see Proportions] or by verbal instructions, such as per augmentationem or per medium. A last example of this method appears in Bach's *Musikalisches Opfer. Many 16th-century ricercars use augmentation or diminution, e.g., A. Gabrieli's Ricercare del primo tono for organ [repr. in *Editions III, 3], in which each voice states the subject once in quadruple augmentation-exactly as in the contrapunctus 7 of Bach's The Art of Fugue. Augmentation and diminution are of basic importance in the fantasias of Sweelinck, which usually consist of three sections, with the theme (l) in normal values, (2) in augmentation, (3) in diminution.

Aufstrich [G.]. Up-bow. Auftakt [G.]. Upbeat. For Auftaktigkeit, see

under Phrasing and articulation. Auftritt [G.]. Scene of an opera. Aufzug [G.]. Act of an opera. Augenmusik [G.]. See Eye music. Augmentation and diminution. The presentation

of a subject in doubled values (augmentation) or in halved values (diminution), so that, e.g., the quarter note becomes a half note (augmentation) or an eighth note (diminution). The note values may also be augmented (or diminished) in higher ratios, such as 1 : 3 (triple augmentation) or 1 : 4 (quadruple augmentation). These devices provide an important element of variety in fugal writing. They are usually introduced toward the end of the fugue; thus used, diminution bestows a character of *stretto, augmentation one of grandeur. Examples are: Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier i, no. 8 (augmentation), The Well-Tempered Clavier ii, no. 9 (diminution), The Art of Fugue, nos. 6 and 7 (simultaneous appearance of the normal form, diminution, augmentation, and double augmentation); Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 110, last movement (similar combinations; see Ex.). Augmentation and diminution are also used in the development sections of symphonies, particularly by Brahms and Bruckner.

Augmented intervals. See Interval. Augmented

sixth chord, triad, see Sixth chord, Triad. Aulos. The most important wind instrument of the ancient Greeks. It is not a flute (as has fre-

fA9Jffi f"l t r- I f f I f f ¥ I t

Diminution (or augmentation) occurs first in a number of two-voice clausulae of the Perotinus period, in which a plainsong melody is used twice in succession, first in duplex longae (dotted half notes in modern transcription), then in plain longae (dotted quarter notes) [see ApNPM, p. 246]. In the 14th century, diminution is explained

63

quently been stated) but an oboe with double reed and a number of holes, ranging from four in the oldest instruments to fifteen in later specimens. The numerous pictures of aulos players show that the aulos usually consisted of two pipes; probably the larger pipe provided a drone or a few tones that were missing on the other. Many pictures show the player wearing a leather band over his mouth and tied at the back of his head. This probably served to increase the resistance of the cheeks, which acted as bellows, and enabled the player to build up considerable air pressure, thus producing a sound that occasionally must have been as shrill as that of a modem bagpipe. The aulos originally was an Oriental instrument. According to legend, it was introduced into Greece about 900 B.C. by Olympos, who was later glorified as the "inventor of music." Throughout the history of Greek music the aulos has retained its Asiatic character. It was adopted for the orgiastic music symbolized by Dionysus, whereas the *kithara represented the restrained character of autochthonous Greek music, symbolized by Apollo. Aulos music was rapid, rhythmic, exciting. The slight modifications of pitch that could be obtained by half covering the holes

AURRESKU

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

of the aulos probably led to the enharmonic genus of Greek music. See also Chroai. See ill. under Oboe family. Lit.: K. Schlesinger, The Greek Aulos (1939); SaHMI, pp. 138ff; A. Howard, "The [Aulos] or Tibia" (Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, iv); id, "The Mouth-piece of the [Aulos]" (ibid., x).

Aurresku, arrescu, auresca. An ancient ceremonial dance of the Basque regions (northern Spain), executed with a large variety of vigorous steps and gestures symbolizing courtship and other customs. It consists of several sections in varying meters (triple, quadruple, quintuple) and in different speeds. In its most complete modem form the aurresku consists of eight sections: entra, atzescu, *zortziko, pasamano, desaflo, *fandango, arin-arin, galop. It is danced to the accompaniment of the chistu (a type of flute) and tamboril [see Pipe]. See V. Alford, in MQ xviii; F. Gascue, in BSIM 1912, viii, 41; LavE i.4, 2355ff. Ausdrucksvoll, mit Ausdruck [G.]. With expression. Aushalten [G.]. To sustain a note. Aus Italien. See under Symphonic poem III. Ausltisung [G.]. The repeating mechanism (escapement) of the piano. Australia and New Zealand. I. Organized musical activity in Australia may be said to begin with William Vincent Wallace (1812-65) and Isaac Nathan (1792-1864). Wallace, an Irish composer and violinist, visited Australia and New Zealand, giving a concert in Sydney in 1836. Nathan, an English singer and composer, settled permanently in Australia, arriving in Melbourne in 1841 and moving to Sydney, where he organized concerts and music societies, activities that later (1886) led to the establishment of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1890 to the building of a large organ in Sydney Town Hall. A conservatory of music was founded in 1916, and a symphony orchestra somewhat later. Melbourne has a University Conservatorium, established in 1894. Today each state capital has a symphony orchestra. Of great importance for the musical life of Australia was the establishment, in 1932, of the Australian Broadcasting Commission (A.B.C.). Chamber music has thrived under the auspices of the Musica Viva Society, and opera under the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust. Composers of Australian (or New Zealand) descent include Alfred Hill (1870-1961), Percy 64

Grainger (1882-1961; became a U.S. citizen), Frank Hutchens (b. 1892), Roy Agnew (18931944), Margaret Sutherland (b. 1897), Clive Douglas (b. 1903), John Antill (b. 1904), Dorian Le Gallienne (b. 1915), Donald Banks (b. 1923), and Malcolm Williamson (b. 1931 ). The Australian opera singers Nellie Melba (1859-1931) and Joan Sutherland (b. 1926) won world-wide recognition. One of Australia's most outstanding contributions to music was made by Louise B. M. Dyer through the foundation of the Lyrebird Press (Les Editions de l'Oiseau-Lyre). The magnificent publications of this press include, among others, the complete edition of the Montpellier Codex [see Sources, no. 4], the series Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century (ed. L. Schrade), the 13-volume set of Attaingnant's motets (ed. A. Smijers and A. T. Merritt), and the complete works of Fran~ois Couperin. II. The early settlers of New Zealand found a Polynesian people, the Maoris, who themselves had settled there much earlier. The resulting impact of Western culture on Maori music was virtually annihilating. In the early decades of New Zealand's colonization (from c. 1840) the new immigrants retained their English musical heritage, mainly Anglican church music, a strong choral tradition, and an emphasis on brass-band playing. In Christchurch particularly the Anglican pattern survived, and a choir school established there in 1881 still provides treble voices for the all-male cathedral choir. Christchurch secular choirs have sung in Adelaide, the United States, and England in recent years. While amateur orchestral societies maintained high standards, it was not until 1946 that the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation established a fully professional orchestra. There is a flourishing National Youth Orchestra, and a strong Federation of Chamber Music Societies that encourages distinguished groups from abroad to visit New Zealand. Music education in the schools is under the direction of a national music adviser assisted by regional supervisors. The universities award degrees toward a Mus. B. according to the English system and recently have introduced courses in performance at the four main centers, Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Courses in musicology are offered at the University of Otago, Dunedin. The first New Zealand-born composer to become outstanding is Douglas Lilburn (b. 1915; three symphonies, chamber music, songs).

AUSTRIA

AUTO

Lit.: W. A. Orchard, Music in Australia (1952); E. I. Moresby, Australia Makes Music [1948]; A. P. Elkin and T. A. Jones, Arnhem Land Music (North Australia) [195?]; J. C. Andersen, Maori Music, with Its Polynesian Background (1934); M. Levine, in Pierre Key's Music Year Book 1926-27, p. 178 (Australia and New Zealand); T. Waters, ibid. (1928), p. 185; Dai-keong Lee, in MM xxii, no. 4; C. Carey, in The Sackbut ix, no. 1; V. A. Rucroft, "A Survey of Music in New Zealand" (PMA 1943, p. 56); C. H. Grattan, "The Australian Bush Songs" (MQ xv). There are numerous studies of the music of the Australian indigenes; s.v. "Australien und Austronesien," in MGG. See also the record and accompanying 19-page pamphlet (background, pictures, musical notations), Songs ofAboriginal Australia and Torres Strait (Ethnic Folkways Library), ed. G. List (Indiana Univ. Archives of Folk and Primitive Music). II by T.J.Y. Austria. The development of music in Austria is included under Germany, as is customary and almost inevitable because of the close bondspolitical, cultural, and musical-between the two countries. Not a few of the most outstanding "Austrian" composers were born in Germany (e.g., T. Stoltzer, Froberger, Beethoven, Brahms), while on the other hand many of the great "German" masters were actually Austrian by birth. Following is a survey of the development of music in Austria, excluding the numerous Flemish and Italian composers who were active in Vienna and other cities (composers born in Germany are marked G.). The first Austrian composers known to us are the minnesingers Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170-c. 1230) and Neidhardt von Reuenthal (G.? 12th and 13th centuries). The development of "German" polyphony started in Austria with Hermann von Salzburg (14th century) and Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445). The polyphonic lied was cultivated by Heinrich Finck (G., 1444--1527), P. Hofhaimer (1459-1537), T. Stoltzer (G., c. 1475-1526), and Arnold von Bruck (b. in Bruges, c. 1470-1554), and lute music by H. Judenkiinig (G., c. 1450-1526). In the 17th century, P. Peuerl (c. 1570-c. 1624), J. H. Schmelzer (c. 1623-80), Heinrich Biber (1644-1704), and Georg Muffat (b. in France, 1653-1704) made important contributions in the field of instrumental music, while keyboard music was cultivated by W. Ebner (G., 1612-65), J. J. Froberger (G., 1616-67), F. M. Techelmann (c. 1649-1714), Georg Muffat, and G. von

Reutter (1656-1738). J. J. Fux (1660-1741), famous for his treatise Gradus ad Parnassum (1725), wrote orchestral suites, Masses, and motets, as well as operas, thereby interrupting the Italian domination of opera in Austria that had begun with Cesti and ended only with Mozart. In the 18th century, G. C. Wagenseil (171577) and G. M. Monn (1717-50) contributed to the early development of the symphony [see Mannheim school] and helped lay the foundation for the work of the "Viennese classics," Haydn (1732-1809), Mozart (1756-91), Beethoven (G., 1770-1827), and Schubert (1797-1828), who were followed by Bruckner (1824--96), Brahms (G., 1833-97), and Mahler (1860-1911). F. Schubert, the great master of the romantic lied, found a worthy successor in H. Wolf(l860l903). J. Bittner (1874--1939) and E. W. Korngold (1897-1957) composed in a late romantic idiom. The revolutionary trends of 20th-century music started in Vienna with A. Schoenberg (1874-1951) and J. M. Hauer (1883-1959), to be continued by Schoenberg's disciples A. Berg ( 1885-1935) and A. von Webern (1883-1945). Among the next generation of Austrian composers are E. Wellesz (b. 1885), also famous for his studies of Byzantine music, J. N. David (b. 1895), E. Krenek (b. 1900), H. E. Apostel (G., b. 1901), and H. Jelinek (b. 1901). Lit.: E. Schenk, 950Jahre Musik in Osterreich [n.d., 1946?]; H. J. Moser, Die Musik im friihevangelischen Osterreich [1954]; R. F. Brauner, Osterreichs neue Musik [1948]; R. Klein, "Contemporary Music in Austria" (LBCM; also MQ li); G. Adler, "Musik in Osterreich" (StM xvi); *Editions XV. Ausweichung [G.]. Modulation, especially passing modulation. Auszug [G.]. Arrangement, usually for piano [Klavier-auszug] of an opera, oratorio, etc. Authentic cadence. See under Cadence I. Authentic modes. See under Church modes I. Auto [Sp.]. Spanish and Portuguese dramatic play of a religious or contemplative character, frequently with incidental music [see Liturgical drama]. Such plays were written by Juan del Encina (fl. 1500), Gil Vicente (1492-1557), Lope de Vega (1562-1635), Calderon (1600-81), and others. See G. Chase, in MQ xxv; A. Salazar, in PAMS 1938.

65

AYRE

AUTOGRAPHS, MUSICAL

These religious plays were introduced into Latin America by missionaries as early as the 16th century and soon became very popular throughout the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. In 1672, El Area de Noe, a sacred play in milsica recitativa, was presented in Lima, and the same year Tomas de Torrej6n y Velasco (1644-1728) is mentioned as the composer of music for the productions of a breve coloquio de musica recitativa and a coloquio en forma de Auto Sacramental. Reports on the productions of these plays in Brazil, starting in the late 16th century, occur in the Jesuits' chronicles. An auto hierdtico entitled 0 Misterio de Jesus was produced about 1583. Later, two others, an Auto do Misterio das Onze Mil Virgens and an auto of the Martirio de Sao Sebastiao, were produced. All these autos were complemented by vocal and instrumental episodes in the manner of the 16th- and 17thcentury mystery plays and moralities in Europe. add. by J.O-S.

European Composers in American Libraries (1953).

Autoharp. Trademark for an instrument of the *zither family, on which simple chords are produced by strumming the strings (with fingers, pick, or plectrum), while button-controlled damper bars damp all the strings except those required for the chord. It is intended chiefly as an accompanying instrument (for folk singers, etc.). Automelon [Gr.]. See under ldiomelon. Auxiliary tone. See under Nonharmonic tones I. Ave Maria [L., Hail, Mary]. (1) A prayer of the Roman Catholic Church; see text and plainsong in LU, p. 1861. In a shortened form it is used as an *antiphon for the Feast of the Annunciation [LU, p. 1416]. There are polyphonic settings, most of them based on the plainsong melody, by Ockeghem, Josquin, Willaert, Victoria, and others; also a Missa Ave Maria, by Pierre de La Rue, Morales, Palestrina, and others. (2) The same title was used for a lachrymose piece by Schubert (based on a song from Sir Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake), and a lamentable piece by Gounod in which Bach's C-major Prelude from The Well-Tempered Clavier (vol. i) is misused as a harmonic background for a highly sentimental melody.

Autographs, musical. The oldest extant autographs of compositions are by Heinrich Isaac (St. Bibl. Berlin Mus. MS. 40021; fac. in J. Wolf, Musikalische Schrifttafeln, no. 49). From the 16th century we have a few autograph pages by Senft and Lassus. From the 17th century Monteverdi's L'lncoronazione di Poppea as well as the keyboard works of Tomkins, Froberger, and Pasquini have survived in autographs. For the autographs of Handel, Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, and others, the reader is referred to Ave marls stella [L.]. A hymn of the Roman special studies [see Lit.]. Autographs of a number Catholic Church, sung to various melodies in of famous compositions, by Bach, Beethoven, different modes [see LU, pp. 1259ff]. There are Mozart, and others, have been published in fac- polyphonic settings (anon. in Codex Apt; simile editions. Anthony van Hoboken founded Dufay), Masses (Josquin, Morales, Victoria), in 1927 an Archiv for Photogramme musikalischer and organ compositions (Girolamo Cavazzoni, Meisterhandschriften (archive for photographic Cabez6n, Titelouze), most of them based on the reproductions of master autographs), a most first melody in LU. valuable collection (Vienna, Nationalbibliothek) Ave Regina caelorum [L.]. One of the four Marian that includes a number of items whose originals antiphons; see Antiphon (2). Particularly famous were lost during World War II. is a setting by Dufay [repr. in H. Besseler, CaLit.: E. Wintemitz, Musical Autographs from pella, vol. i], which is mentioned in his will and Monteverdi to Hindemith, 2 vols. (1955); W. Ger- was probably performed at his funeral. Dufay stenberg, Musikerhandschriften von Palestrina his also wrote a Missa Ave Regina caelorum (others Beethoven [1960]; id., Musikerhandschriften von by Arcadelt, Palestrina, Victoria). Schubert his Strawinsky [1961]; W. Schmieder, Musikerhandschriften in drei Jahrhunderten Ayre. (1) A late 16th- and early 17th-century type (1939); G. Schiinemann, Musikerhandschriften of English song, which is derived from the von Bach his Schumann (1936); L. M. Vauzan- French air de cour and, like it, was primarily a ges, L'Ecriture des musiciens celebres (1913); solo song accompanied by the lute (orpharion, G. Schunemann, Ludwig van Beethovens Konver- theorbo, occasionally also virginal), often with sationshefte, 3 vols. (1941-43); 0. E. Albrecht, the lowest part doubled by a bass viol (viola da A Census of Autograph Music Manuscripts of gamba; see HAM, no. 162). In many cases the 66

B

BACKFALL, FOREFALL

composers provided for an alternative (or additional?) vocal accompaniment, printed separately on the opposite page so that the parts could be read simultaneously by three singers seated, for example, north, south, and east at a table. The ayres range from serious songs, often through-composed, to light and gay tunes, usually strophic. The earliest publication was Dowland's The first Booke of Songs or Ayres of 1597 (se:: Editions XVII, which includes reprints of many collections]. Later publications are Select Musical/ Ayres and Dialogues (1652) and New Ayres and Dialogues (1678), which include songs with the accompaniment of lute, theorbo, bass viol, by H. Lawes, W. Webb, Blow, Purcell, and others. See ReMR, pp. 835-41; A. Dolmetsch, Select English Songs and Dialogues of the 16th and 17th Centuries, 2 vols. (1898, 1912); P. Warlock, The English Ayre (1926); U. Olshausen, Das lautenbegleitete Sololied in England urn 1600

(1963); P. Warlock and P. Wilson, tEnglish Ayres, Elizabethan and Jacobean. 6 vols. (192731); H. J. Sleeper, tfohn Jenkins, Fancies and Ayres (1950). (2) In the 17th century, a movement of a suite [see Air (3)]. For instance, each of the suites in M. Locke's Consort of Ffoure Parts consists of a fantasia, courante, ayre, and saraband [see HAM, no. 230, Commentary]. (3) English writers of the 17th century use the term ayre (aire) in the sense of key or mode, e.g., T. Morley: "these aires (which the antiquity termed Modi)," in A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical/ Musicke (1597), p. 147; or T. Mace: "Every Shake, is to be made in the Aire," in Musick's Monument (1676), p. 104; also C. Butler, The Principles of Musik (1636), pp. 72, 80, 82; C. Simpson, A Compendium of Practical Musick, 5th ed. (1714), p. 36. See also under Fancy.

B B. See (l) Pitch names; Letter notation; Hexachord; also Accidentals II. In German, b stands for b-flat. (2) In partbooks of the 16th century, B stands for bassus (bass). Babacue. See M acumba. Baborak. A Bohemian national dance, which has

alternating sections in duple and in triple time. Babylonia. See Mesopotamia. Bacchetta [It.]. Drumstick; b. di legno, wooden; b. dispugn~ spongeheaded.

B-A-C-H. The letters forming Bach's name, each of which denotes a tone (if the German terminology is used, in which h is b natural while b is

b-flat; see Pitch names). The resulting theme, bb a c b, has been repeatedly used in compositions, first by Bach himself in his *Art of Fugue (in the last, unfinished fugue). Another fugue on the same subject that is often ascribed to him [see Peters ed. xv, 42] is definitely spurious. Various later composers have used the famous motif in fugues or fantasias, e.g., J. G. Albrechtsberger [see *Editions XV, 33]; Schumann (Sechs

Fugen iiber den Namen Bach, op. 60); Liszt (Fantasia and Fugue on ... B A C H for piano and Prelude and Fugue on B A C H for organ); M. Reger (op. 46); W. Piston (Chromatic Study on the Name of Bach); A. Casella (Due Ricercari sui nome Bach). It also plays an important role in Busoni's Fantasia contrappuntistica [see under Art of Fugue]. Bach-Gesellschaft. See Societies, II 2. Bachiana [Port.]. Title employed by Heitor Villa-

Lobos [see Brazil] for some of his compositions, which he claimed were the product of applying Bach's contrapuntal techniques to Brazilian folk music. He wrote nine such works, for solo piano, full orchestra, or voice and smaller ensembles, J.o-s. following the general plan of a suite. Bach trumpet. See Clarino (2). Backfall, forefall. English 17th-century names for

an *appoggiatura, the former from above, the latter from below. It is indicated and performed as follows:

~ u·11~~ ~ r =s= 67

BADINAGE

BALG

Badinage, badinerie [F.]. A dancelike piece of jocose character that occurs as a movement in the optional group of 18th-century suites, e.g., in Bach's Suite for orchestra in B minor. Bagatelle [F.]. A short piece, usually for piano. The name was used by F. Couperin ("Les Bagatelles"; see his Pieces de Clavecin, ordre 10) and, in particular, by Beethoven, whose Bagatellen (op. 33, op. 119, op. 126) mark the beginning of the extensive literature of 19th-century *character pieces. Bagpipe (F. musette; G. Dude/sack, Sackpfoife; It. piva, zampogna; Sp. gaita]. Generic name for a number of instruments having one or (usually) several reed pipes (single or double reeds) attached to a windbag that provides the air for the pipes; also, specifically, the name for the Irish and Scottish varieties of this family. (See ill. under Wind instruments.] One or two of the pipes, called "chanter" (chaunter), are provided with sound holes and are used for the melody, while the others, called "drones," produce only one tone each and are used for the accompaniment. In the earlier, Eastern specimens, both chanter and drones are clarinets (i.e., have single reeds), while in the modern types either they are both oboes (i.e., with double reeds), as in Italy and some parts of France, or the drones are clarinets while the chanter is an oboe, as in Scotland, Ireland, and Brittany. In some bagpipes the wind in the bag is supplied from the mouth through an additional blowing pipe, while in others it is provided by a small pair of bellows placed under and operated by the arm. To the former type belong the Old Irish bagpipe, Highland bagpipe (Scotland), biniou (Brittany), cornemuse (France), Dude/sack or Sackpfeife (Germany), and zampogna and piva (Italy); to the latter, the Northumbrian bagpipe (England), modern Irish bagpipe, gaita (Galicia), and musette (France). A more primitive instrument was the bladder pipe, a single or double clarinet with a bladder used as a bag [illustrated in GD, pl. LX; GDB, pl. II]. Nothing certain is known about the origin of the bagpipe, although there is virtually no doubt that it developed in the Orient [see Sumponyah]. It is first attested in Rome under the name tibia utricularis (Suetonius). Nero is reported to have played on it. In the Middle Ages it is frequently mentioned under different names (musa, chorus, symphonia, chevrette). The famous illuminations of the 13th-century Spanish MS Escorialj b 2 [see

Cantiga] show players of bagpipes [see GD iv, 184; ReMMA, p. 222]. In the British Isles the bagpipes have been prominent for many centuries in folk and military music. Their Continental history is less interesting, except for a late 17th-century movement in France that for a short time raised the instrument's standing in society and in art music [see Musette]. See also Pibroch. Lit.: W. H. Grattan Flood, The Story of the Bagpipe (1911); W. L. Manson, The Highland Bagpipe (1901); A. Baines, Bagpipes (1960); G. Askew, A Bibliography of the Bag-pipe (1932).

Baguala. Argentine folksong with a melody of triadic design and a rhythmic pattern of a quarter note followed by two eighth notes. These songs are usually accompanied by a caja (drum). Most ethnomusicologists consider the baguala indigenous to the Andean regions. J.o-s. Baguette [F.]. Drumstick; b. de bois, wooden drumstick; b. d'eponge, spongeheaded drumstick. Also, the baton of the conductor and the stick of the violin bow. Bailecito (Sp.]. Argentine folk dance-song in 6/8 meter, consisting of two contrasting sections. The first section is in lively tempo and is sung to the first four lines of the lyrics; the second is slower and sung to the remaining four lines of the text. There follows a repetition of the first section, but now sung to nonsense syllables. Owing to its northern Argentine origin the form is also known as boliviana. J.o-s. Baile de palos. Elaborate ritual dance performed in the rural districts of the Dominican Republic, in which the set of indigenous drums known as palos or *atabal is used with amazing rhythmical virtuosity. Also called baile de atabales. J.O-s. Baisser (F.]. To lower a string. Balalaika. A popular Russian instrument of the guitar family, characterized by a triangular body, long fretted neck, and (usually) three gut strings tuned in fourths. It is played with a plectrum and is made in six sizes that together constitute a balalaika band. (See ill. under Guitar family.] The forerunner of the balalaika was the *domra. See A. S. Rose, in PMA xxvii; W. von Kwetzinsky, in DM xxii.l2. Balancement [F.]. An 18th-century name for tremolo. Sometimes used synonymously with *Bebung. Balg (G.]. Bellows of an organ.

68

BALl

BALl

Bali. I. History [also see Java]. The first impor-

tant though short-lived cultural contacts between Java and Bali occurred in the reign of Airlangga in the first half of the ll th century. In the 14th century, under the rule of Gadjah Mada, the establishment of a permanent Javanese colony in Bali assured a continuous influence from East Java until late in the 18th century. The rich treasury of poetic literature that developed from the lOth to 16th centuries in East Java would have been lost but for the keen interest of the Javanese colonists and the Balinese aristocracy, who adopted this literature as the language and models for the literati. It is probably safe to assume that some of the musical forms associated with the literature of this period have also survived. For example, in contemporary Bali, one can hear 15th-century Javanese spoken in the course of the dance dramas known as wajang wong accompanied by the ancient seventone pelog game/an gambuh. A number of musical instruments depicted in the bas-reliefs of early Hindu-Javanese monuments have survived in Bali but are no longer known in Java. Today Balinese Hinduism is practiced as a way of life by a communal society in which the former royal patronage of the arts has been largely replaced by that of the village community. Endless temple festivals and rites of passage demand the fullest participation by musicians, dancers, sculptors, and those responsible for decorative festoons, beautifully arranged offerings of food, flowers, etc. In the context of this form of religious worship, cultivation of the arts is as important as the cultivation of rice. II. Tunings and orchestras. Like the ensembles of Java, no two Balinese gamelan are tuned precisely the same. More than a dozen different genres, some active survivors of ancient ensembles, can be related to either the slendro or pelog system, better known in Bali as saih lima (series of five) and saih pitu (series of seven) respectively. The tunings of different ensembles include: four-tone slendro and deviants of this type, five-tone slendro, four-tone pelog, five-tone pelog and deviants of this type, six-tone pelog, and seven-tone pelog [see Lit., C. McPhee, Music in Bali, ch. vii]. As in Java, there is a tendency to stretch and compress octaves; the question of "tuning pattern" is yet to be studied [see under Java]. In Bali, throughout the compass of the orchestra the bronze instruments are tuned in pairs, designated as pengumbang (low) and pengisep (high), with a difference of several cycles per second between corresponding keys of the

69

two instruments. The number of musical beats produced by this method of paired tuning varies with taste from one gamelan to another [see M. Hood, "Slendro and Pelog Redefined," Selected Reports (Institute of Ethnomusicology, Univ. of California at Los Angeles, 1966)]. The five-tone pelog tuning of the large ensemble known as game/an gong, as well as its modern counterpart, gong kebyar, is derived from one of several possible scales found on the seven-tone pelog gambuh. Four of these large end-blown flutes are combined with the rebab (a spike fiddle), several gongs, a pair of kemanak, cymbals, and a pair of drums to form the ensemble known as game/an gambuh mentioned above. The melodies of this ancient repertory are also performed by a five-, six-, or seven-tone pelog ensemble of metallophones known as game/an semar pegulingan, formerly found in the royal courts. Although this ensemble has practically disappeared, the derivative five-tone game/an !egong, having an enlarged instrumentation that permits greater flexibility, is a popular orchestra that transforms the same music into a dramatic sound of suddenly shifting dynamics and tempo and sparkling ornamental figuration in the high register of the gamelan. It includes two small end-blown flutes and a rebab and is used to accompany a large repertory of dance dramas taken from the gambuh theater and Hindu mythology. A smaller ensemble, modeled after game/an lt?gong but made up entirely of bamboo instruments, is known as game/an jogM and provides an animated staccato accompaniment for the popular village dance called jogM Fourtone pelog is known only in the game/an bonang, a group of individual gongs of different size played in processions. Five-tone slendro is reserved for a special quartet of metallophones known as gender wajang, used to accompany the shadow plays, an indispensable part of cremation festivities, weddings, and other rites of passage. Four-tone slendro is the tuning of gamefan angklung, a small group of bronze instruments that formerly included the angklung, a bamboo instrument now rarely used. This ensemble, heard in connection with temple anniversaries and village festivals, in smaller villages often replaces the heavier sound of the game/an gong on ceremonial occasions. It is always used in connection with village cremation rites. [For a complete description of these and other ensembles, see Lit., C. McPhee, Music in Bali.] III. Musical practice. Three elements are common to most of the various ensembles found in

BALl

Bali: a melody; a colotomy, or punctuating strata; and animated drumming. Melodies vary in character from long lyrical lines to short, rapid ostinato figures, and the music is usually marked by sudden contrasts in tempo and dynamics. Singing is almost unknown in gamelan performance and is largely reserved for certain forms of plays (e.g., Arcija) and temple rituals (e.g., kekawin for solo voice). The full game/an gong kebyar, requiring about thirty instrumentalists, has the following musical organization: (1) a nuclear melody in relatively long note values, played by a pair of the single-octave tjalon, a low-pitched member of the gangsa family of metallophones resonated by bamboo; (2) an abstraction of the nuclear melody (usually every fourth tone), played by a pair of djublag tuned an octave lower than the tjalon; (3) the expansion of the nuclear melody to a full melody, performed by a pair of multioctave gender; (4) doubling or paraphrasing or ornamentation of the melody, played by two quartets of instruments having the same range as the gender but voiced one octave higher in the panjatjah and two octaves higher in the kantilan; (5) further ornamentation (kotekan) of the melody, supplied by the rejong, an instrument consisting of twelve inverted bronze kettles played by four musicians; (6) the colotomy that determines musical form, played by the large gong, the kempur (a mediumsized gong), the klentong (a small gong), the kempli or kadjar (an inverted kettle); (7) the interlocking rhythms of a pair of drums or kendang, underscored by one or two pairs of hand cymbals or tjengtjeng. Except for a slight freedom in solo passages there is no improvisation in Balinese gamelan. Two pairs of players in each of the paraphrasing or ornamenting quartets (panjatjah, kantilan, rejong) execute extremely rapid interlocking or "shared" parts that permit no deviation and demand meticulous rehearsal. Lit.: C. McPhee, Music in Bali (1966); id., A House in Bali (1946]; id., A Club of Small Men (1948); D. A Lentz, The Game/an Music of Java and Bali [1965]; J. Kunst and C. J. A Kunst-van Wely, De Toonkunst van Bali, 2 vols. (1925); J. R. Brandon, Theatre in Southeast Asia (1967); C. McPhee, "The Balinese Wajang Koelit and Its Music" (Djawa xvi, 322-66); id., "Children and Music in Bali," in Childhood in Contemporary Cultures, ed. Margaret Mead and Martha Wolfenstein (1955]; id., "The Five-Tone Gamelan Music of Bali" (MQ xxxv, 250-81); id., "The 'Absolute' Music of Bali" (Modern Music xii,

BALLAD

163-69); E. Schlager, "Bali," in MGG i, 1109-15; W. Spies, "Bericht fiber den Zustand von Tanz und Musik in der Negara Gianjar" (Djawa xvi, 51-9); id., "De Gamelan-wedstrijd te Gianjar ... December 1938" (Djawa xix, 197-207); id., and R. Goris, "Overzicht van Dans en Tooneel in Bali" (Djawa xvii, 205-27). M.H. Ballabile. A name given occasionally to dance-

like pieces (ballets) in 19th-century operas. Ballad. The term derives from medieval words such as *chanson balladee, *ballade [F.], *ballata, all of which originally denoted dancing songs [L. ballare, to dance] but lost their dance connotation as early as the 14th century and became stylized forms of solo song. In England this process of change went still further, and eventually (16th century) "ballad" came to mean a simple tale told in simple verse. There may have been a transitional period during which the recitation of the poems was still accompanied by some sort of dancing. Most ballads are narrative, and many deal with fabulous, miraculous, or gruesome deeds. Ballad singers made a living by singing their newest productions in the streets and at country fairs, and by selling the printed sheets, which usually gave a direction: "to be sung to the tune of ... ," e.g., "Greensleeves." In its more recent (19th-century) meaning, a ballad is a popular song usually combining narrative and romantic elements, frequently with an admixture of the gruesome. These ballads are mostly written in common meter (8.6.8.6; see Poetic meter II). Today the term "ballad" is loosely applied to any kind of popular song. For art ballad, see Ballade (G.]. The word "ballad" is also used as an anglicized form of *ballade [F.], *ballata (It.], or *Ballade [G.]. Such usage, however, is misleading in view of the fact that these terms denote entirely different things. Lit.: J. W. Hendren, A Study of Ballad Rhythm (1936); M. E. Henry, A Bibliography for the Study of American Folk-Songs [n.d.; c. 1937]; C. Sandburg, The American Songbag (1927]; R. Smith, ed., tSouth Carolina Ballads (1928); A K. Davis, ed., tTraditional Ballads of Virginia (1929): C. J. Sharp, ed., t.£nglish Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, 2 vols. (1932); S. Foster Damon, ed., tSeries of Old American Songs (1936); J. A Lomax and A Lomax, ed., tOur Singing Country (1941); A K. Davis, ed., tMore Traditional Ballads of Virginia [1960]; F. B. Gummere, The Popular Ballad [1959]; A Lomax, The Folk Songs of North America [1960]; B. H. Bronson, ed.,

70

BALLA DE

BALLA DE

t.The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, 2 vols. (1959, '62); L. Shepard, The Broadside Ballad [1962]; H. H. Flanders, ed., :j:Ancient Ballads Traditionally Sung in New England, 4 vols. (1960-65); C. M. Simpson, The British Broadside Ballad and Its Music (1966); C. A. Smith, "Ballads Surviving in the United States" (MQ ii); R. Lamson, "English Broadside Ballad Tunes of the 16th and 17th Centuries" (PAMS 1939); B. Nettl, "The Musical Style of English Ballads Collected in Indiana" (AM xxvii).

tirely different form. For example, the piece by Enrique reproduced in RiME, no. 12, is a ballata (or *villancico), not a ballade. Lit.: F. Brosch, "Die Balladen im Kodex von Turin" (diss. Vienna, 1931). See also under Formes fixes. Ballade [G.]. In German usage Ballade denotes a

type of poem derived from the English ballads but having greater artistic elaboration and poetic refinement. (Note the separate article on the French ballade above.) They usually deal with medieval subjects, either historical or legendary (e.g., Goethe's "Ballade vom vertriebenen und zuriickkehrenden Grafen"), or with romantic tales (e.g., Goethe's "Erlkonig"). Such Balladen were frequently set to music, usually as throughcomposed songs of great length. Probably the earliest examples are the interesting settings of Gellert's moralizing and dry Fabeln by A. B. V. Herbing ( 1759; DdT 42), written in a continuous recitative with a highly dramatic accompaniment. Later examples are in the form of cantatas, i.e., in various movements of contrasting character (J. Andre, 1741-99; J. Zumsteeg, 1766-1802). A Fantasie op. 109 by Beethoven's pupil Ferdinand Ries (1784-1838) for piano alone, written to Schiller's poem "Resignation," is an interesting example of what might be called a "Ballade ohne Worte" [repr. in TaAM xiv]. The classical master of the vocal Ballade (sometimes referred to as "art ballad") is Karl Loewe (1796-1869), whose seventeen volumes of Balladen [compl. ed. by M. Runze] include a number of truly great songs ("Archibald Douglas," "Erlkonig," "Der Pilgrim vor St. Just," etc.). Loewe's form is a free combination of the strophic and throughcomposed types. Schubert's songs include a number of Balladen, e.g., "Erlkonig." In the late 19th century Balladen were composed for solo or chorus with orchestral accompaniment, e.g., H. Wolf's "Der Feuerreiter." Chopin and Brahms used the term for piano pieces written in the ternary A B A form frequently found in the 19th-century *character piece. Here the highly dramatic character of A and the lyrical character of B would seem to portray heroic deeds and knightly love, thus justifying the title Ballade. Lit.: A. B. Bach, The Art Ballad (1890); P. Spitta, "Ballade" (Musikgeschichtliche Auf siitze, 1894); H. J. Moser, t.Die Ballade (H. Martens, "%-Musikalische Formen in historischen Reihen iii [1930]); R. Batka, Martin Pliiddemann und seine Balladen (1896); A. Konig, Die Ballade

Ballade [F.]. One of the three *formes fixes of

14th-century French poetry and music. (Note the separate article on the German Ballade below.) The poem usually has three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines, the last one or two of which are identical in all the stanzas, thus forming a *refrain. The form of the stanza is: a b a b c d E or a b abc dE F (capital letters indicate the refrain), a scheme that, so far as the music is concerned, can be simplified as follows: A A B (A = ab; B = the remaining lines). Some hallades are in the form A A B B, the music for lines 5 and 6 being used also for lines 7 and 8. The ballade plays a prominent role in the work of Machaut, who treated it as a polyphonic composition of great refinement and subtlety. His example was followed by the French and Italian composers of the late 14th century (mannerist school: Solage, Trebor, Selesses, Matteo da Perugia, and others; see Ars nova), with whom the polyphonic ballade became the most representative type of music, treated with great elaboration and affectation. The form continued to be cultivated, though much more sparingly, during the first half of the 15th century, by Cordier, Cesaris, Arnold de Lantins, Dufay, and Binchois. An exceptionally late example is Josquin's "Bergerette savoyene" (Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A, 1501, no. 10). Monophonic songs with the form A A B are common in the repertory of the *troubadours and even more so in that of the *trouveres. Although most of these differ from the forme fixe in some details of versification (absence of refrain, more than three stanzas, etc.), they may well be regarded as early ballades. The troubadour ballades have, without good reason, been designated as *canzo. The ballade form, without refrain, was adopted by the minnesingers under the name Bar [see Bar form]. Several scholars have used the term ballade for the Italian 14th-century *ballata. a usage bound to lead to confusion since the ballata is an en-

71

BALLATA

BALLADE STYLE

penny Opera, 1933), the latter a highly successful imitation of Gay's Beggar's Opera. Lit.: E. M. Gagey, Ballad Opera (1937); F. Kidson, The Beggar's Opera: Its Predecessors and Successors (1922); W. E. Schultz, Gay's "Beggar's Opera" (1923); [Hinrichsen's] Ninth Music Book containing John Gay and the Ballad Opera [1959]; G. Calmus, "Die Beggar's Opera von Gay und Pepusch" (SIM viii, 286); W. Barclay Squire, "An Index of Tunes in the BalladOperas" (MA ii); G. Tufts, "Ballad Operas" (MA iv); W. J. Lawrence, "Early Irish Ballad Opera" (MQ viii); A Berger, "The Beggar's Opera, the Burlesque, and Italian Opera" (ML xvii); W. H. Rubsamen, 'The Ballad Burlesques and Extravaganzas" (MQ xxxvi); id., "Mr. Seedo, Ballad Opera, and the Singspiel" (CP Angles ii).

in der Musik (1904, no. 9 in Musikalisches Magazin); S. Northcote, The Ballad in Music (1942). Ballade style. A term referring to the typical texture of the 14th-century French *ballade (Machaut), that is, in three parts, the top part vocal and the two lower parts (tenor, contratenor) instrumental. It is a somewhat misleading designation, since the same style was used for rondeaux and virelais as well. This style was occasionally employed for Mass compositions of the late 14th century, which have been (rather incongruously) termed Balladenmesse. The terms *cantilena style and treble-dominated style have been suggested as substitutes for ballade style. Ballad meter. The most usual poetic meter of English and American ballads, also known as common meter [see Ballad; Poetic meter II]. Ballad of Baby Doe, The. Opera in two acts by D. Moore (libretto by J. Latouche), produced in Central City, Colo., 1956. Setting: Colorado and Washington, D.C., 1880-99. Ballad opera. A popular form of 18th-century stage entertainment in England, consisting of spoken dialogue alternating with musical numbers taken from ballad tunes, folksongs, or famous melodies by earlier or contemporary composers. The ballad opera, though it developed quite independently, resembled the contemporary French opera comique en vaudevilles in its use of popular melodies and its occasional satire or parody of serious opera. It flourished in London from 1728 to after the middle of the century, when it was gradually replaced by a somewhat similar form of entertainment, with romantic or sentimental plots and mainly using original music (e.g., T. A Arne's Love in a Village, 1762). The Beggar's Opera (1728) by John Gay, with music arranged by J. Pepusch (16671752), the first important example of this type, was also the most successful. Two ballad operas (or farces) by Charles Coffey, The Devil to Pay (1731) and The Merry Cobbler (1735), played a decisive role in the development of the German *Singspiel. The music of the ballad operas included songs and arias by Locke, Purcell, Handel, Geminiani, Corelli, Scarlatti, and others; Playford's The (English) Dancing Master (numerous editions from 1650 to 1738) and similar collections of vocal and instrumental melodies were the chief sources for popular tunes. The style of the ballad opera has been imitated in Vaughan Williams' Hugh the Drover (1924) and in Kurt Weill's Die Dreigroschenoper (1928; The Three-

Ballata [It.]. The chief form of Italian 14thcentury music [see Ars nova]. It is not related to the French ballade but is practically identical with the *virelai, which was also called chanson balladee. As a poem, the ballata consists of a refrain (called ripresa) and, normally, three stanzas that alternate with the refrain: R S1 R S2 R S3 R. The shorter form R S1 S2 S3 R may also have been used. The stanza consists of two so-called piedi (feet) of identical versification and a volta (turn) having the same structure as the ripresa. In some cases the ripresa and (one) piede consist of two lines each, in others the ripresa of three and the piede of two, etc. Music is composed only for the ripresa and the first piede, and is repeated for the rest of the poem as follows:

72

ripresa

stanza

ripresa etc.

.--"-

A

piedi

volta

bb

a

A

etc.

In modern transcriptions the resulting form, A b b a A, is usually represented in the following manner:

II: A l. 5. 4.

:II 2. 3.

with the text for l. 5. printed in italics. In the original sources only the texts for l. and 2. are given with the music, those of 3., 4., and 5. being written separately. In contrast to the virelai, ballate rarely have an *ouvert and clos (for section B).

BALLET

BALLET

Because of its name [L. hal/are, to dance], it is generally assumed that the ballata originally was a song accompanying round dances, although no definite evidence for this conclusion has been found. Anyhow, none of the surviving examples shows any traces of dancelike rhythm or style. Monophonic songs with the ballata structure are found in the religious laude [see Lauda] of the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth century the form was treated polyphonically, especially by F. Landini; in all, 91 two-voice and 49 three-voice hal/ate by Landini survive (mostly with only one stanza). The form of the ballata recurs, with modifications, in the *frottole of the early 16th century. See also the general remarks under Virelai II. See W. T. Marrocco, "The Ballata-A Metamorphic Form" (AM xxxi).

the most sumptuous of these was the Balet comique de Ia Royne, a choreographic invention of the ballet master Baldassare de Belgioioso (de Beaujoyeulx), performed for the marriage of Margaret of Lorraine-Vaudemont to the Duke of Joyeuse in the Salle du Bourbon in the fall of 1581 [fac. ed. by G. A. Caula, Turin, 1962]. It is the earliest ballet de cour for which the music has been preserved and is especially noteworthy for its inclusion of two monodic songs [see Editions VII; also AdHM ii, 642ff; L. Celler, Les Origines de I' Opera et le ballet de Ia Reine, 1868]. Throughout the 17th century the ballet de cour, which was the French counterpart of the English court "masque," remained the undisputed favorite at the royal court and in the palaces of the French nobility. Among the first composers who contributed (often collectively) to these entertainments were Pierre Guedron (1565-1621), Antoine Boesset (c. 1585-1643), and Etienne Moulinie (d. after 1669), but little of the music that accompanied these presentations has been preserved (although some of it may survive in the *Philidor Collection). The golden age of ballet came under Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715), who himself liked to dance and was fond of appearing in ballets. With the ballet master C. L. Beauchamps and the musicians Cambefort (1605-61) and Lully (1632-87), the French ballet attained great cultural importance as well as musical significance. It became the origin of a large number of new courtly dances, such as the gavotte, passepied, bourree, and rigaudon, which were later used in the optional movements of suites. Of particular importance among these was the minuet. Lully's activity in the ballet of the French court (ballet de cour) began in 1653 with the Ballet de Ia Nuit (together with Cambefort). In subsequent years he wrote about 28 ballets, the last being Le Temple de Ia paix (1685). In 1664 he and Moliere jointly created the comMie-ballet, a unification of stage play and ballet. The first work of this type was Le Mariage force (1664), and the most famous L'Impromptu de Versailles (1663). [See Entr'acte.] Lully also introduced the ballet into French opera. His successors, Campra and Rameau, went further in this direction by establishing the opera ballet, in which dramatic content was reduced to a minimum in favor of dancing [see Ballet in opera]. In the second half of the 17th century Vienna was a center of elaborate presentations, especially of equestrian ballets (Rossballett), among them La Contesa dell'aria e dell'acqua (1667), for which F. Sbarra

Ballet. I. Ballet is a theatrical performance by

a dancing group, usually with costumes and scenery, to the accompaniment of music but customarily without singing or spoken words. The origins of modem ballet date from the 15th century, when dance performances were introduced at the French, Burgundian, and Italian courts for weddings, receptions of foreign sovereigns, and similar festive occasions. In their early stages these performances consisted of loose sequences of dances, based on the steps of the conventional courtly repertory but performed in sumptuous costumes and oriented toward representing the over-all theme of the occasion (e.g., dances of the European nations paying homage to a visiting prince, dances of the Four Continents in honor of a newborn royal baby, etc.). In the course of time elaborate decorations were added, a story or plot provided dramatic interest and unity, and the music, originally played by small instrumental ensembles specializing in dance accompaniment, began to be performed by the full court orchestra (or even orchestras), often together with vocal soloists and ensembles. When, in the early 16th century, the traditions of the Italian intermedii and trionfi on the one hand and the "horse ballets" (balletti a cavallo, carrousels, danses equestres) on the other merged with the art of ballroom dancing, the ballet de cour was born. Ofltalian origin, this multifaceted form of courtly entertainment was brought to France in 1533 at the marriage of Catherine de'Medici and King Henry II. After a period of adjustment, the first short mascarades and boutades with dances, verse, and music grew into full-scale dramatic entertainments. One of

73

BALLET

BALLET

wrote the libretto and J. H. Schmelzer and A. Bertali the music. [See DTO 56; StM viii, 47.] Soon after 1700 the imperial court of Vienna, always in stiff competition with Versailles, became one of the foremost centers of professional ballet in Europe. During the reigns of Charles VI and Maria Theresa, almost all the leading dancers and choreographers of the time came to Vienna, either as dancing masters at the court or as guests or permanent members of the two main theaters in the city. Among them was Alexandre Phillebois, who early in the 18th century was named court ballet master (Hofballettmeister). One of his 13 ballerini di corte was Franz Hilverding van Weven (1710-68), who in 1742 became first ballet master at the Klirntnertor-Theater. Under his inspired guidance Viennese ballet began to turn from the merely spectacular to the dramatic; many of Hilverding's pantomimic ballets were based on plots from the works of R;tcine, Voltaire, Crebillon, and other renowned writers [see S. Arteaga, Le Rivoluzioni del Teatro musicale italiano, 3 vols., 1783-88]. II. From 1750 to 1850 the history of the ballet includes a galaxy of famous dancers, such as Marie Camargo (1710-70), J.-G. Noverre (17271810), the brothers Angiolo Maria Vestris (17301809) and Gaetano Apollino Vestris (1729-1808), Maria Taglioni (1804-84), Fanny Eissler (181051), and others. Unfortunately, little of the music used in their presentations has survived. Noverre, the great reformer of the ballet, found musical collaborators in Stuttgart (Florian Deller, 1729-73; Jean J. Rudolphe, 1730-1812; see DdT 43/44) as well as in Vienna (Ignaz Holzhauer, 1711-83; Gluck, 1714-87; Josef Starzer, 1726-87; and Mozart, 1756-91). Gluck's Don Juan (1761), Mozart's Les Petits Riens (1778), and Beethoven's Die Geschopfe des Prometheus (1801) are the best-known ballets from this period. All three were produced in Vienna, the last-named for the Italian dancer Salvatore Vigano (1769-1821). Hilverding (from Vienna), following an invitation from Empress Elizabeth of Russia, completely reorganized the Russian ballet at St. Petersburg from 1758 to 1764. He worked with many of the leading dancers of his day, to the music of such composers as Holzhauer, J. A. Hasse, Starzer, and Gluck. During Hilverding's stay in Russia, the ballet productions at Vienna's Burgtheater were capably guided by Gasparo Angiolini (1723-96 or 1731-1803), while Bernardi reigned at the Klirntnertor. Angiolini became particularly

74

famous through his association with Gluck and the composer's operatic reform, as well as his ballet controversy with Jean-Georges Noverre (1727-1810), who succeeded Hilverding in 1768. Public interest in ballet was so strong that as many as three new ballets were staged each month and no opera or drama could be performed without at least one major divertissement or pantomime. Ballet in Vienna remained on a high level until the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, after which the theaters were closed for a long time. When they reopened, after the French Revolution, the emphasis in ballet had shifted from feudal elegance to patriotic fervor, drama, and frank burlesque, which in turn were followed by the advent of romanticism and the emergence of its great representatives, Maria Taglioni (1804-84), Fanny Eissler (1810-51), and others. Some outstanding roles in the romantic ballet, with its emphasis on idyllic or supernatural rather than heroic or tragic subjects, were created by Taglioni (La Sylphide), Carlotta Grisi, and Eissler (*cachucha). Of the numerous ballets of this period one has survived to the present day, Giselle, produced in Paris in 1841 with Grisi as prima ballerina, choreography by Jean Coralli, and music by Adolphe-Charles Adam. Ill. In the second half of the 19th century ballet was cultivated particularly in Denmark and Russia. Danish ballets based on Nordic myths were written by J. P. E. Hartmann ( Valkyrien, 1861; Thrymskviden, 1868) and his son, E. Hartmann (Fjeldstuen, 1859). These are still very popular in Denmark. The Russian center of greatest vitality was St. Petersburg (Leningrad), where Marius Petipa (1822-1910) paved the way for the modern ballet. Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake (1876; perf. 1877), The Sleeping Beauty (1889; perf. 1890), and The Nutcracker (1891; perf. 1892) represent the culmination of this activity. Two other important ballets of this period are Coppe!ia (1870) and Sylvia (1876) with music by Delibes. The great flowering of modem ballet began in 1909 when a touring company of Russian dancers under director Sergei P. Diaghilev and dancer-choreographer Michel Fokine began to perform in Paris. Diaghilev not only changed the Russian troupe to conform to his ideals of ballet but also succeeded in transplanting the Russian tradition, particularly to France, England, and America. Diaghilev's Ballet Russe attracted composers, artists, and writers to create music, posters and scenery, and plots for their performances. Leon Bakst and Picasso created decora-

BALLET tive and exotic backdrops. Debussy, Ravel, Stravinsky, Milhaud, Satie, and Honegger were among those commissioned to compose new works and make arrangements from other forms. The 1909 Ballet Russe performance presented Dances from Prince Igor to the "Polovetsian Dances" from Borodin's opera Prince Igor. The group's outstanding musical collaborator was Igor Stravinsky, who wrote the scores for L'Oiseau de feu (The Firebird, 1910), Petrushka (1911), Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring, 1913), and others. Ravel contributed the music for Daphnis et Chloe (1912), Richard Strauss for Josephslegende (1914), De Falla for Le Tricorne (The Three-Cornered Hat, 1919, with decor by Picasso), and Milhaud for La Creation du monde (1923). Debussy's ballet Jeux (1913), choreographed by Vaslav Nijinsky, leading male dancer of the troupe, was not well received. Other outstanding works of this period were Stravinsky's Les Noces (1914-19; perf. 1923); Prokofiev's Chout (The Buffoon, 1915; perf. 1921); Satie's three ballets, Parade (1917), Mercure ( 1924, with Picasso decor), and Reldche (1924); and Poulenc's Les Biches (1923, perf. 1924). With Diaghilev's death in 1929 the company disbanded, and the dancers and choreographers either joined other companies or formed their own. Also performed in the 1920's were Hindemith's Der Diimon (1924) and Bart6k's The Wooden Prince (1914-16, perf. 1917 and 1922) and The Miraculous Mandarin (1919, perf. 1926 in an altered version). Ida Rubinstein, a choreographer with the Diaghilev Ballet Russe, left the company in 1925 to form her own, for which she choreographed Ravel's Bolero (1928) and a new version of his La Valse (1929). In England Ninette de Valois, who had also left the Diaghilev company in 1925, founded a small company of dancers that became the Sadler's Wells Ballet, later the Royal Ballet. Notable works performed by this company were R. Vaughan Williams' Job (1931) and William Walton's Far;ade (1931) with choreography by F. Ashton. Since 1920 ballet has become increasingly popular in the United States. About 1933 a distinctly national flavor and style developed that depart markedly from traditional positions, movements, and techniques. Stravinsky's Persephone of 1934 (with text by A. Gide) was still in the European tradition. The Russian George Balanchine, who came to the United States in 1933, was the first choreographer with revolutionary ideas. Balanchine created Jeu de cartes (1937) to Stravinsky's music, and 20 years later

BALLET the two men collaborated to createAgon. Among the best-known American works are Copland's Billy the Kid (1938), Rodeo (1942), and Appalachian Spring (1944), and Bernstein's Fancy Free (1944). British choreographer Anthony Tudor, a pupil of Diaghilev, came to the United States in 1940. He created Undertow (the case history of a psychopathic murderer) to music by William Schuman; it was performed in New York in 1945. There is much disagreement about the quality of the ballet in the Soviet Union. Unlike the rest of Europe, Russia escaped Diaghilev's influence, for his innovations were created in France. Although the traditional full-length ballet that lasts a whole evening is still popular, shorter modern ballets such as Shostakovitch's The Golden Age ( 1930) are also being produced there. Other Soviet composers, notably Boris Asafiev (The Flames of Paris, 1932, and The Fountain of Bakhchisarai, 1934), Aram Khatchaturian (Gayne, 1942), and Prokofiev (Romeo and Juliet, 1940, and Cinderella, 1945), have also produced ballet scores. Ballet in France was continued after Diaghilev's death by ballet director Serge Lifar. Albert Roussel (Bacchus et Ariane, 1931), J. Ibert (Les Amours de Jupiter, 1946), and G. Auric (La Chambre, 1955) are among the better-known composers of ballets. *Musique concrete has also been used for ballets, e.g., Pierre Henry's Orphee 53 (1953) as well as his Arcane (1955) and Haut Voltage (1957). In other countries ballet has been less popular. In Italy L. Dallapiccola and L. Nono, in Germany Werner Egk and Hans W. Henze, in Denmark Knudage Riisager, in Sweden Karl-Birger Blomdahl, in Yugoslavia Fran Lhotka, and in Hungary Ferenc Farkas and Laszl6 Lajtha have written ballet music, each in his own idiom. Much of the music originally written for ballet has been arranged as orchestral or solo music, e.g., Ravel's Bolero and Stravinsky's Firebird Suite. Lit.: H. Searle, Ballet Music: An Introduction [1958]; V. Arvey, Choreographic Music: Music for the Dance [1941]; C. W. Beaumont, Complete Book of Ballets (1937; sup. 1942); G. Goode, The Book of Ballets (1939); S. J. Cohen, U.S. ed., Dictionary of Modern Ballet [1959]; J. Gregor, Kulturgeschichte des Ballets (1944); F. Reyna, Des Origines du ballet (1955); BuMBE, p. 14lff (ballet de cour); M. M. McGowan, L'Art du ballet de cour en France 1581-1643 (1963); H. Prunieres, Le Ballet de cour en France (1914); id., in BSIM x (Louis XIII); F. Ghisi, in MQ xxxv

75

BALLET IN OPERA

BALLET IN OPERA

(Florence, 1608-25); R. Lach, in ZMW iii (Prometheus); J. Jersild, in AM xiv (Denmark, 18th cent.); "Le Ballet au XIXe siecle" (RM ii, special no.). See also under Dance music; Balletin opera. rev. I.B.

Ballet in opera. Ballets appear in opera usually as interludes unessential to the plot, although connected with it by some more or less specious pretext. Thus their function is to offer a diversion from the purely vocal and dramatic portions, and they frequently involve large choral groups and spectacular stage effects as well as dancing. They are therefore most appropriate in large-scale, serious, formal opera, and historically they are found chiefly in operas of the French school or works written under the influence of French taste. Ballets in comic opera are simpler and less formal than those in serious works, as, for example, the dances in the finale of the first act of Mozart's Don Giovanni. Although Lully is commonly credited with having introduced the ballet into opera, •it was not unknown in operas before his time. Aside from the choral dances of Greek tragedy, the general dances that frequently took place at the end of the medieval mystery plays [see Liturgical drama], or the ballet portions of the 16th-century *intermezzi, there are closing dances in Peri's and Caccini's Euridice (both 1600), a bal/o at the end of Gagliano's Dafne (1608), and a *moresca danced by the shepherds in the finale of Monteverdi's Oifeo (1601). There are also ballets, though on a relatively small scale, in other Italian operas of the early 17th century (e.g., Landi's II Sant'Alessio, 1632; M. Rossi's Erminia sui Giordano, 1633). Later Italian operas made some use of the ballet, together with spectacular stage effects, especially in works designed for festival occasions, like Cesti's II Pomo d'oro (Vienna, 1667), which has several ballets in each act and a grand triple ballet in the finale. The importance of ballet in French opera is due to the long previous tradition of the ballet de cour in France and to the fact that Lully, in establishing the national operatic form, practically incorporated the entire apparatus of the ballet in this new type of entertainment. The very name of the opera company, "Academie royale de musique et de danse," shows the intimate connection that was thought to exist between opera and ballet, a connection that has been maintained throughout subsequent French opera. So strong was the French fondness for ballet that before the end of the 17th century a

new form, the opera ballet, was created (Campra, L'Europe ga/ante, 1691), in which the dramatic content was reduced to a minimum in order to make room for practically continuous dancing, choral, and scenic elements (Rameau, Les Indes galantes, 1735). The dances of Lully's and Rameau's operas and operas ballet furnish some of the finest examples of French instrumental music of their period. English opera likewise introduced ballet, partly from the native tradition of the *masque and partly under French influence. There are ballets in Blow's Venus and Adonis (c. 1684--85) and Purcell's Dido and Aeneas (1689), as well as in Purcell's other dramatic music (e.g., the chaconne in King Arthur, 1691). In Germany ballet in opera was introduced by foreign composers (C. Pallavicino's La Gerusalemme liberata, Dresden, 1687) and, under French influence, by native composers as well (J. S. Kusser's Erindo, Hamburg, 1694). The ballets in the original version of Keiser's Croesus (first perf. date unknown; MS score 1710, libretto 1711) were omitted in the revival of 1730. In early 18th-century Italian opera the ballet was of minor importance, with rare exceptions in festival works such as Fux's Costanza e fortezza (Prague, 1723). Toward the middle of the century, however, with the first movements toward reform of the older model, ballet scenes began to be revived. This is especially evident in the works that Jommelli wrote from 1753 to 1769 at Stuttgart, where the celebrated ballet master Jean-Georges Noverre was also in residence, and in the operas of Traetta at Parma (1758-65) and St. Petersburg (1768-74), which show the influence ofRameau. Gluck's "reform" operas are filled with ballet scenes, like their French prototypes, and the ballet remained a constant and important feature in the works of Gluck's disciples as well as in the "grand opera" of the 19th century (Auber's La Muette de Portici, 1828; Rossini's Guillaume Tell, 1829; Meyerbeer's Robert le Diab/e, 1831; Halevy's LaJuive, 1835; Wagner's Rienzi, 1842; Berlioz' Les Troyens, composed 1856-58; Gounod's Faust, 1859, recitatives added 1860, ballet music 1869). All the above-named works except Rienzi were first performed (or intended to be performed) at Paris, where a ballet was still considered an indispensable part of any large operatic work. Wagner's addition of the "bacchanal" music for the Paris performance of Tannhiiuser (1861) is striking evidence of the power of this French tradition. In his later works Wagner occasionally

76

BALLET SUITE had recourse to the ballet (Die Meistersinger, Parsifal) as did Verdi in Aida (1871). There are also important ballet scenes in Borodin's Prince Igor (comp. 1871-87, perf. 1890). The relative decline of "grand opera" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the decreasing importance of ballet in opera, accompanied by a steady rise of interest in ballet as a separate form [see Ballet]. Incidental dance scenes closely connected with the action are found in R. Strauss's Salome (1905) and Berg's Wozzeck (1925). Many operas since 1925 have reintroduced the earlier custom of incorporating large dance and choral scenes, notably Milhaud's Christophe Colomb (1930) and David (1954), Schoenberg's unfinished Moses und Aron (comp. Acts 1 and 2, sketches only for Act 3, 1932), and Hindemith's Die Harmonie der Welt (1957), which closes with an elaborate allegorical ballet quite in the tradiD.J.G. tion of Lully and Rameau. Ballet suite. Modern designation for baroque

suites consisting entirely of dance types derived from the French ballet of the 17th century. See Suite V. Hallett. German spelling for *ballet. Also, 16thand 17th-century English or German for *balletto or for *ballo. Balletto [It.]. (1) A vocal composition of c. 1600,

dancelike in character, written in a simplified madrigal style and frequently provided with a *fa-la burden, which may occasionally have been danced. The first publication in this field was G. Gastoldi's Bailetti a cinque voci . .. per cantare, sonare, & ballare (1591; see HAM, no. 158). His example was imitated by T. Morley in The First Books of Balletts to Five Voices (1595; see HAM, no. 159), by H. L. Hassler in Lustgartenneuer teutscher Gesiing, Bailetti (1601), and in similar publications until c. 1620. (2) A dance of the 17th century, usually in 4/4 meter, bipartite form, and in a simple, near-homophonic style (somewhat similar to the early allemande), mostly for ensembles. Such balletti appear frequently in the German suites of the early 17th century, e.g., J. H. Schein, Banchetto musicale (1617; comp. ed. by A. Prtlfer, vol. i), Paul Peurl, Melchior Franck, and Valentin Haussmann, as well as in Italian publications, e.g., Maurizio Cazzati, Correnti Bailetti Galiarde (1659), Andrea Grossi, Bailetti, Correnti, Sarabande, e Gighe (1679), etc. Frescobaldi's II Secondo Libro di Toccate (1621) contains an "Aria del balletto" for keyboard (8 variations). (3) A dramatic choreography de-

BAND scribed in Cornazano's "Libro dell' Arte da Danzare" (c. 1450), fol. 8/9. It used the conventional step repertory as found in the contemporary ba/lo and bassadanza but added mimic gestures and facial expressions to tell the story. See also Ballo. Ballo [It.]. A term used in various ways since the

15th century: (1) as a generic designation for dances (e.g., F. Bendusi, Opera nova de balli, 1553); (2) for scenic representations, more or less in the character of a ballet (as in Monteverdi's II Ballo delle ingrate, 1608), and also for operatic ballets (as in M. Gagliano's Dafne, 1608); (3) in the meaning of *balletto (2) and (3), as a rare substitute for this term. Ballo in maschera, Un [It., A Masked Ball]. Opera in three acts by Verdi (libretto by A. Somma, based on Scribe's Gustave III, ou Le Ba/ masque'), produced in Rome, 1859. The

original play was based on historical fact; Gustavus III of Sweden was shot in the back at a masked ball in Stockholm in 1792. To avoid inciting violence against royalty during a period of political unrest, Verdi was forced by the authorities to change the scene of the opera from Sweden to colonial Boston. Some modern performances revert to the original Swedish setting, while others set the scene in Naples. Balsa. Name used in Mexico as early as 1810 for a ballroom type of dance strongly reflecting the traditions of the European waltz and especially those of its French models. During the second half of the 19th century it became increasingly popular, and its influences are reflected in most of the art music produced by the composers of this period, such as Felipe Villanueva, Melesio Morales, Ricardo Ca~tro, and others [see Mexico]. J.o-s. Bamberg, Codex. See Sources, no. 5. Bambuco [Sp.]. One of the most representative of Colombian traditional dance-songs, using alternation of 6/8 and 3/4 meter in moderately quick tempo. Small guitars (tiples) and lutes (bandolas) provide accompaniment for the voice. J.o-s. Band [It., Sp. banda]. An instrumental group composed principally of woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments. In earlier periods the name was used for any group of instruments, and particularly for highly distinguished groups, e.g., the "24 violons du roy" under Lully (La Grande Bande), or the 24 fiddlers of Charles II (The King's Private Band). Today, the term is

77

BARBITOS

BANDOLA

also used for groups of unusual instrumental combinations, e.g., marimba band, accordion band, etc. Different types of wind band include the brass band, military band, symphonic band, wind ensemble, jazz or dance band, etc. The Italian word banda means the brass and percussion combination in the orchestra, a meaning carried over from the earlier cavalry bands, consisting of brass and percussion. Also see Brass band; Military music; Symphonic band.

it has five, the highest of which, called the thumb-string, is placed next to the lowest, in the following arrangement: d', b, g, c, g'. It is plucked with either the fingers or a plectrum. The banjo was the typical instrument of the American Negro and has been frequently used in jazz. It was imported by slaves from West Africa (Senegambia), where it existed under the name "bania." In all probability it is not an aboriginal African instrument but a modification of the Arabian or European guitar [see ill. under Guitar family].

J.W.

Bandola [Sp.]. Small guitar typical of Colombia,

with a set of fifteen strings tuned three to each of the following notes: G-d-a-e'-b'. It is usually used together with a smaller twelve-string guitar known as requinto. J.o-s.

Bar. (1) In English, bar line or, more usually, measure (included between two bar lines). (2) In German, see Bar form. Barber of Seville, The. See Barbiere di Siviglia.

Bandoneon [Sp.]. See under Accordion.

Barbershop harmony. Colloquial term for a type

Bandora, pandora, pandore. A 16th-century

stringed instrument of bass size [see ill. under Lute], with a characteristic scalloped body. It had seven (originally six) pairs of metal strings tuned GrC-D-G-c-e-a and as many as 15 frets. Pieces for bandora in the Cambridge University Library [Ms. Dd.2.11] as well as some pieces by Barley call for the additional bass course which was tuned to G 1 . It was supposedly invented by John Rose of London in 1562 and was in use for about a hundred years. There are close to 100 compositions for the bandora. A smaller instrument of the same type was the *orpharion. See W. W. Newcomb, Lute Music of Shakespeare's Time (1966; new ed. ofW. Barley's A new Booke of Tabliture of 1596); T. Dart, "Le Pandore" (in Le Luth et sa musique, 1958, ed. J. Jaquot); D. Gill, "The Orpharion and Bandora" (GSJ xiii). Bandura. Instruments referred to by this or a similar name can only be identified with reference to specific countries of origin, e.g., the bandura being Russian, the *bandurria Spanish. Bandurria. A Spanish instrument of the guitar family, still widely used in southern Spain. In its present-day form it has six double strings tuned in fourths from c/' to a" and is played with a plectrum. See ill. under Guitar family. In Latin America the name is used for a twelve-string guitar similar to the *banda/a but smaller, used mainly in Colombia. It is also known as pandura. Banjo. A stringed instrument with a long neck

of banal harmony used in popular American part singing such as was formerly practiced in barbershops [see Ex.]. Diminished seventh chords, dominant seventh chords, augmented I

[~

1

J

I

I

I :

I

I

I

I

J

hj

J

I

I

I

I

I

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I I

I I

sixth chords, and triads with added sixths prevail, usually in close position. See S. Spaeth, Barber Shop Ballads (1940). Barbiere di Siviglia, II [It., The Barber of Seville]. (I) Opera in two acts by Rossini (libretto by C. Sterbini, originally entitled Almaviva o sia L'lnutile Precauzione, based on Beaumarchais' Le Barbier de Seville), produced in Rome, 1816.. Setting: Seville, 18th century. It is one of the last examples of 18th-century Italian comic opera and, in particular, the last to use the secco *recitative. Figaro's aria "Largo al factotum" is one of the outstanding examples of bu.ffo aria in rapid declamation. The plot of Mozart's *Nozze di Figaro is based on Beaumarchais' sequel to Le Barbier de Seville. (2) Opera in two acts (4 parts) by G. Paisiello (libretto by G. Petrosellini, based on Beaumarchais). Produced in St. Petersburg, 1782. Setting: Seville, 18th century.

and a body in the form of a shallow, one-headed drum spanned with parchment. Sometimes fretted, it may have four to nine strings. Often

Barbitos. An instrument mentioned by various

Greek and Latin writers, from the 6th century B.C. (Anacreon) to the 3rd century A.D. (Athe-

78

BARCAROLE

naeus). Anacreon likens it to the lyre and Theocritus says that it had many strings. Barcarole [F. barcarolle; It. barcarola]. A boat song of the Venetian gondoliers [It. barca, boat], or an instrumental or vocal composition in imitation thereof. Well-known examples for the piano are found in Mendelssohn's "Songs without Words" (op. 19, no. 6; op. 30, no. 6; op. 62, no. 5); others were written by Chopin (op. 60) and Faure. Vocal barcaroles occur in various operas with Italian settings, e.g., in Herold's Zampa (1831), Auber's Fra Diavolo (1830), Offenbach's Tales of Hoffmann (1881); see also Schubert's song, "Auf dem Wasser zu singen." Barcaroles are always in moderate 6/8 or 12/8 time and use a monotonous accompaniment suggestive of the movement of the waves and the boat. Bard. The pre-Christian and medieval poet-

musician (minstrel) of the Celts, especially the Irish and the Welsh. In the early Middle Ages bards exercised great political power, serving as historians, heralds, ambassadors, officers of the king's household, and, in brief, constituting the highest intellectual class. Their activities are documented as early as the pre-Christian era by Greek writers such as Diodorus Siculus (1st cent. B.C.), who refers to the *crwth, the traditional instrument of the bards. Privileges of the Welsh bards were fixed by King Howel Dha in 940 and revised by Gryffyd ap Cynan in 1040. Their earliest persecutions (on political grounds) occurred after the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284. The bards continued to be active, (though at a level far below their former high station) in Ireland until 1690 (battle of the Boyne) and in Scotland until 1748. Annual congregations of the Welsh bards, called Eisteddfod, were revived as a regular practice in the early 19th century after an interruption of about 150 years. Their standards, extremely low, have recently been raised considerably. [Also see Pennillion.] The music of the Welsh bards has been the subject of much discussion and controversy. Many exaggerated claims have been made, chiefly on the basis of certain music manuscripts, one of which, called Musica neu Beroriaeth (Penllyn MS; fac. ed. Musica, Brit. Mus. Add. MS 14905, University of Wales, Cardiff, 1936), bears the inscription, made by an 18thcentury owner: "The following manuscript is the Music of Britains as settled by a Congress, or Meeting of Masters of Music, by order of

BARD

Gryffydd ap Cynan, Prince of Wales, about A.D. 1100, with some of the most antient pieces of the Britains supposed to have been handed down to us from the British Druids." Actually, this manuscript dates from the 17th century and does not substantiate this supposition or support other extravagant claims voiced by modern advocates of the "medieval bardic music" movement (e.g., A. Dolmetsch). The notation is but a modification of the German organ tablature of the late 16th century [see WoHN ii, 294]. The transcriptions given by Dolmetsch (who succeeded in clarifying certain peculiarities of this notation) still further discredit the fantastic legends so frequently told. The style of these pieces seems to indicate that they may be endproducts of "debasement through seepage," a process frequently noticeable in folk traditions [see Folk music II]. It is scarcely tenable, therefore, to state that "from internal evidence such music could not have been made later than the sixth century, and was probably much earlier" (A. Dolmetsch, in The Consort, no. 4, p. 14). The accompanying example, transcribed from

0 0 0 I 0 I 0 !Ill 0000

1&rbrr=-JJn ( fJ 1 0

WoHN ii, 298, shows written out figurations in the style of the 17th-century arpegement figure [see Arpeggio]. Only the beginning and the end of the piece are given here, but the intermediate measures can easily be found from the formula 11110000101011110000 I 011 given in the original, which indicates the scheme of alternation for the two chords used in this piece, each being indicated by the figure 1 or 0, a method commonly used in 17th-century guitar tablatures [see WoHN ii, 17lff]. Lit.: J. C. Walker, Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786); E. Jones, Musical and Poetical Relicks of the Welsh Bards (1784); id., The Bardic Museum (1802); C. de la Borde, Essai sur les Bardes, 3 vols. (1840); G. Borrow, Celtic

79

BAR FORM

BAR FORM Bards, Chiefs and Kings (1928); W. Evans, The Bards of the Isle of Britain [1930]; A. Dolmetsch, 'S,Translations from the Pennlynn Manuscript of Ancient Harp Music (1937); id., in The Consort, no. 3; P. Crossley-Holland, "Secular Homophonic Music in Wales in the Middle Ages" (ML xxiii, 135). Bar fonn [G.]. I. A term used frequently in modern studies for an old, very important musical form, schel)latically designated a a b. The name is derived from the medieval German term Bar, a poem consisting of three or more Gesiitze (i.e., stanzas), each of which is divided into two Stollen (section a) and an Abgesang (section b). See the accurate description in Wagner's Die Meistersinger, Act I, 3, where Kothner says: "Ein jedes Meistergesanges Bar" consists of "unterschiedlichen Gesatzen" (different stanzas); "ein Gesatz" consists of "zweenen [two] Stollen" and "Abgesang." It appears that the form a a b should properly be called Gesiitz form (form of the stanza), but the term Bar form has been generally accepted. The aesthetic principle of the Bar form is adumbrated in the ancient Greek ode, which consists of strophe (a), antistrophe (a), and epode (b). In Gregorian chant, repeat structures of the a a b type occur particularly in the jubili and verse melismas of the Alleluias [e.g., "Timebunt gentes," LU, p. 1056], as well as in the verse melismas of the Offertories [see ApGC, p. 368f]. It is also clearly recognizable in some of the long Alleluia melismas of Mozarabic chant [e.g., Antifonario . . . de Leon, fac. ed. 1953, f. 187]. The Bar form also occurs in a few hymn melodies [e.g., "Iste confessor," LU, p. 1178] that have identical music for the first and second lines of the stanza (a a b c). From here it found its way into the repertory of the troubadours and particularly of the trouveres, where it is known as *ballade, and ultimately into that of the minnesingers and Meistersinger, who called it Bar and used it for nearly all their lyrical songs [Ex. in EiBM, no. 8; HAM, nos. 20, 24; SchGMB, nos. 12, 21]. It is equally common in the German polyphonic songs of the 15th and 16th centuries (Locheimer Liederbuch, Glogauer Liederbuch, Hofhaimer, Stoltzer, etc.), as well as in the Lutheran chorales and the various compositions based on them (organ chorales, chorale cantatas, etc.). An interesting modification found in the French and, particularly, in the German songs is the use of identical endings for the Stollen

and the Abgesang, resulting in the form II: a + x :II b + x, as, e.g., in W. von der Vogelweide's "Palestine Song" [see Ex. 1], in Hans Sachs' "Silberweise" (SchGMB, no. 78], and in many chorales of the 16th century, e.g., "Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme" [cf. Bach's chorale prelude and the first movement of the cantata]. It could

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be designated as rhymed Bar form. Another subspecies is the "doubled Bar" II: a :II: b :II c, which occurs in the melismas of some Alleluias (e.g., "Oportebat," LU, p. 822) and forms a connecting link with the *sequence; yet another the "superposed Bar" (G. potenzierter Bar), in which the Stollen itself is a complete Bar [Ex. in F. L. Saran, et al., ed., Die Jenaer Liederhandschrift, 2 vols. (1901), ii, 53, 57]. II. Of particular importance is the type of Bar in which the Stollen recurs complete at the end of the Abgesang, thus leading to the form a a b a or II: a :II b a. An appropriate designation

80

BARICANOR

BAR LINE

for this is rounded Bar form (G. Reprisenbar, also Rundkanzone). Several hymn melodies show this form, e.g., "Jam sol" [LU, p. 312], "Lucis creator" [LU, p. 257], "Ales diei nuntius" [Ex. 2; see AR, p. 109]. Minnesinger songs showing this structure are quite numerous [see Neidhardt von Reuenthal, in DTO 11, p. 31; Saran (op. cit.), ii, 29; HAM, no. 20d; ReMMA, p. 235]. The special interest of the rounded Bar form lies in the fact that its scheme is identical with *sonata form, whose exposition (repeated), development, and recapitulation correspond to the Stollen (repeated), Abgesang, and restated Stollen of the rounded Bar. There is, of course, no historical relationship between the medieval Bar form and classical sonata form, which actually developed from the rounded binary form II: a =II= b a :II in which both sections are repeated [see Binary and ternary form II]. However, the similarity is all the more noteworthy since the Abgesang of the medieval songs frequently takes on the function of a real development (higher range, motif continuation, greater intensity of the melodic line, etc.), e.g., in the "Palestine Song" and in Hans Sachs' "Morgenweise" [EiBM, no. 8]. The a a b a form is also the most common scheme of present-day popular songs (b is called the "bridge"). A. Lorenz has tried to show (with questionable success) that the Bar form is the main structural principle of Wagner's operas, particularly of Die Meistersinger. He interpreted them as consisting of numerous layers of superposed Bars (Kleinbar, Mittelbar, Grossbar), beginning with the smallest units of the musical line and culminating with the "gigantic" Bar of the three acts. Lit.: A. Lorenz, Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner, 4 vols. (1924-33); id., "Das Relativitatsprinzip in den musikalischen Formen" (CP Adler); id., "Homophone Grossrhythmik in Bachs Polyphonie" (DM xxii.4); H. A. Grunsky, in ZMWxvi.

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Baritonans, baricanor. Terms employed occasionally in the late 15th century (Busnois, La Rue) for bass parts. Baritone or (rarely) barytone. (1) The male voice between the bass and the tenor; see Voices, range of. (2) Applied to instruments (oboe, horn, saxophone), any size above the bass size. (3) Abbr. for baritone horn; see Brass instruments III (c). Baritone clef. See under Clef. Baritone horn. See under Brass instruments III (c).

Bar line [F. barre de mesure; G. Taktstrich; It. stanghetta; Sp. linea divisoria]. A vertical line drawn through the staff to mark off measures. The general use of the bar line is relatively recent (17th century). Until 1600 bar lines were used only for keyboard and lute (vihuela) music, the earliest known being from the late 14th century (Codex Faenza). The use of bar lines in 16th-century compositions frequently differs from present-day practice, since they served primarily as a means of orientation, without implying a regular recurrent main beat. They are drawn at the distance of either a brevis or a semibrevis (two or one whole note), the choice depending to a certain extent on the absence or presence of small note values. In some compositions, mostly Spanish, the bar lines completely fail to indicate the musical meter because they mark offbeats, three of which must be combined in order to produce a measure in the modern sense of the term (3/l, reduced to 3/2; see Narvaez's "Diferencias sobra 0 gloriosa Domina," HAM, no. 122). Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the marking-off began with the first note, even if it was an upbeat. See Ex. 1 (Pisador, "Pavana muy llana," Libro de musica de vihuela, 1552), in which the original barring is given on the staff, the modern below the staff. The same usage occurs in Frescobaldi's Partite sopra !'aria della Romanesca [see HAM, no. 192].

Baricanor [L.]. See Baritonans. Bariolage [F.]. A special effect in violin playing, obtained by quickly shifting back and forth between two or more strings, the lower strings being used to produce relatively higher tones. This technique may be employed for brokenchord passages [Ex. 1, Bach, Solo Partita in E major], for a "coloristic" tremolo [Ex. 2, Brahms, Symphony no. 4, last movt.], or for similar formations.

81

BAROQUE MUSIC

In ensemble (vocal) music the bar line was not introduced until the latter part of the 16th century, when the notation in single parts gave way to notation in score arrangement. The arias of the 17th century frequently show the anomalous use of the bar line referred to above, i.e., the disregard of upbeat or of triple time [see the explanations and examples in RiHM ii.2, 12f]. Modern editors of polyphonic music of the 15th and 16th centuries have increasingly resented the "tyranny" of the bar line and have tried to make this indispensable device ofmodem notation less conspicuous by replacing it with apostrophes: ',punctuated lines: Lor with the Mensurstrich, i.e., a line drawn between, not through, the staves [Ex. 2, from Josquin, Ave Christe, immolate]. However, the Mensurstrich is impracticable if different meters (mensurations) are used in different parts, e.g., 2/4 against 3/4, a practice not uncommon in the period of Obrecht and Josquin and still more common in the compositions of the late 14th century. Lit.: W. H. Cummings, "Bar-lines" (Musical Times, 1904, p. 574); T. Wiehmayer, in ZMW vii; H. Keller, in ZMW vii; WoHN i, 427ff; ApNPM, passim. Baroque music. The music of the period c. 1600-

1750, following that of the Renaissance. It is also referred to as the "thoroughbass period." The term baroque (probably from Port. barroco, irregularly shaped pearl; or from the painter F. Barocci, or Baroccio, d. 1612) was used formerly in a decidedly pejorative sense, to mean "grotesque," "in corrupt taste," overladen with scrollwork," etc. Its application to the fine arts was based on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that 17th-century architecture and painting represented a debased Renaissance style. This opinion, however, was thoroughly revised about 1900 by Heinrich Wi:ilfflin, who was the first to

BAROQUE MUSIC

point out the positive contributions and great artistic qualities of baroque art and to vindicate the term "baroque" from any implication of inferiority. Both the beginning and the end of the baroque period in music are rather clearly defined. Baroque music began about 1600, with the rise of monody, opera, oratorio, cantata, and recitative, and ended 150 years later, with the death of Bach and Handel. Preparatory phenomena were, on the one hand, the *balletto and *villanella, with their reaction against Flemish polyphony, and on the other hand, the style of the *Venetian school (G. Gabrieli), whose pomp and splendor exceed the limitations of true Renaissance art and foreshadow the aesthetic basis of baroque style. It may be noted that throughout the 17th century the tradition of Renaissance music persisted to some extent in the *Roman school, and that, on the other hand, a new period, the *rococo, had already begun when Bach and Handel were writing their greatest masterpieces, which represent the acme of baroque music. Generally speaking, the baroque period is an era of ecstasy and exuberance, of dynamic tensions and sweeping gestures, an era of longing and self-denial, much in contrast to the assuredness and self-reliance of the Renaissance. It is a period when men liked to consider this life the "vale of tears," when the statues of the saints look rapturously toward heaven, when the clouds and the infinite landscape were discovered. Much of this attitude is reflected in the expressive melodies of the 17th century, in the long coloraturas, the pathetic recitative, the frequent use of chromaticism, the capricious rhythms. Early baroque music (prior to 1650) in particular shows, in its *canzonas and *toccatas, striking traits of capriciousness, exuberance, and irregularity, whereas later composers such as Carissimi and Corelli represent a trend toward greater restraint and regularity of style. On the other hand, the structural, or, as one might call it, the architectural element in baroque music must not be overlooked. More than any other period, the 17th century contributed toward the development and establishment of clearly defined types and forms, such as the ostinato forms, the variations, the suite, the sonata, the da capo aria, the rondo, the concerto, the opera, the oratorio, the cantata. Stylistically, baroque music is characterized chiefly by the thoroughbass technique, leading to a texture of two principal contours, melody and bass, with the intervening space filled by improvised harmony. In Germany, however, the

82

BASS

BAROQUE MUSIC

contrasting style of true polyphony not only persisted but reached, in Bach, the very acme of perfection. A third principle of baroque style is the stile concertante, that is, contrasting effects, a principle expressed in the abrupt changes of the early canzona as well as in the solo-tutti alternation of the *concerto grosso and in the *echo effects of vocal and organ music. Other basic concepts of baroque music are *improvisation and *ornamentation. Finally, there is the definitive establishment of tonic and dominant as the principal chords of harmony and, c. 1650 (Carissimi), of four-measure phrases [see Vierhebigkeit]. At the beginning of the 17th century stand three great figures still rooted in the tradition of the Renaissance but inaugurating the novel trends of baroque music: Monteverdi, G. Gabrieli, and Sweelinck. They may be considered the sources of three mainstreams of baroque music, that is, vocal, instrumental, and organ music, with which, in turn, the three styles mentioned above can be roughly associated, namely, accompanied melody, concerto style, and contrapuntal style. The first of these streams, starting in Florence (Caccini, Peri, later Monteverdi), produced the monodic style [see Monody] with the *recitative and *aria, and with the composite forms of the *cantata, *opera, and *oratorio (Passion). The second, "Venetian" stream found its realization in the instrumental canzona, the violin *sonata, the trio sonata in its two varieties, sonata da chiesa and *sonata da camera, and in the orchestral forms of the *concerto grosso [see also Concerto III], the French *overture, and the *sinfonia. The last stream, starting with Sweelinck and Frescobaldi but continuing chiefly in Germany (Scheidt, Froberger, Buxtehude, Pachelbel, Kuhnau, Muffat, Fischer, Bach), led to the *fugue, *organ chorale (chorale prelude), *toccata, and *suite (the latter also in France). Lit.: BuMBE; GrHWM, pp. 266-410, bibl., pp. 681-86; P. H. Lang, Music in Western Civilization (1941), pp. 314-529; A. Milner, The Musical Aesthetic of the Baroque (1960); AdHM i, 411-700; RiHM ii.2-ii.3; A. Liess, Wiener Barockmusik (1946); E. Wellesz, Der Beginn des musikalischen Barock und der Arifang der Oper in Wien (1922); J. H. Mueller, "Baroque-Is it Datum, Hypothesis, or Tautology?" (Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism xii, 42lff); C. J. Friedrich, M. F. Bukofzer, H. Hatzfeld, J. R. Martin, W. Stechow (ibid. xiv, l43ff); "Le 'Baroque' musical" (Les Congres et Colloques de

l'Universite de Liege, xxvii, 1964); E. Schenk, in ZMW xvii; E. Wellesz, in ZIM xi; C. Sachs, in JMP xxvi; A. Della Corte, in LRM vi, no. 5; id., in CP Laurencie; G. Barbian, in CP Angles i.

Baroque organ. See Organ XII. Barpyknon. Same as barypyknon. See Pyknon. Barre [F.]. In lute and guitar playing, term calling for the simultaneous shortening of the vibratory length of several or all strings by holding the forefinger across them. An artificial substitute is the *capotasto. Barre de mesure [F.]. *Bar line. Barrel organ. See under Mechanical instruments II. Bartered Bride, The [Cz. Prodand Nevestd]. Opera in three acts by Hedrich Smetana (libretto by Karel Sabina), produced in Prague, 1866. Setting: A Bohemian village, 1850. It has been widely sung outside Czechoslovakia in the German translation (1893) as Die verkaufte Braut. Describing an episode from 19th-century Bohemian peasant life, The Bartered Bride is one of the first and most successful examples of national opera. Baryton. (1) French and German spelling for *baritone (voice, size of instruments). (2) An instrument of the viol family. See Viol IV, 5. For ill. see Violin. See E. Fruchtman, "The Baryton: Its History and Its Music Re-examined" (AM xxxiv). Barytonhorn, i.e., euphonium [see Brass instruments III(d)]. Barytonans, barycanor. See Baritonans. Barzelletta [It.]. A type of Italian poetry of about 1500, generally in the form of the *ballata (ripresa- piedi [or mutazione]- volta- ripresa) or *bergerette (ballata or *virelai with one stanza). More than half of the frottole are barzellette. Indeed, the specific poetic-musical type generally known as frottola should perhaps be designated barzelletta, the term frottola being more a collective name for various types. Base viol. Same as bass viol. See Viola da gamba. Basilica. See under Diaphonia (3). Basis [Gr.]. Humanist name for "bass" used by 15th- and 16th-century composers. Bass. (l) The lowest of men's voices [see Voices, range of]. (2) German name (abbr. of Kontrabass) for the double bass. (3) Applied to instruments,

83

BASSE DANSE

BASSA the term indicates the lowest and consequently largest type of the family, e.g., bass clarinet. (4) In musical composition, the lowest of the parts. In the styles of the 18th and 19th centuries the bass has special significance as the determining factor of the harmonic structure [see Harmonic analysis]. The special role of the bass is particularly conspicuous in the practice and theory of *thoroughbass. For the origin of the bass, see Contratenor.

source. The Italian treatises give prose descriptions of the choreographies and very little of the music; the French sources record the steps of each dance in a simple tablature notation (s = simple, d = double, r = reprise, b = branle, etc.) and give a monophonic tenor for each dance. Most of the dances have names such as "La crudele," "Triste plaisir," "Sans faire de vous departie," "La baixa de Castilla," etc. [see Ex. 1].

Bassa [It.]. Low. Ottava bassa (abbr. 8va bassa), the lower octave of the written notes. Con 8va bassa, doubling of the written notes in the lower octave. 1&/fb~//6 66//~ xxb

Bassadanza [It.]. See Basse danse. Bass-bar. In violins, etc., a strip of wood glued inside the table, about ll in. long and narrowing at both ends. Its function is to support the left foot of the bridge and to spread over the table the vibrations of the bridge produced by those strings. Bass clef. See under Clef. Bass-course. See Course. Bass drum. See under Percussion instruments B 3.

Basse [F.]. Basse chiffre or b. continue, thoroughbass; basse contrainte, ground (basso ostinato); basse profonde, chantante, taille, see Voices, range of; basse fondamentale, fundamental bass; bassea-piston, euphonium. Basse danse [F.], bassadanza [It.]. One type of a "family of related dances" (ReMR, p. 37) of unknown origin cultivated at the courts of western Europe during the 15th century and, in a somewhat debased form, cultivated more generally during the early 16th century. The name (bas, low) probably refers to the gliding or walking movements of the feet, in contrast to the livelier steps of the pas de Brabant (It. saltarello, Sp. alta or altadanza), which often followed the basse danse proper. The earliest sources of information about the bassadanza include nine Italian MSS, of which the so-called "Trattato dell'arte del ballo di Guglielmo Ebreo" (c. 1463) and the "Libro dell'arte del danzare" of Antonio Cornazano (c. 1455) are the best known; three French sources, including the late 15th-century MS Brussels 9085, written (for Marie of Burgundy?) with gold and silver on black paper [see Lit., Closson], and L'Art et instruction de bien dancer, printed before 1496; and a single Spanish

84

A few of the basse danse melodies have been identified as tenors of Burgundian chansons ("Triste plaisir" by Binchois; "Sans faire" by Fontaine). The three bassadanza tenors in Cornazano's treatise are written almost exclusively in white semibreves, whereas the 56 basse danse tenors included in the two French sources mentioned above are written almost exclusively in black breves. In both cases one note of the tenor corresponds to one step unit of the dance. However, the written notes do not constitute the dance melody but a tenor (in *cantus planus style) above which one or two parts of a livelier character were improvised. (A typical basse danse band consisted of, e.g., two shawms and a slide-trumpet.) An instructive example of the use of a tenor is the saltarello in Perugia MS. 431 [M. Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (1950), p. 199]; another, with the two upper parts moving in parallel fourths, is the Spaniol Kochersperg [W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbuchern (1927), p. 46]. According to Cornazano, the same tenor could be used for all dances of the bassadanza typethe saltarello, quaternaria (or saltarello tedesco, used by the Germans), *piva (cacciata), and the bassadanza proper-the difference being in the number of beats allowed to each of the (tenor) written notes, 3 for the saltarello, 4 for the quaternaria, 2 (four half-beats) for the piva, and 6 for the bassadanza. A particularly interesting basse danse tenor is the *Spagna. In the 16th century the basse danse became a simpler, more stereotyped dance, its music no longer based on equal-note tenor melodies but on discant melodies, like the melody ofWillaert's "Jouyssance vous donneray," the example given

BASSE DANSE

BASSSCHLUSSEL

by Arbeau (Orchesographie, 1589) in his description of the basse danse; other examples are included in several of Attaingnant's publications, e.g., Dixhuit Basses dances garnies de recoupes et tordions (1530). The great majority of the basses danses are in slow triple meter (3/2), which, however, is sometimes obscured in modern editions by the use of bar lines separating beats rather than measures [see Bar line]. (Arbeau says that "it is always necessary to reduce into ternary meter the basses danses given by Attaingnant in binary meter.") The basic rhythm and a typical example of the later basse danse (Beurre frais) are shown in Ex. 2 and 3. However, Attaingnant's

circa 1450 to 1550" (AnnM vi, 28ff); L. C. Maffai, "Illibro ... di Antonio Cornazano" (La Bibliofilia xvii [1915-16], 1); D. Heartz, in JAMS xix; id., in CP Reese. Ex. in HAM, nos. 102, 105, 137; SchGMB, no. 90. rev. ED. Basse d'harmonie [F.]. Ophicleide. See Brass instruments V (c). Basse fondamentale [F.]. Fundamental bass. Basset hom. See under Clarinet family III. Bassetto, bassett, bassett(. Various 18th-century names for the *cello. Bassflote [G.]. (1) Bass flute. (2) An 18th-century name for bassoon.

2

I~ t j j j I j j j j j I

J

Bass hom. See under Cornett. For ill. see under Brass instruments.

j j jl

Bassist [G.], bassista [It.]. A bass singer. Bass lute [G. Basslaute]. The chitarrone, or the theorbo. See Lute III. Basso [It.]. Bass. B. profondo, cantante, see Voices, range of. B. continuo, see Thoroughbass. publications also contain a few basses danses in duple meter. Sometimes the 16th-century basse danse is followed by a recoupe and a tordion, thus forming an early example of a suite. Lit.: E. Closson, Le Manuscrit dit des basses danses (fac. ed., 1912); V. Scholderer, ed., Lart et instruction de bien dancer (fac. ed., 1936); Trattato ... di Guglielmo Ebreo, in Scelta di curiosita letterarie cxxxi (1873); M. Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval & Renaissance Music (1950), pp. 190ff; F. Blume, Studien zur Vorgeschichte der Orchestersuite (1925); 0. Kinkeldey, "A Jewish Dancing Master of the Renaissance (Guglielmo Ebreo)," in Studies in Jewish Bibliography (1929); id., "Dance Tunes of the Fifteenth Century," in Instrumental Music, ed. D. G. Hughes (1959); J. L. Jackman, ed., +Fifteenth Century Basse Dances (The Wellesley Edition, no. 6, 1964); I. Brainard, "Die Choreographie der Hoftanze in Burgund, Frankreich u.'ld Italien" (diss. Gottingen, 1956); R. Meylan, in AM xxxviii; E. Southern, in CP Reese; 0. Gombosi, "About Dance and Dance Music in the late Middle Ages" (MQ xxvii); W. Gurlitt, "Burgundische Chanson- und deutsche Lidekunst" (CP 1924); H. Riemann, in SIM xiv; E. Hertzmann, in ZMW xi, 401; C. Sachs, in AM iii; W. Apel, in MD i; E. Southern, in AM xxxv; D. Heartz, "The Basse Dance: Its Evolution

Basson [F.]. Bassoon. B. quinte, a smaller bassoon, also called tenoroon. B. russe, *Russian bassoon. Bassoon. See under Oboe family I, C. Basso ostinato. See Ground; also under Ostinato. Basso· ripieno [It.]. In 18th-century orchestral works, a bass part for the tutti (*ripieno) passages only, i.e., not for the solo sections. Basso seguente. An early type of thoroughbass, which merely duplicated (usually on the organ) whatever part of a vocal composition was the lowest at any given time. Thus, in a composition beginning with a downward imitation it would start with the soprano, then pick up the alto, tenor, and finally continue with the bass. The practice of adding such a part began in the late 16th century (G. Croce, Motetti a otto voci, 1594). After 1600 optional organ basses of the seguente type were added to madrigals, etc., in order to bring them in line with contemporary trends. An example is Monteverdi's fourth book of madrigals (1603), which was reprinted in 1615 with the addition of an organ part. SeeM. Schneider, Die Anflinge des Basso continuo und seiner Bezifferung (1918); BuMBE, pp. 26, 35.

85

Bassschliissel [G.]. The F -clef.

BASS VIOL

BAYREUTH FESTIVAL

Bass viol. Properly (17th century), the *viola da gamba [see also Viol II]. For ill. see Violin. Today, name for the double bass, a descendant of the old double-bass viol [see Viol IV, I].

Batterie [F.]. (I) The percussion group of the orchestra. (2) A drum roll. (3) An 18th-century name for arpeggio, broken-chord figures, Alberti basses, etc. (4) A manner of playing the guitar by striking the strings.

Bathyphone. See under Clarinet family III. Battaglia [It.]. Name for a composition in which the fanfares, cries, drum rolls, and general commotion of a battle [It. battaglia] are imitated. This was a favorite subject of *program music from the 16th through the 18th centuries. Late 14th-century compositions such as Grimace's Alarme, alarme [W. Apel, French Secular Music ofthe Late Fourteenth Century, p. 122 *]represent this genre in an incipient form. It appears fully developed in a 3-voice "Alia bataglia" (c. 1470?) in the Chansonnier Pixerecourt. Isaac's instrumental "A Ia bataglia" [DTO 32, p. 221] is probably an arrangement of a vocal composition. Particularly famous was Janequin's "La Guerre" ( 1529?), a highly realistic description of the battle of Marignano of 1515 [see Editions XXV, 7]. Hans Newsidler arranged it for the lute in 1544 [see DTO 37]. H. M. Werrekoren (Mathias Fiamengo) wrote "Die Schlacht vor Pavia" (1544; repr. 1549 as "La Bataglia taliana"), which portrays this important battle of 1525. The artistic culmination of the vocal battaglia is represented by Monteverdi's "Canti guerrieri" from his Madrigali guerrieri et amorosi (1638). Instrumental battle pieces were written by Byrd [My Ladye Nevells Booke, ed. H. Andrews, 1926], Banchieri [see ApMZ i], J. K. Kerll [DTB 3; also TaAM vii], J. Cabanilles [Johannes Cabanilles . .. Opera omnia, ed. H. Angles, 4 vols., 1927-56, i, 130, 170; ii, 102, 109; one of these is almost identical with that of Kerll], and others. These pieces have rather limited artistic value, but even poorer are the numerous battle pieces (mostly English) of the 18th century, some of which prescribe actual gunfire at certain moments. Franz Kotzwara's Battle of Prague (1788?) is still known today. Beethoven contributed to the repertory with his "battle symphony," Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria (op. 91, 1813, pub. 1816). SeeR. Glli.sel, "Zur Geschichte der Battaglia" (diss. Leipzig, 1931); E. Bienenfeld, in Z/Mviii; K. G. Fellerer, in DM xxxii, no. 7. Battement [F.]. French 17th-century term for any ornament consisting of an alternation of two adjacent tones, e.g., mordent, trill, vibrato. In modem parlance, battements are the acoustical beats.

Battery. Old term for arpeggio; see Batterie (3). Battle of the Huns, The. See Hunnenschlacht, Die. Battle of Victoria. See Wellingtons Sieg. Battle pieces. See Battaglia. Battuta [It.]. Beat. A battuta indicates a return to strict time after some deviation (ad libitum, a piacere, etc.). In particular, battuta means the strong beat at the beginning of a measure; hence, Beethoven's indication "ritmo di tre [quattro] battute" (Scherw, Ninth Symphony) means that three (or four) measures are to be grouped together, the tempo being so fast that there is only one beat to the measure. Batuque [Port.]. Term for Brazilian dances of Mrican origin, using marked syncopation and with the percussion standing out above the other instruments. The dancers usually form wide circles and clap their hands or strike together pieces of glass, wood, or iron. The batuque is also known as batucada. It is the ancestor of the *samba and *maxixe, which represent its modem versions, modified by urban influences. J.O-S.

Bauernkantate [G., Peasant Cantata]. A secular cantata by Bach, written to a text by Picander in Saxon dialect ("Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet," We Have a New Magistrate) and performed in 1742 to celebrate the installation of a new magistrate in a rural district of Saxony. The music includes several popular tunes of the day. Baxa [Sp.]. A 16th-century term for *basse danse. Bay Psalm Book. A book of psalms, The Whole Booke of Psalms Faithfully Translated into English Metre, published in Cambridge, Mass., in 1640 (the first book printed in North America). It had numerous subsequent editions over more than a century. In 1698 music (in two parts) was added for thirteen tunes. See Psalter; United States I; I. Lowens, in JAMS viii, 22, and in his Music and Musicians in Early America (1964). Bayreuth Festival. Annual festival held in the opera house of Bayreuth (Bavaria) for the per-

86

BAYREUTH TUBA

BEBUNG

formance of Wagner's operas. It originated in 1876 with the first complete performance of the *Ring des Nibelungen. Bayreuth tuba. Same as Wagner tuba; see under Tuba. BW bass. See under Tuba (2). B. c. Abbr. for basso continuo. Be [G.]. The sign b. Beak flute. *Recorder. Bearbeitung [G.]. Arrangement, transcription. Beat [F. temps; G. Ziihlzeit, Schlag; It. battuta; Sp. tiempo]. (1) The temporal unit of a composition, as indicated by the up-and-down movements, real or imagined, of a conductor's hand (upbeat, downbeat). In modern practice, the duration of such a beat varies from M.M. 50 to M.M. 140, with M.M. 80 being a middle speed. In moderate tempo, the 4/4 measure includes four beats, the first and third of which are strong, the others weak, while the 3/4 measure has three beats, only the first of which is strong. In quick tempo, there are only two beats, or even one, to the measure. In very slow tempo, the beats may be subdivided into two's or three's. In music prior to 1600, the beat was of much less variable duration [see Tactus; Tempus]. (2) A 17th-century English ornament that may be performed in two ways, depending on whether it is a plain beat (indicated by an ascending oblique line placed before or over the written note) or a shaked beat (indicated by a wavy line resembling the French sign for the trill). The plain beat is an inferior *appoggiatura performed on the beat and of flexible duration. The shaked beat consists of several rapid repetitions of the appoggiatura and its resolution, beginning with the former, so that it resembles an inverted. trill. In the 18th century the term beat is often applied to the ornament commonly known as *mordent. (2) by P.A. (3) See Beats, Beatitudes, Les [F., The Beatitudes]. Oratorio by Franck for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, set to the well-known text from the Scriptures [Sermon on the Mount, Matt. 5: 3-12]. It was completed in 1879. Beats [F. battements; G. Schwebungen; It. battimenti; Sp. batimientos]. An acoustical phenomenon resulting from the interference [see Acoustics VI] of two sound waves of slightly

different frequencies. It is heard as minute yet clearly audible intensifications of the sound at regular intervals. The number per second of these intensifications, or beats, is equal to the difference in frequency of the two tones. Thus, a tone of 440 cycles per second will make four beats per second with a tone of 444; three with a tone of 443; two with 442; one with 441; and the beats will disappear if the two strings are in perfect unison [see ill. of interference under Acoustics]. This phenomenon is therefore of fundamental importance in *tuning. Slow beats such as two to four to the second are not unpleasant to the ear. In certain organ stops (voix celeste, unda maris) beats are deliberately introduced, by using two pipes slightly out of tune, in order to give the combined tone an undulating quality. Beats of 5 or 6 per second produce a distinctly less agreeable result, and the unpleasantness of the effect increases until the number of beats is c. 30. From there on the unpleasantness diminishes because the beats rapidly become too quick to be distinguished. This phenomenon is the basis of Helmholtz's theory of *consonance and dissonance. See also Combination tone. Bebization. See Solmization. Be bop. See Bop. Bebung [G.; F. balancement]. A *vibrato effect peculiar to the clavichord, whose action allows for a repeated pressure of the finger without releasing the key, a motion causing the tangent momentarily to increase the tension of the string and thus producing slight variations in pitch. K. P. E. Bach, in his Versuch uber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, 2 vols. (1753, '62), considers Bebung a great advantage of the clavichord over the harpsichord and piano, which both lack this effect. It is indicated by the sign shown:

[see various editions of K. P. E. Bach's 18 Probestucke]. Bebung is mentioned in the theoretical writings of W. K. Printz (1668), J. Mattheson (1735), F. W. Marpurg (1750), K. P. E. Bach, and many later authors. The sign, however, does not occur in the literature for the clavichord before Bach. The reference in many music books to certain passages in Beethoven and Chopin as calling for Bebung is misleading. Bebung is a fluctuation of

87

BEC

BELGIUM

used in practical music varies from c. 25 db (softest violin tone) to 100 db (fortissimo of full orchestra). See J. Mills, A Fugue in Cycles and Bets [1935]; S. S. Stevens and H. Davis, Hearing: Its Psychology and Physiology (1938), pp. 450ff.

pitch, which cannot be produced on the piano. It is possible, however, that Beethoven, in writing such passages, tried to imitate on the piano the Bebung of the clavichord [see Tremolo, Ex. d).

Bee [F.]. The mouthpiece of the clarinet or recorder; see Mouthpiece (b), (d). Becarre [F.]. The natural sign [see Accidentals]. In the 17th century it also served to indicate the major mode, e.g., mi becarre, E major. Becken [G.]. Cymbals. Bediichtig [G.]. Unhurried, deliberate. Be fa, befa. See under Hexachord III. Beggar's Opera, The. Ballad opera with music arranged by J. Pepusch (libretto by John Gay), produced in London, 1728. The plot is a satirical presentation of life among the lower classes in early 18th-century London, the characters being highwaymen, pickpockets, and harlots. The most successful of all *ballad operas, it has been revived several times (F. Austin, 1920; B. Britten, 1948), with fuller harmonization and orchestration. Another revi\.:al, with much the same plot but with new music, is Weill's *Dreigroschenoper.

Begleitung [G.]. Accompaniment. Behaglich [G.]. Comfortably, with ease. Behende [G.] Nimbly, quickly. Beisser [G.]. An 18th-century name for the *mordent. Bel. A unit for measuring changes in the intensity of sound, i.e., loudness, named for Alexander Graham Bell. One bel is equal to an interval of intensity corresponding to a tenfold increase in sound energy. Thus, if the quietest sound audible to the human ear is generated by sound energy equal to Eo and if EdEo = 10, the intensity corresponding to the energy E 1 (10 times greater than Eo) is 1 bel above zero. (Zero does not mean absence of sound but is an arbitrary point of reference; in this case it means the lowest audible sound.) Because 1 bel represents a considerable change in loudness, the more commonly used unit of measure is the decibel (db), equal to one-tenth of a bel. One db represents the smallest change in loudness that the average normal ear can detect, about 26 per cent. The ear's range between audibility and pain is about 12 bels. The intensity of sounds

Bel canto [It.]. The Italian vocal technique of the 18th century, with its emphasis on beauty of sound and brilliance of performance rather than dramatic expression or romantic emotion. In spite of repeated reactions against bel canto (or its abuses, such as display for its own sake; Gluck, Wagner) and the frequent exaggeration of its virtuoso element (coloratura), it must be considered a highly artistic technique and the only proper one for Italian opera and Mozart. Its early development is closely bound up with that of the Italian opera seria (A. Scarlatti, N. A. Porpora, N. Jommelli, J. A. Hasse, N. Piccinni). More recently the term bel canto has been associated with a mid-17th-century development represented by L. Rossi (1597-1653) and G. Carissimi (1605-74), who cultivated a simple, melodious vocal style of songlike quality, without virtuoso coloraturas [see BuMBE, esp. pp. ll8ff]. Lit.: C. L. Reid, Bel Canto. Principles and Practices (1950); H. Klein, The Bel Canto (1923); A. Machabey, Le Bel Canto (1948); B. Ulrich, Die altitalienische Gesangsmethode (1933); L. Landshoff, :j:Alte Meister des Bel Canto, 5 vols. [1912-27]; G. Silva, "The Beginnings of the Art of 'Bel Canto'" (MQ viii). Belebend, belebt [G.]. Brisk, animated. Belgium. This article deals with the musical history of the southern portion of the Low Countries (Dutch, French, and mostly Roman Catholic), as distinguished from the northern part, the Netherlands (Dutch and mostly Protestant). The highly important role that Belgium played in the earlier history of music is obscured by the name "Netherlands school," widely used for a long line of 15th- and 16th-century composers, most of whom came from Belgium [see Flemish school]. This great period, during which Belgian musicians held leading positions everywhere in Europe, was followed, after 1600, by a long period of stagnation and decline. Only in the field of organ and harpsichord music did Belgium produce composers of some historical significance, e.g., Charles Luython (c. 15561620), Pieter Cornet (fl. 1600-25), Giovanni Macque (c. 1550-1614; see Neapolitan school II), Charles Guillet (d. 1654), Abraham van den

88

BELGIUM

BELL

Kerckhoven (c. 1627- after 1673), Jean-Baptiste Loeillet (1680-1730), and Joseph-Hector Fiocco (1703-41) [see Editions XXVIII; the last two followed the trends of the French rococo (F. Couperin)]. At the Brussels court, HenriJacques de Croes (1705-86) and Pierre van Maldere (1729-68) were prominent choral and orchestral composers; Van Maldere contributed to the introduction of bithematism in the allegro of the early symphony. The next Belgian composer to be mentioned, Fran

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>

the early 18th century. A popular melody [Ex. 2) was used by Gluck in his ballet Don Juan (1761), as well as by Mozart in Le Nozze di Figaro (1786; finale of Act III, section in 3/4 time). More recently, Rimsky-Korsakov (Capriccio espagnol, 1887) and E. Granados (Goyescas, no. 3, 1912) have written fandangos. Local varieties of the dance are the *Malaguefia (from Malaga), the Granadina (from Granada), the Murciana (from Murcia), the Rondefia (from Ronda), etc. Fanfare. (1) French term for a brass band, either military or civilian. (2) A short tune for trumpets, used as a signal for ceremonial, military, or hunting purposes. Since they are intended for natural instruments, they include the tones of the triad only. The various nations possess a large repertory of such melodies. Fanfare-like motifs have been frequently used in art music. As early as the 14th century they occur in a caccia by Ghirardello (Gherardellus)

to the words "sounded his horn" [see Ex. a; see HAM, no. 52] and in a virelai "Or sus vous dormez trop" (Awake, you sleep too long; Ex. b). a.

I@ J l J )11 J J.l J lp31 ffl ffl IJI suo cor-no so- na-va

A famous example is Dufay's Et in terra "ad modum tubae," a long canon accompanied throughout by fanfare motifs played by two trombones in alternation [Ex. c). Later instances are found in Josquin's Vive le roy [SchGMB, no. 62a), in Janequin's program chanson "La Guerre" (c. 1528) and in other battaglie, in the introductory "toccata" of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), and in Bach's Capriccio sopra Ia lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo. Various operatic composers have made highly effective use of the fanfare, e.g., Beethoven in Fidelio (Act II, arrival of the governor), Wagner in the horn-call scene of Tristan (introduction to the first scene of Act II). Lit.: H. de la Porte, Les Fanfares des equipages fram;ais, rev. ed. (1930); K. Taut, Die Anftinge der Jagdmusik (1926); G. Schiinemann, ed., ~Trompeterfanfaren, Sonaten und Feldstucke (1936; see Editions XVIII A 7); id., in ZMWxvii. Fantasia [It.; F.fantaisie; G. Fantasie, Phantasie). Generally speaking, a composition in which the "free flight of fancy" prevails over contemporary conventions of form, style, etc. Naturally, the term covers a great variety of types, which may be tentatively classified as five groups. (1) Pieces of a markedly improvisory character; written records, as it were, of the improvisation technique of the various masters. Examples are Bach's Chromatic Fantasia and his lesser-known Fantasia in A minor for harpsichord (BG xxxvi, 81-87; ed. Peters, iv, 22-29), Mozart's Fantasia in D minor for piano, and Beethoven's Fantasia op. 77. The numerous Fantasien by K. P. E. Bach also belong to this category [see HAM, no. 296). (2) *Character pieces of the romantic era. Here, "fantasia" is one of the various titles used to indicate a dreamlike mood or some other fanciful whim. Examples are Brahms' Fantasien op. 116.

307

FANTASIA

FARCE

(3) Sonatas in freer form, or of a special character; e.g., Beethoven's op. 27, nos. 1, 2, both entitled "Sonata quasi una fantasia" and deviating in various respects from the conventional sonata form and style; Schubert's Wanderer Fantasie op. 15, in which a song of his ("Der Wanderer") is used as the main subject for all the movements [see Cyclic]; Schumann's Fantasie op. 17, which is a romantic hybrid of sonata form. (4) Operatic potpourris of a free and somewhat improvisory treatment, as if written in remembrance of a performance; e.g., Liszt's Reminiscences de "Don Juan" (1841). (5) In the 16th and 17th centuries, a term for instrumental music that was sometimes used interchangeably with ricercar, tiento, and even praeambulum. Fantasias were written for the lute, for keyboard instruments, and for instrumental ensembles. There is a large repertory of lute and vihuela fantasias in the music of Marco d'Aquila (1536; SchGMB, no. 94), Luis Milan (1535; HAM, no. 121), Francesco da Milano (1547; SchGMB, no. 115), Miguel de Fuenllana (1554), and others. The great majority of 16th-century fantasias are for lute, vihuela, guitar, and other stringed instruments, but the keyboard fantasia has a considerably longer development. The term "fantasia" first appears c. 1520 in the tablatures of Hans Kotter and Leonhard Kleber. Kotter's Fantasia [see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbuchern (1927), p. 58] is a prelude and fugue. Kleber's two fantasias employ various motifs in free imitation, sequential treatment, paired imitation, etc. One of them ("Fantasy in Fa," Orgeltabulaturbuch, fol. 56a, 1524) opens with a homophonic introduction and closes with an extended running passage over an F-pedal. Andrea Gabrieli's Fantasia allegra [*Editions III, 3] shows a free mixture ofimitation and figuration. A larger repertory of keyboard fantasias is preserved in English sources from c. 1600, especially in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, which contains fantasias by Byrd (4), Bull (2), Farnaby (10), Munday (2), Philipps (2), and others. Some of these are intabulated madrigals or chansons [Fuller Maitland-Squire ed., ii, 333, 340]. The majority are sectional compositions, beginning with a section in contrapuntal style and continuing with passagework, figurations, short imitations, dance movements, etc. In the 17th century the keyboard fantasia was cultivated mainly by Sweelinck, Frescobaldi, and Froberger. Each of these masters de-

veloped his own type, which differs considerably from the others. The meaning of the term instrumental (more properly, *ensemble) fantasia, in publications such as Fantasie et recerchari a tre voci (1549) and Fantasie recercari contrapunti a tre voci ( 1551 ), is not fixed, and the titles in these books (containing mostly compositions by Tiburtino and Willaert) seem to be used interchangeably. Fantaisies by Claude Le Jeune and F. E. du Caurroy (c. 1610; ed. H. Expert[l910?]) and by Charles Guillet (1610; see Editions XXVIII, 4) are strictly imitative. In the 17th century the ensemble fantasia was cultivated mainly in England; s~~ Fancy. Lit.: 0. Deffner, Uber die Entwicklung der Fantasie for Tasten-Instrumente (bis J. P. Sweelinck) (1927); E. H. Meyer, Die mehrstimmige Spielmusik des 17. Jahrhunderts in Nord- und Mitteleuropa (1934); H. Colin Slim, "The Keyboard Ricercar and Fantasia in Italy, c. 15001550" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1960); M. Reimann, "Zur Deutung des Begriffs Fantasia" (AMWx): P. Hamburger, "Die Fantasien in Emanuel Adriansens Pratum musicum (1600)" (ZMW xii). See also under Fancy. Fantasiestiick [G.]. See under Fantasia (2). Fantastic Symphony. See Symphonie fantastique. Fantasy. (1) See Fantasia; Fancy. (2) The development section (fantasy section) in *sonata form. Farandole. A Proven~al dance performed by men and women who, holding hands, form a long chain and follow the leader through a great variety of figures to music played on the *pipe and tabor. The dance seems to be of very ancient origin (symbolic celebration of Theseus' escape from the labyrinth?) and is still danced today. Similar dances are the *branle and *cotillon. The music of the farandole is usually in moderate 6/8 meter. The dance has been introduced into opera by Bizet (L'Artesienne) and Gounod (Mireille). See G. Beaucaire, in RMC v. Farbenklavier [G.]. *Color organ. Farce [It. farsa]. (1) Originally, an interpolation, as in a *trope. (2) In plays and operas, chiefly of the 18th century, farcing means the introduction of alien elements, usually of a humorous, comical, or even lascivious nature [see Intermezzo]. This meaning persists in present-day usage, in which farce is a light comedy, sometimes vulgar, frequently a travesty of a serious model. About 1800, Italian comic operas in one

308

FAREWELL SONATA

FAUXBOURDON

act were calledfarsa, e.g., Rossini's La Cambiale di matrimonio (181 0). Farewell Sonata. See Adieux, Les. Farewell Symphony. See Abschieds-Symphonie. Fasola. A system of *solmization, much used in England and in America during the 17th and 18th centuries, in which only four of the six Guidonian syllables are used, the syllables fa sol Ia being applied to c-d-e as well as to the identical progression f-g-a, and the mi being used for the seventh degree, b. Before 1800 the fasola method was used in certain American tune books, the letters F, S, L, F, S, L, M being placed on a staff (e.g., in John Tuft's An Introduction to the Singing of Psalm-Tunes, 1721). In 1802 William Little (The Easy Instructor) introduced four different shapes of note for each of the syllables, a method known as buckwheat, fourshape, shape-note, or character notation [see Ex.], which proved very successful in the rural districts of the South.

l$g

zl

j

d

fa

sol

Ia

t fa

r

sol

F t'

t'I

Ia

fa

mi

Lit.: I. Lowens, Music and Musicians in Early America (1964), pp. 58-88; D. Hom, "Shape Note Hymnals and the Art Music of Early America" (master's thesis, Rochester Univ., 1942); G. P. Jackson, "Buckwheat Notes" (MQ xix); C. Seeger, "Contrapuntal Style in the Three-voice Shape-note Hymns" (MQ xxvi); K. P. Fuller, in Etude lvii, 501. Fastoso [It.]. Pompous. Fausse relation [F.]. False relation [see Cross relation]. Faust. Opera in five acts by Gounod (libretto by J. Barbier and M. Carre, based on Goethe's tragedy), produced in Paris, 1859. Revised version with accompanied recitatives and ballet produced in Paris, 1869. Setting: Germany, 16th century. Fauxbourdon [F.]. (l) Historically and properly, fauxbourdon is a 15th-century French technique of composition in which a plainsong melody transposed to the upper octave is notated together with a contrapuntal part moving along at the lower sixth or occasionally at the octave, while a middle part is extemporized by a singer doubling the melody at the lower fourth through-

out [see Ex., from Dufay's "Juvenis qui puellam"; see WoGM ii, 57ff, and iii, 87]. According to recent studies (Besseler), fauxbourdon was invented by Dufay about 1428, its first use being in the Communion of his Missa Sancti Jacobi.

.. ....... .. . l c .. I c •• .. • • Cantus. Faulxbourdon.

Contratenor IJi· •• ••• • •

~

···II

Quia ipsa coniunx

Here as well as in other compositions by Dufay, notably a number of hymns [see Editions VIII, 49], the fauxbourdon technique is used throughout either the entire composition or a selfcontained section, resulting inevitably in a certain monotony. Quite properly, Dufay and Binchois [see J. Marix, Les Musiciens de Ia cour de Bourgogne (1937), pp. l3lff] used it mainly for what might be called *Gebrauchsmusik associated with the lay devotional movement (hymns, psalms, Magnificats). The term "fauxbourdon" has recently been explained as referring to the middle part added a fourth below the superius (Besseler; see under Bourdon), an explanation hardly more satisfactory than the older one, according to which it referred to the lowest part, this being regarded as a "false bass" because it was a secondary contrapuntal part and not the cantus firmus. Since about 1950 fauxbourdon has become the subject of studies and controversies, claims and counterclaims (mainly concerning its relationship to the English *faburden), to an extent hardly commensurate with its relatively minor importance. Of real importance was the incorporation of the sixth chord into the musical vocabulary [see Sixth chord], not the invention of one or another artificial method producing nothing but parallel sixth chords. Also see related articles: Discant; Discantus supra librum; Faberdon; Fabord6n;

Faburden; Falsobordone. (2) In modem usage, a general designation for harmonic progressions based on parallel sixth chords, such as occur not only in old music but in the works of Bach, Beethoven, and others. In scholarly writings the designation *sixthchord style (or six-three writing) is preferable.

309

FA VOLA D'ORFEO, LA

FESTIVALS

(3) In present-day English usage, "a means of giving interest to hymn-singing by supplying the choir sopranos with a freely written part, which often soars above the hymn-tune as sung by the congregation" [see P. A. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music (1955), p. 342]. This would seem to be one of the various newer meanings of the term resulting from a misunderstanding of its proper connotation. A more appropriate name for this method of singing is *descant. Lit.: M. Bukofzer, Geschichte des englischen Diskants und des Fauxbourdons (1936); T. Georgiades, Englische Diskanttraktate aus der ersten Halfte des 15. Jahrhunderts (1937); E. Trumble, Fauxbourdon [1959]; H. Besseler, Bourdon und Fauxbourdon (1950); id., in AM xx, MF i, AM xxvi; R. von Ficker, in AM xxiii, AM xxv; M. F. Bukofzer, in MQ xxxviii; S. Clercx, in RdM 1957, p. 151; S. W. Kenney, in MQ xlv; B. Trowell, in MD xiii; F. L. Harrison, in MD xvi; E. Trumble, in RBM xiv. The etymology offauxbourdon and faburden is discussed by H. M. Flasdieck in AM xxv and Anglia lxxiv, 188; G. Kirchner, in AM xxvi; N. L. Wallin, in CP 1953. Favola d'Orfeo, La. [It., The Fable of Orpheus]. Opera in a prologue and four acts by Monteverdi (libretto by A. Striggio), produced in Mantua, 1607. Setting: ancient Greece. Combining the archaic style of the earliest operas [see Nuove musiche] with great expressiveness and dramatic impact, Orfeo is a landmark in the history of opera [see also under Orchestra]. It has been revived with considerable success. Feeders. In organ building, small bellows employed to supply the large bellows with wind. See Organ I.

of the Offertory "Felix namque es," for certain feasts of the Virgin Mary (LU, p. 1271; a more accurate source is the Sarum Gradual]. Some settings omit the intonation "Felix" and begin with "namque" a-g-c'-d'-e'-d'-c'-e'-d'-c'. The "Felix namque" enjoyed great popularity in England, second only to the *"In nomine." The earliest known setting is in a recently discovered fragment from c. 1400 [see T. Dart, in ML xxxv, 201]. A setting from the early 16th century (Brit. Mus., Roy. App. 56) is interesting because it is in*quintuple meter. Others are by Redford, Preston, Blitheman, Shelby, Tallis, and T. Tomkins [see C. F. Pfatteicher, John Re4ford(1934); *Editions XXXIV, 1; Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, see Virginal music (b)]. Fellowships. See Scholarships, fellowships, and prizes. Feminine cadence. See Masculine, feminine cadence. Feria, ferial. Any weekday in the calendar of the Roman Catholic Church on which no feast occurs. This meaning is the reverse of the original meaning of L. feria, i.e., festival day. The reversal came about by extending the use of the word from Sunday to the other days, Sunday being named feria prima, Monday feria secunda, Tuesday tertia, etc. Later, Sunday was called Dominica, whereas for Saturday the Hebrew name Sabbato was kept. It should be noted that the adjective "ferial" (days, rites) is used in a meaning closer to the original, i.e., including Sunday, provided no special feast occurs. The opposite is festal (days, rites), which refers to feasts on weekdays or Sundays. Fermata [It.]. In Italian, pedal point. In American and German usage, fermata means pause [It. corona].

Fe fa ut, Fefaut. See under Hexachord III. Feierlich [G.]. Solemn. Feldmusik [G.]. A 17th- and 18th-century designation for brass music for open-air performance; such pieces were also called Feldstiicke, Feldsonaten, Feldpartiten, etc. Originally these were fanfares in four-part harmony played by the Feldtrompeter, i.e., the military trumpeters as distinguished from the Kammertrompeter, who were members of the orchestra [see SaHMI, p. 328]. See Lit. under Fanfare. J. P. Krieger wrote a Lustige Feld-Musik (1704) and Haydn a number of Feldpartiten. Felix namque. Title of numerous English organ compositions, mostly from the 16th century, so called because they are polyphonic elaborations

Feme, wie aus der [G.]. As if from a distance. Femwerk [G.]. Echo organ. Fes [G.]. F-fl.at. See under Pitch names. Festal. See under Feria. Feste Romane [It.]. See under Symphonic poem IV. Festivals. The earliest instances of musical festivals are the French *puys, which originated with the troubadours of the 13th century and continued until the 16th century. The Sangerkriege of the German minnesingers, of which Wagner gives a lively picture in his Tannhiiuser

310

FESTIVALS

FESTOSO

und der Siingerkrieg auf der Wartburg, were an imitation of the puys. Of similar age are the Eisteddfod of the Welsh bards. I. England A new development started in England in the 17th century with the Festival of the Sons of the Clergy, which was founded in 1655 and still continues, in the form of a musical service on grand lines. There followed, in 1724, the Three Choirs Festival, which combines the choral forces of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford and lasts several days. Others are the Birmingham Festival (1768-1912), Norwich Festival (1770-since 1824 triennially), and Leeds Festival (1858, since 1874 triennially), all of which are held for the benefit oflocal charitable institutions. The Handel Festivals in the Crystal Palace began in 1857 but ended in 1936, when the Palace was damaged by fire. Also notable is the Glyndebourne Opera Festival, Sussex, founded in 1934 by A. and J. Christie. II. United States. The earliest American festivals on record are those of the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston (triennial; 1857-83) and at Worcester (1858). In 1869 P. S. Gilmore organized his huge festival Peace Jubilee, as a celebration of the conclusion of the Civil War, employing an orchestra of 1,000 and a chorus of 10,000. In his World's Peace Jubilee of 1872 he doubled these forces and added electrically fired cannons, chimes, and powerful organs. The Worcester Festivals became an established annuai institution in 1869, and Cincinnati followed with its biennial Cincinnati Music Festival, commonly called May Festivals, in 1873 (founded by T. Thomas). The Ann Arbor May Festivals of the University of Michigan were founded in 1893. At Bethany College in Lindsborg, Kansas, annual performances of The Messiah were begun in 1882 and have developed into a festival week. The Bethlehem Bach Choir of Bethlehem, Pa. was founded in 1898 and has given numerous festivals, each including a performance of Bach's B-minor Mass. At Northwestern University festivals were established in 1909 as the Evanston North Shore Festival and, after a lapse in 1932, were revived in 1937. In the same year (1909) began the Spring Festivals of Cornell University, now held at irregular intervals. Outstanding among subsequent developments are: Berkshire Festival of Chamber Music at Pittsfield, Mass. (established 1918 by Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, transferred to the Library of Congress after 1924 and also known as Coolidge Chamber Music Festival, which featured numerous first performances of chamber works); Westchester

County Music Festival (1925, now at White Plains, N.Y.); Eastman School Festival ofAmerican Music at Rochester, N.Y. (1930, founded by Howard Hanson); Westminster Festival at Princeton, N.J. (1936; programs of American music); Berkshire Symphonic Festival at Lenox, Mass. (founded by Henry K. Hadley at Stockbridge in 1934, since 1936 in connection with the Boston Symphony Orchestra; since 1940 held at Tanglewood); and Marlboro Music Festival at Marlboro, Vt. (founded by A. Busch and R. Serkin in 1951; offers instruction and concerts). For detailed information on these and other festivals, see Pierre Key's Music Year Book and the Calendar of Music Activities in the United States of America published by the President's Music Committee of the People-to-People Program. Ill. Other countries. Outside the United States and England, music festivals are found mainly in Germany and Austria. Among these the Niederrheinische Musikfeste (founded 1817; held alternately in Cologne, Dusseldorf, and Aachen) are most like the American or English choral festivals. More important from the artistic point of view were the Tonkilnstlerfeste of the Allgemeiner deutscher Musikverein, founded by F. Liszt in 1861 and held annually in different cities, the last (1932) in Zurich. Celebrations of great German composers are frequently held in their native cities, e.g., the Beethovenfeste in Bonn, the Bachfeste in Eisenach, the Mozartfeste in Salzburg, Austria. Most famous among these are the *Bayreuther Festspiele, devoted to Wagner's operas. The Kammermusikfeste at Donaueschingen, founded in 1921, have been very important in the development of modem music [see Gebrauchsmusik]. Similar in purpose are the festivals of the International Society for Contemporary Music, held since 1923 in various places all over the world (complete programs are given in Slonimsky's Music since 1900). More recent festivals that have attracted much attention are the Maggio musicale Fiorentino of Florence (since 1933) and the Internationale Musikfestwoche in Lucerne (since 1938). Lit.: D. Stoll, Music Festivals of Europe (1938); G. Gavazzeni, Le Feste musicali (1944); J. Feschotte, Les Hauts Lieux de Ia musique (1949); W. A. Fischer, Music Festivals in USA (1933); F. Ghisi, Feste musicali Medicee (1939); H. M. Schletterer, in MJM xxii, 181-96 (16th century). Festoso [It.]. Festive.

311

FIGURATION

FESTSCHRIFT

Festschrift [G.]. General designation for publications (not necessarily German) usually presented as a tribute to outstanding scholars on the occasion of their 60th, 70th, etc. birthday. They contain contributions from colleagues, pupils, scholars in the same (or an allied) field, etc. Many musicologists, and occasionally composers and conductors, have been honored in this way. The Festschriften referred to in this dictionary are listed in the Abbreviations under Collective Publications. Others have been published (under various titles) for: J. Ecorcheville (1916), C. Engel (1943), W. Fischer (1956), M. Friedlander, (1922), J. Handschin (1962), K. Jeppesen (1962), Z. Kodaly (1953, 1957), I. Krohn (1927), R. Lach (1954), R. Miinnich (1947, 1957), E. Newman (1955), F. Pedrell (1911), P. Raabe (1942), A. Schoenberg (1924, 1934), A. Schweitzer (1946), J. Smend (1927), and F. Weingartner (1933). See W. Gerboth, "Index of Festschriften and Some Similar Publications" (CP Reese). Festspiel [G.]. See under Festivals III; also Biihne. Ff. Abbr. for fortissimo. F fa ut. See under Hexachord III. F -hole. See Sound hole. Fiato [It.]. Breath. Stromenti da fiato, wind instruments. Fiddle. Colloquial for the violin and stringed instruments resembling it, particularly the folk varieties used to accompany dancing. Also, the primitive ancestors of the violin, as found in many Oriental cultures. See Violin II. Fidelio [G.]. Opera in two acts by Beethoven (libretto by J. Sonnleithner and G. F. Treitschke after Bouilly), first produced in Vienna in 1805 as Fidelio oder die ehe/iche Liebe in three acts, rev. 1806 as Lenore in two acts, final rev. 1814. Setting: a state prison in Spain, 18th century. For the various overtures, see Lenore Overtures. See also under Melodrama. Fidicen [L. fides, string]. Humanist (16thcentury) name for a string player. Fiedel [G.]. (I) Colloquial for violin and the like. (2) Generic term for medieval violins (vie/le, fidula) and modem imitations thereof. Fiero [It.]. High-spirited, bold. Fife. A small flute with six to eight finger holes and usually no key, used chiefly in military

bands. It has been replaced in the drum corps by the piccolo. For ill. see under Flute. Fifre [F.]. Fife. Fifteenth. In organs, name for foundation stops sounding two octaves (fifteen notes) above normal. Hence, 2-foot stops. Fifth. See under Intervals. Also Blown fifth; Consonance; Circle of fifths; Parallel fifths; Organum (2) I; Triad. Concerning the relative importance of the fifth and the fourth, see under Fourth. Figaro, The Marriage of. See Nozze di Figaro, Le. Figlia del Regimento, La. See Fi/le du Regiment, La.

Figura [L.]. (I) In medieval theory, generic name for the notational signs. Franco (CS i, 119) distinguishes the figurae simplices, i.e., the single notes (longa, brevis, semibrevis), from the figurae compositae, i.e., the ligatures. Figura obliqua means the oblique form of *ligatures. (2) See Figures, doctrine of. Figural, figurate, figured [G. jiguriert]. The terms are rather indiscriminately used with two different though related meanings. ( l) As a translation of L. musica figurata, a 15th- and 16th-century term for any polyphonic music as opposed to musica plana, plainsong. In particular, the term figural music or style [G. Figuralmusik,figurierter Still denotes the highly florid polyphonic style of the early Flemish composers, such as Ockeghem and Obrecht, as distinguished from the less complex style of Josquin and his successors [see Musica reservata]. (2) Applied to 17thand 18th-century music, the terms mean the use of stereotyped figures or motifs, particularly in variations or in the accompanying parts of organ chorales [see Figuration; Figured chorale]. The ambiguous and inconsistent use of these terms is to be deplored, particularly since "figured" has still another meaning in the term *figured bass. Tentatively the following distinctions are recommended: Figurate = florid [see Webster]; figural = using musical figures; figured = provided with numerals. Hence: figurate melody; figural variation or chorale; figured bass. See the subsequent articles. Figuralpassion [G.]. Same as motet Passion; see Passion music B. Figuration. The use of stereotyped figures, particularly in variations on a theme. See Figural (2); Variations III [Ex. var. 1].

312

FIGURE

FILAR IL TUONO

Figure. See under Motif. Figured bass. A bass part provided with figures (numerals) to indicate harmonies [see Thoroughbass]. Figured chorale [G. Figurierter Choral]. A species of *organ chorale (chorale prelude) in which a certain figure (i.e., a short and characteristic group of notes) is used consistently, in one or several of the contrapuntal parts, against the plain notes of the chorale, which usually is in the soprano. Most of the chorales in Bach's OrgelbUchlein belong to this category, e.g., "Aile Menschen mtissen sterben," "Der Tag, der ist so freudenreich," and "Jesu, meine Freude." "Ich ruf zu dir" is an especially good example. A more appropriate term would be "figural chorale" [see Figural]. Figured melody. Ornamented or florid melody. A more appropriate term would be "figurate melody" [see Figural]. Figures, doctrine of [G. Figurenlehre]. A 17thand 18th-century theory of musical composition based on the idea that music is an art analogous to rhetoric, i.e., the art of speech and literature. This idea is carried out mainly through an elaborate system of figurae (established in rhetoric by Aristotle and Quintilian), i.e., standard devices that differ from ordinary speech and are introduced to render oratory more expressive and impressive. Examples are anaphora (repeating the same word at the beginning of successive sentences), aposiopesis (sudden stopping, silence), pathopoeia (expression of hate, wrath, pity), hypallage (mixture of two constructions), hypotyposis (use of illustrative examples), noema (reference to something generally known), etc. Among the numerous writers who applied these "figures" to music were Joachim Burmeister (1599, 1606), Johannes Nucius (1613), Joachim Thuringus (1625), Christoph Bernhard (c. 1660), Johann Gottfried Walther (1708, 1732), and Johann Mattheson ( 1739). While some of the rhetorical figures could be adopted with the same or a very similar significance (e.g., aposiopesis, pathopoeia, the latter in the general meaning of expression of passions, hence also chromaticism), others could be applied to music only with a more or less different meaning. Thus, hypal/age was used as a term for imitation by inversion (mixture of theme and inverted theme), noema as a designation for chordal style, and hypotosis as a generic term for word painting. Others were interpreted

differently by various writers. Thus, anaphora is explained by Burmeister as a sort of fugal imitation, by Thuringus as a repeat of the bass (basso ostinato?), and by Nucius and others as repeat in general, while Mattheson comes closest to its proper meaning by saying that it means the use of the same formula (e.g., g-a-b-c') at the beginning of several successive melodic phrases [see Lit., Lenneberg, p. 203]. In addition to terms borrowed from rhetoric, the above-mentioned writers also introduced into "musical rhetoric" numerous figurae of purely musical significance, such as anabasis (ascent), catabasis (descent), circulatio (turning motion, f-g-a-g), saltus Gump), diminutio,fuga, syncopatio, etc. Together with the others they formed a veritable "vocabulary of musical speech." Another aspect of musical rhetoric is represented by the loci topici. In rhetoric these are conventional topics (arguments) used by the orator or writer to argue his case and prove his point. Examples are the locus notationis (argument derived from the name, e.g., "Music"), locus oppositorum (contrasting "Music" and "Science"), locus exemplorum (argument by means of examples), etc. In music these became devices to stimulate and facilitate invention. Mattheson, who treats this matter at length, interprets the locus notationis to include devices suggested by musical "notation" (use of different time values, inversion, fugal answer, etc.), the locus oppositorum as the category of contrast (change of meter and tempo, use of high and low notes), and the locus exemplorum as imitation of other composers. Lit.: H. H. Unger, Die Beziehungen zwischen Musik und Rhetorik im 16.-18. Jahrhundert (1941); H. Brandes, Studien zur musika/ische Figurenlehre im 16. Jahrhundert (1935); J. M. Mtiller-Blattau, Die Kompositionslehre Schutzens in der Fassung seines SchU/ers Christoph Bernhard (1926); A. Schering, "Die Lehre von den musikalischen Figuren" (KJ xxi [1908]); H. Lenneberg, in Journal of Music Theory ii, 47ff, I93ff (trans. Mattheson); A. Schmitz, in AMW ix (Walther); F. Feldmann, in AMW xv (Thuringus, Nucius); H. H. Eggebrecht, in AMW xvi; C. 0. Dreger, in BJ 1934 (Bach); K. Ziebler, in ZMWxv; A. Schmitz, in CP 1950a (Bach). Filar il tuono [It.], filer le son [F.]. An 18thcentury term, properly a synonym of *messa di voce. Modem writers and singers, however, frequently interpret it as calling for sustained

313

FILLE DU REGIMENT, LA

FILM MUSIC

notes without the crescendo and decrescendo implied by messa di voce. Fille du Regiment, La [F., The Daughter of the Regiment; It. La Figlia del Regimento]. Opera in two acts by Donizetti (libretto by J. F. A. Bayard and J. H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), produced in Paris, 1840. Setting: Bologna, early 19th century. It is Donizetti's first opera in French, and one of his most popular. Film music. In the early days of silent films, music, played by a pianist, was considered mainly a means to drown out the noise of the projector. A pianist would play well-known melodies or improvise. Often he was assisted by a percussion man who would produce tonal effects appropriate to the action: gunfire, birdsong, railway, airplane, thunderstorm, etc. By about 1920 orchestras appeared in theaters in larger cities, and various film companies began to provide them with music suitable for the action on the screen. A great many short descriptive pieces were written under titles such as "Help, Help," "The Slimy Viper," "Love's Response," or "Broken Vows." A. Schoenberg contributed to this repertory his Begleitmusik zu einer Lichtspielszene, op. 34 (1930), consisting of"Drohende Gefahr," "Angst," and "Katastrophe." From about 1925 on it became customary to have music composed expressly for individual films. The earliest example on record is the music M.-F. Gaillard wrote for El Dorado in 1921. At this time some important composers of reputation became interested in writing music for the movies, e.g., Satie (Entr'acte, 1924) and R. Strauss (Rosenkava/ier, film version, 1925). Honegger wrote film music in 1922 that later became his orchestral work, Pacific 231. The 1920's were the era of the great movie orchestras, often led by well-known conductors. Nevertheless, the majority of theaters did not have orchestras capable of performing such ambitious scores. The decisive change came with the introduction, about 1929, ofthesoundtrack. Originally the music was recorded simultaneously with the picture, but this method proved unsatisfactory. The common practice now is to make a separate soundtrack that is then played back on the camera film. The composer's approach to the peculiar demands and problems of the medium varies greatly. In the great majority of so-called commercial American films, the music is late romantic in style (Rachmaninoff, Strauss, Delius) and frankly descriptive in purpose, regarding physical situations (forest, mountains, desert, sunset)

as well as psychological ones (love, distress, fright). Often extensive use is made ofleitmotivs. The music is continuous (or nearly so), accompanying the picture from the beginning to the end and thus automatically relegating itself to a background role. In contrast to such routine works there are numerous film scores of intrinsic musical interest or value, written by well-known composers. Many of these, it should be noted, were not written for the entertainment industry (feature films), but belong to the nonfiction field (documentaries, here abbreviated as "Doc"), an area that tends to be less circumscribed in its tastes and range of styles. Among the notable scores are: A. Copland, The City (1939; Doc), Our Town (1940), The Heiress (1949); V. Thomson, The River (1938; Doc), Louisiana Story (1948; Doc); W. Walton, Spitfire (1942; Doc), Henry V (1944), Hamlet (1948); S. Prokofiev, Lieutenant Kije (1934), Alexander Nevsky (1938), Ivan the Terrible (1945); R. Vaughan Williams, Coastal Command (1942; Doc), Scott of the Antarctic (1948; incorporated in his Sinfonia Antarctica), Vision of William Blake (1958; Doc); H. Villa Lobos, Green Mansions (1959); L. Bernstein, On the Wateifront (1954); G. Auric, A Nous Ia /iberte (1931), Le Sang d'un Poete (1931), Moulin Rouge (1953), Les Mysteres de Picasso (1957; Doc); A. Honegger, L'Idee (1934; Doc), Pygmalion (1938); D. Milhaud, L'Hippocampe (1934; Doc), Dreams That Money Can Buy (1948; with Hindernith, Cage, Varese, P. Bowles, L. Applebaum); G. Kubik, Memphis Belle (1944; Doc), Gerald McBoing Boing (1950; cartoon); R. Vlad, Leonardo da Vinci (1952), Romeo and Juliet (1954); and J. Cage, Works of Calder (1950; Doc). Although it is no longer fashionable to use existing musical works as background for films, a striking impression was achieved in Jean Cocteau's Les Enfants terribles, with the music of Vivaldi. In the 1960's film music entered a new stage. Financially, the cinema felt increasingly the competition of television, and the majority of serious composers, ranging in age from Stravinsky to Boulez, tended to complement their composing activities by conducting rather than by writing film music. Recent film scores tend to use more and more such devices as *musique concrete, *electronic music, etc., and the widespread use of the magnetic tape may in time mean the death of the large studio orchestra, conducted by a studio musical director, performing scores for a conventional symphony orchestra. Lit.: L. L. Sabaneev, Music for the Film (1935);

314

FINGERING

FINAL K. London, Film Music (1936); H. Eisler, Composing for the Film (1947); J. Huntley, British Film Music [1947]; L. Levy, Music for the Movies (1948); J. Huntley and R. Manvell, The Technique of Film Music [1957]; G. Hacquard, La Musique et le cinema (1959); Z. Lissa, Aesthetik der Film Musik (1965); F. W. Sternfeld, "Music and the Cinema," in Twentieth Century Music, ed. R. H. Myers [1960], pp. 95-lll; Z. Lissa, "Formprobleme der Film Musik" (CP Fellerer); F. W. Sternfeld, in MQ xxxvii, 161 (Copland); id., in MQ xxxiii, 517; C. Austin, in ML v, 177; E. Irving, in ML xxiv, 223. Additional literature F.W.S. in GDB and MGG. Final, finalis. See under Church modes I. Finale [It.]. (I) The last movement of a sonata or any of the related forms, i.e., symphony, quartet, etc. In the classical sonata it is usually a fast movement in either rondo or sonata form; occasionally it is written as a theme with variations (Beethoven, piano sonata op. Ill; Brahms, clarinet quintet op. 115). While Haydn and Mozart planned their finales as a "happy ending," Beethoven frequently gave his a character of final triumph and apotheosis. In this respect, Bruckner followed and even surpassed him. (2) The last piece of an operatic act. Operatic finales are usually longer and more elaborate than the other pieces (arias), since a good deal of the dramatic action is likely to take place at the end of an act. They frequently include various sections of contrasting character [e.g., the finales in Mozart's Figaro]. Alessandro Scarlatti is considered the originator of the dramatic finale. NiccoJo Piccinni ( 1728-1800) introduced the sectional construction, including change of tempo, key, etc. Lit.: M. Fuchs, "Die Entwicklung des Finales in der opera buffa vor Mozart" (diss. Vienna, 1932); A. 0. Lorenz, "Das Finale in Mozart's Meisteropern" (DM xix.9); E. J. Dent, "Ensembles and Finales in 18th-Century Italian Opera" (SIM xi, xii). Fin' al segno [It.]. "As far as the sign," indicating repetition from the beginning to the sign§. Fine [It.]. End, close. Fingerboard. In stringed instruments, a long strip of hardwood (ebony) fixed to the neck, over which the strings are stretched. The fingerboards of older instruments, such as the lute, guitar, viola da gamba, lyra, etc., were provided with frets, as are the present-day guitar and ukulele.

Finger exercise. See under Etude. Fingerfertigkeit [G.]. Agility of the fingers, virtuosity. Fingering [F. doigte; G. Fingersatz, Applicatur (obs.); It. diteggiatura, tocco; Sp. digitaci6n]. The methodical use of the fingers in playing instruments. More than any other instrument, the piano has what might be called a "natural system of fingering," owing to the natural conformity between the arrangement of the fingers and the keys. There are three chief types of fingering: (I) normal fingering. This applies to passages involving no more than five keys, e.g.,

c e g d f e c I 3 5 2 4 3 I (2) contracted or expanded fingering, e.g., g' g a h c' a f g c 513454231 This fingering usually leads to a "shift of position," that is, the thumb does not return to its original key. It is very common in extended passages of "zigzag" design (bent figures) that have no more than five tones in either direction (e.g., in Chopin's etude op. 10, no. I); (3)passing fingering, i.e., the thumb passes under a finger (second, third, fourth) or one of these fingers passes over the thumb. This fingering must be used whenever there are more than five tones in the same direction, as in scales. The modern principles of fingering are relatively new, their definite establishment by M. Clementi ( 1752-1832) being practically simultaneous with the replacement of the harpsichord and clavichord by the piano. The earlier fingering is distinguished from the modern method chiefly by the very sparing use of the thumb and fifth finger in scale passages. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, scales were played with a fingering such as: c d e f g a b a g f e d c 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 3 2 3 2 3 2 [see Ex.; also A. Guilmant, "La Musique d'orgue," in LavE ii.2, ll49ff, and WeitzmannSeifert, Geschichte der Klaviermusik (1899), pp. II, 13, 70, 82, 84, 160, etc.]. This method of passing one finger over the other, which from the modern point of view appears extremely clumsy, was entirely appropriate on the old instruments, whose keys had a smaller "fall" than those of the piano and required a much lighter touch. Particularly on the clavichord, passages sound

FINLAND

FINGERING 34 3 4 3 3 4 54 3 1 3 4 3 4 34 54 3 2 3 2 3

t& Jll3; rr cr, J Jl31 cru e:rr ¥ 1

5242

I@" lt IJ

see Positions. See H. Gleason, "Organ Instruction before Bach" (BAMS iv). · 11

25325342 4 2 5 4

d1J r r!1 f r [ f I

more even if played without the thumb. The normal position of the hand was with the middle fingers lying almost fiat on the keys and with the thumb hanging down in front of the keyboard. However, as early as 1565 Thomas de Sancta Maria, in his Libro Lamado Arte de Iafler fantasia, indicates the fingering 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 for the descending scale [see 0. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts (1910), p. 36]. The modem fingering for the descending scale (54 3 2 1 3 2 1) occurs in the keyboard works of A. Scarlatti with each finger represented by a special symbol, *, /, etc. [see the modem edition by Shedlock]. J. S. Bach was one of the first to make systematic use of the thumb and to develop more modem methods of fingering [see his Klavierbilchlein fUr Friedemann Bach, new ed. H. Keller (1927), pp. 15, 23]. He played with curved fingers and brought the thumb to the surface of the keyboard. An interesting document is Johann Kimberger's Klavierilbungen mit der Bachischen Applikatur (1762-63). Another step toward modem fingering was taken by Bach's son K. P. E. Bach [see his Versuch uber die wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen vol. i, 1753]. The next in line was Clementi. Until recently, English musicians used an older method of numbering the fingers, known as English fingering, x 1 2 3 4, i.e., with an "x" for the thumb and with 1 for the index finger (as in violin playing). This has now been almost completely abandoned for the "German fingering" 1 2 3 4 5. Oddly enough, the "English system" was widely used in Germany as well as in other countries during the 18th century, while the first record of "German fingering" is in English virginal books (c. 1600). Purcell used English fingering but in reverse order for the left hand, i.e., with the x for the fifth finger. For the system of fingering for stringed instruments,

Finland. Finland possesses a large wealth of folksongs, ancient and modem. The earliest type, called joiku, is a kind of improvised lament. Next follow the runot (sing. runo; sung to traditional legendary verses), which are melodic and rhythmically vigorous, often employing a 5/4 meter. Between 1835 and 1849 Elias Lonnrot worked these narrative folksongs into a fulllength epic, Kaleva/a, which has been used by numerous Finnish composers as a basis for songs or symphonic poems (Sibelius). There is also a considerable body of folksong originating in the Swedish-speaking districts of Finland and closely related in verse and melodic forms to the folksong of the Scandinavian peninsula. The traditional Finnish folk instrument is the kantele, a *psaltery shaped like a bird's wing, originally with 5 but today with 20 to 30 strings. Medieval liturgical MSS in the Helsinki University Library testify to the spread of Gregorian chant in the diocese of Abo (Turku) during the period 1100-1500. Some of the religious songs of the Swedish Piae cantiones of 1582 [*Editions XLIII, 10] may be of native Finnish origin. The earliest Finnish composer of general renown was B. H. Crusell (1775-1838), who was a virtuoso on the clarinet and wrote concertos for it. A continuous development started about 1850with the activity of German musicians, e.g., Fredrik Pacius (1809-91; born in Hamburg; professor of music at Helsingfors University from 1834; composer of the opera Kung Karls jakt, 1852, and of the Finnish national anthem "Maame") and Richard Faltin (1835-1918; professor at Helsingfors Conservatory, 1871-96; compiler of a collection of Finnish folksongs). A nativeborn composer was Martin Wagelius (18461906), who in 1882 became director of the new Helsingfors Conservatory (now Sibelius Academy) and who wrote a number of theoretical books (in Swedish). Robert Kajanus (18561933) used Finnish coloring in his symphonic poems Aino and Kullervo, but it was Jean Sibelius (1865-1957) who established the national Finnish style and gave Finnish music international importance. His symphonic poems (Finlandia, 1899; Pohjola's Daughter, 1906; Tapiola, 1926, etc.; see Symphonic poem IV), seven symphonies, and violin concerto have become part of the standard repertory, particularly in America and England. Contemporaries of Sibelius include Ilmari Krohn (1867-

316

FINLANDIA

FLAMENCO

1960; opera, oratorios, Passion; also author of textbooks and editor of hymns and folksongs), Oskar Merikanto (1868-1924; opera, part songs, organ music), and Armas Jli.rnefelt (1869-1958; symphonic poems Korsholma, Luvattu maa, and the popular orchestral Praeludium and Berceuse). There followed Erkki Melartin (1875-1937; opera Aino; symphonies, symphonic poems, chamber music, etc.); Selim Palmgren (18781951; opera Daniel Hjort; five piano concertos including "The River" and "Metamorphoses"; numerous lyrical piano pieces); Leevi Madetoja (1887-1947; symphonies, numerous symphonic poems; operas Polifalaisia and Juha); Armas Launis (b. 1884; operas, orchestral and piano music; also scholar and writer; see Lit.); and Toivo Kuula (1883-1918; orchestral works, chamber music). Representatives of a later generation, influenced by the trends of 20th-century music, are Yryo Kilpinen (1892-1959; songs), Aarre Merikanto (1893-1958; much symphonic and chamber music), and Vaino Raitio (18911945; ten symphonic poems, five operas, some chamber music). Prominent Finnish composers born in the 20th century include Uuno Klami (1900-61; symphonies, concertos, and various orchestral works); Sulho Ranta (1901-60); Tauno Pylkkiinen (b. 1918); Ahti Sonninen (b. 1914); Lauri Saikkola (b. 1906); Erik Bergman (b. 1911); Einar Englund (b. 1916); Einojuhani Rautavaara (b. 1928); and Joonas Kokkonen (b. 1920). Lit.: A. Launis, Vber Art, Entstehung und Verbreitung der estnisch-jinnischen Runenmelodien (1913); I. Krohn, Uber die Art . .. Geistliche Volksmelodien in Finn/and (1899); AdHM ii, 1122ff; LavEi.5, 2586f; V. Helasvuo, Sibe/iusand The Music of Finland (1952); J. Horton, Scandinavian Music (1963); K. Flodin, "Die Erweckung ... in der Finnischen Musik" (DM 1903/04); F. Bose, "Typen der Volksmusik in Karelien" (AMF iii); 0. Andersson, "The Introduction of Orchestral Music into Finland" (CP 1911); H. Pudor, in SJM ii; B. Wallner, "Scandinavian Music after the Second World War," in LBCM, also MQ li. rev. J.H. Finlandia. See under Symphonic poem IV. Fioritura [It.]. Embellishment, either written out or improvised. See Ornamentation. Fipple ftute. *Whistle flute. Firebird, The. See Oiseau de feu, L'. First-movement form. Same as *sonata form.

The term is unfortunate, since the same form frequently also occurs in the slow and in the final movement of a sonata. Fis, fisis [G.]. F-sharp, f-double-sharp. See Pitch names. Fistelstimme [G.]. Falsetto. Fistula [L.]. Medieval name for flute and, particularly, organ pipe (fistula organica). Several treatises (Notker Labeo, GS i, lOlf; "Alia musica," GS i, 147f; Odo, GS i, 303; Bernelinus, GS i, 329f; Aribo, GS ii, 222ff; Eberhard von Freising, GS ii, 279ff) give detailed instructions for making organ pipes. Of particular interest is the point that originally they all had the same diameter ("eiusdem amplitudinis omnes esse debent"; Notker) and hence a variable scaling [see Organ XII]. Fistula panis, f anglia, f germanica are humanist names for panpipe, English flute (recorder), German flute (transverse flute) respectively. Fitzwilliam Virginal Book. See under Virginal music. Five, The. Designation for a group of five Russian composers who, about 1875, united their efforts in order to create a truly national school of Russian music. The original name, coined in a newspaper article in 1867, was Moguchaya Kuchka (The Mighty Handful). They were Cesar A. Cui (1835-1918), Alexander P. Borodin 1833-87), Mily A. Balakirev (1837-1910), Modest P. Mussorgsky (1839-81), and Nicolay A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). See Russia II. SeeM. 0. Zetlin, The Five (1959). Five-three chord. The common triad, so called because in figured bass it is indicated by the figures g(third and fifth) above the root. Fixed-do(h). See under Movable do(h). Flagellant songs. See Geissler/ieder. Flageolet. See under Whistle flute. For ill. see under Flute. Flageolet tones, see Flageo/ett-tone. Flageolett-tone. German term for the *harmonics of stringed instruments. The English term "flageolet tones" is rarely used. Flam. See under Percussion instruments B, 1 (side drum). Flamenco. A south Spanish (Andalusian) type of song, midway between folk and art music, performed by specially trained singers to the

317

FLEMISH SCHOOL

FLAT accompaniment of a guitar. Characteristic traits are an E-minor tonality vacillating between f and f-sharp and g and g-sharp (sometimes including the g#-f-e progression of *Gypsy music), narrow range, absence of strict meter, expressive ornamentation, repetition of short phrases,

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melancholy mood, etc. The songs often begin with the plaintive exclamation "Ay." The cante flamenco is believed to have developed from an early 19th-century cante hondo Uondo, deep song), a highly emotional and tragic song cultivated among prisoners (carcelera), which in tum may have had an Oriental (Arab? Hindu? Jewish?) background. Late in the 19th century the cante hondo was adopted, under the name cante flamenco, by the Gypsies, who made it even more expressive and florid. See D. E. Pohren, The Art of Flamenco [1962]; D. Duff, in MM xvii, 214; M. de Falla, in LRM xi; M.G. Matos, inAnMv. Flat [F. bemol; G. Be; It. bemolle; Sp. bemol]. The sign b, which indicates the lowering of the pitch of a note by a half-step. See Accidentals; Pitch names. The term is also used to indicate incorrect intonation on the underside. Flattt'i, ftattement [F.]. In French 17th-century viol music, an agrement equivalent to the pince of the clavecinistes [see Mordent]. After the middle of the 18th century the term is occasionally applied to the Schleifer [see Appoggiatura, double II], probably due to a mistaken translation. Flatterzunge [G.]. Flutter-tonguing. See Tonguing. Flautando, ftautato. See Bowing (l). Flautino [It.]. A small flute, either the flageolet or the descant flute. Flauto [It.]. Flute. Flauto a becco, flauto diritto, fiauto dolce, *recorder; flauto d'amore, see Flute II (b); flautone, alto flute or bass flute; fiauto piccolo, piccolo (flute). Until the middle of the 18th century, e.g., in Bach, flauto always meant

the recorder, the flute being called flauto traverso [see Flute III]. In the same period, flauto piccolo meant not the transverse piccolo but a small recorder. Flaviol. A small, one-handed Spanish flute, used for dance music. See Pipe (2). Fledermaus, Die [G., The Bat]. Operetta in three acts by Johann Strauss, Jr. (libretto by C. Haffner and R. Genee, derived from a French farce, Le Reveillon, by H. Meilhac and L. Halevy after R. Benedix's Das Gefiingnis), produced in Vienna, 1874. Setting: Bad Ischl, Austria, 1874. Flemish school. I. The leading school of the Renaissance period, active c. 1450-1600, after the *Burgundian school. It includes a long succession of outstanding composers-many of them the undisputed leaders of their day-who came from the southern Netherlands, approximately present-day Belgium (Antwerp, Brugesthe Flemish north; Liege, Mons-the Walloon south) and the adjoining region of northern France. It is often called the Second and Third Netherlands school [see Netherlands schools]; in English-speaking countries the designation "Flemish" is usually connected with the history of painting, referring to the northern part of Belgium. A further semantic problem is raised by the fact that in present-day Belgium, the Dutch and French languages are spoken, the former by people known as Flemings (Flemish) and the latter by Walloons (Walloon; seeR. B. Lenaerts, in *Editions XXXIX, 22). Some writers feel that it is misleading to apply the term "Flemish" to Renaissance music, in which composers from Flanders, southern Belgium, and northern France all played a role. Nevertheless, it is preferable to Franco-Flemish or Franco-Netherlandish [see ReMR, p. 9]. Although its members came from the same area, the Flemish school, as it will be called in this dictionary, is not a national one in the proper sense of the word-as, e.g., the French or the Italian ars nova-but an international movement of extraordinary dimensions. This characteristic is due to the fact that the composers in question seldom stayed in their homeland but emigrated to other countries, where they held high positions in church choirs and in the chapels of princes. In the 15th century they were the leaders of the musical development in France. In the first half of the 16th century their influence stimulated the rise of national talent in France, Germany, Austria, Italy, England, Spain, Poland, and Hungary.

318

FLEMISH SCHOOL

FLEMISH SCHOOL

The second half of the 16th century saw both equality. This tendency appears even in those rivalry and cooperation between the Flemish compositions in which a cantus jirmus stands apart from and in balance to the contrapuntal teachers and their "foreign" pupils. II. The earliest known composer of Nether- web ofthe other voices (tenor Masses and motets lands extraction is Johannes Ciconia (born in of the 15th century). Masses and motets are the Liege; c. 1335-1411 ), who was active not only backbone of the vast repertory of Flemish comin his native city but also in Padua, thus fore- posers; to these were gradually added the varishadowing the typical wanderlust of his 16th- ous "national" types of secular music, the century compatriots. Other early Flemish com- (French) *chanson, the (Italian) *madrigal, the posers were Johannes de Limburgia, Reginald (German) *lied, and finally the many popular Liebert(?), Arnold and Hugo de Lantins (Lantin, forms of *villanella, *canzonet, *bal/etto, etc., province of Liege), and Hayne van Gizeghem. that indicate approaching decadence. Ill. Following is a brief account of the develHowever, the Flemish school (as understood here) begins with the great master Johannes opment within this general framework. The Ockeghem (born in Hainaut; c. 1430-95), who main difference between the Burgundian school created a musical style entirely different from (Dufay) and the first Flemish masters (Ockethat of his predecessors (Dufay, Burgundian ghem, Obrecht) is the change from three-part school). His approach to problems of polyphonic writing to four-part writing; from a relatively texture, form, and expression was so novel that high and narrow range to a considerably lower scholars have tried to trace its "origin" but with- and fuller range (first appearance of the bass); out success. Very possibly, it was truly original. from a medieval timbre (*sound ideal) of conFollowing is a list of the most important trasting sounds to a full vocal sonority, probably Flemish composers, arranged according to gen- a cappella; from clear phrases and cadences to an erations; some "Franco-Flemish" composers "unending melody"; from an early manifestation of the major mode to the somber cofors of (marked Fr.) are included. 1425: Johannes Ockeghem (1430-95); An- modal harmonies; from a (decorated) chordal toine Busnois (Fr.; d. 1492); Jacques Barbireau style, frequently of the melody-accompaniment (c. 1408-91); Philippe Basiron (?). type, to a truly polyphonic style with highly 1450: Jacob Obrecht (a Netherlander, b. Berg- embroidered lines in all the parts; from aristoop-Zoom; 1452-1505); Gaspar van Weerbecke cratic subtlety and refinement to pious devotion (c. 1445-after 1514); Heinrich Isaac (c. 1450- and mystic expression. 1517); Josquin des Prez (c. 1450-1521); Pierre Although Ockeghem and Obrecht are usually de la Rue (Fr.; d. 1518); Loyset Compere (Fr.; named in one breath, the difference between c. 1455-1518). their styles is considerable. Of the two, Ocke1475: Jean Mouton (c. 1470-1522); Antoine ghem is by far more purely Flemish and presents de Fevin (Fr.; 1474-1512); Adrian Willaert a much stronger contrast to Dufay than Obrecht, (c. 1490-1562); Nicolas Gombert (c. 1490-1556); who frequently introduced chordal passages, full Jean Richafort (c. 1480-1548). cadences, and sectional treatment. In fact, these 1500: Jachet Berchem (?-?); Jachet of Mantua two attitudes can be traced throughout the (Fr.; c. 1495-1559); Jacques Buus (d. 1565); entire development of Flemish music: the former Jacob Arcadelt (c. 1505-c. 1560); Jacobus (strictly pQlyphonic, continuous, noncadential, Oemens (Clemens non Papa; c. 1510-c. 1556); uniform sonority) being represented by OckePhilippe Verdelot (d. c. 1550). ghem, Isaac, La Rue, Gombert, de Monte; the 1525: Cipriano de Rore (1516-65); Philippe latter (partly chordal, sectional, cadential, using de Monte (1521-1603); Jacobus de Kerle contrasting sonorities) by Obrecht, Josquin, (1531/32-91); Orlando di Lasso (1532-94); Willaert, and G. Gabrieli [for the use of chordal Giaches de Wert ( 1535-96). style in Flemish music, see Familiar style]. 1550: Jacob Regnart (c. 1540-99); Charles Although the Flemish composers occasionally Luython (c. 1556-1620); Giovanni (Jean de) used proportional complications and canonic Macque (c. 1550-1614). riddles [see Proportions; Canon III] in their The great contribution of the Flemish masters Masses, it is misleading to emphasize this feature was the establishment of a new polyphonic style as the principal distinguishing characteristic. characterized by (ideally) the equality of all the Almost to the present day, books have been parts and, beginning with Josquin, the consistent .published in which Ockeghem is represented use of imitation as the chief means to achieve this only by a 36-voice canon (probably not his) or

319

FLUTE

FLEX his Missa cuiusvis toni [see Catholicon], and Josquin by his early canonic Missa L'Homme arme. Actually, English composers of the mid15th century far surpassed their colleagues from the Low Countries in devising canonic enigmas, and the notational complications in the works of Ockeghem, Isaac, and Josquin are only a modest remainder of those encountered in French music of the late 14th century. See also Imitation; Mass; Motet; Musica reservata. Lit.: A. W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, vols. ii, iii (1864, '68); A. Pirro, Histoire de Ia musique de /a fin du X!Ve siec/e a lafinXVJe (1940); H. Wolff, Die Musik der a/ten Nieder/ander (1956); C. van den Borren, Etudes sur le quinzieme siec/e musical (1941); A. Smijers, ed., tVan Ockeghem tot Sweelinck, 7 vols. (1949-56); *Editions XXXIX, 22; P. Lang, "The So-called Netherlands Schools" (MQ xxv); H. Besseler, "Von Dufay bis Josquin" (ZMW xi); J. Wolf, "Der niederlii.ndische Einfluss in der mehrstimmigen Musik bis zum Jahre 1480" (TV vi, vii); G. d'Alessi, "Maestri e cantori fiamminghi nella Capella ... di Treviso (1411-1561)" (TV xv); H. Angles, "Els Cantors i organistes FrancoFlamencs i Alemanys a Catalunya" ( CP Scheurleer); A. Hammerich, "Niederlii.ndische Musiker in Dii.nemark im 16.-17. Jahrhundert" (CP Scheur/eer). Flex, ftexa. (1) See under Psalm tones. (2) Same as c/ivis (also punctus fiexus); seeN eumes I, table. Flick-kanzone [G.]. *Quilt canzona. Flicorno [It.]. An Italian variety of Fliigelhorn. Fliegende Holliinder, Der [G., The Flying Dutchman]. Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner (to his own libretto after Heine's Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabe/ewopski), produced at Dresden, 1843. Setting: medieval, legendary time. One of Wagner's earliest works, it is allied, through its supernatural subject, with the romantic opera of Weber (Der *Freischiitz) and Marschner. The music shows similar antecedents, both in the broad melodic style and in the rich and colorful orchestral accompaniment. Wagnerian features such as the use of*leitmotivs, continuous melody, and symphonic treatment of the orchestra are not yet evident. Fliessend, flowing.

ftiessender

[G.].

Flowing,

more

Florid. Ornamented, embroidered, decorated, figurated, etc., chiefly with reference to contrapuntal music in which the lines move largely in relatively quick notes from one beat to the next.

Thus, the works of the early Flemish masters (Ockeghem, Obrecht, Isaac) are said to be in florid style [see HAM, no. 73b; SchGMB, nos. 52, 55]. Florid counterpoint specifically means the use of ornamented lines in teaching counterpoint. Florilege du concert vocal de Ia renaissance. See Editions XIX. Flos [L.]. A 13th-century term for embellishments, somewhat like the trill, mordent, or vibrato. Jerome of Moravia (CS i, 91) likens the fios harmonicus to the rippled surface of water moved by a gentle wind. Flute [G.]. Flute. Flotenubr [G.]. See under Mechanical instruments III. Flott [G.]. Briskly, without hesitation. Flourish. (1) A trumpet call or fanfare. (2) A somewhat showy decorative passage, often one added by the performer. Flue pipes (stops, work). See under Organ VIII, IX. Fliigel [G.]. The grand piano. Fliigelhorn. See under Brass instruments III (b). FIUssig [G.]. Flowing. Flute. For the general characteristics of the flutes, see under Wind instruments. I. Present forms. (a) Flute [F. flute; G. Flote; It. fiauto; Sp. fiauta]. The modern flute is a cylindrical tube closed at the upper end. At this end is a side hole (embouchure) across which the player blows, thus making the column of air inside the tube vibrate. The lowest octave of the fundamental scale is overblown by increased wind pressure, thus providing the second octave. The remainder of its three-octave range is produced by further overblowing and by *cross fingering. The modem flute was largely developed by T. Bohm [see Bohm system], who devised the instrument described above. It is generally made of silver, though older instruments were of wood, and gold is occasionally used. The timbre varies considerably at different levels, the lowest tones being thick and breathy, the higher ones becoming brighter and more penetrating. The flute is extremely agile. Trills are possible on nearly every note, and rapid reiterations of a pitch are easily executed by means of *tonguing. Its range is shown in Ex. 1, although some instruments

320

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Flutes: 1. Shakuhachi. 2. Keyed flageolet. 3. Fife. 4. Panpipes. 5. Piccolo. 7. Wooden flute. 8. Flute (18th century). 9. Alto recorder. 10. Bass recorder.

10

6. Metal flute.

FLUTE

FOLIA 2

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seem to have had the low Bb, and the high C~ and D are occasionally written. (b) Piccolo [F. petite flute; G. k/eine F/0/e, Pickelfiiite; It. flauto piccolo, ottavino; Sp.flautin]. A small flute, pitched an octave above the flute. Its written range is shown in Ex. 2, sounding an octave higher. It is one of the brightest, most penetrating instruments of the orchestra, and its upper register must be used with care. (c) Alto flute [F. flute alto; G. A/tflOte; It. flautone; Sp. flauta bajo], sometimes called bass flute. An instrument built in G, i.e., a perfect fourth lower than the normal flute, with a range from g to c"'. It is notated as a transposing instrument, a fourth above its actual sound (c' to f'"). (d) Bass flute, sometimes called contrabass flute. An instrument built an octave below the regular flute. Another kind of flute is the Albisiphone (invented by A. Albisi, 1911). This instrument is held vertically, the extension being shortened by means of a double U-tube between the embouchure and the tuning slide. The mouth part is bent horizontally to form the top of a T. The fingering is that of the regular Bohm system. The compass is from B to f"~. See also Giorgi flute. II. Obsolete forms. (a) Terzfliite [G.; Third flute]. So called from being built in Eb, a minor third higher than the standard instrument. (b) Flute d'amour [G. Liebesflote; It. flauto d'amore; Sp.flauta de amor]. A flute built a third lower than the regular flute. The alto flute [see I (c)] is sometimes called by this name. III. History. Flutes are among the most an~ient _and wid~spread of all instruments. They eXIsted m Sumena, Egypt, and Palestine, as well as in Mexico and South America, where they were frequently made fmm clay. In Europe, the first evidence of the transverse flute is a miniature in the Hortus Deliciarum, an encyclopedia from the end of the 12th century, where it is called swegel [see Schwegel]. Throughout the Mi~dle Ages, Renaissance, and early baroque penod, the transverse flute was mainly a military instrument (fife) associated particularly with Germany, so it was generally known as the German flute. For artistic purposes, the endblown flute, or *recorder, was preferred. About 1650 the instrument, which formerly had a cylindrical bore, was provided with a conical bore, a change that made for a much smoother

tone. Before 1750 the flute traversiere became, for the first time, an important solo instrument, as sh_own by the appearance of Quantz's epochal treatise, Versuch einer Anweisung die F/0/e traversiere zu spielen (1752). It may be noted that in Bach and Handel the plain name flauto still invariably meant the recorder, the transverse flute being called flauto traverso or traverso. Lully was probably the first composer to use the flute in the orchestra, but not until the time of Haydn did the flute become a permanent member. Beginning c. 1800, attempts were made to improve the instrument, chiefly to compensate for the position of the side holes, which were cut to conform to the reach of the fingers rather than the laws of acoustics. The final step in this development was the system of Bohm, who also changed the bore back to its earlier cylindrical shape. This change made the pitch more accurate but detracted from the "sweet sound" of the conical flll:te. See also Fife; Whistle flute (flageolet); Panpipes; Japan VI (shakuhachi). Outstanding compositions for the flute include J. S. Bach's unaccompanied Sonata in A and 6 sonatas for flute and accompaniment; K. P. E. Bach, numerous sonatas; Handel, sonatas; Mozart, concerto (K. 285c); Schubert, Introduction and Variations on "Ihr Bltimlein alle," op. 160; Debussy, Syrinx (1912); Prokofiev, Sonata in D, op. 94; Hindemith, sonata (1936) and Acht Stucke (1927) for flute solo; Honegger, Danse de Ia chevre (1932); and Van!se, Density 21.5.

Lit.: T. Boehm, The Flute and Flute-Playing, rev. ed. [1964]; C. Welch, History of the Boehm Flute, rev. ed. (1896); D. C. Miller, Catalogue of Books ... Relating to the Flute (1935); H.-P. Schmitz, QuerflOte ... in Deutschland wiihrend des Barockzeitalters, rev. ed. [1958]; L. Gilliam and W. Lichtenwanger, The Dayton C. Miller Flute Collection: A Checklist of the Instruments

(1961); J. J. Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die F/0/e traversiere zu spielen (1752), fac. of 1789 ed. (1953), Eng. trans. [1966]; A. Veenstra, "The Classification of the Flute" (GSJ xvii). Flute [F.]. Flute. Flute traversiere, allemande, transverse flute, i.e., flute. Flute abec,flute douce, *recorder. Flute d'amour, see Flute II (b). Flutter-tonguing. See Tonguing. Flying Dutchman, The. See Fliegende Hollander, Der.

Folia, follia, folies d'Espagne. (I) A dance, probably of Portuguese origin, mentioned in

322

FOliA

FOLK MUSIC

Portuguese documents of the late 15th century. In all probability it was a "fool's dance" similar to the *moresca. No music from this early period survives. (2) A harmonic pattern related to the *passamezzo antico and the *romanesca, used by a great many composers in the 11th and 18th centuries, and by a few in the 19th and 20th centuries, as the skeletal structure for continuous variations. As is true of the *bergamasca and the *romanesca, one discant melody became attached to the skeletal bass in the 17th century and is found in many of the compositions written on the pattern.

Folia vanatlons were written by Farinelli [see Playford's The Division Violin, 1685], D'Anglebert (for harpsichord, 1689; see TaAM vii, 122), A. Scarlatti (for harpsichord; see TaAM ix, 112), M. Marais (for viola da gamba; Pieces de vio/e, 1681), J.P. Fortsch (in the opera Die grossmiichtige Thalestris, 1690), Corelli (for violin, op. 5, no. 12, 1700), Keiser (overture to Der /iicherliche Prinz Jodelet, 1726), J. S. Bach (Bauernkantate, 1742), K. P. E. Bach (for piano, 1778; see K. von Fischer, in RBM vi, 206f), Gretry (in the opera L'Amant Ja/oux, 1778), Cherubini (overture to L'Hotel/erie portugaise, 1798), Liszt (Rapsodie espagnole, 1863), Carl Nielsen (opera Maskarade, 1906), and Rachmaninoff (Variations on a Theme by Corel/i, op. 42, 1932). As with all the Renaissance harmonic patterns (*passamezzo antico and moderno, *romanesca, *bergamasca, etc.), the isometric form developed over a long period. Adumbrated forms of the folia appear in late 15th- and early 16th-century MSS in Spain and Italy (e.g., "Cancionero musical de Palacio," in Editions XXXII, 10, p. 171; "Adonimoste, Senor Dios," by F. de la Torre; and "Dindiri din," Montecassino MS 871 in RBM ii, 14). In the 16th century, many variants developed. The most popular was the one known as "La Cara Cosa" or "La Gamba" in Italy (e.g., D. Bianchini, /ntabolatura de /auto, 1546, no. 4), "Mes Pas semez" in France (e.g., arr. for voice and guitar by A. Le Roy, Second Livre de guiterre, 1555, f. 8), "Blame not my lute" in England

(a song by Wyatt, in Washington, D.C., Folger Shakespeare Library MS 448.16, f. 4), and simply "Pavana" in Spain (e.g., E. Enriquez de Valdemibano, Libro de milsica, Silva de Sirenas, 1547, ff. 94v and 95v; D. Pisador, Libro de milsica de vihuela, 1552, f. 4; and L. Venegas de Henestrosa's Libro de cifra nueva, 1557; ed. H. Angles, 1944, p. 191, in musical examples). D. Ortiz, in his Tratado de glosas (1553), used "La Cara Cosa" as the basis of two "recercada" (ed. M. Schneider, 1913, pp. 117, 130). Lit.: 0. Gombosi, in AM viii; id., in MGG iv, 479-84; J. Ward, in CP 1952, 415-22; J. Subin1, Historia de Ia milsica espanola e hispanoameriL.H.M. cana [1953]. Folk music, folksong. I. The musical repertory and tradition of communities (particularly rural), as opposed to art music, which is the work of musically trained composers. It generally develops anonymously, usually among the uneducated classes, and originally was (and may still be) transmitted aurally, thereby becoming subject to modification. Folk music exists in practically every part of the world and constitutes a vast body whose study often requires special methods [see Ethnomusicology]. By far the greatest part of this repertory involves singing and thus is known as folksong. The present article is confined to a consideration of the tradition of folksong in Western culture. Western folksong developed together with artless poems dealing with various aspects of daily life: work songs, love songs, cradle songs, drinking songs, patriotic songs, dancing songs, mourning songs, narrative and epic songs, etc. Folksongs of different nations have certain characteristic features that, although difficult to describe, are clearly felt to represent the general national traits of the people. The examples here, showing an Anglo-American (1), Italian (2), German (3), Russian (4), and Hungarian (5) folksong, demonstrate this point. On the other hand, numerous examples of melodies found among widely separated nations show a striking similarity of melodic or rhythmic design. Certain Hungarian folksongs, for example, have been found to be almost identical to melodies sung in Anatolia, Scotch folk tunes have been said to be similar in some respects to those of Arabia, and Russian Gypsy songs are surprisingly like Brazilian melodies. While in many cases such similarity may be coincidental, it may point to a common origin of such melodies, which are thought to date from before the time

323

FOLK MUSIC

FOLK MUSIC

when the peoples involved migrated to different places. In this way (applicable in the case of Hungary and Anatolia, but certainly not in the case of Scotland and Arabia or Russia and Brazil), it has been possible to establish the age of certain folksongs. This point is particularly important in view of the fact that nowhere have guesswork and even pure fancy been given such free rein as in some studies of folk music, where melodies that show unmistakable traces of 17th-

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1. A version of the "Cherry Tree Carol." ample of Italian folksong.

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or 18th-century origin are ascribed to preChristian times. Actually, most of the folk melodies of the Western nations are of relatively recent origin. For instance, practically all the folksongs in current use in Germany date from about 1800. Those of Italy are still more recent, while the English ones frequently show traits of a somewhat earlier origin (16th, 17th centuries). II. The great majority of Western folksongs as they exist today belong to what might be termed "civilized" folksong, i.e., folksongs that show the influence of art music. This becomes clear by comparing any of them to a truly "aboriginal" folksong, such as those found in primitive cul-

tures and occasionally in remote regions, such as parts of the Balkan peninsula, Finland, Scotland, etc. Strict meter and measure, clear and regular phrases, well-defined tonality (sometimes with traces of modality), definite form, triadic intervals, etc., are features that have their origin in the rationalized vocabulary of art music and that have, in the course of one or two centuries, reached the lower classes in a characteristic process of seepage [G. abgesunkenes Kulturgut]. (An interesting example illustrating the "city influence" on Spanish folksong is given by H. Angles in AMF iii, 350.) The recognition of this influence as "from above to below" is, of course, in diametrical opposition to the still largely current opinion that folksong is the "foundation" of all music, an opinion reflected in many books on music history that begin with

324

FOLK MUSIC

FOLK MUSIC

an introductory chapter on folksong. Such a procedure would have some justification if examples of really primitive folk music were discussed instead of folksongs that clearly date from the 17th and 18th centuries. The process of seepage has had much more effect on the texts than on the melodies of folksongs. Numerous texts of folksongs have been shown to be merely modified or distorted versions of art poems. Similar examples are rare, however, where the melodies are concerned. Here the influence "from above" is of a more general nature, establishing the general framework of style and design only, but admitting original creativity within this frame. Regarding the question of authorship, modem scholars take a much more sober view than earlier writers who surrounded the folksong with an aura of "divine origin," mystic "selfconception," or "collective creation." Each folksong is, of course, the product of an individual, and the "collective" point of view is justifiable only in so far as the "original" song has, in the course of decades, centuries, or millennia, been modified by others. Ill. Perhaps the earliest true folksongs traceable in written form are Icelandic songs and the Polish war song Bogurodzica, which are preserved in 13th-century MSS [see Iceland; Poland 1]. While the melodies in 15th-century monophonic sources (Lochamer Liederbuch, MS of Bayeux) are too elaborate to be considered folksongs, a number of true folk (or, at least, popular) melodies are probably preserved in the tenors (occasionally upper parts) of polyphonic compositions, e.g., "La Belle se siet" (Dufay), *L'Homme arme," "T'saat een meskin" (Obrecht; HAM, no. 78), "T'Andemaken" (Obrecht), "Es leit ein Schloss in Osterreich" (Glogauer Liederbuch; see Editions XVIII, 4, p. 16) and "Ich stund an einem Morgen" (H. Finck). Other interesting sources of 15thand 16th-century folksongs are the *quodlibets and *Souterliedekens. Some early (14thcentury?) Spanish melodies are recorded in Salinas' De musica libri septem (1577), among them "Calvi vi calvi calvi arabi" (Arabic "Qalbi bi qalbi, qalbi arabi," "Heart, oh my heart, 'tis the heart of an Arab"; see ReMMA, p. 375). One of the most beautiful German folksongs of the present day, "lnnsbruck ich muss dich lassen," is a composition by Heinrich Isaac (c. 14501517). Particularly interesting is a Hungarian melody preserved in Tinodi's Cronica of 1554 because it is the earliest folksong showing unrnis-

takable "national" traits [see LavE i.5, 2615f]. A number of charming English folk tunes ("Goe from my window," "John come kisse me now") are preserved in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book (c. 1600), where they are used as themes for variations. Most of the English folk melodies date from the 16th century, while those of Germany originated mostly around and after 1800. Many of the most popular "folksongs" are of traceable authorship, e.g., the "Lorelei" (German; text by Heine, music by F. Silcher, 1789-1860), "Dixie" (Daniel D. Emmett, 1859), or "Estrellita" (Mexico; Manuel Ponce, 1913). For the folksongs of the United States, a clear line of distinction must be drawn between the melodies of the American Indians and the folksongs of the white settlers and Negroes. For the former, see American Indian music; for the latter, Shanty; Negro music. Lit. (selection of books and collections of a general nature): W. Danckert, Das europliische Volkslied (1939); W. Wiora, Das echte Volkslied (1950); LavE ii.5, 2866-3014 (bibl.); B. Nettl, Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology [1964]; id., An Introduction to Folk Music in the United States (1960); F. J. Gillis, "An Annotated Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations in Ethnomusicology and Folk Music" (Ethnomusicology vi, 3); K. P. Wachsmann, International Catalogue of Published Records of Folk Music (International Folk Music Council, 1960); H. Mersmann, "Grundlagen einer musikalischen Volksliedforschung" (AMW iv, v). Bibliographical studies for Anglo-American: D. K. Wilgus, Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship since 1898 (1959); C. Haywood, A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong, rev. ed., 2 vols. (1961); G. M. Laws, Native American Balladry, rev. ed. (1964); R. M. Lawless, Folksingers and Folksongs in America, rev. ed. [1965]; A. Lomax and S. R. Crowell, American Folk Song and Folklore, A Regional Bibliography (1942); M. E. Henry, A Bibliography for the Study of American Folk Songs (1937). Collections of folksongs: (a) International: F. H. Botsford, Folk Songs of Many Peoples, 3 vols. (1921); M. Karpeles, Folk Songs ofEurope [1956]; W. Wiora, Europliische Volksmusik [1957]; H. Moller, Das Lied der VOlker, 3 vols. [n.d.; 1930?]. (b) National: B. H. Bronson, The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, 2 vols. to date (1959-); H. H. Flanders, Ancient Ballads Traditionally Sung in New England, 4 vols. to date [1960-]; C. J. Sharp, English County Folk Songs, rev. ed. [1961]; Ilmari Krohn, Suomen kansan

325

FORM

FOLLIA slivelmili (Finnish), 4 vols. (1893-1912); "List of Authoritative French Folk Music, Records" (Ethnomusicology, vi, 1); C. M. Barbeau, Jongleur Songs of Old Quebec [1962]; J. Canteloube, Anthologie des Chants populaires franr;ais, 4 vols. [n.d.; 1951?]; J. Tiersot, Sixty Folksongs of France [1915]; Volkslieder aus Deutschen Landschaften, ed. by Institut fUr Volkskunstforschung beim Zentralhaus fUr Volkskunst, 6 vols. [n.d.; 1957?]; L. Erk, Deutscher liederhart, rev. F. Bohme, 3 vols. (1893-94); id, Deutscher liederschatz (German), 3 vols. (1859-72); B. Bart6k and Z. Kodaly, Corpus Musical Popularis Hungaricae (1951-); W. A. Fisher, Sixty Irish Songs [1915]; D. de Lange, et a/., Nederlandsch Volksliederenboek (1896); 0. Gurvin, Norsk Folkemusikk, 4 vols. (1958-); E. Grieg, Norges Melodier (Norway); 0. M. Sandvik, Norske Religi¢se Folketoner, 2 vols. (1960-); F. V. Sokolov, Gusli Zvonchatyie (Moscow, 1959); E. Lineff, Folk Songs of the Ukraine [1958]; N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, 100 Chants populaires russes [1877-?]; A. Moffat, The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Highlands (1907); id., The Minstrelsy of England (1901); K. Schindler, Folk Music and Poetry of Spain and Portugal (1941); G. Hligg, Songs of Sweden [ 1937]. For more bibl. on American folksong see under Ballad; Negro music; American Indian music. For English folksong, see D. Attwater, in ML ix, 129; A. H. Fox Strangways, in ML v, 293.

Follia. See Folia. Fonds d'orgue [F.]. Foundation stops of the organ. Fontane eli Roma. poem IV.

See under Symphonic

Foot. (1) In versification, see Poetic meter. (2) In organ building, terms such as eight-foot (written 8-ft. or 8'), four-foot (4'), sixteen-foot (16'), thirty-two-foot (32'), etc., are used to differentiate stops that sound at the pitch indicated by the corresponding key from others sounding higher or lower octaves or even other intervals. If, e.g., the key c' is touched, an 8' -stop sounds c', while a 4'-stop sounds c" and a 16'-stop sounds c. The terminology is derived from the fact that, in a normally pitched flue stop, such as 8'-principal, the length of the pipe sounding c measures about 8 feet (the other pipes of the same stop being, of course, correspondingly shorter), whereas, in a stop of the 4'-class, the pipe sounded by the same key is only half as long, etc. [see Organ V]. In mutation stops, i.e.,

stops designed to reinforce the harmonics of the unison stops [see Organ VI, IX(e)], still other foot-measurements occur. For instance 2:W is a pipe of one-third (2¥.1 = %) the length of the normal pipes; it therefore produces the- third partial, i.e., the twelfth (g" for the key c'); 5W (= '%) sounds the lower octave of this, g', and 1W ( = o/.1) the higher one, g"'. Similarly, 1W ( = 1}3) gives the fifth partial, i.e., the third two octaves above the fundamental, e"', while multiples of this fraction, such as 3 'h' ( = 1 ~) and 6?3' (= 3 13) give lower thirds, e", e', and ~~. 13' still higher ones, e"", e""'. The seventh partial appears in stops such as 1W ( = o/7 ), etc. This terminology has been borrowed for similar distinctions in other fields, e.g., for the designation of octaves (8-ft. octave, 4-ft. octave) or of instruments, e.g., 4-ft. instrument for the piccolo flute, etc. Forefall. See Backfall, forefall. Forgeries. See Spurious compositions. Forlana, fur1ana. A dance from northern Italy (Friull). In dance collections of the 16th century (Phalese, Chorearum molliorum Collectanea, 1583) it is similar to the passamezzo (in duple meter), whereas in the baroque period it is a gay dance in triple meter (6/4, 6/8) with dotted rhythms and characteristic repeats of motifs. It became associated with festive activities in Venice, e.g., in the ballets of Campra (L'Europe galante, 1697; Le Carnaval de Venise, 1699; Les Festes Venitiennes, 1710). Bach's orchestral Suite inC major includes aforlane. In 1914 attempts were made (ostensibly under the auspices of the Pope) to revive theforlana in place of the "offensive" tango, although the for/ana was far from "innocent." See J. Ecorcheville, in BS/M x; P. Nettl, in RM xiv, 191-95. Form. A term that has different meanings depending on whether it refers to "form in music" or "form(s) of music." The former has a very general and loose meaning, simply expressing the basic fact that music, like all art, is not a chaotic conglomeration of sounds but consists of elements arranged in orderly fashion according to numerous obvious principles as well as a still greater number of subtle and hidden relationships. In this sense, form is so essential to music that it is difficult to imagine how it could be avoided. Even the simplest melody shows relationships of pitch (intervals), time values (rhythm), grouping (phrases), etc., in other

326

FORMANT

FORMS, MUSICAL

words, has "form." "Forms of music," however, refers to the existence of certain schemes that govern the over-all structure of a composition and were traditionally used in various periods of music history, e.g., the fugue or the sonata. As might be expected, the ambiguity of the term "form" has led to numerous misunderstandings and futile argument. Much of this could be avoided if, in speaking of a specific composition, a clear distinction were made between the "form in this composition" and the "form of this composition." The question of "form vs. content" is a good example. Consider, e.g., a typical statement such as: "In the last analysis form and content cannot be wholly independent of each other." This is entirely correct if form here means "form in a composition." In fact, in this case one might say "the form in a composition is entirely dependent on its content." If, however, form here meant "form of a composition," the almost exact opposite would be correct, i.e., "the form ofa composition (if it has a 'form') is essentially independent of its content." If we conceive of sound as a somewhat amorphous substance comparable to the flesh and cells of a body, then form might be said to be the support that holds and shapes this substance. This support is of two kinds, one forming a highly complicated inner structure comparable to the bones and muscles (form in a composition), the other determining its outer contour, somewhat like the skin (form of a composition). "Form in music" includes practically all the theoretical and compositional principles of music, i.e., tones, intervals, scales, tonality, consonance and dissonance, meter, rhythm, phrase, theme, motif, repetition, variation, modification, transposition, modulation, sequence, inversion, and all the higher devices of counterpoint. There are separate entries for most of these categories. For "forms of music," see Forms, musical. See K. Westphal, Der Begriff der musikalischen Form (1935). Also see bibl. under Forms, musical. Formant. See under Tone color. Formes fixes [F.]. Collective designation for the three chief forms oflate medieval French poetry and music: *hallade, *virelai, and *rondeau. Their main period was the 14th century, under the poet-composer Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-77) and his literary successors, Eustache Deschamps, Charles d'Orleans, Alain Chartier, and Christine de Pizan (d. 1430). After 1450 they gradually declined in importance, being replaced

by freer and more varied forms [see Chanson]. All three forms have a *refrain, which, however, has an entirely different function in the rondeau (inner refrain) from that in the two other forms (final refrain). The presence of a refrain as well as etymological considerations (hal/are, to dance; virer, to tum around; rond, round) suggest that originally they may have been dancing songs. F. Gennrich has tried to establish a morphological genealogy, rondeau---> virelai---> hallade [see, e.g., ReMMA, pp. 22lff], a construction that involves a good deal of arbitrary manipulation. See F. Gennrich, Rondeaux, Virelais und Bal/aden, 3 vols. (1921-63); id., Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes ( 1932); G. Reaney, in MD vi; W. Apel, in JAMS vii; R. H. Perrin, in JAMS viii, 77. Forms, musical. The general principles and schemes that govern the over-all structure of a composition [see under Form]. In other words, a musical form is the structural outline-comparable to an architect's ground plan-in the composer's mind when he sets out to write, say, a fugue or a sonata. In almost every period of Western music (much less so in Oriental music) certain formal schemes have become traditionally established and have been used by the composers as molds, setting the general frame for their creative imagination. The most important -at least, the most clearly defined-forms may be classified as follows: I. Single forms

A. Repeat forms (1) a a' a" . . . *Variation form. (2) II= a •II= b =II *Binary form. (3) II= a =II= b a =I Rounded binary form. (4) II= a =I b a *Sonata form. (5) a b a Ternary form. (6) a b a c a Five-part form (also called *rondo form) (7) a b a c a b a *Rondo form (rondo-sonata form) (8) a b a c a d ... a Rondeau [see Rondeau (2)] (9) Medieval forms: see Ballade; Rondeau (I); Virelai (Ballata) For the forms (2) to (5) see Binary and ternary form; also Bar form. The forms (3) to (7) have a structure similar to an arch ("arch form" or "bow form"; G. Bogenform), while (I) and the *sequence resemble the structure of a chain ("chain form"; G. Kettenform, Reihenform). Forms such as (8) combine both structures.

327

FORMS, MUSICAL

FORTE

B. Continuation forms (l) Cantus firmus forms: *organum; 13th-century *motet; chorale compositions (2) Imitative forms: 16th-century *motet; *ricercar; *fugue II. Compound forms (consisting of various "movements") A Instrumental: *sonata; *concerto; *suite; *toccata B. Vocal: *cantata; *Mass; *Passion; *oratorio; *opera Naturally this list is not complete nor without some unavoidable defects, and it should be regarded only as a general outline of the subject. There are a large number of "hybrids" that do not fit into the classification or that represent borderline cases. For instance, the fugue, which is classified above as a continuation form, might also be considered a kind of repetition form, owing to the characteristic alternatio~ of exp?sitions and episodes. In other cases-m fact, m most of them-historical development must be taken into account. For instance, the toccata, which in Bach's time was a compound form consisting usually of five distinct movements, began, about 1550, as a single continuation form (A Gabrieli), and gradually acquired sectional character (Merulo, c. 1600), which finally led to the breaking up into movements. The interpretation above of "forms o~ music" as a composer's ground plan does not cla~m to be a generally accepted definiti~n_. In ~act, It would be impossible to find a definitiOn like_l~ to meet with the universal approval of musicians and scholars. Many writers use the term in a wider sense, including in it what might more properly be termed "stylistic types," e.g., tlle chaconne and the passacaglia (which are stylistic types of variation form), or the allemande, courante, etc. (which are stylistic types of binary form). Oth_ers prefer to use it in a narrower sense, restnct~g its application to the scheme~ based on t_he p~n­ ciple of repetition [see I, A, m the classifi~atiOn above]. Such restricted usage has a certam advantage. No doubt the repetition form~ are ~ot only more clearly defined than the contmuatiOn forms but also conform more fully to the general notion of form as a "pre-existing mold." For the continuation types, the name "procedure". has been suggested and indeed might be appropnate. Thus in the case of a fugue, one would speak of "fug~ procedure" rather than "fu~al form." Although with the fugue one might argue

whether it is a form or a procedure (or both combined), the appropriateness of the latter term is more clearly indicated in many types of V?cal music, namely those in which the text proVId~s the sole "ground plan" of the composer, as ~ the recitative, the through-composed song, m Wagner's "unending melody," etc. A similar situation exists with regard to the "compound vocal forms" [II, B, above] and the syq1phonic poem, in which the coml?oser "proceeds" on the basis of the programmatic Idea. There is a widespread tendency among modern composers and writers to deny,. or at least minimize, the importance of musiCal forms, the view being that each composition creates not only its own inner form (form w~thin the composition; see under Form) but also Its outer structure (form of the composition). As far as the repertory of classical music and the greater portion of early music are concerned, s~ch_ a st~te­ ment is obviously wrong. It finds JUStificatiOn mainly in the numerous examples of 19th- and 20th-century program music, and in the attempts of recent composers to modify, particularly in their symphonies, the traditional sche~e. of the sonata. Nonetheless, even such compositiOns as the symphonies of Sibelius and Shostakovitch or the piano sonatas of Hindemith clearly s~ow that the composers, in writing them, were thinking in terms of the traditional principles of sonata writing. Lit.: L. Stein, Structure and Style [1962]; id., f_Anthology of Musical Forms (1962); E. C. Hairstow, The Evolution of Musical Form (1943); H. Leichtentritt, Musical Form (1951); S. Macpherson, Form in Music (1908); M. H. Glyn, Analysis of the Evolution of Musical Form (1909); R. Stohr, et al., Formenlehre der Musik (1933); R. von Lobel, Die Formenwelt der klassischen Instrumentalmusik (1935); W. H. Hadow, "Form and Formalism in Music" (PMA xxiv); E. J. Dent, "Binary and Ternary Forms" (ML xvii, 309); A. Lourie, "The Crisis in Form" (M~ viii, no. 4); R. Ficker, "Formprobleme der mittelalterlichen Musik" (ZMWvii); "Form in Baroque Music" (BuMBE, pp. 35lff); M. Bauer, "Formprobleme des spliten Beethoven" (ZMW ix); H. Mersmann, "Zur Geschichte des Formbegriffs" (JMP xxxvii). See also under Sonata; Fugue. Forte [It.], abbr.f, loud; fortissimo, abbr . .ff(fjf), very loud; piu forte, louder; forte-piano, abbr.JP, loud followed by soft; mezzoforte, abbr. mf, medium loud. For the history, see Expression marks.

328

FORTE PIANO

FOX TROT

Fortepiano [It.]. (1) See under Forte. (2) Older name for piano.

Fountains of Rome [It. Fontane di Roma]. See under Symphonic poem IV.

Fortspinnung [G.]. In melodic construction, the process of continuation, development, or working out of material, as opposed to repetition in a symmetrical arrangement. Modem writers on melodic analysis (yv. Fischer) frequently distinguish between Fortspinnungstypus and Liedtypus, terms that might be translated "continuation type" and "repetition type." A melody of the latter type is symmetrical in design and structure, whereas one of the former proceeds differently, often from longer phrases to shorter ones. These types are illustrated by the two themes given here [Ex. a, last movement of

Fourniture [F.]. Mixture stop of the organ. Four Saints in Three Acts. Opera in four acts by Virgil Thomson (libretto by Gertrude Stein), produced in Hartford, Conn., 1934. Setting: Spain, 16th century. There being more than a dozen saints and four acts, the title is a bit of whimsy. The text is in stream-of-consciousness style, the juxtaposition of interesting word sounds being a primary objective. The music, which includes a number of ballets, is in a clear, crisp rhythmic style somewhat reminiscent of jazz, with simple harmonies and a great deal of monotone recitation of the text. Four-shape note. See Fasola.

Mozart's Symphony in G minor; Ex. b, scherzo of Beethoven's Fifth], which are usually cited as an example of "identical material" (even of plagiarism) but are more noteworthy as an example of "contrasting treatment of the same material," the former in repetition, the latter in continuation. Other terms for the same two types are "static" and "dynamic" melody (E. Kurth). See W. Fischer, in StM iii. Forty-eight, The. Popular name for the 48 preludes and fugues of Bach's *Well-Tempered Clavier i and ii (24 in each). Forza del Destino, La [It., The Force of Destiny]. Opera in four acts by Verdi (libretto by F. M. Piave), produced in St. Petersburg, 1862. Setting: Spain and Italy, 18th century. Forzando, forzato [It.]. Forcing, forced, accented. Foundation stops. Designation for the unisonand octave-sounding (8', 16', 4', 2') ranks ofthe organ, especially those of the diapason chorus. See Organ VI.

Fourth. The interval of the fourth was of basic importance in Greek music [see Tetrachord] and in early medieval polyphony, which was essentially an *organum of the fourth, not of the fifth. As late as c. 1030, Guido of Arezzo ruled out the fifth (together with the semitone) from what he called nostra mol/is diaphonia, "our sweet diaphony." In the 12th century, however, the fifth began to take priority over the fourth, and in the late 15th century Tinctoris said that "the fourth was considered by the ancients the foremost of all consonances, but actually, taken by itself, it is not a consonance but an intolerable dissonance, which can be used only with the third or the fifth" [CS iv, 85]. In the 15th century there existed a harmonic style in which the fourth was completely avoided [see ReMR, p. 103f]. The fourth has once more acquired basic importance in modem harmony [see Fourth chord]. Fourth chord. Any of various chords consisting of superimposed fourths, e.g., c-f-bb, c-f~-b-e', or of fourths in dissonant combinations with other intervals. These chords play an important role in the harmonic idiom of modem composers (Scriabin, Casella, Hindemith, Bartok), replacing the traditional harmonies resulting from the superimposition of thirds (triad, seventh chord, ninth chord). Scriabin was the first to make deliberate use of fourth chords. Several ofhis compositions are based on a single fourth-chord combination, e.g., the so-called *mystic chord, c-f~-~-e'-a'-d". See Quartal harmony; Harmony II (9). See 0. Beer, in DM xxii.2. Fox trot. An American ballroom dance dating from about 1915 that became the basis for most subsequent dance steps in duple time with the

329

FRANCE

FP

exception of such importations as the rumba, tango, etc. Varieties are the *Charleston, black bottom, and *shimmy. Fp. Short for forte-piano [see under Forte]. Fran1;3ise. See Contredanse. France. The history of French music includes three periods of particular importance: an early one (1150-1450), during which F ranee was the undisputed leader in musical development; another of about 100 years, during the baroque era (Chambonnieres, Lully, Couperin, Rameau); and a third one, that of modern French music, beginning with Berlioz. I. During the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries there existed in France a special branch of Christian worship, the Gallican rite, which had special music known as *Gallican chant. After the establishment of the Roman rite (by Pepin, 714-68) the Cathedral of Metz became the leading French center of Gregorian chant, known particularly for its neumatic manuscripts written in a special type of neume, the Messine neumes [see Neumes II]. Possibly, what is known today as Gregorian chant developed in the FrancoGerman empire of Pepin, Charlemagne (742814), and his successors [see Gregorian chant VII]. In the 9th and lOth centuries the Monastery of St. Martial in Limoges played a leading part in the early development of the *trope and the *sequence, a development that reached its culmination in Adam de St. Victor (d. 1192). Also preserved from the 9th century are a number of songs in Latin, which, of course, can be claimed with equal right as "French" or "German" (e.g., the "Planctus Karoli"; see GD v, 1; AdHM i, 160). The oldest song in the Proven~allanguage is a "Hora vos die vera raizun" of the lOth century [seeP. Aubry, Les Plus Anciens Monuments de Ia musique franr;aise (1905), pl. 1]. Of later date is the Sponsus play with a mixed Latin and Proven~al text, and the northern French Daniel play (from Beauvais). II. The great period of medieval French music began about 1100, developing along two parallel lines of equal importance: monophonic secular music, represented by the *troubadours and *trouveres, and polyphonic music, represented by the anonymous composers of the schools of Chartres (c. 1100) and *St. Martial (c. 1150), by the school of *Notre Dame with Leoninus and Perotinus (before and after 1200), by the composers of the *ars antiqua of the 13th century, and by the *ars nova of the 14th century

(Philippe de Vi try, 1291-1361; Guillaume de Machaut, c. 1300-77). After a transitional period (late 14th century: Solage, Selesses, Cordier, et al.; early 15th: Carmen, Cesaris, Tapissier, et al.) came the final culmination of medieval music in the work of the *Burgundian school, with Dufay (c. 1400-74) and Binchois (c. 140060). In the second half of the 15th century, French composers such as Busnois (d. 1492), Barbireau, Regis, Caron, and Faugues came under the influence of the *Flemish school. A happy fusion of Flemish and French elements characterizes the music of the great Renaissance composer, Josquin des Prez (c. 1450-1521), and his contemporaries, Pierre de La Rue (d. 1518), Compere (d. 1518), and Brumel (fl. 1483-1520). The so-called Parisian *chanson-as opposed to the Netherlands type of the late 15th century-originated with a group of composers active in and around the French capital during the first half of the 16th century. Chief among these were Claude de Sermisy (c. 1490-1562) and Clement Janequin (c. 1485-c. 1560). If the witty, often frivolous chanson of this school established France's leadership in the field of amorous and worldly music, it also marked the end of her artistic eminence. An interesting although shortlived product of the academic movement in France was the musique mesuree of Claude Le Jeune (1528-1600), Jacques Mauduit (15571627), and others, written for the *vers mesuresof Antoine Ba'if and his associates of the Academie de Musique et de Poesie. A large repertory of 16th-century French lute music (mostly dances and arrangements of chansons) exists in the lute books of Attaingnant (1530), Morlaye (c. 1550), Adrian Le Roy (c. 1550), and others [see Lute music], and a few remnants of 16th-century French organ music have been preserved in the organ books published by Attaingnant about 1530. III. In the 17th century, French music was entirely under the patronage of the royal court (Louis XIII, reigned 1610-43; Louis XIV, reigned 1643-1715), whose pomp and splendor were enhanced by the ballet (Cambefort, 160561; Lully, 1632-87; Campra, 1660-1744) and opera (Cambert, c. 1628-77; Lully; Campra; Rameau, 1683-1764; see Opera IV). Here originated the *minuet, *gavotte, *bourree, and numerous other dances that later became part of the suite. Of great artistic significance is the French lute music of the 17th century, represented chiefly by Denis Gaultier (c. 1600-72), and the harpsichord music that leads from the

330

FRANCE

FRANCE

reserved dignity of Chambonnieres (c. 1602-72) and Louis Couperin (c. 1626-61) over the baroque peak of D'Anglebert (c. 1628-91) to the rococo worldliness of Fran'iois Couperin (16681733), coming to its close in the masterpieces of Rameau (1683-1764), with their remarkable traits of ingenious characterization and dramatic surprise. French organ music of the baroque started with J. Titelouze (1563-1633), an important composer with traditional leanings; continued with N. Gigault (c. 1625-1707), G.-G. Nivers (1632-1714), N.-A. Lebegue (1631-1702), A. Raison (c. 1645-1714), J. Boyvin (c. 16531706), and others whose work is more notable for ventures in registration than for artistic achievement; and culminated with Nicolas de Grigny (1672-1703). Music for viols was cultivated by Marais (1656-1728) and for violin by Leclair (1697-1764). Less known but important contributions were made in the fields of the motet (Charpentier, Lully, and others; see Motet C) and cantata (Campra and others; see Cantata II). French song literature of this period includes the *air de cour, *brunette, and other types; see Chanson. The invasion of the Italian opera bu./fa (1752; *War of the Buffoons) marked the end of the French baroque opera and the beginning of the less significant opera comique. For a hundred years, from 1750 to 1850, the history ofFrench music was practically restricted to efforts to build up a new "grand opera," efforts in which the German Gluck (1714-87), the Italians Cherubini (1760-1842) and Rossini (1792-1868), and the German Meyerbeer (1791-1864) participated along with French composers such as Gretry (1741-1813), Mehul (1763-1817), Boieldieu (1775-1834), Auber (1782-1871), and Halevy (1799-1862). IV. Much more important than these operas is the symphonic work of Hector Berlioz (180369), heir to the tradition of Beethoven and perhaps the greatest figure in 19th-century French music. With all their "flaws," his compositions show an originality, passion, and vigor rarely encountered in French music. cesar Franck (1822-90) amalgamated the classical forms of the symphony, quartet, variations, etc., with a romantic vocabulary of harmonies and elements derived from a thorough study of counterpoint. Charles Gounod (1818-93) and Georges Bizet (1838-75) are known mainly for their operas, Faust (1859) and Carmen (1873-4). Camille Saint-Saens' (1835-1921) numerous works, in a late classical style, are distinguished

by technical mastery but are somewhat lacking in inspiration. Danse macabre (1874), Le Carnaval des animaux (1886), and the Third Symphony (with organ, 1886) are his best-known compositions. Academic and dogmatic leanings are present in the work of Vincent d'Indy (18511931), who, with others, in 1896 founded the *Schola cantorum, devoted to the tradition of Franck and the study of Gregorian chant and 16th-century counterpoint. A tendency toward greater subjectivism, more lyrical expressiveness, a richer orchestral palette, and a typically French exquisiteness of taste appear in the works of Gabriel Faure (1845-1924), creator of the modern French song (me/odie), and of Henri Duparc (1848-1933), Ernest Chausson (1855-99), and Paul Dukas (1865-1935). Unfortunately, each of them produced only a few works of importance. To the foregoing may be added Florent Schmitt (18701958), who, more than any other French composer, was influenced by the emotional exuberance of German romanticism. Modern French music found its most characteristic expression in *impressionism, which was foreshadowed by Edouard Lalo (1823-92) and Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-94) and brought to full flowering in certain works of Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937). Debussy may be considered among the founders of modern music in the same sense as Stravinsky and Schoenberg. He emancipated harmony and created a new kind of sound based on the sonorities themselves. The revolutionary tendencies of the postwar period brought a strong reaction against the refinements of the impressionist style, a reaction that found its clearest formulation in the words ofCocteau: "After the music with the silk brush, the music with the ax." In this movement Erik Satie (1866-1925) was the spiritual leader of the group known as Les Six [see Six], which included the most prominent contemporary French composers, notably Darius Milhaud (b. 1892), Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), and Georges Auric (b. 1899). A separate place must be reserved for Albert Roussel (1869-1937) who, though influenced successively by D'Indy, Debussy, and Stravinsky, developed a highly personal style, basically contrapuntal but greatly varying from one composition to the next. Highly diversified trends appear in the works of the composers born after 1900. Andre Jolivet (b. 1905) writes in a sort of neoprimitive style;

331

FRANCO-FLEMISH SCHOOL

FREISCHUTZ, DER

Olivier Messiaen (b. 1908) tends toward a religious mysticism influenced by Scriabin, Oriental music (Hindu rhythms), bird song, and serial techniques, which he was the first to apply to all elements of music (duration, intensity, etc.). Rene Leibowitz (b. 1913) writes twelvetone music; the music of Jean Fran'iaix (b. 1912) is precise, clever, and frankly amusing. In 1936 Jolivet, Messiaen, Yves Baudrier (b. 1906), and Daniel Lesur (b. 1908) formed a group known as "La Jeune France." Today's avant-garde is represented by Pierre Boulez (b. 1925) who, influenced by Webem, has introduced twelvetone techniques in France. *Musique concrete and electronic music are represented by Pierre Schaeffer, Jean Barraque (b. 1928) and others. Lit.: P. Lasserre, L'Esprit de Ia musique franr;aise (1917; trans. 1921); M. Hargrave, The Earlier French Musicians, 1632-1834 (1917); A. Hervey, French Music in the X/Xth Century (1903); A. W. Locke, Music and the Romantic Movement in France (1920); E. B. Hill, Modern French Music (1924); G. Jean-Aubry, French Music of Today (1919); M. Cooper, French Music from the Death of Berlioz to the Death of Faure (1951); P. Barbier and F. Vemillat, tHisloire de France par les chansons, 7 vols. (1956-); H. Grace, French Organ Music, Past and Present (1919); N. Dufourcq, La Musique franr;aise (1949); id., La Musique d'orgue franr;aise de Jehan Titelouze aJehan Alaine (1941); A. Coeuroy, La Musique franr;aise moderne (1922); C. Rostand, La Musique franr;aise contemporaine (1952); A. Cortot, La Musique franr;aise de piano, 3 vols. (1930--32); L. de La Laurencie, L'Ecole franr;aise de violon, 3 vols. (1922-24); LavE i.3, 1176ff (to 1814), ii.l, 56ff (modem); P. Daval, La Musique en France au XVII/e siecle (1961); A. Golea, "French Music since 1945," in LBCM. For the earlier periods, see under Ars antiqua, Ars nova, Chanson, etc. Also see Editions XXV, XXXIII, XLIX. Franco-Flemish school. See Flemish school. Fraudulent compositions. See Spurious compositions. Frauenchor [G.]. Women's chorus. Frauenliebe und Leben [G., Woman's Love and Life]. A cycle of eight songs by Schumann, op. 42 (1840), based on a group of poems by Adalbert von Chamisso (published under the same title). It was composed shortly after Schumann married Clara Wieck.

Frau ohne Schatten, Die [G., The Woman without a Shadow]. Opera in three acts by R. Strauss (libretto by H. von Hofmannsthal), produced in Vienna, 1919. Setting: fairy tale. Fredon [F.]. A rather indefinite term applied by 17th-century French musicians to a trill or a short *roulade. In the 18th century it was generally used in a derogatory sense for excessive ornamentation. Freemason music. The Freemason movement began with the foundation of the Grand Lodge of London in 1717. From England it spread to France, Germany, America, and many other countries. Among the Freemasons have been numerous composers, e.g., Boyce, Arne, Wesley, Haydn, Mozart, Lowe, Spohr, Cherubini, Liszt, Irving Berlin. Music played an important role in the Masonic meetings, which often included performances by outstanding artists. Essential to the Masonic rites is the singing of songs, many of which were published in collections such as Recueil de chansons des Franc-Mar;ons (1750), La Lire mar;onne (1763), A Selection of Masonic Songs (by Smollet Holden; 1796), and The Masonick Minstrel (Dedham, U.S.A., 1816). Most of the songs are popular tunes, dance tunes, or operatic melodies provided with a suitable text and thoroughbass accompaniment. The most important composer of Masonic music was Mozart, whose works include at least four written specifically for the Freemasons of Vienna: Gesellenreise (1785; K. 468); Die Maurerfreude (1785; K. 471); Maurerische Trauermusik (1785; K. 477); and Freimaurerkantate (1791; K. 623). His Die Zauberftiite contains numerous elements borrowed from Masonic rites: the Egyptian background, the priests, the ordeal by fire and water, the evil Queen of the Night, the serpent, etc. Lit.: P. Nettl, Mozart and Masonry (1957); id, Mozart und die konigliche Kunst (1932); id., in MQ xvi; 0. E. Deutsch, Mozart und die Wiener Logen (1932); M. Friedlander, Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (1902). Frei [G.]. Free, with freedom. Freischiitz, Der [G., The Freeshooter]. Opera in three acts by Weber (libretto by F. Kind), produced at Berlin, 1821. Setting: Bohemia, after the Seven Years' War. Der Freischatz marks both the beginning and the peak of German romantic opera. Folklore, nature, and superstition are the subjects given a musical setting that is admirable for the charm of its folklike melodies

332

FRE/STIMMIGKEIT

FROM THE NEW WORLD

and dance tunes as well as touches of dramatic tension and excit,!!ment. Particularly remarkable is the bold use of wind instruments: the horns that capture the atmosphere of the "German forest"; the trombones that accompany the hermit; the clarinet that characterizes Agathe; and the low register of the flute, which portrays Samiel. See also under Melodrama. Freistimmigkeit [G.]. Modem German term,

sometimes translated as "free voice-leading," for a pseudocontrapuntal style in which there is no strict adherence to a given number of parts, i.e., voices are free to enter or drop out, and chordal elements also occur. The natural idiom for such a style lies in music for keyboard instruments or for the lute. Indeed, Freistimmigkeit is a characteristic of solo music as opposed to ensemble music [see Ensemble (3)]. The earliest keyboard pieces (Robertsbridge Fragment, c. 1320; Fundamentum organisandi, 1452) are in two parts but occasionally include single chords or short passages in three parts. More typically freistimmig are the organ compositions in the collections of Attaingnant (c. 1530; *Editions XLIX, l) and in the publications of Marco Antonio (da Bologna) Cavazzoni (1524; *Editions X, l) and of Girolamo Cavazzoni (1542; *Editions IX, 6). Freistimmigkeit is highly characteristic of the keyboard style of Frescobaldi [see Ex.] and Froberger. Unfortunately, modem editors have shown a tendency to "correct" this flexible idiom by the insertion of rests, use of double-stemmed notes, and similar devices. As late as about 1700, fugues and ricercars were written without strict adherence to a given number of parts [see, e.g.,

French overture. See under Overture I; Suite V. French sixth. See Sixth chord. French Suites. Six suites for harpsichord by

Bach, composed about 1720 (in Kothen). The name "French" (not by Bach) has little significance, since French elements are present here to the same extent as in all the suites of Bach and his German predecessors (Pachelbel, Froberger). See under Suite. Frequency. See under Acoustics I. Fret [F. touche; G. Bund, pl. Bunde; It. tasto; Sp. traste]. A thin strip of material placed across the

fingerboard of certain instruments Oute, guitar, viols, balalaika, banjo, and various Indian and Arab instruments) that marks the position for stopping the strings. Formerly frets were made from pieces of catgut that were tied tightly around the neck. In more modem instruments they are narrow strips of wood or metal fixed on the fingerboard. On European instruments the frets are always arranged so as to give a succession of semi tones [see Tablature III]. Frettoloso [It.]. Hurried. Fricassee [F.] French name for *quodlibet. Ex-

amples including many textual and musical quotations are found in various 16th-century collections of chansons. A Fricassee by Henri Fresneau (in J. Modeme, Le Parangon des chansons, iii, 1538) contains almost one hundred quotations. See J. Jacquot, ed., tMusique et poesie au XV!e siecle (1954), pp. 174, 179. Friss, friszka. See Csardas; Verbunkos. Frog. A slightly raised ridge fastent;d to the

upper end of the neck of stringed instruments (violin, etc.). It serves to raise the strings over the fingerboard. The British term for frog is nut. Also see Bow. Frohlich [G.]. Joyful.

Krieger, in HAM, no. 249a]. Naturally, the contrapuntal writing in 19th-century compositions, such as Beethoven's sonatas, is always more or less freistimmig. Lute music is almost of necessity freistimmig. See also Texture. French chanson. See under Chanson (2). French harp. Older name for the mouth organ.

From My Life. Smetana's name for each of his

two string quartets, in E minor (1876) and in D minor (1882), both of them autobiographical. Today the name is used particularly for the E-minor quartet, which describes the happy experiences of his youthful life but contains in the finale a long-drawn high note that he heard for many years before he became deaf.

French hom. The hom, as opposed to the

English hom, which is a member of the *oboe family. See Hom.

From the New World. See New World Sym-

phony.

333

FROTTOLA

FUGE TUNE

Frottola [It.]. (l) Generic name for various types of Italian secular song of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The most important source consists of the eleven books offrottole published by Petrucci (1504-14; book X is lost). The frottole are often in a simple, essentially chordal style in three or four parts, with the upper part standing out as a melody. Since only the upper part has a text, they were probably performed as accompanied songs, the lower parts being played on instruments (viols, lute, harpsichord, etc.). However, purely vocal performance cannot be ruled out, particularly for the numerous examples written in a strictly homorhythmic style. The frottola developed under the aegis of the courts of northern Italy, particularly at Mantua, where the two most outstanding composers of frottole, Marco Cara (d. after 1525) and Bartolomeo Tromboncino (d. after 1535), worked under the patronage of Isabella d'Este. The prevailingly chordal style and the simple harmonic idiom (V-1, IV-I) of the frottole probably account for the appearance of similar traits in the works of contemporary Flemish composers (Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin). The late frottole are of interest as forerunners of the *madrigal. (2) Specifically, frottola is one of the various poetic-musical types represented in Petrucci's collections, also known as *barzelletta. Others are the *capitolo, *villota, canzona [see Canzona (4)], *oda, and *strambotto. The frottola is a late offspring of the 14th-century *ballata. Similar to this form (and even more so to the Spanish *villancico of c. 1500), it frequently consists of an initial four-line stanza and several six-line (occasionally eight-line) stanzas between which the first half of the initial stanza is repeated as a refrain. The most common musical form is the following (each letter represents two lines of the poem; refrain in capital letters): A b a a b A-

aab

A- ...

The music as printed consists of two sections, one for the first stanza (A b), the other for its first half as used as a refrain (A-). A- is essentially the same as A but includes a codalike extension. Frequently the second half of A (music for the second single line) is similar or identical to the first half ofb (music for the third single line; see the examples in HAM, no. 95). Although the scheme described above is the one most frequently encountered, there are many other but related formal patterns. Lit.: A. Einstein, The Italian Madrigali (1949), pp. 35ff; W. H. Rubsamen, Literary Sources of

Secular Music in Italy (1943); ReMR, pp. l56ff; B. Disertori, La Frottola nella storia della musica (1954); id., Le Frottole per canto e /into intabulate da Franciscus Bossinensis [1964]; F. Torrefranca, II Segreto del quattrocento (1939); *Editions XXI, l (Petrucci I-III); *Editions XLVI, 8 (Petrucci I, IV); *Editions XLVIII, 4 (Antico); E. B. Helm, in MQ xxvii; E. T. Ferand, in MQ xxvii; A. Einstein, in MQ xxxvii; R. Schwartz, in VMW ii, JMP xxxi, CP Kroyer; A. Einstein, in ZMW x; E. T. Ferand, in AM x; K. Jeppesen, in AM xi and PAMS 1939; H. Rosenberg, in AM xviii, xix; H. Engel, in CP 1952; A. Pirro, in RdM 1922, p. 3; R. Gandolfi, in RMI xviii; F. Vatielli, in RMI xxviii; G. Cesari, in RMI xix; B. Disertori, in RM/li.

Fuga [L.; It.]. (l) Italian for fugue. In earlier practice, also for fugal theme, e.g., {Ricercardel] Primo tono con tre .fughe (Trabaci, Ricercate, 1603). (2) The original meaning offuga [L.] is not fugue but what today is called canon. In this sense the term occurs in the "Speculum musicae" of c. 1330 (in conductis, motettis, fugis, cantilenis, ronde/lis; see CS ii, 395a), in the Fugae of Oswald von Wolkenstein, in Buchner's "Fundamentum" of c. 1525 (cantus fugat in alto et tenore), in Glareanus' Dodecachordon (1547; p. 445; iiii vocum fuga ex unica; see ApNPM, p. I80f), in Antonio de Cabez6n (*Editions XX, 7, p. 20), in Vincenzo Galilei [*Editions XXIII, 4, p. 12), etc. About 1600 the word fuga took on its present meaning as a generic term for pieces in the fugal style, either canzonas [see B. Schmid, Tabulaturbuch (1607): "Fugen oder wie es die Italiiiner nennen, Canzoni alia Francesce"], extended ricercars [S. Scheidt, Tabulatura nova (1624); see DdT i, 99], or any of the precursors of the fugue proper. Fugato. A passage in fugal style that is part of a primarily nonfugal composition. Such passages frequently occur in the development sections of symphonies, sonatas, and quartets. Fuge tune, fuging tune. A form of hymn or psalm tune developed in New England during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It commonly begins with a homophonic section, usually cadencing in the tonic and followed by a phrase in which the voices enter in succession (the order varies), which is in tum followed by a concluding homophonic phrase. Two misconceptions are that it represents a crude attempt to write a real fugue, and that it is a native American form originating with Billings. It is, in fact, based on an English form comm.on in

334

FUGHETTA

FUGUE

the 17th and early 18th centuries, of which Tye's the fugue. Frequently, but not always, this con"Laudate nomen Domini" is perhaps the best- tinuation takes a rather definite form, almost known example. English fuging tunes are found equal to the subject in individuality and imporas early as 1592 (in T. East's The Whole Booke tance. In such cases it is called countersubject of Psalmes), and 17th-century Scottish psalters and reappears throughout the fugue in a manner contained similar pieces called "reports" (from similar to the main subject, though less rigidly. F. rapporter, to carry back). The American fug- (d) A section in which the theme appears at least ing tunes thus are a last manifestation of an old once in each voice is called exposition. The expoform, and are generally somewhat freer in style. sition may include one more statement than the Aside from this, the only significant difference number of parts, e.g., four in a three-voice fugue, is that the English examples "fuged" on the last · the subject being stated again by the voice in line, and the American ones on the next-to-last which it first appeared. However, this does not line. Fuging tunes were written for and exten- usually happen in the first exposition, which in sively used in the singing schools organized other respects as well is the most rigid in structoward the end of the 18th century in an attempt ture. Sometimes the term exposition is restricted to improve the bad state of singing in the non- to the first exposition, without any special name liturgical churches, the writers almost always being applied to later sections of similar conbeing singing masters. Among the most gifted of struction. The accompanying example (J. K. F. these were William Billings (1746-1800), Daniel Fischer, Ariadne Musica, c. 1700) illustrates the Read (1757-1836), Jeremiah Ingalls (17641828), Timothy Swan (1758-1842), and Andrew ,1 Law (1749-1821). Lit.: W. Billings, The Continental Harmony I I I I I It I (1794; fac. ed. 1961); F. J. Metcalf, American 111 Writers and Compilers of Sacred Music [1925]; s1 J Jil~ I I. Lowens, in JAMS vi; id., in Notes ix, 233-48; id., in The Hymn, April 1952; E. H. Pierce, in MQ xvi; A. P. Britton, in JAMS iii, 286; C. E. Lindstrom, in MQ xxv. See also United States I; Hymn, English; Tune book. B.J.o. beginning of a fugue. (e) A section of the fugue that does not include a statement of the subject Fughetta [It.]. A short fugue. is called an episode. The episodes are based Fugue [F. fogue; G. Fuge; It., Sp. fuga]. The chiefly on short motifs derived from the subject latest and most mature form of imitative or its continuation (countersubject). They frecounterpoint, developed during the 17th cen- quently use sequential treatment [see Setury and brought to perfection by J. S. Bach. quence I]. (f) The over-all structure of a fugue is I. Structure. The main characteristics of a an alternation of expositions and episodes. The fugue are: (a) It is always written in contrapuntal episodes, although still in strict counterpoint, style, i.e., with a texture consisting of a number are somewhat freer and "lighter in weight." A of individual voices, usually three or four. (b) It fugue may have three, four, or more expositions, is based on a short melody, called subject or separated from one another by episodes. The theme, which is stated at the beginning of the middle expositions usually involve modulations fugue by one voice alone, being taken up ("imi- into other keys, suth as the relative minor, tated") by the other voices in close succession dominant, or subdominant, with return to the and reappearing throughout the entire piece in main key in the last exposition. (g) While in the all the voices at different places according to first exposition the statements of the subject principles explained below. (c) In each voice follow in rather close succession, in the later the space between one statement of the subject expositions they usually are more widely spaced, and the next is filled in by a freely invented separated by what might be called secondary counterpoint, which, however, is usually uni- episodes. For instance, the first fugue from fied by the use of recurrent motifs. These motifs the second book of Bach's Well-Tempered Claare derived either from the subject itself, or, vier has two secondary episodes within its secmore usually, from its continuation, which forms ond exposition (see the accompanying diathe counterpoint to the first imitation (second gram, which shows the basic structure of the statement) of the subject, near the beginning of fugue). The three subjects of the initial expo-

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sition are designated sl and s2 in order to indicate that they appear in two keys, tonic (S 1) and dominant (S 2 ). Because of this tonal relationship they are referred to as "subject and answer," or "antecedent and consequent," or "dux (leader) and comes (follower)." Usually the answer is not an exact transposition but involves the modification of certain steps, e.g., the replacement of a fifth (c-g) by a fourth (g-c', instead of g-d') [see Tonal and real]. The fugue usually closes with a *coda, which often has a pedal point. It must be noted that the scheme above represents a "student's fugue" rather than a "composer's fugue," such as those by Bach, few of which fit the theoretical description in every detail. Interestingly enough, Bach treated the fugue much more freely than Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven treated the sonata. The question may well be raised whether there really is such a thing as the "fugue form" and whether it would not be more proper to speak of "fugal procedure" rather than "fugal form" [see Forms, musical]. At any rate, the statement of numerous authors that "a fugue is a three-part form" is rather misleading. While the explanations above describe the basic principles of the fugue, fugal style includes many special devices of lesser or greater complexity, which contribute interest, variety, and intensity. Most of these are found under separate entries [see Augmentation and diminution; Inversion (2); Stretto; Double fugue; see also Art of Fugue]. II. History. The principle of imitative counterpoint, which is the basis of the fugue, can be traced back as far as c. 1200 [see Imitation]. However, it was not until the late 15th century that composers became fully aware of the importance of imitation as a structural element of polyphonic music (Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin). The style and form of Josquin's and Gombert's motet, characterized by many relatively short "expositions" (points), each based on a different subject and following one another in a dovetailing fashion, were imitated in the organ *ricercar (Cavazzoni, c. 1540). However, the ricercar had modifications that foreshadow future tendencies, e.g., reduction of the number of points (i.e.,

47

51

55

68

72

76

80

83

themes) and expansion of each point into a welldefined section including a greater number (up to 15 or more) of statements of the subject. Besides these "polythematic" ricercars, which are quite long, there also are shorter "monothematic" ricercars (e.g., by A. Gabrieli; see W. Apel, in MD iii). Another important forerunner of the fugue is the organ *canzona, which is similar in form to the polythematic ricercar but livelier and freer. The ricercar style persists in slow fugues, such as nos. 4 and 22 of the WellTempered Clavier i, and the canzona type in the more flexible and individual subjects of the faster fugues [see Soggetto]. The details of the development leading from the ricercar and canzona of about 1600 to the fugue of Bach have never been thoroughly investigated and clearly outlined. The problem is difficult indeed, owing to the enormous wealth of material and the variety of trends and schools. Restricting ourselves to the keyboard fugue (i.e., omitting the fugal compositions in instrumental and vocal music), it can be said that this development took place chiefly in Germany ("fugues" by Frescobaldi, which have been frequently reprinted in modern collections, e.g., L. Oesterle, ed., ~Early Keyboard Music i, p. 59, are definitely spurious) and that slowly and gradually the typical features of the Bach fugue appeared, such as adherence to a given number of parts, relative shortness, restriction to one theme, consistent alternation of expositions and episodes, modulatory principles, I-V-I-V entries in the first exposition [see the Ex. by Fischer above, which has I-V-V-I entries], etc. This process is illustrated by the following examples, contained in A. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, vol. ii (1884): Simon Loher, c. 15501611 (p. 106); Wolfgang Carl Briegel, 16261710 (p. 206); Georg Caspar Wecker, 1632-95 (p. 120); Johann Christoph Bach, 1643-1703 (p. 172). See also HAM, nos. 195b (Scheidemann), 215 (Tunder), 234 (Buxtehude), 237 (J. C. Bach), 247 (J. K. F. Fischer), 249b (Krieg~r), 251 (Pachelbel). The fugues in Johann Krieger's Anmuthige Clavier-Ubung (1699; new ed. in DTB 18) contain practically all the elements of fugal style used by Bach. The excellence of Bach's fugues compared

336

FUNCTIONAL HARMONY

FUGUE TUNE

to those of his predecessors lies in various factors: greater contrapuntal. skill, clarification of the formal structure, more advanced methods of harmonic treatment, etc. While all these traits represent progress by degrees, one tr~it puts Bach's fugues into a class of their own, namely, the incomparable artistic quality of the themes [see Melody III]. The great master of the fugue after Bach was Beethoven, who in various movements of his latest piano sonatas (op. 106, 110), quartets, and other works showed that the potentialities of the form had by no means been exhausted by the baroque masters. Composers after Beethoven seldom used the fugue as a serious art form. Recently, however, the *neoclassical tendencies of the 20th century have stimulated a new creative interest in this form (Hindemith and others). Lit. A. Instructive: A. Mann, The Study of Fugue (1958); C. H. Kitson, The Elements of Fugal Construction (1929); J. Knorr, Lehrbuch der Fugenkomposition (1911 ); A. Gedalge, Treatise on Fugue, trans. A. Levin (1964); W. Apel, Die Fuge (1932); S. Levarie, "Fugue and Form" (BAMS vii). B. Historical: *Editions XXXIX, 19; J. Mi.iller-Blattau, Geschichte der Fuge, rev. ed. (1963); W. Wesely, "Die Entwicklung der Fuge bis Bach" (diss. Prague, 1928); K. Trapp, Die Fuge in der Romantik von Schubert his Reger (1958); W. L. Graves, Twentieth Century Fugue; a Handbook (1962); U. Unger, Die Klavierfoge im zwanzigsten Jahrhundert (1956); 0. Roy, :j:Die Fuge (1963); E. P. Schwartz, "Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der Themenbeantwortung in der Fuge vor J. S. Bach" (diss. Vienna, 1932); J. S. Shedlock, "The Evolution of the Fugue" (PMA xxiv); F. Deutsch, "Die Fugenarbeit in den Werken Beethovens" (StM xiv); M. Zulauf, "Zur Frage der Quintbeantwortung bei J. S. Bach" (ZMW vi); A. Ghislanzoni, "La Genesi storica della fuga" (RMI xlviii).

binations, even the most complex and chromatic, are variants. of one of these three chords, i.e., they have a tonic-function, dominant-function, or subdominant-function. The chief substitute for each of the three principal triads is its relative minor; thus VI stands for I; III for V; II for IV. However, the "upper relative" may also serve as a substitute: III for I; VII for V; VI for IV. The resulting ambiguity in meaning of, e.g., III (which may appear in tonic-function or in dominant-function) is an essential feature of the system in which a chord is determined not as an isolated phenomenon by its degree (as in the current system of harmonic analysis) but by its fl.mction within a series of progressions. The subdominant in particular has many substitutes; among these is the *Neapolitan sixth, which in functional harmony is simply a (doubly altered) S, while in the orthodox system it is the first inversion of the lowered supertonic. Another example of functional interpretation is the sixfour chord of the first degree (1~), which functionally is nearly always a plain dominant (V) involving a double appoggiatura. Riemann's system has hardly gained a foothold outside Germany. Although one might argue about the advisability of its full acceptance, it certainly deserves more recognition as a corrective of the traditional system with. its somewhat dogmatic method of labeling, which is not always conducive to an understanding of harmony. The accompanying example (Schumann) illustrates the traditional and "functional" methods.

l n

u

I

I

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: I

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Fugue tune, fuguing tune. See Fuge tune. Fiillstimme [G.]. A mere "filling" part, without independent importance. Functional harmony [G. Funktionslehre]. A relatively new system of harmonic analysis, developed chiefly by H. Riemann, that attempts both to simplify traditional methods and to give clearer insight into the essentials of harmonic progressions. It is based on the idea that in a given key there are only three "functionally" different chords, namely, tonic (1), dominant (V), and subdominant (IV). All other chordal com-

3

IV

v

Lit.: H. Riemann, Vereinfachte Harmonielehre (1893); E. Kirsch, Wesen und Aufbau der Lehre von den harmonischen Funktionen (1928); H. Distler, Funktionel/e Harmonielehre (1941); H. Moser, in ZMW i.

GAGAKU

FUNDAMENTAL

Fundamental, fundamental tone. The lowest tone, i.e., the bass note of a chord. Also, the first harmonic. Fundamental bass [F. basse fondamentale]. In J. P. Rameau's theory, basse fondamentale is a fictitious bass line that consists of the roots of the chords occurring in a succession of harmonies. Only if a chord is in root position does the basse fondamentale coincide with the real bass. Rameau used the basse fondamentale in order to demonstrate his then novel theory of inverted chords. Fundament-instrument [G.]. In the *thoroughbass period, all instruments used for playing the bass part, either the written part only (violone, viola da gamba, cello, bassoon, etc.), or with accompanying chords (organ, harpsichord, chitarrone, theorbo, etc.). Fundamentum. Title used by 15th- and 16thcentury German composers for collections of pieces designed to teach composition of keyboard music. They consist of theoretical cantus firmi (ascensus and descensus, i.e., ascending and descending scale formations) to which figurate counterpoint is added. For early examples, dating from c. 1440-50, see Editions XI, I, pp. 13, 24, 25. The most famous example (for organ) is Conrad Paumann's "Fundamentum organisandi" of 1452 [fac. ed., together with the Lochamer *Liederbuch, by K. Ameln, 1925; transcr. in JMW ii and in Editions XI, 1, p. 32]. The *Buxheim Organ Book contains four or five greatly enlarged collections, including pieces in three-voice counterpoint. Hans Buchner's (1483-1538) "Fundamentum" of c. 1520-30 gives instruction in three- and four-voice counterpoint as well as in imitation [see C. Pii.sler, in VMW v]. In the organ tablature of Johannes de Lublin (c. 1540) the same techniques are illustrated by almost 800 examples. Funktionslebre [G.]. See Functional harmony.

Fuoco, con [It.]. With fire. Furiant. A rapid and fiery Bohemian dance, in 3/4 time, with frequently shifting accents. It has been used repeatedly by Dvorak [op. 12, Dumka and Furiant; op. 42, Two Furiants; also in his chamber music] and by Smetana (The Bartered Bride; Czech Dances]. An early description of a "Furie" is found in Tiirk's Klavierschule (1789; p. 400). Furlana. See For/ana. Furniture stop. Same as mixture stop. Fusa [L.; G. Fuse/a, Fuse!]. See under Mensural notation I. Futurism. The term futurismo was introduced by the Italian writer Marinetti in 1909 to describe extreme radicalism in literature and in all the arts. His ideas were applied to music at least theoretically by Francesco Pratella, in his Musica futurista (1912), which contains the following characteristic sentences: "To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity" [see the full text in N. Slonimsky, Music Since 1900, rev. ed. (1949), pp. 642ff]. Pratella also gives a detailed description of a composition for an "orchestra" consisting of machine guns, sirens, steam-whistles, etc. His music, however, is not more than a mild Debussyism, mingled with Puccinian idioms. Another champion of futurism was the painter Luigi Russolo, who actually is the author of the description quoted above. See W. Austin, "The Idea of Evolution in the Music of the 20th Century" (MQ xxxix, esp. 30ff). Fz. [It.]. Abbr. for forzando, forzato, same as *sforzando (sf, sjz).

G G. See Pitch names; Letter notation; Hexachord. For G clef, see Clef. Gabelgriff [G.]. *Cross fingering.

Gagaku [Jap.]. The orchestral music of the Japanese court, founded in the 8th century and preserved to the present day with little change. It also includes vocal pieces, e.g., saibara

338

GALLANT STYLE

GAGAKU

The most frequently found form for a bugaku and roei [see Japan III]. The term gagaku is also used for a type of orchestral music of continental is in three sections: jo (a slow introduction), Asia, particularly China and Korea, which is ha (moderate tempo), and kyu (a fast ending). the predecessor of the Japanese gagaku. This form is also found in various types of JapaThe frequent visits of foreign musicians to nese music in later periods. See Japan. Japan, particularly Koreans and Chinese, durmg Lit.: R. A. Garfias, Gagaku (1959); ~Score of the 5th to 8th centuries culminated in 701 in Gagaku, transcr. by S. Shiba, 2 vols. (1955, '56); the establishment of Gagaku-ryo, the Imperial E. Harich-Schneider, in MQ xxxix, 49-74; Music Bureau. During the 8th century, reper- S. Kishibe and L. Traynor, in Toyo Ongaku M.K. tories of different origins were blended and Kenkyu (Tokyo) ix, 26-53. modified into a Japanese style, resulting in . Gagliard, gaillarde. See Galliard. gagaku as it is known today. It reached its height in the Heian Period (894-1192). After the 12th Galta. See Bagpipe. century the tradition was barely continued by the musicians at the Imperial Court and at a GaitiUa. A Spanish 17th-century organ stop with few shrines and temples but was revived after a nasal sound, in imitation of the gai:ta. Also (rarely), a composition whose solo part was World War II. Gagaku performed alone is called kangen; played on this stop. when it accompanies a dance it is called bugaku. Galanterien [G.]. An 18th-century name for short Both types are further divided into left music and entertaining pieces in homophonic (nonfugal) right music (or dance). The left music is of style, including airs, variations, dances. The Chinese or Indian origin or reflects their influ- term is used particularly for the more recent ence, while the style of right music is like that of dances in the optional group of the suite, such as Korea and other northern countries. The left the bourn!e, passepied, gavotte, etc., which are and the right use different sets of instruments. composed in a lighter style than the traditional An orchestra of the left music consists of ryuteki allemande, courante, saraband, and gigue. Note (or woteki, a 7-holed flute), hichiriki [see Oboe the title of the first part of Bach's Clavier-Vbung: family III], and sho (a mouth organ); biwa (a lute " ... Sarabanden, Giguen, Menuetten und anderived from the *pyiba) and the gakuso (of the deren Galanterien." See Gallant style. *koto family); and taiko (a big drum), shoko Lit.: W. Dahms, "The 'Gallant' Style of (a metal drum), and kakko (a horizontal drum Music" (MQ xi, 356); P. Gradenwitz, "Midwith two side surfaces). The right music sub- Eighteenth-Century Transformations of Style" stitutes komabue (a 6-holed flute) for ryuteki, and (ML xviii, 265); E. Bucken, "Der galante Stil" sanno-tsuzumi for kakko, and omits the shO, (ZMWvi, 418); see also under Rococo. which provides a "harmonic" background for the left music. [See Ex.] [For the scale system in Galeron [Sp.]. A ballad form in octosyllabic quatrains popular in the Colombian plains. Its gagaku, see Japan IX.] melody has a limited range, and its rhythm follows the text in a recitative-like manner. At the 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, I , end of each stanza, refrains in slightly quicker tempo and contrasting with the predc;>minantly §;: §n narrative character of the stanzas are inter-6J.o-s. polated.

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"consonant"

st!lli't: lmim!l "dissonant"

Except in some free-rhythm passages (introduction or postlude), percussion instruments indicate strong (S) and weak (w) beats throughout the piece. The chief patterns are S w w w, S w w w w w w w, S w S w, S w S w w w, and S w S w w. Two winds, ryuteki (or komabue) and hichiriki, play melodic parts and often create a *heterophonic effect. Sometimes, in the right music, the two may play entirely different melodies. The strings have a percussive function rather than a melodic one.

Gallant style [F. style galant; G. galanter Stil]. In the 18th century, the light, elegant style of the rococo, as opposed to the serious, elaborate style of the baroque. The appearance of this style accompanied the shift from church to salon as the cultural center, from fugal treatment (polyphonic) to accompanied melody (homophonic), from church music to secular music. This change is already evident in the harpsichord compositions of J. K. F. Fischer, F. Couperin, Telemann, and G. T. Muffat, as well as in the optional dances (minuets, bourn.~es, gavottes, etc.; see

339

GALLARDA

GAMMA

Galanterien) of Bach's suites [also the (spurious?) dances-minuets, marches, polonaises-in the NotenbUchlein der Anna Magdalena Bach]. The gallant style is clearly present in the violin concertos and sonatas ofTartini [see HAM, no. 275] and in Pergolesi's La *Servapadrona (1733). The adoption of the new style led, about 1750, to a deterioration in musical quality, notably in some works of Italian composers such as Rutini, Paganelli, and Pescetti, and in England. In the second half of. the 18th century, Bach's sons Wilhelm Friedemann and Karl Philipp Emanuel endowed the gallant style with a new expressiveness [see Empjindsamer Stil], so that the word "gallant" was no longer applicable. The same was true of Mozart's works, which are directly derived from the gallant style of the Italians (including Johann Christian Bach). See Rococo; Haffner collection. Lit.: W. Dahms, "The 'Gallant' Style of Music" (MQ xi); P. Gradenwitz, "Mid-Eighteenth-Century Transformations of Style" (ML xviii); E. Biicken, "Der galante Stil" (ZMW vi). See also under Rococo.

[see Chant]. It was in use in France until the introduction of the Roman chant and rite under Pepin [see France I]. Its liturgical structure has much in common with *Mozarabic and *Ambrosian chant. The chants of the Mass consisted of the following items (Gregorian equivalents in parentheses): Praelegendum (Introit); Aius (Trishagion, Gloria); Kyrie; Benedictus (canticle of Zachary); Responsorium (Gradual); Preces; Laudes (Alleluia); Sonus (Offertory); Confractio [see Confractorium] and Trecanum (Communion). Unfortunately, only a few melodies survive in manuscripts of the 11th century. Certain portions of the Gallican chant were incorporated into the Roman liturgy, e.g., the *Improperia and the hymns "Crux fidelis" and "Pange lingua ... certamnis" (LU, p. 742). Lit.: A. Gastoue, Histoire du chant liturgique aParis (1904); id., Le Chant gallican (1939; also pub. in RCG xli-xliii; H. Angles, in NOH ii, 75ff. For additional bibl. see ReMMA, p. 436.

Gallarda [Sp.]. A 17th-century Spanish type of continuous variations based on a theme of 8, 10, or more measures in 4/4 time. There are five examples in the works of Cabanilles (ed. H. Angles, ii, 62ff). The gallarda also was a dance. Its movements are described in a late 17th-century Libro de danzar [see AnM v, 193].

li~lm. ~1m.

Galliard [F. gaillarde; It. gagliarda; Sp. gallarda]. A gay, rollicking 16th-century dance of Italian origin. The music is characterized by a predominantly compound duple (6/8) meter interspersed with hemiola (3/4) measures. The dance step of the galliard is similar to that of the 16thcentury *saltarello. Both use variations of the same basic five steps (*cinquepace or cinq pas). The only difference is in the execution. The galliard is danced more vigorously, and the leap on the fifth beat of the measure is higher for the galliard than for the saltarello. The music for both dances is indistinguishable in style. Either dance is frequently coupled to a *pavane or a *passamezzo. Early examples are preserved in Attaingnant's Six Gaillardes et six pavanes [1529]; his Quatorze Gaillardes, neuf pavannes [1531]; in J. Abondante's Intabolatura sopra el /auto (1546); and in A. Rotta's /ntabolatura de /auto (1546). L.H.M. Gallican chant. The French branch or "dialect"

of plainsong of the medieval Western Church

Galop. A quick round dance of the mid-19th century (c. 1825-75) with rhythms such as those

shown in the illustration. It was executed with many changes of steps and hopping movements. Offenbach parodied it in his Orphee aux Enfers (1858). Liszt wrote a Grand Galop Chromatique (1838) and a Galop de Bat (c. 1840). See Dance music IV. Galoubet. See under Pipe ( 1). Gamba, gambe [G.]. Abbr. for *viola da gamba. Gambang (saron). An Indonesian idiophone, consisting of a number of wood, bamboo, or metal bars resting on a large trough resonator. See J. Kunst, Music in Java, rev. ed., 2 vols. (1949). Also see under Java. For ill. see under Percussion. Gambenwerk [G.]. An 18th-century name for bowed keyboard instruments. Same as Geigenwerk. See Sostenente piano. Gamelan. Generic term for an Indonesian orchestra. See under Bali; Java. Game of Cards, The. See J eu de cartes, Le. Gamma [Gr.]. In medieval theory, the lowest tone of the scale, G of the modem scale. In Guidonian terminology it was called gamma-ut

340

GAMME

GEBRAUCHSMUS/K

[see Hexachord III]. Later, the term was metaphorically used for "all the tones from gamma," i.e., the entire scale. This meaning persists in the Italian gamma and the French gamme for scale, as well as in the English gamut for scale or range. Gamme [F.]. *Scale. See under Gamma. Gamme des physiciens (i.e., of the physicists), the

"natural" scale derived from just intonation.

movements by two couples, who emphasize its lively rhythms by finger-snapping, shoe-tapping, and the so-called escobilleo (i.e., swinging each foot in tum, back and forth). The music, which is sung to the accompaniment of the guitar, follows rhythmic patterns alternating between 6/8 and 3/4 meter. J.o-s. - Gaukler [G.]. See Minstrel.

Gamut. See under Gamma. Ganze Note, ganze Pause [G.]. Whole note,

whole-note rest. See Notes. Ganzton [G.]. Whole tone. Ganztonleiter, whole-

tone scale. Ganzschluss [G.]. Full cadence.

Gavotte. A "French dance of the 17th century whose name is said to be derived from "Gavots," the inhabitants of the Pays de Gap in Dauphine. The dance is in moderate 4/4 time, with an upbeat oftwo quarter notes, and with the phrases usually ending and beginning in the middle of a measure. Earlier examples, however, are frequently notated without upbeat [see Ex.,

Gapped scale. A scale that is derived from a more complete system of tones by omitting some of them. Thus, the pentatonic scale is a gapped scale of the diatonic system, and this in tum can be considered a gapped scale of the chromatic system. Another selection of notes from the chromatic system results in the chromatic scale of ancient Greek theory. Most of the scales of Oriental music are gapped scales, since the tones used in actual music are only a small selection from a more complete system that is designed only for theoretical demonstration (e.g., the 22 sruti and the 7-tone scales, sa-grama and ma-grama, of *India).

I

"". . I

Garbato, con garbo [It.]. Graceful, elegant. Gaspard de Ia mot [F.]. A set of three piano

pieces by Ravel (1908) inspired by the collected poems of Bertrand, which were published under the same title (literally, Caspar of the Night, a nickname for Satan): (1) Ondine, a water nymph; (2) Le Gibet (gallows); (3) Scarbo (clown of the Punch and Judy show). Gassenhauer [G.]. In present German usage, a

vulgar street song. In publications of the 16th century, e.g., in Egenolff's Gassenhawerlin and Reutterliedlin (1535; fac. ed. by H. J. Moser, 1927), it simply means popular song, without any implication of vulgarity. In fact, these collections include some of the most beautiful songs oflsaac, Hofhaimer, and Senft. Gathering note. In hymn singing, a note sounded

by the organist as a signal to the congregation, to give them the correct pitch of the hymn. Gato [Sp.]. One of the most important rural

dances of Argentina, generally danced in circular

D' Angle bert, Pieces de clavecin, 1689]. The dance is mentioned in Arbeau's *Orchesographie (1589) as a recueil de bran/es. Several examples (for lute) are contained in the Tresor d'Orphee (1600) by Antoine Francisque, but apparently the dance did not come into vogue until the middle of the 17th century, when Lully introduced it into his ballets and operas. From here it found its way into the ordres of D' Anglebert and F. Couperin and the German suites ofPachelbel and J. K. F. Fischer. Bach often used it as one of the optional dances in his instrumental and keyboard suites. See Dance music III. Gebrauchsmusik [G.]. A term originated in the

1920's (by Hindemith?) meaning "music for use," i.e., music intended for practical use by amateurs, in the home or at informal gatherings, as opposed to music written "for its own sake" (/'art pour !'art) and intended chiefly for concert performance by professionals. Characteristic

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traits of Gebrauchsmusik are: forms of moderate length; simplicity and clarity of style; small ensembles; avoidance of technical difficulties; parts of equal interest and so designed that they can be played on whatever instruments are available; soberness and moderation of expression; emphasis on "good workmanship." The rise of Gebrauchsmusik is typical ofthe neoclassical reaction against the exaggerated individualism and fin de siec/e refinement of late romanticism and impressionism. The movement, which was begun by Hindernith and others in the festivals of Donaueschingen [see Festivals III], was supported by the socialist elements in post-war Germany and by the revival of interest in early music, particularly Bach's. In fact, Bach's cantatas were frequently cited as the earliest examples of Gebrauchsmusik in the sense of "music written for immediate consumption or on commission" (Bach had to write a cantata for every Sunday). While 19th-century composers would have regarded such a demand as interfering with the artist's free creative inspiration, musicians such as Hindemith and Krenek adopted the less aloof attitude that was natural to the masters of earlier periods. Hindernith's introductory notes to his Planer Musiktag ( 1932) and to Wir bauen eine Stadt (1931) contain many pertinent remarks on Gebrauchsmusik. See J. Willett, The Theatre of Bertolt Brecht [1959]; DM xxi.6 and xxiv.3; H. Closson, "The Case against Gebrauchsmusik" (MM vii).

Gegenfuge [G.]. Counterfugue. Gegensatz [G.]. Contrast. In older writings, a countersubject or second theme. Gegenthema [G.]. Countersubject (of a fugue) or second theme (of a sonata movement). Gehalten [G.]. Held out, sustained. Gehend [G.]. Moving, andante. Gehender Bass [G.]. Running bass. Geige [G.]. Violin; see under Gigue (1). Geigenwerk, see under Sostenente pianoforte. Geisslerlieder [G.]. German 14th-century songs that were sung during the penitential processions of the flagellants, particularly in the year of the Black Death, 1349. Melodically and structurally they anticipate to some degree the Lutheran chorale. See P. Runge, Die Lieder und Melodien der Geissler des Jahres 1349 (1900); ReMMA, p. 239. Geisstriller [G.]. *Goat's trill. Geistlich [G.]. Sacred, religious, spiritual. Geistliche Konzerte (Schutz) are pieces (vocal and instrumental) for church use; see Concerto III. Gekkin. A Japanese guitar; see under Guitar family. Gekoppelt [G.]. Coupled. Geliiufigkeit [G.]. Technical fluency.

Gebrochener Akkord [G.]. Broken chord.

Gelassen [G.]. Quiet, calm.

Gebunden [G.]. Legato.

Gemiichlich [G.]. Comfortable, leisurely.

Gebundener Stil [G.]. The strict contrapuntal style of the 17th and early 18th centuries (fugues), as opposed to freier Stil (free style), i.e., either accompanied melody or* Freistimmigkeit.

Gemiissigt [G.]. Moderate.

Gedackt [Old G.], gedeckt [G.]. Stopped. The former term is used for an organ register consisting of stopped pipes, the latter for the modern "stopped" instruments, such as the clarinet. See Stop; Wind instruments III.

Gemeindelied [G.]. Congregational hymn, chorale. Gemell. Same as *gymel. Gemendo [It.]. Lamenting. Gemessen [G.]. Restrained. Gemischte Stimmen [G.]. Mixed voices.

Gedehnt [G.]. Stretched out, slow.

Gender. A Javanese metallophone, consisting of thin bronze slabs over resonating bamboo tubes [see Java; Bali].

Gefahrte [G.] The answer of a fugal subject.

Genera. Plural of L. genus. See Greece II.

GefUhlvoll [G.]. With feeling.

Generalbass [G.]. Thoroughbass.

Gegenbewegung [G.]. Contrary motion (between two voices); sometimes used as synonym of inversion (of a subject).

Generalpause [G.], abbr. G.P. In orchestral works, a rest for the entire orchestra, coming unexpectedly after a climactic passage. This

Gediimpft [G.]. Muted, muffled.

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effect was one of the startling innovations of the *Mannheim school. Generalprobe [G.]. Dress rehearsal of orchestra concerts, usually open to the public. Genus [L.; pl. genera]. See under Greece II. German ftute. An 18th-century name for the transverse (cross) flute, as distinguished from the English flute, i.e., the recorder. German Requiem, A. See Deutsches Requiem, Ein. German sixth. See Sixth chord. Germany. The development of music in Germany, compared to France, England, and Italy, began quite late. In the field of polyphonic music in particular, it was not until the middle of the 15th century-that is, when the great period of medieval French music was coming to a closethat Germany came to the fore. From then on, however, German music progressed in a continuous line that, even aside from its many outstanding summits, maintained an exceptionally high level to the present day, thus making Germany the leading nation in the more recent era of music history. I. Prehistory and Middle Ages. The *lurer, beautiful long trumpets of the Nordic Bronze Age [see Denmark], are evidence of a high standard of bronze founding rather than of "prehistoric German music," as has occasionally been claimed. Late Roman and early medieval writers often commented unfavorably on the musical ability of the ancient Germans, particularly about their singing. In the 9th century the monastery of St. Gall (founded by Irish monks) became one of the most important centers of cultivation of Gregorian chant, particularly remarkable for its contribution to the development of the *sequence (Notker Balbulus, c. 840912; Tuotilo, d. 915; Wipo of Burgundy, c. 1000-50) and musical theory (Notker Labeo, d. 1022; Hermannus Contractus, 1013-54). The oldest surviving song in the German language is the 9th-century Petruslied, "Unsar trohtin" [see Miiller-Blattau., in ZMW xvii, 129tf; 0. Ursprung, in MFv]. In the 12th century the Provenc;al troubadour movement spread to Germany, leading to a first flowering of German secular song among the *minnesingers, among whom Neithart von Reuenthal (c. 1180-c. 1240) was outstanding from the musical point of view. Toward the end of the 15th cent. their tradition was continued by the *Meistersinger, with Hans Sachs (1494-1576) as the main representative.

Meanwhile, polyphonic music had made a late and slow start in the primitive pieces (written in the style of 11th-century organum) of the 14thcentury Codex Engelberg 314 [see F. Ludwig, in K.l xxi, 48-61, and in AMW v, 305tf], and in the slightly less archaic pieces of the MUnch of Salzburg (fl. c. 1375) and Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445; see BeMMR, p. 180; SchGMB, no. 46; complete works in DTO 18). Three MSS of c. 1460-70, the Lochamer, Mtinchner (Schedel'sche), and Glogauer *Liederbuch, preserve, besides Flemish, French, and Italian compositions, a number of German compositions, polyphonic Lieder, attractive ensemble dances, *quodlibets, etc. Closely related to the Lochamer MS is the *"Fundamentum organisandi" (1452) of Conrad Paumann (1410-73), an important source of German organ music, preceded by the tablature of Adam Ileborgh (1448; see W. Apel, in ZMW xvi) and followed by the *"Buxheim Organ Book" of c. 1470. II. Renaissance. The late 15th century saw th.e rise of the first important school of German polyphonic music, represented by Adam von Fulda (c. 1445-1505; see W. Niemann, in K.l 1902), Heinrich Finck (1445-1527; see Editions VIII, 9, 21, 32), and Alexander Agricola (c. 14461506). The Flemish master Heinrich Isaac (c. 1450-1517) played a leading role in this development, particularly in the field of the German part song ("Innsbruck ich muss dich lassen"), to which Paul Hotbaimer (1459-1537), court organist to Maximilian I, Thomas Stoltzer (c. 1480-1526), and Ludwig Senfi (c. 1490-1543), a Swiss, also contributed many examples of great beauty [see H. J. Moser, Paulus Hojhaimer (1929); DTO 12; DdT 34]. Senft's *quodlibets are an interesting source for the study of early German folksong. Of particular importance is the German organ music of the early 16th century, represented by the great master Arnott Schlick (c. 1460-after 1517), Hotbaimer, H. Buchner (1483-1538), and others [see Organ music I]. Schlick's Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesang und Lidlein [ 1512] also contain some compositions for the lute (the earliest lute songs). Among the numerous other German lutenists, Hans Judenktinig and Hans Newsidler deserve special mention [see Lute music]. About the middle of the 16th century the autochthonous development of German music was interrupted somewhat by the great influx of Flemish composers who held key positions in all the musical centers (De Monte in Prague; Le Maistre and Scandellus in Dresden; Lasso in Munich), until their German pupils, such as Jacobus Gallus

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(Handl, 1550-91), Leonhard Lechner (c. 15501606), and Hans Leo Hassler (1564--1612), were ready to take up the tradition. Gallus and Hassler, together with Hieronymus Praetorius (1560-1629) and Michael Praetorius (15711621), also cultivated the Venetian polychoral style. Toward the end of the century a number of musicians known as *colorists were active in the field of keyboard music. III. Baroque. The 17th century found German composers active in practically every field of vocal and instrumental music and soon leading in church music (particularly cantatas, Passions) and organ compositions. Here the Lutheran chorale provided a basis of tradition as well as progress, which largely accounts for the spiritual integrity and, as a result, the high artistic quality of German baroque music. An idea of the scope of German baroque music can be gained by glancing through the list of German Denkmtiler [see Editions XIII, XIV, XV]. The most outstanding figures were (arranged in groups of contemporaries): Schlitz, Schein, Scheidt (b. c. 1585, 100 years before Bach) Tunder, Froberger, Rosenmiiller (b. c. 1615) Buxtehude, Georg Muffat, Biber (b. c. 1640) Johann P. Krieger, Fischer, Pachelbel (b. c. 1650) Bohm, Bruhns, Kuhnau (b. c. 1660) Telemann, Walther, Handel, J. S. Bach (b. c. 1685). The beginning of the 17th century saw interesting developments in the instrumental dance and *suite, represented by Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630), Valentin Haussmann, Isaac Posch, and Paul Peuerl. Simultaneously Heinrich Schlitz (1585-1672) brought vocal church music (*Passion, *oratorio) to an artistic height comparable to Bach's, while Hieronymus Praetorius (1560-1629), Michael Praetorius (15711621), and Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654) laid the foundation for the development of German organ music [see Organ music II A; Organ chorale; etc.]. The next generation saw the rise of harpsichord music under Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-67; see Suite III), and about 1650 the church cantata emerged as an exclusively German product [see Cantata III]. Lute music reached an artistic climax in the works of Esaj as Reusner (1636-79) and Sylvius Weiss (1686-1750), while violin music was cultivated by Johann Schop (c. 1590-1667), Nicolaus Adam Strungk (1640-1700), and Heinrich Biber(l644-1704), masters whose virtuosity paved the way

for Bach's pieces for solo violin. In orchestral music Johann Rosenmiiller (c. 1620-84) stands out as an early master, while later composers such as Georg Muffat (1653-1704) and Philipp Erlebach (1657-1714) incorporated elements of the Italian and French orchestral styles. The German baroque lied found an outstanding master in Adam Krieger (1634--66; see Lied III), and only in opera did German musicians fail to compete successfully with other countries. In all these fields except the last two, the development reached a climax with J. S. Bach (1685-1750). IV. Rococo. Contemporaries of Bach, such as Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767), Johann Valentin Rathgeber (1682-1750), and Gottlieb Muffat (1690-1770), were quick to embrace the novel style of the *rococo, and "progressive" writers such as Johann Mattheson (1681-1764) helped overthrow the last vestiges of a tradition that they considered oldfashioned and useless. After a comparatively short period of low ebb, German music took a new start in two directions: one toward a novel type of expressiveness, the *Empfindsamer Sti/; the other toward the exploitation of modern orchestral resources and the formal development of the classical sonata, symphony, and string quartet. In the former field Bach's sons Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (171084) and Karl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-88) are outstanding; in the latter were the numerous musicians of the *Mannheim school. Concomitant with this development is the rise of the *Singspiel, and of the *volkstiim/iches Lied [see also Berlin school]. V. Classicism, romanticism, and modernism. The man who molded the formal and stylistic elements of the late rococo into a new art, thus laying the foundation for *classicism, was Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809). From 1770 on,' his symphonies and string quartets, as well as those of Mozart (1756-91), show more and more the full mastery and maturity that led to the designation "classical." No less immortal are Haydn's oratorios and Mozart's operas. Beethoven (1770-1827) brought this development to its acme and, in his latest works, prepared for *romanticism, side by side with Franz Schubert (1797-1828), the great master of the lied. The romantic spirit is more patent still in the operas and piano works of Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) and was wholeheartedly embraced by Robert Schumann (1810-56), who more than any other composer represents romanticism with all its novel wonders as well as its inherent flaws. The history of German music from 1830 to

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1930 follows in the form of a chronological list of the important compositions produced in each decade: 1830-40: The romantic decade par excellence, including practically all the important works of Schumann and Mendelssohn. 1840-50: Schumann's last works (Piano Concerto), and Wagner's (1813-83) first operas: Der fliegende Hollander, Tannhiiuser, Lohengrin. 1850-60: Wagner's Rheingold, Walkiire, Tristan. Liszt (1811-86) establishes the *symphonic poem (Faust and Dante symphonies, Mazeppa, Hunnenschlacht) and writes his Etudes d'execution transcendante and most of the Hungarian Rhapsodies. Brahms (1833-97) produces his piano sonatas (op. l, 2, 5) and D-minor Concerto, op. 15. 1860-70: Wagner and Brahms still dominate the scene, the former with Siegfried and Meistersinger, the latter with op. 18-50, including the Handel Variations, the Magelone Songs, and the Deutsches Requiem. 1870-80: Wagner's Gotterdammerung, the last music drama of the Ring des Nibelungen. Brahms writes his first two symphonies and chamber music (up to op. 86). Bruckner (1824-96) appears with his symphonies nos. 2-6. 1880-90: Wagner produces his final music drama, Parsifal; Bruckner and Brahms produce their symphonies nos. 7-9 and 3-4 respectively. Brahms writes his last chamber works and the Piano Concerto in B-flat. Richard Strauss (1864-1949) brings new life to the symphonic poem with Don Juan and Tod und Verkliirung. Hugo Wolf (1860-1903) writes most of his songs. 1890-1900: The last works of Brahms (op. 114-121). High point of Strauss' symphonic poems: Till Eulenspiegel, Zarathustra, Don Quixote. Gustav Mahler's (1860-1911) symphonies nos. 2-4. 1900-10: The romantic movement comes to a close with Mahler's symphonies nos. 5-10 and Das Lied von der Erds, Strauss' operas Salome and Elektra, and the chamber music of Max Reger (1873-1916). Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951), after his impressionist Pelleas und Melisande, writes the atonal Drei Klavierstiicke (1909), the first examples of a radical break with the past. 1910-20: Vestiges of the romantic tradition in Strauss' Rosenkavalier and Alpensinfonie, in Pfitzner's opera Palestrina, and in Schreker's

1878-1934) operas Der ferne Klang and Der Schatzgriiber. Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire and the completely atonal Sechs kleine Klavierstiicke. Ferruccio Busoni (1866-1924) writes the first *neoclassic pieces (sonatinas and Fantasia contrappuntistica). 1920-30: The heterogeneous post-war decade with its experiments in twelve-tone technique, jazz idioms, primitive rhythms, neoclassic forms, etc., brings to the fore a group of composers striving toward new means of expression, notably Alban Berg (1885-1935) with his two *expressionist operas Wozzeck (191425) and Lulu (1928-34); A. von Webern (1883-1945) with his *serial techniques; Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) , with neoclassical sonatas, string quartets, and the song cycle Das Marienleben (1924); Ernst Krenek (b. 1900) with highly dissonant piano and chamber music, as well as the jazz opera Jonny spielt auf (1925-26); and Kurt Weill ( 1900-50) with his highly successful Dreigroschenoper (1928). Side by side with these composers were others, most of them under the influence of the "backto-Bach" idea: Heinrich Kaminsky (1886-1946) with "neo-Gothic" compositions . filled with expression of religious ecstasy and mysticism; J. Nepomuk David (b. 1895), who reverted to the Flemish polyphony in works such as Ricercare in C minor (1927), Fantasia super L'Homme arme (1929), organ chorales, toccatas, etc.; and Hugo Herrmann (b. 1896), who used a linear style approaching atonality. This development was suddenly interrupted by Hitler's coming to power in 1933. Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, and Weill fled to the United States, and for the next twelve years musical activity and production in Germany were determined by a totalitarian regime hostile to all progress in the arts. Among the composers who pursued their work secretly was Anton von Webern (1883-1945), who developed Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique into a highly sensitive idiom of fragmentary sounds [see Serial music] that foreshadows the techniques of *musique concrete and *electronic music. After World War II there emerged a new generation of great vitality and wide scope of activity. The neoclassical group comprises Ernst Pepping (b. 190 l ), Wilhelm Maler (b. 1902), Kurt Thomas (b. 1904), and also Wolfgang Fortner (b. 1907), whose more recent compositions show influence of serial techniques. Werner Egk (b. 1901) and Gottfried von Einem (b. 1918) have been sue-

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cessful in the field of opera, the former with Zaubergeige (1935, Peer Gynt (1938) and Circe (1948), the latter with Dantons Tod (1947). Boris Blacher (b. 1903) has written music strongly influenced by novel dance rhythms (variable meters). Carl Orff (b. 1895) has written the highly successful Carmina burana (1936), a scenic oratorio presenting pseudomedieval melodies in a clever, attractive garb. Giselher Klebe (b. 1925) is a leading twelve-tone composer, and Hans Werner Henze (b. 1926) has produced notable works for the stage (Konig Hirsch, 1956; Undine, 1959). Karl Heinz Stockhausen (b. 1928) is a pioneer of electronic music. Lit.: H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deutschen Musik, 3 vols. (1920-24); id., Die Musik der deutschen Stiimme (1957); H. von der Pfordten, Deutsche Musik (1920); A. Schering, Deutsche Musikgeschichte im Umriss (1917); R. Maisch, Geschichte der deutschen Musik (1926); H. Mersmann, Eine deutsche Musikgeschichte [1934]; J. Mtiller-Blattau, Das deutsche Volkslied[1932]; L. Schiedermaier, Die deutsche Oper (1930); AdHM ii, 1002-38 ("Die Modeme"; bibl.); W.-E. von Lewinski, "The Variety of Trends in Modem Music," in LBCM, also MQ li. Ges, geses [G.]. See under Pitch names. Gesamtausgabe [G.]. Complete edition. Most of the German Gesamtausgaben have been published by Breitkopf and Hartel, Leipzig. Gesang [G.]. Song. Gesangbuch [G.]. Hymn book, either of the Roman Catholic or of the Protestant Church. For the earliest publication of Protestant hymn books, see Chorale. GesangvoU [G.]. Songlike, cantabile. GeschOpfe des Prometheus, Die [G., The Creatures of Prometheus]. Ballet by Beethoven (choreography by S. Vigano), produced in Vienna, 1801. It is remembered chiefly for its overture and for a theme in the finale that Beethoven used in three other compositions [see under Eroica]. Geschwind [G.]. Quick, nimble. GeseUschaftslied [G.]. Musicologic term for a song that belongs to the middle classes, as opposed to Hojlied (court song) or Volkslied (folksong). The term is used particularly for the German 16th-century polyphonic songs of Hofhaimer, Senft, and others, but it may also be used for the Italian madrigal, French chanson, etc.

Ge sol re ut, gesolreut. See under Hexachord III. Gesteigert [G.]. Increased. Gestopft [G.]. The stopped notes of the hom. See Horn I. Geteilt [G.]. Divided. See Divisi. Getragen [G.]. Sustained, slow. Gewandhaus [G.]. See under Orchestras III. Ghimel. See Gymel. Ghironda [It.]. *Hurdy-gurdy. Gianni Schicchi. See under Trittico. Gigelira [It.]. *Xylophone. Gigue. (I) Medieval name for stringed instruments, perhaps specifically the rehab [see Rabab], whose pear-shaped form is similar to a gigot [F., leg of lamb]. In the late 13th century a French poem mentions the "gigueours de l'Allemaigne," i.e., the gigue players of Germany [see GeHM, p. 400]. Probably the German Geige [Old G. gige], violin, is derived from the French gigue. (2) In the suites of 1650-1750 the gigue [It. giga] is one of the four constituent dance movements, usually the final one [see Suite; Dance music III]. The gigue evolved from the 16thcentury Irish or English *jig, which on the Continent developed differently in France and in Italy. The French type (Gaultier, Chambonnieres) is characterized by compound duple time (6/8, 6/4), dotted rhythm, wide intervals (sixths, sevenths, octaves), and fugal writing, usually with the inverted subject [see Inversion (2)] used for the second section. [See Ex., from Bach, French suite, no. 4.] The less common Italian type, the giga, is much quicker (presto gigue) and nonfugal, with running passages over a harmonic basis [for a similar case, see Courante]. This type occurs in the works of G. B. Vitali [Bailetti, corrente, gighe, allemande, e sarabande 1668-71], Corelli, and Zipoli [see Editions

l@·'lt'r'~rrr-c.rriM~rNlfll l@·'r:.irfJrr~l 11~l;UJJJ121IDJJ11 - - --- rrl v

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IX, 36]. It survives in the 6/8-presto pieces of the 18th century [see a gigue by K. H. Graun, 170159, in W. Niemann, t.Alte Meister des Klaviers], which in turn are the model of such movements as the presto finale of Beethoven's Piano Sonata op. 2, no. l. The gigues in the suites of Fro berger, Handel, and Bach are usually of the French type. However, a number of gigues by Froberger are in 4/4 meter, and some of Bach's suites (e.g., in the Partita no. l and English Suite no. 2) are modeled on the Italian type. Lit.: W. Danckert, Geschichte der Gigue (1924); F. Pulver, in PMA xl. Gimel. See Gymel. Gioconda, La. Opera in four acts by A. Ponchielli (libretto by A. Boito, based on V. Hugo's play), produced in Milan, 1876. Setting: Venice, 17th century. Giocoso [It.]. Jocose, humorous. Gioioso [It.]. Joyous, cheerful. Giorgi flute. A flute invented by Giorgi (1888) that has finger holes for each chromatic tone, thus making cross fingering unnecessary. It was blown at the end rather than across the bore. See SaRM, p. 158; H. Standish, in PMA xxiv. Gipsy music. See Gypsy music. Giraffe piano [G. Giraffenklavier]. An early 19thcentury variety of piano, somewhat like the grand piano but with the wing-shaped part of the case put upright, thus vaguely resembling the neck of a giraffe. Girl of the Golden West. See Fanciulla del West, La. Giro [It.]. *Turn. Gis, gisis [G.]. G-sharp, g-double-sharp. See Pitch names. Giselle. Ballet by Adolphe Adam (choreography by Jean Corali, based on a story by H. Heine), first produced in Paris, 1841. Gitana, alia [It.]. In the *Gypsy style. Gittern. See under Guitar family. Giulio Cesare in Egitto [It., Juhus Caesar in Egypt]. Opera in three acts by G. F. Handel (libretto by N. Haym), produced in London, 1724. Setting: Egypt, 48 B.C. Giustiniana. See under Villanella.

GLASS HARMONICA

Giusto [It.]. Just, right. Tempo giusto, fitting tempo or strict tempo. Glass harmonica [G. Glasharmonika]. An instrument that Benjamin Franklin invented in 1763 and called "armonica." It consists of a series of glass basins of graded sizes fixed on a horizontal spindle, which is made to revolve by a treadle operated by the player's foot. The spindle is fitted into a trough filled with water so that the glasses are kept wet. [For ill. see under Percussion.] The sound is produced by delicate rubbing of the fingers against the glasses [ill. in SaRM, p. 159]. The instrument was extraordinarily popular, particularly in Germany and Austria where, together with the *Aeolian harp, *nail violin, and other "ethereal" instruments, it became a characteristic vehicle of Empfindsamkeit. Among various compositions for the glass harmonica, Mozart's Adagio in C major (K. 356) and Adagio and Rondo (K. 617) for harmonica, flute, oboe, viola, and cello, both composed in 1791, are the most interesting [see comp. ed., x]. They seem to require an instrument equipped with a keyboard mechanism such as that constructed in 1784. Beethoven used the glass harmonica in a melodrama, Leonora Prohaska, composed in 1814 [sup pl. vol. of B. and H. ed.]. Other composers who wrote for the instrument were J. G. Naumann, Padre Martini, Hasse, Galuppi, and Jommelli. About 1830 the instrument fell into oblivion but was reintroduced by R. Strauss in his opera Die Frau ohne Schatten (1917). The use of glass as a sound-producing material is quite old. Musical glasses were known in Persia in the 14th century. About 1743 Richard Pockrich (Puckeridge), an Irishman, constructed an "angelick organ" consisting of a number of drinking glasses that were tuned by being filled with varying amounts of water. There is a report from 1760 saying that "Pockrich played Handel's Water Music on the glasses." In 1746 Gluck played in London on "twenty-six glasses filled with spring water." In 1761 in London Benjamin Franklin attended a recital on musical glasses, and subsequently he invented the glass harmonica. A newer glass instrument is the glass harp [G. Glasharfe] constructed by B. Hoffmann in 1929. Similar to the musical glasses of England, it consists of 46 individually tuned glasses fixed on a resonant table. Lit.: H. W. Geissler, Die Glasharmonika (1953); C. F. Pohl, Cursory Notices on the Origin and History of the Glass Harmonica (1862); A. H.

GLEE

GLORIA

King, "The Musical Glasses and Glass Harmonica" (PMA lxxii, 97); B. Hoffmann, "Glasharmonika und Glasharfe" (Schweizerische Musikzeitung, 1951 ).

"Samuel Webbe and the Glee" (ML xxxiii, 346); B. F. Wright, "The Glee" (The Monthly Musical A.T.D. Record lxxxix, 226). Gleemen. See under Minstrels.

Glee. An 18th-century genre of English choral Gleichmassig [G.]. Even. music, unaccompanied, in three or more parts, Gli Scherzi. See Scherzi, Gli. for solo men's voices (including a male alto), comparatively brief, sectionally constructed, and Glissando [It.]. The execution of rapid scales by homophonic (chordal) rather than polyphonic. a sliding movement. In piano playing, the nail of The glee was one of two wholly English 18th- the thumb or of the third finger is drawn rapidly century forms (the other being the *ballad op- over the white keys. The same technique can also era). In the latter part of the century societies in- be used on the black keys. A much more difficult cluding both amateur and professional members feat is the glissando in parallel thirds, sixths, or devoted themselves to composing and perform- octaves, which is performed by a sliding moveing glees. Among these were the Noblemen's ment of the hand with two fingers held rigid. and Gentlemen's Catch Club, the Anacreontic Surprisingly enough, Mozart already used a Society, the Glee Club, and the Concentores glissando in parallel sixths in the cadenza of his Sodales. During the first half of the 19th piano variations "Lison dormait." It should be century glee singing was much in vogue, but noted, however, that the glissando was much in time its best qualities merged with the part easier to perform on the old keyboard instrusong while the glee's artistic virtues were reduced ments with their light action. This fact also exto a shadow by Victorian composers of the plains the octave glissandi in the last movement shorter choral forms. Among the most cele- of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata, which are brated glee writers were Benjamin Cooke (1734- almost impossible to perform on modem instru93); Samuel Webbe (174(}...1816), perhaps the ments. The first example of glissando is in a most typical glee composer, who wrote more publication by Moyreau, Pieces de c/avecin ... than three hundred glees and whose "Glorious (Euvre Jer [n.d.]. Glissando is much used in the Apollo" invariably opened the programs of the playing of the harp. On the violin the glissando glee clubs; Stephen Paxton (1735-87); and John is a difficult virtuoso effect produced by a rapid Callcott (1766-1821). Representative glees are succession of minute distinct movements of the in Novello's Standard Glee Book, A Collection of hand. This effect should not be confused with the the most favorite Glees [n.d.] *portamento, which is easily produced by a The term "glee" is derived from the Anglo- continuous movement of the hand. Saxon gliw or g/eo (entertainment, fun), espeGlocke [G.]. Bell. cially as connected with minstrelsy-playing, singing, dancing, and perhaps even acrobatic Glockenspiel. The modem celesta [see Percusfeats. Until fairly recent times it was in this spirit sion instruments A, 4]. The portable glockenthat American college glee clubs, with rare ex- spiel of military bands consists of steel bars ceptions, interpreted the term. About 1918, after fixed on a frame in the shape of the ancient a few years in which programs were made up of Greek lyre; hence the name "bell lyre" [G. Lyra]. a mixture of popular, college, and classical In German the word Glockenspiel [lit. bell-play] music, the Harvard Glee Club began to devote is also used for a set of bells, i.e., a *carillon. In itself to classical music exclusively, at the same the late 18th century some glockenspiels were time severing its connection with the Instru- played from a keyboard, similar to the modem mental Clubs made up of banjos and mandolins. celesta. This is probably the instrument called This step initiated a wave of interest in the sing- for in Mozart's Die Zauberfiote by the name ing of serious music by college choral organiza- strumento d'acciaio (steel instrument). tions and also had a marked effect on the quality of music sung by secondary-school glee clubs. Glogauer Liederbuch. See under Liederbuch. See also Catch. Gloria (in excelsis). The second item of the OrLit.: W. A. Barrett, English Glees and Part- dinary of the Mass, also known as Greater songs (1886); D. Baptie, Sketches of the English *Doxology. See Mass A. C III. In plainsong the Glee Composers (1896); J. Spencer-Curwen, "Re- first phrase, "Gloria in excelsis Deo," is sung by garding English Glees" (ZIM vi); J. M. Knapp, the officiating priest, and the chorus enters at

348

GORGIA

GLORIA PATRI

"Et in terra pax." Early (15th-century) polyphonic settings of the Gloria therefore begin with the latter phrase and are usually indexed under Et in terra in modern editions. See D. Bosse, Untersuchung einstimmiger mittela/terlichen Melodien zum "Gloria in exce/sis deo"

(1954); ApGC, pp. 409ff. Gloria patri. See Doxology. Glosa [Sp.]. A 16th-century name used for diminutions [see Ornamentation I]. Diego Ortiz' Trattado de Glosas sobre c/ausulas (1553; repr. by M. Schneider, 1913, '36) contains many instructive examples of methods of ornamenting a cadential formula (clausula). Cabez6n (Obras de m!lsica, 1578) uses the term for simple figurative variations of harmonized psalm tones ifabordon y glosas; see ApMZ ii, 18), while more elaborate variations are called *diferencias. Gliickliche Hand, Die [G., The Lucky Hand]. Monodrama in one act by Schoenberg (to his own libretto), published in 1913, first performed in Vienna, 1924. Only one character sings (baritone), supported by a chorus of six men and women whose heads appear through holes in a backdrop and who comment on the action in

*Sprechstimme.

G.O. In French organ music, abbr. for grand orgue.

Goat's trill [F. chevrotement; G. Bockstriller, Geisstril/er; It. tril/o caprino; Sp. trino de cabra]. Generally, a poorly performed trill, reminiscent of a goat's bleating. J. F. Agricola, in his An/eitung zur Singkunst, 1151 (trans. ofTosi's Opinioni de' cantori, 1723), says a trill is called a Bockstriller if its two tones are less than a semitone apart or if they are sung with unequal speed or force. L. Mozart, in his Versuch einer griindlichen Violinschule (1156, p. 221), warns against performing the trill too fast, lest it become "unverstandlich, meckerend [bleating] oder ein sogenannter Geisstriller." Later (Spohr, Violinschule, 1832) the Bockstril/er was described as a trill at the unison, i.e., a *tremolo. Goldberg Variations. A series of 30 variations by

J. S. Bach, commissioned by the Russian Count Kayserling and named after Bach's pupil, Johann Gottlieb Goldberg (c. 1727-56), who was in the count's service as a harpsichordist. Bach published them in the fourth part of the *C/avier-Vbung (1742). The work, which is among the greatest of its kind, is written according to a special plan: two variations in free style

(frequently of a highly virtuoso character) are always followed by a canonic variation (nos. 3, 6, 9, etc.). The latter are unsurpassed masterpieces of canon technique, being canons at different intervals within the same harmonic frame. The final variation is a *quodlibet. Golden Cockerel, The [Rus. Zolotoy Pyetushok]. Opera-ballet in three acts by Rimsky-Korsakov (libretto by V. I. Byelsky, based on a fairy tale by Pushkin), produced in Moscow, 1909, one year after the composer's death. A well-known selection is the "Hymn to the Sun." Golden sequence. Popular name for the *sequence Veni Sancte Spiritus. Goliard songs. Latin poems of the lOth to 13th centuries written by goliards, wandering students or young ecclesiastics who played an important part in the cultural life of that period. The most famous collection is the Carmina Burana (named after the monastery ofBenedictbeuren in southwest Germany, where the manuscript was preserved). Some of these poems are provided with stafftess neumes that cannt>t be deciphered. However, c. 40 melodies can be read with the help of other sources (e.g., the St. Martial MSS). The oldest known melody is that for the lOth-century poem "0 admirabile Veneris ydolum" (BeMMR, p. 72]. SeeReMMA, p. 200; H. Spanke, in ZMW xiii; W. Lipphardt, in AMW xii; id., in CP Besse/er; A. Machabey, in Cahiers de civilisation medievale, Universite de Poitiers, vii, 257. Gondola song [G. Gondel/ied; It. gondoliera]. See Barcarole. Gong. See under Percussion instruments B, 7. See also under China; Java. Gopak, hopak. A lively dance of Byelorussia (Little Russia), in duple time. A well-known example is in Mussorgsky's unfinished opera The Fair at Sorochinsk.

Gorgia (It.]. Generic term for the art ofimprovised ornamentation, particularly as practiced c. 1600 in the performance of madrigals, motets, etc. (L. Zacconi, Prattica di musica, 1592; see F. Chrysander, in VMW vii, ix, x). Detailed explanations of the gorgia practice with its various types of ornamentation (passaggi, accenti, esc/amatione, tril/o, groppo) are given by Caccini in the preface to his Nuove Musiche of 1601 [see SSR, pp. 377ff]. Gorgheggio is a modern term for very rapid vocal passages.

349

GRADUS AD PARNASSUM

GOSPEL

Gospel [L. Evangelium]. In the Roman Catholic rites, a passage from one of the four Gospels, chanted at Mass in monotone with inflections (Tonus Evangelii; see LU, p. 106). Gospel canticles are the three major *canticles. For Gospel hymn, see Hymn, English. Texts from the Gospels have often been set to music, in motets (Gospel motet, Evangelienmotette), Passions, oratorios, and cantatas. See H. J. Moser, Die mehrstimmige Vertonung des Evangeliums [ 1931]. Gothic music. A term used by various modem writers to denote music contemporary with or culturally related to the Gothic era in architecture, sculpture, and painting. It is usually understood to embrace the period from 1150 (Perotinus) to 1450 (Dufay), that is, before the beginning of the Renaissance [see History of music]. The term also has a geographical connotation, referring to north European cultures (northern France, England, the Netherlands, Germany) rather than those of the south. In fact, the music of the Italian *ars nova is perhaps too "earthy" and "lively" (too "proto-Renaissance") to be termed Gothic. Metaphorically, the word Gothic is also applied to later works showing traits suggestive of Gothic spirituality and otherworldliness, for instance, the "transcendental" organ toccatas of Buxtehude or Bach. Modern works showing similar traits have been called neo-Gothic (Hindemith, Kaminsky). GOtterdammerung. See Ring des Nibelungen. Goyescas. Two sets of piano pieces by Enrique Granados (1911), inspired by etchings of Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Granados also wrote an opera Goyescas (1916) that includes material from the piano pieces. G.P. In German orchestral scores, abbr. for *Genera/pause. In French organ music, abbr. for grand positif, i.e., great and choir organ coupled. G.R. In French organ music, abbr. for grand recitatif, i.e., great and swell organ coupled. Grace. Term used by early English musicians for any musical ornament, whether written out in notes, indicated by sign, or improvised by the performer. In lute and viol playing a distinction was made between smooth graces, produced by sliding the finger along the fingerboard (appoggiaturas, slides, and Nachschliige), and shaked graces, for which the finger is shaken, producing several repercussions of the same tone (trills, relishes, and beats). Another distinction is that

between open graces, which involve a whole fret (semitone), and closed graces, which involve a smaller interval (vibrato). P.A. Grace note. A note printed in small type to indicate that its time value is not counted in the rhythm of the bar and must be subtracted from that of an adjacent note. Large groups of grace notes sometimes represent an exception to this rule in that together they fill up the time value of a single note that has been omitted from the score (as in the so-called "cadenzas" by Chopin and other romantic composers), in which case the rhythm of the grace notes is flexible and not subject to a strict beat. Most grace notes are used to represent *graces, or musical ornaments. P.A. Gradatamente [It.]. Gradually. Gradevole [It.]. Pleasant, pleasing. Gradual [L. graduale]. (l) The second item of the Proper of the *Mass. The Graduals are responsorial chants, consisting of respond and verse [for the full form, see Psalmody II]. They have highly florid melodies, usually including long melismas in the respond as well as in the verse. They are almost entirely limited to the four authentic modes, except for a group of closely related melodies, usually designated as "gradualtype Justus ut palma" and assigned to mode 2 [see ApGC, pp. 344ft"]. The name "gradual" is thought to be derived from L. gradus, step, the explanation being that the chant was a responsorium gradua/e, i.e., a responsory sung from the steps of the altar. However, early treatises have the form gradale, which could mean "graded," "distinguished" (the Alia musica of c. 900 also has the term antiphona gradalis for the Introit; see ApGC, p. 24). (2) The *liturgical book containing the musical items of the Mass, as distinguished from the *antiphonal. Originally such a book was called antiphonale missarum, and graduale may have had the meaning of cantatorium, i.e., a book containing only the responsorial (solo) items of the Mass, i.e., Graduals, Alleluias, and Tracts. The six earliest graduals (8th-9th centuries), which contain only the texts of the Mass chants (without neumatic notation), have been published by Dom R. J. Hesbert under the title Antiphona/e missarum - sextuplex (1935). Gradus ad Pamassum [L.]. Title of two publications designed to lead to the highest perfection in their fields: a treatise on counterpoint by J. J. Fux ( 1725) and a collection of piano etudes by M. Clementi (1817).

350

GRAIL

GREECE

Grall. English name for *Gradual, used in the Anglican Church. Gramophone [G. Grammophon]. Phonograph and recorded music.

See under

Gran cassa, gran tamburo [It.]. Bass drum. Grand [F.]. Grand jeu, grand orgue, full organ; grand opera, an opera (always serious) with fully composed text, as distinct from opera comique. Grandezza, con [It.]. With grandeur, grandiose. Grandsire. See under Change ringing. Grave [It.]. Grave, solemn. Gravicembalo [It.]. Italian 17th-century name for the harpsichord, possibly for a large variety used especially for orchestral accompaniment. The name may be a corruption of clavicembalo, or it may refer to the presence of a "grave" 16-foot stop. Great antiphons. Same as *0 antiphons. Greater perfect system. See under Greece II. Great Fugue. See Grosse Fuge. Greece. Of ancient Greek music, only some twenty written pieces survive, mostly fragmentary and widely scattered in date. An incomplete treatise by Aristoxenus (c. 320 B.C.) contains a valuable analysis of some basic principles of music as he knew it. Other theoretical treatises are preserved, but while they use certain terms and schematic figures derived from musical practice, their actual subject is the science of "harmonics," a mathematical discipline concerned with acoustical phenomena as such and studied independently of the art of music [see H. I. Marrou, History of Education in Antiquity]. Their relevance to music history is therefore limited and indirect. On the other hand, there is considerable direct source material from the composers themselves, for in archaic and classical Greece the poet was his own composer, and the term mousike (musica) comprised both the music and the verse. Lyric and choric poetry shows the rhythmic patterns of the music, which followed the verse exactly. The poet-composers sometimes describe musical performances, occasionally their own style or orchestration. In particular, the comedies of Aristophanes are full of musical criticism and parody, which the words can often convey even though his music is lost. Plato's writings contain penetrating observations about contemporary musical change.

Greek vase-painters contribute many scenes of music in social life-school lessons, solos, concerts, dances, wine and song parties. The vases yield especially important evidence about Greek instruments, of which very few specimens have been discovered, none of them intact. I. History. Four stages can be roughly distinguished. (a) The archaic music, as first seen in Homer (8th century B.C.), was already a sophisticated art, although primitive or rustic forms also existed. Some Oriental influence may be surmised but cannot be assessed; in general, Greek music was unlike Eastern: it was not bound by liturgical formulas; new works were composed for every public performance; composers were highly competitive and individual in style. In Homer's world every class practiced music, on almost every social occasion. Epics of war and adventure were intoned by professional bards and by _high personages, to their own accompaniment on the lyre (phorminx; the *kithara was a later and larger type). Homer also knew wedding hymns, maiden songs, dirges of keening women, shanties for harvest or vintage, pipings of shepherds on the *syrinx (panpipes), dances of boys and girls accompanied by lyre or *autos, or simply by their own hand-claps or castanets. The lyric forms continued, with songs of love and hate, drink and politics. In the 7th century B.C. Sparta was the great center, drawing musicians from elsewhere-the semilegendary Terpander of Lesbos (c. 675 B.C.), Aleman, and Tyrtaeus, the composer of marching-songs. Then the primacy passed to Sappho and Alcaeus of Lesbos (b. c. 620 B.C.). Religious festivals often included musical competitions for larger works, e.g., the Pythian nomos, a genre celebrating Apollo the dragon-slayer, or the dithyramb, a choral song with autos accompaniment, dedicated to the god Dionysus. (b) The classical music proper was perfected in the 5th century B.C. by Pindar in variously orchestrated odes (among other lyric forms) and by the new Athenian dramatists, both tragic and comic, using a chorus of amateur citizens supported by an aulos. At Athens the vast production of new music was balanced by private repetition ofthe old, learned by ear at school and sung at home to one's own lyre or at wineparties with a hired aulos-girl. Aristophanes' audience could recognize his quotations and parodies of music, ancient or modern; its best memorial is his Frogs (405 B.C.), staging a competition in Hades between the early classical composer Aeschylus and the modernist Euripi-

351

GREECE

GREECE des. Different poetic forms were served by different musical idioms and tunings (harmoniae), called by ethnic names (Dorian, Phrygian, Ionian, Lydian, etc.), but by the end of the century only the Dorian and Phrygian are attested in serious music. In the Dorian, a clearcut precision of tuning was associated with music of a sober and disciplined character (ethos); the Phrygian manner, assimilated to the unstable intonation of the aulos, was especially used for the emotional and ecstatic dithyramb. (c) Later in the 5th century B.C. a musical revolution started from a school of dithyrambists and culminated, after the fall of Athens (404 B.C.), in Philoxenus and Timotheus of Milet (447-357 B.C.), who rejected all tradition and broke the old associations of poetic and musical forms. Instrumental improvisations, with sound-effects imitating nature, overshadowed the vocal part that had dominated Greek music; modulation, coloratura, and wobbly tuning so undermined the old tonality that by 320 B.C., according to Aristoxenus, few musicians knew or understood the classics. Instead, the talented and deliberately popular works of Philoxenus and Timotheus were repeated for two centuries, never rivaled by later composers. Music, though widely enjoyed, lost its cultural prestige and its place in higher education (above children's schooling); it was left to professional virtuosos of high technical skill-judging from their enormous fees-but low intellectual standards. Two surviving Delphic Hymns, of the later 2nd century B.C., seem to be samples of the music of this epoch in decline. (d) Music continued not as a creative art but as an adjunct to rites, ceremonies, theatrical shows, or banquets. Only Mesomedes of Crete, at Hadrian's court, had any pretensions as a composer; generally, musicians ranked as craftsmen, well paid and encouraged by public prize competitions but socially despised. Extant fragments tell little of this later Greco-Roman music. The hypothesis that it passed into the medieval traditions of Europe or Byzantium is now discarded. c

b •

ICe

~e~"l~•

qw

a

1 ...

•

e

8

II. Elements of music. The fundamental tetrachord was bounded by the "fixed notes" of the perfect fourth; between them, two "movable

notes" were placed in three genera, roughly as in the example above. Thus, the highest of the three intervals of the tetrachord was widened from a whole tone, a-g [Ex. c, diatonic], into an interval of three semitones, a-f# [Ex. b, chromatic], or four sernitones, a-f (Ex. a, enharmonic]. The remaining interval (f#-e, or f-e) was halved, a procedure that, in the latter case, produced two quarter tones. In all three the notes were called, in descending order, Mese(a), Lichanos, Parhypate, Hypate. Above was placed another tetrachord either "disjunct" (e' to b, leaving the whole tone a to b between tetrachords; notes named in descending order Nete, Paranete, Trite, Paramese) or "conjunct" (d' to a; notes in descending order named Nete, Paranete, Trite-without Paramese). All the "fixed notes" had functional priority; there was no paramount "tonic." A two-octave "Greater Perfect System" was formed, as in the illustration below, of two pairs of conjunct tetrachords with a disjunctive tone between and an added bottom tone (Proslambanomenos). Nete hyperbolaeon a'] Paranete hyperbolaeon g' Trite hyperbolaeon f Nete diezeugmenon Paranete diezeugmenon e' d Trite diezeugmenon c Paramese b Mese Lichanos meson Parhypate meson

a g

Hypate meson Lichanos hypaton Parhypate hypaton Hypate hypaton Proslambanomenos

c

f

~

I. Tetr.

l

hyperbolaeon

II. Tetr. diezeugmenon

]III.

l

Tetr. meson

IV. Tetr. hypaton

B A

Judging from the names of the tetrachords, III was the nucleus of the system; the name of II ("disjunct") refers to the fact that its lowest tone lies above the highest of the other. The name "hypaton" (highest) for IV is probably explained by the fact that the kithara players tilted their instrument so that the strings lowest in pitch were in the highest position (an analogous phenomenon exists in the 16th-century Italian lute tablatures; see under Tablature III). The names for the single tones also show that the whole system developed from the playing of the

352

GREECE

GREECE

kithara: nete (chorde) means lowest strings (actually the highest in pitch); paranete, next to the lowest; trite, the third, etc. Modulation was typified by a "Lesser Perfect System" of three conjunct tetrachords, but these were abstract theoretical constructions. The tetrachord added conjunctly above is called synomenon, "hooked," and provides the tones (a), bb, c' and d'. In the tetrachord of practical music the enharmonic genus (often called the "harmonia") was for Aristoxenus the tuning of the best classical music and may represent the old Dorian. Its essential feature was not the pair of microtones but the progression from Mese to a Lichanos tuned a whole ditone below it. In the 4th century Lichanos was tuned higher, within the chromatic genus. The Delphic Hymns are in one of these two genera; later extant pieces are diatonic. The old variety of modal idioms (harmoniae) disappears in the 4th century. Modulation within a fixed vocal register, a fashion of 4th-century music, became a preoccupation for harmonic theorists. They calculated it by transposing their standard scale to other degrees of its own tonal sequence. A sample is given here, using the diatonic genus favored by theorists. !(Dorian)

a'

g'

r ~~

d

c

B A

d' c'• b a g f 1 e d c T S T T T S T

B A

TTSTTTS 11 (Phrygian)

a'

g'

e'

--------

Within the octave e' -e, between the barssymbolizing the melody in its fixed vocal register -scale I presents the sequence of tones (T) and semitones (S): T T S T T T S. The same sequence, at f~' -f~, is the core of the identical but transposed scale II. The transposition automatically places a different sequence, T S T T T S T, in the central register; and similar transposed scales at each diatonic degree will produce the seven segments, or "species," of the octave. These octave species and their corresponding double-octave scales (tonoi) were named: a'-a: g'-g: f'-f: e' -e: d' -d: c'-c: b-B:

Hypodorian (Hyperphrygian, Aeolian, Locrian) Hypophrygian (Hyperlydian, Ionian, !astian) Hypolydian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian (Hyperdorian)

They can be indicated in modern notation by the addition of various key signatures to the scale on e: D. P.

L.

M. H.-D.H.-P. H.-L.

I,,,,~ 1 114'&11@~11Q11i}£11,&(ene.,au 9 1 Some theorists inferred that the species were the obsolete harmoniae; they were interpreted as musical "modes" by medieval scholars, and some still hold this opinion. It should have been refuted by correct understanding of Ptolemy. The scale of melodic function (dynamis) is always the Dorian. The other species are merely artificial redistributions of the Dorian octave T T S T T T S; e.g., in scale II the top tone is transferred to the bottom of the central register, and functional Mese is transposed from a to b, without modal change. The species serve to define the relative position (thesis) of the tonoi in the mathematical system, which is abstract and pitchless. Some scholars, while admitting that Ptolemy's tonos system is pitchless, believe that other sets of tonoi, placed on each semitone, represented real pitch-keys. But Ptolemy, arguing that the extra tonoi are a logical error, presupposed that they, too, were abstract theoretical figures. Two of the old harmoniae were associated with relatively high or low voices (of either sex), but for the hypothesis that an absolute pitch-standard was recognized the evidence is inadequate. In Greek music the voice was paramount, except in the revolutionary phase, and only the vocal part was transmitted to memory. Instrumental accompaniments were sometimes heterophonic improvisations, but harmony and counterpoint were unknown, though choirs occasionally doubled at the octave. Instrumental solos were rare, and the role of instruments in the development of the music should not be exaggerated. III. Notation and documents. On the two notations (called by late writers "vocal" and "instrumental," but not consistently so used), see WoHN i, and C. Sachs in ZMW vi, vii. Sachs' hypothesis that they were tablatures for the kithara, pentatonically tuned, has been criticized by R. P. Winnington-Ingram in The Classical Quarterly, new series vi (1956), and rests on the unwarranted assumption that written music was used by performers. Some in-

353

GREECE

GREGORIAN CHANT

ferior theorists employed notation, but musical compositions were seldom written down; transmission was oral and precarious. Of the few written pieces extant, one of the two earliest (c. 250 B.C.) contains words from Euripides, but the music may be a later setting. The two hymns to Apollo from Delphi (one dated to 127 B.C.) are long fragments of prize compositions, academic in manner. The undated Seikilos Song is rhythmically alien to any known Greek music. Two hymns to the Muse, and the hymns to Nemesis and the Sun (ascribed to Mesomedes) may be ancient, but a Byzantine origin is possible. See also Aulos; Chroai; Chronos; Dithyramb; Enharmonic; Ethos; Hydraulos; Hyporchema; K.ithara; Lyra; Magadis; Pyknon; Pythagorean scale. IV. Modern. Nothing is known of Greek music between c. 200 and 1800 of the Christian era, when Greece was dominated successively by Rome, Byzantium, and, from 1456 to 1830, by the Turks. Of interest is the fact that c. 1000 many elements of Greek theory were incorporated into Arab music. On the other hand, Greek folksong seems to have been greatly influenced by the music of the Near East. The development of modem Greek music began about 1850 under the influence ofltalian opera. The first composer of modem Greece was Nikolaos Mantzaros (1795-1872), who is now chiefly remembered for his setting of the Greek national anthem. He was followed by Spyridon Xyndas (1812-96) and others. Particularly successful was Spyros Samaras (1861-1917), a pupil of Delibes, with the opera Flora Mirabilis (1886). A national movement started with the songs of George Lambelet (1875-1945) and found more definite expression in the works of Manolis Kalomiris (1883-1962), whose opera Protomastoras (1916) has been compared to Glinka's A Life for the Czar. The national element is also prominent in the works of Mario Varvoglis (b. 1885) and some of the younger composers, e.g., M. Theodorakis (b. 1925) and Manos Hadjidakis (b. 1925), who cultivate a sort of neofolk music. Neoclassical influences characterize the works of Petro Petridis (b. 1892) and Georges Poniridis (b. 1892). Of the composers born after 1900, Nikos Skalkottas (1904-49) is by far the most important. A pupil of P. Jamach and A. Schoenberg, he introduced serial music into Greece, an idiom that has also been adopted in varying degrees by Yiannis Papaioannou (b. 1910), Yorgos Sisilianos (b. 1922), Yannis

Xenakis (b. 1922; see his Musique Formelles; Nouveaux Principes Formels de Composition Musicale [1963]; also articles in RM no. 257 [1963]); Arghyris Kounadis (b. 1924), and Janis Christou (b. 1926; see J. G. Papaioannou, in Greek Heritage i, no. 2, 52-54 [1964]). For Greek church music, see Byzantine chant. Lit. For I-II/.· T. Reinach, La Musique grecque (1926); J. F. Mountford, in Powell and Barber, New Chapters in Greek Literature II (1929; transcriptions of most of the fragments); I. DUring, Ptolemaios und Porphyrios uber die Musik (1934; G. trans. and notes); R. P. Winnington-Ingram, Mode in Ancient Greek Music (1936); E. A. Lippman, Musical Thought in Ancient Greece (1964); 0. Gombosi, Tonarten und Stimmungen der antiken Musik (1939); C. Sachs, The Rise of Music in the Ancient World East and West (1943); I. Henderson, in NOH i, 336ff; J. Chailley, "Le Mythe des modes grecs" (AM xxviii); J. M. Barbour, "The Principles of Greek Notation" (JAMS xiii, lff). Additional bibl. in ReMMA, 427ff, and NOH i, 495ff. For IV: P. L. Dacios, Concise History ofMusic from Ancient Times to Our Days (1934); S. Michaelides, He .Neoellenike mousike (1952; in Greek); S. G. Motsenigos, Neoel/enike Mousike (1958; in Greek); T. N. Synadinos, History of Neo-Hellenic Music (1919; in Greek; covers 1824-1919); N. Slonimsky, "New Music in Greece," in LBCM; R. L. Finney, "Music in Greece" (Perspectives of New Music [1965], 16970); I. Xenakis, in RM no. 253-4, 1963. Folk music: S. Michaelides, The Neohellenic Folk-Music (1948); S. Baud-Bovy, La Chanson populaire grecque du Dodecanese (1936); id., tChansons du Dodecanese, 2 vols. (1935, '38); id., Chansons populaires grecques du Dodecanese [1946]; P. E. Formozis [Phormozes], Contribution a /'etude de Ia chanson et de Ia musique populaire grecque (1938); G. Lambelet, La Musique populaire grecque (1934); D. Petropulos, La Comparaison dans Ia chanson populaire grecque (1954); P. Tzermias, Die volkstumliche Musik I-III by I.H. Griechenlands (1962). Greghesca [It., pl. Greghesche]. See under Villanella. Gregorian chant. The liturgical chant of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after Pope Gregory I (reigned 590-604), who was believed to have developed it. Between 750 and 850 the chant probably reached its final form as preserved in MSS of the lOth and subsequent centuries. The term "Gregorian chant" has the

354

GREGORIAN CHANT

GREGORIAN CHANT

disadvantage of excluding, strictly speaking, the early development leading up to the Gregorian period, as well as the additions and changes introduced afterward. Moreover, Gregory's alleged role in the formation of the chant is now generally considered more or less legendary [see VII]. Another common name is plainsong [L. cantus planus]; this, however, originally had a different meaning [see Cantus planus] and is now frequently used in a wider and more technical sense [see Plainsong]. A more appropriate name is "Roman chant," because it indicates the chant's age-long connection with the Church of Rome, as distinct from other bodies of Western chant in Milan (*Ambrosian), Spain (*Mozarabic or Visigothic), and ancient Gaul (*Gallican). Recent investigations, however, have led to the theory that the Roman chant received its final form in France during the 8th and 9th centuries (hence the designation "Franco-Roman chant") and that from the historical point of view the name "Roman" would be more correctly applied to yet another repertory, now usually called *Old Roman chant. Therefore the term Gregorian chant ought to be retained. Whereas some former musicians disdained Gregorian chant, particularly because it lacked harmony, it is now more and more fully recognized as an unsurpassed treasure of purely melodic music. Its freely flowing rhythm, far from being chaotic, shows subtleties of structure and organization that are superior to the hackneyed rhythmic devices of some harmonized music, with its meter, measures, beats, regular phrases, etc. The current repertory of Gregorian chant consists of nearly 3,000 melodies, all monophonic, rhythmically free, and sung partly both chorally (by the *schola, i.e., choir) and solo (by the *cantor). The following will be considered below in this order: I. Liturgical categories; II. Text; III. Style; IV. Forms; V. Tonality; VI. Rhythmic interpretation; VII. Historical development. I. Liturgical categories. The calendar of the Roman Church includes a large number of holy days. These fall into three categories: (a) feasts of the Lord (Proper of the Time, Proprium de tempore, also Temporale), i.e., all Sundays and the special occasions commemorating Jesus' life, such as the Nativity, Easter, Ascension; (b) feasts of individual Saints (Proper of the Saints, Proprium Sanctorum), e.g., of the Virgin Mary, St. Andrew, St. Peter, St. Paul; (c) feasts of special groups of Saints (Common of Saints, Commune Sanctorum), such

as Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors, etc. Categories (b) and (c) form the Sanctorale. The services on a given day consist of the *Office and the *Mass. The chants for the former are found in the *antiphonal, those for the latter in the *gradual [see also Liturgical books]. Both are conveniently combined (with many omissions and additions) in the Liber usualis [LV]. Within the entire repertory a division is made between *Ordinary and *Proper chants. The main sections of LU are: Ordinary chants of the Mass (pp. 11-111; this includes what is commonly called the Mass Ordinary: Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, Credo, Agnus Dei); Ordinary chants of the Office (pp. 112316; this includes mostly the Office Psalms); Proper of the Time (pp. 317-111 0); Common of Saints (pp. 1111-1272); and Proper of the Saints (pp. 1303-1762). The three last-named sections include the Proper chants for the respective categories of feasts [see under Proper]. II. Text. By far the greater part of the chants are based on prose texts, and of these the great majority are taken from the Book of *Psalms. Entire Psalms sung to a *psalm tone form a regular part of the Office; single Psalm verses are used in the "verses" ('f/.) of the Introits, Graduals, Alleluias, and Tracts, as well as in the opening antiphons and responds of these chants and in the Communions and Offertories [see Psalmody]. Nonpsalmodic scriptural texts occur in the *canticles and in the *responsories of Matins; many of the latter take their texts from the historical books of the Old Testament, such as Genesis, Kings, etc. In the liturgical books, Ps. (in the Introits) always denotes a verse from the Psalms, while 'f/. indicates a verse either from the Psalms or from other scriptural texts. The outstanding nonscriptural prose texts are those of the Ordinary of the Mass. The chants based on poetic texts (medieval) are the *hymns and the *sequences. A semipoetic text occurs in the four Antiphons B.M.V., particularly in the "Ave regina." An invaluable help for the study of the Gregorian texts is C. Marbach, Carmina Scripturarum (1907), which gives many of the sources for the scriptural texts of the Gregorian chant. III. Style. Three melodic styles of the prose chants are usually distinguished by modern writers: (a) syllabic style; (b) neumatic or group style; and (c) melismatic style. (a) Chants in syllabic style [Ex. a] have one note to each syllable of the text; occasionally a group of two or three notes will be sung to one syllable. To this type belong the various recitation tones of the Office (psalm tones, lesson tones) and of the

355

GREGORIAN CHANT

GREGORIAN CHANT

Mass, as well as numerous antiphons of the Office, the hymns, and the various melodies for the Credo. The recitation tones are inflected *monotones, whereas the other chants have fully developed melodies. (b) In the chants in group style [Ex. b] there is more frequent use of groups of two to four or more notes to one syllable. The most important chants of this kind are the Introits and the Communions; also the melodies for the Sanctus and Agnus Dei, the Marian antiphons, etc. (c) The chants in melismatic style [Ex. b] include one or more melismas, groups of ten to twenty or more notes sung on

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one syllable. Here we find most of the K yries, Graduals, Alleluias, Offertories, Tracts, and responsories. The rather strict adherence to a given style in any of the liturgical categories is one of the most remarkable traits of Gregorian chant. According to a carefully laid out plan, each type of chant receives the treatment that conforms to its liturgical position and significance. Even the same text is set to music in totally different styles according to whether it is used as an antiphon, a Gradual, or for some other purpose. A famous example is the psalm verse Justus ut palma, for which more than 20 different melodies exist, ranging from the simplest to the most ornate. IV. Forms. Structurally, the chants can be roughly divided into three categories: (a) Through-composed chants. In this category are the Glorias, Sanctus, and Credos of the Ordinary of the Mass, as well as the Offertories and Communions of the Proper of the Mass [for the last two, see Psalmody II, III]. Naturally, to classify these chants as through-composed does not preclude the occasional repetition of motifs or longer phrases (see, e.g., the passages "Benedici-

mus te," "Adoramus te," "Glorificamus te" in the Gloria X (LU p. 43f]; such reiterations are a peculiarity of the individual chants, not of the category to which they belong). (b) Strophic chants. To this class belong mainly the hymns, and also the Psalms, every verse of which is sung, with minor modifications, to the same melody. (c) Repetitive forms. Simple repetitive structures are used for the *Kyries, *Agnus Dei, and *sequences. All these are chants of the late Middle Ages (II th to 13th centuries). More interesting and more typical of Gregorian art are the various repeat forms found in the Introits, Alleluias, Graduals, and responsories, and formerly also in Offertories and Communions . All these are reductions of the rondolike structure of early psalmody, responsorial or antiphonal. They are discussed separately under Psalmody. Particularly intricate repeat structures are found in the *Tracts. V. Tonality. The tonal basis of Gregorian chant is the system of the eight *church modes . In the modern liturgical books, the mode of each chant is indicated at the beginning, e.g., Grad 7 (Gradual in mode 7; similarly in the index). The most frequently used modes are I and 8, the least used 5 and 6. Among the most notable aspects of Gregorian tonality is the fact that the Tracts are limited to modes 2 and 8, and the Graduals to the four authentic modes except for a special group in mode 2, usually referred to as the "Gradual-type Justus ut palma." Although the great majority of Gregorian melodies conform to the general requirements of their respective modes, some do deviate from the normal scheme. Deviations are: (a) The use of the b-fiat. This is often introduced in order to avoid the tritone (f-g-a-b) or the major sixth (d-a-ba). It should be noted, however, that numerous fiats given in the modern editions are not authentic. This remark applies particularly to the formula d-a-b-a, which occurs at the beginning of many chants of mode I. The chants of modes 3 and 4 often include cadential formations with the general outline f-b-e, which, it will be noted, results in a tritone whether or not the b is fiatted. (b) Transposed chants. A number of chants close on one of the *affinales (a, b, c'), instead of on one of the four finals (d, e, f, g). Most of these were transposed, not to bring them into a more convenient range but because they included chromatic pitches (e-fiat or f-sharp) that could only be represented in this way within the plainsong system. For instance, d-e-f-tf-f could only be represented in a transposition to the upper

356

GREGORIAN CHANT

GREGORIAN CHANT

fifth as a-b-c'-bb-a, and e-f-g-f#-e only in transposition to the upper fourth as a-bb-c'-ba, because b and b-fiat was the only "chromatic pair" available in the medieval scale. (c) Excessive range. This category includes chants whose range exceeds the authentic as well as the plagal ambitus. An example is the Gradual "Timete Dominum" [LU, p. 1726], which closes on d and extends from A to c'. Later theorists (e.g., Marchetto da Padua, in his Lucidarium of c. 1318; see Strunk, in La Rassegna Musicale xx [1950], 314) accounted for this phenomenon by introducing various kinds of "mixed modes" combining the range of the authentic (d-d') with that of the plagal (A-a). The best way of dealing with this problem is to renounce the distinction between authentic and plagal and classify the chant only according to its final, as protus, deuterus, tritus, or tetrardus [see Maneria]. This is also advisable in the case of chants with a limited range, e.g., the Communions "Amen dico" [LU, p. 1206] and "Dominus Jesus" [LU, p. 679]. Although both have the range c-a, the former is assigned to mode 1 and the latter to mode 2. It must be noted, however, that in the case of antiphons a decision has to be made, because the mode of the antiphon determines the psalm tone to be used for the subsequent Psalm. (Originally this was true of the Communions as well.) An interesting phenomenon in a number of chants is a certain tonal instability. This occurs particularly in the chants of the deuterus, which often begin and continue with phrases suggestive of various other tonal realms, until they finally and quite unexpectedly close on e. Recently much attention has been given to the "pentatonic background" of the Gregorian melodies. Although the sweeping contention that all these melodies are essentially "pentatonic melodies with ornamental *pien tones" [see the reference in ReMMA, p. 160] is without foundation, the fact remains that a considerable number of chants are clearly pentatonic [see Ex. 2, from the Communion "In splendoribus"; LU, p. 395]. Such examples deserve mention 2

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because they may indicate an earlier stage in the evolution of the complete modes. VI. Rhythmic interpretation. This remains the most disputed area of Gregorian chant. It arises from the fact that the notation of the chants contains no clear indication of temporal values [see Neumes; also Monophonic notation] and that, by the 13th century, the oral tradition of the rhythmic performance had been lost. Unsuccessful attempts at reconstruction were made in the 19th century when in reprints of the "Editio Medicea" [see Liturgical books II] the neumatic signs of plainsong were wrongly interpreted as mensural notes and ligatures (longa, brevis, semibrevis, etc.; see Notation; also Square notation). The result is illustrated in Ex. 3. Still more distorted is the interpretation of H. Riemann,

Ky-ri- e

who applied his principle of * Vierhebigkeit to Gregorian melodies [see RiHM i.2, 39]. Today, scholars agree that Gregorian rhythm belongs to the category termed "multimetric" [see Rhythm II (b)], in particular to the *chronos protos variety. There are, however, two sharply divided schools of thought, one of which maintains that in Gregorian rhythm there exists practically only one time value, say, the eighth note, while the other admits the existence of two time values, the eighth note and its double (quarter note), and possibly also its triple (dotted quarter note). To the former school belong the accentua/ists (Dom Pothier), who consider the textual accent and, in melismas, the first note of a neume the organizing factors within the succession of uniform time values. Their interpretation is called "free oratoric rhythm." In opposition to Pothier, Dom Mocquereau developed what has become known as the *Solesmes system or "free musical rhythm." He completely discards the text and the neumatic notation as a basis of interpretation, and also opposes the idea of accent. Instead, he regards the melody as a motion consisting of elan and repos (rise and fall), dividing it into an irregular succession of groups of two and three notes [see Ictus]. Occasionally, a slight lengthening of certain notes (nuance) is indicated by a horizontal stroke (horizontal episema). Doubled values, indicated by a dot (punctum-mora) occur, with rare exceptions, only at the end of a phrase.

357

GREGORIAN CHANT

GREGORIAN CHANT

Among the adherents of the second school (generally called mensuralists), the admission of two time values naturally leads to considerable disagreement as to which notes of the chants are long and which short. Here the various scholars (A. Dechevrens, P. Wagner, J. Jeannin, E. Jammers, W. Lipphardt, J. W. A. Vollaerts) differ mainly concerning the correct interpretation and relative importance of early theorists as well as of certain special signs found in the early neumatic manuscripts, such as the *episema, the *Romanus letters, the virga and punctum [see Neumes], etc. Ex. 4 illustrates some of the various methods of interpretation (a. Solesmes; b. Wagner; c. Jeannin). See also ReMMA, p. 148. 4a

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16JJJIJ pfilfJ IJ.;IE f]IJJj]ijJ The mensuralists "have an impressive amount of historical evidence on their side" [ReMMA, p. 146], while the Solesmes interpretation seems to derive its main justification from results in actual performance and recordings that, so far at least, have not been challenged by similar attempts on the part of the mensuralists. Regarding the historical accuracy of the Solesmes interpretation, it has been said that it probably stands in the same relation to its medieval counterpart as a Romanesque church of 1880 to its 11th-century model [BeMMR, p. 15]. A recent study by J. W. A. Vollaerts [see Lit.] has been widely recognized as an important step in the right direction. VII. History. There has been extensive controversy regarding the origin of Gregorian chant. Formerly opinion was divided among those who traced it to Greek roots and those who pointed to the tradition of the Jewish synagogue. Today the latter view prevails, and the theory of Greek origin has been almost completely discarded. The very fact that practically all the early texts of the Roman Church are taken from the Psalms points to a strong Jewish influence; also, the Office Hours of the Church are modeled after

the prayer hours of the Jewish synagogue. This point of view gained considerable support in the investigations of A. Idelsohn [see ZMW iv, 515], who showed that melodies still sung today by Jewish peoples living in isolated places (South Arabia, Iran) are strikingly similar to lection tones of the Roman Church. Early development of Gregorian chant took place in the East, particularly in Jerusalem and Antioch (Syria). A report from c. 385, known as the "Peregrinatio ad loca sancta" (pilgrimage to the holy place), contains detailed information about the liturgy at Jerusalem and also about the singing of hymns and Psalms. With Pope Damasus I (reigned A.D. 366-84) the center of development shifted to Rome. He was the first of a line of Popes who are reported to have instituted a cantus anna/is, a cycle of chants for the liturgical year. The list also includes Gregory I (reigned 590-604), who certainly played an outstanding role in the organization of the Roman chant. However, the idea that the melodies as preserved in MSS of the lOth and llth centuries are "Gregorian" in the proper sense of the word is generally considered untenable today. According to recent research (H. Hucke, W. Apel), what is known now as Gregorian chant received its final form under the Frankish rulers Pepin the Short (714-68) and Charlemagne (742?-814), mainly at Metz. In Rome there developed a different repertory, the so-called *Old Roman chant. From the 14th through 19th centuries the history of plainsong is one of increasing deterioration, first in , rhythmic interpretation, later also in the melodies themselves [Editio Medicea, Ratisbonensis; see under Liturgical books; see also Machicotage; Plain-chant musical]. Simultaneously, the monophonic chants were increasingly replaced by polyphonic settings, first by the 13th-century organa, clausulae, and motets (compositions for portions of the Proper of the Mass), later by compositions for the Ordinary of the Mass (14th and subsequent centuries), for the hymns (15th century, Dunstable, Dufay, and successors), and for the psalm tones (16th century; see Falsobordone; Verset). The return to the medieval tradition of unaccompanied chant is largely the work of the monks of *Solesmes. See also (substantial articles are italicized): Alleluia; Antiphon; Benedicamus Domino; Benediction; Benedictus qui venit; Canticle; Cantus planus; Cecilian movement; Chant; Church modes; Communion; Cursus; Dies irae; Doxology; Euouae; Gradual; Hymn; Ictus;

358

GROPPO

GROUND

Improperia; Incipit; Introit; Jubilus; Lamenta- Grosse Fuge [G., Great Fugue]. Beethoven's tions; Litany; Liturgical books; Machicotage; long and complex fugue for string quartet, op. Magnificat; Mass; Miserere; Missa; Motu 133. It was composed in 1825 as the last moveproprio; Neuma; Neumes; Offertory; Office; ment of his String Quartet op. 130 but later was Ordinary and Proper; Plain-chant musical; published as a separate composition. It is reProper; Psalm; Psalmody; Psalm tones; Re- markable for the boldness of its theme and for quiem Mass; Responsory; Salve Regina; Sarum the treatment, which is "tant6t libre, tant6t use; Sequence II; Solesmes; Te Deum; Tene- recherchee" (partly free, partly studied). brae; Tract; Tris(h)agion; Trope. Ground, ground bass. A short melodic phrase Lit. Practical: Dom Dominicus Johner, A (normally four to eight measures) that is reNew School of Gregorian Chant, trans. H. S. peated over and over again as a bass line, with Butterfield, rev. ed. (1925); A. Robertson, The varying music for the upper parts. The resulting Interpretation of Plainchant (1937); J. Schrembs, composition is also called a "ground." The conThe Gregorian Chant Manual (1935); G. Suiiol, trast between the fixed scheme of the bass and Text Book of Gregorian Chant (1930). the free display of imagination in the upper part Historical: ApGC; D. J. Keller, Fundamentals or parts lends particular charm to this form. of Gregorian Chant (1959); P. Wagner, Ein- However, the bass melody is not always entirely fuhrung in die gregorianischen Melodien, 3 vols. "fixed," but may occur with modifications or in (1895-21; vol. i appeared in English as Introduc- another key. The ground bass or basso ostinato tion to the Gregorian Melodies, Part I [1901]); id., [It.] may vary from such simple formations as in AdHM i, 75ff; Dom A. Mocquereau, Le Nom- the descending tetrachord: a-g-f-e (one note to bre musical gregorien ou Rhythmique gregorienne, . 2 vols. (1908, '27); J. W. A. Vollaerts, Rhythmic Proportions in Early Medieval Ecclesiastical br; Chant (1958); J. Rayburn, Gregorian Chant: A History of the Controversy Concerning Its Rhythm (1964); G. Murray, Gregorian Chant According to the Manuscripts (1963); Dom J. Gajard, Notions sur Ia rythmique gregorienne [n.d.]; Dom J. Jeannin, Etudes sur le rhythme gregorien (1926); E. Jammers, Der gregorianische Rhythmus (1937); W. Apel, "The Central Problem of Gre- the measure; see Ex. under Chaconne) to fullgorian Chant" (JAMS ix); G. Stevens, in MQ length melodies, as in the accompanying examxxx; C. H. Phillips, "The Aesthetics of Plain- ple (Purcell). The ground is a characteristic song" (ML xv, no. 2); E. Wellesz, "Some Exotic form of baroque music and was cultivated espeElements of Plainsong" (ML iv, no. 3); cially in England, frequently with improvisation H. Hucke, "Die Einftihrung des Gregorianischen of the upper parts [see Division]. The name was Gesangs im Frankenreich" (Romische Quartal- first (?) used in keyboard composition by William Byrd. For earlier manifestations of the schrift for Christliche Altertumskunde xlix, 172ff); same principle, see Ostinato. P. Wagner, "Zur Rhythmik der Neumen" (JMP The ground belongs to the general category xvii); L. Bonvin, "The 'Measure' in Gregorian of continuous variations [see Variations 1]. In Music" (MQ xv); J. Jeannin, "11 mensuralismo Gregoriano" (RMI xxviii, xxix, xxx). See also particular, all the passacaglias (as defined under Chaconne and passacaglia) can be considered Editions XLII; Neumes. Fuller bibl. in ReMMA, grounds, even if their ostinato motif is occasionpp. 437ff. ally transferred to an upper voice-part, as in Bach's passacaglia. For a somewhat different Groppo [It.]. See Gruppetto. type of reiterated bass, see Strophic bass. Lit.: L. Nowak, Grundziige einer Geschichte des Gross, grosse [G.]. Large, great. Grosse FlOte, the ordinary flute. Grosses Orchester, full orchestra. Basso ostinato (1932); L. Propper, "Der Basso Grosse Trommel, bass drum. Grosse Sext (Terz), ostinato" (diss. Berlin, 1926); R. Litterscheid, major sixth (third); Grosse Quinte (Quarte), per- Zur Geschichte des basso ostinato" (diss. Marfect fifth (fourth). Grosse Oktave, great octave. burg, 1928); L. Walter, "Die konstructive und thematische Ostinatotechnik des 17. und 18. Grosse caisse [F.]. Bass drum. Jahrhunderts" (diss. Wi.irzburg, 1939); H. Rie-

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359

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GUATEMALA

GRUND-

mann, "Basso ostinato und basso quasi ostinato" (CP Liliencron); id., in SIM xiii; H. Shaw, "Blow's Use of the Ground Bass" (MQ xxiv); 0. Gombosi, "ltalia: Patria del basso ostinato" (LRM vii); W. Greenhouse Allt, "The Treatment of Ground" (PMA lxxii, 73); H. M. Miller, "Henry Purcell and the Ground Bass" (ML xxix, 340). Grund- [G.]. Grundlage, root position. Grundstimmen, the 8-foot registers of the organ. Grundton, root of a chord. Grundtonart, main key. Gruppetto, gruppo, groppo [It.]. Italian 16thcentury names for an ornament like a *trill. See Ornamentation I. G.S., GS. Abbr. for Gerbert's Scriptores. See under Scriptores. G sol re ut (G solreut). See under Hexachord III. Gsp. Abbr. for glockenspiel. Guajira [Sp.]. Term derived from guajiro ("hillbilly"), name given to people of the interior of Cuba, which more properly applies to a rural style of song of prevailingly Spanish influence than to a definite type of folk expression. Many devices of Latin American music are characteristic of the guajira style, among them the alternate use of 3/4 and 6/8 meter, use of the guitar or tiple (high-pitched guitar without the lower strings) to accompany the solo voice, harmonies centering around the dominant seventh chord, etc. The punto is one of the most typical presentJ.o-s. day forms of guajira. Guaracha [Sp.]. Cuban folksong originating from a sequence of quatrains sung alternately by a chorus and a solo voice. Improvisation and topical allusions were included in the solo sections. This older form of guaracha developed into the present-day two-section form, consisting of an introduction followed by a faster section. Symmetrical rhythms as well as syncopation are employed within either 3/4 and 6/8 or 2/4 meter. The most characteristic feature is the use of mischievous, equivocal texts. J.o-s. Guaranfa [Sp.]. Paraguayan ballad in slow waltz tempo and usually in a minor mode, created by Jose Asuncion Flores in the late 1920's [see Paraguay] in an attempt to promote a new popular song form of native character. This form soon became popular and is now regarded as part of the country's folk music. J.o-s.

G01\rdame las vacas [Sp.]. Title of 16th-century Spanish variations (L. de Narvaez, 1538; A. Mudarra, 1546; Enriquez de Valderrabano, 1547; A. de Cabez6n) on a theme that is identical to the *romanesca. The title (Let us watch over the cows) suggests that it was a popular Spanish song. In the Libro de tientos . .. Facultad Organica of F. Correa de Araujo (1626; new ed. by S. Kastner, ii, 213) it is designated as seculorum del primero tono, obviously because the melodic outline a-g-f-e-d is also the termination formula of the first psalm tone. Guasa [Sp.]. Satirical Venezuelan folksong based on many different poetical structures. Musically, almost every guasa is binary in form, in 6/8 meter, and based on the following rhythmic pattern:

mn

J.O-S.

Guatemala. In 1554 the Spanish-born composer Hernando Franco (1532-85) arrived in Guatemala and remained there until 1573, when he moved to Mexico City [see Mexico]. From 1534, when the Guatemala Cathedral was provided with an organist and precentor, European music had played an important role in the conversion of Guatemalans. Despite the scarcity of information about colonial Guatemala's musical life, there is evidence enough to show that Guatemala was not far behind Mexico and Peru in 16th- and 17th-century music. Nine 16thand early 17th-century codices containing works by outstanding Spanish and Flemish composers of the Renaissance have been assembled in Huehuetenango, near Guatemala City. Two of them, compiled before 1600, contain cop/as and villancicos in Spanish, signed by Tomas Pascual and Francisco de Leon. One of the most important composers of a later period was Vicente Saenz (1756-1841), who wrote Villancicos de Pascua that were very popular in his day. His son, Benedicto Saenz (d. 1831), was at one time the organist of the Cathedral of Guatemala City, and his son, also named Benedicto Saenz, had several compositions published in France. Jose Escolastico Andrino, a noted violinist from Guatemala, lived in El Salvador from 1845 on. Of his compositions, two symphonies, three Masses, and an opera (La Mora Generosa) are preserved. Luis Felipe Arias (1870-1908), who received his musical training in Europe, wrote short piano pieces and songs inspired by Guatemalan folk idioms. His immediate follower, Jesus Castillo

360

GUATEMALA

GUIDON/AN HAND

(1877-1946), a noted scholar of Indian music, wrote two operas based on folk idioms, Quiche Vinak (1924) and Nicte, as well as a ballet (Guatema), an Obertura Indigena and Obertura Tecum, and a collection of piano pieces published in France under the title Popol Buj. His half-brother, Ricardo Castillo (b. 1894), studied in France, where he lived for ten years. He has written incidental music for various native plays, two ballets, a Sinfonietta, several orchestral works, and piano compositions. Of the same generation are Jose Castaneda (b. 1898), an experimenter in modern trends of composition, conductor, and theoretician; Franz Ippisch (b. 1883), an Austrian-born composer; Jose Molina Pinillo (b. 1889), who studied in Mexico and Berlin; and Raul Paniagua (b. 1898), composer of a well-known orchestral composition, La Leyenda Maya. In the succeeding generation the most important figures are Miguel Sandoval (1903-53), a pianist and composer, mainly of film music; Salvador Ley (b. 1907), a noted pianist, director of the Conservatorio N acional de Musica in Guatemala (1934-54), and composer of anumber of orchestral, piano, and chamber works; and Enrique Solares (b. 191 0), a pianist, diplomat, and composer who writes in the neoclassical vein. Best known among the youngest generation of composers are Manuel Herrarte (b. 1924); Joaquin Orellana (b. 1935), who has written chamber music, incidental pieces for orchestra and choral compositions; and Jorge Sarmientos, who is also a conductor. Jesus Castillo, in his valuable study La Musica Maya-Quiche (1941), classifies native Guatemalan melodies as following six clearly differentiated scales, some of which, he claims, are imitations of the song of a Guatemalan bird, the cenzontle. The only native dance that is largely free of European influences is the *Son Chapin, also known as Son Guatemalteco. Lit.: V. M. Diaz, Las Bellas Artes en Guatemala, La Musica (1934); J. Saenz Poggio, Histon·a de Ia mUsica guatemalteca desde Ia monarquia espanola, hasta fines de afio de 1877 (1878; 1947 reprint in Anales de Ia sociedad de geografia e historia de Guatemala xxii, nos. l-2); S. Ley, Cultural Aspects of Musical Life in Guatemala (1952); J. Castillo, La Musica Maya-Quiche (1941); R. Stevenson, European Music in 16thCentury Guatemala (1964). Also see under Latin America. J.o-s.

Guerre des bouffons [F.], guerra dei buffoni [It.]. See War of the Buffoons. The preferred French designation is querelle (quarrel) des bouffons. Guida [It.). (l) Subject (dux) of a fugue. (2) A *direct. (3) An abbreviated orchestral score [see ConducteurJ. Guidon [F.). A *direct. Guidonian hand. A sketch of the human hand with the notes from G to e" in various parts of the skeleton, intended as an aid for memorizing the scale and its solmization syllables. It acquired an almost supernatural significance as the symbol of the complete mastery of the medieval system of *hexachord and mutationindeed, of the entire system of church modes. Thus, for instance, chromaticism was strongly objected to as late as the 16th century because it was not contained "in the hand" (non est in manu). In the accompanying sketch the tones are indicated by the modern pitch names instead of the composite solmization names (Gamma ut, Are, B mi, etc.; see Hexachord II) that are used in the early treatises.

The Guidonian hand is not present in the works of Guido d'Arezzo (c. 990-1050), nor is the complete system of *solmization. It is found for the first time in treatises of the late 13th century (Engelbert, Elias Salomon, Hieronymus de Moravia; see GS ii, 292, iii, 22; CS i, 21). Until the end of the 15th century it was called manus musicalis. The name manus Guidonis appears in the Musica practica of B. Ramos de Pareja (1482; ed. by J. Wolf, p. 13).

361

GUILLAUME TELL

GUITAR FAMILY

Guillaume Tell [F., William Tell]. Opera in four acts by Rossini, produced in Paris, 1829. Setting: Switzerland, early 14th century. The overture was a popular orchestral concert selection un~il made banal by association with various rad10 programs and motion pictures. Guimbarde [F.]. *Jew's-harp. Guiro. See under Percussion instruments B, 8. Guitar. [F. guitare; G. Gitarre; It. chitarra; Sp. guitarra]. A plucked stringed instrument, similar to the lute but with a fiat back and builtup, inward-curved ribs, somewhat like the violin. [For ill. see Guitar family.] The modern guitar has metal frets and six strings tuned E A d g b e'. The music is notated one octave higher than it sounds. Today the gui_tar is c~efiy a popular instrument used to provtde a stmple chordal accompaniment to a dance or a song, especially folksong, the chords being indicated in a manner similar to the principles that are followed in 16th-century lute tablatures. Most of the great guitar virtuosos have been Spanish: Dionisio Aguado (1784-1849), who established the principles of modern guitar playing in a method written in 1825 and still used today; Fernando Sor (1778-1839), who aroused the admiration of Mehul, Cherubini, and Fetis, and who wrote numerous brilliant compositions for the guitar; Francisco Tarrega (185~-.1?09), the greatest of aU guitar players, who mlttated the present-day revival of the instrument; and the noted Andres Segovia (b. 1893), who has made the instrument known aU over the world and who has contributed much to a revival of old (16th-century) guitar (vihuela) music. Modern composers for the guitar include Manuel de Falla, Joaquin Turina, Rodolfo Halffter, Albert Roussel, Alexander Tansman, and others. Percy Grainger has used it in several compositions [see C. Forsyth, Orchestration, rev. ed. (1936), p. 480]. In 16th-century Spain at least three types of guitar were in use: (I) the six-course *vihuela, an instrument equal in artistic importance to the contemporaneous lute and for which seven books of tablature were published, one each by L. Milan, L. de Narvaez, A. Mudarra, E. Enriquez, de Valderrabano, D. Pisador, M. de Fuenllana, and E. Daza, containing a great many fantasias, variations (diferencias), duets, songs (vi/lancicos, romances), a few dances, and many intabulations; (2) the four-course guitarra, a popular instrument for which Mudarra and

Fuenllana composed a few pieces; and (3) the five-course guitarra espanola, whose vogue at the end of the century and throughout the 17th century was in part responsible for the eclipse of the lute and whose music usually consisted of chordal accompaniment only. G. Montesardo, in his Nuova Inventione d'Intavolatura per sonare /i Bailetti sopra Ia Chitarra Spagnuo/a (1606), invented a new notation (stenographic indication of the chords), which was broadened by other guitarists, such as Pietro Milioni (1627), Caliginoso (1626), and Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz (1677; see WoHNii, 174, 175, 201). In the 17th century, when lute music reached the height of artistic perfection under Denis Gaultier, Esaias Reusner, Robert de Visee, and others, the guitar rose to prominence as an instrument much easier to play and, consequently, of greater popular appeal. In the late 17th century the instrument came into vogue in French court circles, and fashionable painters like Watteau depicted it in the hands of beautiful ladies and clowns. Boccherini used the guitar in some of his chamber music, as did other composers of the 18th century. Schubert's so-called Guitar Quartet, however, is only an adaptation of a trio for flute, violin, and guitar by a Bohemian, W. Matiegka, published in 1807. See also Guitar family; Electronic instruments I. Lit.: A. P. Sharpe, The Story of the Spanish Guitar, rev. ed. (1959); J. de Azpiazu, La Guitarra y los Guitarristas (1961); D. Prat, Diccionario ... de guitarristas (1934); B. Terzi, Dizionario dei chitarristi e liutai Ita/iani (1937); J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute und Gitarre (1926); LavE ii.3, 1997-2035; WoHN ii, 157-218, A. Koczirz, "Die Fantasien des Melchior de Barberis" (ZMW iv); id., "Die Gitarrenkompositionen in Miguel de Fuenllana's Orphenica lyra (1554)" (AMW iv); F. Lesure, "La Guitare en France au XVIe siecle" (MD iv); T. Usher, "The Spanish Guitar in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (GSJ ix); D. Heartz, "Parisian Music Publishing ... Four Recently Discovered Guitar Books" (MQ xlvi); E. Schmitz, "Guitarrentabulaturen" (MJM xxxv); 0. Chilesotti, "La Chitarra francese" (RMI xiv); M. R. Brondi, "II Liuto e la chitarra" (RMI xxxii, xxxiii). Guitar family. This category is here understood to include instruments that have the general characteristics of the lute family but have the fiat body of the guitar. Like the lute, the guitar is of Oriental origin. It appears in various shapes in the famous miniatures of the 13th-century

362

GUITAR FAMILY

GUITAR FAMILY

Guitars: !. Yuehchyn. 7. CiHern. 8. Guitar.

2. Bandurria.

3. Banjo.

Cantigas MS of the Escorial. Several such instruments existed in the 16th and 17th centuries under different names. The most important of these was the cittern (also cithren, cister, cistre, either, cithara, cetera, cistola, citole), which had an oval belly and back, similar to that of the lute, and wire strings. The Cythringen (Cithrinchen) on which the miller Veit Bach, J. S. Bach's greatgreat-grandfather, is reported to have entertained himself while grinding flour, was a smaller instrument of this type. In the 18th century the cittern was much used in England under the name English guitar. See T. Dart, "The Cittern

4. Ukulele.

5. Balalaika.

6. Chitarra battente.

and Its English Music" (GSJ i). A direct derivative of the cittern is the bandurria and its larger variety, the bandolon [see MaMI]. The name of these instruments (probably also that of the modern *banjo) comes from the 16th-century *bandora (sometimes called pandora). The gittern, which had gut strings, is another early member of the guitar family, but the name quinterne (probably from guitterne) was applied to other instruments as well. A Portuguese guitar, much used in the Azores, is the machete, which is the ancestor of the modern *ukulele. The chitarra battente is an Italian form of guitar. Of the vari-

363

GYPSY MUSIC

GURRE-LIEDER

ous guitar instruments of Russia only the *balalaika survives today. A circular guitar with a short neck is used in China under the name yuehchyn and in Japan under the name gekkin [see MaMI]. The Japanese shamisen (samisen) is sometimes considered a guitar, but is more closely related to the lute [see Lute, Japan VI]. See also Vihuela. Gurre-Lieder [G.]. A song cycle ("Great Cantata") by Schoenberg to poems (originally in Danish) by J. P. Jacobsen, for 5 solo voices, 3 four-part male choruses, 1 eight-part mixed chorus, narrator, and large orchestra, begun 1901-02 but not finished until 1911. The musical style represents the climax of late romanticism. Gusle. A primitive one-stringed instrument, played with a primitive bow. It is used almost exclusively to accompany and support the chanting of the epic poems of the southern Slavs (Serbs, Montenegrins, Macedonians, and, less frequently, Bulgarians). Pear-shaped, it is covered with skin and has a long neck ending with a decorative carving, usually in the shape of an animal's head. The single string usually is made of twisted horsehair, which also is used for the bow. [For ill. see Violin.] A two-stringed variant is known in Bosnia. In Macedonia it may have three strings and resembles the Bulgarian gadulka as well as the Byzantine lyra, a variant of which is still in use in southern Dalmatia, where it is known as lijerica. The gusle player is called guslar and is regarded as the carrier of traditional epic poems. The Russian gusli is a zitherlike instrument [see Psaltery] quite unrelated to the Balkan gusle. See W. Wiinsch, Die Geigentechnik der siidslawischen Guslaren (1934); id, inMGGv. M.V. Gusto, con [It.]. With style, with zest. Gymel, gimel, gemell. (I) A late medieval term for two-part polyphony based on thirds, sixths, and tenths. The term is derived from the Latin gemellus, meaning twin. Guilelmus Monachus described it (c. 1480) as a style used in England

and employing upper as well as lower thirds ("habet consonantias tertias tam altas quam bassas ... ";see CS iii, 289a). This would require a crossing of parts, e.g., e-d-c-d-e as counterpoint to c-d-e-f-g. A number of English compositions from c. 1300 are in this style, e.g., Jesu Cristes milde moder (ReMMA, p. 389), Edi beo (NOH ii, 342), and Foweles in the frith (NOH ii, 343; here the two voices are an octave apart, so that the upper and lower third become tenths and sixths). The term is also used for two-part polyphony in parallel thirds. A famous example of this style is the 13th-century hymn "Nobilis humilis" written in praise of St. Magnus, the patron saint of the Orkneys (HAM, no. 25c). It should be noted, however, that parallel thirds were used in France as early as c. 1150 [see Third]. Perhaps the "crossing" gymel may more properly be considered to be of English origin than the "parallel" variety. See M. Bukofzer, "The Gymel, the Earliest Form of English Polyphony" (ML xvi, 77); ReMMA, p. 388. (2) In English musical sources of the 15th century, "gymel" means *divisi, i.e., to indicate that a part is temporarily divided into two. Gypsy music. Whether the Gypsies ever possessed a musical tradition of their own is a matter of doubt. What is generally called Gypsy music actually is Hungarian music of fairly recent origin, composed by Hungarians of the upper middle class but performed by Gypsies (according to Bart6k). The so-called Gypsy scale, c-d-eb-f#-g-ab-b-c' [see Scale I], with two augmented seconds, is probably of Indian origin and was introduced by the Gypsies into eastern Europe, particularly into Hungary, where it became a pseudonationalist feature [see Hungary]. It also is common in modern Turkish and Jewish music as well as in Greek church music. The Gypsies have also played a role in the cultural and musical life of Spain [see Flamenco]. See LavE i.5, 2646ff; B. Bart6k, "Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?" (MQ xxxiii); W. Starkie, "The Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-Lore and Folkmusic" (PMA lxii).

364

H H. See Pitch names; Letter notation. Abbr. for hom (in orchestral scores). H dur (moll), German for B major (minor). Habanera [Sp.]. A Cuban dance of Spanish origin that is rarely performed today despite its considerable historic importance. It is the ancestor of many new dance forms, e.g., the Argentine *tango. At the time of the Spanish-American War, the habanera was the most popular dance of the New World. Examples were sung in music halls throughout Europe, often modified according to the traditional styles of each country. At the time Bizet wrote his famous habanera (Carmen, 1875) the form was already well known outside Cuba. Many other European composers were inspired by its rhythm, among them D.ebussy, Albeniz, Auber, Chabrier, De Falla, and Ravel. Always in 2/4 meter in moderate tempo, the habanera uses a variety of rhythmic patterns, the two most common being

Jl

nand

J1l

n

J.O-S.

Hackbrett [G.]. See Dulcimer. Haffner collection. An important collection of early piano (harpsichord) sonatas, published by Johann Ulrich Haffner from 1755 to 1766. The complete collection consists of three publications entitled Oeuvres melees, Raccolta musicale, and Collection recreative. It contains 114 sonatas by K. P. E. Bach, Bertoni, Galuppi, Marpurg, L. Mozart, Paganelli, Rutini, Scheibe, Schobert, Wagenseil, and others. Eighteen sonatas from the Raccolta musicale have been republished by G. Benvenuti under the title Cembalisti Italiani del Settecento (G. Ricordi). See Sonata B III (a) and (b). Haffner Serenade. Mozart's Serenade in D [K. 250], composed in 1776 for a wedding in the family of Sigmund Haffner, burgomaster of Salzburg. His Haffner Symphony in D [K. 385] was _composed in 1782 for another festive occasiOn. Haiti. Music during the early Spanish coloniza-

tion of what is now the Republic of Haiti developed along the same lines as in the rest of the island of Hispaniola [see Dominican Republic]. Not until the end of the 17th century, when the

French colonized the western third of the island, did an independent development begin. Art music in Haiti dates from the beginning of the 20th century. Most Haitian composers have written works using some native elements but lacking the forceful expression of their original models. Occide Jeanty (1860-1936) is the earliest Haitian-born composer. He studied in Paris and in 1886 returned to Haiti as musical director of the Republic. Ludovic Lamothe (b. 1882) devoted himself to the study of folk music and then became a noted pianist and composer, especially of songs and short piano compositions. Justin Elie (1883-1931) also studied in Paris, and from 1922 until his death he lived in New York. He wrote a well-known Aboriginal Suite for orchestra and numerous compositions for piano, violin, and voice. The traditional music of Haiti is largely a mixture of African, French, and Spanish elements, since the original Indian population disappeared under Spanish rule and none ofits influences remains clearly traceable. Most Haitian songs and dances are dominated by the religious and social framework of the vodoum or *voodoo and are characterized by freedom of measure and rhythm. This is true of the baboule, bamboche, bumba, salongo, monsond1~ and many other types mentioned by Courlander [see Lit.]. Lit.: L. Bowman, The Voice of Haiti (1938); H. Courlander, Haiti Singing (1939). Also see J.o-s. under Latin America. Hakenneumen [G.]. Hook neumes; see Neumes II. Halb, halbe [G.]. Half. Halbe Note (Pause), half note (-rest). Halbinstrument, half-tube instrument. Halbschluss, half-cadence. Halbsopran, mezzosoprano. Halbton, semitone. Half. Half-close, imperfect cadence. Half-fall,

see Appoggiatura. Half-shift, the first shift on the violin. Half-step, semitone. Half-stop, see Divided stop. Half-tube instruments, see Wind instruments II. Hallelujah. A Biblical word, expressing joyful praise of God. For its use in Gregorian chant, see Alleluia. The original spelling is retained in Ambrosian chant. In choral compositions of the

365

HARMONICA

HALLING

17th and 18th centuries the word "Hallelujah" frequently serves as the text for an extensive final movement in fugal style. Famous examples are the Hallelujah choruses in Bach's cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden and in Handel's Messiah (close of Part II). See E. Gerson-Kiwi, "Halleluia and Jubilus in Hebrew-Oriental Chant" (CP Besseler). Halling. A fast, lively Norwegian folk dance in 2/4 or 4/4 meter. It is a strenuous solo dance for men in which one person in the middle of the room holds a man's hat on a long pole. Several men in turn try to kick the hat off the pole. Grieg has used the dance in several of his Lyric Pieces. See T. Knudsen and A. Sommerfelt, ed., Norsk riksmdlsordbok i (1937). Hammerklavier [G.]. Early 19th-century name for the piano. Beethoven used it for his sonatas op. 101 and 106 (the latter is widely known as the Hammerklavier Sonata), probably for no other reason than to avoid the Italian word pianoforte. Hammers, hammers.

Pythagorean.

See

Pythagorean

Hammond organ. See under Electronic instruments II. Handel Variations. Twenty variations (and a fugue) for piano by Brahms, op. 24 (1861), based on a theme by Handel (the "Air" from his harpsichord suite in B-fiat). The fugue is based on a theme freely derived from the initial notes of the tune. Hand horn. See under Hom II. Hand organ. Term for two mechanical instruments similar in construction but different in purpose: the English barrel organ, formerly used in small churches, and the street organ of the Italian organ grinders. Handstiick [G.]. Late 18th-century name for an instructive piano piece. Handtrommel [G.]. Tambourine. Hansel und Gretel. Opera in three acts by Humperdinck, produced in Weimar, 1893. The libretto, written by his sister, Adelheid Wette, is based on one of Grimm's Fairy Tales. Setting: the Hartz Mountains, Germany. Although lacking in originality, the music provides a suitable background for the plot with its folklike simplicity and warmth of feeling.

Hardingfele, Hardanger fiddle. A Norwegian folk instrument shaped somewhat like the violin but slightly smaller and with a flatter bridge. [For ill. see under Violin.]It has four gut strings above four or five metal sympathetic strings in various tunings, such as a-d'-a'-e" or a-e'-a'c"~ for the former, b-d'-e'-f'~-a' or c'~-d'-e'­ f'~-a' for the latter. The music is highly ornamented and generally is in two voice-parts in addition to the drone effect produced by the sympathetic strings. Dissonances of the second, augmented fourth, seventh, and ninth are common. The instrument probably was modeled after the ancient Norwegian gigja and fidla as well as the viola d'amore (probably brought from the British Isles). It is used to accompany folk dances such as the *halling, ganger, and springar. See 0. Gurvin, ed., t.Norskfolkemusikk, 4 vols. (1958-63). Harfe [G.]. Harp. Harmonia. A Greek word, whose original meaning is "a fitting together," often implying the combination and unification of diverse elements (Plato). The Greeks used it for music in general, for scale formations (harmoniae; see Greece II), and for a well-ordered melody, but also in the sense of "harmony of the world" or "harmony of body and soul." In medieval treatises on music the term usually means "beautiful music" in a general sense, without specific reference to chords or simultaneous sounds. The definition given in the Musica enchiriadis ("Harmonia est diversarum vocum apta coadunatio"; GS i, l59a) is not found in the discussion of organum and therefore probably refers to monophonic music. It is quoted in Marchettus' Lucidarium (GS iii, 8la), which is devoted exclusively to plainsong. Walter Odington distinguished between an armonica simplex (plainsong), and an armonica multiplex (diaphony; CS i, 212b). The meaning harmonia = harmony appears clearly in Gafurius' Practica Musice (1496), where harmonia is said to consist of a high, a low, and a middle sound (conficitur ex acuto gravi et medio). Harmonise. See under Greece II. Harmonic. See under Acoustics IV; Harmonics. Harmonica. (l) The *glass harmonica. (2) The mouth harmonica or mouth organ [F. harmonica a bouche; G. Mundharmonika; It. armonica a bocca; Sp. armonica]. A popular instrument that consists of a small, fiat metal box with slitlike

366

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

openings on one of its long sides. Each slit leads to a pair of reeds of the same pitch inside the box, one of which works by means of pressure and the other by means of suction. The player places the instrument against his lips and, moving it back and forth according to the notes desired, blows into or inhales against the slits. For ill. see under Wind instruments. Many harmonica bands have been formed in the United States and elsewhere, and some players have achieved a remarkable degree of virtuosity. One modem form of the instrument was invented by F. Buschmann in 1821 [see SaHMI, p. 406]. Sir Charles Wheatstone is also mentioned as the inventor (his was called Aeolina, 1829; see GDB v, 919). (3) In French and German the name is also used for a variety of instruments of the xylophone type, i.e., consisting of tuned strips of wood (harmonica de bois, Holzharmonika), steel (harmonica a lames d'acier, Stahlharmonika, i.e., *glockenspiel), stone (ha[monica a lames de pierre, e.g., the Chinese bianchinq), etc. The Ziehharmonika [G.] is the accordion. Harmonic analysis. I. General. Harmonic analysis is the study of the individual chords or harmonies in a piece of music, together with their use in succession to form larger units of phrases, periods, sections, or whole compositions. It is applicable to all Western music that has a harmonic aspect. Although such study is necessary to understand music of other periods, it is particularly applicable to the tonal music of the 18th and 19th centuries; in this area it still forms the initial basis of training for the young musician. II. Triads. The basis of tonal harmony is the triad. Each of the seven degrees of the major and minor scale can serve as the *root of a *triad. The triads on the "tonal" degrees of the scale, I, IV and V, are the most important for establishing the tonality of a piece, and occur more frequently than those on the "modal" degrees, II, III, and VI. The triad on VII tends to be used least of all. The four kinds of triad (major, minor, diminished, augmented) possible in the major and minor mode are illustrated in Ex. I. Besides the practice of exchange of chords from one mode to the other, which in itself makes the two modes practically identical, certain other changes have come into use that further color, and therefore confuse, the two modes; in the late 19th century practically any note of any chord could be sharped or flatted,

I

4 (2) I

2

(2)(2) I

2 I

I@ ltot H"I iHUIIIhl II

III

IV

3

(2) (2)

2

li ~1 nil~ §~II v

VI

VII

Chords written in white notes are used in the major key; those in black notes are used in the minor key, with the following exceptions: those marked 1 are common to both modes; those marked 2 are often borrowed from the minor mode to be used in the major; that marked 3 is used only under certain circumstances even in the minor; that marked 4 is sometimes used as a final chord in pieces in the minor, in which case the chord is said to have a Picardy third; and those marked (2), which can be borrowed from the minor for use in the major, were mostly so used in the 19th century.

and if this were done judiciously the feeling of a central tonality could still be preserved, although it might not be possible to determine whether the resulting tonality was major or minor. III. Seventh and ninth chords. Besides the triads illustrated above, music of the 18th and 19th centuries makes much use of seventh chords. These chords are triads with still another diatonic third superposed. Ninth chords, used more commonly in the 19th century than previously, are seventh chords with yet another diatonic third superposed. Seventh chords and ninth chords are designated by adding the Arabic figure 7 or 9 to the Roman numeral indicllting the root, thus: 17, I 9 . The symbol I~ means a tonic ninth chord with the seventh degree fiatted. [See Ex. 2.] For more details see Seventh chord; Ninth chord.

IV. Root position and inversion. When any chord built of superposed thirds stands in its original position it is said to be in root position, since the note on which the structure is built, the *root, lies in the bass or lowest part. Thus a chord built on C, whether it be a triad, a seventh, a ninth chord, or even greater, is in root position so long as C remains in the bass, no matter how the notes above are arranged or how many notes there are in the chord. All the chords in Ex. 1 and Ex. 2 are in root position.

367

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

If the third of the chord, E in the examples above, lies in the bass, the chord is said to be in first inversion; if the fifth, G in the examples above, is in the bass, the chord is in second inversion; and if the seventh is in the bass, it is in third inversion. In harmonic analysis the Arabic figures indicate the characteristic intervals between the lowest note (bass note, not the root) and those above it. Thus, the designation for the first inversion, known as sixth chord, is IS (pfoperly I~) and for the second inversion, known as six-four chord, It similar symbols are used for the inversion of the seventh chord [Ex. 3]. See Inversion; Sixth chord; Six-four chord; Seventh chord.

V. Altered chords. These are chords in which one or more notes are chromatically altered by accidentals foreign to the key. (The sharping of a note often serves to give that note a tendency to rise; the flatting of a note tends to make it descend.) The mutual borrowing of chords between the major and minor modes cannot rightly be said to involve alteration (see Ex. 1); nor does the formation of *secondary dominants constitute alteration, but rather momentary borrowing. The most common altered chords with their usual resolutions are illustrated in Ex. 4. They are: (a) the Neapolitan sixth, built on II; (b) the augmented sixths, built on II and IV; (c) altered II and VI. For purposes of illustration each is reckoned in the key of C.

VI. Modulation. Modulation, one of the most valuable devices in tonal music, is accomplished by means of pivot chords. The C-major triad, for instance, is not only I in the key of C major, but also IV in G, V in F, III in A minor, VI in

E minor, the Neapolitan II in B, and VII in D minor. Treated as a secondary dominant, its functions are wider yet, since it can be considered V of III in D minor, V of III in D-flat, V of V in B-flat, and so on. The diminished seventh and the augmented sixth chords are also valuable as pivots since enharmonically each can be found in a variety of keys. These pivot chords serve as connections or hinges between different keys, and it is by means of them that modulation is effected. See Modulation. VII. Nonharmonic tones. These are tones dissonant to the harmonies with which or after which they are sounded; they usually serve the purpose of providing smoothness of melodic flow and embellishment as well as color. They are of two main types, accented and unaccented. The unaccented nonharmonic tones include (1) passing tones, (2) auxiliary tones, (3) anticipations, (4) echappees, and (5) cambiatas, while the accented ones are (6) appoggiaturas and (7) suspensions, although the last has no rhythmic accent on the note itself at the moment it causes dissonance. All the nonharmonic tones may be found either ascending or descending, and in any voice part. See Nonharmonic tones. VIII. Harmonic rhythm. Harmonic rhythm is the rate of speed with which harmonies change in the course of a phrase or series of phrases. In some phrases the harmonies change more quickly than in others, and certain parts of single phrases likewise have faster-moving harmonies than other parts. The tendency in single phrases is to have faster harmonic change in the latter part than in the first, but this depends on the structure of the piece as a whole and the effect the composer wishes to convey. See Harmonic rhythm. See also Harmony; Functional harmony; Texture; Dualism. Lit. (attempt at a selection from hundreds of texts): W. Piston, Harmony, rev. ed. [1962]; id., Principles of Harmonic Analysis (1933); P. Hindemith, A Concentrated Course in Traditional Harmony [1943]; R. Sessions, Harmonic Practice [ 1951]; A. Schoenberg, Structural Functions of Harmony [1954]; H. A. Murphy and E. J. Stringham, Creative Harmony (1951); W. J. Mitchell, Elementary Harmony, rev. ed. (1948); A. Forte, Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice [1962]; H. Tischler, Practical Harmony (1964); S. Levarie, Fundamentals of Harmony, rev. ed. [1962]; N. Rimsky-Korsakov, Practical Manual of Harmony (1930); H. A. Miller, New Harmonic Devices [1930]; R. Lenormand, A Study of

368

HARMONIC INVERSION

HARMONIC RHYTHM

Modern Harmony (1915); A. F. Barnes, Practice in Modern Harmony [1937]; C. Koechlin, Traite de Ia harmonie, 3 vols. [1928-30]. For historical A.T.M. studies, see under Harmony.

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Harmonic inversion. See under Inversion (1).

I

Harmonic mean. See Arithmetic and harmonic mean.

II

I

V

IIIV

II

v

Harmonic minor (scale). See Major, minor. Harmonice musices odhecaton. See Odhecaton. Harmonic rhythm. The rhythmic pattern provided by the changes in harmony. The pattern of the harmonic rhythm of a given piece of music, found by noting the root changes as they occur, reveals important and distinctive features of style and texture. For example, there may be no change of harmony over several measures of music, as in the opening of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. A contrast to this is a rapid succession of root changes, a different chord appearing with each note of the melody, as in Ex. I (Chopin, Mazurka op. 59, no. 2). Between these extremes all variations can be found. In general, contrapuntal music uses fewer chord changes than do other types.

The pattern of harmonic changes is made up of strong and weak rhythmic quantities. Certain root progressions, such as II to V, are regarded as strong progressions, that is, having the rhythmic effect of weak to strong. Others, like III to V, are weak progressions, with strong to weak, or even static rhythm [Ex. 2]. Usually, however, a pattern contains several root progressions, so that evaluating their comparative rhythmic values involves consideration of other factors. The most important influence on the rhythmic

stress is the element of time. Long time values are generally accepted as being heavy, or strong, in comparison with shorter values [Ex. 3]. A dissonant chord with its resolution may constitute either a weak or a strong progression (Ex. 4]. Dynamic indications usually underline the natural rhythm of the music but are sometimes used by composers in a contrary sense, to give an accent where one would not normally occur. The strong beats of the harmonic rhythm are commonly in agreement with the first beats of the measures, thus coinciding with what one feels to be the pulse of the music, although this is by no means always the case. The pattern of harmonic changes may be quite independent of the meter and of the various melodic rhythms for which it forms the background. Ex. 5 (Beethoven, Sonata op. 31, no.3) serves as an illustration. In this example it should be noted that the harmonic rhythm, while it is the product of the combination of the melodic lines, is unlike any one of the melodic rhythm patterns and does not agree with the regularity of the meter. The resource of harmonic rhythm has been largely abandoned by some 20th-century composers who have been inclined toward purely contrapuntal music. This accounts for a certain static quality in some modern music. Increased

5

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369

Eb:I _ _ _ II_I_ IV V I VI II V

HARMONICS

HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH

melodic and contrapuntal rhythmic complexity and the use of irregular and changing meters are in some instances a compensation for the loss in rhythmic interest and vitality due to the absence of harmonic rhythm. See Harmonic analysis W.P. VIII. Harmonics. The term is used with two different though related meanings: (a) a general acoustical phenomenon [see Acoustics IV]; (b) its application to stringed instruments. The harmonics of the violin (and other stringed instruments), sometimes called flageolet tones [G. Flageolett-Tone; F. sons harmoniques], are high tones of a flutelike timbre that are produced by lightly touching the string at one of its nodes (exact fractional points) instead of pressing it down as in ordinary stopping. Touching a string lightly at its half-way point will produce a harmonic an octave higher than the open string. Ex. 1 shows the vibration of (a) an open string, (b) a stopped string, and (c) a lightly Ia

1-=====

=====I

A

b

B

p

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*

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+,

h

and t being the relative frequencies of the harmonic and the normal tone produced at the same point. For instance, in determining the harmonic obtained by lightly touching the c of the g-string, t is 'Y:l (relative frequency of the fourth; see Intervals, calculation of); therefore,

t = t,

-

u

n

.

: n

Stopping and light touch can be used simultaneously. The tones thus obtained are called "artificial harmonics," the others "natural harmonics." In compositions for violin (or cello), the latter are indicated by a small circle placed over the desired tone, while for the artificial harmonics the method shown in Ex. 3 is used, where the position of the fingers as well as the resultant tones are indicated. The introduction of harmonics has been variously ascribed to Domenico Ferrari ( 1722-80), a pupil of Tartini, and to Jean de Mondonville (1711-72). The latter seems to have made the first practical application of harmonics in his six sonatas, LesSons harmoniques, op. 4 [c. 1735]. See also Chyn; Tromba marina; Harp I. See W. Kirkendale, "Segreto comunicato da Paganini" (JAMS xviii).

Harmonic series. The series of the acoustical harmonics [see Acoustics IV].

determination of the harmonics is

=1-

ll

-------===-----1---====--------1B

touched string. If the open string sounds g, stopping at P, in our example at one-third of the entire length, produces the fifth d' (vibrating length 73 ), while light touch will produce the harmonic d" (vibrating length YJ). The formula for the

*

t: f:

Harmonic (minor) scale. See under Major, minor; Scale I.

p

1~1

l

f:" ~

B

A

c

3'

and h

= 4, i.e., the frequency

of the second octave; hence, the harmonic is g". In Ex. 2 the lozenges indicate, as customary, the point of touch, and the black notes the pitch of the resulting harmonic. The practical results do not always agree with the theory. For example, if the g-string is touched at e, the harmonic b' is less likely to be heard than its first overtone, b".

Harmonie [F., G.]. Harmony. In French usage the term also means the wind section of the orchestra, or a special wind band. Cor d'harmonie, French horn. Harmonie der Welt [G., Harmony of the World]. (1) A symphony by Hindemith, composed in 1951. As in the case of *Mathis der Maler, the three movements were derived from the composer's opera of the same title before the opera was finished and performed. The titles of the movements are "Musica Instrumentalis," "Musica Humana," and "Musica Mundana." (2) Opera in five acts by Hindemith (to his own libretto), produced in Munich, 1957. Setting: Central Europe, between 1608 and 1630. Harmonika [G.]. Either the Mundharmonika, mouth harmonica [see Harmonica (2)], or the Ziehharmonika, i.e., *accordion. B. Franklin's harmonica is called Glasharmonika. See also Harmonica (3). Harmonious Blacksmith. Air with variations from Handel's Harpsichord Suite No. 5, in E

370

HARMONIUM

HARMONY

(1720). There is no plausible explanation for the name, which is spurious.

Harmooium. I. A keyboard instrument that sounds by means of thin metal tongues being set in vibration by a steady current of air, which is provided by a pair of pedal-operated bellows. The metal tongues act as free reeds [see Reed]. The harmonium was long considered a popular substitute for the organ, which it resembles in some features, e.g., the wind supply, keyboard, ad libitum sustained tones, and stops that provide a variety of timbre. Properly used, however, the modem harmonium is an instrument in its own right. It can produce "expressive" gradations of sound by means of the expression stop, which puts the pressure in the bellows under direct control of the player's feet. This device, though unsuitable for the works of Bach, lends itself well to rendering many organ compositions of the 19th century (Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt, Reger) as well as pieces written especially for the harmonium (Karg-Elert, Dvorak, Reger, Cesar Franck). II. The harmonium was developed in the 19th century from Grenie's argue expressif (1810) and a number of more or less experimental instruments (Organo-violine, c. 1814; Aeoline, c. 1818; Physharmonica, 1818; Aeolodicon, c. 1820; Aerophone, c. 1829; Seraphine, 1834; Melophone, 1837; and many others) to the first real harmonium (A. Debain, 1840), which combined numerous useful devices found separately in the earlier instruments. Important improvements made afterward are: the percussion (small hammers like those of the piano, acting upon the tongues and causing a quicker and more precise "start" of the sound); the prolongement, by which single tones can be automatically prolonged (pedal points); the melody attachment, which puts the highest notes in relief over the others; the pedal substitute, by which the lowest note of a chord can be made to stand out; the double touch (1855), which permits a certain gradation of sound by a slighter or greater depression of the key; and the expression (invented by Mus tel, 1854), by which the volume of sound is controlled directly by the player's feet-a delicate device that calls for considerable skill to operate. The Mustel organ is very popular in France and England. III. An important variety of harmonium is the American organ, in which the wind is not forced out through the reeds by compression but is drawn in by evacuation of the air in the

bellows. The reeds of this instrument are smaller and more curved than those of the harmonium. All these devices produce a softer, more organ like tone that lacks, however, the expressive quality of the harmonium. Modem instruments have an electric wind supply, leaving the feet of the player free to operate a pedal-keyboard like that of the organ. The principle of the American organ was invented about 1835 by a workman in the harmonium factory of J. Alexandre, Paris, who subsequently emigrated to America. Here his ideas were put into practical form by Estey of Brattleboro, Vt. (Estey organ, 1856), and by Mason and Hamlin of Boston (1861). For a 16thcentury type of harmonium, see Regal. Lit.: A. Mustel, L'Orgue expressif ou /'harmonium, 2 vols. (1903); LavEii.2, 1375ff; L. Hartmann, Das Harmonium (1913; bibl.).

Harmooy. The chordal (or vertical) structure of a musical composition, in contrast to counterpoint, i.e., the melodic (or horizontal) structure [see Texture]. The principles of harmony predominant in the 18th and 19th centuries are explained under Harmonic analysis. In this article the subject is treated historically. I. Harmony came to be appreciated considerably later than counterpoint. Although even in the early days of counterpoint (9th-12th centuries; see Organum) it was apparent that certain intervals sounded better simultaneously than others and although the ensuing progress of counterpoint necessarily entailed an increased consideration of harmony, it was not until the mid-16th century that musicians began to think of harmonies as a primary building material of music. In fact, it was not until the early 18th century that Rameau (1722), Fux (1725), and others formally recognized them as structural and compositional elements. This late recognition is all the more striking in view of the extensive use of simple chordal progressions in various periods of early music history [see Familiar style] and, particularly, in view of the 17th-century practice of *thoroughbass, which is essentially harmonic in nature. Actually, the recognition of the harmonies as building elements depended on another concept that did not evolve until after 1650, namely, *tonality, which superseded polyphonic modality and made possible an over-all conception of a piece of music from the harmonic point of view. Only when tonality was firmly established could the relative importance of chords built on the different degrees of the scale be determined in rela-

371

HARMONY

HARMONY

tion to a key center or tonic; only when this was accomplished could a logical departure from this tonic into other keys and return from those keys to it-modulation-be achieved. When chords came to be conceived as entities it became possible to enlarge the small chords, such as the triad with its inversions, to bigger ones with three or more thirds (seventh chords; ninth chords). For the sake of color, moreover, it was possible to raise or lower the various notes of these chords without allowing them to lose their identity and their relationship with the central tonic. From the beginning of the 18th century on, the beauty of melodic lines depended largely on the effective arrangement of the harmonies underlying them. But the very concept of tonality contained the seeds of its own weakening. In time, with the increasing boldness of composers in modulating to ever more distant keys and in coloring, or altering, the notes of the~r chords more and more, the strength of the single tonal center became diluted. In addition, the 19th-century composers tended increasingly to fuse the major and minor modes, using chords typical of one mode in the other (Schubert), and to avoid strong tonal cadences and to substitute for them all kinds of deceptive cadences that in tum veiled contours of phrases (Liszt and Wagner), giving their music a far less definite feeling of tonality than the compositions of the 18th century possessed. Another practice undermining the strength of classical tonality was the use by certain late 19th-century nationalist composers of a preponderance of modal degrees of the scale in the harmonization of the folk or folklike melodies in their compositions (Dvorak, Mussorgsky). This, with its logical complement of writing consecutively a number of chords on adjacent scale degrees (*parallel chords; Debussy), led harmony back in many respects to the paths it had followed in the period of modality. Some 20th-century composers have abandoned tonality altogether and once again depended on the conjunction of melodic lines to form their harmonies (*atonality; Schoenberg), while others retain only the triad as the basic chord with which phrases must begin and end, and allow varying combinations of notes to form the harmonies in the course of the phrases, so long as they are arranged logically in regard to increasing and decreasing dissonance as the phrase proceeds, an arrangement called "harmonic fluctuation" (Hindemith). II. Regarding the triad as the most important

chord, harmonic music may be divided into three main periods: a central period in which the third (triad) is sovereign (period of tertian harmony, c. 1450-1900); an earlier period in which the potentialities of the triad have not yet been exploited (period of pre-tertian harmony, c. 900-1450); and a period in which, after the exhaustion of the triad, new combinations were sought after (period of post-tertian harmony, c. 1900-). A. Pre-tertian harmony (900-1450). (1) 900-1050: Parallel fourths or fifths; also unisons, seconds, and thirds at the beginning and end of phrases. See Organum, Ex. 1, 2. (2) 1050-1200: Unisons, octaves, fifths, and fourths as chief consonances of two-part writing in contrary and in parallel motion, interspersed with seconds, thirds, and sevenths, hardly ever with sixths. See Organum, Ex. 3, 4. (3) 1200-1300: Open triads (I-5-8), including those with a diminished fifth, as the main consonances in three-part writing; full triads (l-3-5) in weak positions, and occasionally also "dissonant concordances" such as 4-5 or 1-4-7 [see Counterpoint II]; harsh dissonances (consecutive seconds, etc.) freely admitted as passing notes. Ex. 1 (motet, c. 1250). (4) 1300-1450: Open triads continue as the main harmony; full triads more frequent, also at the beginning and end of (inner) phrases; first appearance of the sixth chord, as single harmony (De Vitry, Machaut), successively in cadential motion (Landini), or as the prevailing harmony (in England, also Dufay, Binchois; see Sixthchord style). Frequent use of the *Lydian

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(1959); LavE i.l, 242; W. P. Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments [1959]; id., Nagauta; the Heart of Kabuki Music [1963]; F. T. Piggott, The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan, rev. ed. (1909); K. Sunaga, Japanese Music [1936]; C. Leroux, La Musique classique japonaise (1910); S. Kishibe, The Tr~ditional Music of Japan (1966); Tsunezo Yoshida, ed., tTendai Shomyo Taisei, 2 vols. (1935, '55); Kashko Machida, et al., ed., tNihon Min'yo Taikan (Anthology of Japanese Folksongs; 5 vols. to date, Tokyo, 1953-66); Chfu.chiro Takeda, ed., tTohoku Min 'yo Shu (Anthology ofFolksongs in Tohoku; 6 vols. 1956-63); tSekai Ongaku Zenshu (Collection of the World's Music; 1930-), ed. by H. Tanabe, et al., vols. 17, 18, 22, 25, 27, 34, 43, 48; D. Arima, Japanische Musikgeschichte auf Grund der Quellenkunde (c.. 1960); ~- C~­ ningham, in MQ xxxiv; E. Hanch-Schneider, ill MQ xxxix; id., "Roei; the Medieval Court Songs of Japan" (Monumenta Nipponica xiii-xv); J. F. Embree, "Japanese Peasant Songs," (Memoirs, American Folklore Society xxxviii [1943]); 0. Abraham and E. M. von Hornbostel, in SIM iv; E. Kikkawa, in SIM xiv-xv; F. Y. Nomura, in AM xxxv, 47-53; F. T. Piggott, in PMA xviii, 103-20; K. Takano, in LRM xii, 107-24, 165-71. Also see under Gagaku; Koto; Noh. For Okinawan music, see Kikuko Kanai, tRyukyu no min'yo [1954]; J. LaRue, "The Okinawan Classical Songs: An Analytical and Comparative Study" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1952); id., in JAMS iv, 27ff. For further bibl. see Notes vii, 266ff; K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies with Descriptive Notes, vii (B), "Theatre. Dance and Music" (Tokyo, 1960). M.K.

Jarabe [Sp.]. Traditional Mexican dance, binary in form and moderate in tempo, derived from the Spanish *zapateado and musically similar to the *mazurka. Within its basic 3/4 meter the jarabe shifts occasionally_ to ?18 meter. As i~ the Chilean *cueca, the dancmg IS based on the Idea of a man pursuing a girl who gracefully eludes him. J.O-S. Jarana [Sp.]. A hybrid dance type from the st~te of Yucatan, involving Mexican and West Indian rhythms. Examples using 3/4 or 6/8 meter have been traced, as well as others using both alternately. The jarana requires very agile movements. The dancers scrape the floor with their shoes, continuing the rhythm during the sudden stops in the music. Improvised short poems,

recited either in Spanish or in the Mayan language, are often inserted. J.o-s. Java. I. History. Of all the highly ~iversifi~d societies that inhabit more than 3,000 Islands ill the Republic of IndoJ?-esia, the p_eoples of Java and *Bali have attamed the nchest cultural development. For more than 2,000 years, compatible influences from the mainland. of Southeast Asia, China, India, and the Middle East have affected religion, social institutions, government, literature, language, architecture, and other modes of cultural expression. These were rapidly assimilated and bec~me distinctly In~o­ nesian in character. The mamstream ofmusical evolution, on the other hand, appears to be an autochthonous development that responded to and became integrated with the development of other cultural institutions. The relatively incompatible pressures of various Western countries during the past three centuries have had little or no effect on the principal musical traditions of Java and Bali. Although on both of these islands there persists a great variety of musical genres, it is the music of numerous types of gamelan orchestra that remains the overwhelmingly dominant tradition. The singular importance of music in relationship to religion, functions of state, literature, and various forms of puppetry and dance drama has been fostered by the royal courts and emulated by cities, towns, and even the remotest villages since at least the 8th century and has continued to the present daynotwithstanding the fact that in Java the adoption of a mystical form of Islam has been nearly universal since the 16th century. The most ancient form of gamelan, known as game/an Munggang, has only three tones, and extant ensembles more than 1,000 years old are still in use on special state occasions. It appears likely that from an original three-tone gamelan of this type there were two lines of development, one that led to the five-tone slendro system, established by the 8th century or earlier, and another that became successively a four-tone system, a six-tone system, and finally, by the 16th century or earlier, the seven-tone pelog system. Archaic ensembles representing all these stages of development still survive and a~e in use [see Lit., M. Hood, "The Effects ofMedieval Technology"]. In the course of the past four or five centuries three distinct musical traditions and types of ensemble have been developed from this common origin: one by the Javanese in Central and East Java, one by the Sundanese in West Java, and one by the Balinese in Bali [see Bali].

435

JAVA

JAVA

II. Tuning systems and mode. The Javanese recognize eighteen species or basic types of tuning, nine in slendro and nine in pelog. Beyond this general classification of tuning system and species, no two gamelan have precisely the same intervallic structure. It appears that the individuality of each gamelan tuning derives in part from the practice of stretching or compressing octaves throughout the six-octave compass of the orchestra, so that a unique "tuning pattern" is responsible for the particular character of each ensemble [see Lit., M. Hood, "Slendro and Pelog Redefined"]. Both slendro and pelog are composed of nonequidistant intervals, those of the former ranging from slightly less than 200 cents to slightly less than 300 cents, those of the latter ranging from less than 100 cents to more than 300 cents [see Cents]. The tuning pattern of a gamelan produces a different intervallic structure for each octave. The examples given below represent the intervallic structure of octaves iii, iv, v, and vi taken from the slendro and pelog halves of the game/an Kjai Mendung ("Venerable Dark Cloud"). The five pitches of slendro are numbered according to the Javanese cipher notation, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and those of pelog 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The size of the intervals between pitches is given in cents. Slendro

2

Octave

246 24S 218 220

vi v iv iii

Nlog Octave vi v iv iii

2 131 140 12S 120

163 143 141 144

s

3 241 237 2SS 280

219 234 248 236

6 2S4 24S 233 242

246 267 2S9 248

3 4 s 6 7 2S2 126 131 173 27S 127 116 204 222 297 113 124 16S 2SS 297 117 126 ISS 246

There are three modes or pa{et in slendro (pa{et nem, patet sanga, pa{et manjura) and four modes in pelog (patet lima, patet nem, patet barang, (pelog] patet manjura). Each mode is governed by a hierarchy of five pitches; melodic movement is guided by a primary and a secondary interval of the slendro or pelog fifth, and melodic resolution is achieved through the use of typical cadential formulas outlining the primary interval of the fifth. The modes are also associated with certain times of the day or night and specific time periods in the presentation of puppet plays and dance dramas based on the

literature of the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Pandji cycle, and historical subjects. The pelog system has more flexibility than the slendro system because each five-tone mode, representing a particular selection from the available seven pitches, may employ either of the two omitted tones as sorogan or exchange tones to effect modulation to auxiliary scales lying a pelog fifth higher or lower than the principal scale [see Lit., M. Hood, The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant]. In both tuning systems "vocal tones" are added to the basic supply of pitches by a bowed lute, flute, and voices; in Central Java five additional vocal tones are recognized in slendro and two vocal tones in pelog. Occasionally, these "vocal" parts in slendro may borrow a pitch from pelog, or vice versa. In West Java the Sundanese have carried the development of vocal tones to a more complex and formal system of submodes known as surupan [see Lit., J. Kunst, Music in Java]. III. Orchestras and musical practice. The generic term game/an includes a great variety of ensembles in Java, differing in size, function, and musical style. A gamelan is a particular set of instruments that is valued with increasing age as its individual characteristic beauty of sound develops, i.e., as the crystalline structure of the bronze instruments stabilizes through being played. Frequently a gamelan has its own proper name. During the past few decades in West Java the Sundanese have begun to favor smaller ensembles. The largest gamelan are found among the royal courts and princely residences of Central and East Java. A complete gamelan, sapangkon, is a double set of instruments, one tuned to slendro, the other to pelog, and may consist of as many as seventy-five to eighty instruments. There are two styles of playing: (1) the soft style, a subtle, mystical, and seemingly timeless flow of sound, associated with singing and the a/us or refined style of dance (or puppet) characterization; (2) the strong style, a virile and powerfully resonant battery of sound associated with the gagah or strong, "heroic" dance characterization. [See Lit., M. Hood, "The Enduring Tradition"]. The players are seated cross-legged on mats with the slendro instruments in front of them and the corresponding pelog instruments arranged on one side or the other. A principle of orchestration that may be termed "polyphonic stratification" supports the group improvisation of about thirty instrumentalists, a male chorus of approximately fifteen, and three female soloists in realizing a complex

436

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JAVA

musical fabric of as many as twenty-five distinct strata of sound. Each orchestral composition or gending consists of a fixed and unique melody that serves as the foundation for all strata of improvisation. This melody is more than a cantus firmus in the Western sense; it is the gending itself and bears an individual name, e.g., "Udan Mas" ("Golden Rain"), "Pangkur," etc. The melody may be in long regular note values, or it may consist of relatively short note values with frequent rhythmic irregularities. Gending are known in a great variety of traditional musical forms determined by the particular periodicity of various members of the gong family and basic drumming patterns [see J. Kunst, Music in Java]. Principal instruments of this family are the large hanging gongs, gong ageng; the kenong, a number of large bronze inverted kettles suspended on crossed cords; the kempul, a series of smaller hanging gongs; the ke(uk, a small inverted kettle; and a pair of small kettles known in slendro as engkok and kemong and in pelog as kempyang. The drums come in four sizes: the large kem!ang genqing, the small ketipung, the batangan or tjiblon-the dance drum, and, finally, a very large double-ended barrel-shaped drum known as the bequg. The fixed melody of the piece is carried by a family of instruments found in three sizes, each consisting of six or seven bronze slabs over a trough-resonator: the saron demung, the saron barung, the saron panerus or peking. Simultaneous variations of the fixed melody are executed by a family of instruments occurring in three sizes known as the honang, each consisting of a double row of kettles suspended on crossed cords: the bonang panembung, the bonang barung, the bonang panerus. These instruments, together with the gender panembung. described below, form the strong-playing ensemble. In soft playing, highly complex simultaneous variations are added: by a family of gender, found in three sizes and consisting of thin bronze slabs suspended over bamboo or metal resonators, the single-octave gender panembung or slen(em, the multioctave gender barung and gender panerus; by the gambang, a xylophone; by the tjelempung, a thirteen-doublecourse zither plucked with the thumbnails; by the suling, an end-blown flute; and by the rehab, a two-stringed, bowed lute played by the leader of the gamelan. In strong playing he delegates his responsibility to the drummer. Several forms of basic notation have developed during the past two centuries, usually providing only the colotomic structure (played

by the gong family), the basic drumming patterns, indications of tempo and tempo change, the fixed melody, and sometimes additional indications as a guide to register for the bonang family. Collections of such notation are maintained at the principal courts as a means of preserving individual pieces that might otherwise fade from the musician's memory. In recent times a cipher notation has been used for instruction in three different conservatories of gamelan study in an attempt to replace the traditional method of instruction by imitation and rote learning. Neither students nor professional gamelan players, however, perform from written music but entirely from memory and improvisation. The accompanying transcription by Hardja Susilo is a fragment of the genqing in ladrang form called "Sriredjeki" as played in pelog patet nem. Lit.: J. Kunst, Music in Java, 2 vols., rev. ed. (1949); id., Hindoe-Javaansche muziekinstrumenten, speciaal die van Oost Java (Studien over Javaansche en andere Indonesische muziek, Deel II, 1927); id., De Waardeering van exotische Muziek in den Loop der Eeuwen (1942); Mangkunagara VII of Surakarta, KGPAA, On the Wajang Kulit (Purwa) and Its Symbolic and Mystical Elements (1957); D. A Lentz, The Game/an Music ofJava and Bali [1965]; E. Jacobson and J. H. van Hasselt, De Gongjabricatie te Semarang (1907); Ki Hadjar Dewantara, Leidraad behoorende bij den Cursus over de Javaansche Muziek (1930); J. R. Brandon, Theatre in Southeast Asia (1967); M. Hood, The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Pa(et in Javanese Music (1954); id., "Changing Patterns in the Arts of Java" (Bulletin of the Institute of Traditional Cultures, 1959); id., "The Challenge of 'HiMusicality'" (Ethnomusicology iv); id., "The Reliability of Oral Tradition" (JAMS xii); id., "The Enduring Tradition: Music and Theatre in Java and Bali" (R. T. McVey, ed., Indonesia [Southeast Asia Studies no. 12], 1963); id., "The Effects of Medieval Technology on Musical Style in the Orient" (Essays on Music and History in Africa and Asia, Royal Anthropological Institute, London, 1966); id., "Slendro and Pelog Redefined" (Selected Reports, Institute of Ethnomusicology. University of California at Los Angeles, 1966); J. Kunst, "Waar komt de Gong vandaan?" (Cultureel Indii! iv); id., and R. Toemenggoeng Wiranatakoesoema, "Een en ander over Soendaneesche Muziek" (Djawa i); J. Kunst and C. J. A Kunst-van Wely, "Over Toonschalen en Instrumenten van West Java"

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(Djawa iii); J. S. Brandts Buys, in Djawa i, ii, iv, xx; A. Brandts Buys-van Zijp, in Djawa viii, xiv, XV, XVi.

M.H.

Jazz. A kind of indigenous American music of the 20th century, originally identified with social dancing, featuring rhythmic patterns peculiar to the ')azz beat." The origin of the word "jazz," which first appeared in print in 1917, is obscure. [See, e.g., R. Blesh, Shining Trumpets (rev. ed. 1958), p. 328; M. Steams, The Story of Jazz (1956; corr. pr. 1962), p. 154.] I. Jazz grew out of several kinds of earlier American music: minstrel-show music, early brass bands, early string bands (fiddle, guitar, banjo or mandolin, double bass or "lard stand"), *ragtime (c. 1890-c. 1915), and *blues (c. 1910-). In the 1910's and 1920's jazz was loosely connected with the popular songs of Tin Pan Alley. However, jazz titles indicate closer ties with ragtime and minstrel music. Jazz music is closely allied with ragtime (the names are sometimes used interchangeably) and blues. Although ragtime was easily notated, early jazz was rarely written, the instrumental parts being composed spontaneously by performers who often could not read notes. Ragtime was an outgrowth of the minstrel-show bands and music for dancing at "pleasure houses" (bordellos). The ragtime pianist was in great demand around the tum of the century. For many years he performed in the music departments of the larger ten-cent stores. Important figures who appeared in various sections of the country were Buddy Bolden (c. 1878-1931) and his band in New Orleans, pianists Louis Chauvin and Tom Turpin in St. Louis, and Scott Joplin (1868-1917) in Sedalia, Missouri. Joplin organized the Queen City Negro Band in Sedalia in 1896. From this band he took six instruments (clarinet, E-fiat tuba, comet, baritone, drums, and piano) to form a hot dance band. Publication of ragtime piano music began about 1900. Sedalia especially encouraged ragtime players and their publications, and Joplin, before he moved to New York, had published there his most famous composition, "Maple Leaf Rag," in 1899. The first rag, "Harlem Rag," by Tom Turpin, may have been published in 1895. H. A. French, of Nashville, Tennessee, published several ragtime pieces, among them Thomas Broady's "Mandy's Broadway Stroll" (1898), "A Tennessee Jubilee" (1899), and "Whitling Remus" (1900). Throughout the period Zes Confrey published ragtime instruction books as well as "Kitten on the Keys" (1921).

The distinguishing characteristic of ragtime is its persistent syncopation, as opposed to the incidental syncopation found in classical music. In the piano versions ragtime figures are usually played by the right hand accompanied by a harmonic figure in duple meter in the left. For two decades ragtime was the principal music of Broadway musicals and vaudeville. Joplin, who was the most prominent pioneer composer of the period, wrote two operas using the ragtime idiom, A Guest of Honor (1903) and Treemonisha (1907); neither of them enjoyed much popularity. [See also Ragtime.] The unwritten folk *blues, a precursor and a rich ingredient of jazz, emerged in the 20th century, although many have placed the origin earlier. W. C. Handy, an unusually sensitive band man who traveled widely, first heard the blues in the early 1900's [see Niles, Blues, p. 20]. Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Ethel Waters were also associated with the early blues. The first published blues were Jelly Roll Morton's "Jelly Roll Blues" (1905; © 1915), Handy's "Memphis Blues" (1912), and "St. Louis Blues" (1919; first pub. 1913 as "Jogo Blues"). Unlike ragtime, which had a standard form of 8, 16, or 32 measures, the folk blues had a 12measure mold divided into three 4-measure phrases. The first phrase was usually a melody over a tonic chord. The second, using the same text, was accompanied by a subdominant chord cadencing on the tonic, while the third was accompanied by the dominant chord closing on the tonic. In the rural South, where blues originated, the principal accompaniment is the guitar. The text often does not last the full 4-measure phrase, but the dance-rhythm must be continued by the guitar on each beat. Filling in a measure following an incomplete text is an important function of the accompaniment. These "fill-ins" (similar to "episodes" in fugal music) were called "riffs" and were an essential part of the music. The derivation of jazz from blues is obvious, but in jazz the band replaces the single instrument accompanying the singer, and each instrument improvises free rhythms and idiomatic counterpoint at each performance. A striking example of a piano, comet, and trombone accompaniment is heard in the Bessie Smith recording of "Standin' in the Rain Blues" (14338-D Columbia). Subsequent verses have variants-not repetitions-of the accompaniment. The true blues singer likewise sings a variant for each new verse. Blues, usually sung in slow tempo, are in 4/4 meter although the

440

JAZZ

JAZZ

accompaniment often plays in 12/8. The rhythm of the words avoids a straight marchlike meter and replaces it with the "jazz beat," where the emphasis is shifted from the strong beat and frequently falls on fragments of the beat. It is characterized by anticipations of the beat and of the afterbeat. This style, which makes accurate notation difficult, depends on the experience, tradition, and sensitivity of the performer. The authentic melodic style of the blues singer involves the use of"blue notes" (the flatted third and seventh in the major keys), slurs, and portamentos. The instrumental accompanists also added sevenths to the chords and enriched the harmony considerably. When the ragtime bands began to use the style they had learned from playing blues, jazz was born. [See also Blues.] II. Just when jazz emerged as an identifiable entity has not been determined. Marshall Stearns suggests 1900, while earlier historians placed the point of origin in New Orleans, stressing the importance of Joe "King" Oliver (1885-1938) and Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton (1885-1941) and their bands, as well as local pleasure houses such as Storyville, which provided employment for jazz musicians. The success of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (1912-) and the fame ofsuchjazz musicians as Sidney Bechet, Edward Ory, Robert ("Baby") Dodds, Bunk Johnson, Alphonse Picou and, especially, Louis Armstrong, strengthened this claim. Later studies, however, have shown that the development taking place in New Orleans occurred simultaneously elsewhere, in Kansas City, Chicago, Memphis, and New York City. One reliable chronicler of the growth of danceband music and of the music heard in the early 1900's was W. C. Handy. Another report on early jazz comes from Robert Goffin, who describes the impact of Louis Mitchell's loud Southern Symphony Quintet on New York in 1912 and on Europe in 1914 [see Lit.]. Dance music in Baltimore is described by LeonardFeather, who quotes Eubie Blake, composer and ragtime player of an earlier era. In New York about 1912, Will Marion Cook and James Reese Europe at the Clef Club were playing exciting music. In the early stages, jazz was highly improvisory, depending for its appeal more on the skill, intuition, and experience of the individual performers than on the written note. Most of the early jazz performers were not formally trained but were apprenticed musicians who relied on the traditional idioms of the style or

created new ones. III. After World War I, the growing popularity of recorded jazz music, the development of commercial radio, and the enthusiasm of the American people for public dancing ushered in the "Jazz Age" of the 1920's. Jazz now became big business. Important hotels replaced salon orchestras with jazz bands. Conservatorytrained musicians, who were already skilled in instrumental techniques, invaded the field. Their jazz was learned from jazz-band recordings, performances, and rehearsals. Jam sessions, occasions when jazz musicians gathered informally to play for themselves and to experiment [R. Blesh, Shining Trnmpets, p. 237], were eagerly sought out. In 1918, when Joe "King" Oliver began his reign in Chicago, his famous Creole Jazz Band consisted of a cornet, trombone, drums, clarinet, bass, and piano. Other jazz bands used the same instruments, sometimes adding a banjo. Gradually the band began to expand; a tuba was added, a second cornet, then a tenor saxophone. Later a first and second alto saxophone became essential for the "big" jazz band [L. Feather, The Book ofJazz, p. 94]. In the 1930's the addition of another cornet (or trumpet) and trombone resulted in the "five brass" idea. A fourth saxophone, the replacement of the banjo by the guitar, and the replacement of the tuba by the string bass gave the big band its characteristic sound. In the earliest forms of jazz the leader "stomped off" the tempo (gave it by tapping his foot), and the ensemble played a refrain maintaining some faithfulness to the melody. Then each soloist was given a refrain for his individual expression. The background for these solos was generally provided by the piano player, sometimes a spur-of-the-moment idea of an idle side man. The "solo" continued as long as the leader wished to let the people dance. In conclusion came the "out" chorus, in which the entire band played ecstatic excursions of music within the harmonic framework of the composition. Whereas the jazz band had presented a musical product that was more or less spontaneous and therefore quite flexible, the big dance band presented a contrived, rigid composition. A solo passage was presented within a written framework that was the same at every playing, thus diminishing spontaneity of expression. The era of the "arranger" and "arrangement" had been launched, and the real jazz band was temporarily relegated to the background.

441

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An example of improvisation, transcribed by John W. Work from "Royal Garden Blues" by Clarence Williams. 1. Original version. 2. Improvisation.

2 Trombone

Piano Guitar Drums Bass

Perhaps the greatest musician during the transition from the jazz band to the big band was Fletcher Henderson (1898-1952). He gave impetus to the contrived music but at the same time played individual, exciting, organized jazz. His arrangement and recording of "Sugar Foot Stomp" (including the then sensational new trumpeter, Louis Armstrong) became, with a few changes, a hit for Benny Goodman some fifteen years later. Paul Whiteman ( 1890-1967) "king of jazz," who assembled a large orchestra of expert performers and supplied them with attractive arrangements of jazz pieces, called his music "symphonic jazz." Until then, jazz had been music to which people danced. Whiteman taught his audiences to listen to it. Whether he applied jazz rhythms to classical melodies (RimskyKorsakov's "Song of India") or to Tin Pan Alley tunes, he emphasized the idea that jazz was not a kind of music but a way of performing it. The culminating event in Whiteman's career was a concert at Aeolian Hall in 1924, which attracted a highly intellectual audience. The highlight of the concert was the now famous Rhapsody in Blue by George Gershwin. Concurrent with the big-band style, the Chicago style (small groups of four to seven men) was continued by Eddie Condon, Bud Freeman, and Dave Tough. Among this group was Louis Armstrong, a trumpet virtuoso and scat singer from New Orleans. Largely under his influence there arose (c. 1925) the style known as "hot" jazz. Bix Beiderbecke, among others, was strongly influenced by him. Armstrong's vibrato and short expressive phrases were imitated on the clarinet, saxophone, trombone, and piano. The harmonies remained simpler than the bigband chords, rhythms were more pronounced, easily singable melodies were abandoned, and, above all, advance preparation and arrangements were taboo. In the late 1920's and early 1930's the Duke Ellington band created a new style of jazz music,

442

JAZZ

JAZZ

neither true jazz nor totally contrived. It was a band of individualists, ingeniously welded together, who created the well-known Ellington sound. Ellington's greatest talent was his ability to blend different instruments into a beautiful or unusual sound. A great stylist, he was probably the first leader to have special rehearsals for his rhythm section. As a result, his music was eminently danceable, unlike the music of some later bands. In the big band the arranger was the most important individual at the leader's command. For the sparkling spontaneity and unlimited individual expression found in early jazz, the arranger substituted a technical brilliance and fine concerted playing that were unheard of before. True jazz was now in the background and a new dance music, "swing," had come to the fore. The great names in swing were Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, the Dorsey Bands, Harry James, and others. In the midst of this big-band era Benny Goodman introduced a swing combo: Teddy Wilson, piano; Gene Krupa, drums; Lionel Hampton, Vibraharp; and Benny Goodman, clarinet. Dancers welcomed swing with a frenzy. In 1938 at the Randall's Island concert in New York, called "A Carnival of Swing," a crowd estimated at more than 20,000 listened for five and a half hours with unrestrained glee. In the 1920's and 1930's jazz assumed the function of entertainment as well as furnishing dance music. Many instrumentalists provided antics to entertain listeners, while others performed skits (e.g., Fred Waring's Pennsylvanians). Vocalists who sang in a style called "crooning," such as Bing Crosby, Rudy Vallee, and Frank Sinatra, began their singing careers with these jazz bands. At the same time, many band leaders contributed significantly to jazz music: Louis Armstrong, Count Basie, Bix Beiderbecke, Cab Calloway, Bob Crosby, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Woody Herman, Earl "Father" Hines, Gene Krupa, Guy Lombardo, Vincent Lopez, Glenn Miller, Red Nichols, Ben Pollack, William McKinney, Don Redman, Thomas "Fats" Waller, Fred Waring, Chick Webb, and Paul Whiteman. While some people regard only the music of Joe "King" Oliver's band and the Original Dixieland Band as pure jazz, others call all music performed by a jazz band 'jazz": accompaniments to popular songs, boogie woogie, rock and roll, rhythm and blues, Afro-Cuban music, and bop as well as "progressive jazz." Both these interpretations represent extreme points of view.

IV. As the bands grew smaller and their personnel and locale changed, changes in jazz music were inevitable. In 1938 there was a revival of New Orleans (Dixieland) jazz (Mezz Mezzrow, Bunk Johnson). However, in the 1940's four great jazz musicians appeared on the scene and brought still another revolution. They were Charlie "Bird" Parker, tenor saxophonist; Dizzy Gillespie, trumpeter; Miles Davis, trumpeter; and Art Tatum, pianist. The loudness of the old jazz band was reduced, small combos began to displace the big bands, new rhythms replaced the four- or eight-beat pattern, and melodies became more florid and complex. Dissonant, strange harmonies bewildered audiences, who were more listening- than dance-oriented. This was the era of *bop [M. Stearns, The Story of Jazz, p. 227; also see Historical Masterpieces, album of three records of Charlie Parker's bop, issued by the Charles Parker Corporation]. Bop developed into "progressive jazz," whose principal exponents are Thelonious Monk, Stan Kenton, Dave Brubeck, Jerry Mulligan, John Lewis, and Gil Evans. The performance demands of "progressive jazz" and its harmonic and contrapuntal concepts are so severe that they have made membership in any of the progressive groups, such as the Modern Jazz Quartet, very exclusive. The success of the Modern Jazz Quartet and of Thelonious Monk indicate that the big band is unwieldy and therefore incapable of the subtleties required for "progressive jazz." Progressive jazz men have turned completely away from dancing, which to their music is nearly impossible. A blending of the new music with classical forms is found in the music of the John Lewis Piano Combo. Instead of the older minstrelmusic titles and the "stomps," their titles seem to be derived from European impressionism, e.g., "Harlequin," "The Bad and the Beautiful," "Warmeland," "Pierrot," and "Colombine." Some composers have combined jazz with the European art music tradition. In this area only George Gershwin has produced a number of successful serious compositions. A new movement called "third stream," led by Gunther Schuller in the 1960's, combines "progressive jazz" with the classical tradition. John Coltrane (b. 1926, tenor saxophonist) is the leader of the newest movement in jazz. Jazz has also occasionally been used in Protestant churches. On Dec. 27, 1965, Duke Ellington and his jazz band played at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City. Others have followed his example. On April 24, 1966,

443

JEWISH MUSIC

JEANNE D'ARC AU BUCHER

the Emmanuel Church of Boston offered a Service in Jazz based on the themes from the ancient Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (A.D. 217). A jazz suite on texts of the English Mass has been composed by Lalo Schifrin, while Vince Guaraldi has set the Eucharist for organ, choir, and his own jazz trio. Various composers have incorporated jazz forms or styles into their works, through either direct imitation or subtle allusions. A few such works are: 1908, Claude Debussy, "Golliwog's Cake Walk" (From Children's Corner); 1918, Igor Stravinsky, Ragtime for eleven instruments; 1922, Paul Hindemith, 1922 Suite fw Klavier (movements "Shimmy" and "Ragtime"); 1923, Milhaud's La Creation du Monde (blues intonations); 1925-26, E. Krenek's opera, Jonny spielt auf ("Shimmy," "Blues," "Spiritual"); 1928, Kurt Weill, Die Dreigroschenoper; 1935, G. Gershwin, Porgy and Bess; 1954, R. Liebermann, Concerto for Jazz Band and Symphony Orchestra. Lit.: See references in text. S. G. Charters, Jazz: New Orleans 1885-1963: An Index to Negro Musicians of New Orleans, rev. ed. (1963); L. Feather, The Book ofJazz: A Guide to the Entire Field, rev. ed. (1965); id., The Encyclopedia of Jazz, rev. ed. (1960); R. Gold, A Jazz Lexicon (1964); J. Goldberg, Jazz Masters of the Fifties (1965); W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography, ed. A. Bontemps (1941); B. McRae, The Jazz Cataclysm (1967); J. F. Mehegan, Jazz Improvisation, 4 vols. (1959, '62, '64, '65); A. P. Merriam and R. J. Benford, A Bibliography of Jazz (1954); L. Ostransky, The Anatomy of Jazz (1960); R. G. Reisner, The Literature of Jazz: A Selective Bibliography, rev. ed. (1959); W. Sargeant, Jazz: A History (1964); G. Schuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development (1968); R. de Toledano, Frontiers of Jazz, 2d ed. (1962); B. Ulanov, A History of Jazz in America (1952); D. Heckman, "What Next for Jazz" (Downbeat, lOth Year Book, 1965). J.W.W. Jeanne d'Arc au Bucher [F., Joan of Arc at the Stake]. Dramatic oratorio by A. Honegger with a prelude and ten scenes (libretto by P. Claudel), produced in Basel, 1938. Setting: Rouen, 15th century. Jena Symphony. A symphony discovered at Jena, Germany, in 1909. Once acclaimed as an early work of Beethoven, it was not generally accepted as such. H. C. Robbins Landon (in MR xviii, pp. 109ff) has fairly convincingly estab-

lished that it was composed by Friederich Witt (1770-1837). Jeng (also spelled cheng, tseng). (1) A Chinese stringed instrument similar to the *chyn but without frets. See W. D. Sheepers, in Folklorist vi, 396. (2) A shallow, basin-shaped Chinese gong corresponding to the Korean *ching. R.C.P.

Jenufa [Cz.; orig. title Jeri Pastorkyna, Her Foster-daughter]. Opera in three acts by L. Jamicek (libretto by the composer after G. Preissova), produced in Bmo, 1904. Setting: village in Moravia. Jephtha. (1) Handel's last oratorio (English text by Thomas Morell), produced in London, 1752. (2) Oratorio by Carissimi (Latin text from the Scriptures), composed about 1650. Jete [F.]. See under Bowing (e). Jeu [F.]. In organ music, stop;jeu de fonds, foundation stop; jeu de mutation, mutation stop; jeu a bouche, flue stop;jeu d'anche, reed stop. Jeu de timbres, *glockenspiel. Jeu-parti, see Tenso. Jeu de cartes, Le [F., The Card Game]. Ballet "in Three Deals" by Stravinsky, produced in New York, 1937. The dancers represent the chief cards in a poker game that proceeds through three deals, each successively more complex. Jeune France, La. A group of French composers, formed in 1936, consisting of Yves Baudrier (b. 1906), Andre Jolivet (b. 1905), Daniel Lesur (b. 1908), and Oliver Messiaen (b. 1908). They were united in their common objective of "sincerity, generosity, and artistic good faith." Jewish music. I. The original tradition. The frequent references in the Bible to musical instruments- have been reconstructed by modem scholars (Idelsohn) into a lively, interesting picture. The music of the Temple (the center of the Jewish religion in Jerusalem, comparable to St. Peter's in Rome) was in the hands of professional musicians, the Levites. Instruments such as the hasosra (chatzotzra, a silver trumpet, used in numbers up to 120 in Solomon's time), *magrepha (organ), tzilzal (cymbals), and others apparently served chiefly for signaling, i.e., to announce the entrance of the priests, give the sign for the congregation to prostrate themselves, etc. Many instruments mentioned in the Scriptures have an Egyptian ancestry, e.g., the nevel (nebel, probably a large harp, played with the fingers), the kinnor (a lyre, played with a

444

JEWISH MUSIC

JEWISH MUSIC

plectrum, similar to the Greek kithara; see Harp III), the halil (probably a double-oboe and, like the Greek aulos, used for highly exciting and virtuoso-like music; it had to be banned from ritual use), etc. The only instrument to survive up to the present is the *shofar, a ram's horn that also was (and still is) used as a signaling instrument [see ill. under Brass instruments; see also the detailed study of the Biblical instruments in SaHMI, pp. 106-27]. The instrumental music of the Temple fell into oblivion after its destruction in A.D. 70. However, the chanting of the Bible (believed to have been established in the 5th century B.C.) has survived in the various synagogues to the present day, representing the oldest extant type of Jewish music [see under II below]. Particular interest attaches to the singing of the psalms, which is expressly indicated in inscriptions such as "To the chief Musician on Neginoth" [for a correct interpretation of these inscriptions, see Psalm]. The singing was entrusted to professional musicians. A number of psalms, however, show that the congregation occasionally participated in their performance by responding "Hallelujah" or "Amen" after each verse. Some early sources also refer to choral singing in two answering groups, i.e., *antiphonal singing. Although no manuscripts of early Jewish music exist, the state of music in the late preChristian era has been clarified considerably by Idelsohn, who examined the musical tradition of Jewish tribes in Yemen, Babylonia, Persia, Syria, etc. A startling similarity was found among the chants sung by these tribes, who, living in strict isolation, had no contact with one another after leaving Palestine. Therefore these melodies probably antedate the destruction of the Temple and have been preserved for 2,000 years with only slight alterations. They thus are thought to approximate very closely the Jewish chant of the pre-Christian era. No less interesting is the close resemblance between some of these melodies and certain melodies of Gregorian chant. For instance, a chant used by the Jews of Yemen for the recitation of the Pentateuch (as well as of certain psalms) shows a striking similarity to the Gregorian psalm tones [Ex. l].

reading the prose books of the Bible, such as the Pentateuch, Prophets, Ruth, etc. This chant, usually called "cantillation," consists of a succession of stereotyped melodic formulas, each of which is represented by a sign written above or below the scriptural text. These signs, called ta'amim (accents), no doubt developed from an earlier system of accents designed to assist the reader in the proper emphasis and rendition of the important words of the text [see &phonetic notation]. The oldest extant sources for the ta'amim date from the 9th century (for ll th- and 12th-century MSS, see A Gastoue, in TG xxii). For almost 1,000 years the meaning of these signs was handed down orally by the Jewish singers and, therefore, was exposed to considerable variation in different periods and localities. Fortunately their late medieval status was recorded by Johannes Reuchlin (De accentibus et orthographia linguae hebraicae [ 1518]) and S. Mtinster (lnstitutiones grammaticae in Hebraeam linguam [ 1524]). Ex. 2 shows one of these 2 a --"

b

w= urJr rcr rn6 n iJJ QJ 3

signs, the t'lishd (talsd) gadold ("major drawing out") in four variants: (a) as recorded by Munster; (b) as sung today in northern Europe; (c) from Morocco; (d) from Egypt and Syria. Even within a single rite, e.g., that of the North European (Ashkenasic) Jews, a given sign indicates different melodic formulas depending on which book of the Bible is chanted. Each book has its own mode, usually based on a tetrachordal scale (e.g., d-g, g-c'), so that the rendition of the ta'amim varies in pitch and other details from one book to another. Ex. 3 shows 3 a

3

I~ l ll J3J J'J I r· Wa-ye-hi

3

; ) ;If j JIfiJ}

a-hav ha-de-ba-rim ha-el - leh

b

1&v· ilrliD~J,)i r J~ )! )I r rl r J 3

)j

I

II. The main types of Jewish chant. The oldest type of Jewish ritual music is the chant used for

11

Wa-ye-hi c

11

a-havha-de-ba-rim ha-el-leh 3

3

IC£i ll BJ J'J I r· :D l ; IJ J JIj j

445

Wa-ye-hi

a- hav ha-de-ba-rim ha-el-leh

JEWISH MUSIC

JEWISH MUSIC

the same text sung (a) in the ordinary Pentateuchal mode, (b) in the penitential Pentateuchal mode, and (c) in the Prophetal mode. Long tables of the ta'amim are given in The Jewish Encyclopedia under "Cantillation" and in Idelsohn's Jewish Music, p. 44; see also F. L. Cohen, in PMA xix; S. Rosowsky, in PMA lx. Ex. in HAM,no.6. Second oldest after the cantillation of the Bible is that of the prayers, which is not based on a set of stereotyped melodic formulas indicated by signs but belongs to the general category of *melody types. For each service there are certain traditional themes or motifs, but the actual singing is a free vocal fantasia, frequently of a highly virtuoso character, which retains only the barest outline of the prayer motif (mainly in the closing formula). These more or less freely created melodies are known as hazzanut, a word derived from chazzan, the name for the professional cantor to whom the singing of the prayers is entrusted. From the Middle Ages through the end of the 19th century the chazzanim were the main carriers of Jewish ritual music. They were chosen mainly for their beautiful voices and their ability to improvise on the prayer motifs. Until the middle of the 19th century, even the most famous among them had no formal education in music and were unable to read notes. Finally, there are a number of melodically fixed chants. These represent the most recent development of ritual music, starting after the 9th century. Most of the melodies show evidence of contact with various kinds of non-Jewisl;l music, e.g., the famous Kol Nidre, partly borrowed from Gregorian chant; the beginning of Maoz Zur, taken from the Protestant chorale "Nun freut Euch Ihr frommen Christen"; and one of the melodies for Adonai Melek, borrowed from Verdi's La Traviata. III. Semireligious music and folksong. To the former category belong the zmiroth, the chants used at home for singing grace at meals or, e.g., for reciting the Haggadah, the account of the Hebrews' captivity in and deliverance from Egypt. An important repertory of semireligious songs are the Hasidic melodies, created by the Hasidim, a pietist sect that originated in the early 18th century in Poland and Russia. Music played an important part in their creed as a means of ecstatic communication with God. The Jews of eastern Europe possess a large repertory of domestic songs, including love songs, work songs, lullabies, wedding tunes, dance melodies, etc. Some 3,000 such songs have been gathered under the auspices of the

Petrograd Jewish Folk-Song Society, founded by pupils of Rimsky-Korsakov's. Outstanding among the collectors of Jewish folksong was A Z. Idelsohn, whose Hebriiisch-orientalischer Melodienschatz (10 vols., 1914ff) includes the results of his studies in Morocco, Yemen, Persia, Palestine, Poland, etc. IV. The European development. Shortly after 1500, Jews for the first time participated in musical life outside the ghetto. Abramo dall' Arpa Ebreo was a famous singer at the court of Mantua from 1542 to 1566. Allegro Porto published his Nuove musiche in 1619 and two collections of madrigals, one (without title page) probably in 1622, the other in 1625. The most important of these Jewish composers was Salomone Rossi (c. 1587-1630), who was one of the pioneers of violin music [see Sonata B, I; Romanesca; Ruggiero] and the first to compose polyphonic music for the Jewish service, in his Hashirim Asher Li'Shlomo (The Songs of Solomon; 1622). Needless to say, these compositions, written for chorus and soloists, completely break away from the Jewish tradition. About 1700 some of the wealthier German synagogues employed instrumental music for the Friday-evening service and installed organs, and choirs were fairly generally employed. Since there was no traditional music for such performances, the contemporary repertory of nonJewish music was used, including secular and even operatic elements, dance tunes, and rococo arias. Ahron Beer (1738-1821), one of the first chazzans to possess some musical knowledge, made an extensive collection of compositions for the service and of traditional Jewish songs, including two versions of the Kol Nidre, marked 1720 and 1783. A different line was followed by Israel Jacobson (1768-1828), who was an exponent of the RefOim movement and who, in the first Reform temple (Seesen, Westphalia, 1810), not only used organ and bells but also German chorales provided with Hebrew texts [see Idelsohn, p. 237]. The consequent reaction against this Christianization of the Jewish service led to the moderate reform of Salomon Sulzer (1804-90), who declared that the "restoration should remain on historical grounds" and that "the old tunes should be improved, selected and adjusted to the rules of art" (Denkschrift, 1876). Although Sulzer succeeded in bestowing on the musical service a fundamental dignity and appropriateness, his compositions and versions of songs tend to represent current European idioms rather than Jewish tradition. The same was true of Louis Lewandowski (1821-

446

JEWISH MUSIC

JEW'S-HARP

1904), whose thorough trammg in musical theory, harmony, etc., enabled him to write choruses in Mendelssohn's oratorio style. His complete service, Kol Rinnah (1871), with its facile and pleasing tunes,. has been widely adopted. In America, synagogue music started by imitating the current European models (Alois Kaiser of Baltimore; Max Spieker and William Sparger of New York; Edward Starck of San Francisco). Recently, however, there has been a remarkable movement toward independent development, represented by a number of choral compositions of a distinctly Hebraic character, mostly for the Sabbath service. Among the contributors have been Ernest Bloch, Frederick Jacobi, Lazare Saminsky, and Isadore Freed. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Jews played an active part in the development of European music, as composers (Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1791-1864; Jacques Halevy, 17991862; Felix Mendelssohn, 1809-47; Jacques Offenbach, 1819-80; Karl Goldmark, 18301915; Gustav Mahler, l860-l9ll; Arnold Schoenberg, 1874-1951; Ernest Bloch, 18801959; Darius Milhaud, b. 1892; George Gershwin, 1898-1937; Aaron Copland, b. 1900; and many others), and even more prominently as performers and conductors (Joachim, Kreisler, Heifetz, Menuhin, Godowsky, Schnabel, Serkin, Myra Hess, Damrosch, Bruno Walter, Klemperer, to name only the most outstanding). Since about 1915 there has been a movement to create a "Jewish national music," comparable to the national music of other countries. The leader of this movement was Ernest Bloch who, in his symphony Israel (1912-16), Schelomo (1915-16), Sacred Service (1930-33), and other works, used distinctly Hebraic idioms. The establishment, after World War II, of the national state of Israel has given further impetus to this trend. In 1936 Bronislaw Huberman founded the Palestine Orchestra, which gave its first performance under Toscanini. A considerable numher of operas have been performed in Hebrew. Musical education has reached high standards under the guidance of L. Kestenberg. Composers working in Israel include Pa~ Ben-Haim (b. 1897), Joseph Tal (b. 1910), Odoo Partos (b. 1907), Herbert Briin (b. 1918), and others. Lit.: A. Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in Its Historical Development [1929]; id., tHebriiischorientalischer Melodienschatz, 10 vols. (l914ff); S. B. Finesinger, Musical Instruments in the Old Testament (1926); L. Saminsky, Music of the Ghetto and the Bible (1934); E. Werner, The

Sacred Bridge (1959); M. Wohlberg, The Music of the Synagogue (1963); P. Gradenwitz, The Music of Israel [ 1949]; M. T. Cohen, The Jews in Music [1939]; A. Holde, Jews in Music [1959]; Richard Wagner, Judaism in Music (1850 and 1869; trans. 1910); A. Sendrey, Bibliography of Jewish Music (1951); J. Yasser, Bibliography of Books and Articles on Jewish Music (1955); S. Rosowsky, The Cantillation of the Bible (1957); C. Sachs, The Rise of Music in the Ancient World (1943), pp. 79-95; NOH i, 283-335; LavE i.l, 67-76; ii.4. 2287-2314; C. Vinaver, +Anthology of Jewish Music [1955]; A. Ringer, "Musical Composition in Modern Israel" (LBCM, also in MQ li); E. Werner, Mendelssohn (1963); id., "The Oldest Sources of Synagogal Chant" (Proc. of the American Academy for Jewish Research xvi, 225); B. J. Cohon, ''The Structure of the Synagogue Prayer-Chant" (JAMS iii); E. Gerson-Kiwi, "Musicology in Israel" (AM xxx; bibl.); 0. Kinkeldey, "A Jewish Musician of the 15th Century" (Studies in Jewish Bibliography and Related Subjects, A. S. Freidus memorial volume, 1929; also pub. separately); L. Sabaneev, "The Jewish National School in Music" (MQ xv); A. Z. Idelsohn, "Parallelen zwischen gregorianischen und hebriiisch-orientalischen Gesangsweisen" (ZMW iv); id., "Parallels between the Old-French and the Jewish Song" (AM v, vi); id., "Deutsche Elemente im alten Synagogengesang Deutschlands" (ZMW xv); id., in ZMW viii; H. Loewenstein, in ZMW xii. Extensive bibl. in Notes v, 354-62. Jew's-harp or trump [F. guimbarde; G. Maultrommel]. A primitive instrument consisting of an elastic strip of metal, one end of which is attached to a small horseshoe-shaped frame of metal or wood. The frame is held between the teeth (the name Jew's-harp may be a corruption of jaw's-harp), and the elastic strip is plucked with the fingers, causing it to vibrate in the player's mouth. Although the instrument as such produces only one sound, different harmonics can be obtained by changing the position of lips, cheeks, and tongue. The instrument is very ancient and widespread. It is mentioned and depicted in a Chinese book of the 12th century, and specimens have been found in Japan, Borneo, Siberia, North Germany (14th century), Norway, etc. In the early 19th century it was temporarily revived by virtuosos who used larger instruments with several vibrating reeds. [For ill. see under Percussion instruments.] See MaMI; SaHMI, bibl., p. 471; M. Heymann, "La Guimbarde" (RM 1923, no. 6).

447

JIG

JUST INTONATION

Jig. (l) An English popular dance of the 16th century, which is especially important as the forerunner of the *gigue. Names such as "Kemp's Jig" and "Slaggin's Jig" refer to famous comedians of the English stage. The "Nobody's Jigg" that appears in various sources is the jig of the comedian R. Reynolds, who played "Nobody" in the popular comedy Somebody and Nobody. The English comedians who, in the early 17th century, invaded the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Germany, introduced the jig there. According to a recent theory,jigs were also introduced in America, where they were imitated by Negroes and gradually transformed into the grotesque dances of the minstrel shows; in this respect, note the jazzlike rhythm [see Dotted notes III] in the Ex. ["Mr. Slaggin's Jigg," from The Dancing Master (1686); see W. Danckert, Geschichte der Gigue (1924), p. 17].

(2) A type of English stage entertainment (also spelled ')igg"), a kind oflow comedy nearly always dealing with indecent subjects, that was popular in England from the late 16th to the early 18th centuries. A forerunner of the *ballad opera, it consisted of verses sung to well-known tunes, interspersed with lively dances. The Elizabethan comedian Nicholas Tarleton played an important role in the early development of this entertainment. His pupils (William Kemp, Robert Reynolds, Thomas Sackville) popularized it not only in England but also· on the Continent (Holland, Germany). See C. R. Baskerville, The Elizabethan Jig (1929); P. E. Mueller, "The Influence and Activities of English Musicians on the Continent" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1954).

short melodic phrases in rhythmic patterns such as: The accompaniment supports the melody with strongly accentuated quarter notes, resulting in a rhythmic conflict. As a rule the texts consist of quatrains in eight-syllable lines. J.o-s. Jota [Sp.]. A dance of Aragon (northeast Spain) in rapid triple time, performed by one or more couples and accompanied by castanets. One of the most popular melodies has been used by Liszt in his Rhapsodie espagnole no. 16 (Folies d'Espagne et jota aragonese) and by Glinka in his orchestral overture Jota aragonesa. Other examples occur in De Falla's El Sombrero de tres picos and in compositions by Saint-Saens, Albeniz, et al. Statements regarding the medieval or Arab origin of the jota [see J. Ribera y Tarrag6, La Musica de Ia jota aragonesa, 1928] are entirely unfounded. See G. B. Brown, in BAMS ii; M. Arnaudas Larrode, La Jota aragonese (1933); A. de Larrea, in AnM ii; Ex. in LavEi.4, 2373ff. Jubilus. In the Gregorian Alleluias, the melisma sung to the final vowel of the first word "Alleluia," which invariably stands at the beginning of this chant. The melisma of the jubilus often recurs at the end of the verse. It often shows repeat forms such as a a b, a a b b c, etc. After the verse, the word Alleluia with its jubilus is repeated. See ApGC, p. 386. Also see Alleluia. Judas Maccabaeus. Oratorio by Handel (libretto by T. Morell), produced in London, 1747. Jupiter Symphony. Nickname of Mozart's last symphony, in C major, no. 41 (K. 551), composed in 1788. The name appears to refer to the "majestic" opening of the first movement. Justiniana. Same as giustiniana; see under Villanella.

Jingling John(ny). See Turkish crescent. Jodel. See Yodel. Jongleur. See Minstrel; Troubadour; also reference under Estampie. Jonny spielt auf. Opera in two parts by E. Krenek (to his own libretto), produced in Leipzig, 1927. Setting: the present. Joropo [Sp.]. The most typical of all Venezuelan folk dance-songs. It is always performed by a couple using steps and figures quite similar to those employed in the Colombian *pasillo and *bambuco. The joropo, in fast 3I 4 meter, employs

Just intonation [G. Reine or natiirliche Stimmung]. A system of intonation and tuning in which all the intervals are derived from the natural (pure) fifth and the natural (pure) third [see Acoustics III]. Therefore, all the intervals of just intonation are contained in the formula m X F + n X T (F = fifth, T = third). The formula for the relative frequencies is therefore (¥.!)m x (%)n. They are easy to calculate if [as explained under Intervals, calculation of III] the octaves, i.e., all the factors 2, are disregarded at first, so that the formula for the relative frequen-

448

K

KA/SERQUARTETT

cies becomes 3m x 5n, in which m and n designate the number of fifths and thirds contained in the interval in question. There result the following values for the C-major scale:

=

= T)

c d( 2F) e( I 9 5 a = (T- F) b( ')) 15

f(

=

-F)

g(

= F)

3

Y,

= T + F)

Reduced into the normal octave, they become: c

= 1:

c = 24: Intervals:

d o/s 27

c I 24

o/s

f "h 32

e ¥.1 30 %

1

1

'i'is

g

a

b

c'

'}2

')) 40

'1's 45

2

36 o/s

%

1

o/s

48 hs

11

Owing to the presence of two constituents (Fand T) the complete system of just intonation forms a two-dimensional infinite set of tones [G. Tongewebe; see C. Eitz, Das mathematisch-reine Tonsystem, 1891]. A selection of these tones is given under Intervals, calculation of, VI. Just intonation has the advantage of giving the three fundamental triads, c-e-g, f-a-c', and g-b-d', as "natural triads" (characterized by the ratio 4:5:6; e.g., 24:30:36 = 4:5:6), which are more "euphonious" than those in *Pythagorean or well-tempered tuning [see Temperament III]. However, its disadvantages are much more numerous and, in fact, so serious as to make it practically useless. The chief ones are: (a) The tones of the C-major scale include one "dissonant" fifth, namely d-a, which is 4927 (8%4) instead of3h ( 8 ~4). (b) The C-major scale has two different whole tones, o/s (major tone) and 1 % (minor tone); their difference is the syntonic *comma 8Y8o. (c) Modulation is impossible; the first three tones of the G-major scale, g-a-b, already have different intervals from those of the C-major scale, c-d-e. Hence, two different tones a would be necessary, one for the sixth of c, the other for the second of g. The difficulties would rapidly increase with the introduction of chromatic tones. (d) In chordal music, just

i@j

W=>i i

I

intonation produces pure triads and has, therefore, been considered ideal for a cappella music in the style of Palestrina, etc. However, the principle of pure triads can be maintained only at the expense of a constant lowering in pitch. For instance, if the succession of chords indicated in our example were sung in pure triads, the notes indicated in black would have the following frequencies: c' = 1; a' = *3; d" = 5!J X % = 2 %; g' = 2 % X ¥:! = 4%1; c' = 4%1 X ¥:! = 8o/81, i.e., the syntonic comma ( 8 Yso) lower than the initial c. Since harmonies including the supertonic (this chord is responsible for the lowering of pitch) are particularly common in the Palestrina style, just intonation proves unsatisfactory for exactly the type of music for which it has frequently been recommended. Thus, just intonation is primarily of theoretical importance. Its practical application is probably limited to violin music, for which it was recommended as early as the 18th century by P. Prelleur (The Modern Musick-Master, 1731), Geminiani, Tosi, and Tartini. It may be noted, however, that the tendency of modem violinists to play sharps higher than their equivalent fiats (e.g., C-sharp and D-fiat) cannot be justified by invoking the authority of just intonation, as is usually done. In just intonation the sharps are actually lower than the fiats [see the table under Intervals, calculation of, first line under J]. Lit.: A. D. Fokker, Just Intonation (1949); J. M. Barbour, Tuning and Temperament (1951); id. and F. A. Kuttner, The Theory and Practice of Just Intonation (record and booklet, 1958); id, "Just Intonation Confuted" (ML xix, 48); id., in BAMS ii; L. S. Lloyd, "Just Temperament" (ML xx, 365ff); D. D. Boyden, "Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation" (JAMS iv). See also under Acoustics; Intervals, calculation of; Temperament.

K K., K.V. Abbr. for Kochel- Verzeichnis, i.e., the chronological list of all the works of Mozart made by L. von Kochel (publ. 1862, rev. by Einstein, 1937, '47; by Giegling, Weinmann, and Sievers, 1964). Mozart's compositions are usually referred to by the numbers of this list, e.g.,

K. 357 or K.V. 357. See A. Hyatt King, "Das neue Kochel-Verzeichnis" (MF xviii). Kadenz [G.]. (1) *Cadence; (2) *cadenza. Kaffeekantate [G.]. See Coffee Cantata. Kaiserquartett [G.]. See Emperor Quartet.

449

KALEVALA

KEY

Kalevala. The Finnish national epic [see Finland], dating from the 13th and 14th centuries. Several symphonic poems by Sibelius (and other Finnish composers) are based on legends from this epic, e.g., *Lemminkiiinen's Homecoming, •Pohjola's Daughter, • Swan of Tuonela, *Tapiola. Kamanja, kemlinge. See Arab music. For ill. see under Violin. Kammer- [G.]. Chamber. Kammerton, chamber pitch [see Pitch (2)]; Kammermusik, chamber music; Kammerkantate, chamber cantata; etc. Kanon. (I) German for *canon. (2) A type of medieval Byzantine poetry [see Byzantine chant II]. (3) In ancient Greek music, name for the *monochord [see Canon (2); Kanun]. Kantate [G.]. *Cantata. Kantele. See under Finland. For ill. see under Zither. Kantional [G.]. See Cantionale. Kantorei [G.]. In the 15th and 16th centuries, a group of professional singers employed by a church or at a prince's court; later also groups of amateurs who provided music for their communities. Kanun (qiinim). Arab name for a psaltery shaped like a trapezoid and mounted with numerous strings (as many as 64 in the 14th century). [For ill. see under Zither.] The name, derived from the Greek kanon [monochord; see Canon (2)], occurs as early as the lOth century in a story of the Arabian Nights. Later (11th century?) the instrument was imported into Eur0pe. See Psaltery. Kanzone [G.]. (I) *Canzona. (2) *Canzo. KapeUe [G.]. *Chapel, usually with the connotation of "private or small orchestra," e.g., Hofkapelle (court orchestra), M~litiirkapelle (military band). Kapellmeister, ongmally an honorable title (Bach served as Kapellmeister to Prince Ernst of Cothen from 1717 to 1723), is now an old-fashioned provincialism for Dirigent (conductor). Kapellmeist~r~usik is a pejorative designation for comp~stt~ons _of ~or­ mally correct design but lacking m tmagmahon and originality-as the pieces of the Kapellmeister often were. Kapodaster [G.]. *Capotasto. Karelia. Orchestral overture (op. 10) and Suite (op. II) by Sibelius, composed in 1893. Karelia

is the southern province of Finland, where the composer lived at the time. Kata Kabanova. Opera in three acts by L. Janacek (libretto by V. Cervinka, after a story by A N. Ostrovsky), produced in Brno, 1921. Setting: Kalinow, a small town on the Volga, about 1860. Katerina Ismailova. Mtsensk.

See Lady Macbeth of

Katzenmusik [G.]. *Charivari. Kazoo. See Mirliton. Kehraus [G.]. The last dance at a ball. Kemlinge. *Kamanja. Kent bugle, Kent horn. Key bugle; see under Brass instruments V (c). Kerabe [G.]. Old term for *Kehraus, used to denote a 16th-century* Nachtanz. Kesselpauke, Kesseltrommel [G.]. Kettledrum. Kettenform [G.]. See under Forms (after I, A). Kettledrum. See under Percussion instruments A, I; also Drum II. Key. (I) On keyboard instruments, the visible parts of the action [F. touche; G. Taste; It. tasto; Sp. tecla], which are depressed by the player's fingers [see Keyboard]. In woodwinds the term applies to comparable devices, i.e., the levers covering the side holes [F. clef; G. Klappe; It. chiave; Sp.llave]. (2) By specialization, the term came to mean the "main" key of a composition, i.e., the main note or "tonal center" to which all its note.s are related and finally, by extension, the meaning of the entire tonal material itself in relation to its center. Thus, "key" is practically synonymous with *tonality. There is, however, a distinct difference between key and scale, since numerous notes extraneous to the scale can be used in the key, e.g., as chromatic variants or in connection with modulations. Corresponding to the 12 tones of the chromatic scale, there are 12 keys, one on C, one on C-sharp, etc. (this number is increased to 14 or 15 by the notational distinction between *enharmonic keys, such as C-sharp and D-flat, or G-sharp and A-flat). With any given key there is a choice of *modality, i.e., of certain alterations of the tones that form the scale. Thus, inC there is the choice between major (mode): c d ef gab c'; minor (mode): c d e0 f g a(b) b c';

450

KEYBOARD

KEYBOARD ~ydian mode: c de f~ gab c'; and others derived from the *church modes. Of these, only the first two are usually considered and are actually (though not quite logically) distinguished as different keys, thus leading to a total number of 24 keys, one major and one minor on each tone of the chromatic scale. See Key signature; Key relationship. See W. W. Roberts, "Key Quality" (ML xi, 58).

Keyboard. I. The whole set of keys in pianos, organs, harpsichords, etc. (*keyboard instruments). The modern piano keyboard usually includes 88 keys for seven full octaves, from C1 to c"'", and a quarter octave added at the lower end of the compass. (The organ has 61; the harpsichord varies.) In each octave there are seven white and five black keys, arranged as illustrated in Ex. l. This arrangement is the natural result of the fact that the fundamental

scale of Western music consists of seven tones, which are given to the white keys. Except for the steps e-f and b-e' the intervals between these tones are whole tones, each of which admits the introduction of a semitone in between, represented by a black key. Although the introduction of equal temperament, which permits unlimited transposition, seriously weakened the dominating position of the white keys, the old "C-major keyboard" has proved fully capable of adapting itself to the new system and has to the present day successfully withstood all attempts at reform, e.g., the adoption of the truly "chromatic keyboard" [Ex. 2], in which all scales beginning on a white key would have the same arrangement and consequently the same fingering (as would all those beginning on a black key). II. History. The earliest keyed instrument was the organ. According to Galpin's reconstruction of the Greek *hydraulos, this instrument had 19 keys about 8 inches long and 2 inches wide. Organs of the 9th and lOth centuries had a number (8 to 10) of large keys called linguae (tongues), which were pulled out and pushed in.

Reports that keys of organs were so large and heavy that they were played with the fist seem of rather dubious authenticity. About 1200, the keyboard covered nearly three octaves (from G to e"; see Hexachord). From then on, its compass as well as the number of chromatic keys steadily increased. The early 14th-century organ pieces from the Robertsbridge Codex (Brit. Mus. Add. 28550) make use of all the chromatic tones in at least one octave. A normal device of all the old keyboards was the *short octave. The 16th-century experiments with enharmonic music (Vicentino) led to the construction of keyboards with separate keys for C~ and Db, etc. [see Arcicembalo]. In the 17th century, keyboards had an average compass of four octaves, with all the chromatic notes except for the lowest range. Bach's harpsichord had more than five octaves. Broadwood, in 1794, made the first piano keyboard with six octaves, from C 1 to c""; this was the compass of the Broadwood instrument used by Beethoven from 1817 on. III. Modern reforms. Since about 1875 various unsuccessful attempts have been made to improve the keyboard. The Janko keyboard (patented 1882) had six rows of short keys arranged somewhat like a typewriter keyboard. Each row included the keys for a whole-tone scale, that beginning with C in rows 1, 3, 5, and that beginning with c~ in rows 2, 4, 6. Thus, each octave had 36 keys, three for each tone of the chromatic scale. In spite of certain advantages and its initial success (Liszt and Rubinstein recommended it), the Janko keyboard failed to supersede the traditional one. Later modifications and simplifications (Adam keyboard, Durand keyboard, Clavier Hans) met with the same fate. Mangeot's keyboard, called "piano a doubles claviers renverses" (1878), had two keyboards, the lower of which, intended for the right hand, had the usual arrangement, while the higher, for the left hand, had the reverse arrangement, i.e., with the keys for high notes on the left side. The advantage claimed for this innovation was identical fingering of, e.g., the ascending scale, for both hands. In the Clutsam keyboard ( 1907) the keys were arranged in a slightly curved instead of a straight line, taking into account the fact that the player's arms move in arcs. This arrangement has been widely adopted for organ pedals. Moor's Duplex Coupler Grand Piano imitates the two manuals of the harpsichord. The upper of the two keyboards, otherwise normal, gives the tones of the higher octave and can be coupled with the lower. This keyboard greatly

451

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

facilitates the execution of the usual virtuoso effects and permits the execution of many others not possible on the usual keyboard. Its failure to win acceptance might be ascribed to decreasing interest in purely virtuoso playing. If invented 50 years earlier it would probably have been a great success. Another use of two keyboards is made in the quarter-tone keyboards (Haba, 1923; Stoehr, 1924), in which the upper keyboard is a quarter tone higher than the lower. At present, it would seem that attempts to enlarge the traditional keyboard are less likely to succeed than those leading in the opposite direction, i.e., eliminating the highest and lowest tones, which, being seldom used in music played at home, unnecessarily increase the size and price of the instrument. Keyboard instruments. Instruments having a

keyboard, i.e., the piano, organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. The term is used particularly for instruments used before c. 1750, when there was often no clear distinction among works written for the three last-named instruments [see Keyboard music]. The piano, harpsichord, and clavichord have an important technical feature in common, i.e., the use of strings, and therefore they are often grouped together in studies dealing with their history and their music. Lit.: A. J. Hipkins, A Description and History of the Pianoforte and of the Older Keyboard Stringed Instruments (1896); P. James, Early Keyboard Instruments from Their Beginnings to the Year 1820 (1930); F. J. Hirt, Meisterwerkedes Klavierbaus: Geschichte der Saitenklaviere von 1440 bis 1800 (1955); J. Worsching, Die histon·schen Saitenklaviere und der moderne Klavichordund Cembalobau (1946); H. Brunner, Das Klavierklangideal Mozarts und die Klaviere seiner Zeit (1933); P. James, "Early Keyboard Instruments" (PMA lvii); V. G. Woodhouse, "Old Keyed Instruments and Their Music" (ML i, 45ff); C. Krebs, "Die besaiteten Klavierinstrumente bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts" (VMW viii). See also under Instruments; Clavichord; Harpsichord; Organ; Piano. Keyboard music. Music for *keyboard instruments, particularly prior to 1750, when there was often no clear distinction among works for the organ, harpsichord, or clavichord. The 16thcentury (and modern) Spanish term is tecla [see A. de Cabez6n's Obras de musica para tecla arpa y vihuela (1578; Musical works for keyboard, harp, and vihuela)]. Italians occasionally used the term istrumenti perfetti or istrumenti da

tasti. The lack of distinction among keyboard instruments is most clearly indicated in titles such as "du jeu orgues, espinettes, manicordions" (P. Attaingnant, ed., (Quatorze gaillardes, 1531 ), or " ... per ogni sorte di stromenti da tasti" (A Gabrieli, 1595), " ... auff Orgeln und Instrumenten zugebrauchen" (B. Schmid, 1607), or "di cimbalo et organo" (Frescobaldi, II primo libro d'intavolatura, 1628), Storace (Selva di varie compositioni d'intavolatura per cimbalo ed organo, 1664), G. Strozzi, Capricci da sonare cembali et organi, 1687). Modern demarcations are usually based on the various types of music. Liturgical compositions, such as Masses, hymns, and versets for psalms or the Magnificat, are obviously organ music, while dances clearly belong to the domain of the harpsichord or clavichord. Variations on secular tunes are primarily harpsichord music, although they may also have been played (and often sound best) on the organ (e.g., Sweelinck's variations on "Meinjunges Leben hat ein End"). Occasionally, considerations of style are helpful or decisive, e.g., in some ricercars that employ the theme in quadruple augmentation, involving long notes that can be sustained only on the organ (A. Gabrieli). Canzonas are usually designated "Canzona d'organo" and must be considered primarily organ music, despite their "secular" background and character. Such problems are not confined to the keyboard music of the 16th and 17th centuries. Indeed, they exist in connection with the keyboard music of Bach. To the present day it is not known whether his * Well- Tempered Clavier was written for harpsichord, clavichord, or both instruments, or even some pieces for the one instrument and some for the other. See E. Bodky, Der Vortrag alter Klaviermusik [1932]; id., in DM xxiv, no. 2; L.A. Coon, in PAMS 1936; N. Wilkinson, in ML iv, 162ff; R. Buchmayr, in BJ 1908; various authors in BJ 1910. Lit.: W. Apel, Masters of the Keyboard (1947); G. S. Bedbrook, Keyboard Music from the Middle Ages to the Beginnings of the Baroque (1949); J. Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music (1965); M. Seiffert, Geschichte der Klaviermusik (1899); W. Apel, Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik bis 1700 (1967); F. W. Riedel, Quellenkundliche Beitriige zur Geschichte der Musik for Tasteninstrumente in der zweiten Hiilfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (1960). Key bugle. See under Brass instruments V (c). Key characteristics. A branch of musical aesthet-

452

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

KEY SIGNATURE

ics concerned with what might be called the "psychological properties" of a given key (usually, a given scale). In ancient Greek music each harmonia had a specific ethical connotation [see Ethos]. Guido was probably familiar with this doctrine when he said, "The diversity of the tropes [i.e., church modes] corresponds to the diversity of feelings so much that one man may delight in the broken jumps (jractis saltibus) of mode 2, another prefer the voluptuousness of mode 5, another approve of the suavity of mode 8" (Micrologus; ed. Smits van Waesberghe, p. 159). Johannes Cotto (Ajjlighemensis) also assigns specific characterizations to each mode, some of which are obscure (De Musica, cap. 16; ed. Smits. van Waesberghe, pp. 109ff). How different his concept is from the present-day correlation of major = joyful, minor = sad, is seen in his designation of mode 4 as adulatorius (flattering), mode 6 as lacrimosus (tearful). Almost 400 years later, Ramos de Pareia correlated the four *maneriae to four kinds of temperament and their "colors" (Musica practica; ed. J. Wolf, p. 56): protus: phlegmaticus; color cristalinus (crystal) deuterus: colericus; color igneus (fire) tritus: sangunineus; color sanguineus (blood) tetrardus: melancholicus; color luteus (yellow, orange-red)

In addition, he ascribed to each mode characteristics similar to Cotto's. In the 16th century these concepts underwent significant changes, as appears from a comparison of Ramos with Diruta (II Transilvano, pt. II, book 4). who probably copied Zacconi. Particularly interesting are the Phrygian and Hypophrygian modes: Ramos Diruta commovere a/ pianto mode 3: severus, incitatus mode 4: b/andus, adulatorius lamentavo/e, mesta

For Ramos mode 3 is exciting, mode 4 bland and ingratiating; for Diruta, both are plaintive and sad. Today, one point on which there is general agreement is the difference in feeling between major and minor. It is interesting, however, that Mattheson did not accept what in his day had already become a trivial convention. In Das Neu-Eroffnete Orchestre (1713) he rejects the view that minor is sad and major gay, or that fiat keys are "soft" and sharp keys "hard." Among his interesting characterizations the following are particularly noteworthy: "E major expresses a desperate and deadly sadness"; "B

major (H dur) ... seems to have a disgusting, harsh and unpleasant, also somewhat desperate quality." In the 19th century the "feeling" of the keys was usually expressed by correlation with colors; see Color and music. Cf. also the ragas of *Indian music and, at the other end of the scale, the preface to Hindemith's Marienleben. Lit.: J. Handschin, Der Toncharakter [1948]; H. Stephani, Der Charakter der Tonarten (1923); P. Mies, Der Charakter der Tonarten (1948); E. M. von Hornbostel, "Tonart und Ethos" (CP Wolf); R. Wustmann, "Tonartensymbolik zu Bachs Zeit" (BJ 1911); A. Montani, "Psicologia dei moderni modi musicali" (RMI xliv); F. Monfort, Jr.; "L'Ethos des tonalites" (CP Borren).

Keynote. Same as *tonic. Key relationship. The degree of relationship between two keys. All keys are related, but in different degrees. The order of relationship generally follows that of the tones in the series from consonant to dissonant: fifth (dominant), fourth (subdominant), third (mediant), etc. The most important such relationships are as follows: (a) parallel keys-major and minor key with the same tonic (C major and C minor); (b) relative keys-major and minor key with the same signature (C major and A minor; C minor and E-fl.at major); (c) related keys-keys whose signature differs by not more than one sharp or fiat from that of the main key (inC major: A minor, G major, E minor, F major, D minor; in A minor: C major, E minor, G major, D minor, F major). See W. H. Frere, "Key-relationship in Early Medieval Music" (PMA xxxvii; also in CP 1911, p. 114). Key signature. The sharps or fiats appearing at the beginning of each staff to indicate the *key of a composition. A given signature indicates one of two keys, a major key or its relative minor key; these are shown in the accompanying illus-

tration by a white and a black note respectively. Normally there are 12 key signatures, corresponding to the 12 chromatic tones of the octave.

453

KITHARA

KEY TRUMPET

There may, however, be 13, 14, or even 15 if a notational distinction is made between *enharmonic keys, e.g., C-sharp and D-fiat. See also Circle of fifths. In early music the use of key signatures is very limited. Until the late 15th century the only signature occurring frequently is one fiat, and this is used mostly in the lower voices only [see Partial signature]. In the 16th century the increased use of transposed modes produced signatures (usually partial) with two fiats. Not until the middle of the 17th century were sharps generally adopted as signatures. Actually, the scope of keys in use was somewhat wider than the variety of signatures, since the keys were usually written with fewer signs in the signature than they are today, and with more accidentals during the course of the composition. Thus, the minor keys with fiats (D minor, G minor, C minor) were usually notated with one fiat less than in modern practice, the fiat for the sixth being omitted. One of the numerous examples of this practice is an organ toccata and fugue by Bach, actually in D minor throughout but written without a B-fiat in the signature and therefore (quite wrongly) nicknamed "Dorian Toccata." Likewise, the major keys (G major, D major, A major) are sometimes notated without a sharp for the leading tone in the signature. A wellknown example is Handel's Harpsichord Suite in E (containing the so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith"), which in the original has only three sharps. · Key trumpet. See under Trumpet II. Khovanshchina. Opera in five acts by M. Mussorgsky (to his own libretto), produced in St. Petersburg, 1886. Setting: Moscow and environs, 1682-89. Kielfliigel [G.]. Old name for harpsichord. Kin. Japanese name for a smaller *koto. K'in is used in German for the Chinese *chyn (ch'in). Kinderscenen [G., Scenes from Childhood]. A composition by Schumann, op. 15 (1838), consisting of l3 short and simple *character pieces for piano. 'fl\e familiar "Traumerei" (Dreams) is no. 7 in the group. Kindertotenlieder [G., Children's Death Songs]. A cycle of five songs with orchestra or piano by Mahler (poems by RUckert), composed 1901-04. The poems are an elegy on the death of Ruckert's child. The songs are masterpieces of melodic invention and artistic simplicity. The orchestra is

treated throughout as a large chamber ensemble rather than as a mass of sound. King David. See Roi David, Le. Kinnor. See under Harp III; Jewish music I. Kirchen- [G.]. Church. Kirchenjahr, church year; Kirchenkantate, church cantata; Kirchenmusik, church music; Kirchensch/uss, plagal cadence; Kirchensonate, church sonata (sonata da chiesa); Kirchenton, church mode; Kirchenlied, church song, either a Protestant *chorale or a Roman Catholic hymn written in German (in contradistinction to the older Latin hymn; see Hymn IV).

Kit [F. pochette; G. Taschengeige; It. sordino]. A tiny fiddle to be carried in the pocket, used by the dancing masters of the 17th and 18th centuries. There were two different types, one a diminutive violin, the other a descendant of the medieval *rebec. See ill. under Violin. Kithara. The foremost instrument of ancient Greece, consisting of a square wooden soundbox and two curved arms connected by a crossbar. A number of strings, varying from five (8th century B.C.) to seven (7th century B.C.) and finally eleven or more (5th century B.C.), were stretched between the soundbox and the crossbar. They were plucked with a plectrum. The tuning of the traditional type with six strings was anhemitonic: ega b d' e'. The tuning of the outer strings could be changed to f and f' [see Greece II]; the additional strings of the later periods seem to have been mainly octave-duplications of the original ones. The additional tones required for the various tetrachords-diatonic as well as chromatic and enharmonic-were obtained by pressing a piece of hardwood shaped like a finger against a string at a place near its lower end, thereby increasing its tension. Thus, the pitch of a string could be raised a quarter tone, a semitone, or a whole tone [see 0. Gombosi, in CP 1939]. It was this practice that led to the curious system of Greek instrumental notation, as has been convincingly shown by C. Sachs [see Musik des Altertums (1924); also AdHM i, 45]. Instruments closely resembling the kithara existed in Mesopotamia and about 1500 B.C. in Egypt. In Greece the kithara became the symbol of Apollo, in whose hands it represented the Greek ideal of kalokagathia (harmonious moderation), as contrasted with the "emotional" *aulos, associated with Dionysus. See ill. under Lyra.

454

KOLEDA

KL.

KI. [G.]. In orchestral scores, abbr. for Klarinette.

Klaviatur [G.]. Keyboard.

Klagend [G.]. Lamenting.

Klavier [G.]. Piano. Klavierauszug, piano arrangement; Klavierstuck, piano piece; Klavierspiel, piano playing. In historical studies Klavier is the generic designation for stringed keyboard instruments, as distinct from the organ. Sometimes the term means manual (Orgel mit 2, 3, Klavieren). Prior to the introduction of the piano, i.e., until about 1775, Klavier (then usually spelled Clavier) meant the harpsichord and/or clavichord. Hence, titles such as Clavier-Vbung or Wohltemperiertes Clavier do not reveal which instrument was intended. To K. P. E. Bach and his contemporaries Clavier usually meant the clavichord. See also Clavier.

Klang [G.]. Sound, sonority. Klangboden, sounding board; Klangfarbe, tone color, timbre; Klangfolge, chord progression; Klanggeschlecht, mode (major or minor); Klangideal, see Sound ideal. Klangfarbenmelodie [G.]. A term suggested by Schoenberg in his Harmonielehre (1911, p. 470f) in a discussion of the possibility of composing "melodically" with varying tone colors, on a single pitch level as well as with varying pitch, duration, and intensity. The term attempts to establish timbre as a structural element comparable in importance to pitch, duration, etc. If Schoenberg did not apply this theory to one sustained note, nevertheless his concern with timbre as a structural element became evident in the Five Orchestral Pieces op. 16 (1909, rev. 1949), especially the third of these. The concept of melodic writing with successive points of tone color was explored almost obsessively by Schoenberg's pupil Anton Webem, beginning with his first chamber and orchestral works. A striking example of We bern's concept of Klangfarbenmelodie is found in the first of his Five Pieces for Orchestra op. lO (1913). Webern also Solo Viola Muted Tr.

I@a ""

Harp

~

b~

t In' ~ , ' ( If' 'F 'f I~"- I

Harp

Celesta

Harp Glsp.

=- Cel.

applied this pointillistic procedure, characteristic of his mature style, to a remarkable orchestral transcription of the six-voice ricercar from Bach's Musikalisches Opfer. The technique has been much exploited by his followers in *serial composition and by *electronic composers. For interesting examples of Klangfarbenmelodie applied to a single pitch, see Alban Berg's Theme and Variations, Act III, Wozzeck (op. 7), and Elliott Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy for J.R.w. Woodwind Quintet (1950). Klappe [G.]. Key of wind instruments. Klappenhorn, -trompete, key bugle, key trumpet. Klar [G.]. Clear, distinct.

Kleine Oktave [G.]. The "small octave," from c to b. See Pitch names. Kl. Fl. [G.]. Abbr. for kleine Flote, piccolo. KI. Tr. [G.]. Abbr. for kleine Trommel, side drum. See Percussion inst. B, I.

Kluge, Die [G., The Clever Girl]. Opera in one act by C. Orff (to his own libretto, after a Grimm fairy tale), produced in Frankfurt, 1943. Setting: fairy tale. Knaben Wunderhorn, Des [G., The Youth's Magic Hom]. A group of songs by Mahler, based on texts of German folksongs collected and published under the title Des Knaben Wunderhorn by Achim von Amim and Clemens Brentano (c. 1820). The group includes nine songs with piano, ten songs with orchestra, and three songs as parts of symphonies. One of them, "Urlicht," was incorporated into the *Resurrection Symphony. Knarre [G.]. *Rattle. Kniegeige [G.]. Viola da gamba. Knyaz Igor. See Prince Igor. Koboz. Old Hungarian name (mentioned first in 1326) for the short-necked lute. Kochel-Verzeichnis. See under K.

Klarinette [G.]. *Clarinet. Klausel [G.]. (l) Cadence, particularly those in 16th-century polyphonic music. (2) *Clausula (2).

Kleine Nachtmusik, Eine [G., A Little Night Music, or Serenade]. A celebrated composition for string orchestra by Mozart (K. 525), composed in 1787. It is in four movements, similar to those of a symphony.

Koleda, kolenda. A Bohemian, Rumanian, or Polish song for Christmas and other feasts, comparable to the English *carol. The earliest examples (without music) date from the 12th

455

KOLLEKTIVZUG

KOREA

century. Large collections of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries indicate the great popularity of the custom of singing koledy. See J. Kuckertz, Gestaltvariation in den von Bartok gesammelten rumiinischen Colinden, 2 vols. (1963).

Kontretanz [G.]. *Contredanse.

Kollektivzug [G.]. Composition stop or combination stop of the organ. See Organ IV.

Kopfstimme [G.]. Head voice.

Kolorieren [G.]. To introduce coloraturas, i.e.,

ornaments into a composition, as was done in the *intabulations of the 16th century. For Koloristen, see Colorists. Komplementiirfigur [G.]. An important device of

early keyboard music, consisting of a figure that alternates among the various voice-parts. The technique was used by Cabez6n [see Ex.,

"Obras diferencias de Vacas," from Obras de musica, 1578], Sweelinck, and particularly by Sweelinck's German pupils (Scheidt, Scheidemann, etc.). See Spiel.figur. Kondakarion. In Russian church music, manu-

scripts of the 12th and 13th centuries containing collections of short hymns of praise (kondak, from kontakion?). They contain melodies written in an early type of notation, the so-called kondakarny notation, which has not yet been deciphered. See Russia I. See also ReMMA, p. 96; WoHN i, 90. Konig Hirsch, Der [G., The Stag King]. Opera in three acts by H. W. Henze (libretto by H. von Cramer, after C. Gozzi), produced in Berlin, 1956. Setting: in the South, any time. Konigskinder, Die [G., The King's Children]. Opera in three acts by E. Humperdinck (libretto by E. Rosmer), produced in New York, 1910. Setting: Germany, Middle Ages. Kontakion. See under Byzantine chant II. Kontra- [G.] Kontrabass, double bass; factur, *contrafactum; fagott, contrabassoon; -bassklarinette, double-bass clarinet; -oktave, contra octave [see Pitch names]; -punkt, counterpoint; -subjekt, countersubject.

Konzert [G.]. Concert or concerto. Konzertmeister, concertmaster. Konzertstiick [G.]. See under Concertino (2).

Koppel [G.]. Coupler. Korea. I. History. Probably the earliest histori-

cal reference to Korean music is found in the Annals of the Three Kingdoms, a Chinese history of the 3rd century: "The Mahan [a Korean tribe] always end the planting in the 5th month by acknowledging the spirits. They gather together, sing, dance, carouse not stopping for day or night .... " The music for these festivities undoubtedly had North Asian roots and is ancestor to present-day Korean folk music. In early times (to the end of Silla) a steady stream of musical instruments and music came in from China, and the dichotomy between tarngak (tangak)-music from Tarng (T'ang) Chinaand hyangak-Korean music-was establ,ished at this time. That the flow of ideas was not entirely one-sided is shown by the presence of a Korean orchestra at the Tarng court. Korean music in turn exerted a direct influence on *Japanese music, presumably still seen in the present-day komagaku. The large number oftsyr (ch'ii) melodies of Sonq (Sung) times mentioned in the Koryo-sa (history of the Koryo dynasty) suggest their popularity during this . period, when they apparently superseded the earlier Tarng music. Of these melodies, Bohoja (Po-hUcha) and Nakyangch'un (Nak-yan-chun) are still performed by the orchestra of the National Traditional Music Institute. Some of the hyangak melodies mentioned in the Koryo-sa have been preserved in the later Yi dynasty notation, and others were reworked and given new titles, particularly at the beginning of the Yi dynasty. With the resurgence of Confucianism during the later Tarng and Sonq periods, interest was revived in Confucian music, which appeared in Korea during the reign ofYejong (12th century). Musical contact between China and Korea was reduced to a minimum from the time of the Yuan dynasty (considered a barbarian dynasty by the Koreans as well as the Chinese), although a noteworthy exception was the introduction of the yanggum or yang-kum (dulcimer) to Korea during the coeval Ching (China) and Yi (Korea) periods. At this time Korean court music became decidedly nationalist. Under Sejong, the most enlightened of the Yi monarchs, imperial shrine

456

KOREA

KOREA

music commemorating the founding of the dynasty was newly created, as was music for the court epic Yong-bi-o-ch'on ga, the first literary work to employ the Korean alphabet. In general the dichotomy between tarngak and hyangak broke down, and the repertory became largely Koreanized. This process was abetted by the introduction of aristocratic music into the court in the latter half of the dynasty. During this period Pak Yon helped restore Confucian music to something of its original purity (an example of musical humanism antedating the Florentine Camerata by more than a century) and Song Hyon published the musical treatise Akhak kwebom (Ak-hak-koe-pum). Equally important were the developments in music not sponsored by the court, particularly vocal music associated with the major literary forms and, in the 19th century, the solo instrumental repertory known as sanjo, but documentation for these categories is sparse. II. Kinds of music. The main kinds of traditional music that have survived are: I. Court music. A. Ritual music: 1. Confucian music; 2. Imperial shrine music. B. Banquet music: 1. Tarngak; 2. Hyangak. C. Military music. II. Non-court music. A. Instrumental music: 1. Aristocratic chamber music; 2. Virtuoso solo music with drum accompaniment; 3. Agricultural music; 4. Shamanist music. B. Vocal music: 1. Kagok; 2. Kasa; 3. Sijo; 4. P'ansori; 5. Japka; 6. Sonsori; 7. Folksong; 8. Buddhist chant.

In Confucian music two orchestras are used, and the instruments and style are unique to the category. Two orchestras also are used in the imperial shrine music. The ritual associated with this music is divided into the following sections: ushering in of the spirit; offering of tribute; offering of food; offering of the first cup of wine; the second cup; the third cup; withdrawal of tribute; ushering out of the spirit. The majority of pieces of the court repertory belong to the category of banquet music. Mention should be made of Sujech'on, probably the most highly regarded piece in the repertory, and Yomillak (Yu-min-ak), the instrumental version of the previously mentioned court epic. Sijo, the most important Korean poetic form (all Korean poetic forms, it should be noted, are associated with music), is a three-line verse with a secondary pause within each line. In a musical performance the singer is accompanied by a janggo, and the three lines have the following metrical subdivision: 5 8 8 5 8, 5 8 8 5 8, 5 8 58. Sijo

texts also are employed in kagok, where they are divided into five sections with an instrumental interlude and postlude. (The secondary pause in the first sijo line marks the division between the first and second kagok lines, and the secondary pause in the third line marks the division between the fourth and fifth lines.) Sijo are sung mainly by amateurs, whereas kagok, with richer scales and instrumental accompaniment, are sung only by professional musicians. P'ansori is sung drama; originally all the parts were sung by a single performer accompanied only by a puk, a barrel-shaped drum. The vocal techniques and pyrotechnics employed are astonishing, ranging from patter and various types of onomatopoeia to something that is a good approximation of white noise. All these techniques serve for dramatic expression, and the over-all effect of a p'ansori such as Sim Ch'ong ga is of surpassing tragic grandeur. III. Notation. The twelve-tone Chinese character notation known as the yulja (yul-cha-po) notation is the most widely used. The following are the Korean readings of the characters with Western equivalents arbitrarily chosen to indicate the relative values: hwang (F), tae (F~), t'ae (G), hyop or hylp (Ab), ko (A),jung or chung (Bb), yu (B), yim or im (C), yi (C~), nam (D), mu (Eb), ung (E). The kong-ch'ak (kong-chuk-po) notation, which is in part an absolute pitch and in part a scale-degree notation without cognizance of octave equivalence, and the simple fivetone notation, which is a kind of number notation, are both found in the historical notation books. Mnemonic notations for the various instruments, a tablature notation for the komungo (komunko), and a kind of neumatic notation for kagok also exist. Rhythm is indicated by columns of squares, with each square representing a beat and each column a measure. Subdivisions of the measure are indicated by heavy lines, and subdivisions of the beat are indicated by appropriate placement of the characters within the squares. IV. Theory. The majority of pieces in the court repertory employ a five-tone scale, jung, yim, nam, hwang, t'ae (Bb, c, d, f, g), which can be generated only by a fourth (or fifth) and takes the following form in terms of fourths: jung, hwang, yim, t'ae, nam. This is also a rough indication of the pitch hierarchy, although some writers consider hwang the most important note. The scale yields the following intervals: 4 perfect fourths, 3 major seconds, 2 minor thirds, and 1 major third. This also represents a fair approximation of the frequency with which the intervals

457

KOREA

KOREA

occur, at least for some of the pieces. The Korean fourth tends to be fiat, and there is perhaps some indication of a gravitation toward equidistance. In addition to the above, the following transpositions occur: mu, jung, hwang, yim, t'ae; hwang, yim, t'ae, nam, ko; hyop, mu, jung, hwang, yim. The yanggum [see under V below], which contains eight pitches disregarding octaves, seems to set the limit for the number of transpositions, at least in the hyangak category. In earlier periods, six-tone and seven-tone scales were widely used. The Akhak-kwebom describes a system of sixty seven-tone modes. Pieces employing seven-tone melodies are also notated in the same work. At present a seven-tone scale is employed in the Confucian music. With the virtual obliteration of the tarngak portion of the repertory, however, the seven-tone scale has otherwise fallen almost into complete disuse. The situation of the hyangak modes is complicated and seems to vary according to period. In general, four modes are recognized, and they apparently hold a relationship with the transpositions mentioned above. Fortunately the Yang gum shin bo (Yang-kum- shin-po), a komungo tablature of 1610, contains the piece Jung-daeyop (Chung-tae-yup) in the four modes, throwing light at least on the modal practice of its period. Ex. 1 gives the first two lines of each modal version in He-gu Yi's (Hie-ku Lee) transcription. Ex. 2 indicates the structure of the modes as derived by Yi (Lee) from a comparison of the four versions. The ornamentation of Korean music is very rich, including a characteristic slow vibrato as well as many kinds of figuration. The rate of dynamic change also tends to be very high. Korean music, both court and non-court, is notable for its large, compound, symmetrical metric structures. The vast majority of pieces in

2 a P'yongjo

I;>:9 a

11

bob Ujo hu

a

"

a

lie

bo

I ""

yim nam hwang t'ae ko yim hwang t'ae jung yim

I!):

_.

b.a-

nam hwang

c P'yongjo-kyemyonjo

I

9e

9e

bu

ila

bo

a

yim mu hwang t'ae jung yim bo

hwang hyop jung

b.o. b-e-

yim mu hwang

the historical notations have the metrical structure 3 + 2 + 3 [see Ex. l]. This was apparently associated with extremely slow tempos. The present court repertory, however, displays considerably more metrical variety. Non-court music is remarkable for the large number of compound triple meters. (Triple meter is apparently quite rare in both China and Japan.) Ex. 3 gives some of these meters with their names, transcribed by Sa-hoon Chang. 3 Jinyang jo (upper notes indicate bamboo strokes, a ...--3--,.. , ,-3-,._

lu~,-~JJ;u

+ ,_

r ,_;JJj

lower notes bare hand on the janggo)

J ~rl r'-'rt-1'.· Jungmori

Jungjung mori

lw ~ 1'fr@ ) ~w r )r )) )11 , ro Mo rD 1 oD·o Jajin mori

Hui mori

~~=- r= ) o· ) o r~ ) o· ~ o~ =~ r= ) r) r)r' II :I

Kut kori

b P'yongjo-kyemyonjo

1!>=9

1 \,

t·I·IJfiJIJ IJJIJiriJJijJJir IJJ I

9

c Ujo-kyemyonjo

1th''w§~~--1-lr r1nr1rr1nr1rr1rr1 n r·l d Ujo

.

,

I:>= -·1·1 r f If IpIr f If If IpJ Irf If IrJI 91\, 9

Ot jung mori

(wi ,)t,;,; ,; J ~w ~; J ,J 1 ~ 1

r o

rro

V. Instruments. Two classification systems have been employed for instruments. One is according to the material of manufacture, as in China, and the other according to function in the repertory (a-ak (ah-ak] or ritual music, tarngak, and hyangak). The main instruments in

458

KORNETT

KUJAWIAK

use today are the kayagum (kaya-kum), a plucked zither with 12 strings related to the Japanese *koto and Chinese *cheng; komungo, a fretted 6-stringed zither played with a stick plectrum; a-jaeng, a bowed ?-stringed zither, the bow consisting of a bare stick that is resined; haegum (hae-kum), a two-stringed fiddle with horsehair bow; yanggum (yang-kiim), a zither with 14 quadruple strings, played with only one hammer; piri, a double reed with 8 finger holes, which comes in several different types; t'aep'yong-so, a conical double reed with brass funnel; taegum, a horizontal flute with one of the holes covered with a membrane, producing a buzz when actuated (this flute comes in three sizes); tanso, a vertical notched flute; janggo (chang-ko ), an hourglass-shaped drum, one head of which is played with a bamboo stick and the other with the bare hand; p'yon-kyong, a set oftuned stones; p'yon-jong, a set of tuned bronze bells; and pak, clappers in the shape of a fan. Lit.: He-gu Yi (Hie-ku Lee), Studies in Korean Music (Hanguk Omak Yongu) (1957); id., Yang gum shin bo (1959; fac. ed. of the 1610 komungo tablature); Sa-hoon Chang, Kukak Kaeyo (1961; Eng. trans., mimeographed ed., A Glossary of Korean Music); id., Kukak-kye ui Jo-su/ mit Nonmun (1963; extensive bibl. of writings since World War II; Kyong-nin Song, Hanguk Akbo Haeje (1965; inventory of all extant historical notation books). D.s.

Komett [G.]. See under Comet. Kortholt [Low G.]. According to Praetorius (Syntagma musicum ii, 1619), a short double-reed instrument with a reed cap. Later the term seems to have been applied to double-reed instruments that, like the bassoon, have a tube doubled back on itself, thus being shortened. For' this instrument the English name is curta/ [see Oboe family III]. Koto [Jap.]. A Japanese stringed instrument, usually classified as a zither. It has a rectangular wooden body and 7 to l3 silk strings. It is placed horizontally on the floor and is plucked with the fingers, sometimes assisted by artificial nails. [See ill. under Zither.] Sometimes the name koto is specifically used for the zokuso, an instrument popular during the Edo period (see Japan VI). There are two types of koto: so (or Chinese *jeng), with movable bridges; and kin (or Chinese *chyn) without such bridges and usually with seven strings. The representative types of so are the gakuso, used in *gagaku; the tsukushi-goto, which was popular in the late 16th

century in the Kyushu district; and the zokuso. All of these have l3 strings, while the wagon, an ancient Japanese instrument, today has six strings. The modern addition to the so family is the shinso, or new so; which has 17 strings. See S. Isawa, ed., ~Collection of Koto Music (Tokyo, 1888). M.K.

Krliftig [G.]. Strong, vigorous. Krakowiak [F. Cracovienne]. A Polish dance named after the city of Cracow (Krakow). The music is in 2/4 time and employs simple syncopated patterns. The krakowiak was danced by large groups, with shouting, improvised singing, and striking of the heels together. It was in vogue in the early part of the 19th century and became known all over the world through the stage performances of Fanny Eissler. Chopin wrote a "Krakowiak" for piano and orchestra (op. 14). Krebskanon [G.]. Crab canon; krebsgiingig, in retrograde motion. Kreisleriana. Schumann's cycle of eight piano pieces (op. 16, 1838), which are in strongly contrasting moods [see under Character piece]. The title refers to the whimsical and fantastic figure of the "Kapellmeister Kreisler," invented by the German novelist E. T. A. Hoffmann. Kreutzer Sonata. Popular name for Beethoven's Violin Sonata op. 47 (1803), dedicated to the French composer and violin virtuoso Rodolphe Kreutzer (1766-1831) but originally composed for the English violinist George Bridgetower (c. 1780-1860), whom Beethoven accompanied at the first performance in 1803. The first movement is notable for its forceful expression of intense emotion. In 'Tolstoy's story "The Kreutzer Sonata," the composition symbolizes the destruction of morals caused by violently emotional music. Kreuz [G.]. Sharp. Kreuzflote [G.]. *Transverse flute. Kriuki, krjuki. See under Russia I; Znamenny chant. Krummhom [G.]. Cromome; see under Oboe

family III. Also, an organ stop; see Organ XI.

Kuhreigen [G.].* Ranz des vaches. Kujawiak. A Polish dance from the province of Kujawy. It is a rapid variety of the *mazurka. Chopin's mazurkas op. 33, no. 3, and op. 41, no. 2, are kujawiaks.

459

LA/

KUNST DER FUGE, DIE Kunst der Fuge, Die. See Art of Fugue, The. Kunstlied [G.]. Term used in American (rather than German) literature for art song, especially those of German composers such as Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms, in contrast to German folksongs. It is also applied to 16th-century polyphonic songs with a German text (Hofhaimer, Senft). Kurz [G.]. Short. Kurz Oktave, *short octave. Kurzer Vorschlag, short appoggiatura. K.V. SeeK.

Kyrial [L. kyriale]. See under Liturgical books I (6). Kyrie [Gr.]. The first item of the Ordinary ofthe *Mass. Its full text is: Kyrie eleison; Christe eleison; Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy, etc.). Each of these three invocations is sung three times, usually with the melodies repeated according to the scheme: aaa bbb ccc' (c' indicates an extension or variant of c), or aaa bbb

aaa'. Other schemes are aba cdc efe and aaa aaa aaa', the former probably of a later date, the latter an earlier type represented in the presentday collection only by the K yrie of the Mass for the Dead [LU, p. 1807]. Originally (4th century) the Kyrie was employed in connection with litanies, a usage that survives in the archaic Mass of Holy Saturday [LU, p. 756] and in the procession of Rogation Days [LU, p. 835]. Not until about 800 is it described as consisting of "three times three" acclamations. In the lOth and 11th centuries the Kyries were frequently troped (farced K yrie) by the interspersion of attributes, e.g., Kyrie lux et origo eleison [see Trope (3)]. Although these tropes have disappeared, the Kyries are still named after them, e.g., Kyrie lux et origo (Mass I, LU, p. 16). See ApGC, p. 405; M. Melnicki, Das einstimmige Kyrie des lateinischen Mittelalters (1954). The Church of England adopted the K yrie in the response "Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this Law" after the recitation of the Ten Commandments. Kyrieleis [G.]. See Leise.

L L. Abbr. for left or [G.] links; L. H., left hand, [G.]linke Hand. La. See under Solmization; Pitch names; Hexachord II. Labial pipes [G. Labialpfeifen]. Same as flue stops. See Organ VIII, IX. Lacrimoso [It.]. Mournful. Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk [Rus. Lady Macbeth Mtsenskago Uyezda]. Opera in four acts by Shostakovitch (libretto by A. Preis and the composer, based on a novel by N. S. Lyeskov), produced in Moscow, 1934. Setting: a village in Russia, 1840. The opera became notorious because of some unpleasant scenes that represent the *verismo technique at its most degenerate. Although these scenes were omitted from later performances, the opera was officially condemned by the Soviet government in 1936 as "bourgeois and formalistic." It was revised after the official decree was rescinded (1958) and was produced under the title Katerina Jsmailova (1962).

Lage [G.]. Position with reference to (1) violin playing (erste, zweite, ... 'Lage, i.e., first, second, . .. position); (2) chords (enge or weite Lage, i.e., close or open position); (3) ranges of voices and instruments (hohe or tiefe Lage, i.e., high or low range). Lagnoso [It.]. Lamenting. Lai, lay [G. Leich; not to be confused with *leis(e) or laisse]. A form of medieval French poetry and music developed mainly in northern France during the 13th century by the trouveres. The lai was also cultivated in southern France, but only two or three troubadour (Proven~al) lais are preserved with music. The development ended with Machaut, who wrote 18 lais. The texts of the lais are poems (usually addressed to the Virgin or to a lady) consisting of 60, 100, or more lines of 4 to 8 syllables each, divided into irregular stanzas of 6 to 16 or more lines. Each stanza is based on one or two rhyme-syllables, and there is a great variety in the schemes of meter and rhyme to be found in the various

460

LAMENT

LA/ stanzas, e.g., a4 a4 b7 a4 a4 b7 a4 a4 b7 b7 b7 b7 b7 b7 b7 (the letters indicate lines with the same rhyme; the figures give the number of syllables in the line). The musical structure of the lai is essentially that of the sequence [see Sequence II], from which it evidently stems, but it has certain traits of elaboration or modification. Instead of the double versicles of the sequence, there are triple versicles and quadruple versicles (a melody repeated three or four times), as well as single versicles involving no repetition. Following is the scheme of one of the shortest lais, Guillaume le Vinier's "Espris d'ire et d'amour" [A. Jeanroy, Lais et descorts fran~ais du XII/e siecle (1901), p. 87; cf. HAM, no. 19i]:

I A

aa

II

B

III D C cc ddd

E

v

I H hhh

(a, b, etc., are the versicle melodies; A, B, etc., the musical sections; I, II, etc., the poetic stanzas, according to Jeanroy; b 1 , bz, different endings for the same melody.) Another name for the lai is descort ("disorder"), a term thought to refer to its highly variable structure in contrast to the *formes fixes, such as the ballade, rondeau, etc.; or to a discord between the lover and his lady; or to some other irregularity [see ReMMA, p. 225]. In Machaut's lais the musical scheme is somewhat less irregular because all the versicles are either double or quadruple. Of particular interest are his "Lay de la fonteinne," in which all the even-numbered sections are threepart *chaces, and the "Lay de confort," which is composed entirely in three-part polyphony, every section being a chace. The German counterpart of the lai is the 14thcentury Leich. Here the double-versicle structure of the sequence is, as a rule, rigidly observed. For example, Heinrich Frauenlob's "Unser Frauen Leich" [see Runge, p. 1] consists of 44 stanzas (Lieder) sung to 22 melodies (TOne). Lit.: A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin, and P. Aubry, ed., "t.Lais et descorts fran~ais du XII/e siecle (1901); F. Ludwig, ed., t.Guillaume de Machaut, Musikalische Werke iv (ed. H. Besseler, 1954); L. Schrade, ed., t.Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, vol. ii (Machaut); P. Runge, ed., "t.Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift (1896; Leich); G. Holz, F. Saran, and E. Bernoulli, ed., "t.Die Jenaer Liederhandschrift, 2 vols., (1901; Leich); DTO 41 (Frauenlob, et a/.);

F. Wolf, Uber die Lais, Sequenzen und Leiche (1841); G. Hase, Der Minneleich Meister A/exanders (1921); F. Gennrich, "Das Formproblem des Minnesangs" (Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fur Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte ix [1931]); id., in Studi medieva/i, new· series xv (1942; Proven~al lais); J. Handschin, in ZMW xii, xiii; H. Spanke, in ZMW xiv; G. Reaney, in ML xxxix (origins of lai); id., in PMA lxxxii (Machaut); J. Maillard, in MD xvii (Ernoul). See also general bibl. under Trouvere; Minnesinger. Laisse. See under Chanson de geste.

Lak.me. Opera in three acts by Delibes (libretto by E. Gondinet and P. Gille), produced in Paris, 1883. Setting: India, 19th century. Lament. ( 1) In Scottish and Irish music, a piece for bagpipes or a song used at clan funerals or other mournful occasions. Each clan has its traditional tune, which is often performed with a number of more or less irregular variations. See also Ho-hoane. (2) General designation for compositions commemorating the death of a famous person. The earliest examples are a "Planctus Karoli" lamenting the death of Charlemagne (814) and another planctus for his son Hugo (844), both preserved with melodies in an early neumatic script that has not been deciphered. A late 12thcentury troubadour plane (planh) by Gaucelm Faudit deplores the death of Richard the LionHearted (1199). From the 14th to 17th centuries laments, called deplorations, tombeaux, plaintes, or apotheoses, were often written for great composers by their pupils. The oldest known example is a ballade, "Armes, amours," written by Deschamps and composed by F. Andrieu on the death of Machaut in 1377 [see F. Ludwig's edition of Machaut, i, 49ff]. From the 15th or 16th century comes a lament by Ockeghem for Binchois ("Mort tu as navn!"; see J. Marix, Les Musiciens de Ia cour de Bourgogne [1937], pp. 83ff), by Josquin for Ockeghem ("Nymphes des bois," with the Introit "Requiem aeternam" as a cantus firmus, the entire composition being written in black notes; see Eye music), by Gombert for Josquin ("Musae Jovis"), and others [see ReMR, index, s.v. Lament]. A great number of laments, often very moving expressions of grief, exist in the French literature of the 17th century, e.g., tombeaux by Denis Gaultier for the Seigneur de Lenclos, by Raquette for Gaultier, and by L. Couperin and D'Anglebert for their teacher Chambonnieres. F. Couperin

461

LAMENTATIONS

LANDINI CADENCE

wrote two apotheoses in the form of sonatas, one for Lully and one for Corelli. Fro berger's lamentation for Ferdinand IV [see DTO 13, p. 32], tombeau for Monsieur Blancheroche [DTO 21, p. 14), and lamentation for Ferdinand III [DTO 21, p. 116) should be added to a repertory in which the romanticism of the 17th century is most beautifully expressed. Many of these compositions are written in the form and style of a *pavane. Comparable pieces are Blow's setting of Dryden's ode on the death of Purcell, "Mark how the Lark and Linnet sing," Purcell's elegy for Locke, "What hope for us Remains now he is gone," and similar works of late 17th-century England. A well-known modem example is Ravel's Le Tombeau de Couperin. See M. Brenet, in RMCiii. Lamentations. Music set to the Lamentations of Jeremiah. In the Roman Catholic service the Lamentations are sung, in place of the three lessons, during the first Nocturn of Matins on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of Holy Week (*Tenebrae), in a simple recitation tone [LU, pp. 631, 692, 754). A characteristic feature of the text, taken over from the Bible, is the enumeration of the verses by Hebrew letters: "ALEPH. Quo modo sedit ... BETH. Plorans ploravit," etc. From the late 15th through the 17th centuries the famous text was often composed polyphonically, usually in a simple homorhythmic style, except for the Hebrew letters, which often received a more elaborate treatment. Probably the earliest extant example is a four-part composition of a portion of the text, "Patres nostri peccaverunt" (Lesson III from Holy Saturday; see LU, p. 759) by the Spaniard (Italian?) Johannes Comago (fl. c. 1450-70; see ReMR, p. 576). In 1506 Petrucci published two volumes, Lamentationum Jeremiae prophetae liber primus; ... liber secundus, that inClude settings by Johannes Tinctoris, de Orto, Tromboncino, and others. In 1532 a setting by Carpentras (pseud. of Elzear Genet, c. 1475-1548) was published that was used until 1587 by the Papal Chapel in place of the ancient plainsong. In 1557, LeRoy and Ballard published a collection of settings (Piissimae ac sacratissimae lamentationes Jeremiae Prophetae) that, in addition to Carpentras' composition, included others by Pierre de La Rue, Fevin, Arcadelt, Festa, and Claude Le Jeune. In 1588, Palestrina published his Lamentationum Hieremiae Prophetae, liber primus [comp. ed., vol. xxv], which supplanted

Carpentras' composition in the service of the

Papal Chapel [for more details, see GD iii, 80; GDB v, 34f.). Other settings are by Stephan Mahu, Gaspar van Werbecke [SchGMB, no. 58), Cristobal Morales (1564), Tallis, Byrd, Hii.ndl [DTO 30), Giovanni Maria Nanini, and Gregorio Allegri. In 1640, Allegri's composition was added to the setting of Palestrina, which did not include the complete text. The Sistine Choir still uses the settings of these two composers. For Palestrina's complete and original composition, see R. Casimiri, II "Codice 59" dell'Archivio musicale lateranense ( 1919). In the 17th century the text was composed in a highly expressive aria style, e.g., by J. Rosenmiiller [see HAM, no. 218) and F. Couperin. A recent setting is Stravinsky's Threni (1958). Lit.: G. Massenkeil, Mehrstimmige Lamentationen aus der ersten Hiilfte des 16. Jahrhunderts [1965); A. E. Schroder, "Les Origines des lamentations" (CP 1952); G. Watkins, "Three

Books of Polyphonic Lamentations of Jeremiah" (diss. Univ. of Rochester, 1953); R. P. Rojo, ''The Gregorian Antiphonary of Silos and the Spanish Melody of the Lamentations" (Speculum v); G. Massenkeil, "Eine spanische Choralmelodie in mehrstimmigen Lamentationskompositionen des 16. Jahrhunderts" (AMW xix/xx); id., inAMWxvii. Lamento. Music of an elegiac, mournful character. For unknown reasons a dance of the 14th century bears the title Lamento di Tristano [SchGMB, no. 28]. In 17th-century opera the lamento is a scene expressing utter despair, usually placed shortly before the unexpected "tum to the happy end." This type was inaugurated by Monteverdi's famous "Lamento d'Arianna" of 1608 [SchGMB, no. 177). See A. Westrup, in,MR i. See also Lament. Lancio, con [It.). With vigor. Landini cadence. A cadence, named after Francesco Landini (1325-97), in which the sixth

degree (a, "Landini sixth") is inserted between the leading tone (b) and the octave (c'). Frequently the altered fourth (f#) appears in the middle part, as a leading tone to the dominant (g) [see Ex. a], a formation that properly belongs to the Lydian mode [Ex. b). The use of this cadence is much wider than is suggested by the

462

LAUDA

LANDLER

name. It occurs in the works of Machaut (c. 1300-77; see, e.g., SchGMB, no. 26, "loyaument"), was used frequently by Landini, and is a characteristic feature of the music of the *Burgundian school, usually in the ornamented form shown in Ex. c. There are cases, however, in which the "flatted" formula [Ex. d] would seem to be required [see ApNPM, p. 106]. The 7-6-8 progression, which is the characteristic trait of the Landini cadence, was used sporadically throughout the 16th century, e.g., by Josquin (Missa de Beata Virgine, close of Kyrie 1), Schlick (Salve regina), Palestrina (only in the middle parts; see K. Jeppesen, The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance, rev. ed., [1946], p. 194), and Victoria [see HAM, no. 149]. It was still employed in the recitative of the early 17th century, e.g., in Monteverdi's Orfeo, where the words "De la bell'Euri-dice" (in "In questo lieto e fortunato giorno") are sung to f# ... flt e-g g. See Cadence II. Lindler. An Austrian dance much like a slow waltz. It was very popular in the early 19th century, before the *waltz came into vogue. Mozart (K. 606), Beethoven (11 Modlinger Tiinze, 1819), and Schub~t (op. 171) wrote collections of Liindler. See Dance music N. Langaus [G.]. An Austrian dance of the late 18th century, danced in such a wild manner that it was prohibited by the police. The music was similar to that of the waltz or Liindler. See P. Nettl, The Story ofDance Music [1947], p. 242; E. Schenk, in Studia musicologica iii, 30lff. Langsam [G.]. Slow. Laos. See under Thailand. Larga [L.]. In mensural notation, rare name for the maxima (Verulus de Anagnia; see CS iii, 135f). Largamente [It.]. Broadly. Largando. Same as *allargando. Larghetto [It.]. The diminutive of *largo, therefore somewhat faster than this tempo. Also, title for pieces in such a tempo. Largo [It.]. (1) Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great expressiveness. See Tempo marks. (2) Popular name for a famous composition by Handel, originally the aria "Ombra mai fu" ("Shade never was") from his opera Serse (Xerxes) but usually played in an arrangement for organ or other instruments. The title is taken from the original tempo indication for the piece.

Lark Quartet. Popular name for Haydn's String Quartet in D major (op. 64, no. 5), so called because of the high passage of the first violin "soaring like a lark" at the opening of the first movement. Lassu. See under Verbunkos; Csdrdds. Latin America. See individual entries Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, etc. Lit.: G. Chase, A Guide to the Music of Latin America, rev. ed. (1962); L. Saminsky, Living Music of the Americas [1949]; N. Slonimsky, Music of Latin America [1945]; R. V. Garcia, L. C. Croatto, and A. A. Martin, Historia de Ia Musica Latina-americana (1938); G. Duran, Recordings of Latin American Songs and Dances, rev. ed. (1950); J. Orrego-Salas, The Young Generation of Latin American Composers (1963). Laube Sonata. See Moonlight Sonata. Lauda [It., pl. laude; the less correct forms laude (sing.), laudi (pl.), are also used]. Hymns of praise and devotion in the Italian language, which from the 13th century to the middle ofthe 19th century played an important part in the religious life of the Italian people. Their origin and early development were closely connected with St. Francis of Assisi (c. 1182-1226) as well as with the many penitential fraternities (flagellants; see Geisslerlieder) of the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, numerous congregations, called Companie de Laudesi (or Laudisti), were founded to foster devotional singing among the Italian people. The musical and dramatic presentations held in their meeting halls led, in the 16th century, to the development of the *oratorio. Till the mid-19th century the laudesi continued to be centers of religious life. The laude of the 13th century are monophonic songs that to some extent show the influence of French troubadour music. Their textual structure is that of a refrain poem, consisting of several (two to ten or more) stanzas (S) of four or six lines each, alternating with a refrain (*ritornello, R) of usually two lines: R S R S ... S R. Music is provided for the refrain and the stanza, the latter usually including the former or a part of it, in a great variety of schemes, e.g., A B a b a b, A B c d a b, A B c d e b, A B c c db, ABc cab (capital letters indicate the refrain). The last scheme, which may also be represented as Abba (or, with repetition of the refrain, Abba A) is that of the French *virelai (or the Italian *ballata). This form, however, plays a much less prominent part in the laude than some

463

LAUDES

LEADING TONE

scholars have maintained. Only about a dozen laude are in the form of the virelai, and most of these show considerable modifications in the repeated phrases, which are not found in the virelai proper [see "Sancto Lorenzo" in HAM, no. 2lc]. One of the few examples of strict virelai form is given in HAM, no. 21 b. The usual transcription in 4/4 meter [Liuzzi; BeMMR, p. l53f] is, to say the least, hypothetical [see Y. Rokseth, in Romania (Paris) lxv, 383; see also under Vierhebigkeit]. The original MSS give no indications for rhythm [see Monophonic notation]. The lauda poetry flourished in the 15th century, but only few remnants of the musicsome monophonic, some in two parts-have survived. A new period of lauda composition began with Petrucci's two books of Laude (1507, '08), containing laude by some of the *frottola composers (Tromboncino, Marco Cara, Fogliano) as well as by an otherwise unknown composer, Dammonis. These are all polyphonic, in three or four parts, and in a simple chordal style borrowed from the frottola [ex. in HAM, no. 94]. In the second half of the 16th century Fra Serafino Razzi inaugurated a vast literature of laude in the popular styles of the villanel/a and canzonetta [ex. by G. Animuccia in SchGMB, no. 120]. Frequently, folksongs and dance melodies were used with the religious texts. The numerous publications of the 17th century are important sources of early Italian folksong [see under Ruggiero]. Lit.: F. Liuzzi, :!:La Lauda e i primordi della melodia italiana, 2 vols. (1935); G. Cattin, Contributi alia storia della lauda spirituale (1958); K. Jeppesen, Die mehrstimmige ita/ienische Laude um 1500 (1935); id., "Die neuentdeckten BUcher der Lauden des ... Petrucci" (ZMW xii); id., "Ein venezianisches Laudenmanuskript" (CP Kroyer); D. Alaleona, "Le Laudi ... nei secoli XVI e XVII" (RM/ xvi; E. J. Dent, "The Laudi Spirituali" (PMA xliii); L. Cervelli, "Le Laudi spirituali di Gio. Animuccia" (LRM xx); J. Handschin, in AM x (review of Liuzzi's publication); F. Ghisi, in CP Jeppesen (14th and early 15th cent.); H. Angles, in CP Ape/.

Laudes [L.]. (l) Latin for *Lauds. (2) Name for Gloria tropes. (3) In the *Gallican and *Mozarabic rites, the counterpart of the Roman Ca tholie Alleluia. (4) Laudes regiae (Praises of the king) is a medieval chant celebrating Jesus as the ruler of the world. It begins with the acclamation Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat. See E. H. Kantorowicz and M. F. Bukofzer, Laudes regiae ( 1946).

Laudon Symphony. Haydn's Symphony no. 69 in C (c. 1778), composed in honor of the Austrian field marshal Baron von Laudon (1717-90). Lauds. The second of the canonical hours. See under Office. Lauf [G.; pl. Laufe]. A rapid passage, particularly in scales. For Laufwerk, see under Mechanical instruments III. Launeddas. A Sardinian triple clarinet thought to be of Oriental (Phoenician?) origin [see Clarinet family IV]. It consists of three pipes made of cane and provided with single reeds. The two outer pipes are melody pipes with five or six holes, while the center pipe is an unchangeable bourdon. The music played on the launeddas, therefore, is in two parts over a sustained pedal. See G. Fara, in RMI xx, xxi, xxv. For the peculiar technique of blowing, see SaHMI, p. 91; also Oboe family Ill. Laute [G.]. Lute. Lautentabulatur, lute tablature. Lautenc/avicymbel, see Lute harpsichord. Lavolta. See under Volta (l). Lay. See Lai.

Leader. (1) Conductor (in America) or concertmaster (in England). (2) See Fugue I (g). Leading motive, motif. See Leitmotiv. Leading tone, note [F. note sensible; G. Leitton; It. sensibi/e; Sp. sensible]. The seventh degree of the scale, a sernitone below the tonic, so called because of its strong tendency to "lead up" (resolve upward) to the tonic. This progression (b-e') is the characteristic step of the regular cadence in major as well as minor [see Ex. a] and therefore is extremely common in music of the 17th to 19th centuries.

The consistent and compulsory use of the leading tone is one of the chief features ofmodem major and minor, as opposed to the modes, most of which (Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, Aeolian) have a whole tone (subtonium) below the tonic, not a sernitone (subsemitonium) [see Ex. b). The leading tone is practically nonexistent in Gregorian chant. Although in modal music the subsemitonium, i.e., the leading tone,

464

LEAGUE OF COMPOSERS

LEITMOTIV

could be introduced by sharping the subtonium, this did not result in a complete suppression of the diatonic seventh [see Musica ficta]. Thus, earlier music usually wavers between the natural and sharped varieties, as illustrated in Ex. c. In the 14th and early 15th centuries the sharped degrees were used more than during the ensuing period of Flemish music (1450-1600; see Landini cadence). See M. L. Mackey, "The Evolution of the Leading Tone in Western European Music to circa 1600 A.D." (diss. Catholic Univ. of America, 1962); L. H. Skrbensky. "Leitton und Alteration in der abendlii.ndischen Musik" (diss. Prague, 1928). League of Composers. See under Societies I, 4. Lebendig, lebhaft [G.]. Lively. Lectio [L.]. See Lesson (1). Lectionary [L. lectionarium] See under Liturgical books I (9). Ledger lines. Short lines drawn through the stem of notes that are too high or too low to be represented on the staff. In early music they are usually avoided by introducing lower or higher clefs. The earliest source in which they are extensively used is M. A. Cavazzoni's organ book Ricercari, motetti, canzoni of 1523 [see ApNPM, pp. 3ff). I Leere Saite [G.]. Open string. Legato [It.]. To be played without any perceptible interruption between the notes [Ex. a], as opposed to leggiero or nonlegato [Ex. b],portato [Ex. c], and staccato [Ex. d]. Legatissimo, indi-

cated by the word and not with notational symbols, is either a more forceful indication of legato, or a sort of super-legato in which the preceding note is held for a short moment together with the following one (Ex. e). The first line in the illustration shows the notes as written; the second line shows the approximate effect. In the musical practice of earlier centuries, legato playing was not always the normal man-

ner of performance, as it is today. For organ and violin music of the 17th and 18th centuries slightly detached playing is more suitable than a full legato. Legende, legende [G., F.]. Romantic name for compositions based on, or suggestive of, a devotional or legendary narrative. Leger lines. See Ledger lines. Leggero, Ieggiero [It.]. Light, nimble. Legno [It.]. Wood. Col legno means, in violin playing, tapping the strings with the stick of the bow instead of bowing them. Stromenti di legno, woodwind instruments. Lehrstiick [G.]. Name for a type of German musical play of the 1920's designed to be educational for a working-class audience, particularly within the youth movement of that period. Typical examples are Hindemith's Wir bauen eine Stadt (We Build a Town) and Kurt Weill's Der Jasager (The Yes-Sayer). Leich [G.]. See under Lai. Leidenschaftlich [G.]. Passionate. Leier [G.]. Usually, the *lyre. In earlier usage, the *hurdy-gurdy (Drehleier, Radleier, Bettlerleier). Schubert's song, "Der Leiermann," portrays a player of the hurdy-gurdy (not of the street organ, called Leierkasten). Leierkasten [G.]. Street organ. Leise [G.]. (l) Soft. (2) Medieval congregational hymns in the German language, so called because of their refrain, kyrie eleis(on), which was abbreviated to kirleis or leis. The oldest specimen, Unsar trohtin, dates from the 9th century. Several Protestant chorales belong to this category, e.g., Nun bitten wir den heiligen Geist, and Christ ist erstanden [see AdHM, p. 448]. There is frequent confusion of the terms Leise and Leich [see GD i, 636; GDB ii, 270]. See 0. Ursprung, inMFv. Leiter [G.]. (1) Scale (Tonleiter); leitereigen, proper to the scale, diatonic. (2) Leader of an orchestra. Leitmotiv, leitmotif [G.]. A term coined by R. Wagner's friend H. von Wolzogen ["Die Motive in Wagner's Gotterdammerung" (Musikalisches Wochenblatt ix, 1878)] to denote the fundamental method of composition in Wagner's later operas, that is, the representation of

465

LETTER NOTATION

LEITMOTIV

Leitton [G.]. Leading tone. Lenuninkiiinen's Homecoming. Symphonic poem by Jean Sibelius, op. 22, no. 4 (1893--95, describing (after a story from t~e *Kalevala~ th; hero's journey home from Pohjola [see Pohjola s Daughter].

characters, typical situations, and recurrent ideas by musical motifs. (Wagner himself had used the term Grundthema, basic theme.) In Der Ring des Nibelungen, for instance, there are motifs characterizing the Ring (Ex. 1), the Contract (Ex. 2), Valhalla (Ex. 3), the Sword (Ex. 4), etc. These leitmotivs are not rigidly fixed melodies but are used very flexibly with modifications in rhythm, intervals, _etc., a~cor~ing to the requirement of the particular sttuatwn [see Transformation ofthemes].lt should be noted that the extensive "Tables of Leitmotivs" usually found in popular editions of Wagner's operas are not by him, nor are any of the names they bear. Although Wagner was the first to make consistent use of the leitmotiv, his method is adumbrated in various earlier compositions. In Gn!try's Richard Coeur-de-Lion (1784) the theme "Une fievre brftlante" [see AdHM, p. 747; Beethoven wrote variations on it] appears nine times. In Mehul's Ariodant (1799) a characteristic theme called cri de fureur is used repeatedly to express the vengeance of the deceived lover [see AdHM, p. 748]. A well-known example outside opera is the *idee fixe of Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique. There is also recurrent use of thematic material in Karl Loewe's Ba/laden. Many of the post-Wagnerian operatic composers (R. Strauss, Debussy, Pfitzner, D'Indy) adopted Wagner's procedure, which also had an influen~ on symphonic music, particularly the symphomc poem. Lit.: R. Donington, Wagner's Ring and Its Symbols [1963]; D. Cooke, The Language of Music (1959); L. Windsperger, Das Buch der Motive und Themen . .. Richard Wagner's, 2 vols. [19-]; K. Womer, "Beitriige zur Geschichte des Leitmotivs in der Oper" (diss. Berlin, 1931); id., in ZMW xiv; M. Lamm, "Beitriige zur Entwicklung des musikalischen Motivs in den Tondramen Richard Wagners" (diss. Vienna, 1932); L. Sabaneev, "Remarks on the Leit-motif" (ML xiii, 200); G. E. H. Abraham, "The Leit_motif since Wagner" (ML vi, 175); E. Harasztt, "Le Probleme du Leit-Motiv" (RM iv).

Leningrad Symphony. A title sometimes used for Shosta.kovitch's Symphony no. 7, op. 60, composed in 1941, when Leningrad was besieged by the Germans. Lento [It.]. Slow. See under Tempo marks. Leonore Overtures. The overtures Beethoven wrote for his opera Fidelia, prior to the final overture, known as Fidelio Overture (or, incorrectly, as Leonore Overture no. 4). Leonore nos. 1 and 2 were written in 1805, no. 3 in 1806. The name refers to the original title of the opera, Leonore. The Fidelia overture was written in 1814. See H. Braunstein, Beethoven's LeonoreOuvertiiren (1927). Les Adieux, !'absence, et le retour [F.]. See Adieux, Les. Lesson [L. lectio]. (1) In the Roman Catholic rites, a reading from the Scriptures and other sources, e.g., the writings of the church fathers. Matins includes nine lessons, three for each Nocturn. Mass includes two, one before the Gradual, the other after the Alleluia. The former is usually taken from the Epistles (Lectio Epistolae . ..) and so is called Epistle; the latter nearly always comes from the Gospels (Sequentia sancti Evangelii . .. ; sequentia here means "continuation"), and so is called Gospel. (2) A 17th- and 18thcentury name for a type of English instrumental piece, particularly for harpsichord_ or organ. The term does not imply any spectal form or style, nor necessarily a ped_agogical purpose; in fact, it seems to have been JUSt as general as the modem term "piece." In the 17th century the term was frequently used for a suite (Suite of Lessons), e.g., in Matthew Locke's Melothesia ... A Choice Collection of Lessons for the Harpsichord and the Organ (1673). In the 18th century some organ verses as well as sonata-like compositions were called "lessons." Letter notation. The use of letters for the indication of tones is restricted today to theoretical and instructive purposes; see Pitch names. In earlier periods they were also used for writing down music, e.g., in ancient Greece [see Notation II], in Arab and Persian music of the 13th

466

L'HOMME ARME

LETTER NOTATION century [see NOH i, 453], and in the German organ tablature [see Tablature 1]. Letters are also used in the French lute tablature, but here they indicate finger positions, not pitches [see Tablature IV]. In the Middle Ages there were several systems of letter notation based on the Roman alphabet. Several of these are shown here:

A BCEHI

1.

2.

A

B

3.

Modem

tury, Ut tuo propitiatus [see ApNPM, p. 207f]. For source references for the various systems described above, see ApNPM, p. 21, and A Auda, Les Gammes musicales [1947], p. 310. For other systems see Romanus letters; Hermannus letters. Lit.: J. Smits van Waesberghe, Muziekgeschiedenis der Middeleeuwen (1939-42), vol. ii.

MO

X

Y

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

KL

CC DD FF KK LL

A

B

C

D

E

F

M

N

0

P

GHI

K

L

MNOP

GAB

C

DE

F

4. E

F

G

A

B

C

D

E

F

s. r

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

a

b

b

c

d

e

f

g

a a

b b

c c

G

A

B

c

d

e

f

g

a

bb

b

c'

d'

e'

f'

g'

a'

b'

c"

System (1) is found in the "De institutione musica" ofBoethius (c. 480-524) and may therefore be called Boethian notation (the missing letters, D, F, G, etc., are used for the additional tones of the chromatic and enharmonic genera of ancient Greek music). Systems (2) and (3) employ the letters from A to P for two octaves, the former from A to a', the latter from c to c". The A-to-P series also occurs in Boethius but without reference to definite pitches [see ReMMA, p. 135n]. Hence the name "Boethian notation" is hardly justifiable for system (2), for which it is often used. In system (4) only the letters from A toG are used, without distinguishing higher or lower octaves. In both (3) and (4) the letter A stands for the present-day c. This method seems to have been employed chiefly in connection with certain instruments, such as the monochord, organ, or sets of bells (nolae, tintinnabulae). System (5), often called Guidonian letters, was used more than 100 years before Guido in a treatise by Odo of Clugny and therefore should be termed Oddonic letters. It includes two shapes of the letter b, one for b natural, the other for b-tlat [see Accidentals II]. This system was universally adopted and, with certain modifications, persists to the present day. Of the others, system (2) is of particular interest because it was employed in various MSS of Gregorian chant to clarify the pitches of the neumatic signs, e.g., in the "bilingual" Codex Montpellier H. 159 [see Editions XLII A, 7 and 8; also WoHN i, opp. p. 44], as well as for writing down a famous two-part composition of the 11th cen-

Leuto [It.]. Old spelling for /auto, lute. Leva1to. See under Volta (1). Levare, levate [It.]. To take off (organ stops, mutes). Si levano i sordini, take off the mutes. Levatio [L.], elevazione, levazione [It.]. *Elevation. L.H. Abbr. for left hand. L'Homme anne [F.]. A 15th-century melody that became famous because of its frequent use as a tenor of polyphonic Masses [see Mass C, lib, lie]. The tune, with its recently discovered text [see D. Plamenac, in Annates de Ia Federation archeologique et historique de Belgique (Bruges, 1925), p. 229f], is here reproduced. Pietro Aron (// Toscanel/o, 1523) ascribed the tune to Busnois,

8 L'hom-me, !'horn-me, l'homme ar-me, l'homme

16 f 8

'1

J I t f fI f

r If

j

IJ I f

ar-me, L'homme ar-me doibt on doub-ter,doibt

fr r

17\

1 Jil

r r1r r 1 r r1n r r 1

on doub-ter. On a fait par-tout cri-er QuechasD.C. a/ 17\

I&f f I F FI r E I f EI f rIf]f"ll

467

lf cun se viegne ar-mer D'un hau-bre-gon de fer

UBER USUAUS

LIBRARIES

(d. c. 1490), but it is used in a chanson that very likely was written c. 1430--40 [see M. Bukofzer in MQ xxviii, 19]. There are more than thirty Masses based on this melody (Missa L'Homme arme). Among their composers are Dufay [see HAM, no. 66], Busnois, Caron, Ockeghem [HAM, no. 73], Obrecht, Tinctoris, Josquin [HAM, no. 89], Brumel, de La Rue [HAM, no. 92], Pipelare, Senft, de Orto, Morales, Palestrina, and, in the 17th century, Carissimi [see 0. Gombosi, Jacob Obrecht, p. 47]. In 1930, J. N. David composed a Fantasia super L'Homme arme. Ten 15th-century Masses are published in *Editions XXXI. See M. Brenet, in MfM xxx; 0. Gombosi and D. Plamenac, in ZMW x, xi, xii; 0. Strunk, in BAMS ii; W. A pel, "Imitation Canons on L'Homme arme" (Speculum xxv). Liber usualis [L.]. See under Liturgical books I, 5. Libraries. Most of the great music libraries are located in western Europe, with a growing concentration in the United States and few collections of real importance elsewhere. In recent years, the books and manuscripts dating back through the centuries have been supplemented by valuable new resources such as photostats, microfilms, and phonograph and tape recordings. The International Association of Music Libraries (AIBM) is currently updating R. Eitner's Quellen-Lexikon [see under Bibliography] as an International Inventory of Musical Sources [see RISMJ. The Music Library Association, founded in 1931, is of particular importance in North America, with its quarterly Notes ( 1934-). Important and useful listings are: S. De Ricci, ed., Census of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts in the United States and Canada, 3 vols. (1935-40; suppl. 1962); M. B. Stillwell, Incunabula and Americana, I450-1800 (1931); id., Incunabula in American Libraries (1940); 0. E. Albrecht, A Census of Autograph Music Manuscripts of European Composers in American Libraries (1953). Extensive lists of music libraries and their catalogues have been made by A. Ott in MGG ix, l034ff, by C. Cudworth in GDB v, 160ff, and by V. Duckles in Music Reference and Research Materials, 2nd ed. (1967). See also the lists of contributing libraries in the volumes of the International Inventory (mentioned above). There follows a list of the most important libraries and collections with significant musical holdings of special interest. They are arranged in alphabetical order of countries within each continent (North America,

Central and South America, Europe, Asia,) and by cities within each country. NORTH AMERICA. CANADA. See M. Duchow, "Canadian Music Libraries: Some Observations" (Notes xviii). Montreal: McGill University, Conservatory, music representative of 19th-cent. life in Montreal. Ottawa: National Library.

UNITED STATES. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, Stellfeld collection [see L. E. Cuyler, G. A. Sutherland, and H. T. David, "The University of Michigan's Purchase of the Stellfeld Music Library" (Notes xii)]. Early American music. Berea, Ohio: Baldwin-Wallace College, Riemenschneider Memorial Bach Library [S. Kenney, Catalog (1960)]. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Music Library, primary sources in early opera scores and librettos (Cortot opera collection), early Italian instrumental music [V. Duckles and M. Elmer, Thematic Catalog of a Manuscript Collection of Eighteenth-Century Italian Instrumental Music (1963)]; reference collections of Alfred Einstein and Manfred Bukofzer; MSS of Ernest Bloch [Autograph Manuscripts of Ernest Bloch at the University of California (n.d.)]. Bethlehem, Pa.: Archives of the Moravian Church [A. G. Rau and H. T. David, A Catalogue of Music by American Moravians, 17241842 (1938)]. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University School of Music, photostats of keyboard sources. Boston, Mass.: Public Library, Allen A. Brown Reference Collection [Catalogue, 3 vols. and suppl. (1910-16)]. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, Isham Memorial Library, microfilms and photostats of MSS and prints of music from the 12th to 18th centuries; originally concerned with early keyboard music, but enlarged to include all kinds of monophonic and polyphonic vocal and instrumental, sacred and secular (early sample listing by W. Apel in MD i); Eda Kuhn Loeb Music Library, a strong reference collection of books, scores, recordings. The Houghton Library of rare books at Harvard University contains many music rarities. Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia, Alderman Library, MacKay Smith Collection, strong in 18th-cent. chamber music, trio sonatas. Chicago, Ill.: Newberry Library, hymnology,

468

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

theory, important rarities [Handbook of the Newberry Library (1933)]. Cincinnati, Ohio: Hebrew Union College, Jewish music. Los Angeles, Calif: University of California at Los Angeles, W. A. Clark Memorial Library, ballad opera, 17th-18th-cent. English music; University Music Library, 17th-18th-cent. librettos, ethnomusicology, American sheet music from 1800. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Library, American songbooks, folksongs, carols; Yale Music School Library, Lowell Mason collection, with hundreds of keyboard manuscripts from the library of J. C. Rinck. New York, N.Y.: Music Division of the Research Library of the Performing Arts (at Lincoln Center), a very comprehensive collection, including early printed music, Americana, and musical portraits [Catalogue of Jos. W. Drexel's Musical Library (1869); Dictionary Catalog of the Music Collection, 33 vols. (1964), suppl. i (1966); [C. S. Smith], Early Psalmody in America, series l-3 (1938-39); 0. Kinkeldey, in The Library Journal xl). Bart6k Archives [V. Bator, The Bela Bartok Archives, History and Catalogue (1963)]. Columbia University, Music Department, Bela Bart6k deposit of southeast European folk music. The Heineman Foundation music collection [E. Waters, in Notes vii). Northampton, Mass.: Smith College, Philip Hale and Alfred Einstein collections (includes Einstein's MS scores of 16th- and 17th-cent. partbooks). Philadelphia, Pa.: Curtis Institute, Burrell Wagner collection (Ileborgh keyboard tablature); Free Library, Edwin A. Fleisher music collection [A Descriptive Catalogue, rev. ed. (1965-)]. Library Company [E. Wolf, American Song Sheets, Slip Ballads and Poetical Broadsides, 1850-1870 (1963)]. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Library; University of Pittsburgh Library; St. Vincent's College [T. Finney, A Union Catalogue of Music and Books on Music Printed before 1801 in Pittsburgh Libraries, rev. ed. (1963), suppl. (1964)]. Rochester, N.Y.: Eastman School of Music, Sibley Library, chamber music, French and Russian music, folksong, literature on the violin, rich in primary source materials. St. Louis, Mo.: St. Louis University, Pope Pius XII Memorial Library [E. C. Krohn, "Music in the Vatican Film Library at Saint Louis University" (Notes xiv)].

Salem, Mass.: Essex Institute, Americana [H. E. Johnson, in Notes v]. San Francisco, Calif.: San Francisco State College, Frank V. De Bellis collection ofltalian music, MSS, early printed music, theoretical works by Italian musicians. San Marino, Calif: Huntington Libmry and Art Gallery, incunabula, early English printed music, Americana [E. N. Backus, Catalogue of Music in the Huntington Library Printed before 1801 (1949)]. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University, Memorial Library of Music [N. van Patten, A Memorial Library of Music (1950)]. Stanford University Archive of Recorded Sound. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Music Division (est. 1897), the most notable music collection in the United States. A copyright deposit, it possesses many important manuscripts, old prints, opera scores and librettos, musical Americana, autographs of contemporary composers, as well as many sound recordings of American folk and primitive music. [Special catalogues: Dramatic Music . .. Full Scores (1908); Orchestral Music ... Scores ( 1912); Catalogue ofEarly Books on Music (before 1800) (1913), suppl. (1944); Catalogue of Opera Librettos Printed before 1800, 2 vols. (1914)). Notable acquisitions are cited in the Report of the Librarian of Congress (1903-), and in occasional special articles in the Libmry's Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions (1943-). The Library issues a series of monumental bibliographical tools in its A Catalog of Books Represented by Library of Congress Printed Cards, 167 vols., its The National Union Catalog, which maintains a separate cumulative listing of Music and Phonorecords (1953-), and its Catalog of Copyright Entries, Part 3: Musical Compositions (1906-), in which both published and unpublished music submitted for copyright registration is listed. [F. R. Goff, "Early Music Books in the Rare Books Division of the Library of Congress" (Notes vi); George Herzog, Research in Primitive and Folk Music in the United States (1936); Check List of Recorded Songs in the English Language . .. to July 1940, 3 vols. (1942)]. The Folger Shakespeare Library, Elizabethan printed music, MSS of operas and music related to Shakespeare and his time. PanAmerican Union, music of North and South America, particularly folk music. Watertown, Mass.: Perkins School for the Blind, information on blind musicians of the past, music in Braille circulated nationally.

469

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LIBRARIES

Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, Americana, especially hymn books. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. Cathedral and monastery archives in Mexico, at Mexico City, Morelia, and Puebla, and at Lima, Peru; 16th-18th-cent. church music [E. T. Stanford and L. B. Spiess, Some Preliminary Information Concerning Mexican Musical Archives (1966)]. The resources of these archives have been described in part by Robert Stevenson in Music in Mexico [ 1952] and id., The Music ofPeru [1960]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Biblioteca Nacional [F. C. Lange, in Revista de estudios musicales i; C. S. Smith, "Music Publications in Brazil" (Notes iv)]. Santiago, Cuba: Cathedral archives [P. Hermindez Balaguer, Catdlogo de MU!iica de los Archivos de Ia Catedral de Santiago de Cuba y del Museo Bacardi (1961)]. EUROPE. AUSTRIA Admont: Stiftsbibliothek, MS missals [J. Kock, Handschriftliche Missalien in Steiermark (1916)]. Gottweig: Benedictine Abbey, 16th-cent. Meistersinger MSS, 18th-cent. MSS, Merulo keyboard music, portions of the library of Aloys Fuchs [P. L. Koller, "Inventar der Gottweiger Kantorei 1612" (Das Waldviertel, 1955)]. Graz: University Library [A. Kern, Die Handschriften der Universitiitsbibliothek Graz (1939-40, 1956)]. Klostemeuberg: Stiftsbibliothek, 12th-16thcent. MSS, 16th-cent. printed music [H. Pfeiffer and B. Cemik, Catalogus codicum manu scriptorum, 2 vols. (1922-31)]. Kremsmiinster: Benedictine Abbey, liturgical music, 16th-cent. MSS and printed music, tablatures [R. Flotzinger, Die Lautentabulaturen des Stiftes Kremsmiinster (1965); other sources cited in A. Kellner, Musikgeschichte des Stifles Kremsmiinster ( 1956)]. Melk: Benedictine Monastery Library, 13th14th-cent. liturgical MSS, 16th-cent. Mass MSS, J. Haydn collection [Catalogus codicum manu scriptorum, i (1889)]. St. Paul (Lavant Valley): Benedictine Monastery Library, troubadour MSS, early treatises [H. Federhofer, in KJ xxxv]. Salzburg: Cathedral Chapter, MSS of 16thcent. vocal polyphony; Mozart Museum and Mozarteum, Mozart MSS [Katalog des Mozart-

Museums, 4th ed. (1906)]; Abbey of St. Peter, compositions by M. Haydn; Museum CarolinoAugusteum [J. Gassner, Die Musikaliensammlung im Salzburger Museum Carolina Augusteum (1962)], Mozart MSS, Benevoli's 53-voice Mass. Tulln: Church of St. Stephan [K. Schniirl, Das alte Musikarchiv der Pfarrkirche St. Stephan in Tulln (1964)]. Vienna: National Library [L. Nowak, "Die Musiksammlungen der Oesterreichischen National-Bibliothek" (Musikerziehung vi); id., "Die Musikhandschriften" (Die Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek. Festschrift (1948)]. Important holdings such as the Fugger music collection [R. Schaal, "Die Musikbibliothek von Raimund Fugger d. J." (AM xxix)], the d'Este music collection [R. Haas, Die Estensischen Musikalien: thematisches Verzeichnis (1927)], the Palatine Library [J. Mantuani, Tabulae codicum manuscriptorum . . . in Bibliotheca Palatina Vindobonensi asservatorum (1864-99), especially vols. ix and x]; an archive established by Heinrich Schenker and Anthony van Hoboken containing photofacsimiles of the works of the major Viennese composers. Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, MSS, letters, portraits, etc., of Viennese masters [K. Geiringer, history of the collection, in Anbruch: M onatsschrift fur moderne Musik xix; E. Mandyczewski, in Zusatz-Band zur Geschichte der KK Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien (1912), surveys the contents of the library, museum, and archive]. Schottenkloster, early liturgical MSS, 16th-cent. MSS and printings [A. Hiibl, Catalogus codicum manuscriptorum qui in bibliotheca Monasterii B.M. V. ad Scotos Vindobonae servantur (1899); id., Die Inkunabelen der Bibliothek des Stifles Scholten in Wien (1904)]. University Library, 16th-17thcent. lute music and theoretical works. City Library, Schubert MSS and 19th-cent. dance music. Minoritenkonvent, MSS and printed 17thcent. organ and vocal music [F. W. Riedel, Das Musikarchiv im Minoritenkonvent zu Wien (1963), in Catalogus musicus i]. St. Peter's Church [C. Rouland, Katalog des Musik-Archives der St. Peterskirche in Wien (1908)].

BELGIUM. For general information, see J.-G. Prod'homme, "Les Institutions musicales (Bibliotheques et Archives) en Belgique et en Hollande" (SIM xv); C. van den Borren, "Inventaire des manuscrits de musique polyphonique qui se trouvent en Belgique" (AM v-vi); S. Clercx, in Alumni (Brussels) xvi.

470

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Brussels: Royal Library, collections of C. J. E. van Hulthem [C. A. Voisin, Bib/iotheca Hulthemiana, 6 vols. (1836-37)] and F. J. Fetis [Catalogue de Ia Bib/iotheque de F. J. Fetis (1877)], MSS from monastery libraries and the Dukes of Burgundy [J. van den Gheyn, Catalogue des manuscrits, 12 vols. (1901-36); B. Huys, Catalogue des imprimes musicaux des XVe, XV!e et XVIIe siecles (1965)). Conservatoire Royal de Musique, 16th-cent. MSS, 17th-18th-cent. opera librettos, K. P. E. Bach collection [A. Wotquenne, Catalogue de Ia bib/iotheque, 4 vols. and suppl., incompl., (1898-1912)]; Holtenfeltz collection [C. van den Borren, "Les Fonds de musique ancl.enne de Ia Collegiate SS. Michel et Gudule a Bruxelles" (Annuaire du Conseroatoire, 1930)]. Liege: Conservatoire Royal de Musique, Gretry collection, 17th-18th-cent. local composers, Fonds Terry [E. Monseur, Catalogue, 4 vols. in one (n.d.)]. Oudenarde: St. Walpurgakerk, 18th-cent. church music [Liste generale de Ia musique appartenant a !'eglise parochiale de St. Walpurga aAudenarde (n.d.)]. CZECHOSLOVAKIA. For general information, see D. Plamenac, "Music Libraries in Eastern Europe" (Notes xix). The University Library at Briin (Brno) publishes an accessions list for the principal music libraries of Czechoslovakia [PNrilstky hudebnin v ceskoslovef!Skjch knihovndch (1956-)]. M. J. Terrayova has compiled thematic catalogues of MSS in two Czech music archives, the Pfarrkirche of Puchov and the archive of the Prilesky-Ostrolucky family [Hudobnovedne StUdie iv, 1960]. Prague: University Library, MSS and printings of II th-l7th-cent. treatises, Bohemian songs, and 14th-16th-cent. Easter Mysteries, lute books, Kubelik violin collection, Lobkowitz Archive [P. Nettl, "Musicalia der flirstlich Lobkowitzschen Bibliothek in Raudnitz" (Verein flir Geschichte der Deutschen in B6hmen, Mitteilungen des Vereines ... lviii)]; National Museum, music library of Emilian Troldy [Hudebni sbirka Emilitina Troldy, catalogue by A. Buchner (1954)]; Conservatory of Music [R. Prochazka, A us fUn/J ahrhunderten: M usikschiitze des Prager Konservatoriums (1911)]; Municipal Library, Smetana Music Library, 78,000 printings of music, mostly Slavic; Cathedral Chapter Library [A. Podlaha, Catalogus collectionis operum artis musicae (1926)].

DENMARK. Aarhus: Statsbibliothek, copyright deposit library [Fagkataloger 3: Musika/ier, rev. ed. (1951-57); 4: Musik, rev. ed. (1946-)]. Copenhagen: Royal Library, organ tablature, rare Antwerp and Copenhagen printings [E. J0rgensen, Catalogus codicum /atinorum medii (l!()i BibliothecO! RegiO! Hafniensis, 2 parts (1923, '26)]; University Library [A. Kramp, Katalog over Universitetsbib/iotekets Haandskrifter, 2 vols. (1929-35)]; Museum of Music History, collection of historical musical instruments [A. Hammerich, Das Musikhistorische Museum ... beschreibender Katalog (l9ll)]; Kommunebibliotekeme (Public Library) [Katalog over musik og musik/itteratur, 5 vols. (1954-56)]. ENGLAND. See GREAT BRITAIN. FINLAND. Helsinki: University Library, collection of fragmentary MSS from medieval liturgical books [T. E. Haapanen, Verzeichnis der mittelalterlichen H andschriftenfragmente in der Universitiitsbibliothek zu Helsingfors, I. Missalia (1922), II. Gradualia, Lectionaria Missae (1925), III. Breviaria (1932)]. FRANCE. For general bibl. see: Catalogue general des manuscrits des bibliotheques publiques de France, I. Paris (various dates); II. Departements (old series, 1849-85; new series, 1886-); N. Bridgman, "Musique profane italienne des l6e et l7e siecles dans les bibliotheques fran~aises" (Fontes artis musicae [1955], 40ft"); P. Chaillon, "Les fonds musicaux de quelques bibliotheques de province" (Fontes artis musicae [1955], l5lff); E. H. Fellowes, "The Philidor Manuscripts: Paris, Versailles, Tenbury" (ML xii); F. Lesure, "Richesses musicologiques des bibliotheques provinciales de France" (RdM [1950], 109-18). Aix-en-Provence: Bibliotheque Mejanes, troubadour MS and lute songs [Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Departements) xvi and suppl. in xl, xlv, xlix]. Amiens: Bibliotheque Communale. 17th-cent. treatises and psalters, 18th-cent. operas and songs [for MSS, Catalogue general des manuscrits ... (Departments) xix and suppl. inxl]. Cambrai: Bibliotheque Municipale, Burgundian and Flemish church music and part songs [A. J. Le Glay, Catalogue . .. des manuscrits de Ia Bibliotheque de Cambrai (1831); E. de Coussemaker, Notice sur /es collections musicales de Ia

471

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

Bibliotheque de Cambrai et des autres villes du Departement du Nord (1843)]. Chantilly: Musee Conde, 16th-cent. collections, partly from Cigogne. Colmar: Consistoire Protestant, 16th-cent. psalters in all languages. Lille: Bibliotheque Municipale, 17th-19thcent. opera scores, MSS (severe losses from fire in 1916) [Catalogue des ouvrages sur Ia musique et des compositions musicales de Ia Bibliotheque de Lille (1879)]. Marseilles: Bibliotheque de la Ville, 12th-cent. liturgical MSS [Catalogue general des manuscrits ... (Departements) xv and suppl. xlii]; Sainte-Madeleine, 12th-cent. liturgical MSS. Montpellier: Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Medicine, 9th-cent. antiphonary, 13th-cent. motets, 14th-cent. chansons [Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Departements) i (old series, 1849) and suppl. xlii (new series)]. Orleans: Bibliotheque de la Ville, 12th-cent. mystery plays, 16th-cent. sacred and secular music [Catalogue general des manuscrits ... (Departements) xii and suppl. xlii]. Paris: For general information, see E. Leroy, Guide pratique des Bib/iotheques de Paris (1937). Bibliotheque Nationale, extremely rich for all periods from the earliest, including 9th-cent. MSS with notation, troubadour songs, French and Italian 14th-cent. music, 15th-16th-cent. chansonniers; copyright deposit [J. Ecorcheville, Catalogue du fonds de musique ancienne de Ia Bibliotheque Nationale, 8 vols. (1910-14); P. Lauer, Catalogue general des manuscrits latins, 4 vols., (1939-58)]; Bibliotheque du Conservatoire, in the Reseroe, has 10,000 unique, valuable printed music and MSS, autographs, scores and rarities, Philidor MSS of early French instrumental music [J. B. Weckerlin, Bib/iotheque du Conseroatoire national . .. catalogue bibliographique ... de Ia Reseroe (1885)]; Fonds Blancheton, instrumental music pre-1750 [L. de la Laurencie, Inventaire critique du Fonds Blancheton, 2 vols. (1930-31)]; Bibliotheque de l'Opera, MSS of operas, librettos, history of the lyric theater [T. de Lajarte, Catalogue historique, chronologique, anecdotique, 2 vols. (1878)]; Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, MSS, 13th-cent. chansonnier [Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Paris) i-ix; suppl. in Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Departements) xliii, xlv; L. de Laurencie and A Gastoue, Catalogue des livres de musique de Ia Bibliotheque de /'Arsenal (1936)]; Bibliotheque Ste: Genevieve [C. Kohler, Catalogue des manuscrits, 3 vols. (1893-98)]; Institut

de Musicologie, medieval music, folklore, Aubry and Guilmant collections; Societe des Concerts, library and archives of the 18th-cent. concert spirituel; Private collection of Genevieve Thibault, 16th-cent. printed music, French and Italian, MSS of 17th-cent. Italian cantatas; Private collection of Andre Meyer [F. Lesure, Collection musicale Andre Meyer (1961)]. Strasbourg: Bibliotheque de l'Institut de Musicologie, University Faculty of Letters, autographs, 0. Jahn and G. Jacobsthal collections [F. Ludwig, Die iilteren Musikwerke der . .. Bib/iothek des "Akademischen Gesang-vereins" Strassburg (1913)]. Tours: Bibliotheque de la Ville, 9th-10th-cent. MSS with neumes, 12th-cent. mystery plays, J. de Muris MS, 15th-18th-cent. liturgies, 17thcent. motets, organ music (800 of 2,000 MSS remained after 1940 fire) [A J. Dorange, Catalogue descriptif . .. des manuscrits de Ia Bib/iotheque de Tours (1875); Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Departements) xxxvii; H. Quittard, "Un musicien oublie du XVIIe siecle fran11ais: G. Bouzignac" (SIM vi)]. Valenciennes: Bibliotheque Municipale, 9thcent. treatises [Catalogue general des manuscrits ... (Departements) xxv; E. de Coussemaker, Notices sur les collections musicales de Ia Bib/iotheque de Cambrai et des autres villes du Departement du Nord(l843)]. Versailles: Bibliotheque Municipale, 17th18th-cent. MSS, 16th-19th-cent. prints [Catalogue general des manuscrits . .. (Departements) ix and suppl. xliii; Manuscrits musicaux de Ia Bibliotheque de Versailles (1884); A Tessier, "Un Catalogue de la Bibliotheque de la Musique duRoi" (RdM[l931], 106-17; 172-89)]. GERMANY. General information in the Deutscher Gesamtkatalog (1935-); Deutsche Musikbibliographi>t, monthly with annual cumulations, Jahresverzeichnis der deutschen Musikalien und Musikschriften (complete except vol. xciii, 1944). W. Kahl and W. Martin Luther, Repertorium der Musikwissenschaft (1953), a union catalogue of musicological literature in German libraries. For wartime losses see Georg Leyh, Die deutschen wissenschaftlichen Bib/iotheken nach dem Krieg (1947). Augsburg: Staats- und Stadtbibliothek, MSS and printed music from monasteries and the library of Raimund Fugger [R. Schaal, "Die Musikbibliothek von Raimund Fugger d. J." (AM xxix); H. M. Schletterer, in suppl. to MJM x, xi; id., "Aktenmaterial aus dem stlidtischen

472

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LIBRARIES

Archiv zu Augsburg" (MJM xxv, xxx)]; Bibliothek des bischOflichen Ordinariats [B. Kraft, Die Handschriften der BischOf/. Ordinariatsbibliothek (1934)].

Bamberg: Staatliche Bibliothek, liturgical MSS with neumes; 13th-cent. motet MS [F. Leitschuh and H. Fischer, Katalog der Handschriften der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Bamberg, 3 vols. (1887-1912)].

Bayreuth: Haus Wahnfried, Wagner archives. Berlin: Deutsche (formerly Preussische) Staatsbibliothek (this library, now in the East sector of Berlin, has not regained all of its great prewar music collection; many of its holdings are in Marburg and Tiibingen [R. S. Hill, "The Former Prussian State Library," (Notes iii); M. Cremer, in Zweiter Weltkongress der Musikbibliotheken, 1950 (1951); for prewar holdings [W. Altmann, in ZMW ii-ix; J. Wolf, "Neuerwerbungen der Musikabteilung der Staatsbibliothek Berlin 1928-1931," (AM iii); id., Zur Geschichte der Musikabteilung der Staatsbibliothek (1929); K.-H. Kohler, "Die Musikabteilung," Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, 1661-1961,

2 vols. (1961)]; The Amalienbibliothek, a collection formed in the late 18th century by a sister of Frederick the Great, is contained, in part, in the Deutsche Staatsbibliothek [E. R. Blechschmidt, Die Amalien-Bibliothek, Musikbibliothek der Prinzessin Anna Amalia von Preussen

(1965)]; Hochschule flir Musik, in West sector, MSS of c. 1500, Spitta library, rare 17th-18thcent. prints; Akademie ftir deutsche Kirchenund Schulmusik, school-music collection now in Hochschule flir Musik Library, sacred music now in East Berlin. Destroyed or heavily damaged during World War II; Bibliothek zum Grauen Kloster, Konigliche Hausbibliothek, Joachimsthalisches Gymnasium. Bonn: Library of the Musicological Institute [W. Vimeisel, Ch.B. Klein und seine Sammlungen musika/ischer Handschriften (1924)]; University Library [T. Clasen, "Die musikalischen Autographen der Universitlits-Bibliothek Bonn" (CP Schmidt-Gorg)]; Beethoven House and Archive [J. Schmidt-Gorg, Katalog der Handschriften des Beethoven-Hauses und BeethovenArchivs Bonn (1935)].

Breslau: See Wroclaw, Poland. Cologne: Cathedral Chapter Library [G. Goller, Die Leiblsche Sammlung, Katalog tier Musika/ien der Kolner Domcapelle (1964)]; Universitlits- und Stadtbibliothek, unique Lassus works, 16th-cent. tablatures and printed music [W. Kahl, Katalog der in der Universitiits- und

Stadtbib/iothek Ko/n vorhandenen Musikdrucke

(1958); id., Die a/ten Musikalien der Kolner Universitiits- und Stadtbibliothek (1953), repr. from Jahrbuch des Kolnischen Geschichtsverein]. Darmstadt: Hofbibliothek, MSS and printed music, 15th-18th-cent. [F. W. E. Roth, in MfM xx]; Internationales Musikinstitut (Kranichsteiner Musikinstitut), a library of contemporary music [E. Thomas, Katalog(I966)]. Donaueschingen: Library of Prince Furstenberg, 2,200 musical MSS [C. A. Barack. Die Handschriften der Fiirstlich-Fiirstenbergischen Hofbibliothek zu Donaueschingen (1865)].

Dresden: Slichsische Landesbibliothek, 7,555 musical MSS remain from the war [R. Eitner and 0. Kade, Katalog (suppl. to MJM xxi, xxii); L. Schmidt and A. Reichert, Katalog der Handschriften der Konig/. offentlichen Bibliothek iv (1923)]. Eisenach: Richard Wagner library, Wagner literature and documents [N. Oesterlein, Katalog einer Richard Wagner-Bib/iothek, 4 vols. (188295)]. Erlangen: University Library, valuable MSS and printed material [Katalog der Handschriften der Universitiitsbib/iothek Erlangen, rev. ed. (1928-); F. Kratitwurst, Die Heilbronner Chorbiicher

der

Universitiitsbib/iothek

Erlangen

(1956)]. Frankfurt: Stadt- und Universitlitsbibliothek, which houses surviving local libraries [C. Siiss, Kirch/iche Musikhandschriften des XVII. und XVIII. Jahrhunderts (1926); Jahrbuch der Musikwelt (1949-50)]. Freiberg: See 0. Kade, Die iilteren Musikalien der Stadt Freiberg in Sachsen (suppl. to MJM xx). Gottingen: University Library, rare 15th16th-cent. works, 1,000 17th-cent. song books [A. Quantz, Die Musikwerke der Kg/. Universitiits-Bibliothek in Gottingen (suppl. to MJM xv)]. Halle: Handel-Haus, scores, documents and iconography related to Handel and his contemporaries [Katalog zu den Sammlungen des Hiindel-Hauses in Halle, 3 vols. (1961-64)]; University, Musicological Seminar library, Robert Franz collection [MJM xxvi, 42]; Waisenhausbibliothek, 17th-18th-cent. hymnals, music and theory; Kirchenmusikalische Bibliothek, 7,000 vols. on church music [Werkverzeichnis 1925, 1930, 1936; Jahrbuch der Musikwelt (1949-50)]. Hamburg: Staats- und Universitlitsbibliothek (heavy war damage), 16th-cent. theoretical works, English music; Volkerkunde-Museum, exotic and primitive music and instruments;

473

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

Landeskirchliche Musikbiicherei; Hamburger Musikbiicherei, theater music [A. Eckhoff, Oper, Operette, Singspiel: ein Katalog (1965)]. Jena: University Library, 14th-16th-cent. songs, liturgical MSS [K. E. Roediger, Die geistlichen Musikhandschriften der UniversitiitsBibliothek Jena, 2 vols. (1935)]. Kassel: Landesbibliothek, 16th-17th-cent. MSS and printed books [C. Israel, Uebersichtlicher Katalog der Musikalien der stiindischen Landesbibliothek zu Cassel (1881)]. Deutsches Musikgeschichtliches Archiv, central collection of early musical scores and books in microfilm [H. Heckmann, Katalog der Filmsammlung, 7 vols. (1955-65)]. Kiel: Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek, University Library, and Musicological Seminar Library [all three libraries catalogued in K. Hortschansky, Katalog der Kieler Musiksammlungen (1963)]. Konigsberg: Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek, Bibliotheca Gottholdiana, 55,000 vols. MSS and printed music, 16th-19th cent. [J. Miiller, Die musikalischen Schiitze . .. zu KtJnigsberg in Pr. aus dem Nachlasse F. A. Gotthold's (1870)]. Leipzig: Musikbibliothek Peters, MSS and rare prints, 15th-18th cent. [R. Schwartz, in JMP xxvi; E. Schmitz, in JMP xlvi-xlvii]; Town Library, Bach, Wagner, Breitkopf und Hartel collections; University Library, librettos, theoretical works; St. Thomas Church Archives, MSS. Liibeck: Bibliothek der Hansestadt, c. 13,000 vols., including Buxtehude, Tunder, Frederick the Great [C. Stiehl, Katalog der Musiksammlung auf der Stadtbibliothek zu Lubeck (1893); id., "Die Stadtbibliothek in Liibeck" (MJM xvi); W. Stahl, Musik Bucher der Lubecker Stadtbibliothek (1927); id., Die Musik-abteilung der Lubecker Stadtbibliothek in ihren iilteren Bestiinden (1931); Jahrbuch der Musikwelt (194950)]; Marienkirche collection [C. Stiehl, "Musiksammlung der St. Marienkirche," in Einladung zu den ... Prilfungen und Redeilbungen der Schuler des Katharineums zu Lubeck (1893)]. Liineburg: Town Library, 16th-19th-cent. MSS and printed material, 17th-cent. North German organ tablatures, motets, and theatrical works [F. Welter, Katalog der Musikalien der Ratsbucherei Luneburg (1950)]. Mainz: Town Library, 15th-16th-cent. partbooks; 16th-18th-cent. theoretical works [F. W. E. Roth, in MJM xxi].

Marburg: Westdeutsche Bibliothek, 170,000 vols. from the former Prussian State Library music collection [see Berlin, Deutsche Staatsbibliothek]. Munich: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, 15th17th-cent. MSS and printed works, first editions from the classical and romantic periods [J. J. Maier, Die musikalischen Handschriften der K. Hof- und Staatsbibliothek in Muenchen (1879)]; Stadtische Musikbibliothek, folksong collection, Bavarian music MSS; Frauenkirche, 16th-19thcent. prints and MS choirbooks [J. Jenne, Die Chorbibliothek der Munchener Frauenkirche (1950), typescript; K. G. Fellerer, in CP Wagner]; Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, documents on music history; Staatstheater, early 19th-cent. theater music, librettos, etc. [R. Schaal, "Die vor 1801 gedruckten Libretti des Theatermuseums Miinchen" (MF x-xiv)]. Munster: BischOfl. Dios. Archiv, Santini collection [F. Santini, Catalogo della musica esistente presso Fortunato Santini in Roma (1820); J. Killing, Kirchenmusikalische Schiitze der Bibliothek des Abbate Fortunato Santini, (1910); K. G. Fellerer, Die musikalischen Schiitze der Santinischen Sammlung: Fuhrer durch die Ausstellung der Universitiits-Bibliothek (1929); id., "Verzeichnis der kirchenmusikalischen Werke der Santinischen Sammlung" (KJ xxvi-xxxiii)]. Regensburg (Ratisbon): Staatliche Bibliothek, old MSS and printed works [C. T. Gmeiner, Kurze Beschreibung der Handschriften in der Stadtbibliothek (1780?)]; Proske Music Library, 13th-18th-cent. MSS [K. Weinmann, "Die Proskesche Musikbibliothek in Regensburg" (KJ xxiv)]; Court Library of Prince Thurn und Taxis, MSS of late 18th-cent. court music [S. Farber, Verzeichnis der vollstiindigen Opern, Melodramen und Ballette, wie auch der Operntextbucher der forstlich Thurn und Taxisschen Hojbibliothek (1936)]; Institut flir Musikforschung, choral and folk music [F. Hoerburger, Katalog der europiiischen Volksmusik im Schallarchiv (1952)]. Stuttgart: Wiirttembergische Landesbibliothek, 2,500 MSS and 7,500 printed volumes [C. Gottwald, Die Handschriften der Wurttembergischen Landesbibliothek Stuttgart (1964); A. Halm, catalog of 16th-17th-cent. MSS, in suppl. to MJM xxxiv-xxxv; H. Marquardt, Die Stuttgarter Chorbucher (1936)]. Tiibingen: University Library, autographs and several old printings of theory formerly in the Prussian State Library [see under Berlin, Deutsche Staatsbibliothek].

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Wolfenbiittel: Herzog-August-Bibliothek, two 13th-cent. MSS of organa [0. von Heinemann, Die Handschriften der Herzoglichen Bibliothek zu Wolfenbilttel, 4 vols. (1884-1913); E. Vogel, Die Handschriften nebst den iilteren Druckwerken der Musikabtheilung (1890)]. Zwickau: Robert Schumann Museum; Ratsschulbibliothek [R. Vollhardt, Bibliographie der Musik-werke in der Ratsschulbibliothek zu Zwickau (suppl. to MfM xxv-xxviii)]. GREAT BRiTAIN. General: W. H. Frere, Bibliotheca Musico-Liturgica, a Descripti!X! Hand List of the Musical and Latin-liturgical MSS of the Middle Ages Preserved in the Libraries of Great Britain and Ireland, 2 vols. (1901-32); E. B. Schnapper, The British Union-Catalogue of Early Music Printed before the year 1801, 2 vols. (1957). Cambridge: For general information, see J. Vlasto, in MR xii; V. Duckles, "Some Observations of Music Libraries at Cambridge" (Notes ix). University Library, MSS dating from the 11th cent., English lute tablatures, F. T. Arnold collection of works on thoroughbass practice, early printings [Catalog of the Manuscripts preserved in the Library of the University of Cambridge, 6 vols. (1856-67)]; Clare College, Cecil Sharp folksong collection, 18th-cent. English organ music; Corpus Christi College [M. R. James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts, 2 vols. (1909-12)]; Christ's College [M. R. James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Western Manuscripts (1905)]; Jesus College [M. R. James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Library of Jesus College (1895)]; Magdalene College, psalters, 16th-cent. vocal MSS, the library of Samuel Pepys [Bibliotheca Pepysiana, 4 vols. (1914-40)]; Pembroke College [M. R. James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts (1905)]; Pendlebury Library, University Faculty of Music; Peterhouse College, 16th17th-cent. sacred vocal MSS, 17th-cent. MS organ music [A. Hughes, Catalogue of the Musical Manuscripts at Peterhouse (1953)]; Trinity College [M. R. James, The Western Manuscripts in the Library of Trinity College, 4 vols. (1900-04)]; the Union Society, Erskine Allan collection; Fitzwilliam Museum, MSS of 17th-18th-cent. harpsichord music, French operas and motets, Italian cantatas, Handel collection [J. A. FullerMaitland and A. H. Mann, Catalogue of the Music in the Fitzwilliam Museum (1893); M. R. James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts (1895)].

Dundee: Free Library, Wighton collection of works relating to Scottish music. Edinburgh: University Library, old Scottish music, Gaelic song records [C. R. Borland, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Western Mediceval Manuscripts (1916)]; Reid Music Library of the University Music Faculty, Tovey, Niecks, and Weiss collections [H. Gal, Catalogue of Manuscripts, Printed Music and Books on Music up to 1850 in the . .. (Reid Library) (1941)]; National Library of Scotland, MSS of bagpipe and country dance music, Glen collection [Catalogue of Manuscripts Acquired since 1925 (1938-)]. Glasgow: University Library, Euingcollection of old music [Catalogue of the Musical Library of the Late Wm. Euing, Esq. (1878)]; Farmer collections of Scottish music and Oriental music, from 9th century on, and Stillie, Zavertal, and Drysdale collections. London: British Museum, numerous collections, MSS and printed music [A. HughesHughes, A Catalogue of Manuscript Music in the British Museum, 3 vols. (1906-09), repr. (196465); [List] now Catalogue of Additions to the Manuscripts in the British Museum, for years 1836-1920 (1843-1933); W. Barclay Squire, Catalogue of Printed Music Published between 1487 and 1800 now in the British Museum, 2 vols. and 2 suppl. (1912-); K. Meyer and P. Hirsch, Katalog der Musikbibliothek Paul Hirsch, 4 vols. (1928-47); Accessions, Part 53: Music in the Hirsch Library (1951); Accessions, 3rd seriesPart 291B: Books in the Hirsch Library with supplementary List of Music (1959)]; Royal Music Library, now part of the permanent collection of the British Museum [W. Barclay Squire and H. Andrews, Catalogue of the King's Music Library, 3 vols. (1927-29)]; Royal College of Music [W. Barclay Squire, Catalogue of Printed Music in the Library of the Royal College of Music (1909); id., Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Library (1931), typescript catalogue of more than 4,000 MSS; W. H. Husk, Catalogue of the Library of the Sacred Harmonic Society (1872), now incorporated into the Royal College collection]; Royal Academy of Music, autograph MSS, glees, rare 18th-cent. instrumental music [A Catalogue of the Angelina Goetz Library (1904); F. Corder, A History of the Royal Academy of Music (1922)]; Trinity College of Music, Fletcher collection of old instruments; Westminster Abbey, 17th-18th-cent. English and Italian MSS [W. Barclay Squire, Musik-katalog der Bibliothek der Westminster-Abtei in London

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(suppl. to MJM xxxv)]; Lambeth Palace, sacred music [M. R. James and C. Jenkins, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Library of Lambeth Palace (1930-32)]; Guildhall Library, Gresham Music Library [A Catalogue of the Printed Books and Manuscripts deposited in Guildhall Library (1965)]. Manchester: Henry Watson Music Library, 18th-cent. MSS and printed music, Newman Flower Handel collection. Oxford: Bodleian Library, MSS dating from the lOth cent., including the Burgundian school [Dom Anselm Hughes, Medieval Polyphony in the Bodleian Library (1951); W. Frere, Bibliotheca Musico-Liturgica i (1901); N. G. Wilson and D. I. Stefanovic, Manuscripts of Byzantine Chant in Oxford (1963)]; 16th-18th-cent. MSS [F. Madan, A Summary Catalogue of Western Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, 7 vols. (1895-1953)), and rare printed works, especially English; Faculty of Music, Terry Bach collection, Heron-Allen violin collection, and portrait collections; Christ Church College, old English MSS [G. E. P. Arkwright, Catalogue of Music in the Library of Christ Church, Oxford, 2 vols. (1915-23); A. Hiff, Catalogue of printed music publishedprior to 1801 now in the Library of Christ Church, Oxford (1919)]; Oriel College, 17th18th-cent. printed music. Tenbury: St. Michael's College, Gore Ouseley collection of rare treatises and old English MSS, Toulouse-Philidor collection of 17th-19th-cent. French operatic works and motets [E. H. Pellowes, The Catalogue of Manuscripts ... of St. Michael's College, Tenbury (1934); E. H. Pellowes, in ML xii]. GREECE. Athens: The Gennadion, Byzantine MSS, Greek church and folk music. Mount Athos: Monasteries, important Byzantine musical MSS. Patmos: St. John's Monastery, Byzantine MSS. HUNGARY. Budapest: National Szechenhi Library, Esterhazy Archive of Haydn scores and documents, autograph letters of Haydn, Liszt, and Hungarian musicians [D. Bartha and L. Somfai, "Catalogue raisonne der Esterhazy-Opemsammlung" (Haydn als Opernkapellmeister, 1960)); J. Vecsey, Haydns Werke in der Musiksammlung der Nationalbibliothek Szechenyi in Budapest (1959); 0. Gombosi, "Die Musikalien der Pfarrkirche zu St. Aegidi in Bartfa" (CP

Woif)]; Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Bart6k-KodaJ.y collections of Hungarian folk music.

IRELAND. Dublin: National Library, Irish and Scottish books of songs and country dances, early ballad operas and songsheets (mostly 18th-cent.); Irish Academy of Music, Antient Concerts Society library; St. Patrick's Cathedral, Archbishop Marsh's Library, MSS and printed music, 16th17th cent., lute pieces and instrumental fantasies [N.J. D. White and J. R. Scott, Catalogue of the Manuscripts remaining in Marsh's Library (1913); N. J. D. White, An Account of Archbishop Marsh's Library, Dublin ... with a Note on Autographs by Newport B. White (1926)]; Trinity College, Ebenezer Prout Library; copyright deposit [T. K. Abbott, Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Library (1900)). ITALY. For contents of important musical collections, see the Bulletins (Bollettino or Pubblicaziom) of the Associazione dei Musicologi Italiani (1909-41 ?). For MSS, see A. Sorbelli and others, Inventari dei manoscritti delle biblioteche d'Italia (1890-), partial index in lxvi, and G. Gabrieli, Notizie statistiche, storiche, bibliografiche delle collezioni di manoscritti oggi conservati nel/e biblioteche italiane (1936). Bologna: Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale (G. B. Martini Music Library), one of the most important music libraries, especially for Italian publications [G. Gaspari and U. Sesini, Catalogo della Biblioteca del Liceo Musicale di Bologna, 5 vols. (1890-1943) repr., 4 vols. (1961); F. Vatielli, La Biblioteca del Liceo Musicale di Bologna (1916)); Biblioteca Universitaria, lithand 15th-cent. MSS [F. X. Haberl, "Wilhelm du Fay" (VMW i, 475ft"); A. Sorbelli and others, Inventari dei manoscritti delle biblioteche d'Italia xix; F. Liuzzi, "I codici musicali conservati nella Biblioteca Universitaria di Bologna" (La Rinascita Musicale i [1909]); L. Frati, in RMI xxiii]; San Petronio, church archives, 16th-cent. vocal polyphony, 17th-18th-cent. music for strings and solo instruments [A. Bonora and E. Giani, Catalogo delle opere musicali ... citta di Bologna, in Pubblicazioni dell'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series ii (1914-39); L. Frati, I Corali della Basilica di S. Petronio in Bologna (1896); J. Berger, in MQ xxxvii; K. Jeppesen, in AM xiii, 30); Archinginnasio [A. Sorbelli and others, Inventari dei manoscritti delle biblioteche d'ltalia xxx, liii). Florence: Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale,

476

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Magliabechiana and Palatina collections, 12th15th-cent. theoretical works, 13th-cent. laude, 15th-18th-cent. sacred and secular works [A. Sorbelli and others, Inventari dei manoscritti delle biblioteche d'Ita/ia vii-xiii; B. Becherini, Catalogo dei manoscritti musica/i della Bib/ioteca Nazionale di Firenze (1959)]; Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana, liturgical MSS, Squarcialupi Codex, Magnus Liber Organi, 10th-15th-cent. Ashburnham MSS [C. Paoli, I codici Ashburnhamiani della R. Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana i (1887-89)]; Bibliotheca Riccardiana Catalogus codicum manuscriptorum qui in Bib/iotheca Riccardiana Florentiniae adservantur (1756); R. Morpurgo, I Manoscritti della R. Biblioteca Riccardiana i ( 1893-1900)]; Conservatorio Luigi Cherubini, 15th-17th-cent. MSS, rare theoretical and practical works, musical instruments [R. Gandolfi, C. Cordara and A. Bonaventura, Catalogo delle opere musica/i . . . cittti di Firenze, in Pubblicazioni del/'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series iv (1929); B. Becherini, "I manoscritti e le stampe rare della Biblioteca del Conservatorio 'L. Cherubini' di Firenze" (La Bibliofilia lxvi); A. Damerini, II R. Conservatorio di Musica "Luigi Cherubini" di Firenze (1941)]; Biblioteca Marucelliana, early 16thcent. printings [E. Vogel, Bibliothek der gedruckten Weltliche Vokalmusik Ita/iens ii (1892), rev. ed. (1962)). Lucca: Biblioteca Bovemativa, 11th-15thcent. MSS, l5th-l8-cent. printings; Biblioteca del Seminario, 16th-19th-cent. MSS and printed music [E. Maggini, Catalogo delle musiche stampate e manoscritte del fondo antico (1965); A. Bonaccorsi, "Catalogo con notizie biografiche delle musiche . . . nelle biblioteche di Lucca" (Col/ectanea Historiae Musicaeii)]. Milan: [For general information, see Le bib/ioteche milanesi (1914); W. Rubsamen, "Music Research in Italian Libraries . . . Second Installment" (Notes vi)). Biblioteca Ambrosiana, 10th13th-cent. liturgical MSS, 16th-17th-cent. sacred printings, autographs [Catalogo delle opere musica/i . .. cittti di Milan, in Pubblicazioni dell'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series iii (1910ll)]; Conservatorio "G. Verdi," 16th-cent. printed sacred vocal music, autographs; copyright deposit [E. de' Guarinoni, Indice genera/e dell'Archivio Musicale Noseda ... alia Bib/ioteca del R. Conservatorio di Musica di Milano (1897)]; Cathedral Archive, 15th-18th-cent. MSS [C. Sartori, La Cappella musicale del duomo di Milano. Catalogo delle musiche del/'archivio (1957)]; La Scala, theatrical museum, auto-

graphs and pictures [S. Vittadini, Catalo!Jl del Museo teatrale alia Scala (1940-58)]. Modena: Biblioteca Estense, 15th-18th-cent. MSS and prints [P. Lodi, Catalogo delle opere musica/i . .. cittti di Modena, in Bol/ettino dell'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series viii (n.d.); V. Finzi, "Bibliografia delle stampe musicali della R. Biblioteca Estense" (Rivista delle biblioteche iii-v); E. J. Luin, in La Bibliofilia xxxviii). Monte Cassino: Monastery Library, liturgical MSS and treatises, Neapolitan operas [E. Dagnino, "L'Archivo musicale di Montecassino" (Casinensia i [1929]); P. Ferretti, "I manoscritti musicali gregoriani dell' archivio di Montecassino" (Casinensia i, 1929)]. Naples: Biblioteca Nazionale, 12th-13th-cent. liturgical MSS, 13th-15th-cent. Byzantine MSS, 16th-17th-cent. printings [A. Mondolfi, "II fondo musicale cinquecentesco della Biblioteca nazionale di Napoli" (Col/ectanea Historiae Musicae ii)]; Regio conservatorio di musica (Conservatorio di San Pietro a Maiella), 16th-18thcent. printings, 18th-19th-cent. Neapolitan operatic MSS [II Museostorico musica/edi "S. Pietro a Majella" (1930)]; Oratorio dei Filippini, 16th17th-cent. church music [G. Gasperini and F. Gallo, Catalogo genera/e .. . cittti di Napoli, in Pubblicazioni dell'Associazione dei musicologi ita/iani, series x (1918-34); E. Mandarini, I codici manoscritti della Biblioteca Oratoriana di Napoli (1897)). Padua: Biblioteca Nazionale, 16th-17th-cent. printings; Biblioteca Capitolare [A. Garbelotto, "Codici musicali della biblioteca capitolare di Padova" (RMI liii-liv)]; University Library, 14th-cent. French and Italian songs, MS organ tablatures [W. Rubsamen, "Music Research in Italian Libraries ... Second [Third] Installment," (Notes vi, viii)]; Cathedral of San Antonio, Tar-· tini printings and autographs [G. Tebaldini, L'Archivio musicale della Cappella Antoniana (1895); L. M. Minciotti, Catalogo dei codici manoscritti (1842)]. Parma: Conservatorio "Arrigo Boito," 16th17th-cent. partbooks, MSS and early theory [R. Allorto, "Biblioteche musicali in ltalia: La Biblioteca del Conservatorio di Parma e un fondo di edizioni dei sec. XVI e XVII non compie~ nel catalogo a stampa" (Fontes Artis Musicae, 1955); M. Medici, "Osservazione sulla Biblioteca Musicale di Parma" (Aurea Parma, May-August 1964)]. Rome: Vatican Library, 10th-15th-cent. treatises, MSS, Barberini and Chigi collections, ar-

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chives of San Pietro, Sistine Chapel [J. M. Llo- sicali ... cittd di Venezia, in Pubblicazioni delrens, Capellae Sixtinae Codices musicis notis l'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series vi instructi sivi manu scripti sive praelo excussi (1915-41); T. Wiel, I codici musicali Contariniani (1960); supersedes an earlier catalogue by F. X. del secolo XVII nella R. Biblioteca di San Marco Haberl (1885-88)]; Julian Chapel [see St. Louis (1888); Biblioteca musicale del Prof P. Canal in University for microfilms and card catalogue Crespano Veneto (1885)]; Biblioteca del Palazzo of Vatican collection; H. Stevenson, Bibliotheca Giustinian Lolin [S. Cisilino, Stampe e manoApostolica Vaticana . . . Inventario dei libri scritti preziosi e rari della Biblioteca del Palazzo stampati Palatino- Vaticani, 2 vols. (1886-91 ); Giustinian Lolin a San Vidal (1966)]; ConservaG. B. de Rossi, La biblioteca della Sede Apo- torio Benedetto Marcello, later Venetian MSS of stolica ed i catalogi dei suoi manoscritti (1884)]; vocal and instrumental pieces; Biblioteca QueArchives of St. John Lateran, Santa Maria rini-Stampaglia, late 17th-cent. vocal MSS Maggiore, and Santa Maria sopra Minerva; [Catalogo delle opere musicali ... cittd di Venezia, Biblioteca Corsiniana, Accademia Nazionale in Pubblicazioni dell'Associazione dei musicologi dei Lincei [V. Raeli, in RMI xxv-xxvii]; italiani, series vi (1913)]. Important music MSS are also at Aosta, Biblioteca Casanatense, Baini collection, 11th14th-cent. liturgies, 16th-17th-cent. printings; Castell'Arquato, Faenza, Ivrea, and Monza. Accademia nazionale diS. Cecilia and Biblioteca NETHERLANDS. del Conservatorio, copyright deposit, also rich Amsterdam: Library of the Dutch Musicoin printed music and librettos [Catalogo delle logical Society housed in the Public Library opere music ali . .. citta di Roma, in Pubblicazioni [Catalogus van de bibliotheek der Vereeniging dell'Associazione dei musicologi italiani, series v voor Nederlandsche Muziekgeschiedenis (1919)]. (1912-13), theoretical works only; Elenco delle The Hague: Scheurleer collection [Muziekopere musicali (1896); Catalogo delle opere di historisch Museum van Dr. D. F Scheurleer, musica . . . della Congregazione ed Accademia Catalogus, 3 vols. (1923-25)]. di Santa Cecilia di Roma (1846)]; Biblioteca Leyden: University Library, 10th-15th-cent. Nazionale Centrale, 15th-17th-cent. liturgical MSS, Souterliedekens [P. C. Molhuysen, et a/., music, 16th-19th-cent. MSS; Rolandi collection Codices manuscripti, 7 vols. (1910-)]; Town of librettos and vocal scores [U. Rolandi, II Archives, five 16th-cent. choirbooks from St. libretto per musica (1951)]; Basilica Liberiana Pieterskerk; Bibliotheca Thysiana, lute music. [V. Raeli, in Musica d'oggi (old series) ii]. The Utrecht: University Library, 12th-15th-cent. German Historical Institute in Rome maintains liturgical MSS [P. A. Tiele, Catalogus codicum a well-stocked music reference collection. manu scriptorum Bibliothecae Universitatis Trent: Seven 15th-cent. codices [DTO 14/15, Rheno-Trajectinae, 2 vols. (1887-1909)]. 22, 38, 53, 61, 76]. Turin: Biblioteca Nazionale, madrigal prints, POLAND. For general information, see D. Pia17th-cent. ballets, Foa and Giordano collections, menac, in Notes xix. Krakow: See A. Chybinski, "Die Musikbe17th-cent. German organ tablature [Esposizione nazionale di Torino M. DCCC. XCVIII: Mano- stii.nde der Krakauer Bibliotheken von 1500scritti e libri a stampa musicati esposti dalla Biblio- 1650" (SIM xiii). University Library, 16th-cent. teca Nazionale di Torino (1898); 0. Mischiati, organ tablature, autographs [J. Reiss, Ksiazki o "L'Intavolatura d' organo tedesca della Biblio- muzyce, illustrated catalogue of 15th-16th-cent. teca Nazionale di Torino. Catalogo ragionato" music, 3 fasc. (1924--38)]. (L'Organo iv); A. Gentili, "La raccolta di antiche Warsaw: Biblioteka Narodowa, microfilm armusiche Renzo Giordano alia Biblioteca Na- chive of the music holdings of numerous Polzionale di Torino" (Accademie e biblioteche ish libraries [Katalog mikrofilmow muzycznich d'Italia ix); id., "La raccolta Mauro Foa nella (1956-)]. Wroclaw (formerly Breslau): University Libiblioteca nazionale di Torino" (RMI xxxiv)]; Accademia Filarmonica [A. della Corte, Cata- brary, 16th-17th-cent. printings, collections logo dell'archivio di musica (1926)]; Cathedral, from former Town Library and Brieg GymnaMS and printed 16th-18th-cent. sacred vocal sium [E. Bohn, Bibliographie der Musik-Druckmusic. werke bis 1700 (1883); id., Die musikalischen Venice: Biblioteca Marciana, MSS, madrigal Handschriften des XVI. und XVII. Jahrhunderts partbooks, early Venetian operas, Canal and in der Stadtbibliothek zu Breslau (1890); Contarini collections [Catalogo delle opere mu- E. Kirsch, Die Bibliothek des Musikalischen In478

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stituts bei der Universitiit Breslau (1922)]. The Musicological Institute has the collections of the Domstift and St. Elizabeth-Kirche.

PORTUGAL. Coimbra: University Library [S. Kastner, Inventario dos ineditos e empressos musicais (1937); M. de Sampayo Ribeiro, Os manuscritos musicais (1941)]. Lisbon: Biblioteca da Ajuda, 17th-18th-cent. Portuguese and Italian operas [M. A. Machado Santos, Catalogo de musica manuscrita, 6 vols., 1958-63; Inventario dos codices alcobacenses, 5 vols. (1930-32)]; Cathedral archives, Portuguese church music; Biblioteca Nacional, MSS of Portuguese composers; Library of Jolio IV, King of Portugal, valuable collection destroyed in the earthquake of 1775 [P. Craesbeck, Primeira parte do index da livaria de musica ... 1649, fac. ed. (1874)]. Oporto: Public Library [Catalogo da Bibliotheca publica municipal do Porto, 10 parts (187996)]. RUMANIA. Brasov: Honterus Gymnasium, MSS, keyboard tablature [E. H. Muller, Die Musiksammlung der Bibliothek zu Kronstadt (1930)]. RUSSIA. publics.

See Union of Soviet Socialist Re-

SPAIN. Barcelona: Biblioteca Musical (Central) de la Diputaci6, MSS and printings of the 16th cent., Spanish vocal music, keyboard MSS [F. Pedrell, Catdlech de Ia Biblioteca Musical, 2 vols. (1908-09)]; Pedrell collection [H. Angles, Catdleg dels Manuscrits Musicals de Ia Colleccio Pedrell (1920)]; Orfeo Catala, 15th-cent. MSS; University Library, 16th-cent. keyboard and theoretical printings. El Escorial: Monastery Library, 12th-16thcent. vocal, instrumental, and theoretical MSS and printings [G. Antolin, Catalogo de los Codices Iatinos, 5 vols. (1910-23)]; Monastery Chapel, MS choirbooks, 17th-18th-cent. vocal and organ music [P. Aubry, "Iter Hispanicum" (SIM viii, 517ff)]. Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional, 9th-18th-cent. vocal, instrumental, and operatic MSS, 16th18th-cent. printings, especially for vihuela and guitar [H. Angles and J. Subira, Catalogo Musical de Ia Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid, 3 vols. (1946-51)]; Alba Collection, largely destroyed [J. Subira, La Musica en Ia casa de Alba (1927)]; Biblioteca Medinaceli, MS Spanish madrigals [J. B. Trend, "Catalogue of the music

in the Biblioteca Medinaceli, Madrid" (Revue Hispanique lxxi)]; Palacio Nacional, music archive [J. G. Marcellan, Catalogo del Archivo de Musica de Ia Real Capilla de Palacio (n.d.)]; Biblioteca Musical circulante, 18th-cent. tonadillas, incidental music, church music [Catalogo de Ia Biblioteca Musical (1946)]. Montserrat: Monastery, 12th-cent. liturgical MSS, 16th-19th-cent. Spanish music [Musica sacra espanola [1941-47], passim; catalogue in preparation]. Seville: Cathedral, Biblioteca del Coro, 16thcent. MSS and printings; Biblioteca Columbina, 15th-16th-cent. song MSS and printings [H. Angles, "La Musica conservada en la Biblioteca Colombina y en la Catedral de Sevilla" (AnMii)]. Toledo: Cathedral, Mozarabic and polyphonic MSS [F. Rubio Piqueras, Codices polifonicos Toledanos (1925)]; Biblioteca Capitolar [R. Lenaerts, "Les manuscrits polyphoniques de la Bibliotheque Capitulaire de Tolede'' (CP 1952)]. Valencia: Cathedral [E. Olmos y Canalda, Catalogo descriptivo de los codices (1927, '28); id., COdices de Ia Catedral de Valencia (1943)]; Colegio del Patriarca or Colegio de Corpus Christi, MS Partbooks, sacred prints [V. Ripolles, catalogue in Boletin de Ia Sociedad Castellonense de Cultura, mainly in vii]. Valladolid: Cathedral Library, MSS and early printed books [H. Angles, "El Archivo Musical de la Catedral de Valladolid" (AnM iii)]. SWEDEN. See A. Davidsson, Catalogue ... des imprimes de musique . .. conserves dans les bibliotheques suedoises (1952); id., Catalogue critique et descriptif des ouvrages theoriques sur Ia musique . .. conserves dans les bibliotheques suedoises (1953). Stockholm: Kungliga Musikaliska Akedemien, 18th-cent. MSS and printings, guitar music [C. F. Hennerberg, "Kungl. Musikaliska Akademiens Bibliotek" (Nordisk Tidskrift for Bokoch Biblioteksviisen xiv)]; Musikhistoriska Museet [Instrumentsamling (1902); Musikhistoriska Museet, dess upkomst, utveckling och systemdl (1910)]. Upsala: University Library, 16th-17th-cent. printings of sacred and secular music, 17th18th-cent. MSS [R. Mitjana and A. Davidsson, Catalogue ... des imprimes de musique ... de l'Universite royale d'Upsala, 3 vols. (1911-51); C. Stiehl, in MfM xxi; R. Mitjana y Gordon, in La Bibliofilia, 1909-10]; Gimo Collection, 18thcent. Italian instrumental music [A. Davidsson, Catalogue of the Gimo Collection of Italian

479

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LIBRETTO

manuscript music in the University Library of Uppsala (1963)].

SWITZERLAND. Basel: University Library, 13th-15th-cent. liturgical MSS, medieval treatises, keyboard tablatures, 18th-cent. symphonies and chamber music [J. Richter, Katalog der Musik-Sammlung auf der Universittits-Bibliothek in Basel (suppl. to MfM xxiii-xxiv); E. Refardt, Katalog der Musikabteilung ... und der in ihr enthaltenen Schweizerischen Musikbibliothek. I. Musikalische Kompositionen (1925); id., Thematischer Katalog der Instrumentalmusik des 18. Jahrhunderts in den Handschriften der Universittitsbibliothek Basel ( 1957) ]. Bern: Schweizerische Landesbibliothek, 19thcent. music by Swiss composers [K. Joss, Katalog der Schweizerischen Landesbibliothek, Musik (1927)]. Einsiedeln: Monastery Library, 10th-15thcent. treatises, J. C. Bach collection [G. Meier, Catalogus codicum manu scriptorum (1899)]. Lucerne: Theater- und Musik-Liebhabergesellschaft, Haydn collection [W. Jerger, Die Haydndrucke aus dem Archiv der Theater- und Musik-Liebhabergesellschaft zu Luzern (1959)]. St. Gall: Monastery Library, 9th-18th-cent. liturgical MSS and treatises [G. Scherrer, Verzeichniss der Handschriften (1875); id., Verzeichniss der Incunabeln (1880)]; Town Library, lute books. Zurich: Zentralbibliothek, 10th-15th-cent. liturgical MSS, Swiss autographs, 16th-cent. organ music and treatises [W. Nagel, in MfM xxii, 67ff, 94ff; id., in MfM xxiii, 71ff; T. Odinga, in MfM xxii, 213f; C. Mohlberg, Katalog der Handschriften der Zentralbibliothek Zurich: Mittelalterliche Handschriften (1931)]; Bibliothek der Allgemeinen Musikgesellschaft Zurich, 17th-18th-cent. German and Italian printings, autographs [G. Walter, Katalog der gedruckten und handschriftlichen Musikalien des 17. bis 19. Jahrhunderts im Besitze der Allgemeinen Musikgesellschaft Zurich (1960)]. UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS. See M. Elmer, in Notes xviii. Leningrad: Saltykow-Shedrin Library, formerly the Royal Public Library, Russian vocal music, opera scores, composers' legacies; Central Music Library, Russian MSS, theater music. See I. V. Golubovskii, "Biblioteki i muzei" (Muzykal'nyi'i Leningrad, 1958) for a general description of the musical contents of 14 Leningrad libraries and 12 museums. Moscow: Synod School Library, 15th-19th-

cent. MSS of Russian church music in various notations, Razumovskii and Odoevskii collections [I. M. Kudryavtzev, Sobraniya D. V Razumovskovo (catalogue, 1960)]. ASIA. INDIA Calcutta: Santi Niketan Library, Indian classical music, some very old, both sacred and secular.

JAPAN. Tokyo: Nanki Music Library, 4,500 vols., including 454 from the W. H. Cummings collection [Catalog of the Nanki Music Library, 2 vols., rev. ed. (1920); Catalogue of the W. H. Cummings' collection in the Nanki Music Library (1925)]. TURKEY. Istanbul: List of Istanbul library collections, 36 vols. (1882-93); historygeography MSS (1943-); Divan MSS (1947-). Lit.: E. T. Bryant, Music Librarianship: A Practical Guide [1959]; V. Duckles, ed., Music Libraries and Librarianship (Library Trends viii, no. 4, April 1960); G. Kinsky, "Musikbibliotheken: ein Uberblick tiber die wichtigsten offentlichen und privaten Musiksammlungen" (Philobiblon [Vienna] vi); L. R. McColvin and H. Reeves, Music Libraries, rev. ed. by J. Dove, 2 vols. [1965]; A Ott, "Die Musikbibliotheken" (in F. Milkau's Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft ii, rev. ed., 1959; E. Vogel, "Musikbibliotheken nach ihrem wesentlichsten Bestande rev. v.H.D. aufgeflihrt" (JMP i). Libretto [It.]. The text of an opera, oratorio, etc. Famous writers of librettos (librettists) include Ottavio Rinuccini (1562-1621; for Peri, Caccini, Monteverdi); Philippe Quinault (1635-88; for Lully); Pietro Metastasio (1698-1782; for A Scarlatti, Hasse, Handel, Mozart); Ranieri di Calzabigi (1714-95; for Gluck); Lorenzo da Ponte (1749-1838; for Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, Cosi fan tutte, and Don Giovanni); Eugene Scribe (1791-1861; for Auber, Meyerbeer, Halevy, Boieldieu); Arrigo Boito (18421918; for Verdi's Otello and Falstajj); Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874-1929; for R. Strauss); W. S. Gilbert (1836-1911; for A Sullivan). Richard Wagner began a new practice by writing his own texts and by insisting upon a degree of unification between text and music theretofore unknown. His example was followed by Cornelius, Pfitzner, Schreker, Menotti, and others. Large collections of librettos of early operas (17th and 18th centuries) are at the Library of Congress (Collection A Schatz) and in the

480

UBRE VERMELL

LIED

libraries of Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, Paris, Bologna, Munich, Venice, etc. Lit.: 0. G. T. Sonneck, Catalogue of Opera Librettos Printed before 1800, 2 vols. (1914); E. Istel, The Art of Writing Opera-librettos [ 1922]; E. de Bricqueville, Le Livret d'opera fram;ais de Lully a Gluck (1887); M. Ehrenhaus, Die Operndichtung der deutschen Romantik (1918); A Wotquenne, Libretti d'operas et d'oratorios italiens du XVI/e siecle (Catalogue de Ia Bibliotheque du Conservatoire . .. de Bruxelles, Annexe I, 1901); I. Pizzetti, Musica e dramma (1945); U. Rolandi, II Libretto per musica attraverso i tempi (1951); A della Corte, II Libretto e il melodramma (1951); F. Vatielli, "Operistilibrettisti dei secoli XVII e XVIII" (RMI xliii); H. Prunieres, "I Libretti dell' opera veneziana nel secolo XVII" (LRM iii); T. M. Baroni, in RMI xii (Metastasio); M. Callegori, in RMI xxvi, xxviii (Metastasio). Libre Vermell. See Llibre Vermeil. Licenza, con alcuna [It.]. Indication for some license in performance, or in composition, e.g., canone con alcuna licenza. In the 17th and 18th centuries licenza meant a passage or cadenza inserted by the performer; also, an operatic prologue designed as a dedication to a noble patron [see Prologue], such dedication being considered a "liberty" taken by the composer. Liceo [It.]. Name of various Italian conservatories, e.g., Liceo Padre Martini (Bologna, also known simply as Liceo Musicale, famous for its library; see under Libraries), Liceo Rossini (Pesaro), Liceo B. Marcello (Venice), Liceo Verdi (Turin), etc. Lichanos [Gr.]. See under Greece II. Liebesgeige; -oboe [G.]. Viola d'amore; oboe d'amore. Liebeslieder [G., Love Songs]. Two groups of eighteen (op. 52, 1869) and fifteen (Neue Liebeslieder, op. 65, 1875) short pieces by Brahms. Each is in the character of a waltz, for vocal quartet and piano duet in a chamber-music relationship. The texts are taken from Daumer's Polydora, except for the last song in op. 65, which is by Goethe. Lied [G.; Pl. Lieder]. A song in the German vernacular. The history of the lied can be divided into the following periods: I. Minnesingers and Meistersinger (c. 1250-1550); II. Polyphonic lied (15th-16th century); III. Accompanied lied

("Generalbass-lied") of the baroque (16001750); IV. "Volkstiimliches lied" (1775-1825); V. The "German lied" of the 19th century. I. See Minnesinger; Meistersinger. II. The 15th-century composers Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445) and the Miinch von Salzburg (ft. c. 1400) were the first to write polyphonic songs, rather primitive imitations of 14th-century French models or still earlier styles [see 0. Ursprung, in AMW iv, v; DTO 18]. Important collections of 15th-century folksongs, some monophonic, some in polyphonic setting, are the Glogauer, Miinchner, and Lochamer Liederbiicher [see Liederbuch]. The polyphonic songs of Adam von Fulda (c. 1445-1505) and Heinrich Finck (1445-1527) show remarkable progress in style (true polyphonic treatment, imitation), thus leading to the masterly compositions of Heinrich Isaac (c. 1450-1517; see DTO 28; HAM, no. 87), Paul Hofhaimer (1459-1537; see H. J. Moser, Paul Hojhaimer, 1929; HAM, no. 93), Stoltzer (c. 1475-1526; see DdT 65; HAM, no. 108), and Ludwig Senft (c. 14901543; see DdT, no. 34; *Editions XVIII A, 10; HAM, no. 110). Isaac's "lnnsbruck ich muss dich lassen" is one of the oldest and most beautiful German folksongs. Important sources of real German folksong are Senft's *quodlibets, in which many popular songs of his day are cited. Important collections of polyphonic songs are G. Forster's five books Ein Ausszug guter alter und newer teutscher Liedlein (Nuremberg, 153956; the second book, Frische teutsche Liedlein, repub. by Eitner; *Editions XL VII, 29), and J. Ott's 115 guter newer Liedlein (1544, repub. by Eitner; *Editions XLVII, 1-4). In the second half of the 16th century Orlando di Lasso composed numerous German texts with consummate imagination and dexterity [Newe Teiitsche LiedZein mit .ftlnff Stimmen, 3 vols., 1567, '72, '76; Newe Teutsche Lieder . .. mit vier Stimmen, 1583, etc.; see compl. ed., vols. xviii, xx]. In the works of the foreigners, Mattheus Le Maistre (c. 1505-77), Antonio Scandello (1517-80), and Jacob Regnart (c. 1540-99), the lighter vein of the Italian canzonette and the Bauernharmonie (peasant harmony) of the *villanella superseded the polyphonic style of the earlier period [see Editions XLVII, 19; SchGMB, no. 139]. The two great masters from the end of the 16th century, Leonhard Lechner (c. 1550-1606; Neue Teutsche Lieder, 1582, new ed. by E. F. Schmid, 1926) and Hans Leo Hassler (1564-1612; Canzonette a quatro voci, 1590, and Neue teutsche Gesiing, 1596, new ed. in DTB 9; Lustgarten, 1601, new

481

LIED

LIED

ed., see Editions XLVII, 15) combine refinement of technique with depth of feeling and expression. The development of the polyphonic lied came to an end with Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630; Venus Kriintzlein, 1609; Musica boscareccia, 1621, '26, '28; see comp. ed. by A Priifer, vols. i, ii; also SchGMB, nos. 187, 188). III. The accompanied solo lied of the baroque period ("Genera1bass-lied," song with thoroughbass accompaniment) first appeared in J. Nauwach's (c. 1595-c. 1630) Erster Theil teiltscher Vi/lane/len mit 1, 2 und 3 Stimmen (1627), J. Staden's (1581-1634) Hertzentrosts-Musica (1630) and Geistlicher Music-Klang (1633), and T. Selle's (1599-1663) Deliciarum Juvenilium decas Harmonica-bivocalis (1634) and Monophonetica (1636) [see H. J. Moser, ed., :I:Alte Meister des deutschen Liedes, 1931]. With H. Albert's (1604-51) Arien (1638-50; DdT 12, 13; see also HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no. 193) and A Hammerschmidt's Weltliche Oden (1642-49; see Moser, Alte Meister; SchGMB, no. 194) it freed itself from the Italian model and became a truly German type, combining popular simplicity with artistic taste. This development reached its high point in the inspired songs of A Krieger (1634-66; see DdT 19; H. Osthoff, Adam Krieger, 1929; HAM, no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209), who used the instrumental ritomello to be played at the end of each stanza. This "ritomello-lied" was also cultivated by J. E. Kindermann (1616-55; see DTB 21-24), J. Theile (1646-1724; see SchGMB, no. 210), and P. H. Erlebach (1657-1714; see DdT46/41). Toward the end of the century the religious song found a master in J. W. Franck (1641-c. 1710; Geistliche Lieder, 1681-1700; new ed. DdT 45). The arias of Bach and Handel deserve only passing mention here since they do not properly belong to the category of lied. In fact, during the first half of the 18th century the lied practically ceased to exist, giving way to the elaborate treatment of the aria. On the other hand, a great number of lieder were written, under the name "aria," in the operas of J. S. Cousser [SchGMB, no. 250], R. Keiser [SchGMB, nos. 268, 269], Telemann, etc. Sperontes' Singende Muse an der Pleisse ( 1736-45; DdT 35 /36; see SchGMB, no. 289) gives a good cross-section of the period of deterioration and disintegration of the Genera/bass-lied. See also DdT 51 for songs (Oden) by Telemann and Gomer. IV. Matters took a new turn after 1750 when J. A Hiller (1728-1804), the founder of the *Singspiel, replaced the worn-out pathos of the

late baroque with an affected naivete in songs that were often addressed to children [Lieder for Kinder (1769); Filnfzig geistliche Lieder for Kinder (1774); Sammlung der Lieder aus dem Kinderfreunde (1782); see Moser, Alte Meister]. J. A P. Schulz (1747-1800) found a more genuine expression of folklike simplicity (Lieder im Volkston; see Volkstiimliches lied), while other members of the second *Berlin school, such as J. F. Reichardt (1752-1814) and K. F. Zeiter (1758-1832), introduced a new lyricism, particularly in their settings of Goethe's poems. In the songs of Haydn, Mozart ("Das Veilchen"), and the early Beethoven, this movement came to its artistic climax and end. See DTO 54 and 19 for a survey of the Viennese lied from 1778 to 1815. V. The greatest period of the German lied began with Schubert (1797-1828), who, after a few preliminary songs in traditional style, opened a new era with his "Gretchen am Spinnrade" (Oct. 19, 1814, "the birthday of the German lied"), a miracle of musical art as well as of psychological intuition, being the work of a seventeen-year-old. There soon followed a flood of immortal masterworks, including the "Erlkonig" (1815), "Wanderer's Nachtlied" (1815), "Der Tod und das Mlidchen" (1817), and "Der Wanderer" (1819), then the song cycles Die Schone Milllerin (1823) and Winterreise (1827), and finally the collection Schwanengesang (1828). Measured by the artistic perfection of these songs, even the most beautiful lieder of Schumann and Brahms seem somewhat slight in imagination, and only Hugo Wolf's compositions stand the proof of comparison. For a complete outline of the development of the romantic lied, one must also add Mendelssohn, Liszt, Wagner, R. Franz (1815-92), P. Cornelius (182474), Mahler (1860-1911), R. Strauss (1864-1949), H. Pfitmer (1869-1949), and M. Reger (18731916). The revolutionary tendencies of the 20th century found their first clear expression in Schoenberg's 15 Poems for high voice from Das Buch der Liingenden Garten by Stefan George (op. 15, 1908 and later) which, in addition to their novel harmonic style, show a new type of vocal (or, rather, unvocal) line, a speechli.ke declamation in which the rise and fall of the speaking voice is reflected. Anton von Webem, Josef Hauer, and Ernst Krenek have written songs in a similar vein, sometimes using serial techniques. In contrast to these is Hindemith's Marienleben (op. 27, 1924), which is inspired by

482

LIEDERBUCH

LIEDER OHNE WORTE

the structural concept and polyphonic style of Bach. Traditional and progressive elements are combined in the songs of Hermann Reutter, Ernst Pepping, and Wolfgang Fortner. Lit.: 0. Bie, Das deutsche Lied (1926); E. Biicken, Das deutsche Lied (1939); H. J. Moser, Das deutsche Lied seit Mozart, 2 vols. (1937); H. Bischoff, Das deutsche Lied [n.d.]; M. Friedlander, Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert, 2 vols. in 3 (1902); H. Kretzschmar, Geschichte des neuen deutschen Liedes i: Von Albert bis Zeiter (1911); W. K. von Jolizza, Das Lied . .. bis zum Ende des 18. J ahrhunderts ( 1910); W. Vetter, Das frilhdeutsche Lied, 2 vols. (1928); H. H. Rosenwald, "Geschichte des deutschen Liedes zwischen Schubert und Schumann" (diss. Heidelberg, 1930); H. J. Moser, ed., :j:Alte Meister des deutschen Liedes, rev. ed. (1931); id., :j:Corydon, 2 vols. (1933); M. Breslauer, Das deutsche Lied . . . bis zum 18ten Jahrhundert (1908; bibl.); A. Priifer, Johann Hermann Schein und das weltliche deutsche Lied (1908); R. Velten, Das altere deutsche Gesellschaftslied unter dem Einfiuss der italienischen Musik (1914); R. Eitner, Das deutsche Lied des 15. und 16. J ahrhunderts, 2 vols. (1876, '80); also in MfM viii-xv); H. Osthoff, Die Nieder/ander und das deutsche Lied, 1400-1640 (1938); H. Rosenberg, Untersuchungen iiber die deutsche Liedweise im 15. Jahrhundert (1931); 0. A Baumann, Das deutsche Lied und seine Bearbeitungen in den frilhen Orgeltabulaturen (1934). Periodicals. For 15th cent.: 0. Ursprung, in AMWiv, v, vi (bibl.); H. Riemann, in S/Mvii; W. Krabbe, in AMW iv; J. Miiller-Blattau, in ZMW xvii, AMF iii; J. Wolf, in CP Liliencron; R. Molitor, in SIM xii. 16th cent.: F. Spitta, in CP Riemann; A Becker, in ZMW i; E. Radecke, in VMW vii (lute music); H. J. Moser, in JMP xxxv. 17th cent.: F. Noack, in ZMW 1; P. Epstein, in ZMW x; W. Vetter, in ZMW x. 18th cent.: M. Seiffert, in CP Liliencron; B. Seyfert, in VMW x; H. J. Moser, in JMP xxxix; G. Frotscher, in ZMWvi. 19th cent.: E. Hughes, inMQ iii' (Liszt); R. Gerber, in JMP xxxix (Brahms). 20th cent.: H. Nathan, in MM xiv, no. 3. See also under Minnesinger; Meistersinger. Liederbuch [G.]. A term commonly applied to 15th- and 16th-century collections of German songs, mainly: (a) Lochamer Liederbuch, c. 1450 [fac. ed. by K. Ameln, 1925; description with transcriptions in JMW ii (1867); improved transcription by K. Escher and W. Lott (1926); see W. Salmen, Das Lochamer Liederbuch ( 1951);

0. Ursprung, in AMW iv, v, vi; H. Rosenberg, in ZMW xiv; J. Miiller-Blattau in AMF iii; see also Fundamentum]. (b) Glogauer (formerly Berliner) Liederbuch, c. 1480 [new ed., see Editions XVIII A, 4 and 8; also in MfMvi, no. 5 and viii, Beilage]. (c) Miinchener (also Walther's or Schedel's Liederbuch), 1461-67 [MJM xii-xv, Beilage; H. Rosenberg, ed., :j:Das Schedelsche Liederbuch (1933)]. The Lochamer Liederbuch is the most important source of early German folksong (some monophonic, some in three-voice composition). The Glogauer Liederbuch contains, in addition to vocal pieces, interesting instrumental dances [see Dance music II] and canons. For bibl. see under Lied (15th century); also BeMMR, p. 229. In the 16th century a number of extensive collections of German songs in four (occasionally five) parts were published by: Arnt von Aich, LXXV hubscher Lieder, c. 1510 [see H. J. Moser and E. Bernoulli, Das Liederbuch des Arnt von Aich, 1930]; Erhart Oglin, 1512, without title [*Editions XLVII, 9]; Peter SchOffer, 1513, without title [fac. ed. 1909; *Editions VIII, 29]; id. and M. Apiarius, Funff und sechzig teiitscher Lieder, 1536; Johann Ott, 121 neue Lieder, 1534 [see H. J. Moser, in AM vii]; id, 115 guter neuwer Liedlein, 1544 [*Editions XLVII, nos. 1-4]; Christian Egenolff, Gassenhawerlin and Reutterliedlin, 1535 [see Gassenhauer]; Wolfgang Schmelz!, Guter, seltzamer und kiinstreicher teutscher Gesang, 1544 [see Quodlibet]; Georg Forster, Ein Ausszug guter . .. Liedlein, 1539-56 [*Editions XVIII A, 20]; id., Der ander Theil kurtzweiliger . .. Liedlein, 1540 [*Editions XLVI, 29]; id., Der dritte Teyl schOner . .. Liedlein, 1549; id., Der vierdt They/ schoner ... Liedlein, 1556; id, Der fonffte Theil schOner . .. Liedlein, 1556. They contain compositions by Isaac, Senft, Bruck, Hellinck, Paminger, Stoltzer, Lemlin, Othmayr, and others, as well as numerous anonymous settings.

Liedercyclus, Liederkreis [G.]. *Song cycle. Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen [G., Songs of a Wayfarer]. Four songs for contralto and orchestra by Mahler (1883), set to his own poems. They were inspired by his youthful love affair with Johanna Richter. Lieder ohne Worte [G., Songs without Words]. Forty-eight piano pieces by Mendelssohn, published in eight groups of six each (op. 19b, 30, 38, 53, 62, 67, 85, 102; 1830-45) and written in the form and style of a song, i.e., with a singable

483

UEDERTAFEL

LIGATURES

melody and a simple, uniform accompaniment. The songlike character is also evident in the absence of contrasting middle sections such as are usually found in the *character pieces of the 19th century. The individual titles given in modern editions ("Spring Song," "Hunting Song," "Spinning Song") are not authentic, except for the three called Venezianisches Gondellied, nos. 6, 12, and 29, the Duetto, no. 18, and the Volkslied, no. 23. [G.]. A men's singing society, founded by Zeiter in 1809, whose members first sat around a table [G. Tafel] for refreshments. Various similar societies sprang up during the 19th century. Liedertafel

Liedform [G.]. *Song form. Liedmotette [G.]. Song motet; see Motet B I. Lied von der Erde, Das [G., The Song of the

Earth]. A symphonic song cycle by Mahler (who called it a symphony), for mezzo-soprano, tenor, and orchestra, set to German translations (by Hans Bethge) of old Chinese poems: 1. Das Trink lied vom Jammer der Erde (The Drinking Song of Earth's Woe); 2. Der Einsame im Herbst (The Lonely One in Autumn); 3. Von der Jugend (Of Youth); 4. Von der Schonheit (Of Beauty); 5. Der Trunkene im Frilhling (The Toper in Spring); 6. Der Abschied (The Farewell). The work, Mahler's last, was completed in 1908 and first performed in Munich in 1911, after his death. Lieto [It.]. Gay, joyful. Lievo [It.]. Light, easy. Life for the Czar, A [Rus. Zhizn za Tsarya]. Opera in five acts by Glinka (libretto by G. F. Rozen), produced in St. Petersburg, 1836. Setting: Russia, 1612-13. An alternate title in current use in Russia is Ivan Susanin. The opera is a landmark in music history because it was the first popular opera in the Russian language, inaugurating a nationalist movement that has continued ever since. Ligatura [It.]. (1) *Ligature. (2) In the 17th cen-

tury, a tied note; see under Durezza.

can only be understood if viewed as the result of this evolution, e.g., the initial stroke of the "descending" forms (1 and 3), which is lacking in the "ascending" forms (2 and 4). Although in plainsong and related bodies of monophonic music these signs are but graphic modifications of the neumes [see Monophonic notation], they adopted definite rhythmic meanings in polyphonic music. The first step in this direction was in the modal notation of the school of Notre Dame, in the early 13th century. Here, ligatures are the ordinary notational signs for all the parts, single notes being used only for special reasons (long notes of the tenor). Their rhythmic values depend entirely on their grouping, according to the different rhythmic *modes [see Square notation]. The rise of the *motet (c. 1225) greatly diminished the use of ligatures in the upper parts because they had a full text, whose syllables were sung, as a rule, to single notes. The final step in the development of the ligatures came c. 1250 with Franco of Cologne, who succeeded in assigning an unambiguous metrical significance (independent of the modes) to each of the various shapes. His rules remained unaltered throughout the ensuing period of mensural notation. The discussion below refers mainly to the period of white mensural notation (after 1450). II. Ligatures are classified according to the number of notes they contain: ligatura binaria (two), ternaria (three), quaternaria (four), etc. In each of these categories there are various types distinguished by the terms proprietas and perfectio. The former term refers to the modifications concerning the initial notes, the latter to those of the final note. The various types of ligatura binaria are illustrated in the accompanying table in which c.c. means cum (with) proprietate et cum perfectione; s.c., sine (without) proprietate et cum perfectione, etc., while c.o.p. designates a special type, known as cum opposita proprietate (B = brevis; L = longa; S = semibrevis): Desc.

Ligatures. I. Notational signs of the 13th to 16th

centuries that combine two or more notes in a single symbol. They developed in the late 12th century as square-shaped modifications of the neumes [see Ex.; see also Notation]. From these they inherited certain graphic peculiarities that 484

As c.

Value

fb

cR

B

L

% f=::l

cf1

L

L

c. c. S.C.

cP

B

B

1::::::!

rf

L

B

c.s. s.s. c.o.p.

%~

tp f:::::l

-

s s

LILLIBURLERO

LITANY

These principles cover also the various types of ternaria and quaternaria, since the middle notes occurring in these ligatures are (normally) always B. As a further illustration, an example of ligatures together with a rendition in single notes is given. It should be noted that oblique writing has no rhythmical significance unless it occurs

harmonic (or vertical) point of view that prevailed at the time the book was published. Today the "linear" character of counterpoint is generally recognized. The term is also used as a designation for what Germans call rilcksichtsloser (reckless) Kontrapunkt, i.e., the modem type of counterpoint that takes little account of harmonic combination and euphony (Hindemith, Stravinsky). Lining (out). In American and English psalm and hymn singing, the practice of having each line read by the minister or some other person before it is sung by the congregation. This custom, which sprang from people's insufficient familiarity with the texts, died out by about the middle of the 19th century, largely because of the introduction of singing schools and instruments. In England it was known as "deaconing." See Psalter.

.. = .,

at the end of a ligature, and that even here it affects only the last of the two notes comprised in its graph. Lit.: ApNPM, pp. 87ft', 23lff, 312ft'; L. Dittmer, in MD ix (Codex Montpellier); 0. Ursprung, in AM xi; H. Rietsch, in ZMW viii. See also under Mensural notation. Lilliburlero. A 17th-century political tune whose melody appeared first under the name "Quickstep" in The Second Book of The Pleasant Musical Companion (1686). This melody [see GD iii, 198; GDB v, 237] was, the following year, used with a political text, satirically directed against the Papists and the Irish Roman Catholics, which began as follows: Ho, broder Teague, dost hear de decree, Lilliburlero, bullen a Ia. The melody has been used for various other texts of the same type. It also appears under the name "A New Irish Tune" in Musick's Hand-Maid . .. for the Virginals, Harpsichord, and Spinet (1689), with H. Purcell given as the composer, of either the tune or the keyboard version. Purcell also used it as a ground in his play, The Gordian Knot Unty'd (1691).

Linke Hand [G.]. Left hand. Unz Symphony. Mozart's Symphony inC, no. 36 (K. 425), composed at Linz, Austria, and first performed there by the private orchestra of Count Thun. Lip. See Embouchure. Lippenpfeife [G.]. Labial pipe. Liquescent neumes. See under Neumes. See H. Freistedt, Die liqueszierenden Noten des Gregorianischen Chorals (1929); J. Pothier, in RCG ix; L. David, in RCG xxxiv; Pateographie musicale (Solesmes, 1889-) ii, 37ft'; ApGC, p. 104. Lira. A 15th- and 16th-century type of violin having a wide neck with front pegs, drone strings, and a slightly pear-shaped body. The lira da braccio was held in the arm, the larger lira da gamba (lirone) between the knees. See ill. under Violin; also see Violin II. See A. Hajdecki, Die italienische Lira da braccio (1892). For Haydn's lira organizzata, see Hurdy-gurdy. Lira sacro-hispana. See Editions XXIV. Liscio [It.]. Smooth, even.

Umma [Gr.]. See under Pythagorean scale.

L'istesso tempo [It.]. Same tempo.

Limoges, school of. Same as school of *St. Martial.

Litany. In the Roman Catholic Church, solemn supplications addressed to God, the Virgin, or the Saints. They open with the *Kyrie eleison, continue with numerous exclamations such as "Mater Christi, ora pro nobis," sung responsively to a short inflected monotone, and close

Linear counterpoint. A term introduced by E. Kurth (Grundlagen des linearen Kontrapunkts, 1917) in order to emphasize the "linear" or horizontal aspects of counterpoint, as opposed to the

485

LITURGICAL BOOKS

LITURGICAL BOOKS

with the *Agnus Dei. The most important litanies are those of Rogation Days [LV, p. 835], and the Litany of Loreto (Litaniae Laurentanae), named after Loreto, Italy, where it is supposed to have originated in the 13th century; LV, p. 1857). The latter is especially popular, being frequently used at processions, the presentation of the sacrament at Benediction, and many popular services where it is sung by the whole congregation (particularly in Italy). It has been frequently composed in a simple chordal style (jalsobordone), e.g., by Festa, by Palestrina [comp. ed. by Haber (1886), vol. xxvi, and Bianchi (1955), vol. xx], by Lasso, and others. See A. Machabey, "Le Origini asiatiche della Litania cristiana occidentale" (LRM xxi, 279); K. A. Rosenthal, "Mozart's Sacramental Litanies and their Forerunners" (MQ xxvii). The Anglican litany has the same basic structure as the Roman Catholic litanies. It consists of petitions interspersed with responses such as "Spare us, good Lord," "Good Lord, deliver us," etc. Liturgical books. I. The most important books of the Roman Catholic rites are the following: (1) The missale (missal) contains all the texts for the Mass, the prayers, lessons, and the texts of the Mass chants. (2) The breviarium (breviary) is the corresponding collection of all the texts for the Office. (3) The graduate (*gradual) contains the Mass chants, with their music. (4) The antiphonale or antiphonarium (*antiphonal, antiphonary, or antiphoner) contains the Office chants (except Matins), with their music. (5) The Liber usualis is a modern combination of the four books just mentioned, with some additions and many omissions. It includes the spoken texts as well as the musical items for both the Mass and the Office, arranged in their proper order, giving a clear picture of the entire service from day to day. It also includes the service of Matins (for a few of the highest feasts), which is omitted in the antiphonale because it is held today only in monastic churches. On the other hand, a number of services that are very important, particularly from the historical point of view, are omitted from the Liber usualis, mainly the weekdays of Lent, and the Wednesdays and Fridays of the four Ember weeks. (6) The kyriale (kyrial) contains only the chants of the Ordinary ofthe Mass (beginning with the Kyrie). (7) The vesperale (vesperal) contains the service of Vespers and usually that of Compline as well. (8) The processionale (processional) is a collection of the chants

(mostly responsories and antiphons) sung during processions (within the church) before Mass. Such processions are customary mainly in monastic churches, particularly in France. (9) The sacramentarium (sacramentary), a very early type (6th to 8th century), contains only the texts spoken by the priest or the officiating bishop, mainly the prayers and the variable Prefaces for the *Canon of the Mass. In this period the readings from the Scriptures and Gospels were also in separate books, the lectionarium Qectionary) and the evangelarium (evangeliary or evangelistary). (10) The tonarium or tonale (*tonary) is a medieval book in which the chants are arranged according to the eight church modes. (11) The cantatorium (cantatory), a 9th- to lOth-century prototype of the gradual, contains only the solo chants of the Mass, i.e., Graduals, Alleluias, and Tracts. ( 12) The troparium (*troper) is a medieval book containing *tropes. (13) The pontificate (pontifical), contains the services used in functions where a bishop or prelate officiates, e.g., consecration of a church, ordination of priests, etc. (14) The Liber responsorialis, a modern compilation, contains mostly *responsories. Antiphonale originally was the name for a gradual as well as for an antiphonary [see Antiphonal]. The earliest graduals and antiphonals (8th to lOth centuries) contain only the texts of the chants. The six existing graduals of this type are collated in Dom R. J. Hesbert's Antiphonale missarum sextuplex (1935). II. Toward the end of the 16th century various books were published in which the traditional melodies were "reformed," mainly in the direction of simplification and, especially, elimination of the melismas on unaccented syllables. To this category belong a Graduate published by Liechtenstein and a Graduale abbreviatum published by Giunta (both Venice, 1580), as well as J. Guidetti's Directorium chori (Rome, 1582). Even more drastic changes were incorporated in the Graduate de tempore et de sanctis ... cum cantu Pauli V. Pont. Max. jussu reformato, prepared by Anerio and Suriano, published by Raimondi (2 vols., Rome, 1614) and generally known as the "Editio Medicea" (because the press was owned by the Medici family). Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries the publications of Liechtenstein and Giunta as well as those by Plantin (Antwerp) and Nivers (Paris) were generally used. The Editio Medicea was unfortunately revived in the so-called Ratisbon edition C-'Editio Ratisbonensis"), a series published under the title "Medicea" by Pustet

486

LITURGICAL DANCES

LITURGICAL DRAMA

(Regensburg, 1871). Meanwhile, studies of medieval manuscripts led to attempts to restore the authentic versions of Gregorian chant, the first tangible result being P. Lambillotte's Antiphonaire de Saint Gregoire (Brussels, 1851) and Antiphonarium Romanum (Paris, 1854). There followed Dom Pothier's Liber gradualis a Gregorio Magno olim ordinatus (Tournai, 1883) and Liber gradualis juxta antiquorum codicum fidem restitutus (Solesmes, 1895), and finally, under Dom Mocquereau's leadership, the Vatican edition ("Editio Vaticana"). Two of its four volumes are the Graduale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae (Rome, Vatican Press, 1907) and the Antiphonale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae (ibid., 1912), usually known as Graduale Romanum and Antiphonale Romanum. Both books also appeared in versions known as the Solesmes editions (pub. by Desclee, Tournai), in which the chants are provided with the rhythmic signs of Solesmes, particularly the vertical stroke (*"episema") indicating the *ictus. The Liber usualis also belongs to this group of publications. See Gregorian chant VII; Solesmes; Motu proprio. III. Liturgical books in the Anglican communion are divided into official and semiofficial. Owing to the autonomy of the various national churches, the few official books are binding only for the particular church by which they are issued. The official music books issued by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. include The Hymnal 1940, The Choral Seroice, The American Psalter, and The Plainsong Psalter. Among the semiofficial volumes are the American St. Dunstan Kyrial, the Monastic Diurnal Noted and other editions of C. W. Douglas, the English Gradual, and other publications from St. Mary's Convent in England. Other Protestant churches combine their suggested order of worship with their hymnals. In most cases, this is a further simplification of the Anglican Morning Prayer and Communion Service. See the Seroice Book and Hymnal of the Lutheran Church in America (1958), The Methodist Hymnal (1939), The Pilgrim Hymnal (1958), etc. III by v.P.D. Liturgical dances. See Religious dances; Dance

music I. Liturgical drama. Medieval plays (chiefly 12th-

and 13th-century) representing Biblical stories (in Latin) with action and, occasionally, monophonic music. Since they never actually were

part of the official liturgy, they might better be called "religious" drama. Liturgical drama developed during the lOth and 11th centuries from *tropes to the Introits for Christmas and Easter, which were written in the form of a *dialogue (so-called dialogue tropes), i.e., question-and-answer form. One of the earliest examples is the trope "Hodie cantandus est" (possibly by Tuotilo, d. c. 915) to the Christmas Introit "Puer natus est" [Schubiger, p. 39; abridged in SchGMB, no. 3]. A more fully developed type-in fact, a real play-is the lOthcentury trope "Quem queritis" to the Introit "Resurrexi" for Easter Sunday [SchGMB, no. 8]. For an account of its performance at Winchester in the middle of the lOth century, see ReMMA, p. 194. Later plays, mostly of French origin, deal with the story of Daniel, the massacre of the innocents (containing the "lament" of Rachel), the wise and foolish virgins (the 12th-century play, Sponsus), etc. Favorite subjects for other plays were the miracles of various saints, particularly St. Nicholas (the so-called miracle plays). From the 14th to 16th centuries, liturgical drama developed into the mysteries or mystery plays [corruption of L. ministerium, service], coming under secular sponsorship and using the vernacular. These were dramatic representations based on Biblical subjects such as the life of Jesus, the Acts of the Apostles, the Creation, etc., elaborately staged and in some instances continuing over a period of 20 days or longer. They used music only incidentally, for processions, fanfares, and dances, occasionally including plainsong, popular songs, etc. In Italy they were known as sacre rappresentazioni, in Spain and Portugal as *autos. It is chiefly from these plays that European drama developed. See also Opera II. Lit.: N. Greenberg, ed., :j:The Play of Daniel (1959); W. L. Smoldon, ed., :j:Herod; A Medieval Nativity Play [1960]; E. Coussemaker, ed., :j:Drames liturgiques du moyen age (1860; fac. ed. Broude Bros., 1964); H. Villetard, ed., :j:Office de Pierre de Corbeil (1907); A. Schubiger, in *Editions XLVII, 5 (4.ii); id., Die Stingerschule St. Gal/ens (1858); K. Young, The Drama of the Medieval Church, 2 vols. [1962]; R. B. Donovan, The Liturgical Drama in Medieval Spain (1958); 0. E. Albrecht, Four Latin Plays of St. Nicholas (1935); W. Lipphardt, Die Weisen der Lateinischen Osterspiele des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts [1948]; E. A. Schuler, Die Musik der Osterfeiern, Osterspiele und Passionen des Mittelalters (1951);

487

LITURGY

LONDON SYMPHONIES

L. P. Thomas, Le Sponsus (1951); A. della Corte, Storia della Musica i (1944), 77ff; NOHii, l75ff; GeHM, pp. 232ff; G. Tin tori and R. Monterosso, ed., Sacre rappresentazioni nel manoscritto 201 della Bibliotheque municipale di Orleans (Cremona, 1958); J. Handschin, "Das WeihnachtsMysterium von Rouen" (AM vii); 0. Ursprung, "Das Sponsus-Spiel" (AMF iii); J. B. Trend, "The Mystery ofElche" (MLi, l45ff); F. Pedrell, "La Festa d'Elche" (SIM ii); J. Smits van Waesberghe, "A Dutch Easter Play" (MD vii); W. Lipphardt, "Das Herodesspiel von Le Mans" (CP Waesberghe); F. Liuzzi, "L'Espressione musicale nel dramma liturgico" (Studi medievali, new series ii [1929], 74-109); W. L. Smoldon, "The Music of the Medieval Church Drama" (MQ xlviii); id., "The Easter Sepulchre MusicDrama" ML (xxvii); E. Bowles, "The Role of Musical Instruments in Medieval Sacred Drama" (MQ xlv). Liturgy. The officially authorized service of the Christian churches, particularly of the Roman Catholic Church, as distinguished from extraliturgical services, such as the *Benediction. See Gregorian chant; Mass; Office; Liturgical books; also Liturgical drama. Lituus. (I) A Roman trumpet, possibly of Etruscan origin; see Brass instruments V (a). (2) A 17th-century Latin name for the comett or cromome [see Oboe family III]. The two litui in Bach's Cantata no. 118 are obviously tenor trumpets in B-fiat [see SaRM, p. 244]. See C. Sachs, "Die Litui in Bachs Motette '0 Jesu Christ'" (BJ 1921). Liuto [It.]. *Lute. Livret [F.]. *Libretto. Lizenza [It.). "License," freedom. Uibre Vermell [Cat.]. A late 14th-century Spanish MS from the monastery of Montserrat, containing, in addition to literary texts, a few pages with ten compositions. Among the latter are three entitled ca~a, which are three-part canons similar in structure to the French *chace of the early 14th century. Also of interest is a reference to *religious dancing. In the 19th century the book was bound in red velvet, hence the name [Sp. vermeil, vermilion]. See H. Angles, in AnM x; 0. Ursprung, in ZMW iv; ReMMA, p. 373f. Lo [It.]. Abbr. for loco [It., place], used to indicate return to the normal octave after all' ottava or similar designations.

Lochamer Liederbuch. See under Liederbuch. Locrian, lokrian. See under Church modes II; Greece II.

Lohengrin. Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner (to his own libretto, based on W. von Eschenbach and medieval legends), produced in Weimar, 1850. Setting: Antwerp, early lOth century. Lohengrin marks the transition from Wagner's early operas (Rienzi, Der Fliegende Holliinder, Tannhlluser) to the late masterpieces (Ring, Tristan, Meistersinger, Parsifal). In it Wagner for the first time made consistent use of his "continuous melody" as opposed to the "number" style [see Number opera] that still occurs in Tannhiiuser. There is also a modest use of *leitmotivs to characterize the most important personages and emotions. Lombardic style [It. stile Iombardo]. (I) Unexplained name for inverted dotting; see Dotted notes III. (2) "Howling of the Lombards" is a term derived from the statement made in 1274 by Elias Salomonis that "the singing of the Lombards is like the howling of wolves" [GS iii, 60]. It is usually described as being "parallel organum of the second," on the basis of explanations and musical examples given by Gafurius in his Practica musice of 1496 (with reference to "Ambrosiani nostri," i.e., singers of the Ambrosian chant of Milan). Actually what is involved is the use of organum of the fourth ("Musica enchiriadis") but beginning and ending with a second rather than with a unison. Anon. IV says that the Lombards sometimes put the last note in unison with the tenor but not always [CS i, 358]. The example "Rex coeli" under Organum would illustrate the "Lombardic organum" if the lower part began on b-fiat instead of c. See J. Handschin, in AM xv, 2; E. Ferand, in MQ xxv; H. Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, rev. ed. (1918), p. 348 (Eng. trans., History of Music Theory, by R. Haggh [1962], p. 296f); B. Stiiblein, in A Ettore Desderi (1963). London Symphonies. (I) Haydn's last twelve symphonies, nos. 93-104, written in 1791-95 for the Salomon Concerts in London [see Concert I], also known as the Salomon Symphonies. Particularly the last of these, no. I04 in D, is known as "The London Symphony." (2) A London Symphony is a composition by Ralph Vaughan Williams, composed in 1913. Although written largely in the form of a classical symphony, it incorporates programmatic elements (Westminster chimes, London street cries).

488

WR

LONGA

Longa, long. See under Mensural notation I. Long playing. See under Phonograph and recorded music. Loop. See under Acoustics V. Louise. Opera in four acts by Charpentier (to his own libretto), produced in Paris, 1900. Setting: Paris, c. 1900. The opera is closely related to the *verismo movement, particularly to Puccini's La Boheme. Lourd [F.]. Heavy. Loure [F.]. (1) A 16th- and 17th-century name for bagpipe [see SaRM, p. 245]. (2) A 17thcentury dance (originally accompanied by the instrument loure?) in moderate 6/4 time and with dotted rhythms leaning heavily on the strong beats [see Dance music III]. Early examples are in Lully's opera Alceste of 1677; the loure in Bach's French Suite no. 5 is by far the most beautiful example of this dance type. Loure [F.]. See under Bowing (f). Love for Three Oranges, The [Rus. Lyubov k trem Apelsinam]. Farcical opera in four acts by Prokofiev (to his own libretto, based on a tale by C. Gozzi), produced (in French) in Chicago, 1921. Setting: fairy tale. Numerous set pieces, particularly the March and the Scherzo, have become standard concert works. Lovesong Waltzes. See Liebeslieder. Low Mass. In the Roman Catholic rites, the Masses of ordinary weekdays, celebrated without singing, as opposed to the High Mass of Sundays [see Mass]. Lucernarium. The first item of Vespers in *Ambrosian chant. The text nearly always includes a reference to "light" [L. lucerna, lamp]. Lucernarium is an old term for the evening service, held when the lamps were lighted. Lucia di Lammermoor. Opera in three acts by Donizetti (libretto by Cammarano, after Sir Walter Scott), produced in Naples, 1835. Setting: Scotland, end of 17th century. Ludus Tonalis [L., Tonal Play]. A work for piano by Hindemith, composed in 1942 and designed as a 20th-century *Well-Tempered Clavier. It consists of twelve fugues linked by eleven interludes and preceded by a prelude that serves, in retrograde inversion, as a postlude. The fugues are arranged according to Hindemith's principle of decreasing tonal relationship to the tonic of

C: C, G, F, A, E, etc., the interludes leading from one tonality to the next. The fugues explore the various contrapuntal devices (accompanied canon, double and triple fugue, crab motion, inversion, etc.) in a modem idiom. The work is one of the most characteristic products of *neoclassicism. Luftpause [G.]. Breathing rest. Lulu. Unfinished opera in three acts by Alban Berg (to his own libretto, based on two plays by F. Wedekind), produced in Zurich, 1937. Setting: Germany, early 20th century. The music is in twelve-tone technique based on a single tone row throughout [see Serial music]. Through various devices, Berg succeeds in introducing simple folk melodies as well as involved Wagnerian lines, creating a work of infinite variety and great dramatic sensitivity. Lundu [Port.]. Rural Brazilian folk dance, originally sung during harvest celebrations. At present this form has become a kind of serenade, also known as aribU, that still preserves its basic African characteristics. J.o-s. Lur [Dan.; pl. lurer]. A prehistoric Nordic trumpet of bronze, preserved (especially in Denmark) in about 50 examples dating from the 12th to 6th centuries B.C. They are in the shape of a long twisted S, ending in a fiat ornamental disk, and are usually found in pairs turned in opposite directions, resembling a pair of mammoth tusks. Archaeological evidence suggests that they were used not for military purposes or signaling but in connection with a religious cult. These instruments, being almost the sole evidence ofNordic musical activity of the pre-Christian era, have been the subject of much speculation and exaggerated claims (e.g., "three-voiced harmony, 3,000 years ago" inK. Grunsky, Der Kampf urn deutsche Musik, 1933), which are generally considered untenable today. The tone of the lur is variously described as "rough and blatant" [GD iii, 251; GDB v, 43] and (rather euphemistically) as "sanft posaunenartig" [H. J. Moser, Geschichte der Deutschen Musik (1930), i, 32]. See ill. under Brass instruments. Lit.: H. C. Broholrn, W. P. Larsen, and G. Skjerne, The Lures of the Bronze Age (1949); A. Oldeberg, in Acta Archaeologica xviii (1947); H. C. Broholrn, Bronzelurerne i National Museet (1958; Eng. summ. pp. 113-23); A. Hammerich, in VMW x; H. Schmidt, in Priihistorische Zeitschrift vii (1915).

489

LUTE

LUSINGANDO

Lusingando [It.]. Caressing. Lustig [G.]. Merry, cheerful. Lustigen Weiber von Windsor, Die [G., The Merry Wives of Windsor]. Opera in three acts by Otto Nicolai Qibretto by S. H. Mosenthal, after Shakespeare's play), produced in Berlin, 1849. Setting: Windsor, 15th century. Lustige Witwe, Die [G., The Merry Widow]. Operetta in three acts by F. LeMr Qibretto by V. Leon and L. Stein), produced in Vienna, 1905. Setting: Paris, early 20th century. Lute [F. luth; G. Laute; It. /auto, liuto, leuto; Sp. laud; L. testudo or chelys, i.e., "turtle," a humanist misnomer referring to the tortoise shell of the ancient Greek *lyra]. I. General. A plucked stringed instrument with a round body in the shape of a halved pear, a fiat neck with 7 or more frets, and a separate pegbox set perpendicular to the neck. The instruments of the 16th century had II strings in 6 *courses, tuned (in theory) G-c-f-a-d' -g' or A-d-g-b-e'-a', with the two lowest courses doubled, sometimes in the higher octave, and the three following courses doubled in the unison. (In practice the 16th-century lute was tuned to a convenient pitch, depending on the music to be played.) In the 17th century an increasing number of bass-courses (up to six) were added, running alongside the fingerboard and therefore being unalterable in pitch. They were normally tuned FED C, etc. About 1640 another system of tuning, introduced by the great lutenist and lute-composer Denis Gaultier (c. 1600-72), was generally adopted, A-d-f-a'-d'-f'; called nouveau ton, it persisted as long as the lute was used (end of the 18th century). II. History. The history of the lute is unusually long and interesting. There are two main types of early lute, the long lute, with a neck much longer than the body, and the short lute, with a neck slightly shorter than the body. The former is by far the older instrument. It appears on Mesopotamian figurines dating from about 2000 B.C. From Babylon it spread to Egypt (c. 1500 B.C.) and Greece, where it was called pandoura. This lute had a small body covered with parchment through which the long handle penetrated [see SaHMI, p. 102]. The later development of the long lute took place in Persia, where it was called setiir ("two-strings"), cartiir ("four-strings"), or panctiir ("fivestrings"), according to the number of strings,

and in Arabia, where it was named *tanbur. A European offshoot of the Arabian long lute was the colascione of the 16th and 17th centuries [see WoHN ii, 125], and the Russian *domra (dombra). The Japanese shamisen (samisen) has a nearly square body with rounded corners. It is covered with skin, has a long neck, and three silk strings tuned in fourths or fifths [see Japan VI]. The short lute appears first on Persian clay figures from about 800 B.C. and on Indian reliefs from the first centuries A.D. About the latter time we find it in China, under the name *pyiba [Jap. biwa]. In these early instruments the neck is formed by the tapering body, a shape still present in the Arabic short lute of medieval times, called 'ud (or a/ 'ud, Sp. laud, hence lute). The transformation into the European lute, an instrument with a distinct neck and a central sound hole (the 'ud had two crescent-shaped sound holes, like the early viols) probably took place in Spain, not very long before the 15th century. From Spain, the instrument spread to other European countries. III. Other types. Numerous varieties of lute were used during the 16th and 17th centuries. The mandala or mandore had a long pegbox slightly curved and with a head-scroll reminiscent of the violin's [see SaHMI, p. 245; GD iii, 252; GDB v, 433ff]. A diminutive form of this instrument is the *mandolin. The angelica was a 17th-century variety with 17 different strings for the tones of the diatonic scale, so that stopping was largely avoided. During the 17th century the increasing demand for bass instruments led to the construction of archlutes [G. Erzlaute; It. arciliuto; Sp. archilaudj, i.e., double-neck lutes with a second pegbox that carried the bass-courses. There was a "short" archlute, the theorbo, and a "long" archlute, the chitarrone. For a third type, the liuto tiorbato, see SaHMI, p. 372. All the instruments above have the round back characteristic of the lute. The instruments with a fiat back are treated under Guitar family. Only one of them, the Spanish *vihuela, should be mentioned here because its musical repertory is closely allied to that of the lute [see Lute music; Lute tablature]. The *bandora and the smaller *orpharion have a peculiar scalloped shape, usually forming three lobes (somewhat like an oak leaf). The term "lute" is also used as a generic name for a large class of stringed instruments. See Instruments IV, B.

490

LUTE

3

'Ud. 5. Shamisen. 6. Colascione. 4. . bur Tan 3. a. Biw 2. ba. Pyi 1. es: Lut

49 1

LUTE

13 Lutes: 7. Mandala, 8. Mandolin. 9. Lute. 13. Chitarrone.

I 0. Orpharion.

II. Bandora (pandora).

12. Theorbo.

LUTE HARPSICHORD

LUTE MUSIC

Lit.: J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute und Gitarre (1926); N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musical Instruments (1941), pp. 220ff; J. Jacquot, ed., Le Luth et Sa Musique (1958); H. Sommer, Die Laute in ihrer musikgeschichtlichen, Kulturund Kunsthistorischen Bedeutung (1920); H. Farmer, An Old Moorish Lute Tutor (1933); W. Stauder, in CP Osthoff; K. Geiringer, "Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der europaischen Laute" (ZMW x); M. Brenet, "Notes sur l'histoire du luth en France" (RMI v, vi); F. Behn, "Die Laute im Altertum und friihen Mittelalter" (ZMW i); M. Brondi, "11 Liuto e la chitarra" (RMI xxxii, xxxiii); ·G. Kinsky, "Alessandro Piccinini und sein Arciliuto" (AMx). Lute harpsichord [G. Lautenclauicymbel]. A harpsichord with gut strings instead of the usual metal strings. The tone was very much like that produced by the gut strings of the lute (the reference to "checking by a damper of cloth-GD iii, 115; GDB v, 439-is evidently a confusion with the lute-stop of the ordinary harpsichord). Such harpsichords are mentioned as early as 1511 (Virdung). For the description of an instrument of 1718, see SaRM, p. 239f. In 1740 Bach had such an instrument made for his own use, which, according to Adlung (Musica mechanica organoedi ii, 139) produced a sound like a theorbo or, if damped by the lute-stop, like a lute. See 0. Fleischer, in ZIM i. Lute music. Lute music, as preserved in the numerous lute books (*lut!! tablatures) of the 16th and 17th centuries, forms an important repertory of early instrumental music, second only to that of the organ and harpsichord. Particularly during the 16th century, the lute was the chief instrument used at home, much as the piano is today. The surviving literature for the lute extends from 1507 to about 1770. It begins with four books, Intabulatura de /auto, published by Petrucci 1507--08 (I and II by Spinaccino, III lost, IV by Joan Ambrosio Dalza), containing intabulations of vocal music, dances, and free compositions called *ricercar and tastar de corde (touching of the strings). A recently discovered MS of a slightly later date (c. 1517), by Vincenzo Capirola, contains the earliest instances of signs of ornamentation and dynamic indications [see Expression marks]. Beginning in the 1530's there followed a vast number of printed books and manuscripts of Italian, French, German, Spanish, and English origin [see the long lists in

WoHN ii, 47, 66, 95, and H. M. Brown, Instrumental Music Printed before 1600 (1965)]. The sources of the 16th century contain dances (bassadanza, *pavane, *calata, *piua, *galliard, *passamezzo, *saltarello, etc.), *ricercars and *fantasias (contrapuntal and otherwise), *variations (many in the Spanish guitar books), and free *preludes (called "ricercars" in the earliest Italian books), in addition to a large number of *in tabulations of vocal music (motets, chansons, etc.). The most outstanding composers are the Italians Alberto da Ripa (Albert de Rippe), Marco d' Aquila, Francesco da Milano, Antonio Rotta, Pietro Paolo Borrono, Giacomo Gorzanis, Vincenzo Galilei, Fabritio Caroso, and Giovanni Antonio Terzi; the French Attaingnant (publisher), Adrian le Roy, and Guillaume Morlaye, to whom the Hungarian Valentin Bacfarc (pseud. Greff) may be added; the Germans Arnolt Schlick, Hans Judenkiinig, Hans Gerle, Hans N ewsidler, Wolff Heckel, Melchior Newsidler, Matthaeus Waisselius, and Sixtus Kargel; the English John Johnson, Anthony Holborne, Francis Cutting, John Dowland, Daniel Bachelor, and Robert Johnson. One might also include the great Spanish composers (who, however, wrote specifically for the *uihuela) Luis Milan, Luis de Narvaez, Enriquez de Valderrabano, Diego Pisador, and Miguel de Fuellana. In the 17th century, lute music persisted chiefly in France and in Germany, while Italy and Spain turned to the more popular guitar. The repertory consisted chiefly of preludes and stylized dances (allemandes, courantes, sarabandes, etc.). Whereas in the books of the early 17th century these dances are compiled separately [see Jean-Baptiste Besard, Thesaurus harmonicus, 1603, which is divided into ten "books," one each for preludes, allemandes, courantes, etc.], later they were arranged according to keys in groups that resemble the *suite [e.g., Denis Gaultier's La Rhetorique des dieux, c. 1655; new ed. by A Tessier]. After 1650 the center of artistic activity shifted to Germany. The suites by Esajas Reusner (1636-79) and the sonatas of Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686-1750)the latter astonishingly like Bach in stylerepresent the culmination of the entire literature. J. S. Bach wrote a number of pieces for the lute (ed. by Bruger). Lit. A. Collections of music; D. Heartz, tpreludes, Chansons and Dances for Lute, published by Pierre Attaingnant (1964); H. D. Bruger, :f:Alte Lautenkunst aus drei Jahrhunderten [1923];

493

LYDIAN

LUTE MUSIC id., tfohann Sebastian Bachs Kompositionenfor die Laute (1921); P. Jansen eta/., ed., tOeuvres de Adrian Le Roy, 3 vols. (1960-62); A. Souris, et a/., ed. tOeuvres de Robert Ballard, 2 vols. (1963, '64); id., tOeuvres de Dufaut (1965); 0. Gombosi, ed., tCompositione di meser Vincenzo Capiro/a, Lute-book (circa 1517) (1955); H. Quittard, tLe Tresor d'Orphee . .. par Antoine Francisque, 1600 (1906); G. Gullino, tGio. Battista della Gostena, Intavolatura di liuto, 1599 (1949); id., Voan Maria da Crema, Intavolatura di liuto, 1596 (1955); id., tSimone Molinaro Genovese, Intavolatura di liuto, 1599 (1940); id., tGio. Maria Radino, I ntavolatura di balli personar di liuto, 1592 (1949); D. Lumsden, tAn Anthology of English Lute Music (16th century) (1954); D. Stephens, tThe Wickhambrook Lute Manuscript (1963); *Editions XV, 37, 50 (Austrian lute music); XVII (English lute songs); XVIII A, 12 (Reusner, Weiss); XLIX, Ser. I, 3-4, 6, and 7 (French); V, I, 7, 8, 9 (Italian, French); LIII, 23 (Dlugoraj), 24 (Cato). B. Bibliography: 0. Korte, Laute und Lautenmusik bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (1901); J. Jacquot, ed., Le Luth et sa musique (1958; essays); J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute und Gitarre (1926); J. Dieckmann, Die in deutscher Lautentabulatur ilberlieferten Tiinze des 16. J ahrhunderts (1931); P. Warlock, The Lute Music ofJ. Dowland (1928); 0. Lefkoff, Five Sixteenth Century Venetian Lute Books (1960); L. H. Moe, "Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to l6ll" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1956); D. Lumsden, "The Sources of English Lute Music (1540-1620)" (diss. Cambridge Univ., 1955); W. Boetticher, "Studien zur solistischen Lautenpraxis des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts" (diss. Berlin, 1943); J. Dodge, in SIM ix (ornamentation); 0. Chilesotti, in RMI xxi (Gorzanis); C. Lozzi, in RMI ix (V. Galilei); W. Apel, in MQ xx (Spanish); H. M. Fitzgibbon, in MLxi, 71 (Ballet, Dallis); R. Newton, in PMA Ixv (English); A. Koczirz, in SIM vi (Judenktinig); 0. Gombosi, in Musicologia hungarica ii, 1935 (Bacfarc); L. de Ia Laurencie, in RM 1924, pp. 33ff (Jacques Gaultier); id., in RM 1923, pp. 224ff (Basset); id., in RdM 1926 (Bocquet, Francisque, Besard); J. Lindgren, in MJM xxiii (Mouton); D. F. Scheurleer, in TV v (Vallet); E. Radecke, in VMW vii (German lied); Quittard, in SIM viii (Hortus musarum); W. Tappert, in MJM xviii (Gerle); id., in MJM xxxii (Reusner); A. Verchaly, in RdM 1947 (Bataille); C. Sartori, in M Q xxxiv (Bossinensis ); H. Halbig, in CP Kroyer (Gorzanis); E. Haraszti, in RdM

1929, p. 159 (Bacfarc); 0. Chilesotti, in SIM iv (Francesco da Milano); H.-J. Schulze, in MFxix; H. Neemann, in ZMW x (Weiss); id., in BJ 1931 (Bach); T. Dart, in GSJ xi (Burwell Instruction Book); D. Gill, in GSJ xii (Elizabethan 7-course lute); D. Lumsden, in GSJvi (sources ofEnglish lute music); L. Picken, in GSJ viii (short lute's origin); The Lute Society Journal, passim. Lute tablature. (I) The notational systems used for writing down lute music during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries; see Tablature III, IV, V. (2) The manuscripts and books in which this notation is employed; hence, practically all the lute books of the same period [see Lute music]. Lutherie [F.]. The art of making Iutes or stringed instruments in general. Luthier, the maker of such instruments, today of violins, etc. Luttuoso [It.]. Mournful. Lydian. (l) See under Greece II. (2) The fifth *church mode, represented by the segment f-f' of the diatonic scale, with f as the tonic. From the modern point of view it is a major mode (F major) with the augmented fourth (B natural, Lydian fourth, i.e., tritone) instead of the perfect fourth (B-tlat). Owing to the presence of the tritone f-b in prominent position, examples of pure Lydian are rare in Gregorian chant. The Antiphon "Domine tu rnihi" [LV, p. 673]

Do-mi-ne,

tu

mi -hi

la-vas pe-des?

1't ~ m~~N~~~f/iftif/i$J~~~

1't 18ifN~lam 1 l is one of them [Ex. 1]. Usually, Lydian occurs in Gregorian chant as a "mixed" tonality, using the B natural (preferably for descending motion) as well as the B-tlat (for ascending motion). It should be noted, however, that the modern editions of the chant have many fiats not found in the original MSS [see ApGC, pp. l53ff]. A similar situation exists in polyphonic music from c. 1200 to 1500. Ex. 2 shows a purely Lydian passage

494

LYRA

LYDIAN

from a 13th-century motet [see SchGMB, no. 19], while Ex. 3 [c. 1470; Buxheim Organ Book] illustrates the more frequent occurrence of a tonality of mixed F-major and Lydian idioms, melodic as well as harmonic. This mixed tonality, which is very characteristic of polyphonic music prior to 1500, should not be destroyed by editorial accidentals [see Musica jicta (Ex. 8); Partial signature]. An especially important Lydian formula is the Lydian cadence, characterized by the presence of two leading tones, one before the octave, the other before the fifth [see Cadence, Ex. 16-18]. This was used very frequently in 14th-century music (Machaut), usually in transposition on c, g, or d. Similar formulas were used sporadically throughout the 15th and 16th

centuries. Probably the latest example is found at the end of F. Tunder's chorale variations on "Jesus Christus unser Heiland" (c. 1660), where the piled-up leading tones produce a truly dramatic final intensification [see K. Straube, Choraluorspiele alter Meister (1907), p. 135]. Beethoven revived the Lydian mode in the "Dankgesang" (slow movement) of his String Quartet op. 132. As a characteristic of Slavic folksong it appeared in Chopin's mazurkas [see Modality]. Lyra. (l) An ancient Greek stringed instrument, similar to the *kithara but of simpler construction, smaller, and with the soundbox usually made of tortoise shell [see ill.]. It was played with a plectrum. Instruments of the same design

4 Lyres:

I. Kithara (Greek).

2. Kithara (Egypt, Mesopotamia).

495

5

3. Lyra.

4. Crwth.

5. Rotta.

MADRIGAL

LYRA PIANO

appear on Egyptian wall pamtmgs from c. 1500 B.C. See H. Hickmann, Musicologie pharaonique (1956), pp. l58ff. In the Middle Ages the name "lyre" was adopted for several instruments only remotely like the Greek lyra, namely: (2) A medieval fiddle similar to the rebec (hence the name *lira for a 16th-century violin; see Violin II). (3) The *hurdy-gurdy, particularly in the names lyra rustica (peasant's lyra) and lyra mendicorum (beggar's lyra). (4) In modem German usage, the military *glockenspiel, on account of the shape of its frame, which is similar to the Greek lyra. The "Lyra" called for in several compositions by Haydn is not the lira da braccio but the *hurdy-gurdy. See also Lyre; Kithara; Crwth; Rotta. See H. Panum, "Harfe und Lyra im alten Nordeuropa" (S/M vii). Lyra piano [G. Lyrajiilgel]. An early 19th-

century variety of upright piano, with a case shaped like a Greek lyre. Lyra viol. See under Viol IV, 3. For ill. see under Violin. Lyra way. See under Viol IV, 3 Qyra viol). Lyre. As a specific instrument, see Lyra. As a generic term for a class of instruments, see Instruments IV, C, and illustration, p. 495. Lyric Suite. Suite in six movements for string quartet by Alban Berg (1926). Although all of the movements are in a dissonant and *expressionist idiom, only the first and last adhere throughout to the twelve-tone technique [see Serial music]. A subtle unity is achieved by introducing the main theme of each movement in the preceding movement.

M M. In organ music, manual or manualiter. See

also Metronome. Maatschappij. See under Societies II, 6. Macbeth. (1) Opera in three acts and a prologue by E. Bloch (libretto by E. Fleg, after Shakespeare's play), produced in Paris, 1910. Setting: Scotland, 11th century. (2) Opera in four acts by Verdi (libretto by F. M. Piave, after Shakespeare's play), produced in Florence, 1847; rev. version (in French) in Paris, 1865. Setting: Scotland, 11th century. Machete. See under Guitar family; Ukulele. Machicotage [F.]. A French practice of orna-

menting plainsong by inserting improvised grace notes or coloraturas between the authentic notes of Gregorian chant. The practice of machicotage is documented as far back as 1391 [see F. Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l'ancienne languefran~aise (1961)] and continued throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. Usually machicotage was used with the solo songs while the chants of the schola (choir) remained unadorned. The adoption of the Solesmes versions ended this practice. Macumba. Secret religious ceremony accompanied by songs and dances, performed by Brazilian Negroes. It combines Christian sym-

bois with others originating in Africa and passed on by Amazon Indian tribes. The music in these ceremonies is valued for its magical powers rather than its intrinsic beauty. The term macumba is employed mainly in the State of Guanabara. In other states these ceremonies are known as candombte (Baia), babacue (Pan'l), tambo (Maranhao), and also catimb6 or pagelan~a.

J.o-s.

Madama Butterfly. Opera in three acts by Puccini Qibretto by G. Giacosa and L. Illica, based on a story by John L. Long and D.

Belasco's dramatization), produced in Milan, 1904. Setting: near Nagasaki, Japan, about 1900. Madrasha. See under Syrian chant. Madrigal. N arne for two different types of Italian vocal music, one of the 14th century, the other of the 16th century (to which the term more often refers). A number of etymologies of the name have been given: mandrialis, from mandra, flock (pastoral song); materia/is, from materia, secular (as opposed to spiritualis); matricalis, from mater, mother (interpreted as "in the mother tongue," "motherly, affectionate," or "belonging to the Mother Church," hence, "of liturgical origin"); cf. ReMMA, p. 362; J. Wolf, in SIM iii and PMA lviii; N. Pirrotta, in RMI xlviii, xlix, and MD ix; J. Handschin,

496

MADRIGAL

MADRIGAL

Musikgeschichte, p. 207; W. T. Marrocco, in Speculum xxvi. I. The 14th-century madrigal. As a poetic form the madrigal consists of two or, more rarely, three strophes of three lines each, which are followed by a final strophe of two lines, called *ritornello. In each strophe, two lines rhyme with one another. The lines are usually in iambic pentameter with 7 or 11 syllables. Below is the beginning of an 8-line (3 + 3 + 2) madrigal by Petrarch as well as its complete rhyme scheme [see HAM, no. 49]: Non aJ. so.Jlmlinte piu Diana piaque Quando per ta.J. ventura tuta nuda La vidijn me~o dele gelid' aque I ... piaque . . . nuda ... aque

II ... cruda ... vello ... chiuda

Ritornello ... cello ... gello The subject of the madrigal is often amatory and pastoral, as in the example above: "Nor did Diana ever please her lover I So much as when through good fortune he saw her naked I In the midst of the cool waters," etc. Often the poems present fantastic images of animals or birds (white lamb, leopard, lizard, snake, falcon, white peacock) symbolic of men or women in pursuit of love. Music for these texts was composed usually in two, sometimes in three voice-parts, in a form that closely follows that of the poetry, the same music (a) being provided for the strophes and different music (b) for the ritornello, so that the two-stanza (8-line) madrigal has the form a a b, and the three-stanza (11-line) madrigal the form a a a b (for an example of the latter, see HAM, no. 50, where the same music is used for the first and second lines of the ritornello, resulting in the form a a a b b). The normal form, a a b, is similar to but probably not derived from that of the French *ballade [see also Bar form]. Madrigals were composed chiefly by the members of the early Italian school, e.g., Jacopo da Bologna and Giovanni da Cascia, whereas in the second half of the 14th century the madrigal was largely abandoned in favor of the *ballata. Landini, for instance, wrote only 12 madrigals and 140 ballate. The style of the trecento madrigal is best described as an ornamented *conductus style, con-

trasting sharply with the genuinely polyrhythmic style of contemporary French music (Machaut). Its impressively designed ornamenting lines foreshadow the Italian coloraturas of the 17th century. Nonetheless, A Schering's interpretation of the madrigal as "koloriertes Orgelmadrigal" (SIM xiii) is historically untenable, regarding both the implied method of "added coloraturas" and the organ as the proper medium. It is interesting to note that Landini, in his nine twovoice madrigals, adheres rather strictly to the type just described but uses a freer treatment in his three-voice examples. These are all throughcomposed and show French influence in their polyrhythmic texture as well as, in one instance (the wonderful "Musica son"), simultaneous use of three different texts after the fashion of the motet, the three stanzas of the poem being sung at the same time. Examples in: WoGM ii, iii, nos . 38-44, 47, 49, 50, 54, 55; L. Ellinwood, tThe Works of Francesco Landini (1939), nos. 1-12; HAM, nos. 49, 50, 54; SchGMB, no. 22; ReMMA, p. 363; AdHM i, p. 287; BeMMR, p. 156. The "Madrigale" in J. Wolf, tSing- und Spielmusik aus iilterer Zeit (1931), no. 6, is a ballata. II. The 16th-century Italian madrigal. As a literary type, the madrigal of the 16th century is a free imitation, without any strict form, of the 14th-century madrigal, which Italian humanists (Cardinal Bembo and his followers) used as a point of departure in their endeavors to develop a more refined poetry than that of the previous period (*frottola, *strambotto). Although these attempts were not very successful from the literary standpoint, the movement was a great stimulus to musical activity. The musicians of the early 16th century, at first Netherlands composers working in Italy (Verdelot, Willaert, Arcadelt), cooperated with the poets in order to achieve a new style of artistic refinement and expression. Naturally, they did not take their cue from 14thcentury music, which was entirely forgotten. In fact, it was only the literary bond that justified the use of the old name for the new compositions. As a musical composition the madrigal of the 16th century is an outgrowth of thefrottola, more specifically, the canzona [see Canzona (4)]. Indeed, the style of the earliest madrigals, published in Madrigali de diversi Musici of 1530 (including pieces by Verdelot, Carlo, C. and S. Festa, eta/.), differs little from that of the late frottole (1531; cf. SchGMB, nos. 72 and 98). The development of the madrigal in Italy is usually divided into three phases. (a) The early

497

MADRIGAL

MADRIGAL madrigal: Philippe Verdelot (d. c. 1550), Costanzo Festa (c. 1490-1545; the first Italian composer of madrigals), Jacob Arcadelt (c. 1505--c. 1560). The style is, in spite of considerable imitation, prevailingly homophonic; the writing is in three or four parts; the expression is quiet and restrained. (b) The classic madrigal: Adrian Willaert (properly intermediate between a and b), Cipriano de Rore, Andrea Gabrieli, Orlando di Lasso, Philippe de Monte, Palestrina (publications 1550-80). Here the writing is in four to six (usually five) parts and the style is more genuinely polyphonic and imitative, approaching that of the contemporary motet, the expression being more intense and closely allied to the text in meaning as well as pronunciation. A collateral type of this period is the madrigale spirituale, intended for devotional use (e.g., by Palestrina; compl. ed., vol. xxix). (c) The late madrigal: Luca Marenzio, Carlo Gesualdo, Claudio Monteverdi (publications 1580-1620). Here, the development leads to a highly elaborate type of music, even exaggerated and mannered, manifesting all the experimental tendencies of the fin de sieclechromaticism, word-painting, coloristic effects, declamatory monody, virtuosity of the vocal soloist, dramatic effects. Particularly important is the fact that, at this late date, the madrigal was flexible enough to drop its traditional polyphonic texture and adapt itself to the new monodic style. The transition is particularly apparent in the madrigals of Monteverdi, whose books i, ii, iii, and iv (1587, '90, '92, 1603) are purely polyphonic and a cappella, whereas in the following books (v, 1605; vi, 1614) the style becomes increasingly soloistic and the accompaniment often requires basso continuo; book vii, called Concerto (1619), is entirely in stile rappresentativo with basso continuo. Caccini's Nuove musiche of 1602 contains "madrigals" for solo voice that are through-composed, in contrast to his strophic "arias" [see Aria II]. III. The English madrigal. Outside Italy, the madrigal was cultivated chiefly in England. A few isolated pieces such as Richard Edwards' "In Going to My Naked Bed" (composed not later than 1564) make it probable that the influence of the Italian madrigal was felt in England shortly after 1550. William Byrd (1543-1623) seems to have been the first English composer to grasp fully the importance of the madrigal [see Editions XVI, 14, 15]. He, together with Thomas Morley (1557-1602), represents the earlier period of the English madrigal, whose style corresponds to a certain extent to that of the second

Italian school. Nevertheless, the English madrigal soon acquired native characteristics resulting from the peculiarities of the English language, the frequent use of false relations and other harmonic acerbities, and a propensity for an unmistakably English touch of merriment or melancholy. The Musica Transalpina (a collection of Italian madrigals provided with English text, published by N. Yonge in 1588, a few months after the appearance of Byrd's first book) gave the movement new impetus and a different direction. The younger Englishmen, notably Thomas Weelkes and John Wilbye, leaned further toward Italy and exploited the innovations of Marenzio and Gesualdo, though somewhat more conservatively. The English madrigals appeared under a variety of names, such as Song, Sonet, Canzonet, and Ayre. See Editions XVI. IV. Other countries. In Germany, the influence of the madrigal appears to some extent in the works of Le Maistre, Scandello, Regnart, and Lasso [see Lied II], all foreigners, a fact that may account for the failure of the madrigal to attain the artistic significance it achieved in Italy or England. Hans Leo Hassler [DTB 20] is the outstanding German madrigalist, although many of his madrigals have Italian texts. Spanish madrigals were published by Pedro Vila (1561), Juan Brudieu (1585), and Pedro Rimonte (Ruimonte; 1614) [see LavE i.4, 2015fl]. Lit. For I: W. T. Marrocco, ~The Music of Jacopo da Bologna (1954); N. Pirrotta, ~The Music of Fourteenth-century Italy (1954; see Editions XII, 8); J. R. White, ~"Music of the Early Italian Ars Nova" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1952); K. von Fischer, Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento (1956); A. von Konigslow, Die italienischen Madrigalisten des Trecento (1940); N. Pirrotta, in CP Besseler; id., in RMI xlviii, xlix; L. Biadene, in ML xxix; E. Li Gotti, in Poesia iii/iv; id., in Atti della Reale Accademia . .. di Palermo iv /4, 2; J. Wolf, in SIM iii, PMA lviii, JMP xlv; A. Schering, in SIM xiii; W. T. Marrocco, in Speculum xxvi. See also under Ars nova. For II: A. Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, 3 vols. (1949); E. Magni Duffloq, II Madrigale (1931); G. Cesari, Die Entstehung des Madrigals im 16. Jahrh. (1908); T. Kroyer, Die Anfiinge der Chromatik im italienischen Madrigal des XVI. Jahrhunderts (1902); E. Kiwi, Studien zur Geschichte des italienischen Liedmadrigals (1937); H. Schultz, Das Madrigal als Formideal (1939); J. Haar, ed., Chanson & Madrigal, 1480-1530 (1964), esp. ~appendix; E. B. Helm, "The Begin-

498

MADRIGAL

MADRIGALISM

nings of the Italian Madrigitl and the Works of Arcadelt" (diss. Harvard, 1939); H. F. Redlich, Das Problem des Stilwandels in Monteverdis Madrigalwerk (1931); W. Klefisch, Arcadelt als Madrigalist (1938); F. Keiner, Die Madrigale Gesualdos von Venosa (1914); L. Benson, :j:Albums of Madrigals, 12 vols. (Edition Laudy; for contents see ReMR, p. 904); W. Weismann and G. E. Watkins, ed., ~Gesualdo di Venosa, Siimt/iche Werke (1957-); C. McClintock, ~"The Five-Part Madrigals of Giaches de Wert" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); *Editions III,..l, 4 (various composers); IX, 14 (Gesualdo); X, 10 (D'India); XXII, section II, l. i-vi (Gesualdo); XXII, section II, 2.i (Nenna); XLVI, 4.i (Marenzio); XLVIII, 6 (De Rore); R. T. Watanabe, "Five Italian Madrigal Books of the Late 16th Century" (diss. Univ. of Rochester, 1951); E. Helm, "Heralds of the Italian Madrigal (MQ xxvii); G. Cesari, "Le Origini del madrigale cinquecentesco" (RMI xix); C. van den Borren, "Le Madrigalisme avant le madrigal" (CP Adler); H. Engel, "Contributo alia storia del madrigale" (LRJ.! ~v); H. ~edlich, "The Italian Madrigal: A Bibliographical Contribution" (ML xxxii); A. Einstein, "Das Madrigal zum Doppelgebrauch" (AM vi); id., "Augenmusik im Madrigal" (ZIM xiv); id., "Narrative Rhythm in the Madrigal" (MQ xxix); E. Dent, "The Musical Form of the Madrigal" (ML xi); H. Engel, in ZMW xvii (Marenzio); J. Razek, in RM xiii (Luzzaschi); 0. Kinkeldey, in SIM ix (Luzzaschi); P. Wagner, in VMW viii (Palestrina); A. Einstein, in SIM viii (Verdelot); L. Torri, in RMI iii (Ruffo); H. Leichtentritt, in SIM xi (Monteverdi); A. Heuss, in CP Liliencron (Monteverdi); G. Pannain, in LRM v (Monteverdi); E. Schmitz, in SIM xi (continuo-madrigal). For original publications see E. Vogel, Bib/iothek der gedruckten weltlichen Vocalmusik Ita/iens (1962). For III: J. Kerman, The Elizabethan Madrigal (1962); E. H. Fellowes, The English Madrigal C,omposers, rev. ed. (1948); id., The English Madngal (1925); H. Heurich, John Wilbye in seinen Madrigalen (1931); G. Bontoux, La Chanson en Angleterre au temps d'Elisabeth (1936); A. Obertello, Madrigali italiani in Inghilterra (1949); R. B. Child~, "!he. Setting of Poetry in the English Madngal (diss. Stanford, 1959); *Editions XVI· *Editions XL, 3-5 (Kirby), 11-12 (Ferrabosco): 13-15 (Weelkes); C. van den Borren "The ~esthetic Value of the English Madrigal': (PMA li1); E. Helm, "Italian Traits in the English Madrigal" (MR vii); J. Kerman, "Elizabethan Anthologies of Italian Madrigals" (JAMS iv); A.

Einstein, in ML xxv (Musica Transalpina); E. Dent, in CP Wolf (Byrd); D. Arnold, inML xxxv; J. Kerman, in MQ xxxviii. For IV: C. van den Borren, in RM 1925 (Brudieu); J. B. Trend, in PMA Iii, CP 1930, CP Adler; R. Schwartz, in VMW ix. Madrigal comedy. Modem designation for a late 16th-century type in which an entire play [It. commedia] was set to music in the form of madrigals .and other ~nds of contemporary polyphomc vocal mus1c. Among the first and most famous examples is L'Amjiparnaso by Orazio Vecchi (performed in Modena, 1594; printed 1597). It has been suggested that the inner contradiction between the ensemble character ofthe ~usic, which is in five parts throughout, without mstrumental accompaniment, and the soloistic demands of a theatrical performance was resolved by a .strange compromise: when the plot called for smgle characters, the singers of the ot~er part~ were made to sing behind a curtain. This ~urm1se, ~owev~r, is unlikely, not only for practical considerations but because Vecchi states expressly in the Preface that this spectacle (spettacolo) appeals to the imagination (mente) through the ear (orecchie), not the eye (occhl). L'Amjiparnaso, therefore, is not, as has been alleged, a pre-operatic type, but an idealized presentation of a loosely knit dramatic plot, somewhat comparable to the presentation of an oratorio. The plot is more clearly outlined here than in other, similar works by Vecchi-the Selva di varia ricreatione (1590), Convito musicale (15~7), and Le Veglie di Siena (1604)-each of which, however, includes a number of dramatic "scenes." L'Am.fiparnaso is a mixture of comic and sentimental portions. Alessandro Striggio's II Cicalamento delle donne a/ bucato (The Babblin& of the Women on Washday, 1567) may be considered a predecessor of the former and Simone Balsamino's Novellette (after T~sso's Aminta, printed 1594) of the latter. Other models exist in the greghesche of Andrea Gabrieli and ?ther Venetian composers. Imitators of Vecchi ~eluded, among others, Adriano Banchieri [ex. m HAM, no. 186]. . Lit.: E. J. Dent, in SIM xii; A. Heuss, in SIM 1v, 175, 404. R:epublications of L'Am.fiparnaso and other madngal comedies in *Editions III 4 and XLVII, 26; also by Perinello (fac. transcr., 1938). A.E.

a'nJ

~ch?galism.

A term commonly used for wordpamtmg and related devices, such as are found particularly in the madrigals of Luca Marenzio.

499

MAGNUS L/BER ORGAN/

MAESTOSO Maestoso [It.]. Majestic. Maestro. Honorary title for distinguished teachers, composers, and conductors. Magadis. An ancient Greek harp, which seems to have had ten pairs of strings, each pair consisting of the fundamental and its octave. The term "magadizing" is sometimes used to describe singing in octaves, which is considered by some writers the "beginning of polyphony." Magelone Romances. See Romanzen aus L. Tieck's Mage/one. Maggiolata [It.]. Popular song for the month of May. For 16th-century examples composed in the style of the *villanella, see A. Bonaventura, in RMI xxiv; F. Ghisi, Musique et poesie au XVI• siecle (1954), s.v. "Maggiolata." Maggiore [It.]. Major key. Magic Flute, The. See Zauberjiote, Die. Magnificat. The *canticle of the Virgin, text ("Magnificat anima mea Dominum," My soul doth magnify the Lord) from Luke I :46-55. It consists of twelve verses, including the *Doxology at the end. In the Roman Catholic rites it is sung at the Office of Vespers by alternating choruses to one of eight toni, recitation chants similar to the psalm tones [see LU, pp. 207ft], in connection with an antiphon (Magnificat antiphon) that is usually somewhat more elaborate in style than the psalm antiphons. See 0 antiphons. From the 15th through the 18th centuries the Magnificat was frequently set, for voices or for organ. Aside from an English 14th-century setting, the earliest composers of the Magnificat were Dunstable, Dufay, and Binchois. Each of them composed the entire text, including the Doxology at the end, using one or the other of the Magnificat tones. Thus, Dunstable wrote a Magnificat secundi toni (*Editions XXXIV, 8, p. 95); Binchois, Magnificats in tones I, 2, 3, 4 [see J. Marix, Les Musiciens de Ia cour de Bourgogne, p. 13lff; no. 2 also in SchGMB, no. 43]; Dufay, in tones 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 [two in DTO 14/15, 169ft]. After 1450 it became customary to compose only the even-numbered verses, the others being sung in plainsong. This practice of alternating occurs in Obrecht (comp. ed. by J. Wolf) and in the numerous Magnificats preserved in the Eton MS from about 1500, and was generally adopted by 16th-century composers such as Senft, Lasso, Palestrina, J. de Kerle, Le Maistre,

Mahu, and Morales, who often wrote complete sets of Magnificat verses, usually six for each of the eight tones. Later composers of the Magnificat are Schutz, S. Bernardi (DTO 69), R. Ahle (DdT 5), and J. S. Bach, who composed it as a cantata. The alternating method of composition, applied to the eight tones, was also used by organ composers. Such Magnificat *versets for the organ occur in Attaingnant's Magnificat sur les huit tons (1531; *Editions XLIX, 1); G. Cavazzoni's Intavolatura (1543); A. de Cabez6n's Obras de musica (1578);, J. Titelouze's organ works (*Editions I, 1); J. E. Kindermann's Harmonia organica (1645; DTB 32); and J. K. Kerll's Modulatio organica (1686). J. Pachelbel's 95 Magnificat fugues (DTO 17) are essentially free compositions (not based on the plainsong toni), which seem to have served primarily as intonations (preludes), not as versets proper. The Magnificat in English translation ("My soul doth magnify the Lord") was taken over into the Anglican *Service, where it forms a part of the Evening Prayer. The Magnificat, set to the melody of the tonus peregrinus [see Psalm tones], was used for organ chorales by Scheidt, Pachelbel, J. S. Bach, and others. Lit.: C.-H. Illing, Zur Technik der MagnificatKomposition des 16. Jahrhunderts (1936); J. Meinholz, "Untersuchungen zur MagnificatKomposition des 15. Jahrhunderts" (diss. Cologne, 1956); J. Schmidt-Gorg, in Gesammelte Aufsiitze zur Kulturgeschichte Spaniens v (1935; Gombert); T. W. Werner, in AMW ii (Adam Rener); H. Osthoff, in AMW xvi (Josquin); E. R. Lerner, in MQ 1 (15th-cent. Italy); G. Reese, in JAMS xiii. Magnum opus musicum. Title of a publication containing 516 compositions (motets) of 0. di Lasso (1532-94), published in 1604 in six volumes by his sons. Magnus tiber organi [L.]. According to Anon. IV (CS i, 342), title of the collection of two-voice

organa for the entire ecclesiastical year written c. 1175 by Leoninus, with additions and modifications by his successor Perotinus (c. 1200; see Ars antiqua). The full title was "Magnus tiber organi de gradali et antiphonario pro servitio divino multiplicando." The complete collection includes 59 pieces for the Mass ("de gradali") and 34 pieces for the Office ("de antiphonario"), all composed "to enrich the divine service." Three 13th-century MSS from Florence and Wolfenbiittel contain the "Magnus liber organi"

500

MAJOR, MINOR

MAGREPHA in a more or less complete form, together with numerous other pieces (three- and four-voice organa, clausulae, conductus, motets). A list based on the collection in the Florentine Codex (Florence, Bibl. Laur. plut. 29.i [F]) is given in F. Ludwig, Repertorium organorum ... et moteforum, rev. ed. (1964), pp. 65-75, where the letters 0 and M refer to the pieces for the Office and the Mass respectively [see ApNPM, pp. 201, 230n]. The Leoninus collection is transcribed in W. G. Waite, The Rhythm of Twelfth-Century Polyphony (1954). See Ars antiqua; Mass B; Organum IV; Square notation; Sources, no. 3. Also see W. G. Waite, in JAMS xiv; H. Husman, in JAMS xvi; id., in MQ xlix. Magrepha. An organ of the ancient Hebrews, used in the last period of the Third Temple as a signaling instrument. See J. Yasser, in JAMS xiii. Magyar music. The indigenous fo).k music of *Hungary. Maid as Mistress, The. See Seroa Padrona, La. Main [F.]. Hand. Main droite (gauche), right (left) hand. A deux (trois, quatre) mains, for two (three, four) hands. Maitres musiciens de Ia renaissance fram;aise, Les. See Editions XXV. Maitrise [F.]. The choir school and choir of a French church. These institutions, which date from the 15th century if not earlier, were under the direction of a "maitre de chapelle" and provided board as well as education, both general and musical. In organization and purpose they resembled the conseroatorii of Italy. During the French Revolution (1791) they were suppressed and replaced by the conseroatoires. Today the name means simply "church choir." Majeur [F.]. Major. Major, minor [F. majeur, mineur; G. Dur, Moll; It. maggiore, minore; Sp. mayor, menor]. Terms used (I) to distinguish intervals, e.g., major second (c-d), and minor second (c-db) [see Interval]; (2) for two types of scale, triad, or key, which are distinguished mainly by their third, this being a major third (c-e) in the major scale (triad, key) and a minor third (c-e0 ) in the minor scale (triad, key). The major scale is the same ascending and descending [Ex. I]. The descendin~ minor scale, however, has a flatted seventh (b) and sixth (ab) in addition to the flatted third of the ascending scale [Ex. 2]. The justification for this is that, without the flatted seventh and

sixth, the descending minor scale would sound like a major scale until its sixth tone was reached. Since the minor scale just described rests on melodic considerations (upward and downward movement), it is called "melodic minor scale." There is another minor scale that, ascending as well as descending, combines the flatted sixth with the unaltered seventh [Ex. 3]. This scale is called the "harmonic minor scale" because it is built from the tones contained in the three main harmonies of the minor key [Ex. 5]. A key is called "major" or "minor" according to whether it is based on the major or minor scale. In the major key, the three main triads, tonic (T), dominant (D), and subdominant (S; see Scale degrees), are all major triads [Ex. 4]. In a minor key, T and S are minor, D is major [Ex. 5]. See also Mode. The definite establishment of major and minor as the tonal basis of music took place during the 17th century [see Harmony II, B (6)}. Prior to this, music was based on the church modes, all of which differ from major or minor in some of their degrees. Glareanus' enlarged system of twelve modes (* Dodecachordon, 1547) is usually considered the first theoretical system including both major and minor, the former in his Ionian (diatonic scale on c), the latter in his Aeolian (diatonic scale on a). Actually, the latter differs from minor mainly in that it does not have the leading tone (g~). Zarlino seems to have been the first to recognize that there are only two modes, one with the major third, the other with the minor third (L'Jstitutioni harmoniche, 1558; seeR. W. Wienpahl, in JAMS xii, 30). In musical practice the situation was quite different. Particularly in monophonic music it is not difficult to find 12th- and 13th-century examples of major melodies, by the troubadours, trouveres, or minnesingers, either on c (HAM, nos. l9b, d, 20a), on f with b-flat (HAM, no. l9e), or on g (HAM, no. l7b). Their number is greatly increased if, as in many modern editions, editorial accidentals are added, resulting in leading tones

501

MANFREDINA

MALAGUENA such as f~ to g. A Dorian melody can easily be changed into D minor by the addition of sharps (for c) and fiats (for b). Whether or not such changes are admissible is another question. The same statement applies, a fortiori, to polyphonic music, in which another problem arises, i.e., whether or not "modal harmonies" (extensive use of the II, III, VI degrees) are compatible with major or minor. Examples in point are the twopart ductiae reproduced in HAM, no. 41, or the famous *"Sumer is icumen in." A definite trend toward a major-type of melody and harmony is noticeable in the works of Dunstable and Dufay (HAM, nos. 62, 65). It may be noted, however, that often a composition beginning in C major will close in a different tonality, e.g., D minor (HAM, no. 62). In the 16th century, particularly during the second half, most compositions were written in an idiom that, aside from the occasional use of modal progressions, is very close to either major or minor. See also Tonality. Lit.: A. Machabey, Genese de Ia tonalite musicale classique des origines aux xve siecle (1955); P. Beyer, Studien zur Vorgeschichte des Dur-Moll (1958); C. Sachs, "The Road to Major" (MQ xxix); A. H. Fox Strangways, "T~e Minor Chord" (ML iv, 26); Dom J. Jeannm, "Etude sur le mineur et le majeur" (RMJ xxii); H. J. Moser, "Die Entstehung des Durgedankens, ein kulturgeschichtliches Problem" (SIMxv). Malaguena [Sp.]. According to available information, term for three different types of southem Spanish folk music, all localized in the provinces of Malaga and Murcia: (1) Usually a local variety of the *fandango. (2) A type of highly emotional song, in free style and rhythm [see LavE, 1.4, 2390]. (3) An older type of dance music, based on the ostinato-like repetition of the harmonies VIII-VII-VI-V (in minor), played in parallel triads and with an improvised melody on top; thus, a passacaglia on the descending tetrachord, like those written frequently during the 17th century [see Chaconne and passacaglia, Ex. 2]. Malinconico [It.]. Melancholy. Mamelles de Tiresias, Les [F., The Bosom of Tiresias]. Musical farce in two acts and a prologue by F. Poulenc (libretto by G. Apollinaire, after his play), produced in Paris, 1947. Ma Mere 1'oye [F., Mother Goose (Suite)]. Suite by M. Ravel based on fairy tales by C. Per~ault (1678-1703). Originally written (1908) for p1ano

duet, it was scored for orchestra by Ravel and produced as a children's ballet in 1915. Man. Abbr. for *manual. Manche [F.]. Neck of the violin, etc. Mandola, mandora. See under Lute III. Mandolin. The most recent instrument of the lute family and the only one in general use today, chiefly in southern Italy. The Neapolitan mandolin has four double courses (eight steel strings) tuned g d a e. It is played with a plectrum of tortoise shell or another flexible material. The tones are rendered as a sustained tremolo, which is produced by a quick vibrating movement of the plectrum. See ill. under Lute. The mandolin has been used occasionally in art music, e.g., in Handel's oratorio Alexander Balus (1748), Gretry's L'Amant jaloux (1778), G. Paisiello's II Barbiere di Siviglia (1782), Mozart's Don Giovanni (1787), Verdi's Otello (1887), Mahler's Symphony no. 7 (1908), and f~ur pieces ~y Beethoven for mandolin and piano (two m suppl. vol. of B.-H. ed.; see also BSIM viii, no. 12, p. 24). More recent works using the mandolin include Schoenberg's Serenade op. 24, Webern's 5 Stucke fur Orchester op. 10, and Stravinsky's Agon. Lit.: P. J. Bone, The Guitar and Mandolin: Biographies of Celebrated Players and Composers (1954); K. Wolki, Die Geschichte der Mandoline (1940); K. Boss, Die Mandolinenmusik vor und nach dem (Welt-) Kriege im In- und Auslande (1924); J. Zuth, "Die Mandolinhandschriften in der Bibliothek der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien" (ZMW xiv); G. de Saint-Foix, "Un Fonds inconnu de compositions pour mandoline" (RdM 1933, p. 129). Maneria [L.]. A term used by some 12th-century writers on plainsong (Guido of Cherlieu; see CS ii, 157a) to denote the *church modes in their authentic as well as plagal variety. Thus there are four maneriae: protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus. The term is very useful in connection with melodies that, because of their limited or excessive ambitus, cannot be classified as either authentic or plagal. See ReMMA, p. 153; ApGC, p. 135. Maneries [L.]. A 13th-century term for modus, i.e., rhythmic *mode, mentioned by Garlandia (CS i, 175), Pseudo-Aristotle (CS i, 279), and Anon. IV (CS i, 327). Manfredina. See Monferrina.

502

MANNHEIM SCHOOL

MANGULINA

Mangulina [Sp.]. A traditional dance that was popular in the Dominican Republic c. 1855. It is said to have evolved from the Spanish *zortziko, which was in 5/4 and 5/8 meter. Nevertheless, most of the examples preserved and occasionally still performed today show a closer connection with either the Spanish *seguidilla or the *muifleira. Many composers, among them Esteban Pefta Morell (1897-1939) and Juan Francisco Garcia (b. 1892), have employed the mangulina in art music. J.o-s. Manica [It.]. Shift of position in violin playing. Manico [It.]. Fingerboard of the violin, etc. Manicordion, manicbord. A 16th-century name for *clavichord. Maniera [It.]. A 16th-century term used by numerous theorists to denote the aesthetic basis of contemporary musical composition. See L. Schrade, in ZMW xvi. Manieren [G.]. An 18th-century name for ornaments of restricted melodic range, approximately equivalent to *agrement. Miinnergesangverein [G.]. Male choral society in Germany, similar to the American *Apollo Club and the French *Orpheon. Mannbeim school. An important group of German composers of the mid-18th century, centered at Mannheim and associated with the orchestra of Karl Theodor (1724-99), Elector of Pfalzbayem (Palatinate), hence also known as Pfalzbayrische Schule. Johann Stamitz (1717-57), who joined the orchestra in 1745 and soon became its conductor, inaugurated an entirely novel style of orchestral music and performance, thereby laying the foundation for the symphonic style of the Viennese classical school during the same period when the tradition of baroque music culminated in the late works of Bach and Handel. Conspicuous features of the new style were: melodic prominence of the violins in an essentially homophonic, noncontrapuntal texture; abandonment of imitation and fugal style; presto character of the quick movements; use of dynamic devices such as extended crescendos and unexpected fortes and fortissimos; complete rests (*Generalpausen); a novel type of subject and figure that quickly rise over a wide range, usually in broken chords, the so-called Raketen [G., rockets, Roman candles]; orchestral effects such as the tremolo and broken chords in quick notes; replacement of thoroughbass accompani-

ment by written out orchestral parts. Johann Stamitz' activity was continued by Ignaz Holzhauer (1711-83; came to Mannheim in 1753), Franz Xaver Richter (1709-89; came to Mannheim in 1747), and a younger generation including Anton Filtz (1730-60), Franz Beck (1723-1809), Christian Cannabich (1731-98), and Johann Stamitz' sons Karl Stamitz (17451801) and Anton Stamitz (1754-1809). The importance of the Mannheim composers lies in their historical position as forerunners of the classical period rather than in the intrinsic value of their works. The symphonies of Johann Stamitz, typical products of a singleminded innovator, are artistically even less satisfactory than those of the later Mannheimers, who turned from Stamitz' fragmentary and incoherent mosaic style (somewhat like that of Domenico Scarlatti) to a more continuous and melodic manner, which, however, is not free from the sentimentalities of the gallant style and which, needless to say, is inferior to that of their noted contemporaries, Haydn and Mozart. Mozart's father referred to the extravagant novelties of this school as the "vermanirierte Mannheimer gout" (the mannered Mannheim taste) .. The importance of the Mannheim school as the founders of the modem symphony and chamber music was strongly emphasized by their discoverer, H. Riemann. More recently his claims to precedence and superiority have been challenged by other historians who have pointed to similar tendencies in Vienna (Georg Monn, 1717-50; Georg Wagenseil, 1715-77; see G. Adler in preface to DTO 31 ), Italy [see F. Torrefranca, Le Origini italiane del romanticismo musicale, 1930], and Bohemia [see V. Helfert, in AMWvii]. No doubt the novel ideas of style and form were "in the air" about 1740, and a great many musicians, among whom G. B. Sammartini (1701-75) deserves particular mention, worked in the same direction, laying the foundation for Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Perhaps some of the contradictory claims can be settled if a clearer distinction is made between the various features of the classical sonata or symphony. The early Viennese composers were definitely much more advanced than the Mannheimers in the establishment of the formal principles of the sonata. On the other hand, the importance and true meaning of the new principles of symphonic style [see the description above] were more clearly understood in Mannheim than elsewhere, probably owing to the

503

MANON

MARCH

favorable conditions there. See also Sonata III; Sonata form; Symphony II. Lit.: R. Fuhrmann, Mannheimer KlavierKammermusik, 2 vols. (1963); F. Waldkirch, "Die konzertanten Sinfonien der Mannheimer im 18. Jahrhundert" (diss. Heidelberg, 1931); R. Munster, "Die Sinfonien Toeschis. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Mannheimer Sinfonie" (diss. Munich, 1956); H. Boese, "Die Klarinette als Soloinstrument in der Musik der Mannheimer Schule" (diss. Berlin, 1940); G. Schmidt, "Peter Ritter. Ein Beitrag zur Mannheimer Musikgeschichte" (diss. Munich, 1925); P. H. Lang, Music in Western Civilization (1941), pp. 608ff; RiHM ii.3, 119ff; P. Gradenwitz, "The Symphonies of Johann Stamitz" (MR i); id., "MidEighteenth-century Transformations of Style" (ML xviii, 265); J. P. Larsen, "Zur Bedeutung der 'Mannheim Schule"' (CP Fellerer); W. Fischer, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Wiener klassischen Stils" (StM iii); A. Heuss, "Uber die Dynamik der Mannheimer Schule" (CP Riemann); id., inZMWii; id., "Zum Thema: 'Mannheimer Vorhalt'" (ZIM ix); R. Sondheimer, "Die Sinfonien Franz Becks" (ZMW iv); L. Kamienski, "Mannheim und Italien" (SIM x). Re-editions in DTB 4, 13, 15, 27, 28; DdT 39; DTO 31, 39 [see Editions XIV, XV]. Manon. Opera in five acts by Massenet (libretto by H. Meilhac and P. Gille, based on Prevost's novel, Histoire de Manon Lescaut), produced in Paris, 1884. Setting: France, early 18th century. Manon Lescaut. Opera in four acts by Puccini (libretto in Italian by M. Praga, P. Oliva, and L. Illica, based on Prevost's novel), produced in Turin, 1893. Setting: France and Louisiana, early 18th century. (Also, an opera by Auber.) Manual. On the organ, any of the keyboards provided for the hands, as opposed to the pedal [see Organ III]. The two keyboards of the harpsichord are also distinguished as first and second manual. Manualiter means playing with the hands only. Manualkoppel [G.]. Manual coupler; see Organ IV. Manubrio [It.]. The knobs and handles of the organ stops. Manus musicalis [L.]. *Guidonian hand. Maqam [Arab.; pl. maqamat]. See under Arab music; Melody type.

Maraca. A gourd or calabash shell shaker filled with dry seeds, typical of the Caribbean countries but known throughout Latin America under different names, such as alfandoque, cardngano, guazd (Colombia); asson, tcha-tcha (Haiti); bapo, caracaxd (Brazil); chinchin (Guatemala); dadoo (Venezuela); huada or wada (Chile); Maruga (Cuba); nasisi (Panama); sonajas (Mexico). It is often used in pairs. J.o-s. Marcando, marcato [It.]. Marked, stressed. Marcellus Mass. A famous Mass by Palestrina, named after Pope Marcellus II (Missa Papae Marcelli) and long thought to have played a decisive role at the *Council of Trent. The work is exceptional among Palestrina's Masses because it is almost completely in homorhythmic (noteagainst-note) style, resulting in a clearly audible declamation of the text. According to recent research (Jeppesen, in AM xvi-xvii, 38) it was composed 1562-63, long after the death of Marcellus, who ruled for only three weeks in 1555. During his short pontificate Marcellus instructed the singers of the papal choir to sing so that the words could be clearly understood, and this probably explains the name of the Mass. See K. Jeppesen, in CP Adler and AM xvi-xvii. March. Music originally designed to promote orderly marching of a large group, especially of soldiers. Marches are generally in simple, strongly marked rhythm and regular phrases. The standard form, derived from the minuetwith-trio, is that of a march repeated after one or several trios of a more melodious character: M T M, or M T M T M. Military marches can be divided into four categories: (1) funeral march; (2) slow march-75 steps per minute, 2 steps per bar; (3) quick march-108 to 128 beats per minute; (4) double-quick march-140 to 160 beats per minute. In the United States the standard military march is the quick march, the finest examples having been written by John Philip Sousa, known as "the March King." The earliest traces of the march as an art form are the numerous *battaglias of the 16th century. William Byrd wrote a "Battell" (in My Ladye Nevells Rooke; see Virginal music) consisting of "The March of Horsmen," "The March of Footemen," etc., as well as "The Earle of Oxfords Marche" (in The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, no. cclix). Many examples of march music, usually dignified and ceremonial rather than military in character, are found in the operas of Lully, Handel, etc. (Handel's Scipione

504

MARCHA

MARIZAPALOS

contains a march that is to the present day the parade march of the British Grenadier Guards.) There are three charming little marchesprobably not by Bach-in the Klavierbilchlein for Anna Magdalena Bach of 1725. Similar pieces occur in the suites of J. P. Krieger, J. K. F. Fischer, etc. Mozart used two different types of march music in Figaro ("Non pili andrai") and The Magic Flute (March of the Priests). The movement "Lebhaft. Marschmlissig" in Beethoven's Sonata op. 101 is a superb example of stylization. Schubert's Marches militaires deserve mention for their admirable variety and ingenuity. The processional march of Wagner's Die Meistersinger is a distinguished example of the numerous marches in 19th-century opera. A special type is the funeral march (marcia funebre), of which well-known examples occur in Beethoven's Eroica and Wagner's Gotterdammerung. Among modern composers of marches are Barber (Commando March), Shostakovitch ("Festive Overture" op. 96), Prokofiev, Hindemith, Vaughan Williams, and Stravinsky. Also see Band; Military music. Lit.: J. A. Kappey, Military Music (1894); R. F. Goldman, The Wind Band (1961); id., The Concert Band (1946); id., The Band's Music (1938); H. G. Farmer, The Rise & Development of Military Music [1912]; G. Kandler, Deutsche Armeemiirsche (1962); W. C. White, A History of Military Music in America (1945); K. Strom, "Beitrlige zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Marsches" (diss. Munich, 1926). Marcha [Sp.]. In Spain, term used essentially for music designed to accompany marching groups [see March], but in Latin America, name for various kinds of folk dance, in fast or slow tempo and in major or minor mode or following Indian scale patterns. In Brazil the marcha is essentially a carnival dance whose steady rhythms are occasionally broken by Afro-Brazilian syncopation. In Haiti the marche [F.] is an urban dance considerably more ardent and intense than examples from other places. In Central America the marcha is halfway between a military march and a street dance. J.o-s. Marche [F.]. *March. Also see under Marcha. Marche harmonique, F. for *sequence I. Marcia [It.]. *March. Marcia funebre, funeral march. Alia marcia, in the manner of a march. Mariachi [Sp.]. Mexican ensemble of folk musicians, composed of two violins, jarana (guitar), arp6n (harp), and guitarr6n (large guitar). The

number of players is variable, ranging from groups of four players to the size of a regular band. The word mariachi or mariache is also used for a single folksinger. J.o-s. Marian antiphon. Name used for the antiphons B.M.V.; see Antiphon (2). Marimba. An African and Central and South American *xylophone, consisting of a number of wooden plates of different size and thickness. Underneath the plates are resonators made of gourds. The instrument has been modernized (first by Sebastian Hurtado of Guatemala c. 1895) and is now made with bars ofhardwood of uniform thickness and with tuned tubular metal resonators, encompassing up to six or seven octaves. Of warm and mellow tone, it is played with rubber- or felt-headed mallets, often by two to five players. Marimba concertos have been written by Creston (1940) and Milhaud (1949). For ill. see under Percussion instruments. The marimba is especially popular in Central America and is considered the national instrument of Guatemala, where marimbas of all sizes are made, ranging from those played by a single player to models so large as to need seven players. Sounds produced by the Dominican marimba are low enough to be employed as the bass in the *merengue and other dances. Lit.: V. Chenoweth, The Marimbas of Guatemala (1964); D. Vela, La Marimba: estudio sobre el instrumento nacional (1962); S. F. Nadel, Marimba-Musilf; (1931); S. N. Coleman, The Marimba Book (1930). add. by J.o-s. Marimbaphone. Several varieties of marimba, designed and made by J. C. Deagan of Chicago between 1915 and 1920. Percy Grainger prescribed them in his suite In a Nutshell (1916). Marinera [Sp.]. Dance form that is an offspring of the Chilean *cueca, which was very popular in Peru before the War of the Pacific between the two countries (1879-84). At that time it was known in Peru as chilena. The name marinera was adopted about 1880 in homage to the marines who fought in the war. On the northern coast of Peru the dance is known as tondero. J.O-S.

Marine trumpet. See Tromba marina. Marizapalos [Sp.]. According to J. Pena and H. Angles (Diccionario de Ia musica labor, 1954), a popular song (17th-century?) of Spain. Three MSS of c. 1700 (Municipal Lib. of Oporto, Portugal, no. 1577, Loc. B, 5; Martiny Coll, Bibl.

505

MASQUE

MARKIERT

nat., Madrid, M-1358, ff. 74v_75v, and M-1359, pp. 584-87) contain three marizdpalos for keyboard, all of which have a bass similar to that of the *folia. Markiert [G.]. Marked, stressed.

Marque [F.]. Marked, stressed. Marriage of Figaro, The. See Nozze di Figaro, Le. Marsch [G.]. *March. Marseillaise, La. See under National anthems. Martele [F.]. A special method of violin bowing; see Bowing (c). Martellando, martellato [It.] means either the martete of the violin or a some-

what similar technique of piano playing in which the hands act like hammers, usually in rapidly alternating octaves. Martellement [F.]. In· the 17th century, a *mordent performed on stringed instruments. In the 18th century, a mordent or a short trill preceded by a long appoggiatura. Martha. Opera in four acts by F. von Flotow (libretto by F. W. Riese), produced in Vienna, 1847. Setting: Richmond, England, about 1710. Martyrion. See under Byzantine chant III. Mascherata. See under Villanella. Masculine, feminine cadence. A cadence or ending is called "masculine" if the final chord of a phrase or section occurs on the strong beat [Ex. 1] and "feminine" if it is postponed to fall on a weak beat [Ex. 2, 3]. The masculine ending I

I® rtr ar1 big r·ll 3

Masked Ball, A. See Ballo in maschera, Un. Masque, mask. A stage production of the 16th

Markig [G.]. Vigorous.

2

in Froberger and are a typical feature of the *polonaise. Beethoven showed a marked preference for feminine endings in his late works.

n

Iilli cJFI tr; f ~ I !@lfr U ' I must be considered the normal one, while the feminine is preferred in more romantic styles. Feminine endings appeared for the first time about 1600, becoming one of the various novel features of the baroque era. One of the earliest examples is a "Sarabrand" by Gibbons [see Ex. 2 above; see M. H. Glyn, Orlando Gibbons 15831625, Complete Keyboard Works, vol. ii]. It may well be this novel feature to which Shakespeare alludes in his famous line: "That strain again, it had a dying fall." Feminine endings are common

and 17th centuries, designed for the entertainment of the nobility and combining poetry, vocal and instrumental music, dancing, acting, etc., lavishly applied to the presentation of mythological and allegorical subjects. The masque originated in Italy and France, where members of the court played an active part in their preparation as well as performance. B. de Beaujoyeulx's famous Balet comique de Ia Rayne [see Ballet I], performed in the Louvre in 1581, was one of the first plays with a unified plot that continued through all scenes. The masque was introduced into England during the 16th century and remained in great favor during the 17th century. The best-known writer of masques was Ben Jonson, who from 1605 to 1631 provided them for the court. A specialty of his plays was the "antimasque," i.e., intermediate scenes of a grotesque character (similar to the operatic *intermezzo). The earliest known composers of music for masques are Thomas Campion (1567-1620), Alfonso Ferrabosco II (1575-1628), Robert Johnson (c. 1583c. 1633), and John Coperario (c. 1570-1627). Whereas the music for these masques consists of *ayres and balletti, later composers, such as Nicholas Laniere (1588-1666), Henry Lawes (1596-1662), and William Lawes (1602-1645), introduced the stile recitativo. Henry Lawes wrote the music to Milton's masque Comus, produced in 1634 [repub. by the Mermaid Society, 1904; ex. in HAM, 204]. After the civil war (c. 1660) opera gradually superseded the masques, which deteriorated into mere fancydress balls. A late revival was Freya's Gift, text by J. Oxenford, music by G. A. Macfarren, which was produced at the wedding of Edward VII (1863). See Opera VI. Lit.: R. E. Moore, Henry Purcell & The Restoration Theatre (1961); H. A. Evans, English Masques (1897); E. Welsford, The Court Masque (1927); F. S. Boas, Songs and Lyrics from the English Masques and Light Operas (1949); W. W. Greg, A List of Masques (1902); P. Reyher, Les Masques anglais, 1512-1640 (1909); R. Brotanek, Die englischen Maskenspiele (1902); *Editions XXXIV, 3 (Masque of Comus); *Editions XL, 1 (Masque ... of Lord Hayes); A. Sabol, :j:Songs and Dances for the Stuart Masque (1959); D.

506

MASS

MASS

H~artz,

"A Spanish 'Masque of Cupid'" (MQ xhx)i !,· P. Cutts, "Jacobean Masque and Stage Mus1c (ML xxxv); J. Mark, "The Jonsonian Masque" (ML iii, 358); W. J. Lawrence, "Notes on a Collection of Masque Music" (ML iii, 49); 0. Gombosi, in JAMS i; A. H. D. Prendergast, in PMA xxiii; ReMR, pp. 88lff; BuMBE, pp. 18lff.

Mass [F. messe; G. Messe; It. messa; L. missa; Sp. misa]. The most solemn service of the Roman Catholic Church, representing the commemoration and mystical repetition of the Last Supper. The name is derived from the words "Ite missa est (congregatio )"-literally, "Depart, th~ congregation is dismissed" -sung at the end of the service [see, e.g., LU, p. 19]. The discussion following refers to the full form known as High Mass [see Missa solemnis], as opposed to the *Low Mass. Liturgically, the Mass falls into two parts, the Mass of the Catechumens and the Mass of the Faithful; the former ends with the Gospel, while the latter goes from the Offertory to the end. (The Credo, a later addition, belongs to neither.) A. The Mass in Gregorian chant. The Mass consists of a number of items whose texts vary from day to day (Proper of the Mass, proprium missae) an~ others having the same text in every Mass (Ordmary of the Mass, ordinarium missae). Another classification can be made according to whether an item is (a) recited to a *monotone or spoken, or (b) sung to a distinct melody. The former category is entrusted to the celebrant priest and his assistants, the latter to the choir (schola). The following table shows the normal structure of the Mass, with the items classified under four categories: Ia, Proper sung; Ib, Ordin~ sung; Ila, Proper recited (or spoken); lib, Ordmary spoken. Sung

Ia Proper I. Introit

lb Ordmary

Recited or Spoken Ila Proper

llb Ordmary

2. Kyne 3. Glona 4. Collect 5. Ep1>tle 6. Gradual 7. Alleluta or Tract

8. Gospel 9. Credo

10. Offertory 11. Secret

12. Preface 13. Sanctus 14. Canon 15. Agnus Dei

16. Communion 17. Post-Communion 18. lte missa est or Benedicamus Domino

For the texts of items Ib and lib (and other texts ~ot included below), see the Ordo Missae, given ~n f:U, pp. 1-7. The variable texts (*Collect, Ep1stle, etc.) are given with the different Masses, e.g., LU, pp. 3l7ff, while the recitation tones of items 4, 5, 8, and 12· are found in LU, pp. 98-lli. The items Ia with their melodies are given wit~ the different Masses, e.g., LU, pp. 317ff, while those for Ib are found in LU, pp. Il-97. The items of classes Ia and Ib are those of ~?st interest from the musical point of view, and 1t IS to these exclusively that the subsequent discussion refers. What is usually known to music students as "Mass" are the items of the rubric Ib, the (sung) Ordinary of the Mass. The reason for this narrow and actually misleading view is the fact that these alone (with the exception of the "Ite missa est") were composed polyphonically after 1300 [see under B]. From the standpoint of Gregorian chant, the Proper of the Mass (Ia~ is much more important and musically interestmg. These chants and their texts are much older than those of the Ordinary. Also, many of them are derived from the psalms [see Psalmody]. Thus, the Introit originally was apsalmus ad introitum, the Communion a psalmus ad communionem, etc. About A.D. 500, the Mass con_sisted ~mly of the chants of the Proper, alternatmg w1th lections from the Epistles, etc. Gradually, the chants of the Ordinary were intro?uced, probably in the following chronological order: Sanctus, K yrie, Gloria, Agnus Dei, Credo. A number of Masses have a musical structure differing from the normal one [see ApGC, pp. 28ft']. For each item of the Ordinary there exist numerous melodies (e.g., about 300 for the Agnus Dei), the earliest of which date from the II th century. From this large repertory a small number has been selected for present-day use and organized into eighteen cycles, each of whic~ is assigned to a specific category of feasts and 1s named after the *trope formerly associated with its K yrie. Thus, the Liber usualis has a "Mass I: In Paschal Time (Lux et origo)," "Mass II: For Solemn Feasts. I. (Kyrie fons _bonitatis)," etc. [see LU, pp. 16ff]. The Credos", being late additions, are listed separately [LU, pp. 64ff]. The earliest of these cycles, Mass IV (Cunctipotens Genitor Deus), dates from the end of the 13th century, others are from the 14th and 15th centuries, and still others were put together at *Solesmes in the 19th century [see ApGC, p. 419f].

507

MASS

MASS B. The polyphonic Mass Proper. In early polyphonic music, prior to c. 1250, the chants of the Mass Proper were composed much more frequently than those of the Ordinary. The MS Reg. 586 of the Vatican Library (originally from Fleury or Tours) contains three Graduals ("Viderunt ornnes," "Omnes de Saba." "Gloriosus deus") composed in a style very close to that described in Guido's "Micrologus" of c. 1030. The Winchester Troper of c. 1050 includes, among its 150 organa, 3 Introits, 53 Alleluias, 19 Tracts, and 7 sequences, in a notation that unfortunately cannot be accurately read. An 11th-century Alleluia from Chartres is reproduced in HAM, no. 26c. The "de gradali" section of the *"Magnus liber organi" contains 59 Mass Propers, all Graduals or Alleluias. (For details regarding the composition, see Organum, particularly the scheme for "Viderunt.") Under Perotinus (c. 1160--1225), the repertory of compositions for the · Proper was considerably enlarged by the numerous *clausulae, many of which were transformed into *motets. Thus, all the clausulae and motets with the tenor *"In seculum" form a part of the Easter Gradual "Haec dies." About 1250, the composition of the Proper practically died out, but it reappeared in the 15th century. The *Trent Codices contain more than 250 settings of the Mass Proper, among them a number of complete cycles consisting of Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, and Communion [see Editions XXXI, ser. ii, 1, where several of these cycles are ascribed to Dufay]. See also Plenary Mass. The most famous collection of Mass Propers, all arranged in liturgical cycles, is Isaac's *Choralis Constantinus. Numerous other settings from about the same period are preserved in two MSS of the University Library of Jena (nos. 30, 35) and in an anonymous publication of 1528, Contrapunctus seu figurata musica super plano cantu missarum solennium totius anni. The last publication in this field is William Byrd's Gradualia of 1605-07, which includes thirteen almost complete settings of the Mass Proper. In organ music, the Introit and Offertory were composed most frequently, the latter especially in England during the 16th century. See Felix namque. C. The polyphonic Mass Ordinary. I. To 1400. Settings of the Mass Ordinary, mostly Kyries and Glorias, appeared about the same time as the earliest compositions of the Proper but much less frequently. Among the organa of the Winchester Troper are twelve K yries and eight Glorias, most of them troped. The 11th-century

treatise "Ad organum faciendum" contains a Kyrie trope in the style of free organum, i.e., in contrary motion [HAM, no. 26]. Two-voice settings of Sanctus and Agnus tropes, probably of English origin, are in fasc. 11 of the Wolfenbiittel Codex Wi [see HAM, no. 37]. Two-part compositions of troped and plain Kyries as well as a three-voiced "Et in terra" are in the Codex Huelgas of c. 1275 [see H. Angles, El Codex Musical de las Hue/gas, 3 vols. (1931 )]. The first example of a complete Mass (Ordinary) is the Messe de Tournai of c. 1300, which, however, is probably a compilation of individual compositions written at different periods [new ed. in E. Coussemaker, Messe du X/IIe siecle (1861), and in *Editions XII, 13; also in L. Schrade, Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, i (1956), which in addition contains two recently discovered cycles known as the Mass of Toulouse and the Mass of Barcelona]. Machaut's Mass (now available in editions by Ludwig-Besseler, De Van, Schrade, Chailley, and Hiibsch) was formerly believed to have been composed for the coronation of Charles V in 1364 but is probably one of the earlier works of Machaut,judging from its ars antiqua style and some striking similarities to the Mass of Tournai. A considerable number of individual items (Kyries, Glorias, etc.) are preserved in various 14th-century MSS [Codex Ivrea, Apt, Torino, etc.). In England, the practice of writing single Mass movements (sometimes paired, e.g., Gloria and Credo) prevailed throughout the 15th century (Dunstable; numerous composers of the Old Hall MS). II. 1400-1600. This was the main period of Mass composition, during which the term "Mass" assumed its present-day meaning, i.e., a polyphonic setting of the entire Mass Ordinary. Nearly always the composition was in the form of a "cycle," the various movements being held together by a liturgical association or, more commonly, by some musical device. The earliest indisputable example of a Mass cycle in the proper sense of the word is Lionel Power's Missa super Alma redemptoris mater, probably composed shortly after 1400. Dufay (c. 1400--74) and Palestrina (c. 1525-94) are the first and the last in a long succession of composers who wrote mainly Masses. The following main types of Mass composition can be distinguished: a. Plainsong Mass [L. missa choralis]. This represents the most obvious and natural procedure, i.e., the polyphonic setting of a Gregorian Mass Ordinary, such as the Mass I or the Mass IV [see under A above], with each move-

508

MASS

MASS

ment drawing its musical material from the corresponding item of the plainsong Mass. Such a Mass is cyclical from the liturgical point of view, since it fully corresponds to one of the plainsong cycles, each of which is assigned to a specific liturgical situation (Paschal Time, Solemn Feasts, Sundays throughout the Year, etc.). This genre is found throughout the period, but to a far lesser extent than might be expected. Examples are Isaac's Missa Solemne, Missa Pascale, etc. [see L. Cuyler, ed., ~Five Polyphonic Masses by Heinrich Isaac (1956)], Josquin's and Morales' Missa de Beata Virgine, Palestrina's Missa pro defunctis [see Requiem Mass], as well as all the *organ Masses of the 16th century (Girolamo Cavazzoni, Merulo). b. Cantus ftrmus Mass. This is a Mass in which all the movements are based on one and the same melody, usually in the tenor [see Tenor Mass]. (The terms "plainsong Mass" and "cantus ftrmus Mass'' are far from being correct designations; the "plainsong" of the former is a cantus ftrmus, and the "cantus ftrmus" of the latter is frequently taken from plainsong.) This cyclical type is perhaps the most common of all. According to the source of the cantus ftrmus, three species can be distinguished: Masses based on (a) a liturgical, (b) a secular, and (c) an invented cantus ftrmus. Among the liturgical cantus ftrmi the antiphons B.M.V. [see Antiphon (2)] and hyiii.lls are most often used. Examples are Lionel Power's Missa super Alma redemptoris mater, Dufay's Missa Ave regina and Missa Ecce ancilla Domini, Ockeghem's Missa Ecce ancilla Domini, Josquin's Missa Pange lingua, and Palestrina's Missa Panem nostrum. This type, although found throughout the period, is more characteristic of the 16th century than the 15th, when secular cantus ftrmi were preferred. Particularly popular were French chansons, above all the famous *L'Homme arme. Other examples are Dufay's Missa Se Ia face ay pale, Ockeghem's Missa De plus en plus and Obrecht's Missa Fortuna desperata. In England the tune *"Western Wynde" was popular [Shepherd, Taverner, Tye). Isaac's Missa carminum is an example of the *quodlibet Mass, in which several secular melodies are combined. About 1500 "invented" cantus ftrmi were occasionally used, either a *soggetto cavato, e.g., Josquin's Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, or the *hexachord, e.g., Palestrina's Missa Ut re mi fa sol/a (Missa super voces musicales). c. The motto cycle (motto Mass). In this type unification is achieved by-and normally restricted to-the use of an identical motif at the

beginning of each movement. This device occurs in a number of Gloria-Credo pairs from the early 15th century [see Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (1950), pp. 219ff] and, applied to a full cycle, in a Mass by Arnold de Lantins [see C. van den Borren, Polyphonia sacra (1932), nos. 1-5]. It was also used in conjunction with the cantus ftrmus method, e.g., in Dufay's Missa Caput. d. Parody Mass. See separate entry. e. The freely invented Mass. For freely invented Masses, which constitute a relatively small group, general designations such as Missa quarti toni (Vittoria), Missa cuiusvis toni (Ockeghem), Missa sine nomine (Obrecht), and Missa brevis (Palestrina) were used. It must be noted, however, that the complete originality of any Mass written during the period is open to question, and that a cantus ftrmus is often used where none is indicated in the title. This is especially true for Masses composed after the *Council of Trent, which forbade the use of secular cantus ftrmi. For instance, Palestrina's Missa quarta (1582) is based on L'Homme arme. Naturally, within each of these categories the treatment varies considerably according to the period of composition. The earliest type (though by no means restricted to the early period) uses the cantus ftrmus, without alterations, in long notes (*cantus planus) in the tenor. Later the cantus ftrmus is shared among the other voices but omitted in certain sections, e.g., in the "Christe eleison" and Credo. Another modification is the use of a melodically and rhythmically altered cantus ftrmus, a sort of free variation on the borrowed melody, which was used not only as a tenor but also as a soprano melody [see Discant Mass]. By the end of the 15th century the techniques of variation upon a borrowed ttine were extremely highly developed; the canIus ftrmus sometimes was completely absorbed throughout the polyphonic texture, so that a derivative Mass is indistinguishable in style from a freely composed one. A noteworthy example is Josquin's Missa Pange lingua [see Paraphrase (3)].

III. 1600-present. After 1600 Mass composition lost its former importance. In Italy [see Roman school] the a cappella tradition of Palestrina (stile antico) was continued by composers such as Steffano Bernardi (c. 1576-1636; see DTO 69), Antonio Draghi (1635-1700; see DTO 46), and Antonio Lotti (c. 1667-1740; see DdT 60), while others enlarged the vocal resources to huge choirs of 32 and 48 voice-parts

509

MASS

MASS

(Orazio Benevoli, 1605-72; see DTO 20). InGermany the development followed more progressive trends with the inclusion of the orchestra and of the 17th-century styles of the concerto, aria, etc. (stile moderno). The Masses of Biber, Schmeltzer, and Kerll [see DTO 46] are landmarks on the road leading to Bach's B-minor Mass (1733-38). Concomitant with the tendency to a greater variety of styles was the division of the Mass into a greater number of movements, particularly within the Gloria and the Credo. Following is the structure of Bach's Mass: Kyrie Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy) Christe eleison (Christ, have mercy) Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy) Gloria Gloria in excelsis Deo (Glory to God in the highest) Laudamus te (We praise you) Gratias agimus tibi (We give you thanks) Domine Deus (Lord God) Qui tollis peccata mundi (Who take away the sins of the world) Qui sedes ad dexteram patris (Who sit at the right hand of the Father) Quoniam tu so/us sanctus (For you alone are holy) Cum Sancto Spiritu (With the Holy Spirit) Credo Credo in unum Deum (I believe in one God) Patrem omnipotentem (Father almighty) Et in unum Dominum (And in one Lord) Et incarnatus est (And he became flesh) Crucifixus (Crucified) Et resurrexit (And rose again) Et in Spiritum Sanctum (And [I believe] in the Holy Spirit) Confiteor unum baptisma [I confess one baptism) Sanctus Sanctus (Holy) Hosanna in excelsis (Hosanna in the highest) Benedictus qui venit (Blessed is he who comes) A gnus A gnus Dei (Lamb of God) Dona nobis pacem (Grant us peace)

The Masses by Francesco Durante (16841755), Johann Adolf Hasse (1699-1783), Haydn (1732-1809), and Mozart (1756-91) show the trend toward secularization of the music for the Mass, and not until Beethoven's Missa solemnis

(op. 123, 1819-23) was a work created that stands the test of comparison with Bach's Mass. Beethoven treats the text in a more continuous manner than Bach but uses, in the Credo, a separate movement for "Et homo" (after "Et incarnatus") and "Et vitam" (after "Confiteor"), this being treated as an extended closing fugue. Cherubini (1760-1842) wrote several Masses between 1809 (Mass in F for three voices and orchestra) and 1825 (Coronation Mass) that deserve more attention than is given them, as do the six Masses of Schubert. Mass composition was continued by Weber (2), Liszt (5, including the Graner Mass, 1855), Franck (2), and Gounod (9), culminating in the Masses of Bruckner, particularly his F-minor Mass (1866), one of the truly great Mass compositions after Bach and Beethoven. In the 20th century, Masses have been written by Villa-Lobos (Mass of St. Sebastian, 1937), Poulenc (1937), and Stravinsky (1948). D. The musical items of the Anglican Mass (also called Communion) include all the parts of the Ordinary, often with the *Decalogue as an alternative for the Kyrie. Although the Offertory texts are the only ones of the Proper that are given in the Prayer Books, the places for all the Propers have been retained, and they are widely sung. The Lutheran services retain all of the Ordinary and part of the Proper. The Methodist Communion Service provides for the Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Gloria. Settings of the Mass il} English range from the monophonic versions of John Merbecke's The Booke of Common Praier noted (1550) to contemporary compositions, e.g., by Vaughan Williams. See Service. Lit. Liturgical: J. A. Jungmann, The Mass of the Roman Rite, 2 vols. (1952); A. Fortesne, The Mass: A Study of the Roman Liturgy (1950); A. Cabrol, The Mass, Its Doctrine and History (1931); P. Parsch, The Liturgy of the Mass (1936); G. Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy [1960]. For A: P. Wagner, Introduction to the Gregorian Melodies (1907); id., Gregorianische Formenlehre (1921); ApGC, pp. 25ff and passim; P. Wagner, Geschichte der Messe (1913; also polyphonic to 1600); A. Piovesan, La Messa nella musica dalle origini a! nostro tempo (1949); R. Hoppin, "Reflections on the Origin of the Cyclic Mass (CP Borren, 1964); K. von Fischer, "Neue Quellen zum einstimmigen Ordinariumszyklus" (CP Borren, 1964). For B: G. Eisenring, Zur Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Proprium Missae bis um 1560 (1913); W. Lipphardt, Die Geschichte

510

MAVRA

MASS OF THE PRESANCTIFIED des mehrstimmigen Proprium Missae (1950). For C I: H. Stablein-Harder, tFourteenth-Century Mass Music in France (1962); B. J. Layton, "Italian Music for the Ordinary of the Mass" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1960); F. Ludwig, "Die mehrstimmige Messe des 14. Jahrhunderts" AMW vii, 417-35); H. Harder, "Die Messe von Toulouse" (MD vii, 105-28); J. Chailley, "La Messe de Besan~n" (AnnM ii, 93-103); L. Schrade, "The Mass of Toulouse" (RBM viii, 84-96); id., in JAMS viii, 66-69. For C II; R. von Ficker, "Die frUhen Messenkompositionen der Trienter Codices" (StM xi, 3-58); id., "Die Kolorierungstechnik der Trienter Messen" (StM vii, 5-47); H. B. Collins, in ML v, 322-24 (Taverner); F. X. Haberl, in MfM iii, 81-89 (Willaert); J. Schmidt, in ZMW ix, 129-58 (Clemens non Papa); C. Hamm, "The Reson Mass" (JAMS xviii, 5-21); P. Gossett, "Techniques of Unification in Early Cyclic Masses and Mass Pairs" (JAMS xix); A. Smijers, "DeMissa Carminum van Jacob Hobrecht" (TV xvii, 192-94); W. Widmann, in KJ xxviii (Palestrina); see also under Parody Mass; Organ Mass. For C III: H. A. Sander, Italienische Messkompositionen des 17. Jahrhunderts (1934); G. Adler, "Zur Geschichte der Wiener Messkompositionen" (StM iv, 5-45). For C IV: A. Schnerich, Messe und Requiem seit Haydn und Mozart (1909); B. A. Wallner, in ZMW viii (Weber).

Mass of the Presanctified. The Mass for Good Friday, so called because the elements (bread and wine) are consecrated the day before. The only musical items for thi(Mass are two Tracts, the *Improperia, and the hymn "Crux fidelis" [see LU, p. 742]. Mastersingers. See Meistersinger. Mastersingers of Nuremberg, The. See Meistersinger von Nilrnberg, Die. Matasin, matassin, mattachin. A 16th-century dance performed by costumed dancers, representing men in armor or other costume [see Bouffons; Dance of death; Maresca]. An example called "Mattasin oder Toden Tantz" is in Normiger's tablature of 1598 [see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbilchern (1927), p. 256]. A similar melody, called "Matachina," is found in a French gittern tablature of 1570 [see W. Tappert, Sang und Klang aus alter Zeit (1906), p. 39]. The name "matachin" survives in the American Southwest and Mexico as a designation for ritual folk dances of various

kinds (for rain, crops, etc.). See J. D. Robb, in Western Folklore xx. Mathis der Maler [G., Mathias the Painter]. Opera in seven tableaux by Hindemith (to his own libretto), finished in 1934 and produced in Zurich, 1938. Setting: in and near Mainz, Germany, c. 1525. The story deals with the life of the German painter, Mathias GrUnewald (c. 14801528), who supported the peasant revolution in the early days of the Protestant Reformation. Three extracts (the overture, the scene at the painter's deathbed, and a crowd scene from the second act) were combined into a three-movement symphony for which Hindemith provided descriptive titles referring to the panels in . GrUnewald's famous Isenheim Altar in Colmar, Alsace. Matin, Le: [F., The Morning]. Nickname of Haydn's Symphony no. 6 in D, which, together with Le Midi (Noontime), no. 7 inC, and Le Soir (The Evening), no. 8 in G, forms a well-known group of Haydn's earliest symphonies, all having been composed about 1761. Matins. The first of the canonical hours. See Office. In the Anglican Church, Morning Prayer. Matrimonio Segreto, II [It., The Secret Marriage]. Opera in two acts by D. Cimarosa (libretto by G. Bertati, after the play The Clandestine Marriage by G. Colman and D. Garrick), produced in Vienna, 1792. Setting: Italy, 18th century. Maultrommel [G.]. *Jew' s-harp. Maundy music. Generally, the Antiphons sung during the ceremony of the Washing of the Feet on Maundy Thursday of Holy Week. The name is a corruption of L. mandatum, which in tum refers to the first Antiphon of the ceremony, "Mandatum novum do vobis" [LU, p. 671]. Ma Vlast [Cz., My Fatherland]. Cycle of six symphonic poems by Smetana, composed 1874-79, based on various subjects pertaining to his country: 1. Vysehrad (the old citadel of Prague); 2. Vltaua (the river Moldau); 3. Sarka (an Amazon of Czech legend); 4. Z ceskjch luhitu a hajuu (From Bohemia's Meadows and Forests); 5. Tabor (an ancient city); 6. Blanik (a- mountain near Prague where, according to legend, the old heroes slumber, ready to rise again). Mavra. Opera in one act by Stravinsky (libretto by B. Kochno, based on Pushkin's story "The Little House of Kolomna"), produced in Paris,

511

MAXIMA

MEANE

1922. Setting: living room in a Russian village long ago. The music is in a *pandiatonic style with many accompanying figures reminiscent of early opera buffa. It consists of solo and ensemble numbers without recitative. Maxima. See under Mensural notation I. Maxixe [Port.] Old Brazilian urban dance, in moderate duple meter, danced by couples. It is

where the dance is used to portray what the Russian composers saw as the brilliant decadence of 17th-century Polish court life (during this period Poland was a European power while Muscovy was struggling for stability). In these pieces the composers explored extremes of chromatic expression that even exceed some of Chopin's most daring examples [Ex. 2, from Boris, Act III, Scene 2, marked "alia Polacca"].

derived from the *lundu, but today it shows both Negro and Latin American influences, among J.o-s. them that of the Argentine *tango. Mazeppa. Symphonic poem by Liszt, composed

1851, based on a poem by Victor Hugo describing the insurrection (1708) and death of the Ukrainian Cossack chief, Mazeppa. The music incorporates elements from Liszt's Mazeppa Etude for piano, one of the *Etudes d'execution transcendante (1851). Mazurka. A family of Polish folk dances. The mazurka is in triple meter and is performed at several speeds from moderately slow to quite rapid. One type is the *kujawiak (not to be confused with krakowiak), so named because it originated in the province of Kujawy. Another is the *obertas. Characteristic of these dances is the heavy accenting of normally weak beats [see Ex. 1].

Lit.: J. MGG viii, polnischen Geschichte

etc. >

>

Miketta, Mazurki Chopina (1949); col. 1856-60; F. Starczewski, "Die Tanze" (SIM ii); T. Norlind, "Zur der polnischen Tanze" (SIM xii). J.S.

>3

Mazurkas are generally danced by couples in multiples of four (i.e., eight, twelve, or sixteen couples), with few basic steps and positions but a multitude of variations. A good deal of both musical and choreographic improvisation is traditionally applied. The mazurka spread throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, first as a dance and later as a source for art music. For the latter, Chopin's piano mazurkas dominate the literature. These pieces are highly stylized, sometimes submerging the folk-dance character; they range from slow, contemplative works (op. 17, no. 4, and op. 68, no. 4) to kujawiaks and even obertas (op. 56, no. 2), exhibiting modal characteristics and sometimes displaying very advanced chromatic techniques. Many of Chopin's most puzzling expressive pianistic devices appear in the mazurkas. Outstanding uses of the mazurka by nonPolish composers are in Glinka's A Life for the Tsar and Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov,

M.d. Abbr. for main droite [F.] or mano destra [It.], i.e., right hand. Meane, mene. In 15th- to 17th-century English

music, a middle part of a polyphonic composition. See, e.g., the following passage from a 15thcentury MS [see G. Schad, Musik und Musikausdriicke in der mittelenglischen Literatur (1911), p. 13]: "Primus pastor: 'Let me syng the tenory.' Secundus pastor: 'And I the tryble so hye.' Tertius pastor: 'Then the meyne fallys to me.' " Several organ compositions of the previrginalist period show inscriptions such as "Salvator withe a meane." Sometimes such a middle part is written in black notes, in contrast to white notes in the other parts [see ApNPM, pp. !Off]. John Redford (d. 1547) wrote a long poem on the mene [in C. Pfatteicher, John Redford (1934), p. 64], which unfortunately does little to clarify the term. In most cases the part referred to as meane is shared by the right and left hands.

512

MEAN- TONE SYSTEM

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS

The earliest use of the term is in connection with the 15th-century practice of *sight. It was also applied to instruments (viols) playing the middle part as well as to the two middle strings (small meane, great meane) of the viol. Mean-tone system. See under Temperament II. Measure [F. mesure; G. Takt; It. misura; Sp. comptis]. A group of beats (units of musical time), the first of which normally bears an accent. Such groups, in numbers of two, three, four, or, occasionally, five or more, recur consistently throughout a composition and are marked off from one another by *bar lines. The basic scheme of note values within a measure is called *meter or time (duple, triple, 6/8 meter, etc.). Occasional deviations from the regularity of accent, e.g., *syncopation, emphasize rather than destroy the general scheme of measure and meter. The concept of measure is based on the principle of regular accent, which is of primary importance in almost all music generally known today. However, music has by no means always embodied this principle. Disregarding dance music, which for obvious reasons is nearly always "measure-music," the history of European music may be divided into four periods alternating between "measure-free music" and "measure-music": (a) 500-1200; no measure (plainsong, organum purum); (b) 1200-1450; measure based on the rhythmic *modes, the mensurations, or, in Italy, the *divisiones; (c) 1450-1600; prevalence of measure-free (Flemish) polyphony; (d) 1600-1920; measure based on the regular (four-measure) melodic phrases that often reflect the influence of dance music. With respect to period (c), the readeumust be warned not to confuse "measure-music" (as defined above) with "measured music" in the sense of *mensural music. Mensural music, which prevailed throughout the period in question, embodies the principle of regular groups of beats (tempus perfectum, imperfectum, etc.) but frequently lacks the most important characteristic of "measure-music," i.e., the normal accent on the first beat of such a group. See also Bar line; Rhythm II (a). Mechanical composition. Composing by means of some mechanical device. Athanasius Kircher (1602-80) invented an area musarithmica, a box with slides that was supposed to compose music by means of mathematical combinations. In the second half of the 18th century mechanical com-

position was a sort of parlor game, in which a polonaise, minuet, or waltz was "composed" from a number of written out measures that were selected by the throwing of dice [see Aleatory music]. Strange as the method might appear, it produced perfectly acceptable results, neither better nor worse than hundreds of traditionally composed minuets of that period. D. N. Winkel (1780-1826), the inventor of the *metronome, built a componium, an enormous machine (now in the Brussels Conservatory) that automatically produces variations based on changes in weather and temperature. These innocent jests of the past represent interesting forerunners of the present-day *computer. Mechanical instruments. I. Appliances designed pro_duce musical performance mechanically, I.e., wtthout an actual performer. Prior to the end of the 19th century such apparatus was always based on a barrel-and-pin mechanism. The hand, or a mechanical clockwork, turned a cylinder bearing pins acting against levers or similar gadgets, which in turn operated the hammers of a keyboard instrument, the clappers of a set of bells, the mouthpieces of organ pipes, etc. As early as the 14th century, carillons were operated by such a mechanism. In the 16th century the same principle was applied to harpsichords and organs. In the collection of instruments left by Henry VIII at his death in 1547 was a "virginal that goethe with a whele without playing uppon." An instrument sent by Queen Elizabeth to the Sultan of Turkey in 1593 included an organ, a carillon, "trumpeters," "singing byrds," etc., and went into action automatically every six hours. About the same time Hans Leo Hassler took an active interest in the fabrication and sale of musical clockworks. Athanasius Kircher, in his Musurgia universalis, vol. ii (1650), pp. 312ff, described various elaborate musical mechanisms, e.g., a Cylindrum phonotacticum that could play Toccatas sive Ricercatas by Kerll and others. Of particular interest is a mechanical spinet, which is preserved with six pieces from the early 18th century, probably the earliest extant examples of "phonograph" music [see P. Nettl, in ZMW ii, 523]. Mozart wrote several compositions for the mechanical organ, an Adagio in F minor and an Allegro in F major (K. 594), a Fantasia in F minor (K. 608), and an Andante in F major (K. 616). II. The only instrument of the barrel-and-pin type that attained considerable practical importance was the English barrel organ. This was a ~o

513

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS

MEDICINALE

small organ connected with an arrangement of interchangeable barrels, each containing a number of the most popular psalm and hymn tunes. These automatons enjoyed great popularity in rural English churches during the 18th and 19th centuries. William Mason, in his Essays, Historical and Critical, on English Church Music ( 1795), said he preferred "the mechanical assistance of a Cylindrical or Barrel Organ to the fingers of the best parochial organists," a statement that probably reflects more the skill of the parochial organists than the qualities of the barrel organ. See also Serinette; Orgue (Orgue de barbarie). III. Toward the end of the 18th century various small instruments called F!Otenuhr (fluteclock) were made by P. Niemecz, librarian to Prince Esterhazy. They combined an ordinary clock with a set of small pipes and bellows operated by a clockwork. For these instruments (also called Laufwerk) Haydn wrote a number of charming pieces [see E. F. Schmid, t Werke for Laufwerk (1931), and in ZMW xiv]. Passing reference may be made to the wellknown "music boxes" [F. boite a musique, tabatiere de musique; G. Spieldose], whose high, thin tones have frequently been imitated in piano pieces, e.g., by A. Liadov, T. Leschetizky, and, with irony, by Stravinsky in Petrouchka (Valse). A truly remarkable specimen was a "musical bustle" that was presented to Queen Victoria in 1887; it was "so designed as to provide a performance of the National Anthem (God Save the Queen) whenever the wearer sat down." In the early 19th century a number of instruments were built for the mechanical reproduction of entire orchestras, e.g., J. N. Maelzel's Panharmonicon (1804), for which Beethoven originally wrote the "Sieges-Symphonie" of his * Wellingtons Sieg (1813), the Appollonicon built by Flight and Robson (1817), the Orchestrion of Friedrich Theodor Kaufmann (1851), and numerous others, whose descendants are still found in taverns throughout Europe, playing the sc;tme role as the American "jukebox." IV. An important advance over the barreland-pin mechanism was the perforated paperroll of the late 19th century. A roll of cardboard is pierced with small openings corresponding in position and length to the pitch and duration of the tones of the composition to be reproduced. This passes over a cylinder furnished with numerous small apertures (similar to those of the mouth harmonica), which are connected by pipes to the action of a piano. As often as an opening in the cardboard passes over the cylin-

der, a stream of air is pushed (or drawn) through the corresponding pipe, setting the hammer in motion. This principle has been applied with a considerable degree of accomplishment in instruments such as the player piano, the WelteMignon, the Pianola, the Phonola, etc. The player-rolls are usually reproductions of performances by famous virtuosos. In most of the instruments the rendition can be modified according to the taste of the player, who can regulate to a certain degree the speed and dynamics. Needless to say, the possibility of beating the speed record of world-famous pianists has added considerably to the commercial value of these instruments. Some modern composers (Hindemith, Toch) have written original compositions for such mechanical pianos, availing themselves of the possibility of producing sound effects not obtainable by a live pianist, e.g., chords consisting of thirty and more notes, or the simultaneous use of the lowest, middle, and highest registers. The *phonograph and radio have largely eclipsed such attempts at reproduction. Lit.: R. Mosoriak, The Curious History of Music Boxes (1943); John E. T. Clark, Musical Boxes, rev. ed. (1961); A. Buchner, Mechanical Musical Instruments [1959]; A. Chapuis, Histoire de Ia boite a musique et de Ia musique mecanique (1955); A. Protz, Mechanische Musikinstrumente (1941); 0. E. Deutsch, in ML xxix, p. 140; E. Simon, Mechanische Musikinstrumente frilherer Zeiten und ihre Musik (1960); H. Leichtentritt, in MQ xx, p. 15; LavE ii.3, 2117; G. C. A. Jonson, in PMA xlii, p. 15. Mechanik [G.]. The action of a piano, etc. Medesimo tempo [It.]. The same tempo. Media caii.a [Sp.]. An urban dance of Argentina that played an important role prior to 1900. Most of the traditional examples preserved consist of five parts and show melodic and rhythmic elements characteristic of other Argentine folk dances, such as the *pericon, zamacueca, and *gato. J.o-s. Medial cadence. See under Cadence I. Mediant. See under Scale degrees. Mediation [L. mediatio]. See under Psalm tones. Medicean edition [L. Editio Medicea]. See under Liturgical books II. Medicinale. See under Psaltery.

514

MEISTERSINGER

MEDIEVAL MUSIC Medieval music. See Middle Ages. Medio registro [Sp.]. *Divided stop. Medium. Cantus per medium is, in 16th-century theory, singing in "halved" values, i.e., in proportio dupla [see Proportions] or, in modern parlance, alia breve. Medium, The. Opera in two acts by Gian Carlo

Menotti (to his own libretto), produced in 1946 at Columbia University. Setting: outside a large city, the present. The music is accompanied recitative with occasional expressive arias. Medley. Same as *potpourri. The term was

already used by the virginalists. Meerestille und gliickliche Fahrt [G., Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage]. Orchestral overture by Mendelssohn (op. 27, 1828), based on two short poems by Goethe. The same poems were set by Beethoven as a cantata for chorus and orchestra (op. 112, 1815). Mehr- [G.]. More, several. Mehrchorig, polychoral; Mehrstitzig, in several movements; Mehrstimmig, in more than one part, i.e., polyphonic; Mehrstimmigkeit, polyphony. Meistersinger [G., mastersinger]. I. A literary

and musical movement of the 15th and 16th centuries that was cultivated by the guilds of German craftsmen and represents the middle-class continuation of the aristocratic *minnesingers of the 12th to 14th centuries. The desire of the Meistersinger to emphasize such a lineage led to a store of naive legends concerning their origin. For example, A. Puschmann, in his Grnndlicher Bericht des deutschen Meistergesanges und der Tabulatur (1571; new ed. by R. Jonas, 1888), relates that the Meistergesang was founded, on the initiative of the Emperor Otto I, at Paris in A.D. 962 by twelve "first masters," among whom were Walther von der Vogelweide and Heinrich Frauenlob-men who actually lived c. 1200 and c. 1300 respectively. The statement that Heinrich Frauenlob was the first Meistersinger is still frequently found in modem writings, although the accuracy of this traditio~ was already questioned by the German professor J. C. Wagenseil, in his De . .. civitate Noribergensi commentatio (1697), the source for Wagner's *Meistersinger libretto. Actually, it is not until the early 15th century that names such as Muskatbliit, Harder, and Der Zwinger suggest greater participation by commoners. Even Michel Behaim (1416-74), who might be more

properly regarded as the first Meistersinger, falls outside the category proper, since he led a traveling life-like the bards-whereas the Meistersinger were resident members of reputable city guilds, united in local schools. Among the actual Meistersinger were Conrad Nachtigall, Hans Sachs (1494-1576), Georg Hager (1552-1634), Hans Folz (all in Nuremberg), Sebastian Wilde (in Augsburg), and Adam Puschmann (15321600, in Breslau). In the 16th century the movement spread over most of Germany, but it declined rapidly during the 17th century. Certain schools existed throughout the 18th century; that ofUlm was dissolved in 1839. II. Characteristic of the Meistergesang were the rigid and pedantic rules that regulated the procedure of their weekly meetings (on Sunday, after church), the establishment of competitions and prizes, the promotion of members into various classes (Schiller, Schulfreund, Singer, Dichter, Meister, i.e., pupil, friend, singer, poet, master), etc. The rules were set down in the socalled Tabulatur (tablature). The title Dichter was given for the invention of a new poem (called Lied, Gesang), the title Meister for a new melody (called Ton, Weise). Most of the numerous poems were sung to standard melodies whose names referred to their composers (e.g., "Brant-weise; Der Wilde Ton") or to other more or less obscure characteristics (e.g., "Rosenton," "Grasmiickenweise" -warbler-melody), while names such as "Schwartz-Dintenweis" (black ink melody) and "Kurtze-Affenweis" (short monkey melody) show that the Meistersinger did not wholly lack humor. The whole setup has been vividly (and accurately) described by Wagner in his Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg (particularly Act I, David and Kothner). III. The musical repertory of the Meistersinger, as it is preserved, consists of a large number of melodies, written in *monophonic notation in a more or less free rhythm. Practically ail of them are in *Bar form, the traditional form of the minnesingers. Among the songs of Hans Sachs are several attractive melodies [see HAM, no. 24; EiBM, no. 9; BeMMR, p. 271; SchGMB, no. 78]. On the whole, however, the Meistersinger melodies are clumsy and barren, often crowded with meaningless coloraturas [G. Blumen]. The Meistersinger probably derived elements of their ritual not only from the minnesingers but also from the procedure of medieval doctoral examinations, from pious fraternities similar to the Italian laudesi [see Lauda; note the prevail-

515

MEISTERSINGER VON NURNBERG, DIE

MELODRAMA

ingly Biblical repertory of the Meistersinger], and possibly from the French *puys. Lit.: C. Mey, Der Meistergesang in Geschichte und Kunst, rev. ed. (1901); W. Nagel, Studienzur Geschichte der Meisterstinger (1909); B. Nagel, Der deutsche Meistergesang (1952); C. H. Bell, Georg Hager: A Meistersinger of Niirnberg, 3 vols. (1947); R. W. Linker, Music of the Minnesinger and Early Meistersinger; A Bibliography [1962]; A. Taylor and F. H. Ellis, A Bibliography of Meistergesang (Indiana Univ. Studies, no. 113, 1936); ReMR, pp. 652ff; H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deutschen Musik, rev. ed. (1930), i, 303-18; P. Runge, :t:Die Co/marer Liederhandschrift (1896); G. Miinzer, :t:Das Singebuch des Adolf Puschman (1907); R. Staiger, Benedikt von Watt (1914); H. Thompson, Wagner and Wagensei/ (1927); G. Miinzer, "Hans Sachs als Musiker" (DM v.l9); P. Runge, eta/., "Ober die Notation des Meistergesangs" (CP 1906, p. 17; CP 1909, p. 84); MGG viii, s.v. "Meistergesang." Meistersinger von Niimberg, Die [G., The Mastersingers of Nuremberg]. Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner (to his own libretto, based on Goethe, E. T. A. Hoffmann, and others), produced in Munich, 1868. Setting: Nuremberg, 16th century. The plot, based on careful studies of original sources, presents a true and lively picture of the life and customs in the mastersinger guilds of the 16th century [see Meistersinger]. Die Meistersinger represents an artistic peak in Wagner's work. In its balance of means, its "C-major atmosphere," and its variety of scenes and expressions, the opera offers a striking contrast to the earlier Tristan (1865), with its exuberant chromaticism and passionate expression of tragic love-madness. The overture, frequently performed in concerts, is one of the great examples of 19th-century instrumental music. See Opera X. See H. Thompson, Wagner & Wagenseil (1927). Mejorana [Sp.]. Song of Spanish origin that was brought to Panama during the 18th century. It may be vocal, in which case it is sung exclusively by men and never danced, or instrumental and danced. Its melodies are mainly descending and proceed by disjunct intervals, using leaps of major sixths, sevenths, and ninths, and frequently also augmented fourths. Characteristic of its harmonic structure is the use of I-IV-V chords, I and IV in inverted position and V in root position. The mejorana is in 6/8 meter with a free alternation of duple and triple divisions in a moderate tempo. The vocal mejorana, also

called socaoon, begins with an improvised vocalization, sung partly in falsetto, which is repeated J.o-s. after each stanza of the poem. Mejoranera [Sp.]. Panamanian five-stringed guitar that is used to accompany the folksongs and dances of this country and is also a leading instrument in a popular band, along with a rabe/ (three-stringed violin), tambora (large drum), pujador (medium-sized drum), repicador (small drum), gudracha (gourd shaker), and almirez (brass mortar). J.o-s. Melisma. (l) An expressive vocal passage sung to one syllable, as opposed to the virtuoso-like and frequently stereotyped *coloratura. The term is used particularly with reference to Gregorian chant but may also be applied to expressive or characteristic passages in other vocal styles. The distinction between melismatic style and syllabic style is of fundamental importance in Gregorian chant [see Gregorian chant III] as well as in 13th-century polyphonic music [see ApNPM, pp. 212ff]. (2) The term has occasionally been used (F. Ludwig) for the more common term *clausula because the clausulae are polyphonic elaborations of plainsong melismas (vocalizing passages in the Graduals and Alleluias). Mellophone. A brass instrument, similar to an althorn but in circular form, pitched in Eb and F. It was used in marching bands in place of the French hom, which it resembles. See MaMI. Melodie [F.]. Solo song with accompaniment, corresponding to the German lied. See Song III. See F. Noske, La Me/odie franr;aise de Berlioz a Duparc (1954). Melodrama. A stage presentation intermediate between play and opera, consisting of spoken text and background music. If only one or two actors are involved, the terms "monodrama" or "duodrama" may be used. Melodramatic presentation seems to have played an important role in Greek drama. It became very popular in the second half of the 18th century. The earliest known examples are melodramatic scenes in a Latin school play, Sigismundus, by J. E. Eberlin (1753; see DTO 55). The first full melodrama was J.-J. Rousseau's Pygmalion (1762), followed by Georg Benda's Ariadne auf Naxos ( 1775; new ed. by A. Einstein, 1920; see AdHM ii, 752) and Medea (1778). In all these works, spoken text and music do not sound simultaneously but alternate, the music sometimes being used as a

516

MELODRAMMA

MELODY

background for pantomime gestures. Benda's plays made quite a sensation and caused Mozart to use two long melodramatic monologues in his Zaide (1780). Well-known examples of melodramatic style are the gravedigging scene in Beethoven's Fidelio and the incantation scene in Weber's Der Freischiitz. In Spain, Tomas de Iriarte (1750-91) wrote a melodrama, Guzman el Bueno ( 1790). In the early 19th century ballads often were recited to a piano accompaniment. An interesting example, by Beethoven's pupil F. Ries, is reproduced in TaAM xiv. Here the music no longer consists of fragments that alternate with words but becomes a continuous background for the delivery of the text, as it is in Schubert's "Abschied von der Erde," Schumann's "Schon Hedwig," and Liszt's "Der traurige Monch." Modem examples of melodrama include R. Strauss' Enoch Arden (1898), Schoenberg's Erwartung (1909), and Stravinsky's Persephone (1934), as well as sections of A. Bliss' Morning Heroes, D. Milhaud's Christophe Colomb, and the part of Joan in A. Honneger's Jeanne d'Arc au bUcher. What might be called a semimelodramatic style was introduced by Schoenberg in his Pierrot Lunaire (1912), in which he replaced plain speech by a half-musical speech known as "Sprechstimme. Lit.: J. F. Mason, The Melodrama in France (1912); P. H. Lang, Music in Western Civilization (1941), p. 583f; J. van der Veen, Le Melodrame musical de Rousseau au Romantisme (1955); E. Istel, Die Entstehung des deutschen Melodramas (1906); id., in DM v.9-12; E. C. van Bellen, Les Origines du melodrame (1927); R. Augsten, Les Premiers Melodrames franr;ais, compares aux modeles allemands (1912); M. Steinitzer; Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Melodrams und Mimodrams (1918); H. Martens, tDas Melodrama (1932). Melodramma [It.). A 17th-century term for opera (not "melodrama). Melody. I. In the broadest sense, a succession of musical tones, as opposed to *harmony, i.e., musical tones sounded simultaneously. Melody and harmony represent the horizontal and vertical elements of musical *texture. By its very nature melody cannot be separated from rhythm. Each musical sound has two fundamental qualities, pitch and duration, and both of these enter into the successions of pitch-plusduration values known as melodies. To consider melody and rhythm separate or even mutually exclusive phenomena-as is often done-is mis-

leading. If a distinction between the pitch quality ("high-low") and the time quality ("longshort") is needed, the proper terms are "motion and rhythm. Melody may thus be said to consist of motion plus rhythm, and every melody can be separated into a motion skeleton and a rhythm skeleton, as the accompanying example illustrates. I

I~)11'blrb

• ... • •••

•q• •

••

~-

..._ .....

In musical composition, melody may occur either without any additional element of texture ("monophonic music), or in combination with one or more other melodies ("polyphonic music), or supported by harmonies ("homophonic music). These three categories roughly describe the entire development of music: the first embraces the period from its beginnings through the first millennium of the Christian era (Greek music, Gregorian chant; up to the present in primitive and non-Western music and in folksong); the second, from 1000 to about 1750 (Middle Ages, Renaissance, baroque; see History of music); the third, from 1750 to the present day. In the last period, particularly during the 19th century, there has been an increasing tendency to make melody subservient to harmony, or at least to consider it the mere result of harmonic progressions. The current description of melody as the "surface of harmony" clearly illustrates this point of view. Writers have gone so far as to maintain that a melody that cannot be interpreted harmonically is incomprehensible. It should suffice to point to the great treasure of purely melodic music in Gregorian chant in order to refute so utterly false a conception. II. Although the present interest in polyphonic music has resulted in a revision of the worst misconceptions, the real importance of melody is still far from being fully and generally recognized. Among the various components of musical composition, such as melody, harmony, rhythm, and orchestration, melody is, from the historical as well as from the creative point of view, by far the most important. The 19thcentury development of musit:, with its growing emphasis on the exploitation of novel harmonies, orchestral colors, and rhythm as an inde-

517

MELODY

MELODY

pendent element, temporarily obscured the fact that melody is the only element in common to music of all times and all peoples, and that, moreover, it is the cornerstone and touchstone of artistic quality. Harmony, orchestration, and rhythm are subject to certain rational premises, and many composers of mediocre artistic rank have exploited them with great skill. Only true artists, however, possess the imagination and creativity that produce a great melody. It is significant as well as deplorable that since 1900 hundreds of books on harmony and on orchestration have been written, and that courses on these subjects have formed an indispensable part of the curriculum of all educational institutions, while the study of melody has been almost completely neglected. III. It is encouraging, however, to see that in the past decades several writers have turned their attention to the study of melody, not as mere ornamentation of a harmonic structure but as an element in its own right. General characterizations such as "tuneful," "simple," "touching," "expressive," "dramatic," etc., are not entirely without significance but are too vague to provide a basis for thorough study. A more promising approach-indeed the one most likely to prove successful-is that derived from the fact that a melody consists of successive notes of varying pitch. This leads to a consideration of a melody as a "geometrical" design including upward and downward steps and, still more important, as a "physical" phenomenon reminiscent of a moving body subject to forces that regulate its motion. A very important concept of such a theory is that of "musical gravity," a term implying that the "natural" movement of a musical line is downward [see the scales of *Greek music], while an ascending motion always has the connotation of tension and energy. Of course, practically all melodies combine ascending and descending

movements, but the greater emphasis on or prevalence of one or the other is a point of prime importance, as may readily be seen from a comparison of melodies by Bach and Beethoven with those of Mendelssohn, for example. The preceding illustration [Ex. a, Bach; b, Mendelssohn] shows two graphs of opposite musical gravity, melodies that differ markedly in their physical as well as artistic "weight." IV. Another consideration of basic importance is that of the steps in which a melody moves, i.e., narrow (conjunct) or wide (disjunct). This distinction is of prime interest in the study of primitive and non-Western music. For instance, Japanese music is prevailingly conjunct -hence, emotional, expressive-while ancient Chinese music is disjunct-hence, static, reserved [cf. also the two scales, stendro and pt!log, of *Javanese music]. In European folksong it has frequently been noted that the French and Italians prefer narrow steps and ranges, while the northern peoples (English, German, etc.) prefer wider ones. In art music this dichotomy becomes one between scalar and chordal progressions, i.e., progressions through the tones of the scale or of a chord (triad, seventh chord). Influenced by the current preoccupation with harmony, writers usually consider the latter the more important and often regard scalar progressions as mere passing-notes between main notes forming a chordal progression. In order to refute this point of view, it suffices to point to the theme of Beethoven's first Piano Sonata [Ex. 3a], which, with the "ornamental" notes suppressed [Ex. 3b], loses its character entirely, while it is not fundamentally affected by a substitution of scalar instead of chordal motion for the initial notes [Ex.

2

i$9D ffl JiO wt£V I@DlJJW lj I 3

b

c

~

1&J'~r1 uJrrlrr,IIJiqJ~J J J 1J lJJJt 3c]. In fact, scalar motion is not only much older and more common than chordal motion but also more important from the musical and artistic point of view. Only the scale possesses that character of "logical continuation," of "variety and unity," that is the lifeblood of melody. In fact, in a progression such as c' -b-a-g-a-b-c' each tone

518

MELODY CHORALE

MEMBY

has a significance and function, leading from one level to another, while a similar chordal progression, such as c'-g-e-c-e-g-c', is, in spite of its greater range, a mere reiteration of one element. Many melodies of the great composers begin with a chordal motion and continue with scalar motion, thus showing a progression from a "static" beginning to a "dynamic" continuation [see Ex. 4-6, by Mozart (Piano Sonata, K. 284b, also K. 309), Beethoven (Eroica), and Bruckner (Symphony no. 7)]. 4

l~rJ IF"@rtiFFtfiE!ftFIUFtl 5

I6~1 /,j j I j J I j

j

r I j JI#jl

Lit.: A. C. Edwards, The Art of Melody (1956); J. Smits van Waesberghe, A Textbook of Melody (1955); R. Faith, Creative Musicianship; the Tonal Materials and Rhythmic Structure of Melody (1941); F. M. Ralston, Melodic Design (1930); B. Szabolcsi, A History of Melody (1965); W. Woehl, Melodielehre (1923); W. Danckert, Personate Typen des Melodiestils (1931); id., Ursymbole melodischer Gestaltung (1932); E. Hoffmann, Das Wesen der Me/odie (1925); H. Zingerle, Zur Entwicklung der Melodik von Bach his Mozart (1937); T. Dunhill, "The Evolution of Melody" (PMA xxxiv); F. Kidson, "The Vitality of Melody" (PMA xxxiv); A. Lourie, "An Inquiry into Melody" (MMvii); A. H. Fox Strangways, "Tune" (ML iii, 90); H. J. Watt, "Melody" (ML v, 272); 0. Bie, "Melody" (MQ ii, 402). Melody chorale. A type of *organ chorale in which the chorale tune is placed in the top part, as a clearly audible melody accompanied by contrapuntal parts of individual design. An exceptionally early and also exceptionally beautiful example is Arnolt Schlick's Maria zart (in Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesang, 1512; new ed., G. Harms [1957], p. 32). Almost all the chorales of J. S. Bach's Orgelbiichlein are melody chorales.

Melody type. A term used in modern writings on non-Western and early European music for a practice of fundamental importance in the more primitive stages of music, i.e., a repertory of traditional melodies, melodic formulas, stereotyped figures, tonal progressions, ornamentations, rhythmic patterns, etc., that serve as a model for the creation of new melodies. Evidently such a procedure is in complete contrast to the modern ideal of "free invention" and "originality." An imaginary school of musicians writing deliberately in "Beethoven-style" would be approximately analogous to what still is the normal procedure among Arab and Indian musicians-a procedure that largely accounts for the absence of the evolutionary element in Oriental music. To the category of melody types belong the ancient Greek nomos, the echos of Byzantine and Armenian church music, the Syrian risqolo, the Javanese pa(et, the Hindu riiga, the Arabian maqam and, in Europe, the Russian popievki and the Weisen or Tone of the Meistersinger [see the entries Greece, etc.]. Scholars formerly considered the riigas, maqamat, echoi, etc., the "modes" of Hindu, Arab, Byzantine, etc., music. Actually, they represent an earlier stage of development in which the "model" prescribes not only a scale with a given ambitus and center tone-as does a mode-but also typical motifs and tone progressions. [For an example, see under India V; a Syrian example is given in GD, Sup. Vol., p. 175; GDB ii, 864.] The medieval system of eight church modes probably developed through a process of rationalization from an earlier system of melody types, possibly from the Byzantine *echos. Melophone. A free-reed instrument shaped like a guitar or hurdy-gurdy, about 32 inches long, with a broad neck and bellows housed in the body. The player activates the bellows by pushing and pulling a metal handle with the right hand, while his left hand depresses the desired keys, placed on the neck in seven rows of twelve keys each. The instrument was invented in the 1830's in Paris. See ill. under Wind instruments. Melopiano. See under Sostenente piano. Membranophone. See under Instruments. Memby. Generic name for a set of native wind instruments (pipes, vertical flutes) of the Guarani Indians, which are still widely used in Paraguay and in the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso and Parana. The instruments belonging to a set are

519

MENDELSSOHN SCHOLARSHIP

MENSURAL NOTATION

tuned so as to produce perfect fifths or octaves when played together. J.o-s. Mendelssohn Scholarship. See under Scholarships II. Mene. See Meane; also Sight. Menestrandise [F.]. Early term for a guild of professional musicians [menestrel, i.e., minstrel]. Fran~ois Couperin pictured a procession of minstrels, jongleurs, beggars, and acrobats with their bears and monkeys in a piece called "Les Pastes de la grande et ancienne Mxnxstrxndxsx" [see his Pieces de clavecin, ed. J. Brahms and F. Chrysander, ii, 208].

maxima (Mx), tonga (L), brevis (B), semibrevis (S), minima (M), semiminima (Sm),fusa (F), and semifusa (Sf). The accompanying table shows the single notes and corresponding rests, together with the modem forms derived from them. For the transcription into modem notation it is advisable not to use the exact equivalents (S = whole note, etc.), but smaller values that

Notes: Rests:

Meno [It.]. Less. Meno mosso, less quickly.

Modern:

Mensur [G.]. (1) Meter, mensuration. (2) In organ building, same as scale, *scaling.

Mx L

B

s

M

Sm

9 9

~

~

~

l (~) ~(~ ~

F Sf

H::::E.:::::I::-.-......__c_....:::L..-"-IQ

0

J

: : : I : - - - _..._

J t

)\ '1

~

~

Mensural notation. The system of musical notation that was established c. 1250 by Franco of Cologne and remained in use until 1600. Actually, this period embraces a variety of systems differing from each other in many particulars [see under Notation]. The following discussion concerns the final stage of the development (c. 1450-1600), called white mensural notation, with reference to the white shapes of the larger note values used instead of the earlier black shapes. I. Notational signs. These fall into two classes; single notes and ligatures. The single notes are

cQnform more closely to the actual temporal duration of the old signs. In the subsequent description a reduction 1:4 is used so that the S is rendered as a quarter note. For the ligatures, see the separate article. II. Mensuration. Mensuration is the general term for the temporal relationships between the note values, comparable to the different meters of the modem system. Special terms are: *modus (relationship between L and B), tempus (B and S), and prolatio (S and M). While in modem notation a note (unless dotted) is invariably equal to two notes of the next smaller value, in mensural notation the chief notes, namely L, B, and S, may equal either two or three. This dichotomy is indicated by the terms imperfect and perfect. Omitting the modus, which is usually imperfect, there result four combinations of tempus and prolatio (e.g., tempus perfectum cum prolatione imperfecta), which constitute the four main mensurations of mensural notations and are indicated by special signs. They are the exact equivalent of four basic meters of modem notation, as shown below:

Prolatio

Example

Mensural music (also mensurable, mensurate). Translation of L. musica mensurata (cantus mensurabilis), which in early theory (13th-16th centuries) is used in contrast to musica plana, i.e., plainsong. It means polyphonic music in which every note has a strictly determined value, as distinct from Gregorian chant with its free rhythm. See Mensural notation; also under Measure.

Tempus

Value of

Sign.

s

B

I. Imperfect

Imperfect

II. Perfect

Imperfect

III. Imperfect

Perfect

IV. Perfect

Perfect

c = 0 = =~ c == 0 ==

=~ ~ ~

~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ =~ ~ ~ =6 ~

c= ~ ~ 6 =i J I J n o= ~ ~ L --43 J. I J nJ ~ =~ ~ ~ c = ~ i ~ t =gd. IJ. lJl ~ = ~ ~ ~ o= ~ ~ U ~ =~ ,U.I J. lJl i 520

I

I

MENSURAL NOTATION

MENSURAL NOTATION

The subsequent explanations refer chiefly to mensuration II. As a ·matter of fact, in I the metrical relationships between the various notes are the same as in modern notation; this mensuration, therefore, presents no problems, aside from the use of ligatures and coloration [see V below]. The principles for mensuration III can easily be derived from those for II by replacing each note by the next smaller note, e.g., the B by the S, the tempus by the prolatio, etc. Mensuration IV practically never occurs in the sources of white notation and is rare even in the 14th century. III. Imperfection and alteration. The normal values of the BandS, i.e., three and oneS respectively, are frequently modified according to principles known as imperfection and alteration. By imperfection the B is reduced from three S to two S, and by alteration the value of the S is doubled. The following rules cover the most common cases: If a B is followed by one or by more than three S, it is imperfected. If a B is followed by two S, the second of these S is altered [Ex. 1]. The last of these examples shows that a B may also be imperfected by a preceding S, a

01~~

~~~

~~~~

dots are puncti divisionis, while the others are puncti additionis.

V. Coloration. Coloration is the use of black notes (B, S, M) instead of the normal white forms (originally, red ink was used for this purpose):

The general principle of coloration is that three black notes are equal to two white notes. The result is different according to whether the black notes replace two imperfect or two perfect notes. In the former case [Ex. a, b] triplets result, while in the latter case [c, d] the effect is a change of rhythm similar to that encountered frequently in the courantes of the 17th century [see Hemiola]: a

c

~~~~~

41 Jl Jll J j IJll Jl j JIJll Jl j j j IJl

process called imperfectio a parte ante, in contrast to the more common imperfectio a parte post. Rests cannot be imperfected or altered but may cause imperfection or alteration of a note [Ex. 2]. IV. Functus divisionis, punctus additionis. In order to indicate deviating groupings and also in cases of ambiguity, a dot called punctus divisionis is used. This is equivalent to the modern bar line in 3/4 meter, as it always marks off groups of three S (perfection). Other terms, such as punctus perfectionis, imperfectionis, or alterationis, are both superfluous and confusing. The dot is also used, however, with an entirely different meaning, i.e., as a punctus additionis, which is identical to the dot of modern notation. In the accompanying example the first and fifth

A special case of coloration is the so-called minor color, that is, the combination S-M in black notes. Originally, this indicated triplet rhythm, as above under (b). Owing to the shortness of the notes, however, its meaning changed into a dotted rhythm, as illustrated under (e). It is frequently followed by a series of Sm, as under (f). In a combination like this it should be observed that, notwithstanding their identity in shape as well as rhythmic value, the first of the stemmed notes is a black M while the others are "white" (i.e., normal) Sm. The following example illustrates the principles explained above. It also includes passages in *proportion. For further details of mensural notation the reader is referred to specialized books on the subject. See also Notation; Score II. Lit.: ApNPM, pp. 85-195; J. Wolf, Handbuch

521

MENSURATION

MESOPOTAMIA

Icb ~ eI.~ bl i I 4!. ~ 1i 3 ~ ~ " ~ "', l I l ~ 9 I -

I

Tenor

~~1:ae Q·br- Jli·tv~.qh ~oiHHtUi k ~~~II ;j

technique, with its tendency toward constant change of melodic material and orchestral color, a technique eminently suited to the rendition of a "musical seascape." Mere l'oye, Ma. See Ma Mere l'oye. Merengue [Sp.]. One of the most popular dances of Santo Domingo in moderate duple time and with the basic rhythmic pattern:

aim nt It consists of two sections of sixteen measures each, the second in the key of the dominant or of the relative minor of the first. The merengue can be traced back to Spanish traditions imported during the Conquest. In the 19th century it took on features of the waltz, the mazurka, and the contredanse, often modified by Negro influence. Because of its sensual character, the upper classes of Santo Domingo were J.o-s. reluctant to adopt it.

Merry Wives of Windsor, The. See Lustigen Weiher von Windsor, Die. Mescolanza [It.]. *Medley. Mese. See under Greece II.

der Notationskunde i (1913), pp. 381-465; H. Bellermann, Die Mensuralnoten ... des XV und XVI. Jahrhunderts (1858; rev. ed. 1~63, ed. H. Husmann); E. Praetorius, Die Mensuraltheorie des Franchinus Gafurius (1905); H. Birtner, "Die Probleme der spatmittelalterlichen Mensuralnotation" (ZMW xi); A. M. Michalitschke, "Zur Frage der longa in der Mensuraltheorie des 13. Jahrhunderts" (ZMW viii); id., in ZMW xii.

Mensuration. See Mensural notation II. Mensuration canon. See under Canon II. Mensurstrich [G.]. See under Bar line. Mente, alia [It.]. Improvised. Menuet [F.], Menuett [G.]. See Minuet. Mer, La [F., The Sea]. Three symphonic poems by Debussy, composed 1903-05: I. De L'Aube a midi sur Ia mer (From Dawn to Noon on the Sea); 2. Jeux de vagues (Play of the Waves); 3. Dialogue du vent et de Ia mer (Dialogue of the Wind and the Sea). The work represents the culmination of *impressionist pictorialism and

Mesopotamia (Babylonia, Sumeria, Assyria). Knowledge of the musical culture of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia is restricted chiefly to information about their musical instruments from pictorial, architectural illustrations and religious texts. The chief instruments of the Sumerian period (c. 3000-2000 B.C.) were the harp, usually without forepillar, and the lyre. Both existed in a great variety of shapes and sizes. The music was strictly liturgical. During the Babylonian rule (2000-1000 B.C.) the use of lutes, flutes, oboes, and drums seems to point to greater refinement. During the Assyrian rule (1000-605 B.C.) music and musical instruments were brought in by foreign musicians. C. Sachs' attempt [AMW vii] to interpret certain signs on a Babylonian clay tablet dating from about 800 B.C. as harp notation, and his consequent reconstruction of a Babylonian hymn, were withdrawn by him in an article [MQ xxvii; also CP 1939] in which he also refutes another interpretation given by F. W. Galpin. Lit.: F. W. Galpin, The Music of the Sumerians . .. Babylonians and Assyrians, rev. ed. (1955); C. Sachs, The Rise of Music in the Ancient World [1943]; ReMMA, pp. 4ff (bibl. p. 426);

522

MESOTONIC

METRONOME

W. Stauder, Die Harfen und Leiern Vorderasiens in babylonischer und assyrischer Zeit (1961); H. Hartmann, Die Musik der Sumerischen Kultur (1960); M. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Decouverte d'une Gamme Babylonienne" (RdM 1963, pp. 3-17); bibl. in Notes v, 179ff. Mesotonic. Same as mean-tone (system); see under Temperament II. Messa di voce [It.]. A special vocal technique of 18th-century *bel canto, consisting of a gradual crescendo and decrescendo over a sustained tone; see Expression. Modem singers use it extensively for training but sparingly in performance. The term should not be confused with *mezza voce. See also Filar il tuono. Messanza [It.]. See under Quodlibet III. Messe [F., G.]. Mass. Messe des morts [F.], Requiem *Mass. Messel. Corruption of mathal, a term used in Arab theory to indicate fractions of the type n+l - , e.g., mathal wa thuluth = 'Yl, mathal wa n subu = ¥.!, etc. [see R. d'Erlanger, La Musique arabe ii, 264]. It corresponds exactly to the Latin term *sesqui-. All intervals represented by such fractions were considered consonant by the Arabs. The messel has nothing to do with an early recognition of the third or the sixth as consonances, as was formerly believed (R. G. Kiesewetter, Die Musik der Araber [1842] and many others after him). The third(¥.!) is simply one in the long series of consonant mathal intervals, while the sixth (13) does not occur in this series and hence was not a consonance.

Metamorphosis. See Transformation of themes. Meter. The pattern of fixed temporal units, called *beats, by which the timespan of a piece of music or a section thereof is measured [see Rhythm II (a)]. Neither meter nor rhythm is exactly equivalent to patterns of note values [see Rhythm 1]. Meter is indicated by *time signatures. For instance, 3/4 meter (or 3/4 time) means that the basic values are quarter notes and that every third quarter note receives an accent. Such metric groupings are indicated by *bar lines that mark off measures. According to whether there are two, three, or four units to the measure, one speaks of duple (2/2, 2/4, 2/8), triple (3/2, 3/4, 3/8), and quadruple (4/2, 4/4, 4/8) meter, 4/4 also being called "common" meter. All these are simple meters. For 4/4 and 2/2 the signs C and¢ are used [see Alia breve]. Compound meters are simple meters multiplied by three: compound duple (6/2, 6/4, 6/8), compound triple (9/4, 9/8), and compound quadruple (12/4, 12/8, 12/16). *Quintuple meter (5/4) is either 2/4 + 3/4 or 3/4 + 2/4, depending on where the secondary accent lies. An example of septuple meter, written 3/4 + 4/4, occurs in Brahms' Variations op. 21, no. 2. For the history of meter, see Rhythm III. See also Poetic meter; Time signatures. For bibl. see under Rhythm. rev. G.c. Metrical psalms. See under Psalter.

Mestres de I'Escolania de Montserrat. See Editions XXVI.

Metronome. An apparatus that sounds regular beats at adjustable speed and is used to indicate the exact tempo of a composition. The instrument in general use today was invented c. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel of Amsterdam but is named after Johannes N. Maelzel, who usurped and exploited Winkel's invention. The Maelzel Metronome (M.M. or M.) is based on the principle of a double pendulum, i.e., an oscillating rod with a weight at each end, the one at the upper end being movable along a scale. By adjusting this weight away from or toward the axis, the oscillations can be made slower or faster respectively. An indication such as M.M. 80 means that the pendulum makes 80 oscillations per minute: In a piece marked M.M. J = 80, the duration of the half note will be 60 = 3 second. 80 4 Metronomic indications can be used to estimate the approximate duration of a piece. The

Mesure [F.]. Measure or meter.

forniula is n ~ t , where M is the metronome fig-

Messiah. Oratorio in three parts by Handel (libretto by C. Jennens, based on various books of the Bible), produced in Dublin, 1742, later revised, and published in 1767. It is Handel's most popular work. Particularly famous are the "Pastoral Symphony" and the alto aria, "He shall feed His tlock" from the first part, and the "Hallelujah Chorus" from the end of the second part.

Messine neumes. The neumatic script of Metz. See Neumes II (table, col. I). Mesto [It.]. Sad, mournful.

523

MEXICO

METTE

ure, t the number of measures of the piece, and n the number of notes-those to which the metronome figure refers-in a measure. For instance, a piece of 160 measures in 3I 4 time with the metronome mark M.M. J = 90 will last 3 ~d 60 = 5Y.J minutes, or 5 minutes and 20 seconds. The first composer to use the metronome was Beethoven. In 1817 he published metronomic indications for all the movements of his (then) eight symphonies (Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, no. 51). Unfortunately, the tempi indicated in his "Hammerklavier" Sonata and Ninth Symphony are almost impossibly fast, as are those indicated in the works of Schumann. See Tempo. After more than a hundred years, during which it kept the pyramid shape fashionable in Napoleonic days, the Maelzel metronome gradually began to be replaced by devices resembling a watch, often built with an electric motor. Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, Origins of Musical Time and Expression (1938); R. Kirkpatrick, "Eighteenth-century Metronomic Indications" (PAMS 1938); E. Borrel, "Les Indications metronomiques ... du xviiie siecle" (RdM 1928); D. Kamper, "Zur Frage der Metronombezeichnungen Robert Schumanns" (AMW xxi); R. Kolisch, "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music" (MQ xxix, nos. 2 and 3); J. T. Hanson, "A New Metronome" (PMA xx). Mette [G.]. *Matins. Mettez [F.]. Draw (an organ stop). Metzer Neumen [G.]. Messine neumes; see Neumes I. Mexico. Mexico's history of music can be divided into three main periods: the preColumbian, which dates from the rise of the Maya culture c. 200 A.D. to the end of the Aztec Empire, marked by Cuauhtemoc's defeat by Cortes (1521); the colonial, from 1521 until the declaration of independence from Spain in 1810; and independence, from 1810 to the present. Information about pre-Hispanic music comes from the writings of early Spanish chroniclers, as well as from systematic study of native instruments known to have been used before Cortes' arrival and from melodies collected today among Indian groups supposedly not influenced by the European tradition. Such sources have led to the following conclusions: pre-Hispanic music was

always linked to ritual and ceremonial occasions; it was monophonic and prevailingly pentatonic; instrumental performance was always co~bined with singing; certain instruments, e.g., the *huehuetl, *teponaztli, and tlapitzalli (a four-hole flute), were considered divine or endowed with supernatural powers and were worshiped as idols; music was a means of communal rather than individual expression. To date no indication of musical notation has been found. With the arrival of the Spaniards, music in Mexico underwent a profound change. From the very beginning of the Spanish conquest, music was used to help convert the people to Christianity, and European musical methods were introduced along with education in other arts. In 1523 the first school for teaching European music to the Indians was established by a Franciscan missionary, Pedro de Gante (1480-1572). The students were trained in the construction and playing of instruments and were taught the elements of plain chant. Secular forms of music were developed at the same time by a number of instrumentalists who had accompanied Cortes' first expedition to Mexico. Chronicles mention a guitar player, Juan Ortiz, who shortly after 1521 taught Indians to play the guitar and perform European dances. A printing press established in Mexico in 1539 issued an Ordinarium in 1556, the first book with music printed in the New World. Between 1560 and 1589 eleven more liturgical books, containing portions of the Mass, antiphons, hymns, psalms, and Passion music, were printed in Mexico. This relatively large production indicates the existence of a considerable number of Indian choirs. Besides plainchant, polyphonic psalms, motets, and villancicos were performed as far back as 1538. Choirbooks preserved in the cathedrals of Mexico City and Puebla, containing works by the Spanish composers Cristobal de Morales (c. 1500-53) and Francisco Guerrero (1527-99) that were brought to Mexico in manuscript copies before 1550, further indicate that part singing was widely practiced during this period. In 1539 Juan Xuarez, who had come to Mexico in 1530, was appointed the first choir director of the Cathedral of Mexico City. The repertory of polyphony preserved in the codices of Mexican archives includes works by several noted composers, ranging from the mid16th century to the early 18th century. Juan de Lienas (16th cent.) is represented in the archives of the Mexico City and Puebla cathedrals and

524

MEXICO

MEXICO

the Convento del Carmen by three Masses (one a Requiem), a Magnificat, sevaral motets, and sets of Lamentations; Hernando Franco (1532-85), by seven Magnificats, two Salve reginas, psalms, hymns, and responsories [see Guatemala]; Fructos del Castillo by one motet; Pedro Bermudez (ft. 1605) by four Salvereginas and one psalm; Bernardo de Peralta (ft. 1640) by a Magnificat; Francisco Lopez y Capilla (ft. 1645) by three Masses, two Magnificats, twelve motets, and a set of Lamentations; Juan de Padilla (ft. 1650) by five Masses, five Magnificats, a Passion according to St. Matthew, motets, and villancicos; Antonio de Salazar (fl. 1690), choirmaster at the Cathedral of Mexico from 1685 to 1715, by seven hymns, two psalms, and a number of villancicos; and Manuel Zumaya (ft. 1720), composer of the first opera produced in the New World, La Partf!nope (1711), and a musical drama El Rodrigo (1708), by three Magnificats, two Misereres, two sets of Lamentations, and several villancicos. Other colonial composers were Miguel Mateo Dallo y Lana (ft. late 17th cent.), musical director in Puebla, known for his part setting of Sor Juana Ines de Ia Cruz' Villancicos, printed in Mexico in 1690; Jose de Torres (ft. 1703), whose Missarum Liber was printed in Madrid in 1703; Jose Maria Aldana (d. 1810), composer of villancicos, a Mass in D, and instrumental music influenced by late 18th-century Italian examples; and Antonio Juanas (d. 1817). In the 19th century, music in Mexico was strongly influenced by Italian opera. The predominant types were short theatrical farces and comedies and instrumental pieces based on dances. The former is represented by the *zarzuela, the latter by the minuet, contradanza (*contredanse), and *Jarabe. During the first half of the century a group of composers, inspired by the spirit of national independence and romanticism, were active. Members of this group were Jose Mariano Elizaga (1786-1842), author oftwo books on theory, Elementos de Ia Musica (1822) and Tratado de Ia Armonia y Melodia (1835), and composer of two Masses, a Miserere, Lamentations, Responses, and a Valse y variaciones for piano; Joaquin Beristain (1817-39), precocious composer of a Sinfonia and an orchestral fantasy, La Primavera; Luis Baca (1826-55), the first opera composer after independence; Cenobio Paniagua (1821-82), composer of the operas Catalina di Guisa (1845) and Pietro d'Abano (1863), the oratorios Siete Palabras (1869) and Tobias (1870), and several Masses; Melesio

Morales (1838-1908), who wrote the operas Ildegonga (1869), Cleopatra (1891), and Anita (1867), and a large number of piano pieces; Aniceto Ortega (1823-75), a gifted amateur composer of piano music and a short opera, Guatimozin (1871); and Tomas Leon (1826-93), a noted piano virtuoso, teacher, and composer. During the long period when Porfirio Diaz was in power (1872-1911), Mexican composers continued to produce operas in the Italian style and at the same time cultivated virtuoso pieces, mainly for piano, strongly influenced by European romanticism. Among them were Julio Ituarte (1845-1905), a noted virtuoso and composer of several Fantasias for piano; Ernesto Elorduy (1853-1912), cultivator of the stylized type of Mexican danza for solo piano; Felipe Villanueva (1862-93), known for his opera, Keofar (1893); Gustavo E. Campa (1863-1934), who followed the French tradition in his piano compositions and his opera, Le Roi Poete (1901); and Ricardo Castro ( 1864-1907), successful pianist and composer of orchestral works, two operas, Atzimba (1901) and La Legende de Rudel (1906), and numerous compositions for piano. At the time of the revolt against Porfirio Diaz (1910), two important figures emerged in Mexico's musical life, both pioneers of 20thcentury music. One was Julian Carrillo (18751965), a noted composer and theorist who devised a microtone system called *Sonido trece, according to which he wrote a number of chamber and orchestral works, using third, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth tones. In addition, he wrote numerous works in the vein of the coeval German school. His contemporary, Manuel M. Ponce (1882-1948), wrote a large number of compositions in which he gradually proceeded from the French impressionist style to a type of nationalism combined with 20th-century neoclassical elements. In addition to a very popular song, "Estrellita," he wrote more than a hundred songs and as many piano pieces, compositions for solo guitar, several concertos for solo instrument and orchestra, a number of orchestral compositions, and an opera, El Patio Florida (1913). The contemporary Mexican school is headed by two composers of international renown, Silvestre Revueltas (1899-1940), who developed a highly original and unaffected style deeply rooted in Mexican folk music, and Carlos Ch:ivez (b. 1899), who has combined a brilliant career as composer with that of conductor, lecturer, and leader of Mexico's musical life since the late 1920's.

525

MEXICO

MICROLOGUS

Other important Mexican composers born before 1900 are Juan B. Fuentes (1869-1955), composer of a Sinfonia Mexicana, songs, and piano music; Rafael Tello (b. 1872), composer of several operas (Juno, Nicolas Bravo, Due Amore, El Oidor) and a Sonata Trdgica for violin and orchestra; Candelario Huizar (b. 1888), a nationalist who exploited Indian materials 'in his music, which includes four symphonies, a string quartet, and several tone poems; Jose Rol6n (1883-1945), a disciple of Nadia Boulanger, who wrote orchestral works in the French manner; Estanisalo Mejia (b. 1882), another nationalist; and Jose F. Vasquez (b. 1895), composer of five operas, ballets, and numerous instrumental works. Contemporary Mexican music is further represented by a group of composers whose influence began to be felt in the early 1930's. One of them is Miguel Bernal Jimenez (1910-56), composer of church music, an opera, Tata Vasco (1941), and orchestral compositions. Another is Spanish-born Rodolfo Halffter (b. 1900), who came to Mexico in 1939 and played an important role as a promoter of contemporary music. He has written a number of orchestral works, chamber and choral music, and solo instrumental compositions in a neoclassical manner. Other notable members of this group are Salvador de Elias (b. 1902), composer of several orchestral works; Luis Sandi (b. 1905), whose works include an opera, Carlota,· and Vicente T. Mendoza (1894-1964). In addition, there is the well-known Grupo de los Cuatro (Group of the Four), all pupils of Chavez who banded together to promote Mexican music: Salvador Contreras (b. 1912), Daniel Ayala (b. 1908), Pablo Moncayo (1912-58), and Blas Galindo (b. 1910), the most important of them all. In his early works, Galindo was strongly attached to nationalist principles; later he gradually turned to more international trends and became considerably freer in his use of harmonies. Already beginning to win recognition are such members of the younger generation as Mario Kuri-Aldana (b. 1931), Manuel Enriquez (b. 1926), Leonardo Velasquez (b. 1936), Eduardo Mata (b. 1942), and Joaquin Gutierrez Heras (b. 1927). Many Mexican composers of popular music are extensively recognized abroad. Of these, the best known is Agustin Lara (b. 1900). Most of the folk dances and songs of contemporary Mexico are of Spanish derivation. The *huapango, *jarabe, *jarana, and zandunga

exemplify the development of original Spanish dance patterns into strongly individual Mexican forms. The same is true of the *corrido, which is a remarkable native development of the Spanish romance. Also characteristically Mexican is the *mariachi, the typical band that serves to entertain people in cafes and at village and country dances and celebrations. Lit.: R. M. Stevenson, Music in Mexico (1952); 0. Mayer-Serra, The Present State of Music in Mexico (1946); id, Panorama de Ia mU.sica mexicana (1941); G. Saldivar, Historia de Ia mU.sica en Mexico; J. Pope, Documentos re/acionados con Ia historia de Ia musica en Mexico (1951); V. T. Mendoza, El Romance espana/ y e/ corrido mexicano (1939); J. Bal y Gay, Tesoro de Ia MU.sica Polifonica en Mexico (1952); S. Barwick, The Franco Codex of the Cathedral of Mexico (1965); id., "Puebla's Requiem Choirbook" (CP Davison); B. Galindo, "Compositores de mi generaci6n" (Nuestra musica iii, no. 10, 1948); L. M. Spell, "La Musica en la Catedral de Mexico" (Rev. estud. mus. ii, no. 4, 1950); L. Sandi, "Cincuenta aii.os de musica en Mexico" (Nuestra musica vi, no. 23, 1951). Also J.o-s. see under Latin America. Meyo (meio) registo [Port.]. See Divided stop. Mezzo, mezza [It.]. Half. Mezzo forte (abbr. mf), half loud, moderately forte. Mezza voce, with "half voice," i.e., with restrained volume of tone [see, however, Messa di voce]. Mezzo legato, half legato. Mezzo-soprano, see Voices, range of. Mf. [It.]. Abbr. for mezzo forte, halfloud.

M.g. [F.]. Abbr. for main gauche, left hand. Mi. See Solmization; Pitch names; Hexachord. As the third degree of the hexachord, mi in the Guidonian system takes on the meaning of the leading tone (e, b; see Mi-fa). Micanon. See under Psaltery. Mi contra fa. See Mi-fa. Micrologus. A treatise by Guido d' Arezzo (c. 990-1050) of c. 1030 [GS ii, 2ff; new ed. by J. Smits van Waesberghe, 1955; G. trans. M. Hermesdorff, 1876]. It contains a famous description of the principles of melodic motion (motus; ch. xvi) and a curious method of inventing melodies on the basis of the text (ch. xvii; see under Soggetto cavato). It also is an important source for the development of organum [see Organum I]. It may be noted that Guido's most famous contributions to musical progress, the

526

MICROTONE

M/CROTONE

*hexachord and the *staff, are not in the "Micrologus" but in his "Epistola de ignoto cantu," written in the form of a letter to the monk Michael [GS ii, 43-50; SSR, pp. I2Iff]. The term "Micrologus" was also used by A. Ornithoparchus in his Musice active micrologus ( I517). Microtone. An interval smaller than a semitone. Long a structural feature of Asian music, the use of microtones in Western music, although far from new, has been-aside from traditional, empirical performance practice involving microtonal adjustment of intervals for expressive purposes-far less extensive. The enharmonic system of Greek music, which gained temporary importance in the period of Euripides (c. 480-06 B.C.), included *quarter tones [see Greece II]. Martianus Capella (fl. 4th to 5th cent.?), in his De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae or Satyricon (Book ix, "De musica"), mentions third tones (tristemoria) and quarter tones (tetrastemoria) [see ed. F. Eyssenhardt (I866), p. 349; similarly Regino of Prtim, in GS i, 232, no. 4]. Several of the "ornamental" neumes of Gregorian chant probably involved quarter tones [see Neumes I]. There is incontestable evidence of the practical use of quarter tones in the II th-century Gradual of Montpellier [see WoHN i, 44f; ApGC, p. I22f, pl. vi]. In the 16th century, the enharmonic system of the Greeks was revived by N. Vicentino [see Arcicembalo]. At the end of the 17th century, Christiaan Huygens proposed a division of the octave into thirty-one equal parts, permitting transpositions of the diatonic scales in just intonation. The adoption of the equal-tempered twelvenote scale for keyboard instruments rendered such efforts as Huygens' supererogatory, and it was not until music began approaching a state of chromatic saturation that composers once again considered the introduction ofmicrotones into the resources of Western music [see Serial music]. In 1895, the Mexican Julian Carrillo wrote a string quartet using quarter tones [see Sonido trece ]. Between 1903 and 1914 Charles Ives wrote a Quarter-tone Chorale for Strings. In 1907, Busoni was considering the use of third tones

ramb, 1926; Prelude and Fugue, 1929), and Alois

Haba, whose extensive list of compositions includes works using both quarter tones and sixth tones. Both Carrillo and Harry Partch have written a considerable number of pieces using even smaller intervals, Partch dividing the octave into forty-three unequal steps, Carrillo, into ninetysix equal ones. Several Dutch composers (H. Badings, H. Kox, P. Schat, eta/.), holding, like Partch, that further subdivision of the equaltempered twelve-note scale merely compounds the harmonic errors inherent in it, have written pieces using the 3I-note scale advanced by Huygens and, in this century, by Adriaan Fokker. Recently, many younger composers, stimulated at least in part by *electronic music, have been using microtones to a considerable extent. Notation of microtones, even in the case of the fairly commonly used quarter tones, has not been standardized. Perhaps the best known system is that established by Haba. His system for quarter tones is found in his String Quartet op. I2, no. 2 [Ex. 1]; for sixth tones, it is found in his String Quartet op. 87, no. 11 [Ex. 2]; another fairly common system for quarter tones is used by Krzystof Penderecki in Anaklasis I

I

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I'. 2

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t•'$• .1,"'1~·11· ii'· c. ~·i. ~.5 ..11. !,.1,. 2-~·~·

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(Entwurf einer neuen A"sthetik der Tonkunst

[1906?]). Ives used quarter tones in at least two other works, Quarter-tone Pieces for Two Pianos and his Fourth Symphony. Similar experiments were made in the first half of the 20th century by Hans Barth (Concerto for quarter-tone piano and strings, 1930), I. Vyshnegradsky (Dithy-

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(1959/60). One typical objection to these systems is that the symbols for the quarter and sixth tones are too easily misread for the conventional sharps and fiats. Also, that used by Haba makes

527

MIGRANT MELISMA

MIDDLE AGES it impossible to use both sixth and quarter tones in the same composition, while that used by Krzystof Penderecki makes no provision for sixth tones at all. One system that attempts to overcome these drawbacks prefixes the ordinary accidentals with y and j for quarter tones and and 1 for sixth tones (Ezra Sims, Octet for Strings, 1964; see Ex. 3). There is also the special system devised by Carrillo for his pieces using sixteenth tones, in which numerical fractions replace conventional staff notation ("Preludio a Cristobal Colon," in New Music .xvii, no. 3, 1944). A few instruments for performance of microtonal music have been built. A quarter-tone piano was patented first in 1892 (G. A. BehrensSenegalden). In 1924, Forster ofLobau/Georgswalde built a piano with two manuals, the second a quarter tone higher than the first; later, Hans Barth, in the United States, built a similar instrument [see N. Slonimsky, Music since 1900, rev. ed. (1949), p. 337]. In the Teyler Museum, Haarlem, there is an organ designed for performance of 31-note music [see R. Orton, "The 31note Organ," The Musical Times cvii, 1966]. Both Carrillo and Partch have built special instruments for the performance of their music. Lit.: A. Haba, Von der Psychologie der musikalischen Gestaltung . . . eines neuen Musikstils [1925]; id., Neue Harmonielehre (1927); S. Waller, Die Grundtheorie des Vierteltonsystems, rev. ed. [1936]; J. Carrillo, Sistema General de Escritura Musical (1957); C. Ives, Essays before a Sonata and Other Writings [1962]; J. Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tonality (1932); H. Partch, Genesis ofa Music(l949); I. Vyshnegradsky, inRM 1937, no. 171; A. Wellek, in MQ xii; H. Carpenter, in AM xxxii (16th cent.); A. Holde, in MQ xxiv; L. Sabaneev, in The Musical Times lxx, 501; H. Kaufmann, inJMTv, 32; W. Berard, inJMT v, 95; C. Schmidt and D. Kraehenbuehl, inJMT vi, 32. E.S.

v

Middle Ages, music of the. The music of the period preceding the Renaissance, roughly from 500 to 1450. In view of the length of this period it is helpful to divide it into shorter periods comparable to those of other times, such as the Renaissance and the baroque. See History of music and the separate entries Gregorian chant; Ars antiqua; Ars nova; Burgundian school. Also the initial portions of France; Italy; England; etc. Lit: ReMMA, passim; M. F. Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music

(1950); A. Seay, Music in the Medieval World [1965]; H. Gleason, t£xamples of Music bifore 1400 (1942); BeMMR, passim; J. Chailley, Histoire musicale du moyen age (1950); GeHM; T. Gerold, La Musique au moyen age (1932); J. Smits van Waesberghe, Muziekgeschiedenis der Middeleeuwen, 2 vols. (1939--42; theory); G. S. Bedbrook, "The Nature of Medieval Music" (ML xxvi, 78-88). Middle C. The C near the middle of the keyboard, i.e., c' [see Pitch names]. It is represented on the first ledger line below the violin staff, or on the first ledger line above the bass staff. Midi, Le [F.]. See under Matin, Le. Midsummer Night's Dream, A. (1) Incidental music by Mendelssohn to Shakespeare's play, first performed in 1843. The overture is the most popular excerpt and is perhaps his most inspired composition, fascinating for its elfin lightness and orchestral colors. (2) Opera in three acts by B. Britten (libretto by the composer and P. Pears, after Shakespeare's play), produced in Aideburgh, England, 1960. Setting: a wood near Athens and Theseus' palace in Athens, legendary times. Mi-fa. In the medieval theory of "hexachords, a general expression for cautioning the singer against special or dangerous intervallic progressions. From the following table, showing the mi's and fa's of the three hexachords, it appears that the combination mi-fa designates a semitone if the two syllables are taken from the same hexachord, and a tritone if from successive hexachords (see the diagonal lines): Mi

Hexachordum durum (on G): Hexachordum naturale (on C): Hexachordum mol/e (on F):

Fa c e-----f a If

B------..._

It is particularly to the *tritone, the *diabolus in musica, that the warning mi contra fa (mi contra fa, diabolus in musica) refers.

Mignon. Opera in three acts by A. Thomas (libretto by J. Barbier and M. Carre, based on Goethe's Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre), produced in Paris, 1866. Setting: Germany and Italy, 18th century. Migrant cantos firmus. See Cantus firmus. Migrant melisma. A term (introduced by P. Wagner, G. Wandermelismen) for phrases in Gregorian chant that recur in a number of melodies

528

MILANESE CHANT

MILITARY MUSIC

of the same type (e.g., the tracts of mode 8), migrating, as it were, from one chant to another. Such phrases are not melismas in the proper sense of the word, but carry a text that, of course, varies from one chant to another. If, however, the variable text is disregarded, a melisma results. See under Cento. Milanese chant. See Ambrosian chant. Military music (bands). Music for military purposes (signaling, marching into battle, etc.) was employed by the Jews (hasosra), Romans (*tuba, cornu, *lituus), and other ancient peoples. In the Middle Ages (11th century and later) the Herhorn, Stierhorn, and *oliphant were used to warn of the enemy's arrival. Instrumental groups including trumpets, pipes, drums, and cymbals were used by the Saracens in their battles with the Crusaders, who soon adopted this practice. In Scotland the *pibroch (a kind of bagpipe music) was used to rouse the soldiers' spirit. With the rise of organized armies during the 15th and 16th centuries, certain standard practices developed, e.g., the use of trumpets and kettledrums for the cavalry, and of fifes and drums for the infantry. The military trumpeters were organized in guilds [G. Feldtrompeter] and were endowed with many privileges. The kettledrummers used extravagant and affected gestures, such as survive to the present day in the movements of drum majors and majorettes [see SaHMI, p. 330]. The music of these groups was limited to a repertory of signals, each for a special purpose [see Fanfare]. Toward the end of the 17th century, melody instruments were introduced, leading to the establishment of military bands and a broader repertory, including marches and similar pieces. The bands of Louis XIV (1638-1715), organized by Lully, consisted of oboes, bassoons, and drums, while those of Frederick II (1712-86) included oboes, clarinets, horns, and bassoons. About 1800, the vogue of Turkish music [see Janizary music]led to the adoption of other percussion instruments, such as cymbals, triangles, the military glockenspiel, and the crescent. Infantry regiments under Napoleon had bands consisting of one piccolo, one high clarinet and sixteen ordinary clarinets, four bassoons, two serpents, two trumpets, one bass trumpet, four horns, three trombones, two side drums, one bass drum, one triangle, two pairs of cymbals, and two crescents. A landmark in the development of military music was a performance given in honor of the Russian Emperor by W. F. Wie-

precht, the organizer of Prussian military music, in Berlin on May 12, 1838, where he conducted the united bands of sixteen infantry and sixteen cavalry regiments, totaling 1,000 wind instruments and 200 drummers. About 1850, Adolphe Sax reorganized the French military bands by introducing his novel valve brass instruments. The history of military bands in America parallels the European development. The first use of instruments in battle came after the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in 1775, when a fife and drum are reported to have been played. Routine "calls" or "beats" were played by drum alone. Massachusetts regiments were among the first to employ bands in 1792, but it was not untill812 that the regular army increased its allotment to two musicians for each regiment or company, and not until 1847 was the size of the standard band increased to sixteen men. Outstanding figures in this development were Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829-92) and John Philip Sousa (1854-1932), both bandmasters skilled as promoters as well as musicians. Gilmore took his 22nd Regiment Brass Band on a world tour, and Sousa, after resigning as head of the Marine Band, followed suit with his own group. With little exception the bands of Sousa and Gilmore, as well as the military bands of today, were fairly similar to those developed immediately after the French Revolution. Today's larger groups, connected with or representing specific branches of the armed services, are highly polished ensembles, able to perform deftly the most difficult contemporary wind literature. Indeed, in England, the term "military band" has become synonymous with the "concert" or "symphonic" band of the United States, since only the larger branches of the service can support an adequate instrumentation. Among the outstanding military bands today are those of the Scots Guard Royal Artillery, United States Marines, Army, Navy, and Air Force, as well as the Garde Republicaine band of France. Lit.: H. G. Farmer, Military Music [1950]; id., History of the Royal Artillery Band 1762-1953 (1954); P. L. Binns, A Hundred Years of Military Music (1959); R. F. Goldman, The Concert Band (1946); id., The Wind Band (1961); W. C. White, A History of Military Music in America [1944]; J. A. Kappey, Military Music. A History of WindInstrumental Bands [19-?]; H. E. Adkins, Treatise on the Military Band, rev. ed. (1958); V. F. Safranek, Complete ... Manual for Field Trumpets and Drums (1942); R. B. Reynolds, Drill and Evolutions of the Band (1943); M. Bre-

529

MILITARY POLONAISE

MINNESINGER

net, La Musique militaire (1917); L. Degele, Die Militiirmusik (1937); G. Pares, Traite d'instrumentation ... des musiques militaires, 2 vols. (1898); P. Panoff, Militiirmusik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1938); G. Dyson, "The Composer and the Military Band" (ML ii, 58-66); M. Brenet, "French Military Music in the Reign of Louis XIV" (MQ iii, 340-57). See also Brass band. rev. J.W. Military Polonaise. Familiar name for Chopin's most popular polonaise, op. 40, no. I, in A major (pub. 1840). Military Symphony. Popular name for Haydn's Symphony in G, no. 100 (no. 8 of the *Salomon Symphonies), composed 1794. The second movement, Allegretto, employs triangles, cymbals, and bass drum in imitation of Turkish music [see Janizary music], and also contains a trumpet fanfare. Milonga [Sp.]. A veiy popular dance in the suburbs of Buenos Aires during the last decades of the 19th century. Together with the tango Andaluz and the *habanera, it is one of the most important sources of the Argentine *tango, which by 1900 had completely absorbed the milonga.

J.o-s.

Mimodrame [F.]. Older name for *pantomime. Mineur [F.]. Minor. Miniature score. An open score of orchestral or chamber music, inexpensive and pocket-size, designed chiefly for the student or for the amateur who wants to read the music while listening to a performance. This important and successful publishing enterprise was started by A. Payne in Leipzig and was taken over in 1892 by E. Eulenburg of Leipzig, who developed it greatly. Later publications were issued that include a large number of scores in one volume, e.g., all the symphonies of Beethoven. These are the size of ordinary music but contain on each page four pages of miniature score. See R. Upton, Index of Miniature Scores (1956). Minim [L. minima]. (I) British name for the half note. (2) See Mensural notation I. Minnesinger [G. Minnesiinger]. German poetmusicians of noble birth who flourished from the 12th to 14th centuries. Inspired by the French *troubadours (not the *trouveres), the minnesingers became the leading-in fact, practically the sole-representatives of German music during the Middle Ages. The start of the move-

ment is usually traced to the marriage of Frederick Barbarossa to Beatrix of Burgundy in 1156. The close relationship of the minnesingers to the troubadours is demonstrated by, among others, a Provenc;al vers of the troubadour Guyot de Provins that also exists with a German text by Friedrich von Husen, who flourished in the 12th century [see BeMMR, pp. 106, 108]. Following is a tentatively chronological list of the most important minnesingers whose melodies are preserved (1, 2, etc. =number of melodies; J = Jenaer Handschrift; C = Colmarer Handschrift, Cgm 4997, in Munich): Before 1200: Spervogel (3; J, C). Early 13th century: Walther von der Vogelweide, d. 1230 (3 "Thne" with new texts in A. Puschman's "Das Singebuch," in Breslau, Bohn no. 356; 3 in C); Neidhardt von Reuenthal, c. 1180-1240 (55 in DTO 71); Briider Wimer (6; J); Meister Alexander (5; J). Mid-13th century: Tannhauser (3; C, J); Konrad von Wiirzburg (7; C, J); Rumsland or Rumelant (10; J, C); Der Meissner or Mysnere (17; J, C). Late 13th century: Heinrich von Meissen, called Frauenlob, d. 1318 (28; C, J); Wizlav von Riigen, d. 1325 (13; J); Hermann der Damen (6; J). 14th century: Heinrich von Miiglin (4; C); Hermann Miinch von Salzburg, c. 1350-1410 (10; C); Hugo von Montfort, 1357-1423. The Miinch von Salzburg also wrote the earliest extant German polyphonic pieces, which, like those of Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445), are not part of the minnesinger repertory. In spite of the French influence, the music of the minnesingers differs considerably from that of the troubadours and trouveres. The texts are narrative rather than amorous or idyllic (Neidhardt von Reuenthal being a notable exception) and usually devotional, many of them being songs in praise of the Virgin. The melodies are more markedly modal (church modes) than the French ones, and many of them make extensive use of the interval of a third [for an example, see under Third]. Textual considerations as well as a certain "massiveness" of the musical line forbid the application of *modal interpretation (3/4 meter) that is generally accepted for the trouvere songs. Finally, the French refrain forms, the *virelai and the *rondeau, are absent in the German repertory, which uses only two forms, the *Bar form, derived from the French *ba//ade, and the Leich, derived from the French *lai.

530

MINOR

MINUET

Owing to the large number of surviving songs and the individual charm of his melodies, Neidhardt von Reuenthal stands out as the central figure of minnesinger music, though from the literary point of view he represents a decline from refined courtly lyricism (Walther von der Vogelweide) to a realistic and occasionally slightly vulgar naturalism. Ex. in HAM, no. 20. Lit.: H. Kuhn and G. Reichert, ed., Minnesang des 13. Jahrhunderts (1953); K. K. Muller, Die Jenaer Liederhandschrift (fac. reprod. 1893); R. W. Linker, Music of the Minnesinger and Early Meistersinger; A Bibliography [1962]; F. Saran, G. Holz, and E. Bernoulli, tDieJenaer Liederhandschrift, 2 vols. (1901); H. Rietsch, tGesiinge von Frauenlob, Reinmar von Zweter und Alexander (DTO 41); W. Schmieder, tNeidhart, Lieder (DTO 71); P. Runge, tDie Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift und die Liederhandschrift Donaueschingen (1896); id., Die Lieder des Hugo von Montfort (1906); H. Rietsch and F. A Mayer, Die Mondsee- Wiener Liederhandschrift (Acta Germanica iii, iv, 1894-96); F. Eberth, Die Minne- und Meistergesangweisen der Kolmarer Liederhandschrift [1935]; B. Kippenberg, Der Rhythmus im Minnesang (1962); F. Gennrich, Das Formproblem des Minnegesangs (1931); H. J. Moser, in ZMW vii and CP 1924; E. Jammers, in ZMWvii; 0. Ursprung, in AMWv; R. Molitor, "Die Lieder des Miinsterer Fragments" (SIM xii); C. Weinmann and P. Runge, "Der Minnesang und sein Vortrag" (MfM XXXV, 51, 83). Minor. See Major, minor. Minstrel. Originally and properly, the professional musician (instrumentalist) of the Middle Ages, especially one employed in a feudal household. Today the term is used generically for the entire field of popular musical entertainment, from the mimes of antiquity to the show business of the present day. The earliest musical entertainers in Western Europe were the mimes (mimus), the actors of the Greek and Roman theater. After the fall of Rome, during the barbarian invasions, the mimes, who in Roman law were already considered outcasts (infamt), devoted themselves to various activities-frequently of a dubious nature-that included the playing of instruments. The efforts of church and state authorities to suppress them are documented in numerous edicts. Nevertheless, the mimes or, as they were later called, joculatores [from L. jocus, jest; F.jongleur; E. juggler; G. Gaukler], survived and

gradually became more secure and respectable-at least those who were willing to abandon their dissolute life. It is reasonable to assume that they were the bearers of a tradition of folk music that occasionally crept into art music. In the 11th and 12th centuries the jongleurs were employed by the troubadours and trouveres [see Troubadour]. In the 14th century the name jongleur was replaced by menestrier, probably in order to distinguish a class of higher social standing and professional repute. They became organized in guilds known as *menestrandise, similar to those of the medieval craftsmen. In England, a class of acrobat-musicians was known as "gleemen," and in Germany as Gaukler. A vivid description of their activities is given in a German report of the 12th century, according to which they were expected "to play the drum, the cymbals, and the hurdy-gurdy; to throw small apples and to catch knives; to perform card-tricks and to jump through four hoops; to play the citole and rnandora, the manichord, the guitar, and many other instruments." In the early 14th century the term "minstrel" appeared. Guilds and fraternities were gradually formed, whose history can be traced at least to the beginning of the 17th century [see Wait]. The German counterpart of these guild-musicians were the Stadtpfeifer. For the minstrel show, see Negro music I. To include the *bards in the same category as minstrels is somewhat misleading since they always held a high social position in their countries, notably in Wales and Ireland. Lit.: E. Duncan, The Story of Minstrelsy, rev. ed. (1950); J. J. Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages (1888 and later); E. Faral, Les Jongleurs en France au moyen age (1910); W. Grossmann, "Friihmittelenglische Zeugnisse iiber Minstrels" (diss. Berlin, 1906); P. Aubry, in RMC iv; id., in TG vi; J. Sittard, in VMW i; W. Salmen, in CP Angles ii; ReMMA, p. 241. Minuet [F. menuet; G. Menuett; It. minuetto; Sp. minue, minuete]. A French country dance that was introduced at the court of Louis XIV about 1650. The King himself is said to have danced "the first" minuet, composed by Lully in 1653. The minuet, with its choreographic floorpattern in the shape of a Z or S, was soon adopted as the official court dance of the regime of the Sun King, and it quickly spread throughout Europe, completely superseding the older types (courantes, pavanes) and establishing a new period of dance and dance music. The fact

531

MIN UTA

MIRROR COMPOSITION

that a number of early minuets (e.g., those contained in the Collection *Philidor) include phrases of three measures suggests that the minuet may have been derived from the *branle amener, or *amener [ex. in HAM, no. 229]. Lully introduced the minuet into his ballets and operas, and G. Muffat, J. Pachelbel, and J. K. F. Fischer used it in their suites (c. 1700). Many of these minuets already show the alternatiuement arrangement of two minuets, M1-M 2 -M 1, which is the origin of the minuet and trio movement of the sonata [see Trio]. The minuet was the only one of the baroque numerous dance types that did not become obsolete after the decline of the suite (c. 1750). The statement that Haydn was the first to introduce the minuet into the symphony is far from correct. The operatic sinfonias of Alessandro Scarlatti (166Q-1725) and others usually close with a minuet, as do many of the independent symphonies and sonatas of the pre-Haydn period. The minuet with trio as the next to last movement is found in practically all the symphonies of the *Mannheim school [see Sonata B III (a)]. The minuet is in 3/4 meter and, originally, in moderate tempo. The accompanying example (Lully's minuet "Dans nos bois," as given in D'Anglebert's Pieces de clauecin [*Editions

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Miracle play. See under Liturgical drama. Mirliton [F.]. An instrument consisting of a pipe closed at one end by a membrane. By directing the natural voice against the membrane, the tone is altered, the timbre becoming quite nasal. In the 17th century the instrument was known as jfute-eunuque (eunuch flute) and was admired by men of such high standing as Mersenne for its "new charm." Today it is a musical toy, shaped approximately like a cigar and commonly known as "kazoo." See Instruments II. Miroirs [F., Mirrors]. A group of five piano pieces by Ravel, composed 1905: 1. Noctuelles (Moths); 2. Oiseaux tristes (Mournful Birds); 3. Une Barque sur !'ocean (A Boat on the Ocean); 4. Alborada del gracioso (Morning Music of a Minstrel-Clown); 5. La Vallee des cloches (The Valley of the Bells). Mirror composition. The principle of mirror reflection can be applied to a composition in two ways: (a) with the mirror placed at the end, producing its retrograde form; (b) with the mirror placed underneath, resulting in its inverted form. Usually but not always the term refers to (b). Thus a mirror composition is one that, if changed according to the principle of melodic inversion [see Inversion (2)]leads to an acceptable result. A mirror canon (mirror fugue) is a canon (fugue) so constructed. Among the few mirror compositions found in actual music is a setting of the chorale "Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin," which Buxtehude included in his Fried- und freudenreiche Hinfarth, written in 1674 for the burial of his father [see Ex.]. Much better known are the two mirror fugues in Bach's Art of Fugue (BG, vol. xxv, pt. i, Contrapunctus

XLIX, I, 8, p. 29]) shows the graceful dignity of the early minuet, which survives in the famous minuet in Mozart's Don Giovanni. In the symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, however, the minuet became faster and more humorous or whimsical in character, gradually leading into the *scherzo. See also Dance music III and, for the internal structure of the minuet, Binary and ternary form II. See E. Blom, in M L xxii, 162-80. Minuta [It.]. See under Ornamentation III.

532

n

MISATTRIBUTED COMPOSITIONS

MODALITY

12 [also BG, vol. xlvii, no. 18] in four parts; Contrapunctus 13 [no. 16] in three parts, also a Fugue on p. 85 [Contrapunctus 17, p. 93] with the addition of a "non-mirrored" voice). It should be noted that the term "mirror canon" is often used for what is more properly called "canon by inversion" [see Canon I (d)]. Occasionally it is used to mean retrograde canon [see Canon I (e)].

above it appears that the title Missa Solemnis chosen by Beethoven for his Mass (op. 123) carries no connotation that would not also apply to a Mass by Palestrina or Bach. Missa pro defunctis, Mass for the Dead, Requiem Mass. Missa Papae Marcelli, see Marcellus Mass. Missa L'Homme arme, see L'Hommearme.

Misattributed compositions. See Spurious compositions.

(1).

Miserere [L.]. Psalm 50 [51]: "Miserere mei, Deus, secundum magnam misericordiam tuam" (Have mercy upon me, 0 God, according to thy loving kindness). In the Roman Catholic rites it is sung as the first psalm of Lauds on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday [see Tenebrae]; also at Lauds of the Office for the Dead and during the Burial Service. It is one of the "penitential psalms and has been composed as such, but also independently, owing to the impressiveness of the text. The earliest example is a setting by Costanw Festa (1517) for two choruses, one in four parts, the other in five, in familiar style lfalsobordone). Various other compositions in the same style, usually retaining the "traditional" number of nine parts, were written, among them the celebrated composition by Gregorio Allegri (c. 1582-1652) that remained in use at the Papal Chapel until 1870, alongside Palestrina's *Improperiae and *Lamentations for the same service. A host oflegends-including that of the young Mozart copying it from memory, against the express law of the Church -have arisen, all intended to elevate this work to the realm of divine inspiration and beauty. Actually it is a rather undistinguished composition in a plain falsobordone style whose monotony is somewhat relieved by "abbellimenti" (probably 18th-century additions) at the end of each verse. The mediocrity of Allegri's Miserere does not, of course, prevent it from being very effective when performed with the solemnity of the pontifical rites. A much more beautiful and imaginative composition of the text is the Miserere by J osquin, published in 1519. Missa [L.]. *Mass. Missa solemnis (solemn Mass, High Mass) is the Mass in its full form, with all the items (except for lections, etc.) sung, while in the Missa lecta (read Mass, Low Mass) there is no music, except perhaps hymn singing. Missa cantata (sung Mass) is, from the musical point of view, identical with the High Mass but is celebrated in a less elaborate manner. From the

Missal [L. missale]. See under Liturgical books I Mistaken authorship. See Spurious compositions. Mistic(b)anza [It.]. *Quodlibet. Misura [It.]. Measure, beat. Alia misura, in strict time; senza misura, without strict time. Mit Andacbt. See Andiichtig. Mit Ausdruck. See Ausdrucksvoll. Mit Eile. See Eilend Mit Empfindung. See Empjindung. Mit Winne. See Wiirme. Mixed cadence. See under Cadence I. Mixed mode. See under Church modes III. Mixed voices. A combination of men's and women's voices [see Equal voices]. Mixolydian. ( l) See under Greece II. (2) The seventh *church mode (septimus tonus; tetrartus), represented by the segment g-g' of the diatonic scale, with gas the tonic. From the modern point of view it is a major mode with a minor seventh (finstead off~). See also Modality. Mixture stop. See under Organ VI, IX (f). M.M. See under Metronome. Modal. Pertaining to a mode, either a church mode (e.g., in modal harmony, "modality) or the rhythmic modes of the 13th century (modal notation, modal interpretation, modal rhythm). Modality. The use of harmonic and melodic formations based on the *church modes, as opposed to those based on the major and minor modes (*tonality). In particular, the term refers to the use of modal idioms in the prevailingly tonal music of the 19th and 20th centuries. This phenomenon may be traced to three different sources: (a) the desire to imitate the tonal language of 16th-century sacred music; (b) the influence of Slavic or other folksong having modal features; (c) a reaction against the system of

533

I

MODAL THEORY

MODAL NOTATION

classical harmony. Examples of (a) are Beethoven's "Dankgesang an die Gottheit in der lydischen Tonart" (String Quartet in A minor op. 132, 1825)-probably the earliest example of 19th-century modality-and the compositions of Vaughan Williams; examples of (b) occur in Chopin's mazurkas and in numerous compositions by Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, and other *nationalist composers; the lastmentioned tendency is conspicuous in the works of Debussy [see Impressionism] and 20th-century neoclassical composers. The accompanying examples illustrate the use of modality. Ex. 1 (Chopin, Mazurka no. 15) is Lydian (B natural instead of B-flat); Ex. 2 (Franck, Symphony) is

because it is based on the system of rhythmic *modes. The parts are written in *ligatures, whose value depends on the mode used. Thus, a single three-note ligature (ligatura ternaria) may have the value L-B-L in mode 1, B-L-B in mode 2, L-L-L in mode 5 (L =tonga, B =brevis, corresponding to the quarter note and eighth

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note in modern transcriptions). See Ex. This ambiguity was eliminated in the Franconian notation (c. 1260). See Notation III, Ex. 2; also Square notation.

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Modal theory. A theory according to which compositions (mostly of the 13th century) should be interpreted in modal rhythm, although the original notation gives no evidence of such rhythm. This theory has been applied to (a) the *conductus and (b) the melodies of the troubadours, trouveres, and minnesingers, nearly all of which are notated in uniform note values [Ex. a] but are thought to have been performed with a regular alternation of long and short values [Ex. b].

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The modal theory was proposed simultaneously (c. 1907) by P. Aubry, F. Ludwig, and J. B. Beck (concerning the question of priority, see J. Chailley, in AMW x, 213ff). In its original form it called for the strict application of one of the rhythmic modes (in practice only modes 1, 2, and 3), the proper mode to be selected on the basis of the metrical structure of the text (number of syllables, distribution of accents). This, however, is a rather nebulous criterion, since in numerous cases a single melody has been interpreted differently by different scholars [see, e.g.,

534

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Modal rhythm. A rhythm based on the rhythmic *modes. See also Rhythm III (b).

a

transposed Dorian (major sixth D-sharp instead of minor sixth D); Ex. 3 (Brahms, Symphony no. 4) combines Phrygian (minor second F instead of F-sharp) with Mixolydian (minor seventh D, instead of the leading toneD-sharp); Ex. 4 (Sibelius, Symphony no. 2) is Aeolian (minor sixth and seventh, F and G instead of F-sharp and G-sharp). See J. Vincent, The Diatonic Modes in Modern Music (1951); J. d'Almendra, Les Modes gregoriens dans l'reuvre de Claude Debussy [1950].

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MODES, RHYTHMIC

HAM, no. 18c, showing three versions ofGuiraut de Bornelh's Reis glorios, to which at least two others could be added]. Originally an ardent champion of modal theory, F. Gennrich has since advocated a freer application of modal rhythm, aiming at an even closer agreement between the musical rhythm and details or variants of the accentual structure of the text. This often involves highly personal judgment as to which word or syllable is strongly accented, particularly since French is not an "accentuating" language like English or German. See Monophonic notation; Poetic meter IV. Lit.: P. Aubry, La Rythmique musicaledes troubadours et des trouveres (1907); J. B. Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours (1908); A. Machabey, Notations musicales non moda/es (1959); F. Gennrich, tTroubadours Trouveres Minne- und Meistergesang (in Das Musikwerk, ed. K. G. Fellerer [1951]); F. Ludwig, "Zur 'modalen Interpretation' von Melodien des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts" (ZIM xi); ReMMA, pp. 206ff; ApNPM, pp. 258ff (conductus); F. Gennrich, in MF i, MF vii, CP Angles i; H. Husmann, in AMW ix, AMW xi, MF v. See also the summaries by J. Smits van Waesberghe in KJ xlvii, 20, and xlviii, 15.

Mode. A term used for two entirely different concepts, both rooted in medieval music, namely (I) one of scale formation, and (2) one of rhythm. (I) Mode, in the widest sense of the word, denotes the selection of tones, arranged in a scale, that form the basic tonal substance of a composition. In any given key (i.e., for any given center tone or tonic, e.g., E) a large number of modes are possible, some of which are indicated in the accompanying illustration: 1 is the "Dorian mode" (transposed from D to E); 2 is the "Phrygian mode" (untransposed); 3 is the "major mode" (usually called major key); 4 is the "minor mode" (usually called minor key); 5 is a "pentatonic mode"; 6 is the "whole-tone mode." See Scale Ill. In a narrower sense, the term "mode" refers only to those scales that go back to the medieval *church modes (modes 1 I

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Moderato [It.]. In moderate speed, i.e., between andante and allegro. Modem music. A term used so loosely that it is virtually meaningless. The dates of the period so described vary with each writer. Some people might agree that modern music started about 1890, when composers such as Elgar, R. Strauss, and Sibelius (all born c. 1860) produced their first significant works. Others would restrict it to the music of contemporary (living) composers. See Impressionism; Twentieth-century music; Neoclassicism; Atonality; Expressionism; Serial music; Electronic music; etc. See A. Cohn, Twentieth-Century Music in Western Europe [1965]; LBCM, passim; J. Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1961); N. Slonimsky, Music since 1900 (1937); G. Perle, Serial Composition and Atonality (1962); W. Austin, Music in the 20th Century [1966]; A. Salazar, Music in Our Time (1946). Modes, rhythmic. A 13th-century system of rhythm, characterized by the consistent repetition of certain simple rhythmic patterns in ternary meter. Usually six modes are distinguished, as shown below. The Greek names (added in parentheses) were not used until relatively late (W. Odington, c. 1290; see Theory II, 12) and do not imply that the modes are derived from the feet of ancient Greek poetry [see Poetic meter]. In musical compositions, the patterns were reiterated a number of times, depending on the

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and 2 of the example). It is with reference to these that the terms "modal" and "modality" are commonly used. For the use of the term "mode" with reference to Oriental (Indian, Arab, etc.) music, see Melody type. (2) See Modes, rhythmic; also Modus.

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If • • • • • • •

• I • If• I• n• •• *I

I

length of the phrase or, in medieval terminology, on the ordo. The ordo indicated the number of times a pattern was repeated without interruption, e.g.:

535

MODINHA First mode, third ordo Third mode, second ordo

MODULATION

I1 J

I I J.

C:I G: IV

The modes are the rhythmic basis of the organa, clausulae, and motets of the 13th century, which are therefore said to be written in *modal notation [see also Square notation]. Usually the first, second, and sixth modes occur in the upper parts (sometimes also the third), and the third and fifth in the lower (the fourth mode was rarely used). In practice, certain modifications of the normal patterns were admitted, such as occasional omission of a weak beat (extensio modi) or breaking up of one note into two or three (jractio modi). See also under Perfect, imperfect. Lit.: ApNPM, pp. 220ff; A. Michalitschke, Die Theorie des Modus (1923); H. Sowa, in ZMWxv; H. Husmann, in AMW xi; F. Chailley, in CP Angles i; E. H. Sanders, in JAMS xvii, 26lff.

E:III6 V

Modinha [Port.]. Urban song of European traditions, chiefly Italian opera, that was developed mainly during the 19th century in Brazilian salons. Its music, lyrical and very sentimental, is usually set for a solo voice accompanied by a chamber group and reflects the influences of both Portuguese folksongs and bel canto. Since the peak of its development was reached under the Brazilian Empire, it is also known as modinha J.o-s. imperial. Modulamen, modulatio, modulus. Humanist (16th-cent.) misnomers for motet. Modulation. Change of key within a composition. Such changes are among the most common devices of harmonic variety and are found in practically every work of some length. For an effective modulation, the initial as well as the new key should be established by a cadence. I. Theory. A modulation is effected by means of a "pivot chord," i.e., a chord that is common to both the initial and the new key. For instance, in Ex. 1, the third chord is the pivot chord, being I in the old key (C) and IV in the new key (G);

hence it is

designated~; ~v·

In Ex. 2, the same

chord adopts the function of VII in D (properly, D minor), while in Ex. 3, V ofC is reinterpreted as III of E (properly, E minor). Usually three types of modulation are distinguished: diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic. A diatonic modulation is one made through a chord that is diatonic in both keys. Ex. 1-3 be-

I

V~

Ab: IVG Vg

V6 I D:VII

V6 I

A:V91>

1: I C:I

IV

D: III

/ v

IV:

1

Bb: III 116

·~ v

long to this category. A chromatic modulation is one made through a chord that is chromatically altered in one or both keys, a very common example being the modulation through the Neapolitan sixth [Ex. 4]. The field of chromatic modulation is very large, and its exploitation has been one of the main achievements of 19thcentury harmony. Enharmonic modulation is one that involves the enharmonic change of one or several notes. This is frequently achieved through the diminished seventh chord [Ex. 5]. If the new key is touched upon only momentarily, leading quickly into a third key, the modulation is said to be "false" or "passing." The former term is used if the third key is the initial key [Ex. 6], the latter if it is still another key [Ex. 7]. The latter occurs mainly in sequential progressions (sequential modulation). Naturally, the interpretation of a modulation as "real," "false," or "passing" depends largely on the impression of permanence (to the second key) and therefore is frequently a subjective judgment.

536

MONOCHORD

MODULATION

Aside from the above-described "pivot modu- H. Ausubel, "Aspects of Modulation Practice in lations," change of key is often effected simply the Period between 1890 and 1910" (MR xvi, by juxtaposing the old and new keys, a very 218ff). See also under Harmony. effective device that some writers claim is not Modulator. See Tonic sol-fa. really "modulation." Ex. 8, by Schubert, under Harmony, illustrates this method, which usually Modus [L.]. (1) *Church mode; see also involves a shift of a whole tone or semitone. Tonus (2). *Mode, rhythmic. (3) In *mensural Even in these cases, however, the harmonic rela- notation, modus major (modus maximarum) tionships can be analyzed on the basis of pivot denotes the relationship between the maxima chords. See Harmonic analysis VI. and the longa, and modus minor (modus longaII. History. Obrecht (c. 1450-1505) and Jos- rum), or simply modus, that between the longa quin (c. 1450-1521) seem to have been the first and the brevis. In English books, Morley's transcomposers to make deliberate use of modulation, lations "greater mood" and "lesser mood" are always in short passages involving five or six frequently used in this sense. Both modi could be passing modulations to the lower fifth, e.g.: either perfect or imperfect [see Mensural notaD-G-C-F-Bb-Eb-D. Similar passages occur tion II; also Perfect, imperfect]. The modus sporadically throughout the 16th century. An longarum often occurs in the tenors of 14th- and interesting early experiment in chromatic (and, 15th-century motets and Masses, while the in a sense, enharmonic) modulation is Willaert's modus maximarum is much rarer [see ApNPM, duo "Quidnam ebrietas" [see J. S. Levitan, in TV p. 124]. The modus longarum developed from the xv; E. E. Lowinsky, in TV xviii]. Naturally, the six rhythmic modes of the 13th century [ibid., chromatic madrigals of the late 16th century pp. 242ff]. (Marenzio, Gesualdo, Monteverdi) abound in Modus lascivus [L.]. Medieval name for the chromatic modulations of various types. A partonality of C major, which was avoided in plainticularly interesting landmark in the history of song but was frequently used in secular music. modulation is John Bull's organ fantasia Ut, re, mi, fa, sol, Ia [see Hexachord VI], not only be- Moldau, The. English title of the second (Vltava) cause of its unusual modulatory scheme-always of Smetana's symphonic poem cycle *Md Vlast. a whole tone upward-but also because the modulations serve to establish a succession of Moll [G.]. Minor key; G moll, G minor. See Dur. different keys, which later was to become their Molto [It.]. Very. Molto allegro (adagio), very main function. This seems to have taken place quick (slow). chiefly with the establishment of fixed repeat forms, the binary form of the dance movements Moments musicals [F., Musical Moments, corof the suite and the ternary form of the da capo rectly Moments musicaux]. Title of Schubert's aria [see Aria IV]. With Bach, a modulatory six piano pieces, op. 94 (1828?). See under Character piece. scheme became an essential trait of the fugue. In the late 18th century, the *sonata form was Monacordo [It.]. A 16th-century name for the treated (and explained by theorists) primarily *clavichord. as a harmonic-modulating form, involving certain standard changes of key [see Lit., Ratner]. Mondscheinsonate [G.]. *Moonlight Sonata. In this period the term "to modulate" [G. modu- Monferrina. A country dance from Piedmont lieren] often meant "exploiting a key" rather (north Italy) in 6/8 time, which became fashthan "change of key." ionable in England c. 1800, where it usually was Lit.: A. Foote, Modulation and Related Har- called monfrina, monfreda, or manfredina. Exmonic Questions (1919); C. Zoller, The Artof amples are found in Wheatstone's Country Modulation (1930); M. Reger, On the Theory of Dances for 1810 and similar collections. Modulation [trans.; n.d.]; H. 0. Rogers, "The Development of a Concept of Modulation in Monochord. A device consisting of a single string Theory from the 16th to the Early 18th Cen- stretched over a long wooden resonator to which tury" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); F. Turrell, a movable bridge is attached so that the vibrating "Modulation: An Outline of Its Prehistory from length of the string can be varied. The monoAristoxenus to Henry Glarean" (diss. Univ. of chord was widely used in antiquity (under the Southern California, 1956); L. Ratner, "Har- name *kanon) and in the Middle Ages for the monic Aspects of Classic Form" (JAMS ii); ·investigation and demonstration of the laws of

537

MONOPHONIC NOTATION

MONOCORDO

musical acoustics, a purpose for which it is still used today [see Acoustics II]. Detailed descriptions are given by Odo of Clugny [GS i, 252], Hieronymus de Moravia [CS i, 74], and others. In the later Middle Ages the number of strings was increased to two or three, so that intervals and chords could be made audible. Such monochords, sometimes called "polychords," were the ancestors of the *clavichord, which as late as the 16th century was called monacordo in Italy. In the 17th and 18th centuries the monochord was widely used by organ tuners. Lit.: S. Wantzloeben, Das Monochord als Instrument und System (1911); W. Nef, "The Polychord" (GSJ iv, 20ff); GeHM, p. 407; J. Chailley, "La Monocorde et la theorie musicale" (CP Waesberghe). Monocordo. In violin playing, the performance of a piece or passage on a single string. This effect was used first by Paganini in his Sonata "Napoleon" for the G string. Monodrama. See under Melodrama. Monody. A term occasionally used as a synonym of *monophonic music or for accompanied solo song in general, but more properly denoting a particular type of accompanied solo song that developed about 1600 in reaction to the polyphonic style of the 16th century and that is characterized by recitativo-like design of the voice-part and thoroughbass accompaniment.

,, u

r Ra-dop-pi - a

--

I

e fiam -me

lu- mi

,,

II.

r a! me-mo-ra-bil gior-no Fe - bo ch'il car-ro

l

-..,

" ......,~

n u

~

d'or ri-vol

"

-

-

I

gi in - tor

-

no

v

The illustration shows one of the earliest examples of true monody, from Caccini's Le Nuove musiche (1601; for others, see HAM, nos. 18285; SchGMB, nos. 169, 171-73, 176, etc.; see also Nuove musiche; Aria III; Cantata; Recitative). Forerunners of the monodic style are the numerous 16th-century songs with lute or vihuela accompaniment (Schlick, Tabulaturen etlicher lobgesang und lidlein, 1512; Milan, El Maestro, 1535; Enriquez de Valderrabano, Libra de mitsica de vihuela, 1547) and polyphonic madrigals arranged for a solo singer with an accompanist for the lower parts (e.g., Luzzascho Luzzaschi; see SchGMB, no. 166). Bottrigari, in his Desiderio (1594; new ed. by K. Meyer, 1924), wrote about a widespread practice of solo song in the laude, the intermedii [see Intermezzo (1)], and in folk singing. Lit.: P. Aldrich, Rhythm in Seventeenth-Century Italian Monody [1966]; N. Fortune, "Italian Secular Song from 1600 to 1635. The Origins and Development of Accompanied Monody" (diss. Cambridge Univ., 1953); id., "Italian Secular Monody from 1600 to 1635" (MQ xxxix); A. Schering, "Zur Geschichte des begleiteten Sologesangs im 16. Jahrhundert" (ZIM xiii); E. Schmitz, "Zur Frtihgeschichte der ... Monodie" (JMP xviii); P. Nettl, "Uber ein handschriftliches Sammelwerk von Gesangen italienischer Frtihmonodie" (ZMW ii); C. MacClintock, "The Monodies of Francisco Rasi" (JAMS xiv); A. Einstein, "Firenze, prima della monodia" (LRM vii); L. Torchi, "Canzoni ... ad una voce nel secolo XVII" (RMI i). Monophonic notation. The notation of early

monophonic music, e.g., Chinese, Indian, Greek, Byzantine, Gregorian, sequences, troubadours, trouveres, minnesingers, Meistersinger, etc. Since this repertory has widely differing origins, monophonic notation is simply a generic term for a number of entirely different systems of notation, each of which requires individual study. In Oriental as well as in ancient Greek music the pitches are indicated by symbols derived from the literary script (syllables, letters), while the neumatic notation of Christian and ancient Jewish chant employs special signs of purely musical significance [see Ecphonetic notation; Byzantine chant III; Neumes]. After A.D. 1000 the neumes of Gregorian chant became "heighted" and were written on a staff, a development that led to a permanent solution for notating pitch. The 12th-century neumatic script of France, characterized by the use of

538

MONTONERO

MONOPHONY

square-shaped characters [see Square notation], was adopted for the notation of polyphonic music [see Notation III] as well as for writing down the monophonic repertory of secular songs. The melodies of the troubadours and trouveres and the Italian laude and Spanish cantigas all are written in this notation, essentially that employed in modern editions of Gregorian chant. Some of the earliest (12th-century) sources of troubadour and trouvere song, especially the Chansonnier de Saint-Germain des Pres, employ the somewhat different symbols of Messine script, which was adopted in Germany (minnesingers, Meistersinger). The main deficiency of these notational systems is their failure to indicate note values. This gives rise to the question of rhythm, not only in Gregorian chant [see Gregorian chant VI] but also for the repertory of secular song, in which, however, it is distinctly different because of the presence of poetic texts. The use of nonmensural symbols for writing down presumably measured melodies has led to various theories, most of them based on a consideration of the poetic meter of the text. While Riemann advocated the principle of *Vierhebigkeit and duple meter, P. Aubry and others proposed an interpretation in triple meter based on the rhythmic modes of the 13th century [see Modal theory; also Poetic meter IV]. The validity of the modal theory has been challenged by A. Macha bey and especially by H. Angles, who maintains that the Spanish cantigas, the Italian laude, and some troubadour and trouvere MSS are written in a mens ural notation that is partly modal, partly nonmodal (binary meter). This important discovery may well lead to new results in the field of secular song. Lit.: WoHN i, 146-71; 172-97; RiHM i.2, 245ff, 260ff; J. B. Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours (1908; see WoHN i, 200n); id., Le Chansonnier Cange (1927); P. Aubry, Trouveres and Troubadours (1914); A. Machabey, Notations musicales non modales (1957); H. Riemann, in JMP xii; J. Handschin, in AM x and Medium Aevum iv (1935); H. J. Moser, in ZMWvii, 367ff; E. Jammers, in ZMWvii, 265ff; H. Angles, in CP 1949, pp. 45ff, and CP 1958, pp. 56ff. See also under Modal theory.

music, being the only kind employed in ancient Greece, in the various branches of early church music (Gregorian chant, Byzantine chant), the music of the troubadours, trouveres, minnesingers, and Meistersinger, the Spanish cantigas and Italian laude of the 13th century, and universally in non-Western and primitive music as well as in European folk music. Also see remark under Monody. Monothematic, polythematic. Terms describing compositions based on one theme (e.g., a fugue) or several themes (e.g., a sonata or a movement in sonata form). They are applied particularly to the imitative forms of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as the fantasia, ricercar, etc. It was formerly maintained that the fantasia was monothematic and the ricercar polythematic [see M. Seiffert, Geschichte der Klaviermusik (1899), p. 33f]. Actually, both forms may have one or several themes. Monotone. The recitation of a liturgical text on an unchanged pitch, as in psalms, prayers, lessons (reading from the Scriptures), etc. Usually, monotonic declamation is modified by in-· flections, i.e., a few ascending or descending tones at the beginning, middle, or end of the phrase of the text. See Psalm tones. The term "inflected monotone" has also been used for rather elaborate chants that have been interpreted as highly ornamented variants of a recitation. Montirande. A 16th- and 17th-century variety of the *branle, mentioned by Arbeau (*Orchesographie, 1589) as "branle de monstierandel," and by Mersenne (Harmonie universelle, 1636) as

"branle de montirande." A manuscript in Uppsala contains a number of Montirandes for instrumental ensemble, in 4/4 meter and with dotted rhythms. See J. J. S. Mr:icek, "Seventeenth-Century Instrumental Dances in Uppsala, Univ. Libr. I Mhs 409" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1965).

Montonero [Sp.]. Counterpart of the French Monophony, monophonic. Music consisting of a

single melodic line without additional parts or accompaniment, as opposed to *polyphony, *homophony, etc. [see Texture]. Monophonic music is the purest realization of the melodic element [see Melody]. It is the oldest type of

minuet that developed in the La Plata River region during the first half of the 19th century. It is also known as minue montonero or el Nacional (the national). While retaining the a b a structure of the European model, the montonero became a characteristic New World dance

539

MONTPEWER, CODEX

MORDENT

through the inclusion of numerous folk devices, e.g., the use of shoe-tapping and of many Latin American figures, as well as melodic ornamentation common to folksongs of this area. Examples based on popular melodies and on national anthems have been preserved. A well-known one from 1837 is the Minue Republicano, based on Antonio Saenz's Uruguayan national anthem.

5

aa tJ I,JQ ,n m

I,,~ 7 D

~~

J

W

~

'IF I

6

J.O-S.

Montpellier, Codex. Name of two important early manuscripts, both in the library of the Faculte de medecine of the University of Montpellier in southern France: (l) Cod. H 159, an 11th -century MS of Gregorian chant, unique for its arrangement of the chants according to modes (Tonale missarum) and for its double ("bilingual") notation in nondiastematic neumes and *letter notation [*Editions XLII A, 7 and 8]; (2) H 196, the most important source of 13th-century motets; see Sources, no. 4. Monumenta, Monumenti, Monuments. Editions XXVII to XXXIII.

Moonlight Sonata [G. Mondscheinsonate]. Popular name for Beethoven's Sonata quasi una fantasia op. 27, no. 2. The name probably comes from a review written by Heinrich Rellstab (1799-1860), in which the first movement was likened to a boat floating by moonlight on Lake Lucerne. Another name is Laube Sonata [G. Laube, "bower"], referring probably to a fancied place of composition. The latter name is not known at all in Germany. See under Mute. Morceau [F.]. Piece, composition. Mordent [G.; F. mordant (Old F. pince, pincement); It. mordente; Sp. mordiente]. A musical ornament consisting of the alternation of the written note with the note immediately below it. It is indicated by one of the signs given in Ex. 1 (the third sign is used only in music for bowed 1.

+ff2

3~

4

played

played

See

Mood. See Modus (3).

I6F) FFI Wor~orr r r r F I F

7

instruments). In performance the mordent always occupies part of the value of the written note and should not be introduced before it. The alternations of the written note and the auxiliary may be either single or double [Ex. 2]; there is a special sign for the latter [Ex. 3], but it is not often used and the choice between these executions is generally left to the performer, who bases his decision chiefly on the duration of the written note. If two mordents occur in close succession, contemporary authorities recommend that one should be made single and the other double, as in Ex. 4 (Bach). In the works of J. S. Bach the mordent often is fully written out [Ex. 5, Adagio of the C-major organ toccata]. All of Bach's mordents, except for those in pieces with a particularly vigorous rhythm, should be performed comparatively slowly, as in Ex. 6 [a. Italian Concerto; b. WellTempered Clavier ii, no. 1]. When a mordent and an appoggiatura occur on the same note, the mordent must be delayed until the appoggiatura has been held for its normal duration, as in Bach's chorale prelude, "Wenn wir in hochsten Noten sein" [Ex. 7]. After 1750 all mordents were performed more rapidly than in Bach's time. The ornament apparently was absorbed by the ordinary notation before the classical period, for it is not found in the works of Mozart and Beethoven. The mordent occurs in the German organ tablatures of the 15th and 16th centuries, where

540

MOREN DO

MOTET

it is indicated by the signs illustrated (a. Buxheim Organ Book, c. 1470; b. Kotter, Buchner, c. 1520). It was executed somewhat differently, however, since the main note was held and only the lower auxiliary was quickly repeated [see

Moses und Aron. Opera in three acts by Schoenberg (to his own libretto), produced in Hamburg, 1954, concert performance; Zurich, 1957, stage performance. Setting: Mt. Sinai, Biblical times. Mosso [It.]. Moved, agitated.

WoHN ii, 24; ApNPM, p. 24]. According to Ammerbach (Orgel oder Instrument Tabulaturbuch, 1583), the mordent was performed with the lower or upper neighboring note depending on whether it occurred in ascending or descending motion [see WoHN ii, 29]: ascending

g

descending

jjjjj JJ JJJ IJJ JJJJJ JJJJJ I

Also see Inverted mordent. See the general P.A. books on ornamentation. Morendo [It.]. Fading away. Moresca, morisca. A. pantomimic dance of the 15th and 16th centuries, which was executed in Moorish costume and other grotesque disguises, the dancers having their faces blackened and small bells attached to their legs. Arbeau, in his *Orchesographie (1589), reports that he saw the moresca danced in his youthful days (c. 1530) by "un garfionnet machure et noircy, des grelottieres aux jambes." The moresca was easily the most popular dance for the ballets and mummeries of the Renaissance. There were two types, a solo dance and a dance of two groups that represented a sword fight between Christians and Moslems. The latter was known also as danse des *bouffons [see also Matasin]. Dances of this kind are still known today in Spain, Corsica, and Guatemala. In England they survived under the name "Morris dance," partly in a continuous tradition, partly as the result of a conscious revival c. 1900. The Morris dance was performed chiefly as part of the May games. It included, in addition to six male dancers in two groups, certain solo characters, such as the "Mayde Maryan," represented by a boy disguised as a girl, or by a dancer with a hobbyhorse. For the vocal moresca (Lasso), see under Villanella. See C. Sachs, World History of the Dance (1937); 0. Gombosi, in PAMS 1940, p. 91; P. Nettl, in AMW xiv. Morris dance. See under Moresca.

Motectum. A 16th-century latinized term for motet. Motellus [L.]. A 13th- and 14th-century term for motet. Motet. The most important form of early polyphonic music, particularly during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Since it underwent numerous changes during the more than five centuries of its existence (c. 1220-1750), it is impossible to formulate a general definition that covers all the phases of its development. As a rule, a motet is an unaccompanied choral composition based on a Latin sacred text and designed to be performed in the Roman Catholic service, chiefly at Vespers. There are, however, side developments into the secular field (13thcentury French motet; 15th-century ceremonial motet), as well as motets for soloists (13th-century motet; also in the late 17th century) or with orchestral accompaniment and to texts in the vernacular (17th century, Germany and France; the English motets of this period are called *anthems). The history of the motet may be divided into three periods: A. medieval motet (c. 1220-1450); B. Flemish motet (1450-1600), named for its inaugurators, although it became international property after 1550; C. baroque motet (1600-1750). A. The medieval motet. I. The medieval motet originated in the early 13th century, possibly as early as 1200, through the addition of a full text to the upper part (duplum) of the *clausulae of t~e .Perotinus period, a development strikingly sunilar to the one that, in the 9th century, led from the vocalized melismas of the Alleluias to the full-text sequences. Owing to the addition of "mots," the duplum with text was called motetus, a. name that was adopted for the entire composition. The tenor of a motet Qike that of a clausula) is practically always a melismatic (vocalized) passage taken from a Gregorian chant (usually a Gradual, Alleluia, or responsory) and identified. b~ the word or syllable (*incipit, usually capttahzed in modern writings) with which it occurs in the original plainsong. The only change is in rhythm, from the free rhythm of plainsong to a strict modal pattern [see Modes,

541

MOTET

MOTET

rhythmic]. The accompanying example shows the motet "0 Maria-Nostrum" [see ApNPM, p. 285, for a facsimile of the original notation] and the Easter Alleluia [see LU, p. 779] from which the tenor NOSTRUM is taken. It is im-

• 8 Al-le-lu

1a.

u

-

•.

0 Ma- ri - a

l

'II. Pas-cha NO - STRUM

-

-

..

de-cus

an - ge - ~ lo - rum.

-

na coe -lo - rum

: NOSTRUM

,,

l u

ma-ter re - gi~ re- gi

-

..,_

portant to realize that originally a motet was not an independent composition but, like the clausulae, a polyphonic interpolation (polyphonic *trope) of the chant to which it is allied by its tenor. The following scheme-a modification of that given under Clausula-shows two motets in their proper liturgical position (ordinary print indicates plainsong; capital letters the motet tenors; italics the added text of the upper part): 0 Maria ... Alleluia, alleluia.)( Pascha NOSTRUM Radix venie ... immo-LATUS est Christus.

II. There are a few specimens of a 12th-century type of motet, the organa! motet, so called because it is based on a complete Gregorian melody so that, except for the text of its upper part, it is an organum rather than a clausula. Examples are "Stirps Jesse-Benedicamus Domino" and "Amborum sacrum spiramenBenedicamus Domino," the latter remarkable for its text, a medley of Latin and French [see J. Handschin, "Uber den Ursprung der Motette," in CP 1924]. To this type belongs a version of Perotinus' organum quadruplum, "Viderunt omnes," in which the duplum is provided with a full text, "Vide prophecie" [see AdHM i, 229]. The first step in the development of the 13thcentury motet probably was to supply clausulae

with a text that represents a paraphrase of the tenor incipit, e.g., Domino ftdelium omnium for the tenor DOMINO [see HAM, no. 28f]. Frequently, however, not only unrelated Latin texts but also French secular texts were employed. An important step was the addition of a third voicepart (triplum), in either Latin or French (a Latin triplum was used only in connection with a Latin motetus). There also exist a few motets in four parts. A special type is the conductus motet in three (occasionally four) parts, in which the upper parts have an identical text and identical rhythm, as in a conductus. Motets with two (three) different texts are called double (triple) motets. The Latin double motet may be regarded as the classical type of 13th-century motet. While most of the earlier motets are based on clausulae, those of a later date (after 1250?) consist of freely invented parts added to the tenor. The use of a French text in connection with a liturgical tenor is a startling incongruity, since these texts usually deal with amorous and occasionally even lascivious subjects. Needless to say, such motets were never sung in church but served as an entertainment at social gatherings. The Latin motet, on the other hand, far from being incongruous, is a perfect expression of the universalism of Thomas Aquinas and other medieval philosophers. At any rate, the mixture of sacred and secular, the merging of the Gregorian tradition with the trouvere movement, the frequent exchanges and substitutions, both musical and textual, are what make the development of the motet so fascinating. Examples illustrating the extraordinarily manifold relationships within the repertory of the 13thcentury motet are found in AdHM i, 237, 240 (F. Ludwig), and HAM, no. 28h, 28i. A limited number of motets are musical *quodlibets including combinations of different pre-existent melodies [see Refrain III; Ente]. III. The rhythmic structure of the motet is based on the rhythmic *modes, the upper parts frequently employing a quicker pattern (first, second, sixth mode) than the tenor (third, fifth mode), as illustrated (schematically) in our example. In the early motets (before 1250?) sub-

542

ljjnljjjl IJ j IJ j I IJ IJ I

MOTET

MOTET

divisions of the breve (represented by a quarter note in the example) into two or three notes (eighth notes, eighth-note triplets) occur only as ornamenting groups sung to one syllable. Franco of Cologne recognized these shorter notes as a new value, the semibreve, thereby introducing a new type, the Franconian motet, in which each semibreve could be sung to a separate syllable, resulting in a more lively declamation [see HAM, no. 28i, 2; also no. 33b]. This tendency was carried to an extreme in the Petronian motet of the late 13th century (named after Petrus de Cruce), in which the breve is subdivided into four to seven notes, sung syllabically in a rapid parlando style [see HAM, nos. 34, 35]. IV. In the 14th century the motet lost its dominant position [see Ars nova] but grew in length, elaboration, and rhythmic variety. A feature of special interest is the introduction of the "isorhythmic principle. Practically all the motets of Machaut (c. 1300-77) are isorhythmic [ex. in HAM, no. 44], and a number of them apply this principle not only to the tenor but also, with a certain amount of freedom, to the upper parts [see ReMMA, p. 354]. The final stage of the development is represented by the strictly panisorhythmic motet (in which all parts are strictly isorhythmic), used a few times by Machaut but predominantly by his successors until c. 1430 (Dunstable, Dufay). There are a considerable number of early 14th-century English motets, many of which combine a conservative 13th-century style with an extended use of *voice exchange [ex. in HAM, no. 57 a; see Worcester, school of]. Beginning in the 15th century, novel methods of composition were used for motets. The two characteristics of the medieval motet, polytextuality and a cantus firmus tenor, were abandoned in favor of free composition with the same text in all the parts. The earliest examples of this type are by J. Ciconia (c. 1335-1411), e.g., his "0 felix templum," composed c. 1406. In the works of Dunstable and Dufay, free motets appear side by side with the last representatives of the isorhythmic type. They are usually in three voice-parts and in *cantilena style, with only the upper part (sometimes the two upper parts) carrying the text. In this period it is very difficult to draw a line between motets on the one hand and polyphonic settings of hymns or Marian antiphons on the other. For instance, an "Ave Regina caelorum" may in one edition be included among the motets [e.g., Bukofzer's edition of Dunstable, in *Editions XXXIV, 8]

but not in another [e.g., De Van and Besseler edition of Dufay]. B. The Flemish motet. I. The return to sacred music that characterizes the *Flemish school brought the motet back to prominence as a musical form second in importance only to the Mass. The motet now became a choral setting of a Latin religious text, in four to six or more voice-parts. Its texture became much more unified, all the parts being vocal and having approximately the same degree of rhythmic animation. In not a few motets, however, one part (usually the tenor) is made to stand out from the others by having a cantus firmus in slower motion, sometimes in long-held values, e.g., one note to the measure [see Cantus planus style]. Such cantus firmus motets, as they might be called, often have a different text for the main voice, a striking revival of the polytextuality of the 13th-century motet. Examples are Obrecht's "Laudemus nunc Dominum" (with "Non est hie alius"), Josquin's Stabat Mater (with "Comme femme"), and Cristobal de Morales' "Emendemus in melius" (with "Memento homo"; see HAM, no. 128). Others are based on a short motif that is repeated in the manner of an "ostinato. Beginning with Ockeghem, motets are usually divided into two or three sections (Prima, Secunda, Tertia pars). In contrast to these fairly long compositions is a type often referred to as "song motet" [G. Liedmotette], which was particularly cultivated in the la:te 15th century and which was shorter and simpler in style [see ReMR, p. 94]. For an attempt to distinguish between different types of motet on the basis of their liturgical derivation (sequence, antiphon, responsory), see 0. Strunk, in CP 1939. II. The stylistic development of the Flemish motet is of great importance, because from c. 1450 to 1550 the motet provided the most fertile soil for all developments and innovations in style. The most interesting aspect is the everincreasing use of imitation, a process that culminated in the *through-imitative style (also called "pervading imitation"). This style has been so much identified with the motet that it is often referred to as "motet style." Actually, its application was more limited than is usually thought. The motets of the 15th century (Ockeghem, Obrecht) make only sporadic use of imitation. Josquin often introduced full points of imitation [see Point (3)] but in alternation with sections in homophonic (*homorhythmic) style, in free counterpoint, and in *paired imita-

543

MOTET

MOTET

tion. It was Nicolas Gombert (c. 1490-1556) who introduced fully imitative treatment in the motet [see HAM, no. 114]. In the second half of the 16th century motets were often composed in eight or more voice-parts, particularly in connection with *polychoral treatment. This style led to a new type of motet, the "Venetian motet," so called to distinguish it from the "Netherlands motet." III. About 1550 the motet spread throughout Europe, and the Flemish masters (Josquin, Gombert, de Monte, Lasso) found disciples of equal rank in Italy (A. Gabrieli, Palestrina, G. Gabrieli), Spain (Morales, Victoria), England (Tallis, Byrd), Germany (Senfl, Handl, Hassler), and France (Goudimel). In England the adoption, c. 1560, of texts in the vernacular led to a special type of motet, the *anthem. Important collections of 16th-century motets are: Motetti A B C (printed by 0. Petrucci, 1502, '03, '04); Motetti de Ia corona, 4 books (Petrucci, 1514-19); Motetti delfrutto, 4 collections (A Gardano, 1538, '39, '49); Motetti del fiore, 4 books (J. Moderne, 1532-39); Novum et insigne opus musicum, 2 vols. (H. Formschneider, 1537, '38); Thesaurus musicus, 5 vols. (J. Montanus and U. Neuber, 1564); Nouus Thesaurus musicus, 5 vols. (ed. P. Joanelli, 1568); Promptuarium musicum, 4 vols. (ed. A Schade, C. Vincent, 1611-17); Florilegium selectissimarum cantionum (ed. E. Bodenschatz, 1603; repub. as Florilegium Portense, 1618). C. The baroque motet. After 1600 the style of the motet changed considerably. The pure a cappella style was abandoned, and solo voices as well as instrumental accompaniment were used. This does not mean that the 16th-century style was completely forsaken. Both the "stile antico" of Palestrina and the Venetian style with its massive sound were continuously cultivated in the motets of the baroque, sometimes in almost unchanged manner, as, e.g., in numerous motets written by members of the *Roman school (cf. the motets by J. J. Fux, c. 1700, in DTO 3). Usually, however, the old methods were modified according to the stylistic devices of the 17th century, such as instrumental participation, solo voices, aria style, basso continuo, recitativo, etc. The earliest examples of the new practice are in Viadana's Concerti ecclesiastici (1602, '07, '09), containing motets for one, two, three, and four voices with organ accompaniment. While organ accompaniment is already prescribed in the Concerti di Andrea et di Gio. Gabrieli (1587) and

the Concerti ecclesiastici of A Banchieri (1595), Viadana's innovation is the use of solo voices instead of chorus, a novelty that is particularly conspicuous in the pieces for one or two voices [see SchGMB, no. 168; HAM, no. 185]. The solo motet for two or three singers with organ accompaniment prevailed in Italy throughout the baroque era, side by side with the choral style of the Roman or Venetian tradition; not a few motets of this period made use of both styles, such as soloistic treatment in the first part and choral treatment in the second (e.g., G. Carissimi). Antonio Caldara (1670-1736) seems to have been one of the first in Italy to use instruments in addition to the organ [DTO 26]. There is a large repertory of 18th-century motets (A Scarlatti, F. Durante, D. Terradellas, N. Jommelli) about which very little is known. Some of them are written in a highly virtuoso, quasioperatic style [see HAM, nos, 298, 299]. More interesting is the development in Germany, whose beginning and end are marked by two composers of the highest rank, Schutz (1585-1672) and J. S. Bach (1685-1750). Schutz' Symphoniae sacrae (1629, '47, '50) are a treasure of masterpieces written in a great variety of styles, incorporating instrumental participation, solo voices, expressive coloraturas, characteristic motifs in rapid notes, echolike alternation of two singers or instruments, realistic effects, trumpet calls, etc. Most of these pieces, particularly those from the later collections, are written to German texts, as are the majority of motets written by Schutz' successors. It goes without saying that this practice makes it even more difficult, if not impossible, to draw a line between the German motet and other types of church music, such as the cantata, spiritual song, geistliche Konzert, etc. As a rule, the use of the chorus marks the German form, since in Germany (unlike Italy) the motet remained choral and frequently a cappella. Continuing with Hammerschmidt, Johann Christoph Bach, Johann Michael Bach, Buxtehude, Pachelbel, and others, the German motet reached its peak in the six motets by J. S. Bach, four of which are written for double chorus of eight voices, while one ("Jesu meine Freude") is for five voices and one ("Lobet den Herrn") for four voices with continuo. An important but little-known development took place in France, beginning with Charpentier (1634-1704) and continuing with Lully (1632-87), Michel-Richard de Lalande (16571726), Campra (1660-1744; see HAM, no. 257),

544

MOTET

MOTIF

F. Couperin (1668-1733; HAM, no. 266), and Rameau (1683-1764). Some of these motets are for one voice and continuo, and others (grand motet) for soloists, chorus, orchestra, and organ. For the development in England, see Anthem. After J. S. Bach the motet declined. Motets were written by Hasse, Graun, K. P. E. Bach, Mozart ("Ave verum"), Mendelssohn, Schumann, and, particularly, Brahms (op. 29, 74, 110). A somewhat more continuous development took place in France, with Gounod, SaintSaens, Theodore Dubois, Franck, Charles Bordes, D'Indy, and other members of the *Schola cantorum. Twentieth-century composers of motets include Vaughan Williams, H. Distler, Pepping, and Krenek. Lit. General: H. Leichtentritt, Geschichte der Motette (1908). For A. 13th century: F. Ludwig, vetustissimi stili Repertorium ... motetorum (1910); F. Gennrich, Bibliographie der iiltesten franzosischen und lateinischen Motetten (1957); id., Aus der Frilhzeit der Motette, 2 vols. (1963); F. Matthiassen, The Style of the Early Motet (1966); W. Meyer, Der Ursprung des Motetts (1898); NOH ii, pp. 353ff; G. Kuhlmann, Die zweistimmigen franzosischen Motetten des Kodex Montpellier, 2 vols. (1938); P. Aubry, tCent motets du xiiie siecle, 3 vols. (1908; Codex Bamberg); Y. Rokseth, tPolyphonies du xiiie siecle, 4 vols. (1935-39; Codex Montpellier); A Auda, Les "Motets Wallons" du manuscrit de Turin: Vari 42, 2 vols. [1953]; F. Ludwig, "Die Quellen der Motetten liltesten Stils" (AMW v); id., "Uber die Entstehung ... der lateinischen und franzosischen Motette" (SIM vii); J. Handschin, "Uber den Ursprung der Motette" (CP 1924); H. Besseler, "Die Motette von Franko von Koln bis Philipp von Vitry" (AMWviii); H. Husmann, "Die Motetten der Madrider Handschrift" (AMFii) H. Tischler, "English Traits in the Early 13th-Century Motet" (MQ xxx); M. Bukofzer, "The First Motet with English Words" (ML xvii, 225)-14th and 15th centuries: S. E. Brown, "The Motets ofCiconia, Dunstable, and Dufay" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1962); L. Schrade, tPolyphonic Music of the 14th Century, 4 vols. (1956-58), i (Roman de Fauvel; De Vitry), ii, iii (Machaut); F. Ludwig, tGuillaume de Machaut, Musikalische Werke, vol. iii (1929); M. J. Johnson, t "The Motets of the Codex Ivrea," 2 vols. (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); R. H. Hoppin, tThe CypriotFrench Repertory of the Manuscript Torino ... J.II.9, 4 vols. (1960-63; *Editions XII, 21); A Hughes, tWorcester Mediaeval Harmony (1928); L. A Dittmer, tThe Worcester Fragments

(1957); C. van den Borren, tPolyphonia sacra (1932; MS Oxford, Can. 213); Compl. works of Dunstable (*Editions XXXIV, 8), Dufay (*Editions XII, 1); A Ramsbotham, tThe Old Hall Manuscript, 3 vols. (1933-38); tThe Eton Choirbook [see Editions XXXIV, 10-12]; DTO 76 (motets from the Trent Codices); J. Chailley, "Motets inedits du XIVe siecle" (RdM 1950, p. 27); G. Zwick, "Deux Motets inedits de Philippe de Vitry et de Guillaume de Machaut" (RdM 1948, p. 28); M. Bukofzer, "John Dunstable and the Music of His Time" (PMA lxv); U. Gunther, "The 14th-Century Motet" (MD xii). ForB: Compl. works of Obrecht (ed. J. Wolf), Regis (ed. C. Lindenburg), Josquin (ed. A Smijers), etc.; Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, 13 vols. (1934-c. 1963; i-vii ed. A Smijers, viii-xiii ed. A T. Merritt); W. Stephan, Die Burgundischniederliindische Motette zur Zeit Ockeghems (1937); J. M. Shine, "The Motets of Jean Mouton" (diss. New York Univ., 1953); H. Eppstein, Nicolas Gombert als Motettenkomponist (1935); K. P. Bernet Kempers, Jacobus Clemens non Papa und seine Motetten (1928); M. Steinhardt, Jacobus Vaet and his Motets (1951); L. Dikenmann-Balmer, Orlando di Lassos Motetten (1938); A Orel, "Einige Grundformen der Motettenkomposition im XV. Jahrhundert" (SIM vii); 0. Strunk, "Some Motet-Types of the 16th Century" (CP 1939). For C: J. E. Richards, "The Grand Motet of the Late Baroque in France" (diss. Univ. of Southern California, 1950). Motet-chanson. A term for certain 15th-century French chansons employing a Latin text in the tenor, resembling in this respect the FrenchLatin motet of the 13th and 14th centuries. Motet style. See under Motet B, II. Motetus [L.]. (l) Latin for motet. (2) In the medieval motet, the voice above the tenor; see Motet A, I; Duplum. Mother Goose Suite. See Ma Mere l'oye. Motif, motive [F. motif; G. Motiv; It., Sp. motivo]. A short figure of characteristic design that recurs throughout a composition or a section as a unifying element. A motif is distinguished from a theme or subject by being much shorter and generally fragmentary. In fact, motifs are often derived from themes, the latter being broken up into shorter elements. As few as two notes may

545

MOTU PROPRIO

MOTION

constitute a motif, if they are sufficiently characteristic melodically and/or rhythmically, e.g., the descending fourth at the beginning of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in A major op. 2, no. 2. More than anyone, Beethoven used a highly developed motif technique, which gives his ~orks a unique quality of logical coherence. H1s most eminent successor in this respect was Brahms. The technique of motifs is particularly important in sonatas and symphonies, whose development sections often are largely based on motifs derived from the various themes of the exposition. The accompanying example shows the various motifs derived from the main theme of ml

m2

m3

Moto [It.]. Motion. Andante con moto, somewhat faster than andante. Motto [It.]. In music, the term is used in connec-

tion with (a) 15th- and 16th-century Masses using an identical opening motif ("motto," also called "head-motif") for each of the movements (see Mass C II c); (b) 17th- and 18th-century arias that begin with a preliminary statement of the initial motif of the melody and continue with the full melody. Usually, the initial motif ("motto") appears twice, first sung and .t~en echoed by the instruments. Such a compositiOn is called a motto aria [G. Devisenarie]. The motto aria occurs sporadically in the cantatas of Luigi Rossi (1597-1653) and became established c. 1660 in the cantatas and operas of the Venetian composers Cesti (1623-69) and Legrenzi (1626-90). Many of Bach's arias begin with a motto. See Aria IV. The accompanying example is taken from Cesti's opera L'Argia [see

Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony. An exceptionally early use of motifs as an integrating device is found in the works of Machaut (c. 130077); see G. Perle, "Integrative J?evices in the Music of Machaut" [MQ xxx1v]. See also Leitmotiv; Motto.

f1

u

I

if they move in opposite dire~tions rc]; in "oblique" motion if one part remams statiOnary on the same pitch [d]. Motion picture music. See Film music.

I

I I I

I

I

Al-ma mia,

.

t1j J.

Motion. The pattern of changing pitch levels

(high-low) in the melody, as distin~uished from rhythm, which is the pattern of different durations (long-short). Any melody can be separated into a motion-pattern and into a rhythm-pattern, as shown under Melody. Motion may be ascending or descending,. in the ~arrow steps of the scale (conjunct) or m the wider steps of a chord (disjunct). The stud~ of thes.e feat~re~ IS of prime importance m melodic ana.ys1s. See Melody I, IV. . The term "motion" is also used to descnbe the relative changes of pitch in two or more si~ml­ taneous voice-parts. Two such part~ a~e said .to be in "parallel" motion if they rema~ 1~ ~he. dis.~ tance of the same interval [Ex. a]; m Similar motion if they move in the same direction but change their distance [b]; in "contrary" motion

I

Al-ma mia,

I I I I I I

I

e chesa ra?

.

SchGMB, no. 203]. For additional examples, see HAM, nos. 244 (Steffani), 258 (A. Scarlatti). Motu proprio [L.]. Generally, a papal decree concerning the administration of the ~hurc~. Particularly, a decree issued by Pope Pms X m 1903 that contained new regulations for the music in the Roman Catholic service. The most important points were: (a) abolition of t~e theatrical and worldly style of church music that had spread during the 19th century, particularly in the Latin countries; (b) return to Palestrina's music as the model for polyphonic church music; (c) restoration of Gregorian chant according t? the principles of the monks of *Sol~smes; ab?lition of the "Editio Medicea" and mtroductwn of the "Editio Vaticana" [see Liturgical books II]; (d) suppression of instrumental. music except for special occasions and reductiOn ~f .organ playing to a modest role; (e) the admis~wn of modern vocal compositions provided theu character was in agreement with the spirit of the service and the liturgical functions. For the complete text (English) see N. Slonimsky, Music Since 1900 (1937), pp. 523ff.

546

MOZARTEUM

MOTUS

Mount of Olives, The. See Christus am 0/berge.

movement. The *suite also consists of various movements, each in the character of a dance. See Cyclic (l ).

Mouth organ. See Harmonica (2).

Movie music. See Film music.

Mouthpiece [F. embouchure; G. Mundstilck; It. bocchino, bochetta; Sp. boquilla ]. The part of a wind instrument that is inserted into the player's mouth or applied to his lips. In a way, the mouthpiece is the most characteristic part of an instrument, since it indicates to which family an instrument belongs. Four main types can be distinguished: (a) Cupped mouthpiece, used for the *brass instruments. This is an enlargement of the bore to which the player's lips are applied to form a kind of double reed. Cupped mouthpieces exist in a great variety of shapes, varying from the true "cup" of the trumpet to the "funnel" of the horn. See ill. in SaHM/, p. 418. (b) Single-reed mouthpiece, used for the *clarinets. This mouthpiece [F. bee, G. Schnabel] consists of a beak-shaped chamber with an opening on the underside to which a single reed is fixed. (c) Double-reed mouthpiece, used for the *oboes (usually not considered a "mouthpiece" but included here for the sake of completeness and comparison). It consists of two reeds that form a narrow ( )-shaped slit at the top. Older oboes had much larger reeds (approaching the size of bassoon reeds) than the modern instrument. In certain 16th-century types, e.g., the cromornes, the reed was covered with a wooden cap that acted as a windchest (similar to the reed pipes of the organ; see Reed). (d) Fipple mouthpiece, used for *recorders. It consists of a beak-shaped chamber that is stopped by a plug, leaving only a narrow flue to conduct air toward the sharp edge of a side hole. The principle is the same as in the flue pipes of the organ.

Mozarabic chant. The chant of the medieval Christian Church of Spain [see Chant]. The name refers to the Mozarabs, the Christians living in Spain (particularly in Aragon, Castile, and Le6n) while it was under Mohammedan rule. Another name for it is Visigothic chant, referring to the Visigoths, who conquered Spain in the 5th century. St. Leander (d. 599), St. Isidore (c. 570-636), and St. lldefonsus (d. 667) played an important role in the development of the chant, which remained in use, untouched by the Gregorian reforms, until about the ll th century. The Mozarabic liturgy has many details in common with the *Gallican, e.g., the name praelegendum for the Introit, and laudes for the Alleluia. The music of the Mozarabic rites has been preserved in a number of MSS dating from the 9th to ll th centuries, the most important of which is the celebrated antiphonal (for both Mass and Office) of the Cathedral of Le6n, recently published in a facsimile edition. Unfortunately all these sources are written in a very unusual neumatic notation that has not yet been deciphered. They do, however, reveal a prolixity of style similar to that found in Ambrosian chant. Particularly interesting are the extremely long Alleluia melismas, which often show a clearly discernible repeat structure (aa bb cc ... ; see fac. ed., f. 187), similar to that of the Gregorian Alleluia melismas (and sequences). Only about twenty chants survive in a legible script, among them a very archaic recitation for the "Pater noster" and a number of *preces. Lit.: t.Antifonario visig6tico mozdrabe de Ia Catedral de Leon (fac. ed. 1953; ed. of text, 1959); P. Wagner, Der mozarabische Kirchengesang (1928); C. Rojo and G. Prado, El Canto mozdrabe (1929); A. Gastoue, Cours ... de chant gregorien (1911; ex. on pp. 71, 79); C. W. Brockett, "Antiphons, Responsories and Other Chants of the Mozarabic Rite" (diss. Columbia Univ., 1965); ReMMA, pp. llOff (bibl. p. 436); NOH ii, 8lff; P. Aubry, in SIM ix, l57ff; M. Sablayrolles, in SIM xiii; R. P. German Prado, in Speculum iii; J. M. Roqueta, in AnM v; L. Brou, in AnM v, vi, x; id., in CP 1950, p. 183; E. Werner, in CP Angles ii.

Motus [L.]. See under "Micrologus."

Mouvement [F.]. (l) Movement. (2) Tempo. Movable Do(h). Generally, any system of *solmization so designed that the syllables can be used in transposition for any key, as distinguished from Fixed Do(h), in which the syllables correspond to invariable pitches of notes. See also Tonic sol-fa. Movement [F. mouvement; G. Satz; It. movimento; Sp. movimiento]. The various complete and comparatively independent divisions of the *sonata, *symphony, etc. One speaks of a "first" or "second" movement, or a "fast" or "slow"

Mozarteum. An institute at Salzburg, Austria, headquarters of the Mozart-Gemeinde, devoted to the memory of Mozart and study of his works.

547

MP

MUSIC

Mp. [It.]. Abbr. for mezzo piano.

M.s. [It.]. Abbr. for mano sinistra, left hand. Muance [F.]. Same as mutation. See Hexachord

IV. Mudanza [Sp.]. See under Mutazione; Villancico. Muineira, muiieira [Sp.]. A dance of the province of Galicia (northwest Spain), in quick 6/8 meter and evenly flowing motion. See LavE i.4, 2368. Mulliner Book. An important source of English organ music of the Tudor period. The MS (Brit. Mus. add. Ms. 30513) was compiled c. l55o-70 and is named after Thomas Mulliner, who owned it and made additions to the original collection. It contains 120 compositions for organ or harpsichord and ll pieces for the cittern and gittern, written in lute tablature. Among the composers represented are Redford, Tallis, Blitheman, Shepherd, and Allwood. New ed. by D. Stevens, The Mulliner Book (1962; *Editions XXXIV, i) and Commentary (1952). Multimetric. A metric scheme wherein the meter changes frequently, e.g., two measures of 3/4 followed by one measure of 2/4 followed by three measures of 3/8. It is common in the works of Stravinsky, Hindemith, Bart6k, and other 20th-century composers. See Poly-, multi-. Mundharmonika [G.]. Mouth organ. See Har-

number of drones and arm-operated bellows. The instrument became fashionable, along with the vielle [see Hurdy-gurdy], in French society when, under Louis XIV (1643-1715) and Louis XV (1715-74), the court circles indulged in a sophisticated craze for "Arcadia," dressing up as shepherds and peasants. The instruments of this period were splendidly decorated, the bags being covered with elaborate needlework and the pipes made of ivory and inlaid with precious stones. A selection of pieces for musette and vielles is in H. Expert, Amusements des musiciens franr;ais du XVI//e siecle (Senart, Paris), which includes compositions by Jacques Aubert (1689-1753), Charles BAton (d. 1758), and Nicolas Chedeville. See also GDB, s.v. "Anet"; "Boismortier." (2) Dancelike pieces of a pastoral character with a long-held drone, such as could easily be played on the instrument described above. Well-known examples are found in Bach's English Suites nos. 3 and 6, where they are marked "gavotte." An amusing piece in the same style occurs in Mozart's Bastien et Bastienne, where it announces the arrival of the Sorcerer. (3) French name for the flageolet, an instrument similar to the recorder [see Whistle flute]. Lit.: E. Thoinan, Les Hotteterre et les Chedeville (l894); De Bricqueville, Les Musettes (1894).

monica (2).

Music. The term is derived from Gr. J.tofim, muse, and more specifically from JJ.OVOtKij TEXVT/,

Mufieira. See Muiiieira.

the art (technique) of the Muses. Originally this term included all the cultural endeavors represented by the nine Muses but later it became associated with Polyhymnia, the Muse of"many songs." Some medieval writers believed the word to be derived from the Egyptian word moys (water), construing from this a connection with Moses (whose name indeed may be derived from moys). Besides Moses, Jubal and Pythagoras were considered the "inventors" of music. Of basic importance throughout the Middle Ages was Boethius' concept of music as an all-embracing "harmony of the world," divided into musica mundana (harmony of the universe), musica hum ana (harmony of the human soul and body), and musica instrumentalis (music as actual sound; see Aesthetics of music II). Boethius' contemporary Cassiodorus (c. 485-c. 580) took a more down-to-earth view, adopting Plato's distinction between scientia harmonica (high and low sounds), metrica (different meters), and rhythmica (relation to text?). Even closer to musical practice is the classification of

Munter [G.]. Merry, cheerful. Murciana [Sp.]. A local variety of *fandango

named for Murcia, a town in southern Spain. Murky. An 18th-century name of unknown origin, given to pieces with a bass accompaniment in broken octaves [murky bass; see SchGMB, p. 289 (2), from Sperontes (J. H. Scholze), Die singende Muse an der Pleisse (1736)]. This unimaginative accompaniment was widely used in the second half of the 18th century (*rococo). An early instance of broken octaves is found in F. Couperin's "La Triomphante" (Pieces de Clavecin, ordre X), where it serves a pictorial purpose. It may be compared with the highly dramatic "murky" in the first movement of Beethoven's Pathetique Sonata. See C. R. Halski, "Murky: A Polish Musical Freak" (ML xxxix, 35ft). Musette. (1) The French *bagpipe of the 17th and 18th centuries. It had two chanters and a

548

MUSICA FICTA

MUSICA

St. Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636), with his musica harmonica (vocal), organica (ex flatu, i.e., organ, flutes, trumpets, etc.) and rhythmica (ex pulsis digitorum, i.e., drums, kithara, etc.). In the 14th century, Theodoricus de Campo divided music into mundana, humana, vocalis (animal voices) and artificialis, subdividing the latter as follows:

matic or, more properly, nondiatonic tones, i.e., tones other than those in the diatonic scale. At an early time the B-fiat was admitted in practice (Gregorian chant) as well as in theory (Odo of Clugny; see under Letter notation) and was, therefore, frequently regarded as not part of musica ficta. The introduction of the nondiatonic tones resulted from melodic modifications or

artificialis armonica (vocal) prosaica metrica rhythmica

cordae strings

As early as 300 B.C., Aristoxenos had divided music into theoretical and practical music. It was not until about 1500 that this classification, still valid, was reintroduced. Musica [L.]. Music. The term was used in early writings in the following ways: Musica diuina or sacra, church music; musica vulgaris, secular music; musica mensuralis, *mensural (measured, i.e., polyphonic) music; musica plana, *plain song; musica figurata, *figural music; *musica ficta or falsa, music involving chromatic tones. See also the classifications under Music. Musica Britannica. See Editions XXXIV. Musica divina. See Editions XXXV. Musica enchiriadis. An important treatise of c. 900, formerly attributed to the monk Hucbald (c. 840-930), more recently to Hoger of Werden (d. 905), Otger of St. Pons (d. 940), Otgerus of St. Amand, and others [repr. in GS i, 152-73]. A companion treatise, written in the form of a dialogue, is the "Scholia enchiriadis" [repr. in GS i, 173-212]. They are the earliest treatises dealing with polyphony (called symphonia) and containing examples of parallel *organum as well as organum at the fourth with oblique motion. They also provide important information on various aspects of Gregorian chant and include the earliest readable melodies (alleluias, hymns), written in *daseian notation. See Theory II. Lit.: H. Muller, Hucbalds echte und unechte Schriften iiber Musik (1884); P. Spitta, in VMW v; G. trans. by Schlecht, in MfM vi, vii, viii; A H. Fox-Strangways, in ML xiii, 183; H. Sowa, in ZMW xvii; SSR, pp. l26ff; ReMMA, passim; W. Apel, in RBM x; L. Spiess, in JAMS xii. Musica ficta, musica falsa [L.]. I. In the music of the lOth to 16th centuries, the theory of the chro-

instrumentalis vent us pulsus wind percussion

from transpositions of the church modes. For instance, a C-sharp may occur either as an artificial leading tone in (untransposed) Dorian, or as the normal third of Mixolydian, transposed a second above. The distinction between these two provinces is useful, although it was not made in medieval terminology as has been maintained by R. von Ficker, according to whom the former type was called musica falsa and the latter musica ficta [see his "Beitrage zur Chromatik des 14. bis 16. Jahrhunderts," in StM ii]. Musica falsa is simply the older term (l3th century), which was supplanted by the other in the 14th century, probably because its implication of falseness became objectionable. II. The earliest reference to nondiatonic tones is found in the "Scholia enchiriadis" of c. 900 [see Musica enchiriadis], where formations such as c-d-e 0-f-g and c-d-e-f~-g (also downward) are described under the name absonia [L., lit. "off-sound"; see GS i, l76f; WoHN i, 33]. A slightly later treatise by Odo of Clugny (d. 942) contains a table showing transpositions of the fundamental gamut G-e", with b-fiat and b natural, up a whole tone, a fourth, and a fifth [see GS i, 274]. This involves the degrees c~, f~, and e0, which, however, Odo always represents by the letter m (mysticum?), thus emphasizing their speculative character. There is ample evidence that at least the f~ and e0 were also used in Gregorian chant [see ApGC, pp. l60ff]. Nothing definite is known about the development of the altered tones during the next two centuries, when the name musica falsa apparently was introduced. As early as 1250 Pseudo-Aristotle (Magister Lambert) turned against this name, declaring that "falsa musica non est inutilis, immo necessaria" -not useless but even necessary [CS i, 258]. Walter Odington (c. l300) already knew the e0 and b 0, as well as c~ and f~. For more details concerning the treatises on

549

MUSICA FICTA

MUS/CA FICTA musicafalsa, see WoGMi, l09ff. In the 13th century the writers on musica falsa discuss the chromatic tones primarily with reference to the single line, emphasizing chiefly the subsemitonium (leading tone) and the avoidance of the *tritone in progressions such as: g-f(~)-g, c-e-f(~)-g, f-a-b( 0)-a, etc. In the 14th century Johannes de Muris (c. 1325) approached the problem from the point of view of simultaneous voice-leading, forbidding the tritone as a

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8

chordal formation [see Tritone] and postulating that the third or sixth before a fifth or octave should be major if the upper voice ascends and minor if it descends [see Ex.; WoGM i, ll6f]. III. In modern musicological writings, musica ficta denotes not so much the theory of early chromaticism but the problems arising from the fact that chromatic alterations rarely are indicated in musical sources prior to 1600. Considering the fact that Odington already discussed most of the chromatic tones, it is disconcerting indeed to find throughout the 15th and 16th centuries many long compositions completely lacking any indication of accidentals. Beginning with H. Riemann, musicologists have shown a strong inclination to emend the original texts by adding accidentals, which, in reliable scholarly editions, are placed above the notes in order to distinguish them from those given in the original sources. Although generally speaking the necessity for such emendations cannot be denied, matters were carried much too far in many editions published between 1900 and 1930. An extreme position was taken by Riemann, who maintained that, except in the rare case of the Phrygian mode, all compositions of the 15th and 16th centuries were either major or minor [see his "Verloren gegangene Selbstverstiindlichkeiten in der Musik des 15.-16. Jahrhunderts" (1907), in Musikalisches Magazin xvii] and accordingly presented Baude Cordier's "Belle bonne" of c. 1400 as a composition in D major [see RiHM i.2, 354ff, and HAM, no. 48b]. Some other editors, although they have not gone to such extremes, have shown a tendency, often clearly formulated in the prefaces of their publications, to translate by means of numerous editorial accidentals the tonal language of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance into that of major and minor. Since about 1940, however, musicolo-

gists have approached the problem from a more critical and, no doubt, historically more accurate point of view by "diminishing the number of suggested accidentals" [see NOH ii, 373] or "adding only those which seem to be indispensable" [W. Rehm, Die Chansons von Gilles Bin· chois (1957), p. 14*: "Akzidentien wurden nur hinzugefiigt, wo es unbedingt erforderlich schien"]. IV. With a problem of such subtlety and flexibility, it is obviously futile to strive for an answer that would apply equally to Gregorian chant, to music of the ars antiqua, and to compositions of the 16th century. Concerning Gregorian chant, it may be noted that the formula d-a-b-a frequently found at the beginning of Introits and antiphons and usually presented as d-a-b 0-a [e.g., LU, p. 353] is now recognized as being a purely diatonic progression [see ApGC, p. !53] and that, on the whole, the earliest MSS suggest a much more restricted use of the b 0 than the later ones. In the 12th and 13th centuries the tonal resources of polyphonic music are so limited, the harmonies so clearly modal, that very seldom are accidentals needed in addition to those indicated in the original sources [see Partial signature]. Thus, nearly all the sharps and many of the fiats suggested in Aubry's edition of the Codex Bamberg (Cents Motets du xiiie siecle, 3 vols., 1908) would probably be considered unnecessary by present-day scholars [cf., e.g., motet no. 57 with the version in A. Auda, Les "Motets Wallons" (1953), no. 27]. From the 14th century on the situation becomes much more complex, as appears from a comparison of different editions (all recent). For example, the figure a b-a-g-f e, which recurs frequently in the Gloria of Machaut's Mass, appears consistently with a b 0 in the edition of L. Schrade and without it in that of Ludwig and Besseler. The closing passage of the caccia "Or qua, compagni" has editorial b-fiats and f-sharps in the edition of Marrocco (Fourteenth-Century Italian Cacce, 1942), none of which is considered necessary by H. Husmann (Die mittelalterliche Mehrstim· migkeit, c. 1955). For further illustration, seven passages of this kind are shown here. (This I

l l

550

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MUSICAL BOW

MUSICA FICTA 3

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l

.

~

~

~

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l

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.

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:

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1. Landini, Somma feliciro (J. Wolf, Der SquorcialupiCodex, 1955; without occidentols in L. Ellinwood, The Works of F. Landini, 1939}. 2. Some. 3. Landini, Dappo ch'a te (some}. 4. Duns!able, Quam pulcra es (Besseler, Capello i, 1959; without occidentols in Bukofzer, • Editions XXXIV, 8}. 5. Some (Bukofzer; without occidentols in Besseler). 6. Ockeghem, Missa Mi-Mi, Sonctus (Plomenoc, Johannes Ockeghem, 1947, ii; without occiden!ols in • Editions VIII, 4, ed. by Besseler}. 7. Borbireou, Osculetur me (B. Meier, Jacobi Borbireau: Opera omnia, 1957, ii; without occidentols in A. Smijers, Von Ockeghem tot Sweelinck, 1952, ii}.

writer in every case favors the version without the editorial accidentals.) Valuable relevant material is found in the German organ tablatures of the 16th century (Schlick, Kotter, etc.), because they employ a notation that, unlike mensural notation, provides for a largely unequivocal indication of altered tones. Following are some excerpts from these sources showing unusual but entirely legitimate formations. See also Cross relation; Leading tone; Lydian.

Lit.: G. Jacobsthal, Die chromatische Alteration im liturgischen Gesang der abendliindischen Kirche (1897); ApGC, pp. 153ff; W. Apel, Accidentien und Tonalitiit in den Musikdenkmiilern des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts (1937); E. Lowinsky, Secret Chromatic Art in the Netherlands Motets (1946); ApNPM, pp. 104ff, 120; articles by Schwartz, Kroyer, Wolf, and Bernoulli in CP 1909, pp. l09ff; L. Hibberd, "Musica ficta and Instrumental Music" (MQ xxviii); C. W. Fox, "Accidentals in Vihuela Tablatures" (BAMSiv); E. Lowinsky, in MQ xxix; E. St. Willfort, in ZIM x; W. Apel, in BAMS ii; A. Einstein, in SIM viii (Merulo); E. Frerichs, in ZMWvii, 99ff (organ tablatures); A. Cauchie, in CP Kroyer (French vocal music). Musical Antiquarian Society. See Editions XXXVII. Musical bow. A primitive instrument found in widely distant places, including New Mexico, Patagonia, Central and South Africa, etc. Like a hunter's bow, from which it probably was derived, it consists of a flexible stick whose two ends are connected by a string. In order to intensify the sound, a gourd is often attached or the string is held in the mouth. The string is

551

MUSICAL GLASSES

MUSICA RESERVATA

plucked with the hand or struck or scraped with a stick. The musical bow is one of the few chordophones found in primitive cultures. See H. Balfour, The Natural History of the Musical Bow (1899). Musical glasses. See Glass harmonica. Musical Joke, A. See Musikalischer Spass, Ein. Musical Offering. See Musikalisches Opfer, Das. Music and mathematics. The German philosopher and mathematician Leibnitz described music as an "unconscious exercise in arithmetic" [see Aesthetics of music II]. The relevance of this statement is evident in the fact that all the elements of music are defined numerically: material = 7 or 12 tones; measure = 3 or 4 beats; staff = 5 lines; standard pitch = 440 vibrations; fifth = 3h, third = %, whole tone = %, 1~/2, 1,000 cents; loudness= 50 decibels; etc. No less close are the relationships of music to geometry, as appears from the "up and down" character of the scale, or the "horizontal and vertical" aspect of musical *texture. In the Middle Ages, music was quite properly grouped with arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy in the *quadrivium. Methods of higher mathematics enter into the calculation of *intervals, which require the use oflogarithms, and in problems of *temperament, which require the solution (by means of continued fractions) of the equation 2x X 3Y X 5z = 1. Still another aspect of this relationship is *number symbolism. Recently, mathematical methods have been applied to musical analysis (works of Bach, Josquin) and to composition [see Aleatory music]. See also Computer; Number symbolism. Lit.: E. Bindel, Die Zahlengrundlagen der Musik im Wandel der Zeiten, 2 vols. (1950, '51); A. D. Fokker, Les Mathematiques et Ia musique (offprint, The Hague, 1947); G. Warrack, "Music and Mathematics" (ML xxvi, 2lff); J. M. Barbour, "Music and Ternary Continued Fractions" (American Mathematics Monthly !v [1948]); E. Werner, "The Mathematical Foundation of Philippe de Vitti's Ars Nova" ( JAMSix); E. Souriau, "Le Probleme de Ia notation mathematique de Ia musique" (CP Masson); W. Blankenburg, "Der Harmonie-Begriff in der lutherisch-barocken Musikanschauung" (AMW xvl). Music and medicine. See Music therapy. Music and painting. See Iconography of music. See C. Moreck [pseud. K. Haemmerling], Die Musik in der Malerei [1924].

Music and poetry. See Poetic meter; Text and music. Music and society. See Sociology of music. Music appreciation. A type of musical training designed to develop the ability to listen intelligently to music. This type of musical education is very common in the United States and Britain but practically unknown in Germany and France. Courses in music appreciation have been criticized as superficial, but like all academic courses they can be well or poorly devised. The amateur listener has often demonstrated an analytic and critical faculty quite the equal of that of many professional performers. The art of listening with "activity of thought," which is the aim of appreciation courses, can be as demanding and as satisfying as performing. Training in appreciation should begin in elementary school and can continue through a lifetime. Lit. (chronological): R. D. Welch, The Appreciation of Music (1927); D. S. Moore, Listening to Music, rev. ed. (1937); E. Toch, The Shaping Forces of Music [1948]; K. Liepmann, The Language of Music (1953); H. Tischler, The Perceptive Music Listener (1955); D. Boyden, An Introduction to Music (1956); A. Copland, What to Listen for in Music, rev. ed. (1957); L. G. Ratner, Music: The Listener's Art (1957); E. J. Stringham, Listening to Music Creatively, rev. ed. [1959]; M. Bernstein, An Introduction to Music, rev. ed. [1961]; W. S. Newman, Understanding Music, rev. ed. [1961]; D. F. Tovey, Essays in Musical Analysis, 6 vols. (1935-37); A. H. FoxG.w.w. Strangways, in ML viii, 395. Musica reservata or riservata [L.]. A term first used by Adrian Coclico in his Compendium musices (1552) to describe the music of Josquin and his followers as opposed to that of the preceding period (Ockeghem, Obrecht, Isaac). In the same year Coclico also published a collection of motets under the title Musica reservata. The literal meaning of the term has been much disputed. The word reservata has been explained as referring to the greater "reserve" (restraint) of the newer style in the use of figurations and ornamental design; or as pointing to some "reserved" secrets of musical technique (improvisation, expression of the text by musical motifs, chromaticism not indicated by accidentals); or as indicating the "reserved" (exclusive) character of music written for audiences of high cultural standing. In later writings the term musica reservata occurs as a designation for expressive interpretation of

552

MUSIC CRITICISM

MUSICA SACRA

the text (S. Quickelberg, c. 1560, with reference to Lassus), for a continuous flow of the melodic line (anon. treatise of Besan: - 1-1 UUfIrI If w f w w f If f I F"l f" I coloration ligatures Pierre de Ia Rue, Missa L'Homme arme, "Patrem" (Misse Petri de Ia Rue, Petrucci, 1503). F. Landini, Nessun ponga speranc;a, Florence, Bib/. Laur. Pal. 87, Squarcialupi Codex.

Toward the end of this century, notation became so complicated that the pieces of this period now represent the most interesting problems in the study of notation (mannered notation). IV. In the first half of the 15th century (Dufay) these complications were largely abandoned. There resulted what might be called the "classical" system of mensural notation (c. 1450-1600), characterized by the use ofwhite instead of black notes (white mensural notation; Ex. 5). Its principles are the same as those of the French notation of the Machaut period, except for the addition of the *proportions as a notational device and the occasional use of riddle canons [see Canon III]. This is the notation used

by the Flemish masters Ockeghem, Obrecht, and their numerous successors. In the latter part of the 16th century triple mensuration (tempus perfectum, prolatio perfecta) as well as the ligatures were largely discarded, together with other special methods of mensural notation (proportions). Thus, the system of notation became virtually that of the present day, particularly after the general acceptance of *bar lines and score arrangement [see Score; Partbooks]. Throughout the 17th century, however, remnants of the older system lingered on, particularly the use of blackened notes (coloration) and proportional signs [see Time signatures]. Of these the *alia breve sign is the only one that has survived. The accompanying example illustrates the development of the main notational signs in six periods.

580

NOTES

NOTATION 6

I

I II

Ill

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\ 2

1\ 3

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7

8

4

•

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9 10

II

12

13

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= 24 25 0

VI

14

15

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19 20 21

j j 26

22

23

)

27 28

I. Greek accents: 1. Accentus acutus; 2. Ace. gravis; 3. Ace. circumRexis; 4. Hypothetical. II. Neumes: 5. Virga; 6. Punctum; 7. Podatus; 8. Clivis. Ill. Black mensural natation ( 1250): 9. Longo; 10. Brevis; 11. Semibrevis; 12. Descending ligature; 13. Ascending ligature. IV. Additional signs of the 14th century: 14. Minima; 15. Semiminima. V. White mensural natation (1450): 16. 9; 17. 10; 18. 11; 14; 20. 15; 21. Fusa; 22. 12; 23. 13. 19. VI. Modern notation (after 1600): 24. Breve or double-whole note; 25. Whole note; 26. Half note; 27. Quarter note; 28. Eighth note.

=

=

=

= =

= =

V. Side by side with the system of mensural notation there existed, particularly in the period 1450-1600, special notational methods known as *tablatures. These were used for writing down keyboard and lute music (generally solo music, while mensural notation was used for ensemble music; see Ensemble). Some of these systems use the ordinary mensural notes, differing from mensural notation only in that the parts are written in score, as in the modem piano score or the modem partitura. These may be designated as keyboard scores or keyboard partituras, as opposed to the tablatures proper, which use letters, figures, or other symbols instead of notes. Surveys of modem attempts at reform are given in WoHN ii, 335ff, and A. Eaglefield-Hull, A Dictionary of Modern Music (1924). Entirely novel methods of notation have been devised for *electronic music and *musique concrete.

VI. In the Far East various notational systems were developed, especially in China, Korea, Japan, and India. All these employ pitch symbols derived from literary script, some of them with additional symbols for duration and for special effects (e.g., loud, soft, different manners of plucking stringed instruments or beating drums, etc.). The Tibetan notation of Buddhist chant employs oddly curved symbols that are vaguely reminiscent of the neumatic symbols of Western chant. See also: Accidentals; Braille music notation; Cheve system; Chiavette; Clef; Daseian notation; Ecphonetic notation; Letter notation; Ligatures; Mensural notation; Microtone; Monophonic notation; Musica ficta; Nagelschrift; Neumes; Notes; Partbooks; Partial signature; Plica; Proportions; Punctus; Romanus letters; Score; Square notation; Staff; Staffiess notation; Tablature; Tie; Time signatures; Tonic sol-fa. Lit.: ApNPM; C. Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music (1957); WoHN; WoGM; J. Wolf, Musika/ische Schrifttafeln (facsimiles; 1927); id., Die Tonschriften (1924); H. Bellermann, Die Mensura/noten und Taktzeichen des XV. und XVI. Jahrhundertf (1858); H. Riemann, Studien zur Geschichte der Notenschrift (1878); F. Gennrich, Abriss der frankonischen Mensuralnotation, rev. ed. (1956; facsimiles); id., Abriss der Mensuralnotation des XIV. und . .. XV. Jahrhunderts (1948; facsimiles); E. Thomas, ed.,. Notation neuer Musik (Darmstiidter Beitriige zur Neuen Musik, ix); A. Machabey, La Notation musicale (1952); A. Tirabassi, Grammaire de Ia nota(ion proportionel/e (1930); G. Vecchi, At/ante paleograjico musicale (facsimiles; 1951). Modem notation: H. E. Laing and A. W. Brown, The Standard System of Musical Notation (1928); J. Chailley, Les Notations musicales nouvelles (1950). See also under Mensural notation; Tablature; Square notation; Monophonic notation. Note-against-note style. See Homorhythmic. Note nere [It.). See under Chromatic (4). Notes. The signs with which music is written on a staff. In British usage the term also means the· sound indicated by a note, as well as the key of the piano on which the sound is produced [see under Tone (2)). The illustration shows the note values with their American names. British, French, German, Italian, and Spanish terms are given below. The

581

NOTE SENSIBLE 0

[--]

NUMBER OPERA whole note

j [-J

half note

j

quarter note

[!]

~ [7]

eighth note

~ [1]

sixteenth note

JCrJ

thirty-second note

) U!J

sixty-fourth note

Whole note: Brit. semibreve; F. ronde; G. Gonze (Note); lt. semibreve; Sp. redondo. Half note: Brit. minim; F. blanche; G. Holbe (Note); lt. bianco; Sp. blanco. Quarter note: Brit. crotchet; F. noire [soupir]; G. Viertel; lt. nero; Sp. negra. Eighth note: Brit. quaver; F. croche; G. Achtel; lt. cromo; Sp. corchea. Sixteenth note: Brit. semiquover; F. double-croche; G. Sechzehntel; lt. semicromo; Sp. semicorcheo. Thirty-second note: Brit. demisemiquaver; F. triple-croche; G. Zweiunddreissigstel; lt. biscroma; Sp. fusa. Sixty-fourth note: Brit. hemidemisemiquaver; F. quodruple-croche; G. Vierundsechzigstel; lt. semibiscroma; Sp. semifusa.

name-were Leoninus (second half of the 12th cent.) and Perotinus (c. 1160-1220). The name is based on the surmise (a very likely one) that both masters were connected with the famous cathedral of Paris, whose cornerstone was laid in 1163. The repertory of the school of Notre Dame, preserved mainly in the MSS F, W 1 and W2 [see Sources, no. 3], consists of a collection of twopart organa known as the *"Magnus tiber organi," additional organa in two, three, and four parts, and numerous *clausulae, *conductus, and early *motets. See Ars antiqua. Lit.: See under Ars antiqua; Conductus; Organum. See also J. Handschin, "Zur Geschichte von Notre Dame" (AM iv); id., "Was brachte die Notre Dame-Schule Neues?" (ZMW vi); id., "Zur Notre Dame-Rhythmik" (ZMW vii). Notturno [It.]. (1) *Nocturne. (2) An 18th-century name for compositions similar to the *serenade, designed to be played as an evening entertainment. Notable examples are Haydn's Notturni of 1790, for 2 lire organizzate (*hurdygurdies), 2 clarinets, 2 horns, 2 violas, and bass; six of them have three movements, one four, and one two. Mozart wrote a Notturno for strings and 2 horns (K. 269a ). Nourri, bien [F.]. With a rich sound. Novachord. See under Electronic instruments II.

German names for the rests are: ganze (halbe, viertel, etc.) Pause; Italian: pausa di semibreve (bianca, etc.); French: pause, demi-pause, soupir, demi-soupir, quart de soupir, huitieme de soupir, seizieme de soupir; Spanish: silencio de redonda (blanca, negra, corchea, semicorchea, fosa, semifusa). Note sensible [F.]. *Leading tone. Notes inegales [F.]. See Im!gales. Nothus [L.]. A term used by Regino of Priim (d. 915) for certain antiphons (antiphonae nothae) of irregular tonal behavior, "beginning in one mode, belonging to another in the middle, and finishing in a third" [GS i, 231]. The examples he cites belong to a type [Gevaert's theme 29, in La Melopee antique dans le chant de /'eglise latine (1895), p. 322] that is represented by more than eighty antiphons. See Parapter. Notre Dame, school of. Designation for a school of French polyphonic music of c. 1200, whose leading composers-the only ones known by

Nowell. *Noel. Nozze di Figaro, Le [It., The Marriage ofFigaro]. Opera in four acts by Mozart Qibretto by L. da Ponte, after Beaumarchais' play La Folie Journee ou Le Mariage de Figaro, sequel to his Le Barbier de Seville, the source of Rossini's *Barbiere di Siviglia), produced in Vienna, 1786. Setting: castle near Seville, 18th century. Figaro and* Don Giovanni generally are considered Mozart's finest operas. Nuances [F.]. Subtle modifications of intensity, tempo, touch, phrasing, etc. The term is also used as a translation of the Greek *chroai, and for other microtonic intervals. Number opera [G. Nummernoper]. An opera written in single "numbers," i.e., separate pieces such as arias, duets, ensembles, and ballets, interspersed with recitative or spoken dialogue. This type of opera prevailed until the early 19th century. It was vehemently opposed by Wagner, who supplanted it with continuous music that follows the action without interruption. His

582

NUMBER SYMBOLISM

NUTCRACKER SUITE

procedure has been adopted by practically all subsequent operatic composers. It must be noted, however, that replacement of the "number style" with continuous writing began as early as the operas of Jommelli, Traetta, Gluck, and particularly Mozart, whose late operas (Le Nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni) contain several long sections in which various numbers are linked together by transitional passages to make a complete, well-rounded musical whole. This tendency is still more pronounced in the operas of Beethoven, Weber, and Meyerbeer, while French and Italian composers such as Auber, Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti generally adhered to the number opera. Some composers of the 20th century have deliberately revived the form of the number opera, examples being Hindemith's Cardillac (1926; rev. 1952), and Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress (1951). See Opera VIII, XI. Number symbolism. Secret numerical relationships supposed to exist in the works of great masters, especially Bach. Attempts to find such relationships are based on one or another system of assigning numbers, e.g., A = 1, B = 2, etc. According to this system the letters BACH total 14, while J. S. BACH totals 41; in his last work, the organ chorale Vor deinen Thron, the first line of the melody has 14 notes, the entire melody 41. See M. Jansen, "Bachs Zahlensymbolik" (BJ 1937). Nunc dimittis. See under Canticle. Nuove musiche [It.]. (1) Title of a publication of 1601 by Giulio Caccini (c. 1546-1618), containing arias and madrigals in the then new style of monodic recitative with thoroughbass accompaniment. For the difference between aria and madrigal in this work, see Aria II. (2) Today, the term is used for music of the whole period around 1600, which is one of the most important landmarks in music history since it marks the origin of the opera, oratorio, cantata, and the baroque period in general [see History of music]. The leading idea of the new movement was to abolish the Flemish tradition of the 16th century, with its emphasis on counterpoint and artful elaboration. Particularly objectionable was the obscuring of the text that resulted from polyphonic treatment and from the motet style, with its characteristic points of imitation. The reaction against this style led, in the course of a few decades, to a complete reversal of the relationship between music and

text, as was clearly expressed by Monteverdi (Scherzi musicali, 1607): "L'orazione sia padrona dell' armonia e non serva" (The text should be the master, not the servant, of the music). As a result, the polyphonic a cappella style was replaced by accompanied solo song (*aria, *monody, *recitative). These tendencies found strong theoretical support in classical studies of Greek theory, which, about 1580, were pursued by Vincenzo Galilei (1520-91) and others known as the *Camerata. Although they could not decipher the remnants of Greek music then available and so relied on ancient writings, these men formed a picture of the role that music had played in the ancient Greek drama, and made the perfect union of words and music (in Greek music always a monophonic rendition of the text) their own goal. Although accompanied solo songs in rather plain homophonic style had been written in Spain as early as 1530 (vihuela songs by Milan, E. de Valderrabano ), it was not until the last years of the century that the open break with the tradition occurred, in the earliest operas of Peri and Caccini [see Opera III], which were based exclusively on the principle of monody. Caccini in his Nuove musiche applied the new style to short lyrics, giving it a subtler, more expressive design. Cavalieri, another pioneer of the new style, used it in his La *Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo of 1600 [see Oratorio II], a work that, owing to its inclusion of choral passages [see SchGMB, no. 169], is less radical but actually more progressive than those of Peri and Caccini. In fact, the limitations of the stile rappresentativo soon became patent. Music could not, for any length of time, be completely subjugated to the role of a mere servant, and musicians began to resume some of the trends that had too abruptly been halted. As early as 1607 Monteverdi's Orfeo showed that mixture of old and new ideas upon which the imposing structure of the baroque was to be built. See R. Paoli, "Difesa del primo melodramma" (LRM 1950, xx, 93); M. Mila, in LRM 1933, vi, 219 (Peri); M. Feller, in CP 1958 (Caccini); C. Palisca, in MQ xlvi (Galilei). (See also under Baroque music; Camerata. Nut. See under Frog. Nutcracker Suite. Orchestral suite in six movements by Tchaikovsky, op. 7la (1891), arranged from his ballet The Nutcracker [F. Cassenoisette], based on E. T. A. Hoffmann's fairy tale, The Nutcracker and the Mouse King.

583

0 0. This or similar signs (circle; zero) are used as follows: (1) In music for violins, etc., to indicate the open string. (2) In English *fingering for keyboard, as a sign for the thumb. (3) In thoroughbass parts, as a sign for tasto solo; see Thoroughbass 6. (4) In *mensural notation, as a sign for tempus perfectum (circle). (5) In medieval tonaries, as a sign for the seventh church mode, e.g. in the Codex Hartker. 0 antiphons. Antiphons used for the Magnificat during the week preceding the Nativity, so called because they all begin with the exclamation "0": 0 sapientia, 0 Adonai, 0 Radix Jesse, etc. [see LU, pp. 340ff]. Also known as Great Antiphons, they all are sung to a standard melody of the second mode. The late 14thcentury Codex Torino Bibl. Naz. J II 9 [see Sources, no. 18] contains polyphonic settings of these chants. See A. Cabaniss, "A Note on the Date of the Great Advent Antiphons" (Speculum xxii). Obbligato [It.]. Obligatory, usually with reference to an instrument (uiolino obbligato) or part that must not be omitted; the opposite is *ad libitum. Unfortunately, through misunderstanding or carelessness, the term has come to mean a mere accompanying part that may be omitted if necessary. As a result, one must decide in each individual case whether obbligato means "obbligato" or "ad libitum"; usually it means the former in early music and the latter in more recent pieces. For accompanimento obbligato, see under Accompaniment. Obbligo, obligo [It.]. In 17th- and 18th-century counterpoint, con obbligo means a manner of writing that involves certain "obligations," such as canon, double counterpoint, inversion, etc. Early examples are Frescobaldi's "Capriccio di obligo di cantare la quinta parte" (calling for the addition of a short melody at suitable places) and his "Recercar ottavo, obligo di non uscir mai di grado" (obligation to avoid conjunct motion), both in II primo libro di capricci (1626). Oberdominante [G.]. Dominant, as opposed to Unterdominante, subdominant. Oberstimme [G.]. Upper part. Obertas [Pol.]. A Polish round dance in quick triple meter and performed very vigorously,

like a wild waltz. Examples are in Wieniawski's Mazurka Characteristique no. l (for violin) and in the first act of Boito's Me.fistofele. Chopin's Mazurka op. 56, no. 2 is in the character of an obertas. A modern example is in A. Tansman's Quatre Danses Polonaises [l932] for orchestra. Another name, more commonly used today, is oberek. Obertaste [G.]. See Taste. Oberton, Obertone [G.]. Upper harmonic(s). Oberwerk [G.]. Swell organ. Obligat [G.]. *Obbligato. Oblique motion. See Motion. Oboe family. A large group of *wind instruments having a double reed [see Reed; Mouthpiece], in contrast to the *clarinet family, comprising the wind instruments with a single reed. Strictly speaking, the oboe, English horn, bassoon, etc., constitute families of their own, since each of these instruments existed in various sizes [see N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musical Instruments (1941 ), p. lll]. In the present article these distinctions will be disregarded. The instruments of the present-day orchestra are discussed below under I, and those that are rarely used or obsolete under II, while a historical survey is given under III. All these instruments (with the exception of some old types) have a conical bore, in contrast to the cylindrical bore of the clarinets. I. Present-day forms. A. Oboe [F. hautbois]. The oboe consists of a conical pipe made of wood (usually in three sections: top joint, lower joint, and bell) with a double reed fixed to the upper end. The scale produced when the six finger holes are opened in succession is D (as is that of the flute); nevertheless, the oboe is not treated as a transposing instrument and hence is considered to be in the key of C. Owing to its conical bore, the oboe overblows at the octave, as do all the other members of the family. For the difference in timbre between the oboe and the clarinet, see Clarinet family I. The oboe seems to have originated in the mid17th century. Cambert's Pomone (1671) has a part for "Hautbois." The repertory for oboe includes concertos by Handel and K. P. E. Bach, Schumann's Drei Romanzen op. 94, Piston's Suite (1934), Hindemith's Sonata (1939), and

584

OBOE FAMILY

OBOE FAMILY

Nielsen's Fantasiestilcke op. 2. For bibl. see end of section III. B. The English horn [F. cor anglais; G. englisches Horn; It. corno inglese; Sp. corno ing!es]. An alto oboe, pitched a fifth below the oboe. To facilitate the handling of this rather long instrument, the double reed may be carried on a small metal tube attached to the upper end and bent back toward the player's mouth. Its bell is pear-shaped, with a rather small opening [see II, A], which accounts for its soft, somewhat melancholy timbre. It is treated as a transposing instrument, the parts sounding a fifth lower than written. Early instruments of this size were curved like an animal's horn, a fact that explains half of its name; it is not known why it is called "English" [see II, B]. In the early part of the 19th century, the English horn is thought to have gradually replaced the older oboe da caccia. Early uses of the English horn are in Jommelli's Ezio (1741), J. A. Hasse's II Trionfo di Clelia (1762), and Haydn's Symphony no. 22. By about 1830 the instrument was generally accepted into the orchestra; Rossini used it in Guillaume Tell (1829) and Meyerbeer in Robert le diable (1831). C. Bassoon [F. basson; G. Fagott; It.fagotto; Sp. fagote]. The bass of the oboe family. Owing to the great length of the tube, it is bent back on itself, first descending and then ascending. The instrument consists of five sections: the crook d

II:>:

,;s· brr/

8 ______j

Normal ranges: a. Oboe. b. English horn. soon. d. Contrabassoon.

c. Bas-

(bocal), a narrow, curved metal tube to which the reed is attached; the wing or tenor joint, which forms the descending section of the pipe; the butt or double joint, the bottom section, in the shape of a U; the bass or long joint, which forms the ascending pipe; and the bell. The instrument is remarkably even in tone color, although the lowest fifth of its range tends to be rather thick and reedy and the highest fifth is somewhat "pinched" and terse. It has a wide dynamic range, and all kinds oflegato and staccato figures can easily be performed on it. It blends well with the French horns, with which it is often used, but is equally valuable as a solo instrument or as a bass to the woodwind section. The bassoon is specified in several compositions by Schlitz (e.g.,

Symphoniae sacrae, 1629). In 1645, A. Bertali published nine "Sonatas" for bassoon solo ( Compositioni musicali fatte per sonare col fagotto solo). Vivaldi wrote a great many concertos for bassoon alone or with other solo instruments. Bassoon concertos were written by Mozart (K. 191) and Weber (op. 75), and a sonata by Hindernith (1938). See L. G. Langwill, The Bassoon and Contrabassoon [1965]; W. Heckel, Der Fagott, rev. ed. (1931); W. Spencer, The Art of Bassoon Playing (1958); E. Halfpenny, "The Evolution of the Bassoon in England, 1750-1800" (GSJx). D. Contrabassoon or double bassoon [F. contrebasson; G. Kontrafagott; It. contrafagotto; Sp. contrafagot]. This instrument is pitched an octave below the bassoon. Its modern form, which was developed by Heckel (c. 1880), has a tube more than sixteen feet long that is doubled on itself four times. The bell points down instead of up, as in the bassoon. It is notated an octave above the actual sound (in Wagner's Parsifal it is written at its true pitch). Both the lowest and highest tones of its range are rather unsatisfactory and therefore are less frequently used. An older form of double bassoon was used by Handel in the Coronation Anthem (1727) and in L'Allegro (1740). Haydn scored for it in The Creation, and Beethoven used it in his Fifth and Ninth Symphonies. In 1739 a giant instrument, three times the size of the normal one, was built [see E. Halfpenny, in ML xxxiv, 41ff]. See L. G. Langwill, "The DoubleBassoon" (PMA lxix, Iff). II. Rare and obsolete forms. The oboes of the 18th and early 19th centuries were much more strident and piercing in sound than the modern instruments, a statement even more true of still earlier instruments [see under Aulos]. A. Oboe d'amore. A mezzo-soprano instrument pitched a minor third below the ordinary oboe and having the characteristic pear-shaped bell [G. Liebesfuss] of today's English horn. The name probably refers to its sound, which was "sweeter" than that of the other oboes ofthe day. It was invented c. 1720, one of its earliest uses being in Bach's cantata no. 37, "Wer da glaubet" (c. 1727). A reconstructed form is called for in R. Strauss's Sinfonia Domestica to characterize the "dreaming child." B. Oboe da caccia. Pr0bably an alto oboe in F, with an expanding bell or, more frequently, a pear-shaped bell that rendered the sound less strident. The instrument was built in the shape of a curved hunting horn and may have been the

585

OBOE FAMILY

4

2

3 6

5 J. Double bassoon or contrabassoon. 6. Sarrusophone.

2. Bassoon.

3. English horn.

4. Oboe.

5. Heckelphone.

OBOE FAMILY

• • •

7

• •

9

13 :::

11

10

7. Shawm (bass). 8. Oboe da caccia. (tenor). 13. Shawm (tenor).

9. Aulos.

10. Racket.

11. Curta/, double.

12. Crumhorn

OBOE FAMILY

OBOE FAMILY

model for the old, curved form of the English horn. C. Tenoroon. A small bassoon pitched a fifth above the ordinary bassoon. Invented and used in the first half of the 19th century, it is now obsolete. D. Quartfagott, Quintfagott. According to M. Praetorius (De Organographia, 1619), instruments pitched respectively a fourth and a fifth below the ordinary bassoon. In the 18th and 19th centuries the names were used for small bassoons pitched a fourth or a fifth above the ordinary bassoon, like the tenoroon [see above]. E. Heckel phone. A baritone oboe invented by Heckel in 1904 and pitched an octave below the oboe. Built in a straight shape with a bulbshaped bell, it has a bore much wider than the oboe's. In spite of its full, rich sound it has been little used (R. Strauss, Salome; Delius). F. Sarrusophone. A whole family of doublereed brass instruments, invented by the French bandmaster Sarrus (patented 1856) and made in eight sizes, from sopranino to subcontrabass. The only sarrusophone used in the orchestra is a contrabass size inC that has the same compass as the contrabassoon and has been preferred by numerous French composers to the contrabassoon. The smaller sizes are obsolete, but the larger ones continue to be used in some wind and rhythm bands, especially in Italy. III. History. Double-reed instruments are very ancient and widespread, much more so than single-reed instruments (clarinets). They usually occur in pairs (double oboe), the longer pipe probably being used to provide a drone or, perhaps, some tones missing in the shorter one. Sumerian double oboes are documented as far back as 2800 B.C., and similar instruments were common in Egypt, Israel (halil; see Jewish music 1), Greece (*aulos), and Rome (tibia). They are found in practically all the countries of Asia, where they are usually provided with a metal disk against which the player's lips are stretched (he takes the reed entirely into his mouth-not, as in European practice, between his lips). Because Egyptian oboe players blow continuously, they must breathe exclusively through the nose [see Launeddas ]. The indigenous oboe of China (kuan) and Japan (hichiriki) is cylindrical. A conical type is an importation from India, where oboe music "is in great demand at weddings, ceremonials, processions and festivals. Expert performers are paid fabulous sums" [see SaHMI, p. 230]. The early European ancestor of the oboe is

588

the shawm, which was used until the 17th century. In France it was called bombarde, chalemie; in Germany, Pommern (Bomhart, Pumhart), except for the highest member of the group, which was known as Schalmei; in Italy, pi/faro; in Spain, chirimia. The earliest reference to such an instrument is in French literary sources of the 13th century. Probably introduced from the Near East in the 12th century, it consisted of a single piece of wood curving in a bell. By the 16th century shawms existed in all sizes, ranging from sopranino (Praetorius' Klein-Schalmey) to double bass (Gross-Bass-Pommer), the name "shawm" being reserved for the soprano instrument while the lower-pitched instruments were called bombard. The bombards (all straight tubes) were soon abandoned in favor of shortened shapes called curtals [F. courtaut; G. *Kartholt, "short wood," referring to the instrument's shortened form, i.e., with folded tube]. These instruments [F. basson, fagot; G. Dulzian, Fagott; It. fagotto; Sp. bajon] were forerunners of the modern bassoon but were made from a single block of wood with two parallel bores, one descending and one ascending. Numerous other types of double-reed instrument are described by Praetorius under names such as Sordune, Schryari, and Bassanelli. The Sordune [F. sourdines] had a channel running down and up two or three times within the same piece of wood, ending in a lateral hole [see SaHMI, p. 317f]. More important are the crumhorns [F. cromorne, tournebout; G. Krummhorn; It. storto; Sp. orlo], which are depicted in paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries as held by angels. Their tube was nearly cylindrical, curved upward like a J, and a pierced cap (wind cap) covered the reed so that the player could not touch it [see ill. in SaHMI, p. 320]. The cap served as a wind chamber, so that the reed was set in vibration much as in the reed pipes of the organ. Thus the sound was as unchangeable as that of an organ pipe, i.e., overblowing was impossible. The instrument was used until about the mid-17th century. One of the strangest instruments is the racket [G. Rackett, Rankett], a short, thick cylinder of solid wood pierced lengthwise by ten cylindrical channels connected so as to form a continuous tube. Praetorius described four sizes of racket. Toward the end of the 17th century a new version was devised with a conical tube and bore and a bassoon-like bell. It came to be known as racket bassoon or sausage bassoon [G. Wursifagott]. See H. Seidl, "Das Rackett" (diss. Leipzig, 1959).

ODE

OBRA Lit. (for Oboe): P. Bate, The Oboe [1956]; R. Sprenkle and D. Ledet, The Art of Oboe Playing [1961]; E. Halfpenny, "The English 2and 3-keyed Hautboy'' (GSJ ii); id., "The 'Tenner Hoboy'" (GSJ v); id., "The French Hautboy: A Technical Survey" (GSJ vi and viii); J. Marx, "The Tone of the Baroque Oboe" (GSJ iv). I by W.D.D. Obra [Sp.]. General designation for work, as in the Obras de mlisica (1578) by Antonio de Cabez6n. Specifically, a *tiento, e.g., Obra de 8" tono (Jimenez). Ocarina. A popular instrument in the shape of an egg, a bird, or a sweet potato (the last name commonly used in the U.S.), with a mouth-hole and a number of finger holes. It is classified as a globular flute, a type with an interesting ancestry in China and Africa [see SaHMJ, p. 166f]. Occursus [L.]. In the 9th- and lOth-century organum of the fourth, the unison-confluence of the two parts employed at the beginning and end of phrases (converging organum; see Organum I). The term is used (for the first time?) in Guido's "Micrologus," ch. xviii: "De Diaphonia." Octave. (I) The eighth tone of the diatonic scale [see Interval]. Acoustically, the tone with twice the frequency of the home tone (ratio 1:2; e.g., a' = 440; a" = 880). The octave is the most perfect consonance, so perfect that it gives the impression of duplicating the original tone, a phenomenon for which no convincing explanation has ever been found. Its singularity becomes apparent if the acoustical frequencies are compared with the series of color frequencies (spectrum), which does not show any such duplication [see Color and music]. The fundamental importance of the octave appears also from the fact that it is the only interval common to practically all the scales ever evolved, regardless of the number or pitch of the intermediate steps. For the designation of the various octaves, see Pitch names. (2) In ecclesiastical terminology, the eighth day or the entire week after a feast. Octave species [G. Oktavgattungen]. See under Greece II. Octavier [F.]. See under Wind instruments III. Octet. Chamber music for eight instruments, either all strings (Mendelssohn, Gade, Enesco), all winds (Beethoven, op. 103; Stravinsky), or mixed (Schubert, Spohr).

Octobasse. See under Violin family (j). Octoechos. See Echos. Oda [It.]. A 14th- and 15th-century type of I tali an poetry consisting of a number of four-line stanzas with the rhyme scheme a a a b (repeated) or a b b c c d de effg . . . . Petrucci's collections of *frottole include several ode, composed as strophic songs. See A. Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, 3 vols. (1949), i, 9If; E. B. Helm, in MQ xxvii, 308. Oddonic letters. See Letter notation. Ode. (1) In poetry (ancient Greek and Latin as well as modem), a poem in free meter and verse structure, frequently addressed to a deity. Odes are usually composed in a free form similar to that of the cantata, including several movements or sections for chorus, soloist, and orchestra. Dryden's "Ode on St. Cecilia's Day" (set by Handel) and Schiller's "Ode to Joy" (set by Beethoven, Ninth Symphony) are well-known examples. In the 16th century the Horatian odes were frequently set to music in strict chordal style and in a rhythm dictated by the poetic meter, e.g.: r."\

I J JIJJJIJUJJIJJIJI Mae-ce-nas a- ta- vise- di- te re- gi- biis

This practice was inaugurated by Konrad Celtis, professor of poetry at the University of Ingolstadt (1492-97). Among the earliest publications of such odes are: Petronius Tritonius, Melopoiae sive harmoniae tetracenticae super xxii genera carminum heroicorum (1507); Paulus Hofhaimer, Harmoniae poeticae (1539), Ludwig Senfl, Varia carminum genera (1534), and Claude Goudimel, Q. Horatii Flacci poetae lyrici odae ... ad rhythmos musicos redactae (1555). Examples for the lute occur in Judenkiinig's Ain schone kunstliche Underweisung of 1523 [see DTO 56; ApMZ i]. In France this poetic modification of musical rhythm [see Rhythm II (b)] led to the *vers mesure. See Humanism. (2) In Byzantine chant, ode is one of the nine sections of the kanon, each written in imitation of a scriptural canticle. See Byzantine chant II. Lit.: R. von Liliencron, in VMW iii; P. Masson, in RMC vi; H. J. Moser, Paul Hojhaimer (1929), Appendix, pp. 112ff; id., Geschichte der deutschen Musik i (1920), 406ff.

589

ODE TO NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE

OFFICE, DIVINE

Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte. Composition by A. Schoenberg, op. 4lb (1942), based on Byron's poem, scored for string orchestra, piano, and a reciting voice. The text is a bitter comment on the downfall of dictators. The work is organized as an opera without action, with an overture, arias, and recitatives, and, for its significance at the time of composition, a quotation of the opening "Victory" theme from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Odhecaton. Title (complete form: Harmonice musices Odhecaton A) of a printed collection of "100 songs" (actually only 96) published by Petrucci in 1501. The book is the earliest printed publication of polyphonic music [see Printing of music] and of great importance as a collection of secular polyphonic music of the period c. 14701500. Similar collections, Canti B and Canti C, appeared in 1502 and' 1504. The composers represented include Hayne van Ghizeghem [see Burgundian school], Ockeghem (1430-95), Obrecht (1452-1505), Isaac (c. 1450-1517), Alexander Agricola (c. 1446-1506), Josquin (c. 1450-1521), and many others. The fact that only nine pieces have a text does not necessarily prove that the contents of these books was exclusively instrumental music; indeed, a considerable number of the compositions are preserved in other sources (manuscripts) with a text, at least in the discant. On the other hand the omission of the texts, although perhaps conditioned by practical considerations (typographic problems), illustrates the latitude of 16th-century musical practice, which readily admitted instrumental performance of vocal pieces. It is, of course, impossible to assume that all the readers of these books were familiar with the texts of more than 300 compositions. Lit.: 'j.Harmonice musices Odhecaton (fac. ed. pub. by Bollettino bibliograjico musicale, 1932); H. Hewitt, ed., 'j.Harmonice musices OdhecatonA (1942); C. L. W. Boer, Chansonvormen op het Einde van de XVde Eeuw (1938); G. Reese, in MQ xx; M. Cauchie, "L'Odhecaton, recueil de musique instrumentale" (RdM 1925, p. 148); J. Marix, in RdM 1935, p. 236; B. Disertori, in RMJ li. Odoistic notation. Same as Oddonic notation; see Letter notation. Oedipus Rex [L., King Oedipus]. Opera-oratorio in two acts by Stravinsky Qibretto in Latin by J. Cocteau and J. Danielou, based on Sophocles' tragedy), produced in Paris, 1927. Setting: ancient Thebes. The extensive use of the chorus

for commentary, the use of a narrator, the reduction of the action to entrances and exists, and the minimal scenery all are reminiscent of ancient Greek tragedy and prevent the work from being called an opera in the usual sense. The underlying principles are similar to those of Cavalieri's La* Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo (1600). Oeuvre [F.]. *Opus. Offertory [L. offertorium]. In the Roman Catholic liturgy, the fourth item of the Proper of the Mass, accompanying the placing on the altar of the elements (bread and wine). Originally it was a psalm with antiphon (antiphona ad offerendum); today only the antiphon remains. However, the verses (published in C. Ott, Offertoriale sive versus offertoriorum, 1935) are of great stylistic interest [see ApGC, pp. 363ff; also R. Steiner, in JAMS xix]. Unlike the other antiphonal chants of the Mass (Introit, Communion), the Offertory acquired a highly developed melismatic style, thus becoming a responsorial chant. Polyphonic settings of Offertories, based on the plainsong melodies, are found sporadically in 15th-century sources (Trent Codices). In England, the Offertory *"Felix namque" for Lady-Masses was set for organ as early as c. 1400 and frequently during the 16th century. Toward the end of the 16th century, Lassus (in Sacrae cantiones, 1582, '85) and Palestrina (In Offertoria per tatum annum, 1593) published complete cycles of Offertories written as free motets, without use of the plainsong melodies. In the 17th century, the ceremony of offering became the most suitable occasion for organ playing. Frescobaldi wrote several pieces "per l'Elevazione" [see Elevation], and numerous Offertoires for organ with or without other instruments were composed by Lebegue, Grigny, F. Couperin, and others. Office, Divine [L. officium]. In the Roman Catholic liturgy, the service of the canonical or daily hours (as distinct from that of the Mass), including *psalms, *canticles, *antiphons, *responsories, *hymns, *versicles, lessons (lections, readings), and prayers. The Offices are celebrated eight times a day: (I) Matins [L. matutinum], held during the night, usually between midnight and dawn; (2) Lauds [laudes1 immediately following Matins, originally at sunrise; (3) Prime [ad primam], c. 6 a.m.; (4) Terce [ad tertiam], c. 9 a.m.; (5) Sext [ad sextam], c. noon; (6) None [ad nonam], c. 3 p.m.; (7) Vespers [vesperae], sunset; (8) Compline [completorium],

590

OFFICE, DIVINE

OLD ROMAN CHANT

immediately after Vespers or before retiring. The Mass follows Terce except on ordinary weekdays, when it follows Sext, or on fast days, when it follows None. From the musical point of view the most important Offices are Matins, Vespers, Lauds, and Compline. The service of Matins consists of the *invitatory and three divisions called nocturns, each of which includes three psalms with antiphons and three lessons, each followed by a responsory. The last responsory is usually replaced by the *Te Deum. Matins is now held regularly only in monastic churches and is therefore not included in the Antiphonale Romanum [see Liturgical books II]. The Liber usualis includes Matins of Nativity [LU, pp. 368ff], Maundy Thursday [pp. 626ff], Good Friday [pp. 688ff], Holy Saturday [pp. 752ff], Pentecost [pp. 863ff], Corpus Christi [pp. 917ff], and the Office of the Dead [pp. 1779ff]. Vespers includes five psalms, each with an antiphon, a hymn, and the *Magnificat. It is the only Office for which music other than Gregorian chant is admitted. Beginning in the 16th century the evening psalms were frequently treated in four-voice harmony (so-called *fauxbourdon), and the Magnificat in particular has been given very elaborate settings by numerous great composers. Motets also find their place chiefly at Vespers. Mozart wrote two Vespers (K. 321 and 339) for voices, orchestra, and organ, each comprising five psalms and the Magnificat. Lauds has the same structure as Vespers, but with the Canticle of Zachary ("Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel") instead of the Magnificat (Canticle of the Virgin), and with the fourth psalm replaced by one of the lesser *canticles, two of them being assigned to each day of the week-one for normal use, the other during Lent. The Liber Usualis includes the general order of Lauds of feasts (LU, pp. 221-23), as well as the special Lauds for the feasts named under Matins. The full service of Lauds is given in the Antiphonale Romanum. Compline includes three psalms enframed by a single antiphon, a hymn, the Canticle of Simeon ("Nunc dimittis"), and the four Marian antiphons [see Antiphon (2)], one for each season of the year. The other hours-Prime to Noneeach include a hymn and three psalms enframed by a single antiphon. The service for the hours on an ordinary Sunday is given in LU, pp. 224ff (without Matins and Lauds). See also ApGC, pp. 19ff; P. Batiffol, Histoire du Breviaire Romain (1911); J. Pascher,

Das Stundengebet der rom. Kirche (1954); J. A. Jungmann, Der Gottesdienst der Kirche (1955), pp. 167-98; id., Brevierstudien (1958).

0 I OU E A E. In the Anglican liturgical books, the usual abbreviation for "world without end, Amen" (i.e., the vowels from this phrase analogous to the Roman * E u o u a e). Oiseau de feu, L' [F., The Firebird]. Ballet by Stravinsky, produced by the Ballets Russes (Diaghilev and Fokine) in Paris in 1910. The story, taken from Russian legend, concerns Prince Ivan who captures the fabulous Firebird. L'Oiseau de feu is an outstanding product of Stravinsky's early period, when the composer was following the nationalist tradition of his teacher, Rimsky-Korsakov. Three versions of a suite taken from the ballet have been made by the composer, the last (1945) identical with the first ( 1911 ), but for a smaller orchestra. Oketus. See Rocket. Oktave [G.]. Octave. Applied to instruments, it means sizes an octave above the normal size (e.g., Oktavfiote, piccolo flute), or below it (e.g., Oktavfagott, contrabassoon). Oktavgattung, Octave species. Oktavieren [G.]. See under Wind instruments III. Oktoechos. See Echos. Old English Edition, The. See Editions XL. Old Hall MS. See Sources, no. 25. Old Hundredth. An old hymn tune that was used in Beza's Genevan Psalter (1554) for the 134th Psalm, in Knox's Anglo-Genevan Psalter (1556) for the 3rd Psalm, and in Sternhold and Hopkins' Psalter (1562) for the lOOth Psalm (hence the name). See W. H. Havergal, A History of the Old Hundredth Psalm Tune (1854); GDB vi, 184f. Old Maid and the Thief, The. Opera in one act by Menotti (to his own libretto), produced by N.B.C. radio in New York, 1939, stage premiere, Philadelphia, 1941. Setting: a small American town in the present. Old Roman chant. A repertory of chant discovered c. 1890 and preserved in five MSS (the earliest dated 1071), all of which were written in Rome. Liturgically, it is very similar to Gregorian chant in both the structure of Mass and Office and the texts prescribed for the various services. However, the melodies are essentially

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different, although occasionally their outlines agree with those of the corresponding Gregorian melodies. Dom Mocquereau, who was the first to call attention to this special group of manuscripts (*Editions XLII, A, 2, pp. 4fl), considered the melodies variants from a decadent epoch. Dom Andoyer, on the contrary, maintained that they were older than the Gregorian melodies and designated them "pre-Gregorian," whereas B. Stablein considered them "Gregorian," assigning the so-called Gregorian repertory to the second half of the 7th century. According to the most recent theory, the two repertories represent different locales rather than different periods, the Old Roman being connected with Rome and the Gregorian with the Frankish kingdom and empire of Pepin and Charlemagne. See ApGC, pp. 77ff, 484ff. Ole. See under Polo. Oliphant. A medieval instrument for signaling, made from an elephant's tusk, often beautifully carved. Ombra scene [It.]. In early operas, designation for a scene that takes place in Hades or in which ghosts are conjured up. Every opera dealing with the subject of *Orpheus has an ombra scene. Ondeggiando, ondule [It., F.]. In violin playing, an undulating movement of the bow [see Bowing (n)]. It is used for arpeggio-like figures but also on one note in order to produce a slight fluctuation of intensity. In earlier music (c. 1650-1750; Purcell, Stamitz) the latter effect, which is actually a *tremolo, was rather common, being indicated by a wavy line [see ill. accompanying Ornamentation]. Ondes Martenot [F.]. See Electronic instruments II. One-step. American dance of the period c. 191020, in quick duple meter, similar to the *fox trot. It was superseded, c. 1920, by the slower twostep (slow-fox). Ongarese, all' [It.]. In Hungarian style. Onion flute. Same as eunuch flute. See Mirliton. Onzieme [F.]. The interval of the eleventh. Op. Abbr. for *opus. Open fifth, open triad. A fifth or triad without the third, e.g., c-g-c'. Open graces. See under Grace.

Open harmony. See under Spacing. Open notes. (I) On wind instruments, same as natural notes. (2) On stringed instruments, the tones produced on the *open strings. Open pipe. See under Wind instruments III. Open strings. The unstopped strings of violins, lutes, etc. Their use is sometimes prescribed by the sign 0. Opera [It.; F. opera; G. Oper; Sp. opera]. "A drama in which music is the essential factor comprising songs with orchestral accompaniment (as recitative, aria, chorus) and orchestral preludes and interludes" (Webster's Third New International Dictionary). I. General. Opera is the most important of the forms that combine music and theatrical representation. It is highly complex, involving many different arts-music (both instrumental and vocal), drama, poetry, acting, dance, stage design, costuming, etc.-and this fact accounts in part both for its widespread appeal and for the equally widespread objection that it is artistically impure. The classic statement of this critical attitude is Saint Evremond's definition of opera as "a bizarre affair made up of poetry and music, in which the poet and the musician, each equally obstructed by the other, give themselves no end of trouble to produce a wretched result" [Oeuvres (1740 ed. of Des Maizeau) iii, 248]. Because opera is, of all musical or dramatic forms, the most difficult and expensive to produce, it has been associated with the upper social strata, thus making it a "status symbol" for the public as well as an object of particular attraction for many ambitious composers and singers. Most operas have been composed by specialists in the form, the composers who have distinguished themselves equally in opera and other branches of music being exceedingly few-Monteverdi, Handel, Mozart, R. Strauss, Berlioz, Prokofiev, Britten, and Stravinsky being outstanding in this respect. On the other hand, composers such as Bach, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Brahms, and Bruckner either did not attempt opera at all or did so without conspicuous success, while the achievements of Beethoven and Debussy are limited to one work each, albeit a masterpiece in both cases. Like all art forms, opera is founded on certain conventions, the most important of which is that the characters express their thoughts and feelings in song rather than speech. Since it usually takes longer to develop ideas in music than in words,

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either or both of the following devices are often used: (I) a noticeable stretching out and consequent slow pace of the action (as in Wagner's music dramas); (2) alternating periods of action and repose, the action being carried on in *recitative (with a minimum of music) and being periodically interrupted by musical "numbers" (arias, ensembles, ballets, etc.; see Number opera), all of which are, from the· dramatic standpoint, likely to be merely episodic or at best unnecessarily long elaborations of certain moments of the action. Such a slow tempo ofthe action or such frequent interruptions, which would be regarded as serious defects in a spoken play, are hardly avoidable in opera. From these basic necessities arise many of the features of opera that persons unaccustomed to the form may find difficult to accept, such as frequent text repetitions, prolonged emotional scenes, dying speeches, and so on. While it is true that many operas are cheaply sentimental, silly, or melodramatic, the same charge may be made against many plays. These faults are not inherent in the form, though the skillful use of music may cause the ordinary listener to forgive their presence in opera more readily than in a play. II. Prehistory. Although the first work now known as an opera dates from 1597, the combining of music and drama is undoubtedly of very early origin. Ancient Greek drama incorporated the choral songs and dances of the earlier *dithyrambs, in a tradition that may go back to the still older rites of the Bacchic cults. The tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides all give a large place to the chorus, and it is known from theoretical treatises (e.g., Aristotle's Poetics) that music was an essential element of the form, though unfortunately only a single mutilated specimen of Greek dramatic music has survived (fragment of a chorus from Euripides' Orestes). In the Middle Ages the Church fostered dramatic music in the *liturgical dramas (lith13th centuries) and mystery plays (14th-16th centuries). While medieval religious drama had no direct historical connection with the earliest operas, its tradition may still be traced in some of the operas on religious subjects at Rome and in Germany during the 17th century. The immediate predecessors of opera are various types of secular dramatic entertainment with music that appeared during the 16th century. These are of two basic categories: (1) works in which music was an adjunct to scenery and dancing, the definitive form in this

class being the *ballet, brought from Italy to France, where it later exercised a determining influence on the French opera [see below]; (2) works in which music served as a diversion from spoken drama, the musical portions usually appearing as *intermezzi between the acts of a play. However, the creation of opera itself had to await the discovery of a kind of drama that would lend itself to the continuous use of music and of a kind of music that would be suitable for dramatic expression. The necessary poetic form was found in the pastorale, which toward the end of the 16th century displaced practically all earlier dramatic types in Italy and culminated in T. Tasso's Aminta (1573) and B. Guarini's II Pastor jido (1581-90). The earliest opera-poems are pastorales modeled on these two works [see also Eclogue]. A musical style suitable for opera was developed by the Florentine *Camerata [see also Nuove musiche (2); Monody]. The *madrigal comedies of 0. Vecchi, which are frequently mentioned as preoperatic types, have only a subsidiary place in the history of the opera. The history of opera may be divided into five periods: 1590-1680. Development of dramatic style in music and of appropriate dramatic and musical forms [sections III-VII below]. 1680-1760. Utilization of established style and forms in serious operas of a standard type; rise of comic opera as an independent genre [VIIVIII]. 1760-1850. Introduction of new subject matter and loosening of traditional forms in the interest of a more direct connection between dramatic content and musical expression [IX]; rise of national types of opera. 1850-1920. Rejection of set forms and formal divisions in favor of continuous music, with recurrence of characteristic motifs; the music drama [X]. 1920-. Reaction against romantic subject matter and musical amorphousness of the music drama; fusion of opera with oratorio and other dramatic forms; revival of the 18thcentury "number" opera in 20th-century musical idioms [XI].

III. Early Italian opera. The earliest operas, all performed at Florence, were: Dafne, poem by Rinuccini, music by J. Peri (1597; music lost); Euridice, poem by Rinuccini, music by G. Caccini (perf. 1602; in *Editions XLVII, IO); Euridice, poem by Rinuccini, music by Peri and

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OPERA Caccini (1600; in *Editions III, 6, and IX, 24). The music of the Florentine operas consists mostly of recitative over a thoroughbass whose somewhat colorless harmonies were realized by a small instrumental ensemble. Conforming to the ideal of imitation of Greek drama, the vocal line aims at close adherence to the natural rhythm and accent of the spoken word; therefore, although flawless in declamation and occasionally expressive in detail, it is lacking in any distinct melodic character or any clear principle of musical organization. Exceptions to this style occur in the occasional metrical songs and choruses, usually with dancing, which are placed at the end of the principal scenes. However, the almost total exclusion of counterpoint and the neglect of instrumental music led, as soon as the novelty of the new stile recitativo had worn off, to an unbearable monotony of effect. It was Monteverdi who introduced into opera the full resources of the art of music. His La Favola d'Orfeo (Mantua, 1607; poem by Alessandro Striggio) is on the same subject and in the same general style as the earlier Florentine Euridice operas, but it shows notable advances in both dramatic characterization and musical form. Monteverdi's harmony is incomparably richer and more varied than that of Peri or Caccini. The recitative is more expressive and is frequently organized by means of repetitions, sequential passages, etc., into distinct musical patterns. The remarkable aria "Possente spirto" in Act III consists of six strophes of elaborately ornamented vocal solo, each with a different orchestral accompaniment. The large orchestra is another feature of this work, as well as the number of instrumental pieces (26 in all), including the introductory "toccata" (the earliest operatic *overture) and the frequent ritornellos, which, by their recurrence, give musical unity to long sections of the opera. In the third decade of the 17th century the center of operatic interest shifted to Rome (S. Landi, D. Mazzocchi, M.A. Rossi, L. Vittori, L. Rossi). Mazzocchi's La Catena d'Adone (1626) and Landi's II Sant' Alessio (1632; *Editions III, 5) show the gradual differentiation between recitative and aria styles, with the use of tuneful melodies in the latter, as well as continued progress toward formal clarity. In Landi's work the "canzona" type of overture appears, while the "sinfonia" before the second act is an early example of the three-movement arrangement (fast-slow-fast) of the later Italian overture. The Roman operas are distinguished by

extensive use of vocal ensembles. This school was also the first to produce *comic operas. IV. Later 17th-century Italian opera. Animportant historical event was the opening at Venice in 1637 of the first public opera house (Teatro San Cassiano). The transformation of opera from a courtly entertainment for invited guests to a public spectacle for a general audience had important consequences for both music and libretto. The earliest composers at Venice were Monteverdi with II Ritorno d'Ulisse in Patria, 1641 (DTO 57), and L'Incoronazionedi Poppea, 1642; and P. F. Cavalli with Giasone, 1649 (*Editions XL VII, 12), and Xerse, 1654. The recitatives in Monteverdi's Incoronazione are the apotheosis of the Florentine monodic style. Combined with more regular aria forms, they make for one of the most beautiful operatic scores of the entire 17th century. The works of Cavalli and M. A. Cesti show the influence of public taste on operatic form in their greater size, more lavish staging [see especially Burnacini's stage designs for II Porno d'oro in DTO 6 and 9], greater number of characters, plot complications, and use of burlesque comic episodes. Musical effects become less subtle than in earlier works. The virtuoso soloist begins to be featured. Recitative and aria become completely distinct and the latter crystallizes into standard forms (strophic, ostinato-bass, da capo). There are many arias in light, popular, melodic style, as well as more serious types. The use of an orchestral introduction to the aria, repeated at the close ("ritornello" principle), as well as short orchestral interludes between the sections, becomes established. There are important orchestral overtures and sinfonias, but vocal ensembles (except duets) are much less prominent than in operas from the first half of the century. The course of Italian opera in the later 17th century is difficult to follow because few scores are available in modern editions. Venice remained the principal but by no means the only center of production, the leading composers there being Antonio Sartorio (L'Adelaide, 1672) and Giovanni Legrenzi (Totila, 1677). Other notable figures in Italy were M. A. Cesti, active in various cities, who produced La Dori at Florence in 1661 (*Editions XLVII, 12) and II Porno d'oro (DTO 6 and 9) at Vienna in 1661, A. Stradella (La Forza dell'Arnor paterna, 1678), and F. Provenzale, one of the first composers of opera at Naples. Among Italians resident at South German centers were C. Pallavicino (La Gerusalernrne liberata, 1687; see DdT 55) and

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especially Agostino Steffani (Alarica il Baltha, 1687; Henrico Leone, 1689; see DTB 21, 23), whose works achieved a perfect reconciliation of the monodic and contrapuntal principles and laid the foundation for the operatic style of Handel. By the end of the 17th century Italian opera was firmly established in its native land as a leading musical institution. Moreover, the forms of music and drama that had developed by then remained basic to the further evolution ofltalian opera over the next two centuries and had a farreaching influence on opera in other countries as well. V. French opera, 1670-1750. French national opera was founded by Robert Cam bert (Pomone, 1671) and Jean-Baptiste Lully (Cadmus et Hermione, 1673; Atys, 1676; Amadis, 1684; Armide, 1686). Although there had been performances of Italian opera in Paris between 1645 and 1662 (notably Luigi Rossi's L'Orfeo in 1647; first perf.), the French were slow to adopt the form, partly because in their own classical tragedy (Comeille, Racine) and in the *ballet they had already perfected two types of stage production with which they were satisfied and which they did not believe could be successfully merged. It is a tribute to Lully's skill that he was able to take certain features of each of these established forms, along with some elements of the pastorale, and combine them in a form of opera he called tragedie lyrique. Compared to contemporary Italian works, the French opera was distinguished by (1) the relatively greater importance of the drama; (2) the exceptionally large place given to ballets, choruses, and spectacular scenes in general; (3) the greater use of instrumental music; (4) the use of short and simple songs, mostly of a dancelike character (*airs) rather than elaborate arias; (5) a special type of *recitative; and (6) a special type of *overture known as "French overture." This type of opera remained essentially unchanged in the hands of Lully's successors, including Rameau (Hippolyte et Aricie, 1733; Castor et Pollux, 1737), whose operas represent the high point of this form in France before Gluck. [For reprints of French operas, see Editions VII.] VI. English opera. As French opera grew out of the ballet, so English opera developed from the *masque, though not without difficulty owing to the prejudice against stage entertainments during the Commonwealth (1649-60). John Blow's Venus and Adonis (c. 1684?), although entitled "a masque," is the first genuine

opera to be produced in England in this period. The only great figure of English opera is Henry Purcell, whose Dido and Aeneas (c. 1689) is a masterpiece in miniature. Though not free from French influence (form of overture, care for clear text declamation, certain rhythmic mannerisms, prominence of dancing, instrumental pieces, and choruses), it nevertheless combines these features with highly original and characteristically English melodies, rhythms, and harmonies, together with a degree of tragic expressiveness (Dido's lament, "When I am laid in earth") that has hardly been surpassed in opera. The same qualities may be found in much of Purcell's other theater music, which is in the form of incidental music to plays (Dioclesian, 1690; King Arthur, 1691). With Purcell's early death, the writing of serious operas by English composers of the first rank practically ceased until the 20th century. VII. German opera. With the exception of Heinrich SchUtz's Dafne (1627 at Torgau; music lost), the early history of opera in Germany is predominantly the history of Italian composers at German courts: Pallavicini at Dresden, A. Draghi at Vienna, A. Steffani at Munich and Hanover, and a host of others. Their influence was such that for the next hundred years even native German masters were content to write in the Italian style and to Italian texts (J. J. Fux, J. A. Hasse, Gluck, Mozart). The only important native German school was at Hamburg, where the titles of the first Singspiele (e.g., J. Theile's Der erschaffene, gefallene und aufgerichtete Mensch 1678) show the connection with the tradition of "school dramas" (plays with music, usually about Biblical subjects, intended for the edification and instruction of pupils in schools. An earlier example is S. T. Staden's "spiritual pastorale" Seelewig, Nuremberg, 1644; see MfM xiii; SchGMB, no. 195). German operas on secular subjects, both serious and comic, soon made their appearance. The chief composer of the Hamburg school was Reinhard Keiser, of whose reputed 120 operas only 18 have been preserved (Croesus, 1711, rev. 1730, in DdT 37/38; Octavia, 1705, in vol. vi of sup. to Hlindelgesellschaft ed. of Handel's works; Der laecherliche Printz Jodelet, 1726, in *Editions XLVII, 18). Keiser not only was the best composer of early German opera but had a direct influence on Handel, whose first four operatic works were produced at Hamburg (1705--06). Keiser's operatic style is essentially like that of Steffani, its outstanding features being the skill

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of his orchestral writing and the variety of instrumental combinations he employed for accompanying solo arias. After Keiser, German opera degenerated and by the middle of the 18th century had entirely disappeared. VIII. Italian 18th-century opera. The prevailing type of 18th-century Italian opera seria was cultivated in all countries (except France) by native and Italian composers alike. Because many of its early composers worked chiefly at Naples, this type of opera has sometimes been called "Neapolitan" [see Neapolitan school], although in fact Naples was but one center among many. Much of the usual criticism of opera seria rises from not understanding the principles of the form or from concentrating on its abuses while ignoring its virtues. Opera seria was based on a rationalist ideal of drama, realized through the reforms of A. Zeno and his more famous successor, P. Metastasio, who purged the chaotic 17th-century opera libretto of irrelevant elements (e.g., comic and fantastic episodes) and created a unified, close-knit threeact dramatic structure, with characters and subjects drawn principally from ancient history or legend (seldom from mythology). Formally, each scene consists of two distinct parts, the first comprising the action and the second devoted to the expression of the reflections, feelings, or resolves of the principal character, which are a consequence of the action just preceding. Thus the libretto presents a constant alternation of active and reflective portions, the former being interpreted musically as recitative (mostly recitatiuo secco) and the latter as aria. Choruses are practically nonexistent. As for the orchestra, its function, except for the overture [see Overture I] and an occasional march or other incidental piece, is decidedly subordinate, though in the hands of an able composer the ritornellos and accompaniments to the arias may be of considerable interest and importance. But the center of attention and the basic structural unit of these operas was the aria, of which there were many different types (aria cantabile, aria par/ante, aria di bravura, etc.), practically all of them in the da capo form. There were fairly rigid conventions as to the number and order of the different types of aria and their distribution among the members of the cast, and the popularity of Metastasio (his 27librettos were set to music more than 1,000 times in the 18th century) is in large part attributable to his ability to meet the peculiar requirements of the form without undue sacrifice of dramatic force

and continuity. Corollary to the concept of the aria as the essential structural unit were two phenomena characteristic of 18th-century opera: (1) the high development of vocal technique [see Bel canto], particularly by the *castrati; (2) the prevalent custom of borrowing arias from one opera for use in another, whether or not by the same composer (*pasticcio). Since there were no printed scores and no copyright restrictions, an opera was seldom performed the same way in any two places or at any two times, and the changes were sometimes so extensive that it is no longer possible to reconstruct the original version. Alessandro Scarlatti, who has sometimes been called the founder of the 18th-century opera seria, is probably better regarded as a composer in the late baroque tradition. The lighter, more vivacious, more purely melodic preclassical style characteristic of the opera seria began to predominate from about 1720, the principal early composers being N. A. Porpora, L. Vinci, L. Leo, and J. A. Hasse. Unquestionably the greatest composer ofltalian opera in this period was G. F. Handel, who from 1711 to 1740 produced at London some works that have never been surpassed in nobility of style or profundity of dramatic insight ( Giulio Cesare in Egitto, 1724; Tamerlano, 1724; Rodelinda, 1725). Later composers of opera seria include G. Latilla, N. Piccinni, G. Sarti, A. Sacchini, A. Salieri, Gluck (early works), J. C. Bach, and Mozart (/do men eo, 1781 ). Growing objections to the rigidity of the form and the abuses resulting from the overbearing vanity of singers [see B. Marcello's satire II Teatro alia moda, 1720]led to efforts at reform, in which N. Jommelli (Fetonte, 1768; in DdT 32/33) and T. Traetta (in DTB 25, 29) were prominent. Credit for the final reform ofltalian 18th-century opera is generally given to Gluck, in spite of the fact that of his "reform" operas only two (Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762; Alceste, 1767, pub. 1769) were composed originally to Italian librettos, and these were later revised and adapted to French texts at Paris. His other late operas (Iphigenie en Au/ide, 1774; Armide, 1777; lphigenie en Tauride, 1779) on French poems were designed for and performed at Paris, and moreover they embodied many of the features that had been characteristic of French opera from the time of Rameau and Lully: comparative subordination of music to drama, avoidance of mere vocal display, flexibility of musical forms, closer approximation of style between

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recitative and aria, and general simplicity both teristic form being the "rescue opera" (Cheruof subject and treatment. (These are the points bini's Les Deux Journees, 1800; Beethoven's stressed in the famous dedicatory preface to Fidelia, 1805, '06, '14). The works mentioned so Alceste.) To these features may be added another far constitute what may be called the interdetail common to Rameau and Gluck but not national opera of the early 19th century. Less common in Italian operas before the late 18th pretentious at first in scope and subject matter century: the use oflarge choral and ballet scenes but of greater eventual importance historically connected with the action. In short, the direct were the various national schools. reform of Gluck lay in his injection of renewed In Italy the leading composers were Rossini dramatic vigor into French opera, though indi- (best known for his comic opera Almaviva, better rectly his success at Paris and the subsequent known as II Barbiere di Siviglia, 1816), Bellini steadily growing influence of the French capital (Norma, 1831), Donizetti (Lucrezia Borgia, 1833; in operatic affairs made later Italian composers Lucia di Lammermoor, 1835), and Verdi (Rigamore ready to adopt practices calculated to win . /etta, 1851; II Trovatore, La Traviata, 1853; La Parisian approval, thus leading to a closer Forza del Destino, 1862; Aida, 1871; Otello, rapprochement of the two national styles. Other 1887; Falstaff, 1893). The crowning point of influences working toward a reform of opera typical Italian opera, characterized by meloseria in the late 18th century were the cult of dramatic plots, popular-type melodies, and connaturalness set forth in the writings of Rousseau centration on "effective" vocal numbers [see and the increasing importance of popular comic Number opera], is reached in Verdi's works of operas, which by the end of the century had in the 1850's. Aida, a work in the "grand opera" all countries attained artistic equality with seri- tradition, shows unmistakable signs of the changes in style that were fully realized in Otello ous opera. See Comic opera: Number opera. IX. From Mozart to Wagner. The climax of and Falstaff: better libretto, continuity of preslater 18th-century Italian opera is reached in entation, a more flexible rhythm, more varied the works of Mozart (Le Nozze di Figaro, 1786; harmony, and closer approach to equality Don Giovanni, 1787; Cosifan tutte, 1790), and it between vocal and instrumental elementsthough still retaining the classical Italian qualiis significant that his three Italian masterpieces ties of clarity, dramatic simplicity, and profound were of the comic or semicomic variety (his comprehension of the expressive possibilities of opera seria, La Clemenza di Tito, 1791, is ofless the solo voice. importance). Mozart's operas are outstanding In France, besides "grand opera" the early in sharpness and subtlety of characterization, integration of vocal and instrumental factors, 19th century was taken up with the opera comiand the adaptation of the classical symphonic que, a form and style inherited from the preceding period that gradually developed into the style in their ensemble finales. His Die EntjUhlyric opera of Gounod (Faust, 1859) and rung aus dem Serail (1782) is one of the finest examples of the *Singspiel, and Die Zauberjlote A. Thomas (Mignon, 1866), both showing Italian (1791) is an important forerunner of 19th- influence. Later 19th-century French opera is represented by Bizet (Carmen, 1875), Delibes century German romantic opera. The influence of Gluck was evident in a school (Lakme, 1883), Chabrier (Gwendoline, 1886, of large-scale "heroic" opera centering at Paris, obviously indebted to Wagner's Tristan und represented by such works as A. Sacchini's Isolde, 1865), Massenet (Manon, 1884), D'Indy Dardanus (1784) and Oedipe a Co/one (1786), (Fervaa/, 1897), and other composers (see below). A. Salieri's Les Danaides (1784), Cherubini's In Russia a national school of opera was deMedee (1797), G. Spontini's La Vestale (1807), and E.-N. Mehul's Joseph (1807). The continu- finitively launched with the performance of ation of this school was the 19th-century "grand Glinka's A Life for the Czar in 1836. Its chief opera," of which the most famous examples are representative was Mussorgsky, who in Boris G. Rossini's Guillaume Tell (1829), J. Halevy's Godunov (1874) created a work that combined La Juive (1835), G. Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots nationalist subject matter and musical material (1836) and Le Prophete (1849), R. Wagner's with originality and great dramatic power. Other Rienzi (1842), and H. Berlioz' Les Troyens a composers of Russian opera who should be Carthage (2nd pt. 1863; whole work, 1890). In mentioned are Borodin (Prince Igor, 1890) and contrast to this style was opera with more real- Rimsky-Korsakov (The Snow Maiden, 1882; istic, often melodramatic subjects, a charac- Sadko, 1898). Tchaikovsky's works in operatic 597

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form (Yevgeny Onyegin, or Eugen Onegin, 1879; The Queen of Spades, 1890) are in the romantic style but are not nationalist. The background of romantic opera in Germany is found in the *Singspiel of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. An important early composer is L. Spohr (Faust, 1816; Jessonda, 1823), Weber's Der Freischiitz (1821) and Euryanthe (1823) established .the fundamental characteristics of the school: (1) romantic treatment of subjects derived from national legend and folklore; (2) a deep feeling for nature and the use of natural phenomena as an essential element in the drama; (3) the acceptance of supernatural agencies as a means of dramatic development; and (4) nationalism. Musically, Der Freischiitz marks an important stage in the discovery of romantic expressive effects (introduction to the Overture, the Wolf's Glen scene), as well as in the use of folksong-like melodies side by side with more conventional operatic arias. The operas of Marschner (Der Vampyr, 1828; Hans Heiling, 1833) continue the general type established by Weber, and the latter's influence is strongly evident in Wagner's Der jliegende Hollander (1843) and even Lohengrin (1850). X. The music drama. Wagner's next two operas after Der jliegende Hollander are steps in the evolution toward the music drama. Tannhauser (1845) still retains the old-fashioned division into "numbers" and has some unessential display scenes, but in Lohengrin (composed 1846-48) these irrelevancies are dismissed. Music and drama are more closely unified, greater continuity is achieved, and the symbolic meaning of the drama is made clearly evident. The vocal line begins to be emancipated from the older periodic rhythm, approaching the free melodic style of the late works. Wagner employed the early years of his exile (1849-64) in completing the libretto and part of the music of Der Ring des Nibelungen and in writing various essays, of which the most important is Oper und Drama (1851). In this work he developed the theoretical basis for the music drama, whose practical application appears in the four dramas of the Ring (first complete perf. at Bayreuth, 1876), Tristan und Isolde (composed 1857-59, perf. 1865), Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg (comp. 1862-67, perf. 1868), and Parsifal (comp. 1877-82; perf. 1882). These works all are based on a concept of the music drama as a universal art form (Gesamtkunstwerk) in which all the constituent arts are transfigured, sacrificing their individual identity

and some of their special characteristics for the larger possibilities of development opened up by the new association. The myth is held to be the ideal subject, not merely because it is entertaining but also because it is significant; its meaning is expressed in poetry (speech), but it is inevitably impelled to song, since only music is capable of conveying the intensity of feeling to which the ideas of the poem give rise. This song is flexible (nonperiodic rhythm) and free (no formal divisions into recitative, aria, etc.); it implies a polyphonic substructure that is realized by the orchestra and that embodies the "inner action" of the drama (i.e., the feelings) as the words embody its "outer action" (i.e., the precise ideas with which the feelings are associated). The orchestral music is continuous throughout an act, the technical concomitant of this being the avoidance of double bars and perfect cadences and the continual shifting ofthe tonal center; it is unified by the use of *leitmotivs, short musical themes, each connected with a particular person, thing, or idea (or all three, as in the case of Siegfried's hom call), and recurring, varying, or developing musically in accord with the recurrence, variation, or development of the corresponding object in the drama. Wagner's music is the incarnation of the full, rich sound ideal of the late romantic period, deriving a peculiar intensity of expression from skillful orchestration, freedom and variety of the harmonic progressions, and effective use of suspensions and appoggiaturas. The continuing popularity of his works is undoubtedly due more to their musical qualities and their sheer dramatic effectiveness than to any general acceptance of the theory of the Gesamtkunstwerk, with its manifold implications. XI. The 20th century. Wagner's musical style and his ideal of continuous melody influenced the composers of opera in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly Richard Strauss (Salome, 1905; Der Rosenkavalier, 1911). At the same time, the music drama provoked a reaction in favor of so-called "realism" in subject matter and compression and simplicity of musical treatment. This reaction took such forms as the "realism" of the French Bizet (Carmen, 1875), the *verismo of the Italians Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and Puccini (La Boheme, 1896; Tosca, 1900), and the "naturalism" of the French Bruneau (Messidor, 1897) and Charpentier (Louise, 1900). Another reaction to 19th-century styles was impressionism. Debussy's Pelleas et Me/isande (1902) is a unique application of the

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*impressionist technique to opera and comes closer than any other modern work to realizing the Florentine ideal of music as an almost imperceptible support and setting for the poetry. Dukas' Ariane et Barbe-Bleue (1907) and Bartok's Duke Bluebeard's Castle (comp. 1911, perf. 1918), both based on a Maeterlinck drama, were strongly influenced by Debussy. Maurice Ravel's L'Heure espagnole (1911) and Faure's Penelope (1913) are lesser-known operas in the French impressionist style. In Italian opera immediately before World War I, both French and German influences began to replace the verismo style (1. Montemezzi, L'Amore dei tre re, 1913). In the period following World War I, the established opera houses still leaned heavily on the standard repertory from Mozart to Puccini. Despite such experiments as Alban Berg's atonal Wozzeck (1925) and Schoenberg's uncompleted masterpiece Moses und A ron (acts I and II completed 1932, radio perf. 1954), many composers retained traditional subjects, forms, and musical styles (R. Strauss, Die Frau ohne Schatten, 1919). Among the most significant operas ofthe 1920's are Janacek's Kata Kabanova (1921) and The Cunning Vixen (1924), and Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges (1921). Jazz influenced Krenek's Jonny spielt auf (1927). The only serial opera that has found public acceptance is Berg's Lulu (1937). Schoenberg's Moses und Aron (less successful because of enormous staging difficulties) exemplifies an important tendency in this period to combine the characteristics of opera and oratorio in works of serious ethical purpose with huge musical and stage resources. Other examples of this tendency are Arthur Honegger's Jeanne d'Arc au bUcher (1938), Paul Hindemith's Mathis der Maler (1938), and Darius Milhaud's Christophe Colomb (1930). Other operas of the 1930's are Virgil Thomson's Four Saints in Three Acts (1934), an opera in a simple musical style set to a text by Gertrude Stein, and Shostakovitch's *Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk (1934). Since World War II there have been a large number of new, successful operas. Numerous works in traditional styles achieved some public success: G. C. Menotti's The Medium (1946), The Consul (1950), Amah/ and the Night Visitors (1951) and Le dernier Sauvage (1963); S. Barber's Vanessa (1958); W. Walton's Troilus and Cressida (1954); and A Copland's The Tender Land (1954). In a somewhat more venturesome vein were Britten's Peter Grimes (1945), The Turn of

the Screw (1954), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1960), and Curlew River (1964). Operas on a very large scale are Prokofiev's War and Peace (1955), Hindemith's Die Harmonie der Welt (1957), Milhaud's David (1954), and Ginastera's Don Rodrigo (1964). Interesting formal experiments, on a more modest scale and with elements adapted from folklore, are the early musico-dramatic works of Carl Orff, including Die Kluge (1943). His Antigonae (1949) and Oedipus der Tyrann (1959) combine stylized speech and chant with melismatic phrases against a percussive orchestral background. Along with the tendency toward the fusion of opera and oratorio came an opposite trend toward opera as straightforward dramatic entertainment, serious or comic, in a neoclassical revival of the 18th-century principle of the *number opera; the outstanding example is Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress (1951). Another important work of this type is Poulenc's Les Dialogues des Carmelites (1957). Serial techniques were used by Luigi Nono for Intoleranza 1960 (1961). In the United States The Ballad of Baby Doe (1956) by Douglas Moore and Susannah (1955) by Carlisle Floyd are examples of folk operas that have been fairly successful. Other American operas are Montezuma (first perf. in Berlin, 1964) by Roger Sessions, The Crucible (1961) by Robert Ward, The Mother of Us All (1947) by Virgil Thomson, and The Wings of the Dove ( 1961) by Douglas Moore. A hopeful sign for the future of opera in the United States is the growing number of new works produced under the patronage of civic and community groups, colleges, and music schools. See also Comic opera; Operetta; Ballad opera; Ballet in opera; Singspiel; Libretto; Opera seria; Verismo; Number opera; Aria IV, V; Madrigal comedy; Masque; Liturgical drama; Recitative; Bel canto; Pasticcio; Leitmotiv. Lit. (selected). A Lexicons: J. Towers, Dictionary-Catalogue of Operas and Operettas [1910]; H. Riemann, Opern-Handbuch (1887); F. Clement, Dictionnaire des operas (Dictionnaire lyrique), rev. A Pougin [1905]; C. Dassori, Opere e operisti (1903); Library of Congress, Catalogue of Opera Librettos Printed Before 1800, 2 vols. (1914); W. Altmann, Katalog der seit 1861 ... theatralischen Musik, 5 vols. (1935-39); A Loewenberg, Annals of Opera, 1597-1940, rev. ed. 2 vols., [1955]; U. Manferrari, Dizionario universale delle opere melodrammatiche, 3 vols.

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OPERA (1954-55); H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack, Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera (1964). B. Plots of operas: G. Kobbe, Kobbe's Complete Opera Book, ed. The Earl of Harewood, rev. ed. [1954]; H. E. Krehbiel, A Book of Operas (1919); 0. Downes, The Home Book of the Opera (1937); E. Newman, Seventeen Famous Operas (1955); id., Great Operas, the Definitive Treatment of Their History, Stories, and Music (1958). C. General history: E. Dent, Opera, rev. ed. [1951]; D. J. Grout, A Short History of Opera, rev. ed. 2 vols., (1965); H. Kretzschmar, Geschichte der Oper (1919; most useful for pre1800); 0. Bie, Die Oper (1923); H. Graf, The Opera and Its Future in America [1941]. D. Special history: A. Solerti, Gli Albori del melodramma, 3 vols. [1904-05]; H. Goldschmidt, Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen Oper im 17. Jahrhundert, 2 vols. (1901, '04); R. Rolland, Les Origines du theatre lyrique moderne: Histoire de /'opera en Europe avant Lully et Scarlatti, rev. ed. (1931); S. T. Worsthorne, Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (1954); H. C. Wolff, Die venezianische Oper in der zweiten Hiilfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (1937); H. Prunieres, L'Opera italien en France avant Lulli (1913); id., Cavalli et /'opera venitien au XVII• siecle [1931]; E. Wellesz, Essays on Opera [n.d.; 1950?]; A. A. Abert, Claudio Monteverdi und das musikalische Drama (1954); H. C. Wolff, Die Barockoper in Hamburg, 1678-1738, 2 vols. (1957); P. M. Masson L'Opera de Rameau (1930); E. Dent, Alessandro Scarlatti, rev. ed. [1960]; id., Foundations of English Opera (1928); id., Mozart's Operas, rev. ed. (1947); A. Einstein, Mozart, His Character, His Work (1945); H. Schletterer, Das deutsche Singspiel [1863?]; H. Leichtentritt, Reinhard Keiser in seinen Opern (1901); G. F. Schmidt, Diefriihdeutsche Operund die musikdramatische Kunst Georg Caspar Schiirmann's, 2 vols. (1933, '34); H. Abert, Niccolo Jommelli als Opernkomponist (1908); F. Florimo, La Scuola musicale di Napoli, 4 vols. (1880-82); A. B. Marx, Gluck und die Oper, 2 vols. (1863); E. Newman, Gluck and the Opera (1895); M. Cooper, Gluck (1935); L. Schiedermair, Die deutsche Oper, rev. ed. [1940]; W. L. Crosten, French Grand Opera: An Art and A Business (1948); H. Weinstock, Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris and Vienna in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century [1963]; F. Toye, Giuseppe Verdi [1931]; F. Walker, The Man Verdi (1962); E. Newman, The Wagner Operas (1949); A. Lorenz, Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner, 4 vols. [1924-33];

R. Wagner, Wagner on Music and Drama: A Compendium of Richard Wagner's Prose Works, ed. A. Goldman and E. Sprinchorn (1964); R. Newmarch, The Russian Opera [n.d.; 1914?]; M. Cooper, French Music: From the Death of Berlioz to the Death of Faure (1951). E. Periodicals (grouped according to the divisions of the article). II (Prehistory): A. Solerti, in RMI x; W. Smoldon, in MQ xlviii; R. Weaver, in MQ xlvii; E. Bowles, in MQ xlv; C. Palisca, in MQ xi. III (early Italian opera): 0. G. Sonneck, in SIM xv (Dafne); L. Torchi, in RMI i, ii (instrumental accompaniment); S. Reiner, in MR xxii (Chi soffre speri). IV (later 17th-cent. Italian opera): A. Sandberger, inJMP xxxi, xxxii (Venetian opera); H. Kretzschmar, in VMW viii (Venetian opera, Cavalli, Cesti); id., in J MP xiv, xvii, xviii (Venetian opera); A. Solerti, in RMI ix (1571-1605 in Venice); H. Hess, inPublikationen der internationalen Musikgesellschaft, Beihefte (1906), ii.3 (Stradella); N. Pirrotta, in MQ x!i (commedia dell'arte, opera); H. Goldschmidt, in SIM vii (F. Provenzale); E. Wellesz, in StM vi (operas, oratorios, in Vienna 1660-1708); M. Neuhaus, in StM i (A. Draghi). V. (French opera): D. J. Grout, in ML xxii (forerunners of Lully); RM, Numero special (January 1925; Lully); H. Prunieres, in SIM xii (French overture). VI (English opera): J. Mark, in ML v (Dryden); 0. Gombosi, in JAMS i (masques); W. Barclay Squire, in SIM v (Purcell); A. Nicoll, in Anglia. Zeitschrift for englische Philologie xlvi (1922; Italian opera in England, first five years); I. Lowens, in MQ xlv (London opera, 1728); R. Babcock, in ML xxiv, and also 0. E. Deutsch letter, in ML xxv, 126 (Coleman's "Register of Operas"). VII (German opera): L. Schiedermair, in JMP xvii (early German opera); G. F. Schmidt, in ZMW v, vi (1627-1750); A. Sandberger, inAMWi (Nuremberg, c. 1650-c. 1700); P. A. Merbach, inAMWvi (Hamburg, 1718-50); W. Kleefeld, in SIM i (Hamburg, 1678-1738). VIII (Opera seria): E. J. Dent, in ML xxv (nomenclature); W. Vetter, in AMW vi and ZMW vii (Gluck); K. Worner, in ZMW xiii (Gluck); H. Welti, in VMW vii (Gluck); W. Vetter, in ZMW xiv (Vienna, 1750); M. Callegari, in RMI xxvi, xxvii (Metastasio); R. Giazotto, in RMI xlviii-li (Zeno and Metastasio ); N. Burt, in M Q xli (Arcadian opera, Zeno and Metastasio); W. Vetter, in Deutsches Jahrbuch der Musikwissenschaft for 1959 iv (1960; Metastasio); 0. Sonneck, in SIM xii (pasticcio); F. Walker, in MQ xxxviii (pasticcio); E. Dent, in SIM viii (L. Leo), MA iv (L. Vinci);

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H. Abert, in ZMW i (J. C. Bach); E. Kurth, in StM i (Gluck). IX (Mozart to Wagner): H. Kretzschmar, in JMP xii (Mozart); H. Strobel, in ZMW vi (Mehul); H. Leichtentritt, in MQ xiv (Schubert); W. Altmann, in SIM iv (Spontini); G. Schiinemann, in ZMW v (Mendelssohn); S. Goddard, in ML x (Boris Godunov); H. Engel, in Mozart-Jahrbuch 1954 (Mozart); B. Szabolcsi, in Studia musicologica i (1961; Mozart); F. Walker, in ML xxxiii-xxxiv (Mercadante, Verdi); G. Roncaglia, in RMI x!vii (Verdi). X (music drama), XI (20th century): Since it is impossible to make a short representative selection of periodical articles for these divisions, the reader is referred to D. J. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 2 vols., rev. ed. (1965), pp. 686ff, and footnotes to ch. 23, 26, 27. D.J.G. Opera bouffe [F.). See Comic opera. Opera buffa [It.). See Comic opera. Opera comique [F.). See Comic opera. Opera houses. The first public opera house was the Teatro San Cassiano in Venice·, opened in 1637; previously, opera performances had been given in private homes and for invited guests only. There followed the establishment of opera houses in London (1656), Paris (1669), Rome (1671), and Hamburg (1678). After 1700, opera houses became common in all the musical centers of Europe. The most important opera houses of today are listed below. I. United States. New York: Metropolitan Opera (Lincoln Center). Chicago: Civic Opera House (Lyric Opera). San Francisco: War Memorial Opera House (San Francisco Opera). II. South America. Buenos Aires: Teatro Colon. Rio de Janeiro: Teatro Municipal. III. Austria. Vienna: Staatsoper; Volksoper. IV. England. London: Royal Opera House (Covent Garden). V. Germany. Berlin: Deutsche Staatsoper (E. Berlin); Stiidtische Oper (W. Berlin). Dresden: Staatstheater. Hamburg: Staatsoper. Munich: Prinzregententheater; Bayerische Staatsoper. Bayreuth: Bilhnenfestspielhaus (Wagner operas). There are about 30 more opera houses in smaller German cities; see Opera Annual, ed. H. Rosenthal [1960). VI. France. Paris: Theatre national de !'Opera; Theatre national de l'Opera-Comique. VII. Italy. Rome: Teatro dell'Opera; Milan: Teatro alia Scala. Venice: Teatro Ia Fenice. Turin: Teatro nuovo. Naples: Teatro San Carlo. For more detailed information see Pierre

Key's Music Year Book (1927-28). See also S. Hughes, Great Opera Houses [1956]; E. Krause, Die grossen Opernbilhnen Europas (1966). Opera seria, semiseria [It.]. Opera seria refers to

18th-century Italian operas based on a "serious" plot and divided into three acts, as opposed to the opera buffa, the comic opera consisting of two acts. Mozart's Idomeneo is an example of opera seria. Opera semiseria is a serious opera including comic elements, e.g., Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro. Also see Opera VIII. Operetta. In the 18th century, a short opera; in

the 19th and 20th centuries, a theatrical piece of light and sentimental character in simple and popular style, containing spoken dialogue, music, dancing, etc. The modem operetta originated in Vienna with Franz von Suppe (1819-95; c. 30 operettas from 1860 to his death) and in Paris with Jacques Offenbach (1819-80; c. 90 operettas from 1855 to his death). The latter's Orphee aux enfers (1858), and La Belle Helene (1864) are famous for their satirical treatment of Greek mythology. Johann Strauss the Younger (1825-99) raised the Viennese operetta to international fame with about 16 operettas written between 1871 and 1897, among which Die Fledermaus (1874) has remained in the repertory to the present day. The Viennese tradition was continued by Franz Lebar ( 1870-1948) with Die lustige Witwe (1905). In England Sir Arthur Sullivan wrote operettas (mostly to librettos by W. S. Gilbert) that represent the first high point in English dramatic music since Purcell. · In the United States operettas were written mainly by Victor Herbert(1859-1924), composer of Mlle. Modiste (1905), Naughty Marietta (1910), and many other operettas, and by H. L. Reginald de Koven (1859-1920), remembered chiefly for his Robin Hood (1890). Other works that might be mentioned are The Doctor of Alcantara (pub. libretto 1862) by J. Eichberg, The Firefly (1912) by Rudolf Friml, The Student Prince (1924) by Sigmund Romberg, and G. W. Chadwick's Tabasco (1894). During the late 1920's the sentimental operetta began to change (e.g., Jerome Kern's Showboat, 1927) into what is now called a "musical comedy," "musical play," or simply "musical." Political and social satire appeared in Of Thee I Sing by George Gershwin (1931; first musical to win a Pulitzer Prize), K. Weill's Die Dreigroschenoper (text by B. Brecht, 1928; as The Threepenny Opera, 1933), and Richard Rodgers'

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Pal Joey (text by L. Hart, 1940). Although Irving Berlin's musicals continued the more traditional vein (Annie Get Your Gun, 1946), a more unified format developed in the 1940's, exemplified by Richard Rodgers' Oklahoma! (1943; Pulitzer Prize 1944) and South Pacific (1949), and Cole Porter's Kiss Me Kate (1948). Leonard Bernstein's Candide (1956) is noteworthy for its musical content, and his West Side Story (1957) for the emphasis on choreography, while My Fair Lady (1956) by Frederick Loewe (lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner) will probably remain a model of the genre, Also se Comic opera. Lit.: M. S. Mackinlay, Origin & Development of Light Opera [1927]; F. A. Beach, Preparation and Presentation of the Operetta [1930; for public schools]; K. R. Umfleet, School Operettas and Their Production [1929]; 0. Keller, Die Operette in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (1926); G. Hughes, Composers of Operetta (1962); S. Green, The World of Musical Comedy [ 1960]; F. Hadamowsky and H. Otte, Die Wiener Operette [1947]. Ophicleide. See under Brass instruments V (c). Opus [L.; F. oeuvre]. Term, abbr. op., used to

indicate the chronological position of a composition within a composer's entire output (e.g., op. I, op. 2). Opus numbers are not always reliable because they are usually applied in the order of publication rather than composition. Perhaps the first composer to use opus numbers was Adriano Banchieri (1567-1634), whose L'Organo suonarino of 1605 was designated op. 13. Another early composer using opus numbers was Biagio Marini (Affetti musicali, op. I, 1617). Bach never numbered his compositions, and with both Haydn and Mozart the opus numbers are applied so inconsistently and haphazardly (frequently by the publisher rather than the composer) that they are practically useless. Beethoven was the first to use opus numbers with some consistency, at least for his more important works. Oratio [L.]. The prayer of the Roman Catholic Mass, also called *Collect. Oratoric(al) neumes. Same as stafiless neumes;

see Neumes II. Oratoric rhythm. Term used for Dom Pothier's rhythmic interpretation of Gregorian chant, according to which the accentual structure of the Latin text is a basic factor in the rendition of the melodies. Another name for this type of inter-

preta tion is "accentualist" [see Gregorian chant VI]. Oratorio. I. Definition. A composition with a long libretto of religious or contemplative character that is performed in a concert hall or church without scenery, costumes, or action, by solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. This definition applies to most but not all oratorios. For example, the earliest oratorios were usually performed with scenery and costumes, the chief distinguishing characteristic from opera being a more contemplative, less dramatic libretto. Other features distinguishing the oratorio from opera are greater emphasis on the chorus, absence of quick dialogue (question and answer in rapid succession), and, frequently, use of a narrator [It. testo] who introduces the characters and connects their parts. Compositions of a similar nature but based on a scriptural or liturgical text (Mass, Requiem, Passion) are usually not considered oratorios. There are, however, Passion oratorios, in which the story of the Passion is freely told. The oratorio is distinguished from the sacred cantata (Bach) by greater length and a more narrative libretto. II. History to 1650. Forerunners of the oratorio include such early types of dramatic music as the *liturgical dramas of the later Middle Ages and the mystery plays of the 14th and 15th centuries. More properly, the history of the oratorio begins in the mid-16th century when Filippo Neri inaugurated, in Rome, a special order called oratoriani and established a building called oratorio in which regular services of a popular character were held. These included reading from the Scriptures, a sermon, and the singing of *laude. A special type of laude were the "dialogue-laude," religious poems in the form of a dialogue between God and the Soul, Heaven and Hell, etc. Being written in three or four parts, they were performed by different groups of singers who may have dressed up as the characters they represented. It is from these presentations (called rappresentazione, storia, esempio, misterio) that the oratorio proper developed, supported, no doubt, by the popularizing tendencies of the Counter-Reformation. Palestrina as well as other famous 16th-century composers is supposed to have written music for such occasions, but nothing has been preserved prior to Emilio del Cavalieri's (c. 1550-1602) *Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo (1600; *Editions IX, 10; also SchGMB, 169, 170; HAM, no. 183), a work that in terms of both date and style is

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close to the earliest operas (Peri, Caccini). In fact. some modern writers (Alaleone, see Lit.) have denied it a place in the history of the oratorio and, mainly on account of its elaborate stage production (including the simultaneous [sic] representation of Heaven, Earth, and Hell, splendid costumes and ballets; see GD iii, 70; GDB vi, 247ft), have called it a "spiritual opera," a later example of which is S. Landi's II Sant' Alessio (1632). At any rate, this work appears to have been an isolated attempt that failed to establish a tradition. More successful was the Teatro Armonico Spirituale (1619) of Giovanni Francesco Anerio (c. 1567-1630), in which a refined madrigal style is used for the choral portions, alternating with monody for the solo parts, which included a narrator. Another important work, greatly celebrated in its day, was Domenico Mazzocchi's (1592-1665) Querimonia diS. Maria Maddalena (c. 1640?). It is an example of the oratorio volgare, i.e., written in the vernacular. III. 1650-1800. About the middle of the 17th century the oratorio entered a new phase with G. Carissimi (1605-74), who in such works as Jephtha, Judicium Salomonis, Jonas, and Extremum Judicium [*Editions IX, 5] created the first oratorios fully deserving of the name [ex. in HAM, no. 207]. Most of his oratorios have a Latin text (oratorio Iatino) and were directed at a more educated audience. Carissimi's successors included A. Draghi (1635-1700; c. 40 oratorios); A. Stradella (1642-82), with his oratorios S. Giovanno Battista and Susanna [see SchGMB, no. 230]; and A. Scarlatti (1660-1725), who wrote a large number of oratorios (eighteen are preserved with the music) that approximate rather closely the style of his operas but are, on the whole, much less successful. The oratorios of A. Lotti (c. 1667-1740) and A. Caldara(l670l736), both representatives of the RomanVenetian tradition, are more reserved in style, combining dignity with slightly sentimental pathos, while L. Leo (1694-1744), J. A. Hasse (1699-1783; La Conversione di Sant Agostino, DdT20; HAM, no. 281), and N. Jommelli (171474; La Passione; see Editions IX, 15) continued the Neapolitan emphasis on virtuosity and vocal display, thus removing the oratorio even further from its ideal. The first German oratorio composer was Heinrich Schutz, with his Historia der Auferstehung (1623) and his Christmas Oratorio (Historia von der . .. Geburt Christi, 1664), a work of no less artistic significance than Bach's Christ-

mas Oratorio written a century later. Oratorios by Selle (1642), Theile (1672), and Sebastiani (1672) belong to the special category of the Passion [see Passion music], and later composers such as Weckmann, Buxtehude, and Rosenmuller preferred the smaller form of the cantata. J. S. Bach was the first to resume the tradition of Schutz in his great Christmas Oratorio (1733-34) and in the less important Easter Oratorio (1736?). There followed J. E. Eberlin with Der blutschwitzende Jesus (DTO 55), G. P. Telemann (1681-1767) with his highly dramatic Der Tag des Gerichts of 1761 (DdT 28; HAM, no. 272), and Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (1732-95) with Die Kindheit Jesu and Die Auferweckung des Lazarus (DdT 56). This development came to a fitting close with the truly remarkable oratorios of K. P. E. Bach (Die Israeliten in der Wiiste, 1775; Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu, 1787), which, in their mixtures of styles, reflect the influence of his father but also foreshadow Haydn [see the study by W. H. Hadow, in OHv]. The English oratorio is represented by Handel who, after a few early works (La Resurrezione, 1708), turned mainly to oratorio writing after becoming dissatisfied with opera, and whose Israel in Egypt (1737), Messiah (1742), Judas Maccabeus (1746), and Jephtha (1751) are lasting monuments to his greatness. In contrast to Bach's devotional attitude, Handel approached the oratorio more subjectively, using it to express his own dynamic personality and incorporating the elements of his dramatic opera style. It is interesting that his oratorios were intended to be performed during Lent, when theatrical performances were forbidden by law. The practice of composing Lenten oratorios was continued by J. C. Smith (1712-95), J. Stanley (171386), and others. T. Arne (1710-78), in his Abel (1744) and Judith (1764), succeeded in not succumbing totally to Handelian influence, but after Arne's death the English oratorio entered "on a century of artistic darkness, over which brooded from first to last the elephantine shadow of Handel, to which was added in the final thirty years the almost equally universal though less ostentatiously ponderous shadow of Mendelssohn. The composers of these tons of oratorios were 'all honourable men': ... but ... their music is nothing worse than intolerably dull" (GD iii, 72lf, GDB vi, 260f). An important though little-known development took place in France with Carissirni's pupil M.-A. Charpentier (1634-1704) whose works, so-called histoires sacrees (Judicium Salomonis,

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all with Latin texts, combine masterly technique with depth of feeling and dramatic expression [see HAM, no. 226]. Unfortunately he had no successors in his country. IV. 1800-Present. Haydn (1732-1809), after his 11 Ritorno di Tobia (1775; said to be "the finest example of 18th-century Italian oratorio that exists" [GD iii, 718; GDB vi, 257]) and his highly expressive "Seven Last Words on the Cross (1797), wrote two works that inaugurated a new era in oratorio writing, Die Schopfung (The Creation, 1797) and Die Jahreszeiten (The Seasons, 1801). The latter, though justly called an oratorio, is more secular than religious. Compared to these works, which stand at the summit of a long life of creative activity, Beethoven's early Christus am Olberge (op. 85, comp. 1800, pub. 1811) is insignificant. In the first half of the 19th century Germany underwent a period of oratorio worship similar to that of England, and the works of L. Spohr (1784-1859; Das jungste Gericht), F. Schneider (1786-1853), and Karl Loewe (1796-1869; Hiob, 1848) enjoyed a popularity that is hardly justified by their artistic merits but continued until Mendelssohn (180947) appeared with his St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846). These two oratorios, with their romantically colored Bach-Handel style, have retained a lasting place of honor, particularly in England. Schumann wrote two secular oratorios, Das Paradies und die Peri (1843) and Der Rose Pilgerfahrt (1851). In the second half of the 19th century quite a number of composers produced oratorios (Wagner, Das Liebesmahl der Apostel, 1844; Liszt, Die Legende von der heiligen Elisabeth, 1862, and Christus, 1866; Dvorak, St. Ludmila, 1886; Berlioz, L'Enfance du Christ, 1854; Franck, Les Beatitudes, 1879, Rebecca, 1881, etc.; D'Indy, La Ugende de Saint-Christophe, properly a stage work), but on the whole with conspicuous lack of success. The only great contribution of this period was Brahms' Ein Deutsches Requiem (op. 45, 1857-68), a work that, although not an oratorio in the strict sense of the word (it is based on scriptural passages rather than a free text), cannot be omitted in a description of this form. England saw, after more than a century of mediocrity, a notable revival in oratorios such as H. Parry's Judith (1888), Job (1892), and King Saul (1894); Elgar's The Dream of Gerontius (1900), The Apostles (1903), and The Kingdom (1906); W. Davies' Everyman (1904); and W. Walton's Belshazzar's Feast (1931)-nearly

all compositions written for and performed at one of the British Festivals. Of American oratorios, H. Parker's The Legend of St. Christopher and Hora novissima as well as Paine's St. Peter must be mentioned. In the 20th century, A. Honegger opened new possibilities for the oratorio in his Le Roi David (1923) by abandoning the emotionalism of the romantic oratorio and incorporating archaic idioms that give the work an impressive touch of "biblical greatness." Other composers have cultivated the secular oratorio, e.g., Stravinsky in Oedipus Rex (1927, with stage action), Hindemith in Das Unaujhor/iche (1931), and Hermann Reutter in Der grosse Kalender (1933). Recent examples of the religious oratorio are Malipiero's La Passione (1935), Driessler's Dein Reich komme (1948/9; first perf. 1950), Dallapiccola's Job (1950), Stravinsky's Threni (1958), and Orff's Comcedia de Christi resurrectione (1956). Lit.: A. Schering, Geschichte des Oratoriums (1911); K. H. Bitter, Beitriige zur Geschichte des Oratoriums (1872); G. Pasquetti, L'Oratorio musicale in Italia (1906); LavE i.3, 1546ff(French oratorio); D. Alaleona, Storia dell'oratorio musicale in Italia (1945); G. Pannain, L'oratorio dei Filippini (1934); E. Vogl, "Die Oratorientechnik Carissimis" (diss. Prague, 1928); H. W. Hitchcock, "The Latin Oratorios of MarcAntoine Charpentier" (diss. Univ. of Michigan, 1954); A. Schering, in JMP 1903, SIM viii; K. Meyer, "Das Offizium und seine Beziehung zum Oratorium" (AMW iii); E. J. Dent, "La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo" (CP 1939); M. Brenet, "Les Oratoires de Carissimi" (RMI iv); H. Vogel, "Das Oratorium in Wien, 1725--40" (StM xiv).

Orchesographie. Title ofT. Arbeau's important treatise (1589) on the dance. See under Dance music II. Orchestra. I. General. In its common meaning, a large ensemble of instruments, as distinct from small ensembles (one player to the part) used for chamber music or from ensembles consisting of special instruments, called "band. The modern symphony orchestra consists of about 100 instruments divided into four main sections: strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion: Strings: violin I (18); violin II (16); viola (12); cello (10); double bass (8); harp (2). Woodwinds: flute (3); piccolo (I); oboe (3); English horn (I); clarinet (3); bass clarinet (I); bassoon (3); double bassoon (1). Brass: horn (6); trumpet (4); trombone (4); tuba (1). Percussion: kettledrums (4);

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glockenspiel, tenor drum, bass drum, chimes, xylophones, celesta, cymbals, etc., according to requirements. To these may be added organ, piano, saxophones, mandolins, and other special instruments. The orchestra just described is that generally called for in compositions of the late 19th century (Wagner, Brahms, Bruckner, Tchaikovsky, R. Strauss). In the early decades of the 20th century composers often wrote for considerably larger groups. For instance, Mahler in his Eighth Symphony ("Symphony of a Thousand," 1910) calls for the following: 2 piccolos, 4 flutes, 4 oboes, English horn, 2 E-flat clarinets, 3 B-flat clarinets, bass clarinet, 4 bassoons, contrabassoon; 8 horns, 4 trumpets, 4 trombones, tuba; timpani, bass drum, 3 pairs of cymbals, tam-tam, triangle, chimes, glockenspiel, celesta; piano, harmonium, organ, 2 harps, mandolin; 4 trumpets and 3 trombones as a supplementary fanfare group; first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, double basses; first and second soprano, first and second alto, tenor, baritone, and bass soloists, two mixed choruses, and boys' choir. The musical revolution that got underway after World War I naturally brought with it fundamental changes in orchestral technique and resources. The giant orchestra of the Mahler period was replaced by small groups, frequently approaching the size of a chamber orchestra but in highly individual combinations that differ greatly from one work to another. The change may be illustrated by comparing two works of Stravinsky's: the one, his Le Sacre du printemps (1911-13), utilizes an instrumental group even larger than the list above (though without vocalists), while his Histoire du soldat (1918) is scored for violin, double bass, clarinet, bassoon, cornet, trombone, and 8 percussion instruments handled by one player. II. History. The music of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance that can be identified as "instrumental" [see Instrumental music; Instruments, History] was chamber rather than orchestral music. Larger ensembles did exist, but they were used mainly for ceremonial and festive occasions, such as welcoming royalty, weddings, and banquets. During the 16th century orchestral groups of fairly large sizes were used in the *intermezzi. The presentation, in 1565, of a comedy, La Cofanaria, with music by Corteccia and Striggio, involved, among others, 4 harpsichords, 4 viols, 2 trombones, 2 tenor recorders (tenori di jiauti), 2 *cornetts (cornetti), 4 flutes (traverse), 2lutes, I bass viol (sotto basso

di viola), 5 *storte, and also dozaina, lirone, and tamburi [see Sonneck, in MA iii; A. della Corte, Storia della musica, i, 27lff]. During the latter part of the 16th century many-voiced motets were occasionally performed by orchestral groups of considerable size. Thus, Massimo Troiano (Dialoghi, 1569) reports that Striggio's motet "Ecce beatam lucem," written in forty parts for four choirs, was performed at a marriage ceremony of the Bavarian court by 8 tromboni, 8 viole da arco, 8 jiauti grossi, 1 instrumento da penna (harpsichord), and 1 liuto grosso Qarge lute). Giovanni Gabrieli's Sacrae symphoniae of 1597 are the first compositions to indicate a specific instrument for each part, namely, cornetti, trombones, and violins [see Editions XXIII, 2, nos. 6, 11, 12, 16]. One of these compositions, the famous Sonata pian' e forte, employs two instrumental groups, one consisting of cornetto and 3 trombones, the other ofviolinand 3 trombones. The apotheosis of the Renaissance orchestra is represented by the instrumentation for Monteverdi's Orfeo of 1607. It consisted of: 2 harpsichords (gravicembani), 2 double-bass viols (contrabassi de viola), lO viols (viole da brazzo), 1 harp (arpa doppia), 2 violins (violini piccoli alta francese), 2 bass lutes (chitaroni), 2 organs with wooden pipes (organi di legno), 3 bass viols (bassi da gamba), 4 trombones, 1 *regal, 2 cornetts, 1 small recorder (jiauto alta vigesima seconda), 1 high trumpet (clarino), and 3 "soft" trumpets (trombe sardine), the trumpets having the usual (though unspecified) kettledrum support, at least in the overture. Praetorius carefully designated kettledrums in his Polyhymnia caduceatrix (1619). In the 17th century, instrumental groups were usually small and variable. Music of the basso continuo type was performed by violins (for the upper parts)and a group of foundation instruments, such as harpsichord (or organ), bass viol, harp, lute, and theorbo, for the continuo [see the Sinfonia of Landi's /1 Sant' Alessio, c. 1632; repr. in HAM, no. 208]. Contrapuntal music, such as instrumental canzonas, was played by what instruments were available. Occasionally, instruments are specified, as, e.g., in Legrenzi's "sonata" La Buscha (1655), scored for two cornetti,fagotto, 2 violini, and viola da brazzo [see HAM, no. 220]. The most famous orchestra of the 17th century was that established by Lully under the name "Les vingt-quatre violons du Roi," which, as the name implies, consisted mainly of strings. About 1700, this included a well-defined group of wind instruments, flutes,

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oboes, and horns, in addition to the violins, which by this time had replaced the earlier viols. In the 18th century, trumpets and kettledrums were occasionally required. Bach's cantata, "Preise, Jerusalem, den Herrn" (1723), composed for the election of the city council of Leipzig (Ratswahlkantate), utilizes the following: 4 voice-parts, 4 trumpets, 2 timpani, 2 flutes, 3 oboes, 2 oboi da caccia, first and second violins, violas, and continuo, the last to be played by cellos and an organ. Under Johann Stamitz (1717-57), the main representative of the Mannheim school, the orchestra became more standardized: string section and doubled wind instruments, flutes, oboes, horns, and bassoons [see HAM, no. 294). By the end of the 18th century this was amplified into the standard orchestra of the Viennese classics, consisting of2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 timpani, and the string group (first and second violins, violas, cellos, and doutle basses). In the 19th century, Weber, Berlioz, lleyerbeer, and Wagner contributed most to the development of orchestral resources. Berlioz in his Grand Traite d'instrumentation et d'orchestration (1843) discusses, in addition to the above-mentioned instruments, the harp, guitar, mandolin, piano, English horn, contrabassoon, bass clarinet, piccolo, organ, various sizes of trombone, bass tuba, glockenspiel, bass drum, tamtam, cymbals, side drum, triangle, castanets, saxophones, saxhorns, and various instruments that have dropped out of use. He describes the makeup of what he considers an ideal concert orchestra, containing 121 players, and, for giant festivals, a 465-member orchestra. Wagner designed and introduced the tubas (actually horns) named after him, which were later employed by Bruckner and R. Strauss. Shortly before 1900 the xylophone (Saint-Saens' Danse macabre) and celesta (Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker) were added to the percussion section and soon were accorded full symphony status, along with other instruments, by Mahler. See Orchestration. Lit.: P. Bekker, The Story of the Orchestra (1936); A Elson, Orchestral Instruments and Their Use (1923); Johnstone and Stringham, Instruments of the Modern Symphony Orchestra (1928); F. Howes, Full Orchestra, rev. ed. (1947); G. F. Malipiero, The Orchestra, trans. G. Blom [1921]; R. Nettel, The Orchestra in England, rev. ed. [1956]; A. Carse, The Orchestra in the 18th Century (1940); id., The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (1949); J. Eppelsheim, Das Orchester in den Werken Jean-Baptiste Lullys

(1961); W. Kleefeld, "Die Orchester der Hamburger Oper, 1678-1738" (SIM i); H. Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im 17. Jahrhundert" (SIM ii); K. Nef, "Zur Instrumentation im 17. Jahrhundert" (JMP xxxv); J. Lawrence, "The English Theatre Orchestra" (MQ iii); A Carse, "17th Century Orchestral Instruments" (ML i, 334); R. Haas, "Zur Frage der Orchesterbesetzung in der zweiten Halfte des 18. Jahrhunderts" (CP 1909, p. 159); A Carse, "Brass Instruments in the Orchestra, Historical Sketch" (ML iii); G. F. Malipiero, in RMI xxiii, xxiv. Orchestras. Following is a selected list of important orchestras (with date of establishment). I. United States: Baltimore Symphony 0. (1916); Boston Symphony 0. (1881); Chicago Symphony 0. (1891); Cincinnati Symphony 0. (1895); Cleveland 0. (1918); Detroit Symphony 0. (1914); Indianapolis Symphony 0. (1930); Los Angeles Philharmonic 0. (1919); Minneapolis Symphony 0. (1903); New York, Philharmonic Symphony 0. (1842); Philadelphia 0. (1900); Pittsburgh Symphony 0. (1926); Rochester Philharmonic 0. (1922); St. Louis Symphony 0. (1907); San Francisco Symphony 0. (1911); Washington, National Symphony 0. (1931). II. Latin America: Bogota (Colombia), Orquesta Sinf6nica de Colombia (1936); Buenos Aires (Argentina), Orquesta del Teatro Colon (1908): Caracas (Venezuela), Orquesta Sinf6nica Venezuela (1935); Guatemala, Orquesta Sinf6nica Nacional (1944); Havana (Cuba), Orquesta Filarm6nica (1924); Lima (Peru), Orquesta Sinf6nica Nacional (1938); Mexico, Orquesta Sinf6nica Nacional (1928); Montevideo (Uruguay), Orquesta Sinf6nica del Servicio Oficial de Dufusi6n Radio Electrica, abbr. Ossodre (1931); Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Orquesta Sinf6nica Municipal, Orquesta Sinf6nica Brasileira (1940); Santiago (Chile), Orquesta Sinf6nica de Chile (1922). III Europe: Amsterdam, Concertgebouw Orchestra (1883); Berlin, Philharmonisches Orchester (1882); Brussels, Orchestre National Beige (1895); Geneva, Orchestre de la Suisse Romande (1918); Leipzig, Gewandhaus Konzerte (1781); London, London Philharmonic Orchestra (1932), London Symphony Orchestra (1904); Munich, Bayrisches Staatsorchester (1911), Konzertverein or Philharmoniker; Paris, Concerts du Conservatoire (1792), Concerts Colonne (1873), Concerts Pasdeloup (1920);

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Rome, Concerti del Augusteo (1908); Vienna, Wiener Philharmonische Konzerte (1842). IV. In the 1930's radio broadcasting orchestras were founded all over the world, not only in the great centers of music but also in numerous other places (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, etc.). The most outstanding were those of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and the British Broadcasting Company (BBC). Lit.: M. Grant and H. S. Hettinger, American Symphony Orchestras (1940); J. H. Mueller, The American Symphony Orchestra (1951); Pierre Key's Music Year Book (1927-28); A EaglefieldHull, A Dictionary of Modern Music (1924), s.v. "Orchestras"; A Einstein, Das Neue Musiklexikon (1926), s.u. "Orchester"; R. Nettel, The Orchestra in England, rev. ed. [1956]; E. Chateau, Histoire . . . des orchestres symphoniques aux Etats- Unis (1933). Orchestration. The art of employing, in an instrumental composition, the various instruments in accordance with (a) their individual properties and (b) the composer's concept of the sonorous effect of his work. It involves a detailed knowledge of the playing mechanism of each instrument, its range, tone quality, loudness, limitations, etc. I. Standard practice. In traditional music, the strings are the backbone of the orchestra and, in general, are given the most important melodic parts of the score. Highly expressive, adaptable, and not too "individual," they are used throughout the composition with only short interruptions. Next in importance as melody instruments are woodwinds, each of which has a very characteristic timbre. The woodwinds are generally used sparingly as color effects imposed on the basic drawing of the violins. In the brass group, the horns (French horn) are rather similar in character and use to the woodwinds. Particularly in early symphonies (Haydn, Mozart) they are usually combined with the oboes. The trumpets and trombones, the "heavy artillery" of the orchestra, serve chiefly as a reinforcement for the climaxes of massed sound. They are also valuable for soft effects and as solo instruments, the trombones to express solemn grandeur, the trumpets for brilliant passages of a military or other character. The percussion group contributes rhythmic life and also special effects (triangle, cymbals, celesta). II. To 1700. Until the end of the 16th century instrumental music was hardly ever written for or performed by specific instruments. Among

the rare exceptions are Dufay's "Gloria ad mod urn tubae," a vocal canon accompanied by two tubae (trumpets) sounding a fanfare ostinato, and A Busnois' motet "Anthoni usque limina," which calls for the sounding of a bell (campana) in every second measure. G. Gabrieli was the first to prescribe specific instruments in his Sacrae symphoniae of 1597 [see Orchestra II], but little distinction is made between the capabilities of the various instruments. Monteverdi was perhaps the first to realize what color effects could be obtained by the judicious employment of one instrument or another. On the title page of his Orfto (1607) the large orchestra employed for the first performance is indicated [see Orchestra II]. Although, in conformity with the then novel practice of *thoroughbass, the score consists largely of the vocal parts and the bass part, the accompanying written directions giving an idea of the desired orchestral effects. For instance, in Act III Caronte (Charon) is always accompanied by the regal and Orfeo by the organo di legno [see HAM, no. 187]. Also noteworthy is the use of the violin pizzicato and measured tremolo in Monteverdi's Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda [see HAM, no. 189]. The 17th-century emphasis on bowed instruments and the prevailing practice of thoroughbass scoring (melody and bass only) were not conducive to progress in the use of orchestral resources. The main place for a variety of instruments was the continuo part, which, in addition to harpsichord and double bass, could be performed by harps, lutes, theorbos, and other "foundation" instruments. This, however, was largely an early baroque practice that disappeared after 1650. III. 18th century. By the time of Bach (16851750), instruments and techniques of instrumental performance had been improved and various effective combinations worked out. Bach's basic method of orchestration consisted of an impartial distribution of interchangeable parts among string and wind instruments; each of the four fundamental parts-as opposed to the three or five of the 17th century-is independent, melodic, essential, and conceived in general rather than individual instrumental terms. Thus a· part, whether for voice, flute, oboe, violins, or even brass, can scarcely be identified save by range. Wholesale duplication of the fundamental parts is common. In arias, where smaller groups of instruments are used, these, as well as special effects such as pizzicato and

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con sordino, are carried through the entire number, the contrast being from number to number rather than within a piece. Handel, who had a keener sense of orchestral effect, treated his instrumental forces in a more broadly contrasting style than Bach yet without departing from "contrapuntal orchestration." His occasional use of the small recorder, contrabassoon, trombone, and harp in operas and cantatas is exceptional for the period, while his purely instrumental compositions are often for groups much more conventional than those of Bach. That the makeup of the orchestra was not yet standardized is obvious from an examination of Bach's *Brandenburg Concertos and four Orchestral Suites. Although the orchestra as such remained largely unchanged throughout the 18th century, important progress was made in its treatment. Perhaps the first composer to give each instrument a distinct part of its own was J.-P. Rameau (1683-1764). He introdu'ld interesting and unexpected passages on ~ flutes, oboes, and bassoons, opening the path to the coloristic treatment of the modern orchestra, and he, along with Arne, J. C. Bach, and Gluck, helped the clarinets achieve permanent status. Johann Stamitz (1717-57), leader of the Mannheim orchestra [see Mannheim school], developed the dramatic resources of the orchestra, chiefly the string section, by the use of dynamic variations such as sudden ff and pp, sustained crescendos, etc. The four symphonies written by K. P. E. Bach c. 1776 may be said to represent the final phase of orchestration prior to the masterworks of Haydn and Mozart. They are scored for two flutes, two oboes, one or two bassoons, two horns, and the usual group of strings. The interchangeable instrumental part of the past gives way to a part characteristic for the instrument for which it is written, though features of the older style remain in the frequent unison of the first and second violins and the near identity of viola, cello, and bass parts, including the harpsichord. IV. From Haydn to the present. During the time of Haydn and Mozart the stringed instruments became entrenched as the foundation of the orchestra, and their numbers grew larger in proportion to the number of performers in the entire group. Each wind instrument was regarded as fully capable of assuming the main melodic line if the occasion demanded, as well as aiding in supplying the harmonic background, since the keyboard instrument was no longer

used for that purpose. Ordinarily, instruments were no longer omitted from entire movements of a work, except in the trio of the minuet, and the orchestral color changed on a moment-tomoment basis, emphasizing the changes of subjects and the alternation of motifs. Beethoven, in his middle and late symphonies, occasionally augmented the orchestra with a piccolo, contrabassoon, third and fourth horn, and trombones; the last three symphonies also require the timpani to be tuned to notes other than tonic and dominant, and the Ninth has one section that uses triangle, cymbals, and bass drum. The 19th century benefited enormously from improvements in instrument-making, most notably the key mechanisms for woodwinds and the valve systems for horns and trumpets. It also owed much to Berlioz regarding the use of instruments for their particular tone quality, and his ambitious and imaginative compositions greatly influenced such later composers as Liszt, Wagner, and R. Strauss. Berlioz seems to have risen suddenly as an innovator during the 1830's, but if one considers earlier composers, largely of the French school, it is evident that his work is partly founded on the coloristic efforts of Gluck, Cherubini, Mehul, Spontini, Boieldieu, and Weber. In the second half of the 19th century there developed certain standard practices well known through the works of Wagner, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Dvohik, and others [see I above]. A notable exception was Bruckner, who employed methods that have been somewhat contemptuously termed "organ orchestration" but that are well suited to the style of his symphonies. The complex scoring of R. Strauss outdid that of all previous composers in technical difficulty. Mahler, too, demanded a virtuoso orchestra and wrote with consummate skill for both small and mammoth forces. In strong contrast, Debussy introduced new methods of utter refinement and a highly developed coloristic technique for which the characteristic name "orchestral palette" has been widely adopted [see Impressionism]. The musical revolution of the 20th century has naturally brought with it many changes in orchestration techniques. One reaction against the 19th-century principles of orchestration was the shift from the huge forces of Strauss and Mahler to smaller groups (chamber orchestra), a change observable in the successive works of Stravinsky and Schoenberg. The breakdown of the standard orchestra was also spurred by the

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search for new timbres and combinations. One method was "perverted orchestration," e.g., giving the melody to the brass and using the strings for percussive effects; often used by Stravinsky, it has been widely employed for many purposes, including parody. Other approaches included the eliciting of new sounds from standard instruments, especially percussion and harp (Carlos Salzedo); the scoring largely or exclusively for percussion (Stravinsky's Les Noces; Van!se's Hyperprism and Ionisation); the adoption of Latin American or other exotic instruments (such as the Hungarian cimbalom, used not only by Bartok and Kodaly but also in Stravinsky's Renard and Ragtime); the employment of unusual soundeffect instruments (big iron chains in Schoenberg's Gurrelieder; sirens, roulette wheel, typewriter, rattle, pistol shots, water splashes, etc. in Satie's Parade); and the use of newly invented instruments (Vibraphone in Berg's Lulu, the Ondes Martenot in many French works). Anton Webern introduced a new technique known as * Klangfarbenmelodie, which became the point of departure for the avant-garde orchestration employed in *musique concrete and *electronic music, an "orchestration without orchestra." Lit.: C. Forsyth, Orchestration (1935); S. Lockwood, Elementary Orchestration [1926]; D. J. Rauscher, Orchestration [1963]; N. RimskyKorsakov, Principles of Orchestration ( 1922); J. Wagner, Orchestration (1959); H . Berlioz, Treatise on Instrumentation, rev. and enlarged by R. Strauss (Eng. trans., 1948); A. Carse, The History of Orchestration (1925); L. A. Coerne, The Evolution of Modern Orchestration (1908); C. S. Terry, Bach's Orchestra (1932); G. Read, Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices (1953); C. Koechlin, Traite d'orchestration, 5 vols. (1955); K. Kennan, The Technique of Orchestration (1952); id., Orchestration Workbook(l952); W. Piston, Orchestration (1958). See also Editions w.D.D.; rev. W.A. and C.T. XXXIX, 24. Orchestrion. See under Mechanical instruments III. Ordinary and Proper [L. ordinarium, proprium]. In the Roman Catholic rites, the Ordinary is the portion of the service that remains the same no matter what day it is performed, while the Proper includes all the variable texts and chants. The distinction is particularly important with the Mass [see Mass A]. Other services, however, also contain invariable and variable portions, e.g.,

the *Magnificat is a part of the Ordinary of Vespers. Ordo [L., pl. ordines ]. See under Modes, rhythmic. Ordo Romanus [L.]. Designation for early liturgical books (7th-9th centuries) containing descriptions of the liturgy as celebrated by the Pope. Their contents include important information concerning the early form of Mass chants, e.g., the Introit with numerous verses [see ApGC, pp. 52f, 190]. They are edited in M. Andrieu, Les Ordines romani du haut moyen age, 3 vols. (1931-35). Ordre [F.]. In F. Couperin's Pieces de Clavecin (1713-30), name for his suitelike collections of pieces in the same key. An ordre usually begins with a few pieces in the style of an allemande, courante, and sarabande, but also includes a great many other pieces with fanciful or descriptive titles. See Suite III. Orfeo. See Favola d'Orfeo, La (Monteverdi); Orphee aux Enfers; Orpheus and Eurydice. Orfeo ed Euridice. Opera in three acts by Gluck (libretto by R. di Calzabigi), produced in Vienna, 1762 (produced in Paris, as Orphee, 1774, with French text). Setting: Greece, legendary times. The story is essentially the same as that of Monteverdi's La *Favola d'Orfeo, the main difference being that the tragic and heroic close of Monteverdi's work is replaced by a happy ending (Amor, the god of Love, appears and restores Euridice to life). Orfeo is the first of Gluck's reform operas. Organ [F. orgue; G. Orgel; It. organo; L. organum; Sp. organo]. I. General description. The organ is a keyboard instrument, operated by the player's hands and feet, that consists of a series of pipes standing on a wind chest. The wind chest is fitted with valves connected to the keys, either by a direct mechanical linkage or by electrical and/or pneumatic intermediaries. Means also are provided for delivering a constant supply of air under pressure to the chest. Traditionally the wind was supplied by *feeders or bellows; since about 1915 the source of supply has been an electric rotary blower, in which case the bellows serve merely as a reservoir whose top is weighted or sprung to ensure a steady pressure. The simplest organ consists of one set of pipes, each pipe corresponding to one key of the keyboard. However, to make available a variety of tone colors for the performer, organs usually

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have several sets (*ranks) of pipes, known as *stops or *registers, which can be brought into play or retired-i.e., "stopped"-at will. II. Mechanism. In all organs, ancient or modern, the sounding of a desired pipe is effected by a combination of two mechanisms that operate crosswise in the manner of Cartesian coordinates. One of these, the "abscissa" (x), is actuated by depressing a key, while the other, the "ordinate" (y), is actuated by drawing a stop. In geometry an ordered pair of numbers (x, y) is required to determine a point; in organ playing a key must be depressed and a stop be drawn if a particular pipe is to speak. The means for effecting these two types of control vary. Prior to the mid-19th century the mechanism was a mechanical linkage, a system oflevers known as *tracker action. Thereafter pneumatic and/or electric mechanisms became increasingly common until the second quarter of the 20th century, when tracker key action began to reappear. (a) Tracker organ. In a hypothetical miniature organ with three ranks and seven keys, there will be 21 pipes and 21 holes arranged in three lines of 7 each in the upper board (table) of the wind chest. For each rank there is a thin strip (slider) of wood or plastic bored with seven holes and arranged so as to slide freely beneath a stationary toe board, also bored with seven holes, over each of which stands a pipe. Drawing a knob (stop, drawstop) adjacent to the keyboard aligns the holes of table, slider, and toe board, thereby setting one rank of pipes in readiness to sound. To each key is linked a hinged valve (pallet) that, when opened by the player's depressing the key, allows air to pass from the constant wind supply into a narrow rectangular note channel (key chamber) running crosswise beneath the three sliders. In order to obtain a desired tone, say, that of the pipe C of the rank Principal, the player draws the knob labeled "principal," thereby placing that register in readiness, and presses the key C, which pulls on the trace rod (tracker) connecting the key with the C pallet, causing the pallet to move down on its hinge. Air then passes into the C note channel and upward through the C hole in table, slider, and toe board into the C pipe of the principal, which sounds. (b) Electropneumatic organ. In the electropneumatic organ each pipe has its own individual valve, which is mounted on a leather pneumatic (pouch) that is inflated when the valve is in off(closed) position and the pipe is not sounding. When the pouch is deflated, the valve opens and the pipe above speaks. In this type of

action the depression of a key closes an electric circuit that activates a magnet. The minute armature of the magnet acts as a pneumatic valve, which, unless intercepted by the stop action, exhausts all the pouches controlled by the key. In like manner, the drawing of a stop exhausts a channel that allows the key action to take effect. Thus, as with the slider chest, it is only when the key and stop mechanisms intersect at right angles that a pipe speaks. There are many variants of electric action, some of which are illustrated in Audsley, The Art of Organ Building [see Lit.]. In the case of key action, the tracker mechanism has certain advantages [see section XI below]. III. Keyboards and divisions. An organ meeting the minimum requirement for a proper rendition of the literature will have two keyboards (*manuals), each controlling a separate division of five or six stops, and a keyboard for the feet (pedal) commanding two to five stops. Organs having four manuals and pedal with fifty to one hundred stops are common, however, and even five to seven manuals have been employed. The divisions, or "organs," connected with the various keyboards are called pedal organ, great organ, swell organ, choir organ, positive organ, solo organ, and echo organ. (Foreign names such as Hauptwerk, Ruckpositiv [G.] and recit [F.] are occasionally used.) Their allotment to the different manuals varies a great deal (except, of course, for the pedal organ), and so does the selection of pipes connected with each of them. IV. Couplers, etc. Practically every organ possesses devices that make the various divisions available on keyboards other than their own. These are the so-called couplers. For instance, coupler swell-to-great makes the swell organ available on the manual for the great organ, so that stops from both can be sounded simultaneously. Similarly, any manual can be coupled to the pedal. Suboctave couplers and superoctave couplers connect one manual with the lower or higher octave of another manual or of itself. [See also Divided stop.] Changes in *registration are sometimes desired at moments when the player's hands are too occupied on the keyboard to manipulate a number of stops. To facilitate such changes, special controls are provided in the form of thumb buttons or toe studs. Each of these socalled pistons controls an ad libitum selection of stops, which the player can arrange in advance and then can instantly bring into play by a single touch on the piston.

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V. Compass. The normal compass of the modern organ manual is sixty-one notes or five complete octaves extending from C to c"". That of the pedal keyboard is thirty-two notes or two and one-half octaves extending from C tog'. The compass has not always been so large. Bach's organs usually had one octave less on the manuals (C to c"') and five keys less on the pedal (C to d'); on the other hand, the English organ of Purcell and Handel, lacking pedals entirely, had a deeper manual compass (G1 to f"'). The actual pitch range of the organ is much greater than the compass of its keyboards, owing to the fact that there are, in addition to the pipe ranks of normal (unison) pitch (comparable to that of the piano), others whose pitch is one or two octaves lower or higher. The normal pitch is called unison and is indicated by the symbol 8' [read eight-foot; see Foot (2)], the suboctave pitch is 16', and there are three superoctave pitches, designated 4', 2', and 1'. On the pedal the normal pitch, being an octave below that of the manual, is known as 16' pitch, its suboctave being 32'. The frequency of 32' Cis approximately 16 vibrations per second while that of the top C of a manual 2' stop is more than 8,000. Thus the real compass of the instrument extends over nine complete octaves. VI. Mutation and mixture stops. In addition to the various octave pitches, called foundation stops, there are the so-called mutation stops, whose pitch corresponds to one of the harmonics of the unison pitch. For instance, a mutation stop 27:\' is tuned to the third harmonic (twelfth) and hence will sound g' if the key of c is depressed [see explanation under Foot (2)]. Such stops are not to be played alone (which would result in transposition) or with a unison stop of about the same loudness (which would result in parallel fifths), but together with a unison stop of considerably greater force, in which case the mutation stop ceases to be heard individually and merely serves as an artificial harmonic, thus modifying the timbre of the unison stop. Finally there are mixture stops (also called compound stops), i.e., stops that combine a selection of unison and mutation ranks. These serve the same purpose as the mutation stops just described and must also be drawn together with a sufficiently strong unison stop. Mutation and mixture stops, if properly used, are among the organist's most valuable resources for obtaining a variety of tone color and clear articulation. VII. The organ case; expression. By the 15th century it was customary to place the wind

chests, pipes, and mechanism of the organ in a large wooden cabinet, known as the organ case, closed on all sides but the front. The keyboards and stop controls were centered in front at floor level, while the show pipes (open diapason, principal, prestant, montre) stood in the opening above the keyboards and together with decorative carvings formed a perforated screen through which the sound from pipes inside the cabinet could pass. An important (and original) purpose of the organ case was to protect the delicate pipes and mechanism, but the case was also of musical value in (1) blending th.e sound, (2) imparting its own cavity-resonances to it, and (3) projecting sound toward the listener. In old organs, both case and wind chest acted as blending agencies, each making use of the tendency of two organ pipes, especially those speaking in unison or octaves, to "draw" or "pull," i.e., to synchronize pitch, in so far as they are able to "hear" each other, either through their common note channel [see II] or via the concentrated sound field inside the case. Cavity-resonances in the case were responsible for an attractive burgeoning of the sound in tenor or bass octaves even from pipes of slender scale, an effect similar to the baritone bloom in antique harpsichords although derived differently, i.e., by air resonance rather than timber resonance. For sound projection the close-fitting cabinet acted as a band-shell, giving the organ good attack even in highly reverberant buildings. In the 17th century, when organs grew to the point of having several divisions, each division was likely to be given its own tone cabinet in the over-all complex of the organ case, and at least one division, the Ruckpositiv or chair organ, was nearly always separately situated at the gallery railing below the main body of the instrument and behind the player. In performing on such an organ, to change from one manual to another is to move the source of sound from one cabinet to another, producing a stereophonic effect that, when heightened by differences in registration and cabinet resonance, is eminently in keeping with the terraced dynamics of the baroque style. The principle according to which an organ is thus visibly divided into cabinets, each relating to a keyboard, is known as the * Werk principle, a system of organization that became unfashionable during the 18th century but that has been revived in the 20th. A tone cabinet that survived the abandonment of the Werk principle is the expression chamber or swell box, in effect a cabinet whose opening is covered by a set of Venetian

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shutters that can be opened or closed in varying degrees by a foot pedal. Though artificial, this is for the organ the only possible means for varying dynamics, other than the stepwise addition or subtraction of stops. VIII. Organ pipes in general. There are two distinct classes of organ pipe: flue and reed. The flue pipe closely resembles the ordinary tin whistle [see Whistle flute], in which a vibrating air sheet sets up vibrations in the column of air surrounded by the pipe. The complete flue pipe is made up of the following parts: the "body," the cylindrical portion that encloses the column of air; the "foot," usually a tapered cone connecting the body to the wind supply from the chest; and the "mouth," a rectangular opening cut from the body at the point where the foot joins it. At the mouth, the cylindrical body and the conical foot are flattened, and the straight edge thus formed at the top of the mouth is called the "upper lip." Similarly, the so-called "lower lip" is the straight, flattened portion of the foot just below the mouth. The "languid" is a flat piece of metal forming an internal partition between foot and body; along its front edge it is beveled and arranged so as to form, with the lower lip, a narrow slit known as the "flue," through which the wind sheet issues. When a pipe is sounding, the wind sheet, as it rises from flue toward upper lip, flexes in and out of the mouth in a complex way, exciting the resonant air column within the body of the pipe. Flue pipes are extremely sensitive to their geometry at the mouth, so that shaping and adjusting the languid and lips, known as "voicing," requires considerable skill. Of particular interest in voicing is the so-called "nicking," a row of serrations or nicks cut into the edges of the languid and lower lip where they form the flue. An unvoiced metal organ pipe whose flue is not closed up to a hair's breadth produces, when first winded, a strong transient, onomatopoeically known as the "chiff," followed by a coarse and unstable note displaying many nonharmonic overtones. Other conditions being favorable, a small number of shallow nicks will purify and steady the note without dispelling the chiff. Deepening the nicks and increasing their number eventually eliminates the chiff entirely, at the same time tending to make the steady note dull and lifeless. Although the chiff was anathema to 19th-century musicians, used in moderation it was not unfavorably regarded in earlier times and is perhaps better thought of today than ever before, owing to current interest in the horizontal aspect of

music, i.e., the clarification of contrapuntal line, to which the chiff undoubtedly contributes. In tracker organs the chiff can be controlled to a limited extent by the player according to the speed with which he depresses the key. Flue pipes are tuned by lengthening or shortening the pipe. This is accomplished at the top of the pipe by a sliding sleeve (tuning slide), or by rolling down a strip of metal from the top, or by "coning" the top of the pipe in or out so as to make the top opening smaller or larger. The type of reed pipe used almost exclusively in the organ is known as the beating reed and must not be confused with the free reed employed in the harmonium or reed organ [see Reed II]. The beating reed consists of a vibrating brass tongue, slightly curved, which rolls down over a long opening in the side of a brass tube, or "shallot." The lower end of the shallot is closed so that when the tongue rolls down flat against the carefully flattened surface surrounding the opening no air can pass into the shallot. The upper end of the shallot is connected to the lower end of a resonator or horn, usually conical or cylindrical, whose upper end is open to the air. Shallot and tongue are held firmly together in a heavy block of metal or wood; the resonator is inserted into the top of the block, while the block in turn is inserted into a socket that conveys the wind up from the wind chest. When wind is admitted to the socket it surrounds tongue and shallot, causing the tongue to commence vibrating, which, by alternately opening and closing, sends pulses of air via the shallot into the resonator, thereby exciting the air column enclosed within the resonator and causing a note to issue from its open end. The tone of a reed pipe is extremely sensitive to the shape of its shallot and shallot opening, and especially to the thickness and curvature of the tongue, whose proper adjustment is perhaps the most refined skill in organ building. Tuning and loudness are regulated jointly at two points, first by lengthening or shortening the resonator at its upper end, and second, by a tuning wire in the block that controls the free vibrating length of the tongue. IX. Flue pipes. There are two fundamental kinds of flue pipe: the "principals" and the "flutes." The basic difference between them is the way they are voiced, i.e., adjusted at the mouth, and one speaks of a pipe as being voiced to operate in "principal mode" or in "flute mode." In principal mode the wind sheet vibrates in such a way as to develop in about equal strength the first and second harmonics,

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while in flute mode only the first harmonic (fundamental) is emphasized. For a particular pipe to operate in principal mode, either the mouth height (cut-up) must be relatively low or the volume of air passing through the pipe must be large. The same pipe may be voiced in flute mode by reducing the flow of air, or by increasing the cut-up, or both. Principal mode also requires a higher setting of the languid than does flute mode. (a) Diapason or principal tone. The bodies or resonators of organ flue pipes are made in a large variety of shapes, but the most common is that of the so-called diapason or principal, a cylindrical tube of moderate scale [see Scaling], open at the top. The concerted sound of these pipes is characteristic of the organ alone, and it is the diapason chorus that accounts largely for the sonority known as "full organ." Diapasons may occur at all possible pitches. In an organ of moderate size they are likely to be found at 8', 4', 27'3' and 2' pitches on the manuals, at 16', 8', 5W and 4' on the pedals, and in practically all mixtures [see IX (f) below]. Usually only the 16' and 8' members of the chorus are labeled diapason, those of higher pitch simply being labeled according to their position in the diatonic scale relative to unison, e.g., octave 4', twelfth 27'3', fifteenth 2'. Diapason pipes operate in principal mode. The tone of a single rank is apt to be somewhat assertive and moderately full, with a moderate harmonic development. A considerable variety of diapason tone exists: the violin diapason is of smaller scale and tends toward the string side, while the montre of an 18th-century French organ is quite full and fluty in character. (b) Flute tone. The most common variety of organ flute is the stopped flute [G. gedackt, F. bourdon], whose large-scale cylindrical bodies are made of wood or metal with a stopper or plug in the upper end. The stopper has two effects: (1) it acoustically doubles the length of the body so that the note spoken is an octave lower than it would be with the end open; (2) it attenuates the even-numbered harmonics (second, fourth, sixth, etc.). The latter effect, in conjunction with the natural emphasis on first harmonic given by flute-mode operation, causes the stopped flute to produce mainly fundamental (first harmonic) with but a trace of "quint" (third harmonic). An emphasis on fundamental is the hallmark of organ flutes; with their marked quickness of speech, flutes are ideal for rapid passages, particularly when com-

bined with mutations [see (e) below] or a quiet mixture [see (f)]. The chimney flute has a small-diameter open tube extending upward from its stopper, while koppel and spindle flute substitute a form of open-topped, cone-shaped extension for the stopper. All three have greater harmonic development than the stopped flute, owing partly to the encouragement of even-numbered harmonics by the small opening at the top. Stopped and half-stopped flutes occur frequently at 8' and 4' pitches on the manuals and at 16', 8', and 4' on the pedal. Large-scale open flutes having no stopper, such as the nighthorn and block flute, are often used at 4' and 2' pitches and as mutations [see (e)]. These do not have the "quinty" sound of the stopped flutes but have greater carrying power and stability in the treble. The harmonic flute, a large-scale open flute of double length with an octave hole drilled at the midpoint of the body, represents an effort to imitate the orchestral traverse flute. It occurs occasionally at 8' though more usually at 4' pitch. (c) String tone. String-toned stops such as the cello, viola, salicional, and gamba have a high harmonic development, causing the tone to be thin and cutting. String tone is actually an extreme form of principal tone; it is produced by using pipe scales that are narrower than normal principal scale and voicing techniques that emphasize the intrinsically bright character of principal mode. Because of their narrow scale, strings articulate with difficulty. They are therefore unsuitable for rapid passages and indeed were never fully developed as organ stops until the 19th century, when sonority replaced agility as the most important feature of a musical instrument. String stops produce a distinctive sonority, particularly when they occur in pairs that are intentionally tuned one sharp to the other so as to produce a slow undulation. Such a pair may be labeled voix celeste or unda maris. (d) Hybrids. Spitzflute and gemshorn ranks commonly have pipe bodies in the form of an inverted cone. This construction brings into prominence the second harmonic, and, according to scale, amount of taper, and the mode of vibration used at the mouth, the tone lies either between principal and flute or between string and flute. Because of its hybrid nature, this class of tone often appears on a small organ or small division where a single stop must do the work of both a flute and a principal. Mutation stops of

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2W, l:W, and lW pitches are successfully constructed as hybrids. (e) Mutations. The mutation stop is characteristic of the organ, its chief use being with a unison or octave rank or a combination of such stops to alter the tonal character by artificially bringing into prominence a particular overtone. Mutation ranks greatly increase the tonal variety of the instrument, since each new way of combining them with unisons and octaves produces a strikingly different result. They thus are useful for producing solo combinations and for giving an individual character to each voice line in contrapuntal music of several keyboards, e.g., trios for two manuals and pedal. When the mutation stops called nazard 2W and tierce 1:W are combined with three flutes of 8', 4', and 2' pitches respectively, the effect toward the treble is reminiscent of a trumpet and is known as the cornet. Traditionally the cornet is a solo voice for use either by itself or with a trumpet stop, in which case it serves to strengthen the treble register of the latter. (f) Mixture stops. Mixtures, or compound stops, usually comprise from two to seven principal pipes per note of the keyboard arranged to speak certain harmonics of the note. There are a great many varieties of mixture, but normally the ranks employed speak only octaves and fifths (quints). A typical mixture for a great division might be laid out as follows:

c

to c to c' to c" to

B

b b' b" :

c"' to c"'':

row I lW 2' 2W 4' 8'

row II 1'

lW 2' 2W

4'

row III ¥.!'

row IV

w ¥.!'

l' lW

1'

2' 2W

lW 2'

Here the pitch of each rank is as usual indicated by the length of the C pipe [see Foot]. (In the case of those ranks that do not extend down to C, e.g., the 2' rank, the pipe length given is the one the C pipe would have if the rank were carried all the way down.) Breaks occur here between each B and C, where the highestpitched rank is discontinued and a new lowpitched rank is introduced. A practical reason for the breaks is the impossibility in the treble of even hearing high-pitched ranks such as theW and f; a musical reason is that high-pitched pipes used in the bass give attack and definition to slow-speaking diapason basses, while multitudinous pipes of comparable length lend mass

to the treble. Each division of a well-appointed organ of moderate size will have a diapason chorus capped by one or more mixtures. Mixtures composed of octaves and quints may bear names such as mixture, plein jeu, fourniture, Scharf, and cymbal. Mixtures containing also third-sounding ranks (tierces) may appear under labels such as sesquialtera, tertian, and terzcimbel. All sorts of scaling may occur, from very wide to very narrow. X. Reed pipes. There are three kinds of reed pipe: chorus reeds; semichorus reeds; and solo or orchestral reeds. Chorus reeds belong chiefly to the trumpet family and appear in the modern organ on both manual and pedal divisions at subunison, unison, and octave pitches. Posaunes, trombones, trumpets, cornopeans, and clarions are in this category. Although their names suggest orchestral tones, they differ in quality considerably from their orchestral prototypes. They are purely organ voices and are used to add power and vigor to the ensemble. They may also be employed for solo work. The trumpet family have conical resonators of full length, i.e., 8' C has a resonator of approximately 8' length. Semichorus reeds come to us largely from the baroque period and are not imitative, although their names may suggest an orchestral background. The cromorne, schalmei, and rankett are typical examples. The term "semichorus" is used because they may function as chorus reeds, solo stops, or merely timbre creators in combination with other voices. The resonators of this class of reed are often cylindrical and short. They may be half-, quarter-, or even an eighth-length. The solo or orchestral reeds are imitative of various orchestral instruments, such as the bassoon, English horn, clarinet, and orchestral oboe. They are used largely as solo stops. XI. Tonal structure of the organ. The organ is unique among instruments in that the choice of voices (i.e., stops) that go into its makeup is arbitrary. The list of the stops in an organ, called the "specification," varies greatly from one organ to another, especially if organs of different periods are taken into consideration. In earlier times, an organ was designed for performing a limited repertory consisting mainly of music of its period. The wide range of the modern repertory, however, has required great emphasis on designing organs on which the music of all periods can be played. This is by no means an easy task when one considers the long lifespan of the instrument. A conscientiously eclectic sample specification might be:

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POSITIVE

Quintaten 16' (wood) Principal 8' Spitzflote 8' Octave 4' Rohrflote 4' Quint 2W Super octave 2' Nachthorn 2' Mixture IV-V ranks Scharf III-IV ranks Cornet II-V ranks Double trumpet 16' Trumpet 8' Clarion 4'

Gedackt 8' Dulciana 8' Principal 4' Koppelflote 4' Nazard 273' Octave 2' Tierce lW Larigot 1Y.J' Super octave 1' Scharf IV ranks Cymbel III ranks Dulcian 16' Krummhorn 8'

SWELL (enclosed) Geigen principal 8' Viole-de-gambe 8' Viole celeste 8' Chimney flute 8' Principal 4' Lieblich flute 4' Fifteenth 2' Sesquialtera II ranks Plein jeu IV-VI ranks Contre hautbois 16' Trompette 8' Vox humana 8' Clairon 4' Tremulant

PEDAL

Principal 16' Bourdon 16' Octave 8' Spillflote 8' Quint 5Y.J' Choralbass 4' Nachthorn 4' Blockflote 2' Mixture IV ranks Bassoon 32' Posaune 16' Trompette 8' Schalmei 4'

Although this specification might be acceptable to many organists and organ builders, opinion is presently divided over the basic principles of organ construction. Two widely differing principles are in use today, the so-called tracker principle and the electropneumatic principle. The names derive from the kind of key action used, but the differences go beyond any question of key action. In its purest form, the modern tracker organ embodies the following characteristics: (1) only mechanical connections between keys and valves [see II (a)] and therefore, (2) proximity of key desk and wind chests; (3) a functional and often decorative wooden organ case-essentially a large piece of furniture-standing freely within the auditorium [see VII]; (4) slider wind chests throughout; (5) low wind pressures; (6) use of the Werk principle [see VII]. The modern tracker organ thus retains a geometry and a tonal ideal already finnly established in the 17th century, though employing modern materials for the effective operation of its mechanism and often

drawing on registers and sonorities from later periods, e.g., the voix celestes. By contrast, the modern electropneumatic organ, while adopting many sonorities and registers from the 17th century, employs a less predictable geometry. It is usually characterized by: ( 1) electrical connections between keys and pipe valves, and therefore, (2) free choice of placement for the key desk with respect to the wind chests; (3) free arrangements of the pipes on the wind chests; (4) wind chests having a separate valve for each pipe [see II (b)]; (5) freedom to use both low and high wind pressures; (6) emphasis on the decorative possibilities presented by freely exposed masses of pipes, with minimal adherence to the Werk principle, and often with part of the organ recessed in chambers. A well-built tracker action affords the player a sense of immediacy (through "feedback") that is totally unattainable with electropneumatic action. Taken all together, the unifying effect of a slider chest, a shallow focusing tone cabinet, pipework voiced with a modicum of chiff, and an uncoupled tracker action produces a precision of attack and release akin to that of the harpsichord and piano and invaluable in the performance of contrapuntal music. By contrast, electropneumatic action, while lacking the preciseness that makes for a good keyboard instrument, provides the best means for controlling a very large organ, when attention necessarily focuses on variety and expansiveness of sonority rather than on subtle keyboard articulation. It also provides a means of adapting the pipe organ to the impractical physical arrangements often presented to the organ builder by church and auditorium architects. XII. History. Legend traces the organ back to the "Syrinx" (panpipes) and similar primitive wind instruments consisting of a group of pipes or reeds of varying pitches (rather than a single pipe bored with finger holes). If we regard the organ as a wind instrument that, besides having multiple pipes of fixed pitches, is mechanically supplied with air under pressure and played from a keyboard, then it dates from c. 250 B.C., when the Greek engineer Ktesibios of Alexandria is supposed to have invented the *hydraulos (as recorded in Hero's Pneumatika, c. 120 B.C.). The hydraulos had a set of fixed-pitch pipes, a crude keyboard of limited compass, and a mechanical wind supply regulated by water pressure. While Hero's account is the first recorded instance of a "modern" organ, the hydraulos doubtless had even more primitive antecedents. The hydraulos was used at least until the end of the 5th century.

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Its uses were entirely secular, and it was popular at festivals and in outdoor arenas, suggesting that it made a loud sound. The pneumatic (as opposed to hydraulically regulated) organ made its first recorded appearance c. A.D. 120, when an organ supplied with wind by means of a simple bellows is mentioned in a passage from J. Pollux's Onomastikon. Another early reference to this type of organ is found in an epigram of the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (A.D. 331-63). Elaborate Byzantine organs with gilded and silvered pipes are described in reports from A.D. 867 to 946. Such instruments were sometimes made as royal gifts. In 757 the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Copronymus is said to have presented one to the Frankish King Pepin, and in 812 Charlemagne received a similar instrument. In England the organ was known as early as the 7th century, as appears from the writings of Bishop Aldhelm (c. 640-709), who repeatedly praised it for its "mighty voice." A large organ is recorded by the monk Wolstan as having been erected at Winchester Cathedral under the Bishop Elphege (d. 951 ). It supposedly had 400 pipes and 26 bellows, was played by two organists on two keyboards of 20 keys each, and had an exceedingly powerful sound. During the early Middle Ages virtually all English and Continental organs were built by ecclesiastics. The hydraulos and all recorded early pneumatic organs up to as late as 1100 had a very crude key mechanism consisting of slides that were simply pulled out or pushed in to open the pipes. In a more advanced model, such slides were connected to large hinged "keys," which were either pushed down like the keys of a carillon or, as Michael Praetorius suggests in his Syntagma musicum, vol. ii (1619) struck with the fists. This type of action employed a return spring that facilitated playing. Prior to the 15th century there was no means of controlling individual ranks of pipes, so that the color or intensity of the sound produced could not be varied. The very earliest organs (i.e., the hydraulos and the most primitive pneumatic organs) had only one set of pipes and, if one is to believe contemporary descriptions, there was no notion of scaling the pipes [see Scaling] such as developed later. According to these early accounts, all pipes of the set were about the same diameter, varying only in length with their pitch. Such a practice would make the longer pipes tend toward a stringlike sound while the treble pipes gave flutelike sounds. The tonal conse-

quences of this were not too serious, since until the 14th century the compass of organs was never more than three octaves, and often less. Eventually builders began to vary the scaling (diameter) of the pipes along with the pitch length to produce a more even timbre throughout the compass. Also, as larger organs were adopted for church use, the number of ranks of pipes began to increase. As a result, the medieval organ developed as a large mixture [F. grand jeu; G. Werck, Hintersatz; Neth. Blokwerk]. To the pipes of the fundamental (8') pitch were added others of higher unison pitches (4', 2', 1') as well as those sounding the fifth (2¥.!', I W), which reinforced and brightened the total harmonic structure. Increasing the number of ranks necessitated the invention of a more efficient playing action than the old slide system. The modern barred wind chest [see Tracker action] had its inception in the 14th century, and from that time on the key control was achieved by opening a springloaded valve (pallet) that admitted wind from a common supply into a note-channel communicating with all the pipes for any given note. By the 14th century, the keyboard had become smaller, ranging up to three octaves in compass and having semitones, particularly in the middle range. The earliest preserved examples of *organ music (in the Robertsbridge Codex in 1325) require a complete chromatic middle octave. The next step in the organ's development was the provision of means to vary the loudness and timbre of the sound produced. Organs having more than one keyboard had already appeared; that built in 1361 in Halberstadt, Germany, had three manuals and a primitive pedal, twenty bellows worked by ten men, and pipes as long as 31' (approx. G.!). As far as can be determined, however, each division of this and similar organs was but a mixture, and those variations of color that were possible were due purely to differences in the strength and timbre of the separate divisions. During the 14th century, along with the development of large but still cumbersome church organs, there appeared a parallel development of a smaller, more refined, and more tractable instrument called a positive. This instrument was a self-contained organ small enough to be moved like a piece of furniture. It had one keyboard, no pedals, and no exceptionally large or loud pipes, since it was often used in small rooms or for accompaniment purposes. Smaller than the great church organs, it had a narrower and more man-

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ageable keyboard, which was understandably favored by performers. Positives began to be placed in the chancel area of churches to assist the singing of plainsong by the clergy. Soon afterward some organists began to place a positive organ close to the keyboard of the great organ (by now generally located in the rear or side gallery of the church), making it possible to play both loudly and softly. From this it was but a short step to connect a small (positive) organ to the great organ so that both might be played from adjacent keyboards. The positive division so created came to be located on the gallery rail, immediately behind the organist's back (hence the German name, Riickpositiu), the keyboards of both organs being located in the front of the main organ. The use of separate *stops, whereby the player could select different ranks of pipes to play while others remained mute, seems to have begun in Italy during the first half of the 15th century. The oldest surviving organ with stops, built in 1470, is in the Church of St. Petronio in Bologna. As this development gradually spread across the Continent, an intermediate type of instrument appeared in Germany, having a great organ consisting of an undivided mixture and a smaller positive organ with stops. Gradually, individual stops began to be added to, or detached from, the main mixture of the great organ, leaving in the end individual stops of different timbres and pitches and one or more stops controlling grouped smaller pipes of higher unison and harmonic pitches. This last vestige of the Blokwerk survives in the harmonic-corroborating mixture stops of present-day organs in a much refined and improved form. Examples of these intermediate Blokwerk-and-positive organs, dating from the 16th century, are m the Abbey Church of Klosterneuburg (near Vienna) and in St. Nicolai, Utrecht (organ moved to the Koorkerk of Middelburg, Holland, in 1885). A Schlick, in his Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (1511), describes in detail a church organ ofthe 15th century that has individual and contrasting registers separately controllable, including diapasons (Prinzipale) from 8' to 2' pitch, mixtures of differing compositions (Zimbel, Rauschpfeife), various flute colors, Gemshbrner, and reed stops (Trompeten). Reed stops seem to have appeared scarcely a century before this time. Mechanically, the organ of Schlick's era had almost reached its final form. It had a regulated wind supply and a fairly sophisticated tracker action. It had barred chests and stop controls that put

stops on and off, either by the now common means of sliders or else by the ventil method [G. Springlade]. While the Gothic church organ and the positive organ are the true ancestors of the modern organ, two other instruments developed during the 14th century also deserve mention. These were the portative organ, or organetto, and the regal. Both were quite small, the former having a set of ordinary pipes of high pitch and a shortcompass keyboard, the latter producing sound by means of beating or free reeds. The regal was actually the ancestor of the modern reed organ or *harmonium. Both the portative and the regal could be carried by means of a strap around the neck, so that the player could work the bellows with his left hand and play on the keyboard with his right. Beginning in the 16th century, national schools of organ building began to develop, and these took distinct form during the 17th and early 18th centuries, that remarkable golden age of the organ, and continued a separate evolution until well into the 19th century. A. The German and Netherlands school of organ building was the first to develop a large organ having more than one manual keyboard, a versatile pedal keyboard, and an advanced and quite varied collection of stops of different pitches and colors, including many varieties of flute !!nd reed stops and complex mixture stops. By Praetorius' time a well-developed polyphonic instrument, controlled by an easily manipulated action and keyboards close in size to modern ones, was ready for the genius of Pachelbel, Buxtehude, and J. S. Bach. This was the much lauded baroque organ of Germany and the Netherlands, many outstanding examples of which have been preserved. Of a number of highly gifted builders who worked in this period, the North German Arp Schnitger stands out. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the equally brilliant Gottfried Silbermann flourished in South Germany. After the death of J. S. Bach (1750), both organ composition and organ building began a slow decline in Germany and an even slower one in the more conservative Netherlands. During the 19th century German organ builders swept headlong into decadence, seeking novelties for their own sake and cultivating a generally gross tonal quality .along with an emphasis on orchestrally imitative stops. B. By 1600 the French school had developed a versatile and unique type of organ that lasted in remarkably unaltered form until the late 18th

617

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ORGAN century. Like the German organ, it had a welldeveloped great organ and a colorful positive organ, but additional manual divisions were likely to be very limited or specialized and short in compass. While French organs probably possessed pedal divisions as early as German organs did, they never became as complete or independent. France's high point came early in the 18th century, which produced two illustrious builders, Fran~is Henri Clicquot and Andreas Silbermann (the brother of Gottfried). It was for the rich, silvery instruments of this period with their splendid reed stops and colorful mutations that F. Couperin, P. Du Mage (c. 1676-1751), J. F. Dandrieu, and N. de Grigny (1672-1703) wrote their unique organ Masses and Noels. During the 19th century a new· romantic school of builders sprang up almost full-blown in a few scant decades, led by the gifted Aristide Cavaille-Coll. The French romantic organ, while largely indebted to the orchestral concept of organ tone, was also outstanding in its own right, and it had a profound influence on the organ of the 20th century. C. Partly because of the ravages of the Commonwealth period, there remain no complete English organs of the 16th or early 17th centuries. The English organ received its first great impetus from Bernard Smith and Renatus Harris, who did the bulk of their important work c. 1680-1710 and influenced even foreign-born builders such as C. Shrider and J. Snetzler, as well as all English work up to the ear~y 19th century. Tonally, the 18th-century English organ bore many similarities to the French organ of the same period, especially with regard to the chorus work and the use of the tierce mutation, but it tended to be lighter and gentler. The characteristic that differentiated it most from Continental organs was its lack of a pedal. This was partially compensated for by a keyboard compass that extended down to (lOW) G 1 and sometimes F 1 below the normal low 8' C of Continental (and modem) manual divisions. The English 18th-century style continued well into the 19th century. Early in the 18th century a primitive swellbox was introduced, and early in the 19th equally primitive pedal boards. Like the French, the English moved somewhat abruptly into the romantic era, beginning with the work of William Hill (d. 1871) in the 1830's and culminating in the great mid- and late 19thcentury cathedral and concert-hall organs of the first Henry Willis, whose style still influences English organ building.

D. The Italian organ took shape early in the 16th century and remained little changed for the next three centuries. While they were among the first organs to have stops, Italian instruments of the 16th through mid-19th centuries seldom had more than one keyboard. Some had pedal boards, but often these were simply permanently coupled to the manual, having no independent pipes of their own. Although they had no mixture stops, they possessed a great variety of separately drawing mutations, commonly including the 22nd and sometimes extending even to the 36th. These mutations, especially the higher-pitched ones, broke back when the pipes became too small. They thus functioned in the chorus as the ranks of a mixture and were largely unsuited for solo use. Flute stops also appeared at several pitches, but reeds were almost nonexistent. A distinctive stop found in many early Italian organs was the voce umana (fiffaro), consisting of two ranks of mild principal pipes (tuned one sharper than the other, thus producing an undulating sound similar to that of modem celeste stops). The tone of Italian organs tended to be warm but not particularly loud, despite the complex chorus of mutations. The leading Italian builders were mostly members of the Antegnati family, which flourished in Brescia in the 16th and 17th centuries. E. The Spanish and Portuguese school had a development similar to the Italian and, like it, halted fairly early, in this case in the early 17th century. Spanish organs tended to be somewhat larger and louder than Italian ones. While they, too, had only crude coupled pedals, after the 16th century they often had two and occasionally three manuals, whose stops were commonly divided at c'. What distinguished Iberian organs from all others, however, was their rich and brilliant reed stops, which in most organs of any size were mounted horizontally from the front (en chamade) of the case. The first non-Iberian organ builder to see the possibilities in horizontal reeds was France's Cavaille-Coll. From France their use spread to other countries, and today such reeds can be found all over America and Europe. F. The earliest organs in America were either imported from Spain or built by imported organ builders in the 16th and 17th centuries for the cathedrals and monasteries of Mexico and Central and South America. There are records of organs being used in Quebec churches as early at the 1660's, at least one of which was sent from Paris. In the early 18th century the German

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ORGAN

colonists iJl Pennsylvania and the surrounding areas began to import small chamber organs and positives from their homeland, and shortly thereafter organs of English make began to appear in New England, New York, and Virginia. By the mid-18th century two indigenous schools of organ building had begun to develop, in eastern Pennsylvania and around Boston. The dominant figure of this period was David Tannenberg (1728-1804) of Lititz, Pennsylvania, who built a number of excellent organs, including at least one with three manuals. After his death the Pennsylvania school rapidly waned, to be superseded by the fast-growing New York and Boston schools. During the first half of the 19th century Henry Erben (1800-84) and George Jardine (1801-c. 1883) were the undisputed leaders of the former, while William M. Goodrich (1777-1833), Thomas Appleton (17851872), and the Hook brothers (Elias, 1805-81; and George G., 1807-80) distinguished themselves in the latter. Whereas the Pennsylvania school had built a distinctly German organ in the South German tradition, the Boston school was thoroughly English in its orientation, as was the New York school. Indeed, the Boston group continued to build in almost pure 18th-century English style until the mid-1850's, when the new romantic movement finally began to be felt. By the 1870's and 1880's the revolution in concept and assimilation of European ideas was fully accomplished. Leaders in this new movement were Hilborne Roosevelt (1849-86) in New York, George Hutchings (1835-1913) in Boston, and the Casavant brothers in Montreal. The advent of electropneumatic action at the turn of the century gave free rein to innovators such as John T. Austin, Ernest M. Skinner, and the Englishman Robert Hope-Jones. The last-named was the inventor of the unit organ and the father of the "theatre organ," a totally orchestrally oriented instrument developed for the performance of popular music and the accompaniment of silent movies. Although Albert Schweitzer issued a plea for an "organ reform" as early as the first decade of the 20th century [see Organ reform], it was not heeded in America for at least twenty years. Then came pioneers such as W. Lynnwood Farnam, who commanded world-wide attention by playing the complete works of Bach in recital during the 1920's, and the organ builders G. Donald Harrison (1889-1956) and Walter Holtkamp, who began to explore the way back to traditional organ tone in the 1930's. From the efforts of such individuals and their

many successors the organ in the next three decades regained much of its former stature as a unique instrument with its own literature, both in America and abroad. Lit. For I-XI: F. Bedos de Celles, L'Art du Facteur d'Orgues, 4 vols. (1766; repr. 1934, '63); G. A. Audsley, TheArtofOrgan-Building(1905; repr. 1965); id., Organ Stops and Their Artistic Registration (1921); J. G. Topfer, Lehrbuch der Orgelbaukunst, (1855; repr. 1955, vol. i); P.-G. Anderson, Orgelbogen (1955); J. Adlung, Musica Mechanica Organoedi (1768); M. Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, part ii (1618; Eng. trans. 1949); C. Antegnati, L'Arte Organica (1608; repr. 1938); H. Norman and H. J. Norman, The Organ Today (1966); J. I. Wedgwood, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Organ Stops, rev. ed. (1907); N. A. Bonavia-Hunt, The Organ Reed (1951); J. Blanton, The Organ in Church Design (1956); id., The Revival of the Organ Case (1966); W. & T. Lewis, Modern Organ Building (1939); G. Frotscher, Deutsche Orgeldispositionen aus 5 Jahrhunderten (1939); J. B. Jamison, Organ Design and Appraisal (1959); H. Klotz, Uber die Orgelkunst des Gotik (1934); J. Broadhouse, The Organ Viewed from Within [1914]; H. Smith, Modern Organ Tuning [1902]; J. Matthews, The Restoration of Organs (1920). For XII: W. L. Sumner, The Organ, rev. ed. (1962); P. Williams, The European Organ, 14501850 (1966); C. F. A. Williams, The Story of the Organ (1903); E. J. Hopkins and E. F. Rimbault, The Organ: Its History and Construction (1855; 3rd ed., 1877); C. Clutton and G. Dixon, The Organ: Its Tonal Structure and Registration (1950); C. Clutton and A. Niland, The British Organ (1963); J. Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium (1962); A. Schweitzer, Deutsche und Franzosische Orgelbaukunst und Orgelkunst (1927); A. Bouman, Orgels in Nederland, rev. ed. (1956); A. G. Hill, The Organ-Cases and Organs of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, 2 vols. (1883, '91); M. A. Vente, Die Brabanter Orgel (1958); A. Werckmeister, Erweiterte und verbesserte Orgelprobe (1698; fac. repr. 1927); A. Schlick, Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (1511; repr. 1951); H. G. Farmer, The Organ of the Ancients (1931); R. Quoika, Das Positiv in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1957); W. Supper, Kleines Orgelbrevier fur Architekten (1959); F. Munger, Schweitzer Orgeln von der Gotik bis zur Gegenwart (1961); N. Dufourcq, Documents inedits relatifs a l'orgue fram;ais, 2 vols. (1934, '35); G. Moortgat, Oude Orgels in Vlaanderen, 2 vols. (1964, '65); W. Haacke,

619

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ORGAN CHORALE

Orgeln in Aller Welt (1965); A. Cellier and H. Bachelin, L'Orgue (1933); J. L. C. Hure, L'Esthetique de l'orgue (1923). See also Organ

music; Organ playing. I-XI by c.B.F., E.W.F., and

J.F.;

XII by

B.J.o.

Organ chorale. A polyphonic composition for

organ based on a *chorale melody (excluding simple harmonizations such as those suitable for accompanying congregational singing). Although the term is commonly used only for the polyphonic settings of German Protestant chorales, the earlier organ settings of hymns of the Roman Catholic Church must also be considered. I. Roman Catholic hymn settings. Beginning in the early 15th century (Codex Faenza), various items of the service that until then had been performed in the traditional plainsong were replaced by organ compositions. Among them were items of the Mass Ordinary [see Organ Mass], the Magnificat, antiphons, and some items of the Mass Proper, notably Introits and Offertories. The hymns also were subject to this process, which, although it hastened the decline of Gregorian chant, became the chief impetus for the development of organ music. The earliest extant organ hymns are found in Paumann's "Fundamentum organisandi" (1452) and in the Bu:xheim Organ Book (c. 1460-70). These sources include several settings of two German hymns, "Benedicite Allmachtiger Gott'' and "Christ ist erstanden," as well as compositions of Latin hymns such as "Veni creator spiritus," "0 gloriosa Domina," "Dies est leticie," etc. The original melodies usually appear in the lowest part (tenor), frequently ornamented or paraphrased. Arnolt Schlick's Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesangk (1512) contains a setting of the German hymn "Maria zart" in which, for the first time, the melody is made to stand out clearly in the soprano [see HAM, no. 101]. It is a remarkably early example of the so-called melody chorale, one of the standard types of the 17thcentury Protestant organ chorale or organ prelude. Leonhard Kleber's tablature of c. 1517 includes a "Maria zart" by Buchner (designated Fuga optima) that may be regarded as an early example of the chorale motet, since every phrase of the melody is treated in imitation. Hans Buchner's "Fundamentum" (c. 1525) contains settings of "Veni creator spiritus" and others, treated in *cantus planus style or in imitation. An anonymous "In dulci jubilo" from Sicher's tablature [repr. in H. Moser, Frilhmeister der

deutschen Orgelkunst (1930), p. 7] is interesting in that its canonic treatment is remarkably similar to that in J. S. Bach's setting of the same hymn. The hymns of A. de Cabez6n (1510-66) are noteworthy for their strict adherence to the liturgical melodies ("Ave maris stella," "Pange lingua," etc.), which are usually presented in strict cantus planus style, without figuration or *Vorimitation. Five of his settings are chorale motets [*Editions XX, 3, pp. 50ff]. Cavazzoni's Intavolatura (1542) contains twelve hymns, most of which are also in cantus planus style but in faster values (semibreves, instead of Cabez6n's breves) and always with Vorimitation [see SchGMB, no. 103]. H1s "Pange lingua" is a particularly impressive chorale motet. John Red· ford (c. 1485-1545; see HAM, no. 120) often replaces the original plainsong with a derivative melody resulting from the use of faburden technique [see Faburden (2)] or of elaborate paraphrasing. The Mulliner Book of c. 1560 [*Editions XXXIV, 1] contains organ hymns by Allwood, John Blitheman, and Thomas Tallis. Blitheman's "Eterne rerum conditor" is an early example of chorale variation, as is John Bull's "Telluris ingens conditor" [*Editions XXXIV 14, p. 134]. The main development of the Roman Catholic organ hymn ended with the Hymnes de l'Eglise (1623) of Jean Titelouze, which contains twelve hymns, each treated as a series of three or four variations called "versets" and obviously meant to be played in alternation with verses (i.e., hymn stanzas) sung in plainsong. Some of the variations are in cantus planus style, some in motet style, and still others in the form of a canon above the cantus jirmus. II. The Protestant organ chorale. In the German Protestant Church the organ chorale assumed a role quite different from that in the Roman Catholic service. In the latter, it served as a substitute for plainsong, from which it inherited its liturgical function. In the Protestant Church, the singing of the chorale became the privilege of the congregation, and it was the organist's duty not only to accompany the singing but also to play the chorale beforehand on the organ as an introduction (hence the German organ chorale is often called *chorale prelude). This novel function stimulated the development of new techniques of composition. Former devices such as elaborate paraphrasing or fa burden technique, as well as the tendency to place the melody in the tenor as a cantus planus having structural rather than melodic significance, were

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ORGAN CHORALE largely discarded. The Lutheran chorales, differing from the Gregorian chants mainly in that they consisted of several clearly marked phrases, were made to stand out in the soprano (melody chorale), sometimes provided with figurative or (later) expressive ornamentation (ornamented chorale), and even in chorale motets were treated so as to be readily recognizable to the congregation. The outset of this development is marked by a collection of c. 20 compositions in E. Nicolaus Ammerbach's Orgel oder Instrument Tabulatur (1571, '83) and 77 compositions in the "Tabulaturbuch auff dem Instrumente" (1598) by Augustus Normiger. All these settings have a texture similar to that of the final chorales in J. S. Bach's cantatas, i.e., essentially homophonic but interspersed with polyphonic elements. Considerably longer and more elaborate settings, approaching the chorale motet and even the *chorale fantasia, are found in the Tablature of Celie (1601). Entirely different are the organ chorales of the Dutch composer J.P. Sweelinck, who cultivated exclusively the chorale variation, a type rarely used before. Sweelinck's contemporary, Michael Praetorius, composed (in addition to six Latin hymns) three Lutheran chorales -"Ein feste Burg," "Christ unser Herr," "Wir glauben all" -as magnificent chorale motets of huge dimensions and complexity. Sweelinck's immediate German successor was Samuel Scheidt, who adopted his master's preference for the chorale variation. Exceptional is his fantasia (actually a chorale motet) "Ich ruf zu Dir," one of the outstanding works of the entire literature, which anticipates in form, style, and expression such works as Bach's *chorale motet "Jesus Christus unser Heiland" (BG xxv). The historical development between Scheidt and Bach followed two lines, a North German and a Middle German (for the composers, see Organ music II A; the South German organ composers, being Roman Catholic, naturally made no contribution to the repertory). In North Germany there was a distinct preference for extended treatment and for the free, rhapsodic type known as chorale fantasia, while the organ chorales of the Middle German masters are shorter and simpler, chiefly *chorale fugues, melody chorales, or chorale variations (partitas). Bach utilized all the forms of the past and, needless to say, attained in them new heights of expression and artistic perfection. The following types can be clearly distinguished: (a) cantus .firmus (more properly, cantus planus) chorale-

the chorale melody in long notes usually in the bass (BG iii, 224; BG iii, 234; NBA iv/2, 3); (b) *chorale motet-each line of the chorale is treated in imitation, resulting in a succession of "fugues" (BG xxv or NBA iv/2, 87; NBA iv/2, 212); (c) *chorale fugue-the first line or the initial phrase of the chorale is treated as a fugue (BGiii, 205; BGiii, 239; NBA iv/3, 65); (d) *melody chorale-the chorale appears as a continuous melody in the soprano, accompanied by contrapuntal parts that usually proceed in definite figures (most of the chorales from the Orgelbuchlein; see Figured chorale); (e) ornamented chorale-the chorale is used in the soprano with elaborate and expressive ornamentation (N BA iv/2, 55; Orgelbuchlein in BG xxv2, 57); (f) chorale canon (Orgelbiichlein in BG xxv2, 45; BG xxv2, 12); (g) *chorale fantasia-free, North German treatment (NBA iv/3, 16; NBA iv/3, 24); (h) *chorale variations (partitas)-a number of variations (corresponding to the number of stanzas of the text) on the chorale melody (NBA iv/2, 38). Naturally, these methods of treatment frequently overlap, e.g., the chorale prelude "Num komm der Heiden Heiland" (NBA iv/2, 55) and many others combine the principle of imitation, as in the motet, with the ornamented treatment for the final statement ofthe "subject." Among later contributions to the repertory, the chorale preludes of Brahms (op. 122) and H. Kaminsky merit special mention. Lit.: G. Kittler, Geschichte des protestantischen Orgelchorals (1931); F. Dietrich, Geschichte des deutschen Orgelchorals im 17. Jahrhundert (1932); Stainton de B. Taylor, The Chorale Preludes of J. S. Bach (1942); W. Apel, "Die Celler Orgeltabulatur von 1601" (MFxix); W. Breig, inAMW xvii (Sweelinck); W. H. Frere, "Bach's Vorspiele of 1739" (ML i, 218); C. Macpherson, "ChoralPreludes" (PMA xxxix); E. Fisher-Kri.ickeberg, "Johann Cri.igers Choralbearbeitungen" (ZMW xiv). Also see under Organ music. Organetto [It.]. A 14th-century name for portative organ; see Organ XII. Organ hymn. See Organ chorale I. Organicen, organoedus. Humanist names for organ player, organist. Organista [L.]. Organ player, organist. However, the term "optimus organista," conferred on Leoninus (c. 1200; see Ars antiqua) by the late 13th-century Anon. IV of CS i characterizes this master as a "great composer of organa" [see Organum (2)], not as a "very able organist."

621

ORGAN MUSIC

ORGAN/STRUM Organistrum [L.]. Medieval name for *hurdygurdy. Organ Mass [G. Orgelmesse]. Polyphonic composition of the Mass, nearly always the Ordinary, for organ. The Codex Faenza of c. 1400 contains a single Kyrie as well as two Kyrie-Gloria sets, all based on the corresponding items of the Gregorian Mass IV [see Mass A] and composed according to a structural principle encountered in nearly all organ Masses, i.e., alternation of organ music and plainsong [see Alternation]. The pieces are in two parts, the cantus jirmus appearing in long notes [see Cantus planus style] in the tenor against an upper part in lively motion. Similar settings of the Gloria, Credo, and K yrie are preserved in German sources from c. 1430-50 [see Editions XI, I]. The Buxheim Organ Book (c. 1460--70) contains a number of items composed in a more advanced style, among them a Kyrie in four-part chordal style. In the 16th century we find complete organ Masses including all five items (sometimes without the Credo), each composed according to the alternation principle, in Germany (Buchner, "Fundamentum," c. 1525), France (Attaingnant, Tabulature pour lejeu d'orgues, 1531), England (Philipp ap Rhys, in Brit. Mus. Add 29996, c. 1540) and Italy (Giaches Buus, in a manuscript from Castell'Arquato, c. 1540). G. Cavazzoni's Intabolatura d'organo (1543?) contains three such Masses, one for feasts of the Lord (Missa Dominicalis), one for feasts of Saints (Missa Apostolorum; see HAM, no. 117), and one for feasts of the Virgin (Missa de Beata Virgine). The same three Masses were composed by Merulo (Messe d'intavolatura, 1568). All organ Masses belong to the type known as plainsong Mass [see Mass C II a]. The Mass Proper is represented by a number of Introits (Buxheim Organ Book, H. Buchner), Offertories (Redford and other English composers; see Felix namque), and a singular composition by Preston, consisting of the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, and sequence for Easter Sunday. In the 17th century the organ Mass was cultivated mainly in Italy and France. Frescobaldi, in his Fiori musicali of 1635, provided music for the same three Masses as Cavazzoni and Merulo. However, only the Kyrie is fully represented by a number of plainsong settings, to which are added a number of free organ pieces to be played at the beginning of the Mass (Toccata avanti Ia Messa), after the reading of the Epistle (Canzona dopo l'Epistola), after the Credo

(Ricercare dopo il Credo), during the Elevation of the Host (Toccata cromatica per l'elevazione), and after the Communion (Canzona post il Communio). French organ Masses by Nivers (1667), Gigault (1685), Lebegue (1687), F. Couperin (1690), N. de Grigny (1699), and Corrette (1703) are structurally similar to those of the 16th century, consisting of the required number of pieces for the K yrie, Gloria, Sanctus, and Agnus, usually with the addition of an Offertoire. The pieces for the Kyrie are often based on the Kyrie IV [see LU, p. 25], while the others are freely composed. Bach wrote what has been call~d a "German organ Mass" in his *Clavier-Ubung, pt. iii. According to A. Schering (Die Niederliindische Orgelmesse, 1912), numerous Masses of the Flemish masters that are commonly regarded as vocal compositions were actually intended to be organ music. That this theory is untenable is evident in Schering's renditions for organ [see his Alte Meister aus der Frilhzeit des Orgelspiels (1913); also SchGMB, no. 57]; their highly complex texture is totally contrary to the organ style of the 15th century (Paumann, Buxheim Organ Book). Lit.: A. C. Howell, tFive French Baroque Organ Masses (1961); D. Plamenac, in CP 1952 (Codex Faenza); L. Schrade, in AMF i and MQ xxviii (15th-cent. Masses); C. Paesler, in VMWv (Buchner); D. Stevens, in MD vi (Philipp ap Rhys), ML xxxix, 29 (Preston); K. Jeppesen, in AMW xii (Castell'Arquato); A. Schering, "Zur alternatim Orgelmesse" (ZMW xvii); A. Tessier, "Les Messes d'orgue de Couperin" (RM 1924, no. I). Organ music. I. Middle Ages and Renaissance. Prior to 1300, the organ was played by alternately pushing in and pulling out handles with both hands [see Organ XII]. As a result, organ music could be no more than a monophonic succession of fairly sustained notes. There is evidence, however, of two organists' playing simultaneously and thus performing two-part *organum. Organs were probably also used to assist singers in performing the long-held notes in the tenors of the organa of Leoninus and Perotinus (c. 1200), and possibly also for the rendition of the tenors of 13th-century motets. The earliest preserved examples of organ music (c. 1325) are "intabulations of motets and *estampies in the MS Brit. Mus. Add 28550, the so-called Robertsbridge Codex [see Editions XI, 1]. They are usually assumed to be of English

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origin, although certain features, particularly the notation, would seem to point to Italy or perhaps France. A newly discovered source of great interest is the Codex Faenza (c. 1400), which contains some pieces for the *organ Mass and a large number ofintabulations, mostly of secular music (Machaut, Landini, Jacopo da Bologna, et a/; see D. Plamenac, in JAMS iv). Organ music of the 15th century is preserved only in various German tablatures [*Editions XI, 1], among which the Ileborgh tablature of 1448 [see W. Apel, in ZMW xvi] is remarkable for its free *preludes, Paumann's "Fundamentum organisandi" of 1452 for its elaborations of German songs and instructive pieces [see Counterpoint II], and the *Buxheim Organ Book of c. 1460-70 for its preludes, Mass compositions, and arrangements or transcriptions of German songs and French chansons. Toward the end of the 15th century Paulus Hofhaimer was famous for his organ playing and improvisation, but only two or three of his organ pieces have survived, along with compositions of his pupils Kotter, Sicher, Buchner, and Kleber [see Lit., Moser, Fruhmeister]. German organ music reached its first peak in the great master Amolt Schlick, whose Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesangk (1512; new ed. by G. Harms, 1957) contains a "Salve Regina," "Maria zart," and other liturgical compositions. A recently discovered MS contains, among others, a composition in ten voice-parts, four of them to be played on the pedal [see M.S. Kastner, Arnott Schlick, Hommage al'Empereur Charles-Quint (1954)]. The German tradition of this period is continued in some extensive tablatures of Polish origin, written c. 1550 [see Poland]. In the 16th century other important developments took place in Italy, Spain, England, and France. The Recerchari motetti canzoni of 1523 by M. A. Cavazzoni (Marcoantonio da Bologna) contains the earliest extant organ ricercars [see Ricercar II (b)]. The compositions of his son, Girolamo Cavazzoni-organ Masses, hymns, Magnificats, imitative ricercars, as well as the earliest organ canzonas [see Canzona !]-represent the artistic culmination of Italian 16thcentury organ music. M. A. Cavazzoni's works are republished in K. Jeppesen, Die italienische Orgelmusik am Anfang des Cinquecento and in *Editions X, no. 1; those of Girolamo Cavazzoni in *Editions III, 3 and complete in IX, 6. Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1520-86) made important contributions to the development of the ricercar [see Ricercar I (b)] and wrote the first *toccatas,

a form whose art1st1c possibilities were more fully realized by C. Merulo (1533-1604 ). The earliest extant source of Spanish organ music, a Libro de cifra nueva published by Venegas de Henestrosa in 1557 [*Editions XXXII, 2], contains mostly *tientos, some of them by the great master A. de Cabez6n (1510-66). Other organ works by Cabez6n-hymns, versets for the Psalms and the Magnificat, variations, and instructive pieces of rare excellence-are contained in the posthumous Obras de mW!ica of 1578 [*Editions XX, 3, 4, 7, 8]. In England there flourished before 1550 a remarkable school of organ composers represented chiefly by J. Redford (c. 1485-1547; see C. Pfatteicher, John Redford [1934]), whose numerous liturgical pieces (organ hymns) include some outstanding pieces in motet style. The Mulliner Book of c. 1560 [*Editions XXXIV, 1] contains liturgical organ compositions by Allwood, Blitheman (c. 1510-91), and Tallis (c. 1505-85) [see "Felix namque"; "In nomine"]. Finally, two French publications of 1531 (Attaingnant; see Editions XLIX, Sec. I, 5) give evidence of an early activity whose succession is unfortunately lost for nearly I 00 years, the next oldest source of French organ music preserved being the organ books by Titelouze (1563-1633) issued in 1623 and 1626 [*Editions I, 1]. II. Baroque. While Titelouze's organ hymns represent the late Renaissance, the works of his contemporary, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621), inaugurated the organ music ofthe baroque, establishing a new style characterized mainly by extensive use oflively figurations and precise motifs in ever-varying contours and rhythms. Sweelinck wrote long monothematic fantasias [see Fantasia (5)], some of which exploit the *echo effect of the organ, and also chorale variations based on German Protestant hymn tunes [see Organ chorale II]. A. Germany. Of Sweelinck's numerous pupils, Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654) is the most outstanding (Tabulatura nova, 1624; new ed. DdT 1). His organ compositions-chorale variations of Latin and German hymns, Magnificats, and fugal compositions (Fuga, Fantasia)-are somewhat less imaginative than those of his teacher but mark the beginning of a new development of German organ music that was to continue until the death of Bach. This development may be divided into three branches: North German, Middle German, and South German. In the first are H. Praetorius (1560-1629), M. Prae-

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torius (1571-1621), M. Schildt (1592/3-1667), H. Scheidemann (c. 1596-1663), D. Strungk (1601-94), F. Tunder (1614-67), M. Weckmann (1619-74), J. A. Reinken (1623-1722), J. N. Hanff(l630-17ll); D. Buxtehude (c. 1637-1707), V. Liibeck (1654-1740), G. Bohm (1661-1733), and N. Bruhns (1665-97)-composers who developed especially the large forms of organ music (toccata, chorale fantasia, prelude, and fugue) and evolved a free, highly imaginative style that has been termed *Gothic. The Middle German composers, in Thuringia and North Bavaria, worked with more modest and intimate means and contributed chiefly to the development of the chorale fugue and melody chorale. This line fittingly begins with Bach's great-uncle Heinrich Bach (1615-92), his uncles Johann Christoph (1645-93) and Johann Michael (164894; organ chorales in Ritter), and continues with J. Krieger (1651-1735; DTB 30), J.' Pachelbel (1653-1706; DTB 6), J. Kuhnau (1660-1722), J. H. Buttstett (1666-1727), and J. G. Walther (1684-1748; DdT26/27). An early South German school of organ music is represented by H. L. Hassler (1564-1612; DTB 7), C. Erbach (1573-1635; DTB 7), J. U. Steigleder (1593-1635; interesting variations on the Vater unser; ricercars, ed. by Emsheimer, 1928), W. Ebner (1612-65), and J. E. Kindermann (1616-55; DTB 32). Italian contrapuntal style and Italian forms such as the ricercar and canzona are important in their works. A new development began with J. J. Froberger (161667), who, as a pupil of Frescobaldi and a friend of French lutenists and clavecinists (Gaultier, Chambonnieres), brought to German organ music many new ideas derived from Frescobaldi's novel forms (toccata, variation canzona, *capriccio) and free, idiomatic keyboard style [see Freistimmigkeit], while French influence is seen chiefly in his harpsichord music (suite). The repertory of the later South German composers, such as J. K. Kerll (1627-93; DTB 3), Georg Muffat (1653-1704), G. von Reutter (16561738), F. X. Murschhauser(l663-l738; DTB 30), J. K. F. Fischer (c. 1665-1746; new ed. by E. von Werra, 1901), and Gottlieb Muffat (1690-1770; DTO 58), also has an "Italian division" of ricercars, canzonas, toccatas, and versets, and a "French division" of harpsichord music. B. Italy. The Italian organ music of the baroque began with the *Neapolitans G. M. Trabaci (c. 1580-1647) and A. May one (d. 1627), who are important links between Cabez6n and Frescobaldi [see Neapolitan school II]. Fresco-

baldi (1583-1643), a unique combination of intellectual scholar and highly imaginative artist, is one of the greatest and most fascinating composers of organ music. A predecessor of Frescobaldi's was E. Pasquini (d. c. 1620), and an immediate successor was M. A. Rossi (publication of 1657). Later Italian organ composers are G. Salvatore (early 17th cent.-c. 1688; *Editions XI, 3), B. Storace (publication of 1664; *Editions XI, 7), and D. Zipoli (1688-1726; *Editions IX, 36). C. France. French organ music of the 17th century is represented by H. Dumont (1610-84), G. Nivers (1632-1714), N. Gigault (c. 16251707), N.-A. Lebegue (1631-1702), A. Raison (d. 1719); Jacques Boyvin (c. 1653-1706), F. Couperin (1668-1733), N. de Grigny (16721702), L. Marchand (1669-1732), J.-F. Dandrieu (1628-1738), and L.-C. Daquin (1694-1772). Most of their compositions are liturgical pieces in a style that became increasingly secular and "operatic" during the course of the period. They are noteworthy for their emphasis on registration, which is usually carefully indicated [*Editions I]. D. England. None of the Continental forms of organ music was cultivated in England during the 17th century. Instead, composers such as C. Gibbons (1615-76), M. Locke (c. 1630-77), J. Blow (1648/9-1708), H. Purcell (c. 1658-95), J. Clarke (c. 1673-1707), and W. Croft (16781727) wrote verses and *voluntaries in a variety of styles and forms. Quite frequently these took the form of "fugue and postlude," or sometimes that of two fugues followed by a postlude. The fugues are written in a rather perfunctory manner, rapid figurations and homophonic measures appearing side by side with imitative passages. Handel's contribution to the organ repertory consists of his famous twenty concertos for organ and orchestra. E. Spain and Portugal. The Iberian Peninsula produced a huge repertory of organ music whose importance has only begun to be recognized. The Spaniards Sebastian A. de Heredia (c. 1565-after 1620) and F. Correa de Araujo (c. 1576-after 1633; Libro de tientos, 1626, new ed. by M. S. Kastner, 1948) wrote mostly *tientos, the former in a transitional style, the latter in a colorful baroque style in which the imitative element is almost suppressed by a luxuriant growth of ever-changing and often highly erratic figurations. The Portuguese M. R. Coelho (b. 1583) published Flores de musica (1620; new ed. by M. S. Kastner, 2 vols. [1959, '61]) containing

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tientos similar to those of Correa de Araujo as well as organ hymns, versets for the psalms and the Magnificat [see HAM, no. 200], and Kyries. Organ compositions by Pablo Bruna and others, probably born c. 1600-20, are preserved in MSS in El Escorial and Barcelona [see W. Apel, in AnM xvii]. The great master of the second half of the 17th century was J. B. J. Cabanilles (16441712), whose pupil, Jose Elias (1675-1749), said: "Ante ruet mundus quam surget Cabanilles secundus" (The world will go to ruins before another Cabanilles will arise). His hundreds of organ compositions (about one-half published in H. Angles, Joannis Cabanilles Opera omnia, i-iv) display a fascinating command of a great variety of forms and stylistic devices. Many hundreds of additional organ pieces in Portuguese and Spanish MSS (Bibl. municipal of Oporto, Libra de cyfra, Livro de obras de orgao; Madrid, Bibl. nac., 5 vols. compiled by A. Martiny Coli, 1706-09) have only begun to be investigated [see K. Speer, "A Portuguese Manuscript of Keyboard Music," diss. Indiana Univ., 1956; B. Hudson, "A Portuguese Source of Seventeenth-Century Iberian Organ Music," diss. Indiana Univ., 1961]. F. Bach. In organ music more than any other field, Bach represents the consummate peak of baroque music and, for that matter, of the entire literature. Here as elsewhere, his achievement was principally artistic perfection rather than innovation. Building on the forms and methods of his predecessors, he conferred on the chorale prelude an incomparable expressiveness and on the toccata and fugue a unique architectural structure, while his organ sonatas represent the apotheosis of three-voice counterpoint. III. 1750 to present. After Bach, organ music suffered a decline from which it did not recover until c. 1840. The low ebb of organ music c. 1800 ls beyond description (for examples, see an article by H. Muller, in KJ 1901). Mendelssohn was one of the first to compose organ music of artistic significance. However, his six Sonatas (1844-45), although incorporating elements of Bach's style (fugues, chorales), clearly show the detrimental influence of romanticism on organ composition. Liszt's organ works opened a new period of organ composition, owing to their exploitation of the orchestral and coloristic resources of the instrument. This path was pursued further by France's A. Guilmant (18371911), C. M. Widor (1844-1937), and L. Vierne (1870-1937), outstanding organ virtuosos who wrote veritable symphonies for the organ.

Franck's organ pieces, particularly his Trois Chorales of 1890, are in a similar style, modified by the spiritual influence of Bach. Much closer to Bach in style and spirit are Brahms' Chorale Preludes (Elf Choralvorspiele op. 122, 1896). With Reger (1873-1916) romantic organ music came to an imposing close. Huge forms are filled with an exuberance of ideas and a profusion of technical display but bound by great contrapuntal skill in the tradition of Bach. The neoclassical tendencies of the 1920's brought a more sincere revival of the polyphonic tradition of the baroque. H. Kaminski's ( 1886-1946) compositions are pervaded by a Gothic mysticism, while Kurt Thomas (b. 1904) and Hindemith (three organ sonatas, 1937, '40) represent the tendencies toward objectivism and linear design. In France, a similar trend led to the mysticism and sonorous visions of C. Tournemire, 0. Messiaen, and J. Alain. To these should be added the Belgian organ composer Flor Peeters. Lit.: A. C. D. de Brisay, The Organ and Its Music (1935); W. Apel, Geschichte der Orgel-und Klaviermusik bis 1700 (1967); G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposition, 2 vols. (1935, '36); LavEii.2, 1181-1374; A. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels (1884); 0. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts (1910); N. Dufourcq, La Musique d'orgue fram;aise de Jehan Titelouze a Jehan Alain (1941); M. Fischer, Die organistische Improvisation im 17. Jahrhundert (1929); H. Kelletat, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Orgelmusik in der Frilhklassik (1933); B. Weigl, Handbuch der Orgelliteratur (1931); [G. A. C. de Graaf], Literature on the Organ [1957]; J. Wolf, "Zur Geschichte der Orgelmusik im vierzehnten Jahrhundert" (KJ 1899, p. 14); W. Apel, "Du Nouveau sur la musique fran~aise pour orgue au XVIe siecle" (RM 1937, no. 172); J. E. West, "Old English Organ Music" (PMA xxxvii); F. Raugel, "The Ancient French Organ School" (MQ xi); K. G. Fellerer, "Zur italienischen Orgelmusik des 17./18. Jahrhunderts" (JMP xlv); 0. Mansfield, "Mozart's Organ Sonatas" (MQ viii); H. Grace, "Modern French Organ Music" (PMA xliv); N. Dufourcq, "Panorame de la musique d'orgue fran~aise au XXe siecle" (RM 1938, nos. 184-86; 1939, no. 189). Collections of old organ music: *Editions XI, I (14th-15th cent.); J. Klein, The First Four Centuries of Music for the Organ, 2 vols. [1948]; H. J. Moser, Frilhmeister der deutschen Orgelkunst (1930); K. Straube, Alte Meister [n.d.]; id., Alte Meister des Orgelspiels, 2 vols. [1929, '53]; id.,

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ORGAN PLAYING Choraluorspiele alter Meister [1907; repub. 1951]; · *Editions XLI, ser. 4; E. Kaller, et al., Liber organi, 10 vols. [1931-58]; G. Gerdes, 46 Choriile for Orgel [1957]; *Editions XVIII, 9; H. J. Moser, Choralbearbeitungen und freie OrgelstUcke der deutschen Sweelinck-Schule, 2 vols. (1954, '55); E. Kraus, Cantantibus organis, 12 vols. [ 1959-64]; *Editions III, 3 (Italy); *Editions I, l-10 (France); F. Raugel, Les Maitres fram;ais de !'argue, 2 vols. [1951]; J. E. West, Old English Organ Music, 3 vols. (1906); D. Stevens, Altenglische Orgelmusik (1953); F. Pedrell, Antologia de organistas cltisicos espafwles; L. Villalba Munoz, A ntologia de organistas cldsicos espafwles (1914). See also Organ chorale; Organ Mass. Organ playing. For a short historical account,

see Organ XII. Lit. (selected; see also under Organ): H. Gleason, Method of Organ Playing, rev. ed. (1962); S. Irwin, Dictionary of Pipe Organ Stops [1962]; E. H. Geer, Organ Registration in Theory and Practice [1957]; C. N. Boyd, Organ Registration and Accompaniment, 2 vols. (1932); N. A. B. Hunt, Modern Organ Stops (1923); C. Dickinson, The Technique and Art of Organ Playing (1922); H. F. Ellingford, The Art of Transcribing for the Organ (1922); H. Grace, The Complete Organist (1920); G. B. Nevin, A Primer of Organ Registration (1920); E. Bruggaier, Studien zur Geschichte des Orge!pedalspiels (1959); T. Schneider, Die Namen der Orgelregister (1958); H. Gleason, "Organ Instruction before Bach" (BAMS iv); P. Hardouin, "Essai d'une semantique des jeux de l'orgue" (AM xxxiv). Organ point. See Pedal point. Organ reform [G. Orgelbewegung]. A movement

to reform methods of organ building, begun

c. 1900 by Albert Schweitzer and others. Its aim is to reestablish in modern practice many of the techniques of 17th- and 18th-century organ building that are considered essential in an organ for the proper interpretation of polyphonic music, particularly that of Bach and his predecessors. Another aim is to foster new growth in organ composition. See Organ XI, ~~XII. Organ stops. See under Organ VIII-XI. For bibl.,

see under Organ; Organ playing. Organ tablature. (I) The various notational systems that were used to write down early organ music (prior to 1600). They are usually

distinguished as Italian, German, Spanish, etc., organ tablature. However, in Italy as well as in France and England, organ music was notated in virtually the same way as it is today, except for minor details, such as variations in the number of staff lines. Only in Germany and in Spain was organ music (more generally, keyboard music) written in systems that could truly be called "tablature." See Tablature. (2) The manuscripts and printed books of early organ music. As under (1), the name should be restricted to German and Spanish sources. Long lists of organ tablatures (French, Italian, English, German, and Spanish) are given in WoHN ii, 32ff, 270ff, 278. Organum. (I) Latin for organ. In early writings (church fathers, lives of Saints) the term "organum" has as great a variety of meanings as the English word "organ" (part of the body, medium, etc.). Failure to recognize this fact has led to unwarranted conclusions concerning the use of the organ in the 6th to 8th centuries. St. Augustine (A.D. 354-430) says in two different passages that "organum is the name for all musical instruments," adding in one, "not only for that which is big and is inflated by bellows," and in the other, "although it has become customary to use it properly for those which are inflated by bellows" [see W. Ape!, in Speculum xxiii, 201]. (2) Name for the earliest types of polyphonic music, from the 9th century ("Musica enchiriadis") to c. 1200 (Leoninus, Perotinus). The question of a connection between organum = polyphony and organum = organ is usually answered in the negative. The fact that until II 00 (if not later) the "push-and-pull" mechanism of organs permitted playing only one line [see Organ XII] seems to rule out this possibility. There is, however, literary and pictorial evidence that organs were occasionally played by two organists in a sort of "four-hand" performance, resulting in the simultaneous sounding of two melodies-i.e., a primitive type of polyphony. In the broadest sense, organum is a composition consisting of a liturgical (plainsong) tenor to which one or more contrapuntal parts (duplum, trip!am, quadruplum) are added. In earlier organmn (prior to 1150) there was, judging from the relatively few preserved examples, no restriction as to the type of plainsong chosen as the basis for organum; syllabic hymns and sequences seem to have been preferred. In this period, therefore,

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organum means a general technique of composition. In the school of Notre Dame, organum treatment became restricted to a few types of plainsong, mainly Graduals, Alleluias, and responsories, resulting in a much narrower meaning for the term [see V]. The following phases of the development can be distinguished: I. Parallel organum (c. 900-1050). To the main part, called vox principalis, is added a vox organa/is at the lower fifth or fourth, note against note. Either or both parts can be duplicated at the octave, so that the sound d-a is amplified to A-d-a, d-a-d', D-d-a, d-a-a', d-a-d'-a', etc. (composite organum). In the organum at the fourth the parallelism of the parts is usually observed only in the middle of the phrase, while at the beginning and end the parts move in oblique motion, starting and ending in unison [*occursus; see Tritone]. This type, the converging organum at the fourth [Ex. 2], probably is much more representative of the earliest polyphony than the organum at the fifth [Ex. 1], which may have been primarily a theoretical speculation. Of the various sources-*"Musica (and Scholia) enchiriadis," treatises of Cologne, Paris, Bamberg, Guido's "Micrologus" of c. 1040-the firstmentioned is the only one that discusses organum at the fifth. For "organum at the second," see under Lombardic style; for "organum at the third," see Gymel. II. Free and contrary organum (c. 1050-1150). In the second half of the 11th century, contrary motion began to be used side by side with parallel motion (in fourths, fifths, occasionally even thirds) and oblique motion. This type may be called "free organum." In addition to theoretical sources (Ad organum faciendum, in Milan [Ex. 3]; short treatise of Montpellier) there are long compositions written in this style, especially the famous "Ut tuo propitiatus" [HAM, no. 26b] and five Alleluias in Chartres MS 109 [HAM, no. 26c]. The numerous organa in the 11thcentury Winchester Troper are written in neumes that make exact reading impossible. The often repeated statement that this source shows clear evidence of contrary motion is very questionable. John Cotton, in his "Musica" of c. 1100, emphasizes the importance of contrary motion, saying that "whenever the original melody rises, the organa! part should descend, and vice versa" [Ex. 4]. This method, which may be termed "contrary organum," became the foundation of the subsequent development of polyphony. As a concomitant, the fourth tends to disappear, or at least be replaced by the fifth as the main con-

sonance after the unison and the octave. The two parts frequently cross. III. Melismatic organum (mid-12th century). This type is characterized by the use of groups of notes in the added part against a single note of the original part, the length of such a group varying from a few notes to long melismas. As a result, the original becomes a succession of "held" tones and came to be called *tenor. The new style continued to be called "organum," the older note-against-note style now being termed *discant. The melismatic treatment, of course, greatly lengthens the composition [cf. HAM, nos. 28a and b; also nos. 26a and 27b]. Examples of pure melismatic organum occur particularly in the Codex Calixtinus from *Compostela [Ex. 5]. The organa of *St. Martial often have sections in organa! style side by side with others in discant style [see HAM, no. 27a]. IV. Measured organum (before and after 1200). In the organa of the school of Notre Dame, the alternation of organa! and discant sections became a standard practice and was usually applied so that the syllabic or neumatic sections of the plainsong were composed in a profuse style (up to 40 or more notes against one) and its melismatic sections in a concise style (one to three notes against one). Of the greatest importance was the introduction of measured rhythm,

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I. Parallel organum at the fifth ( "Musica enchiriadis"). 2. Converging organum at the fourth (ibid.). 3. Free organum (Milanese treatise). 4. Contrary organum (Cotton).

627

ORGELBUCHLEIN

ORGANUM Organum (S)

Plamsong (C)

fine~

V 1derunt omne"

terrae

terra

Organum (S)

X" Notum lecJt

5. Melismatic organum (Compostela). 6. Measured organum (Notre Dame; two rhythmic versions, see HAM, no. 29, and Waite, The Rhythm of TwelfthCentury Polyphony, p. 120).

according to the rhythmic *modes. In the earliest Notre Dame organa, all in two parts and presumably composed by Leoninus [see "Magn~s liber organi"], modal rhythm is clearly pres_ent m the discant sections, though less clearly m the others [Ex. 6; see HAM, nos. 28c, 29]. This type of organum is referred to by theorists as organum duplum, organum purum, or organum p~r se. Modal rhythm became fully established m the works of Perotinus, who wrote numerous organa in three parts (organum trip/urn; see HAM, no. 31) as well as two gigantic organa quadrupla, which represent the acme of organum as well as the end of the development. V. In the school of Notre Dame (partly already in the earlier schools), polyphonic treatment and, therefore, the term "organum" was restricted to certain types of plainsong, mainly Graduals, Alleluias, responsories, and the *"Benedicamus Domino." Note that only the soloist sections of such a chant were used as a basis for polyphonic composition. For example, in a Gradual only the Incipit of the respond and the entire verse, except for its conclusion, were composed polyphonically, the ~e~aining portions being supplied by the chmr m plamsong [for the structure of the Graduals, see Psalmody II]. This practice strongly suggests that the organum (i.e., polyphonic) sections were performed by a small number of soloists, not a full chorus. The scheme below illustrates the performance of Perotinus' Christmas gradual "Viderunt" in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, c. 1200 (S = soloists, C = choir).

revela\Jt

JU,IItmm suam

Lit.: OH i,passim; ReMMA,passim, bibl. 45156; W. Kriiger, Die authentische Klangform des primitiven Organum (1958); A. Geering, Die Organa und mehrstimmigen Conductus [1952]; F. Ludwig, Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili (1910); L. B. Spiess, "Polyphony in Theory and Practice from the Ninth to the Close of the Thirteenth Century" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1942; rev. 1948); W. G. Waite, tThe Rhythm of Twelfth-Century Polyphony (1954; organa dupla); T. Gollner, Formen fruher Mehrstimmigkeit in deutschen Handschriften des spiiten Mittelalters (1961); H. Husmann, tDie drei- und vierstimmigen Notre-DameOrgana (1940); id., Die dreistimmigen Organa der Notre Dame-Schule (1935); Helmut Schmidt, tDrei Benedicamus Domino-Organa (1933); F. Spreitzer, "Studien zum Formaufbau der dreistimmigen Organumkompositionen" (diss. Freiburg, 1951 ); W. Waite, "Discantus, Copula, Organum" (JAMS v); J. Handschin, "Zur Geschichte der Lehre vom Organum" (ZMW viii); id., "L'Organum a l'eglise" (RCG xl, xli); P. Wagner, "Uber die Anfange des mehrstimmigen Gesangs" (ZMW ix); W. Apel, "The Earliest Polyphonic Composition" (RBM x); id., "Bemerkungen zu den Organa von St. Martial" (CP Angles i); J. Handschin, "Der OrganumTraktat von Montpellier" (CP Adler); id., "Zur Geschichte der Lehre vom Organum" (ZMW viii); R. Ficker, "Der Organumtraktat der Vatikanischen Bibliothek" (KJ 1932). See also under Notre Dame, school of; St. Martial, school of; Musica enchiriadis; "Magnus liber organi." Organ vers. See Verset. Orgel [G.]. Organ. Orgelmesse, *organ Mass. Orgelpunkt, pedal point. Orgelwalze, barrel organ [see Mechanical instruments II]. Orgelbiichlein [G.]. Original title of a manuscript by J. S. Bach that contains forty-five organ chorales but was intended to include many more,

628

ORGUE

ORNAMENTATION

since numerous pages are empty except for the name of the chorale. All the compositions are short settings, mostly of the melody-chorale type. The collection was probably made toward the end of Bach's stay in Weimar (1708-17). According to the title inscription, it was designed "to instruct a beginning organist how to set a chorale in diverse manners and also how to acquaint himself with the pedal, this being treated fully obligato." Orgue [F.]. Organ. Orgue de Barbarie, the barrel organ of the Italian organ grinder, consisting of one or two rows of small organ pipes in a small portable case, operated by turning a handle. Barbarie is a corruption of the name of an 18thcentury instrument-maker, Giovanni Barberi of Modena. See A. Schaeffner, "L'Orgue de Barbari de Rameau" ( CP Masson). Orgue express if, *harmonium. Orgue positif, positive organ [see Organ XII]. Oriental music. Generic term for the music of the Near and Far East: Arabia, China, India, etc. [see under individual countries; also Ethnomusicology]. Oriental music represents a cultural development comparable to that of Western music, the basic difference being that in the former the emphasis has been on melody and rhythm and in the latter on counterpoint and harmony. "Polyphonic" traits are not uncommon in the music of the East but are limited to rhythmic accompaniment, drones, and *heterophonic elements. Oriental music has influenced Western music chiefly through two channels: (1) the Jews and the early Christian Church; and (2) the Arabs in Spain. The former influence persists in Gregorian chant, and the latter in many musical instruments and certain elements of theory and acoustics [see Arab music]. Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise ofMusic [ 1943]; Hirosi Endo, Bibliography of Oriental and Primitive Music (1929); R. Lachmann, Musik des Orients (1929); id., in BilHM xii; R. Lach, "Die Musik der Natur- und orientalischen Kulturvolker" (AdHM); separate articles in LavE, NOH i. See also under Ethnomusicology and specific countries. Ornamentation. Musical ornamentation originated as a spontaneous act by the interpreter who, in performing a written or traditional melody, enlivened, expanded, or varied it through his technique of improvisation. The more or less stereotyped melodic figures that, in

the course of this process, have been substituted for or added to the original notes of the melody are known as ornaments. Throughout the history of music there have been three kinds of ornamentation: I. that left entirely to the improvisation of the performers; II. that in which definite ornaments are indicated by some sort of written sign; III. that in which the ornaments are written out in notes. I. Improvised ornamentation. There is evidence that the early singers of Gregorian chant indulged in extemporaneous ornamentation of the traditional melodies, and that some of the variations created in this manner were eventually incorporated in the MSS. Tunstede (c. 1370) describes a type of improvised harmonization [see Discantus supra librum] that also calls for the introduction of improvised figurations [see CS iv, p. 294]. In the 16th century improvised ornamentation, known as diminutio, had its center at the papal chapel in Rome, where the singers ornamented and completely transformed works by Willaert, Lassos, Palestrina, et a!. All the voices of a polyphonic composition were susceptible to ornamentation. Hermann Finck, in his Practica Musica (1556), states that "the character of the coloratura depends upon the skill and the individuality of the executant. My own view is that all voices must be ornamented, but not simultaneously, so that each voice will be brought out in turn." Zacconi (Prattica di musica, 1592) writes that the art of diminution, also known as *gorgia, "charms the listener, especially when in four-, five-, or six-part pieces two voices stand out and sing solos together. It is a delight when one part of the piece is sung with improvised diminutions and the rest played upon instruments." There are a number of manuals for teaching the art of improvised diminution. The two earliest are Sylvestro Ganassi's Opera intitulata Fontegara (1535) and Diego Ortiz's Tratado de glosas (1553). Ex. 1 shows diminutions by G. dalla Casa (II vero modo di diminuir, 1584) to Palestrina's madrigal "Vestiva i colli." Diminutions (known in Spain as *glosas, in England as *divisions) were also used in purely instrumental performance. The fame of Merulo, the two Gabrielis, and Cabezon rested largely on the free and vivid improvisation with which they inspired seemingly dry pieces. In many of the 16th-century treatises specific name are used for certain small melodic formulas that consist of either the repetition of a single note or the rapid alternation of two (or three) adjacent notes. To the former type belongs the

629

ORNAMENTATION

ORNAMENTATION

Handel's Messiah [Ex. 3] and a flute sonata by Quantz [Ex. 4] illustrate typical 18th-century practice.

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Italian trillo (an accelerated *tremolo); to the latter (*trills), the tremolo, groppo, and ribattuta, as well as the Spanish redoble and quiebro and the English *relish [see Ex. 2]. Caccini, Cavalieri, and 2 trillo

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other 17th-century Italian musicians urged using these small ornaments, which they call effetti, as a special means of expression. It was in F ranee, however, and under the name agrements that these ornaments finally became stereotyped and were systematized to the extent that it was possible to indicate them by signs or abbreviations and to establish definite rules for introducing them extemporaneously. Improvised ornamentation and divisions continued to play a large part in musical performance throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period singers probably never executed a solo part as it was written. Corelli [see HAM, no. 252], Handel, Tartini, and their contemporaries made their written parts of sonatas for strings mere sketches of what the player should do. The accompanying fragments from

Beginning with Gluck, composers gradually suppressed most improvised ornamentation. One important relic of the earlier practice, which persists even in the operas of Mozart and Gluck, is the appoggiatura in recitative. From the time of Alessandro Scarlatti it was customary for composers to write the appoggiatura that appears at the end of almost every phrase of recitative as a harmony note, in order to make the underlying harmony clear to the accompanist [see Ex. 5, where the upper system shows the customary notation and the lower the correct performance; Ex. 6 shows a standard cadence (a) as written and (b) as performed].

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ORNAMENTATION

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II. Ornamentation as indicated by signs. Some musical ornaments are so subtle and flexible in rhythm and pitch that they defy expression in ordinary musical notation and can only be represented by signs. The MSS of Gregorian chant contain special signs (sometimes appearing as modifications of the neumes) that probably indicate special effects such as tremolos, stressed notes, vibratos, portamentos, and smothered notes (liquescent neumes; see Neumes 1). The only frequently recurring sign for an ornament in the music ofthe later Middle Ages is the *plica, which was derived from the liquescent neumes. During the 16th century the indication of ornaments by signs was restricted almost entirely to keyboard music. The Germans used special signs for the *mordent, and in the English virginal books there is a profusion of single and double oblique strokes through the stem of the note, denoting ornaments whose exact nature has not been established. The Italian groppo and tremolo are sometimes indicated by g and t in the keyboard pieces of Valente [seeApNPM, fac. no. 16, p. 51], Mayone, Trabaci, Strozzi, B. Pasquini, and others. The Spaniard Correa de Araujo used the letter R for redobles. By far the most important of all signs for ornaments are those of the French agrements, which were systematized during the 17th century and remained in continuous use by all European musicians until the beginning of the romantic period. It should be noted that they were used to the same extent in French harpsichord and organ music, a clear refutation of the common notion that their main purpose was to prolong the sound of the harpsichord. The correct interpretation of these signs constitutes a considerable problem in performing the music of this period, owing to the fact that the nomenclature and signs used for the individual agrements lacked uniformity and consistency. Identical ornaments were often called by different names and represented by different signs, while the same name and sign were sometimes given to different agrements. The agrements, in general, may be divided into the following categories: (1) appoggiatura (also double appoggiatura); (2) trill; (3) turn; (4) mordent; (5) Nachschlag; (6) arpeggio; (7) vibrato. [See the separate entries for each.] The first three types were regarded as essential agrements, in that their use was obligatory in certain positions of the musical phrase whether their signs appeared in the score or not. The others were left to the discretion of the performer. It is significant that the only signs to be found in the works of

Mozart and Beethoven are the tiny note representing the appoggiatura, the - for the turn, and the tr or t with a wavy line (l), indicating the trill. The other agrements had by then been absorbed by the ordinary notation. Rossini was probably the first composer who-much to the indignation of Stendhal-deliberately abandoned the signs for agrements, writing out what he considered necessary in notes (in his opera Elisabetta, 1815). For a detailed study ofthe baroque ornaments, the tables of signs given with a number of publications are indispensable [e.g., D'Anglebert, in TaAM vii, 111; F. Couperin, in TaAM x, 78f; Kuhnau, in TaAM x, 2f; Georg Muffat, in DTO 4, p. 52; Gottlieb Muffat, in DTO 7, p. 89]. Very helpful also are the realizations in the modern edition of Loeillet [*Editions XXVIII, 1; the trill is often wrongly indicated to begin with the main note], Fiocco [*Editions XXVIII, 3], and in an article by A. Dolmetsch (theme of Bach's Goldberg Variations, "Un Cas d'ornamentation chez Bach," BSIM viii, 24-30). The accompanying table shows (without claim to completeness) a variety of signs used for the different types of ornamentation. A long list of signs is given in GDB vi, 441ff. III. Written out ornamentation. The embellishment of a simple melody became, at an early date, one of the regular procedures of composition. Frequently, melismatic chants of the Gregorian repertory have been interpreted as ornamented versions of simpler skeleton melodies, e.g., of monotones [see GDB vii, 130]. Definite evidence of ornamentation technique has been found in the music, monophonic or polyphonic, I. Dashes.

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ORNAMENTATION

ORNAMENTATION II. Zigzag Lines.

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no. 65]. Numerous other examples exist in the *melody chorales of the baroque period, particularly in those of Buxtehude [see HAM, no. 190b] and Bach (e.g., "Wenn wir in hOchsten NOten sein"). The transcription of vocal works for instrumental performance on the keyboard, lute, or instrumental ensembles is another area where written out ornamentation played an important role, especially during the 16th and 17th centuries [see Intabulation]. Furthermore, many 16th-century pieces for keyboard or lute (whether transcription or independent composition) contain groppi, tremoli, minute, *tirades, etc.-ornaments that were customarily improvised by singers and by players of melodic instruments but that, in the case of keyboard and lute music, were written out in groups of rapid notes, as in the accompanying example from Sweelinck's Fantasia chromatica. Some of these

Double mordent III. Curved Lines.

r

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(r

r)

r (koran) designates a fiat of approximately one-quarter tone (the sori, 'Jt, designates a half-sharp). Shour and Naua Homayoun Segah Chahargah Mahour and Rast Panjgah

C C C C

G Ab B° C GAbBbC G Af> Bb C G Af> B C

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CD

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Related to the Shour are four auxiliary dastgah (avaz or naghmeh)-Abu Ata, Dashti, Afshari, and Bayote Tork-and related to tJomayoun is the auxiliary dastgah of Esfahan, making a total of twelve melody types. Each dastgah and naghmeh possesses twenty to fifty short melodies or melodic formulas (gousheh) that the composer-performer uses as the basis for improvisation. For a performance, the singer or instrumentalist selects a number of goushehs within a single dastgah, treating them with considerable freedom. The entire collection of melodies in all seven dastgah and five naghmeh, now numbering about 500, is called the radif. Handed down orally for many centuries, it has been transcribed during the past fifty years by several masters and published in Western notation [see Ex., a gousheh from the dastgah of Shour]. Rhythm in Persian music, unlike Arab and Indian music, is no longer systematized into the

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661

PERSIA

PERU

rhythmic modes (iqa'at) described by medieval Persian theorists. Most traditional art music is, in fact, unmeasured and performed in a free rubato manner. The strongest rhythmic factor in music of the radif comes from poetry. Like the music of ancient Greece, Persian music is closely allied with poetry. Generally one couplet of classical verse is set to a single gousheh, with long melismatic sections and instrumental rhapsodizing between the various gousheh. Thus the meter of the poetry imparts a kind of recurrent rhythmic structure to the otherwise unmeasured composition. III. Instruments and forms. Although Western instruments are widely used in Persia, some native instruments are favored for performances of traditional music. The most popular plucked stringed instruments are the setar, a long-necked three-stringed lute with pear-shaped wooden body, and its larger counterpart, the tar, which has a double belly, covered with a sheepskin membrane. The Persian dulcimer, the santour (Arab. santir), is also prominent. These three native instruments are comparable to the lute ('ud) and psaltery (kanun), the native instruments most often played today in Arab countries but used only rarely in Iran. The Persian nay (flute) and kamanche (a spike fiddle held on the player's knee), still used in the provinces, have been replaced by their Western counterparts in the cities. The Persian drum is the tombak, held on the player's knee and struck with the palms and fingers of both hands. Classical Persian music is solo or chamber music, usually performed by a soloist or a small ensemble consisting of singer, instrumentalist, and drummer. In the latter, the texture is *heterophonic, the instrumentalist and drummer following the lead of the singer. Semiclassical music, of more recent origin, is composed and notated. Played by chamber orchestras of mixed native and Western instruments, these vocal and instrumental pieces (pish-daramad, tasnif, and reng) often have conservative Western harmony and counterpoint. Lit. (the first four books are in Persian, with useful musical examples): Ruhollah Khaleqi, Nazari be Musiqui (1938), vol. ii; id., Sargozasht-e Musiqui-ye Iran (1954), vol. i; Ali Naqi Vaziri, Musiqui-ye Nazari (1934); id., tDastur-e Tar (1913); Mehdi Barkechli and Moussa Ma'aroufi, tLa Musique traditionelle de 1'/ran (1963); Khatchi Khatchi, Der Dastgah (1962); R. d'Er1anger, La Musique arabe (1930-39), vols. i-iv; H. Farmer, "An Outline History of Music and

Musical Theory," in A Suroey of Persian Art, A. U. Pope, ed. (1939), iii, pp. 2783-2894; E. Gerson-Kiwi, The Persian Doctrine of DastgaComposition (1963); E. Zonis, in MQ li, 636-48; id., in Ethnomusicology viii, 303ff; C. Huart, "Musique Persane," in LavE 1.5, 3065ff; M. Barkechli, "La Musique iranienne," in L'Encyclopedie de Ia Pteiade (1960); Folkways (record) 8831 and 8832 (A Study Recording of the Twelve E.z. Dastgah). Peru. Long before the Spanish conquest (1526),

Peru had a highly developed civilization, the vast Inca empire, which ruled most of northwest South America. Evidence of a fairly sophisticated musical culture is found in the oral tradition of the Incas' descendants and in the numerous panpipes, flutes, bells, shell and tubular trumpets, and drums preserved to the present day. The earliest Peruvian composer of distinction was Gutierre Fernandez Hidalgo (c. 15531618), who wrote Masses, Magnificats, hymns, music for the offices of Holy Week, and motets. He was active not only in Peru, but also in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. The outstanding masters in Lima during the early 17th century were Estacio de la Serna and Miguel de Bobadilla. Juan de Araujo (c. 1646-1714) was a composer of liturgical part songs and *uillancicos, and Tomas de Torrej6n y Velasco (1644-1728) is most famous for his opera, La Purpura de Ia rosa, with a libretto by Calderon de la Barca, produced at the Viceroy's palace in Lima in 1701. Jose de Orejon y Aparicio (d. 1765), the first native Peruvian appointed to the Cathedral of Lima (1742), composed several hymns, psalms, and Masses. Roque Ceruti (d. 1760) was an Italian-born musician who came to Peru as conductor of the Viceroy's private orchestra and also was the palace composer. Jose Bernardo Alzedo (1798-1878) is the bestknown composer from the early period of independence, primarily because he wrote the Peruvian national anthem (1821). By the end of the 19th century a group of composers in the romantic tradition became the first to support musical nationalism. Among them were Claudio Rebagliati (1843-1909), an Italian who settled in Lima, Jose Maria Valle-Riestra (1859-1925), composer of the opera 0/lanta (1901), and Luis Duncker Lavalle (1874-1922). Several composers from succeeding generations shared this nationalist tradition but combined it with the aesthetics of early 20th-century music. Prominent among them are Daniel

662

PES

PHANTASY

Alomias Robles (1871-1942), Luis Pacheco de Cespedes (b. 1893), Teodoro Valcarcel (1902-42), Roberto Carpio Valdes (b. 1900), Andres Sas (b. 1900; also a well-known musicologist), Pablo Chavez Aguilar (b. 1899), Carlos Sanchez Malaga (b. 1904), and Raoul de Verneuil (b. 1899). German-born Rodolfo Holzman (Rudolph Holzmann), opened the doors to more progressive styles of composition. Many of Holzman's disciples became part of a group of internationally recognized avant-garde composers. Important among them are Enrique Pinilla (b. 1927), Enrique Iturriaga (b. 1918), Celso Garrido-Lecca (b. 1926), Francisco Pulgar Vidal (b. 1929), Olga Pozzi Escot (b. 1931), Edgar Valcarcel (b. 1932), and Jose Malsio. Peruvian folk music from the highlands represents to a large extent a direct survival of preColumbian traditions. Primarily pentatonic, its melodies have a descending character and are usually in duple meter. The *cachua is a typical form from this region. Songs and dances from the lower coastal regions, such as the *marinera, tonero, *cumbia, socavon [see Mejorana], and similar Creole songs are derived from Spanish models that were transformed by African influences. In many ways this music is similar to Chilean, Argentinian, Bolivian, and Ecuadorian folksongs. Lit.: R. Stevenson, The Music of Peru (1960]; C. Raygada, Guia Musical del Peru (1957); R. and M. d'Harcourt, La M!Jsica de los Incas, rev. ed. (1957); R. Klatovsky, "Music in the Realm of the Incas" (Musical Times lxxv, 696ft); C. Vega, "Tonleitern mit HalbtOnen in der Musik der alten Peruaner" (AM ix); A. Sas, "Ensayo sobre la musica Inca" (Boletin latino-americano de m!Jsica i); C. Raygada, "Panorama musical del Peru" (ibid. ii); C. Sanchez Malaga, "La Musica en el Peru" (Nuestra M!Jsica ii, 72-77 [1947]). Also see under Latin America. J.o-s. Pes [L.]. (1) Same as podatus; see Neumes I, table. (2) Name for the tenor in English 13thand 14th-century MSS, particularly also for the two lower parts of *"Sumer is icumen in."

melodic phrase, making the work an excellent introduction to the orchestra for young children. Peter Grimes. Opera in three acts by Britten (libretto by M. Slater, based on G. Crabbe's poem, The Borough), produced in London, 1945. Setting: the Borough, a fishing village on the east coast of England, about 1830. Petrushka. Ballet by Stravinsky (choreography by M. Fokine), produced in Paris, 1911, by Diaghilev's Russian Ballet. The work, often heard in the form of an orchestral suite at concerts, is one of the landmarks of 20th-century music. Among the many notable features are the percussive parallel chords in the opening scene, the clever caricature of a·sentimental valse, and the bold use of bitonality, particularly in the "Petrushka chord" [see under Bitonality]. Peu, un [F.]. A little, somewhat. Pezzo [It.]. Piece, composition. Pf. In orchestral scores, etc., abbr. for pianoforte (piano). As a dynamic sign, abbr. for "piano followed by forte." Pfeife (G.]. Fife; organ pipe. Pfundnoten [G.]. The long notes (G. Pfund, pound-each, as it were, weighing a pound] that occur in the cantus firmi of innumerable polyphonic compositions, from the 13th-century organa to Bach's cantus firmus chorales. See Cantus planus style. Phagotus. A curious instrument invented in the early 16th century by Afranio Albonese. It is worth mentioning only because it has erroneously been considered the predecessor of the *fagott, i.e., bassoon. Actually it was a fanciful and impractical version of bagpipe. See L. F. Valdrighi, II Phagotus di Afranio (Musurgiana, ser. 1, no. 5, 1881); GD iv, opp. 132; F. W. Galpin, in PMA lxvii, 57-72.

Pesca [It.]. See under Caccia.

Phantasie (G.]. See Fantasia. Phantasiestilcke, Phantasiebilder, etc., are romantic titles for imaginative, fanciful pieces with a slight programmatic connotation. See Character piece. Phantasieren means "to improvise."

Peter and the Wolf. An orchestral fairy tale for children by Prokofiev (op. 67, completed in 1936), for a small orchestra and narrator. The narrator tells the story of a boy's capturing a large and ferocious wolf with the aid of friendly animals. Each character (cat, duck, Peter, etc.) is associated with a specific instrument and

Phantasy. Title of English chamber works that were written for the Cobbett Competitions, established in 1906. According to the rules ofthe competition, they had to be in one movement. More than forty such compositions were written between 1905 and 1930. R. Vaughan Williams, W. H. Hurlstone, Frank Bridge, John Ireland,

663

PHILIPPINES

PHILIDOR, COLLECTION

cal," "popular," or "jazz." Generally unknown to the larger audience is a rich variety of aboriginal Malayan music still performed in remote areas that had little or no contact with Western ways. Principally in three regions-northern Luzon; Mindoro; and Palawan, Mindanao, and Sulu-the music is similar to that heard in the islands of Indonesia and the hills of southeast Asia. This whole complex comprises one cultural unit. In the northern Philippines, music is used for festivities such as a peace pact, a head-hunting celebration, or a prestige ceremony, and in the south for a wedding, a thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest, or an Islamic ritual. Among the mountain people of northern Luzon, gong music that accompanies dancing by couples and groups plays an important role in celebrations. Flat gongs without a boss (gangsa), not found elsewhere in the islands, are played in various instrumental combinations (6 gongs; 2 gongs and 1 cylindrical drum; 2 gongs, 2 conical drums, and a pair of iron bars). They are beaten with padded sticks. Among the Kalinga six performers tapping and sliding their palms on six gongs of diminishing size produce a music that might be notated as follows:

and Thomas Dunhill were among the contributors. See C. Maclean, in ZIM xii. Philidor, Collection. A large MS collection of 17th-century music (chiefly French), compiled by Andre Philidor (Danican; c. 1647-1730). The collection contains many dance tunes and airs, all the ballets and operas of Lully and a few other composers, as well as all the sacred music in use at the French court chapel. A large part of the collection is now at St. Michael's College in Tenbury, England, and another in the library of the Paris Conservatory. See J. W. Wasielewski, in VMW i, 531-45; E. H. Fellowes, in ML xii, 116-29; A. Tessier, in RM xii [1931], 295-302. Philippines. For about nine-tenths of the Philippine population, a musical tradition nurtured by three centuries (1565-1898) of cultural contact with Spain is exemplified in songs and dances (kundiman, balitao, pandango, carifiosa, tinikling,

etc.) with a melody in major and minor, duple and triple meters, and a harmonic accompaniment played by guitar, piano, or an ensemble of steel strings (rondalla). Together with brass bands playing marches, overtures, and selections from Italian opera, this type of music constitutes an

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important part of the repertory used for celebrations, school programs and, especially, fiestas in honor of a patron saint. Toward the end of the 19th century, in Manila particularly, there were Spanish *zarzuelas, visiting Italian opera companies, and performances by local and foreign artists attended by a well-informed public. Later, with the introduction of modern schools and symphony orchestras, composition and performance included more complex European forms. Today, music in various segments of Philippine society simply means Western music-"classi-

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Cross section of grand piano action: 1. Keybed. 2. Keyframe. 3. Front rail. 4. Balance rail. 5. Balance rail stud. 6. Back rail. 7. Key stop rail. 8. White key. 9. Key covering. 10. Black key. 11. Key button. 12. Backcheck. 13. Under/ever key cushion. 14. Action hanger. 15. Support rail. 16. Support. 17. Fly. 18. Support top Range. 19. Balancer. 20. Repetition spring. 21. Hammer rest. 22. Regulating rail. 23. Hammer rail. 24. Hammershank. 25. Hammer. 26. Under/ever frame. 27. Under/ever. 28. Damper stop rail. 29. Damper wire. 30. Damper guide rail. 31. Damper head. 32. Damper felts. Courtesy of Steinway & Sons 35. Sostenuto rod. 34. Tuning pin. 33. String.

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touch of the fingers. Today the abbreviated name "piano" is more commonly used. I. General. The piano is, with the single exception of the organ, the most complex of all conventional instruments. It has a greater range than any other instrument-usually more than seven octaves, from A 2 to c""'-and a dynamic range that, again, is exceeded only by the organ's. The complexity of the piano arises from the fact that the soft felt hammer cannot merely be lifted toward the string like the tangent of the *clavichord or carried past the string like the plucking mechanism of the *harpsichord. Instead, the hammer must be thrown up and must immediately rebound from the string so that it will not damp out the vibrations it initiates. Since the hammer must be thrown instead of being lifted, it must move faster than the key that activates it, requiring a lever system (called an action) between it and the key. If the action is to give the performer good dynamic control, the distance over which the hammer is thrown after the motion of the key is arrested must be kept small. On the other hand, the hammer must fall far enough away from the string after striking it so that there will be no possibility of its bouncing back up and accidentally restriking the string. This requirement is met by the provision of a device that catches the hammer as it falls (a backcheck) and, more important, by an escapement, by means of which the lever that lifts the hammer is moved aside just before the hammer's impact on the string. The hammer then falls back farther than it was thrown upward, even while the key is still held down. An action meeting all of these requirements still does not permit rapid repetition of a note, especially when playing softly. This need was met only by the still more complicated repetition action or double escapement, developed in 1821 by Sebastien Erard (1752-1831). In this action, the hammer falls to an intermediate position and can be thrown upward again before the key returns all the way to its original resting position. In addition to activating the hammers, the keys of a piano must also control felt-covered dampers, lifting them as a note is struck and allowing them to fall back to silence the strings when the keys are released. Generally, three strings per note are provided in the treble, two in the tenor, and one in the bass. The aggregate tension imposed by these strings, which approaches eighteen tons, is borne by a massive cast-iron frame. The modem piano is equipped with two or

(especially in America) three pedals, the damper or "loud" pedal at the right, the una corde or "soft" pedal at the left, and (if present) the sostenuto pedal in the center. On being depressed, the damper pedal raises all the dampers, allowing all the strings to vibrate regardless of what keys are being depressed; this produces a characteristic coloring of the tone and permits legato performance of notes that do not lie beneath the hand. The una corda pedal shifts the entire keyboard and action to the right so that each hammer strikes only two of its three unison strings in the treble and only one of its two strings in the tenor. In addition to a reduction in volume, this pedal also produces a characteristic tone color. The sostenuto pedal operates to sustain only those tones whose dampers are already raised by the action of the keys. Thus, it permits the sustaining of single notes (e.g., a pedal point in the bass) while both hands are occupied elsewhere, and also provides the means of producing various coloristic effects. II. History. Although interest in providing the harpsichord with some sort of hammer mechanism seems to have been fairly widespread in the first years of the 18th century-perhaps owing to the phenomenal success of Pantaleon Hebenstreit (1669-1750) and his large dulcimer, the *pantaleon-the piano was created essentially single-handed by Bartolommeo Cristofori (1655-1730) of Florence, shortly before 1709. Cristofori's gravicembalo col piano e forte was conceived, as its name implies, as a new variety of harpsichord, whose hammer action could provide gradations of loudness instead of the ordinary harpsichord's "terrace dynamics." The perfection of Cristofori's piano action of 1720, which included both an escapement and hammer check, was such that it was not significantly improved upon for nearly a century, and no instruments even comparable in quality, except for direct copies like those by Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753), were made until the 1770's. Cristofori's invention was not much appreciated in his homeland, but the description of it published by Scipione Maffei (1711) and printed in ~erman translation in Mattheson's Critica musica (1725) appears to have inspired a number of Germans besides Silbermann to experiment with hammer mechanisms. The point of departure for most of the German builders seems to have been the clavichord rather than the harpsichord, and the German piano of the 18th century is, in both conception and tone quality, far more like a loud clavichord

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than a dynamically flexible harpsichord. Most of the mid-18th-century German pianos were in fact built in the "square" form of the clavichord (in contrast to Cristofori's and Silbermann's, which were wing-shaped "grands"). The German builders employed a very simple action, radically different from Cristofori's, whose appears to have dropped from sight only to be essentially reinvented in England in the last quarter of the 18th century. In the typical German action, the hammer is pivoted in a fork at the back of the key rather than hinged from a rail fixed above the keys as in Cristofori's design. Most of the early German actions lacked an escapement, which was first incorporated by Johann Andreas Stein (1728-92) c. 1770. This so-called Viennese action yielded a touch that was lighter and shallower than that of Cristofori's instrument and greatly facilitated performance of the sparkling passagework characteristic of piano music before Beethoven's time. The English piano appears to have descended from Cristofori's in a highly indirect fashion, the first pianos in England having been built by a German expatriate, Johann Zumpe, c. 1765. Zumpe's square pianos employed an escapementless action that was like Cristofori's only in having the hammers hinged from an overhead rail; this action was provided with an escapement, probably c. 1772 by Americus Backers, John Broadwood, and Robert Stodart, and later was to be the point of departure for Erard. Thus, the English action is the ancestor of that found in all modem pianos. It required a touch heavier than that of the delicate Viennese action, but it proved capable of giving greater volume and a wider dynamic range to the performer. The history of the piano after the perfection of the double-escapement action is largely concerned with the development of metal bracing that could withstand the ever-increasing tension imposed by the thicker strings required for increased loudness and brilliance. The greatest single advance was the invention in 1825 of the one-piece cast-iron frame by Alpheus Babcock, who also was the first to conceive of cross-stringing, an arrangement in which the strings of treble and middle registers fan out over most of the soundboard while the bass strings cross over them, forming a separate fan at a higher level. These two features were given what is essentially their present form in the grand piano exhibited in 1855 by Steinway and Sons of New York. III. Modern types. Of the horizontal piano

designs, the clavichord-shaped "square" and the wing-shaped "grand," only the latter has continued to be built in the 20th century. Modem grand pianos range in size from the 9-foot "concert grand" down to 5-foot, 2-inch "baby grands." (These sizes are the normal extremes; there are instruments as long as 11 feet and shorter than 5 feet.) Pianos with their strings arranged in a vertical plane have been built since the middle of the 18th century. The earliest examples appear to have been either "pyramid" pianos, in which the strings were housed in a case that formed a tall isosceles triangle above the keyboard, or "giraffe" pianos, which were essentially grand pianos set on end. The 19th century saw the introduction of"cabinet" pianos with tall rectangular cases, as well as the diagonally strung "cottage" piano of Robert Womum (1811), which is the true ancestor of the modem upright. Large upright pianos more than 4 feet high have been largely superseded by lower instruments: the "studio upright" (about 46 inches high), the "console" (about 40 inches high), and the "spinet" (about 36 inches high). The spinet frequently differs from the others in having a special action that operates from below the keys. See also Keyboard; Pedal piano; Sostenente piano; Electronic instruments. Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, The Pianoforte (1933; bibl.); E. A. Wier, The Piano (1940); L. Nalder, The Modern Piano (1927); P. James, Early Keyboard Instruments ... to the Year 1820 (1930); D. Spillane, History of the American Pianoforte (1890); A. Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos (1955); F. J. Hirt, Meisterwerke des Klauierbaus (1955); S. Hansing, Das Pianoforte in seinen akustischen Anlagen (1950); H. Brunner, Das Klavierklangideal Mozarts und die Klaviere seiner Zeit (1933); "Experimental Pianofortes" (PMA lvii); id., in CP 1930; S. M. Cleeve, "The Future of the Piano" (Musical Times lxxxvii, 201, July 1946); C. Parrish, "Criticisms of the Piano When It Was New" (MQ xxx). See also E.M.R. under Keyboard instruments. Piano arrangement. See Arrangement. Piano concerto. See Concerto II, III (c). Piano duet. A composition for two pianists playing on either one or two instruments. Such compositions are also called "for four hands" [F. a quatre mains; G. vierhiindig,· It. a quattro mani; Sp. a cuatro manas]. (a) Duets for one instrument (organ, harpsichord, piano). As early as the 8th century some

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organ music was performed by two organists, each playing one melody (with the hands alternating in pulling out and pushing in slides), both together performing organum [see Organum (2)]. From c. 1600 there is a "three-hand" organ composition, Ut re my fa sol Ia, by William Byrd, bearing the remark: "The playnesong Breifes To Be played by a second person" [see S. Tuttle, William Byrd, 45 Pieces for Keyboard Instruments, pp. 86ft], as well as two four-hand compositions, an In nomine by Nicholas Carleton [see H. Miller, in MQ xxix] and a Fancy by Thomas Tomkins [Two Elizabethan Keyboard Duets, ed. F. Dawes (1949)]. A continuous tradition, however, did not begin until the late 18th century. A famous picture of 1762 shows the young Mozart and his sister playing together. Among the earliest extant compositions are six sonatas by Johann Christian Bach (1735-82), Mozart's four-hand Sonata in D (K. 381; 1772), Burney's Four Sonatas or Duets for two Performers on One Piano Forte or Harpsichord (1777), Haydn's II Maestro e lo scolare (1778), and seven compositions (six sonatas, K. l9d, K. 381, K. 358, K. 497, K. 521, K. 357; one set of variations, K. 501) by Mozart, composed between 1765 and 1787. Besides Mozart, the only great composer who was seriously interested in four-hand music was Schubert. Brahms wrote a set of variations on a theme by Schumann (op. 23); Max Reger 12 Walzer-Capricen (op. 9), Sechs Burlesken (op. 58), Sechs Stucke (op. 94), and others; and Hindemith a Sonate (1938). (b) Duets for two instruments. The Libro de cifra nueva by Venegas de Henestrosa ( 1557) contains a chanson, "Belle sans paire," by Crecquillon, arranged "a doce para dos instrumentos," i.e., in twelve voice-parts for two harpsichords or organs [*Editions XXXII, 2, p. 158]. An English example from the late 16th century is "For two Virginals" by Giles Farnaby [see Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, i, 202]. Bernardo Pasquini (16371710) wrote 14 three-movement sonatas for two harpsichords, each consisting of two figured basses only. In France, pieces a deux clavecins were written by F. Couperin ("Allemande adeux Clavecins," several other pieces; see new ed. by Brahms-Chrysander, 4 vols., ii, 160; iii, 250,262, 264, 284) and by Gaspard Le Roux (Pieces de clavessin, 1705). A sonata for two harpsichords reproduced in the complete works of Bach (BG, vol. 43.i, p. 47), but actually composed by his son W. F. Bach, has received little attention. The present-day repertory begins with Mozart, whose Sonata in D (K. 448; 1781) is one ofthe

most famous pieces for two pianos. Other notable compositions are his Fugue in C minor (K. 426; 1783), two Sonatas by Clementi (op. 12, 46), Schumann's Andante and Variations in Bb major (op. 46), a Rondo by Chopin inC major (op. 73), Variations by Sinding, several compositions by Busoni, Debussy's En Blanc et noir (1915), and, among later contributions, a Sonata by Hindemith (1942) and a Concerto and Sonata by Stravinsky (1935, 1944). More numerous are arrangements for two pianos, among which those made by the composers themselves are particularly worth mentioning (Brahms, Fminor Quintet and Variations on a Theme by Haydn; Busoni, Fantasia contrappuntistica, originally written for piano solo). Lit.: A. Rowley, Four Hands-One Piano (1940); H. Moldenhauer, Duo-pianism [1950]; K. Ganzer and L. Kusche, Vierhiindig (1937, '55); W. Georgii, Klaviermusik, rev. ed. [ 1950], pp. 531-61 0; W. Altmann, Verzeichnis von Werken for Klavier vier- und sechshiindig sowie for zwei und mehr Klaviere (1943); A. M. Henderson, in PMA Iii; F. Niecks, in ZIM v; H. Miller, in MQ xxix. Pianola. See under Mechanical instruments IV. Piano music. The literature proper for the piano starts with the sonatas that Clementi, Haydn, and Mozart wrote from c. 1775 on, and includes among its contributors practically all the composers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Nobody would think of excluding from this repertory the works of J. S. Bach, although they were written for the harpsichord and clavichord. The sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti have likewise joined the piano repertory. There are, moreover, numerous earlier keyboard composersByrd, Sweelinck, Frescobaldi, D' Angle bert, and others-whose works could well be performed on the piano, provided they were played with a proper regard for style [see W. Apel, Masters of the Keyboard, p. 5]. I. The beginnings. The earliest known pieces for the piano (though written in true harpsichord style) are by Lodovico Giustini, who in 1732 published sonatas for the "cembal di piano e forte detto volgarmente di martelletti" (" ... commonly called the one with hammers"; see R. Harding, in ML xiii; new ed. by R. Harding, 1933). These, however, remained as isolated as Cristofori's instrument [see Piano II], and it was not until about forty years later that the piano began its triumphal career. One of its first cham-

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pions was J. F. Edelmann (1749-94) in Paris. Clementi's first sonatas of 1773 are perhaps the earliest pieces to make use of the distinctive powers of the instrument. Of K. P. E. Bach's six publications "ftir Kenner und Liebhaber," the first (1779) is called "Sechs Clavier-Sonaten," probably indicating free use of any of the three keyboard instruments, while the others ( 178087) expressly call "ftirs Forte piano." On the other hand, the original editions of almost all the Beethoven sonatas up to op. 27 (including the "Moonlight" Sonata) bear the inscription "Pour le clavecin ou pianoforte," an inscription for which the publishers probably were responsible [see Harpsichord II]. II. Classicism (1780-1830). This is the greatest and best-known period of piano music, and too extensive to describe in detail. One might point out a few of the most obvious advances in exploiting the resources of the instrument, such as the amazing degree of virtuosity attained in Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata, Appassionata, and piano concertos, the transcendental technique of his latest sonatas (op. 106ff), and the "orchestral coloring" that appears in Schubert's great but somewhat neglected sonatas. Beethoven's Bagatelles mark the beginning of an important type of 19th-century piano music, the *character piece. III. Romanticism (1830-1910). This period, too, is too rich and familiar to describe in detail. The piano pieces by Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, and Brahms form the standard repertory, and indeed overshadow many other compositions that would be equally or more worthy of attention (particularly Schubert). Mendelssohn, formerly the most favored composer, has fallen into a not entirely deserved eclipse from which he seems to be re-emerging. Weber's sonatas also could be put to use as a relief from the monotony of many recital programs. About 1870 the national composers began to make their novel contribution to the piano repertory, with Edvard Grieg as the pioneer. Relatively easy to play and yet highly effective, his pieces, as well as those of Dvorak, Smetana, MacDowell, Albeniz, Granados, and De Falla, are greatly favored by players and listeners. The contrary can be said of Max Reger and Ferruccio Busoni. Grandiose compositions such as the former's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Bach or the latter's Fantasia Contrappuntistica, though extremely interesting, make technical and intellectual demands on the performer that are out of proportion to their general appeal.

Alexander Scriabin's Etudes and Sonatas are largely in the same category. Debussy, on the other hand, developed a very attractive piano style and succeeded in exploiting entirely novel resources of the instrument [see Impressionism]. His coloristic technique left its imprint on the works of Ravel as well as numerous other composers of the 20th century. IV. The 20th century. At the outset of this period stand Arnold Schoenberg's Drei Klavierstiicke op. 11 (1909), whose *atonality shocked the musical world of the time, as did his Sechs kleine Klavierstilcke op. 19 (1911). The piano literature of the ensuing three decades reflects, of course, the general trends that characterize this extremely tumultuous and varied period. A central position is held by Bela Bartok, who as early as 1908 (14 Bagatellen op. 6) exploited the "percussive" effects of the piano (see also his Allegro barbara of 1911), and whose Mikrokosmos (6 vols., 1926-37), consisting of 153 short pieces, is a veritable manual of 20th-century pianism in all its aspects. Other outstanding contributions include Hindemith's Reihe kleiner StUcke op. 37 (1927), three Sonatas (1936), and Ludus tonalis (1943), and Stravinsky's Sonata (1924) and Serenade en Ia (1925). The avant-garde tendencies of serial and electronic music are reflected in the extremely complicated piano scores of 0. Messiaen, P. Boulez, and K. Stockhausen (1950 and later). Lit. General: H. Westerby, The History of Pianoforte Music (1924); C. G. Hamilton, Piano Music, Its Composers and Characteristics (1925); W. Apel, Masters ofthe Keyboard(l947); J. Friskin and I. Freundlich, Music for the Piano ... 1580 to 1952 [1954]; A. Ruthardt, Wegweiser durch die Klavier-Literatur (1925); K. Dale, Nineteenth-Century Piano Music (1954); W. Georgii, Klaviermusik, rev. ed., 2 vols. (1950); G. Schiinemann, Geschichte der Klaviermusik, rev. ed. (1953); A. Prosniz, Handbuch der KlavierLiteratur, 2 vols. (1907, '08); A. Cortot, La Musique fram;aise de piano, 3 vols. (1944). For I: C. F. H. Parent, Repertoire encyclopedique du pianiste, 2 vols. (1900, '07); F. Torrefranca, Le Origini italiane del romanticismo musicale (1930); C. Parrish, "The Early Piano" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1939); R. Harding, "The Earliest Pianoforte Music" (ML xiii, 195); G. de Saint-Foix, "Les Premiers Pianistes parisiens" (RM 1922, no. 10; 1923, no. 6; 1924, no. 8; 1925, nos. 8, 10). For II: H. Abert, "Joseph Haydns Klavierwerke" (ZMW ii); id., "Joseph Haydns Klaviersonaten" (ZMW iii); John F. Porte,

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"Mozart's Pianoforte Works" (ML vii, 374). For III: K. Westphal, "Derromantische Klavierstil" (DM xxii, no. 2). For IV: R. Teichmiiller and K. Herrmann, Internationale moderne Klaviermusik (1927); W. Apel, "Neue Klaviermusik" (DM xxiv, nos. 3, 7); E. J. Dent, "The Pianoforte and Its Influence on Modem Music" (MQ ii). See also under Harpsichord music; Keyboard music; Organ music; Sonata; Concerto; Character piece. Piano playing. Although there is some disagreement among artists and teachers as to how the piano should be played, many basic, universally accepted rules for pianism have been determined. It is surprising, therefore, that many piano teachers (and, as a result, many pianists) are ignorant of some of these basic principles, particularly those that have been developed and accepted in the last hundred years. I. The playing apparatus. The pianist uses a tlexible system of levers (fingers, hand, forearm, upper arm, torso) connected by four joints (knuckles, wrist, elbow, shoulder). Sound is produced by moving: (a) the fingers from the knuckles; (b) the hand from the wrist; (c) the forearm from the elbow; (d) the upper arm from the shoulder. The first of these, the finger action, is by far the most important and is the basis of piano technique. The second, wrist action, is useful for playing passages in light, quick staccato, e.g., rapid octaves. The elbow is important mainly because it permits a rocking action of the forearm necessary for tremolos and Alberti bass figures. In the older school a straight downward movement of the forearm, called "elbow staccato," was taught, but this is of little value since it causes the fingers to make a circular motion. Such waste is avoided by using arm action, in which the whole arm moves from the shoulder, enabling the hand to rise vertically above the keys and then drop from a greater or lesser distance. This technique is important for the execution of powerful fortissimo chords. While the other actions (finger, wrist, and elbow) require muscular activity, arm action is executed by relaxing the muscles and using the weight of the arm. II. Basic piano technique. In addition to the four actions described above, there is a fifth method of producing sound, which might be called "minimized arm action": the finger is placed on the key, and the arm is slightly raised and then relaxed as in the visible arm action. This method produces a "singing" tone and

allows for minute control of dynamic nuances not otherwise obtained. This action is by no means restricted to producing single tones, but can be ·used for rapid passages if it is combined with "minimized finger action" (the fingers constantly touching the keys) and with a transfer of the arm's weight from one finger to the next. This "close technique" (which is much easier to learn than to describe) is the basic technique of truly accomplished piano playing. Only through this technique do melodies sound like a "living organism" rather than the dead sum of so many single notes, which is the inevitable result of pure finger action. If it is combined with a rotating movement of the hand, rapid figures (e.g., quick turns), difficult and unsatisfactory when played by the fingers alone, become easy. In fact, all the other movements of levers and joints find their proper place naturally and easily within the basic frame of this technique. Thus the stiffness so often found in older methods of playing is eliminated at the outset. Although the systematic teaching of the closefinger and arm-weight techniques is relatively new, there is no doubt that the great pianists of earlier periods used them. Particularly informative in this respect is Forkel's description of Bach's playing (Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke, 1802; new ed. 1925, pp. 28ff): "According to Bach's manner . . . the five fingers are curved so that ... each of them is placed immediately above its respective key. This position requires that the finger should not fall down on the key nor (as is frequently done) be thrown, but merely should be carried through the movement with a certain feeling of security and mastery." The discovery of arm-weight playing and its revolutionary possibilities led some pedagogues to an extreme reaction against the pure finger method of the older school. Such a radical point of view, however, is unwise. Finger development is the most important factor in piano playing, and thus the finger exercises of the old school still have a legitimate place in modem piano instruction, their main function being to develop strong, independent fingers that can support the arm's weight and direct it to the individual key. There are, however, cases in which more active finger participation (i.e., lifting them higher) is desirable in order to bring out, e.g., the crispness and brilliancy required by Mozart or the dry and percussive sound called for in the music of Bartok, Hindemith, Stravinsky, and others. The trill is perhaps the only figure that calls for pure

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finger action. Its brilliant execution is therefore one of the most difficult feats of piano playing. III. The wrist. The proper use of the wrist in piano playing is often neglected. The smooth combination of a supple, flexible wrist with prehensile fingers is indispensable. One of the most useful functions of the wrist is in shaping a musical phrase. The general principle is to begin a phrase with the wrist at keyboard level, gradually lift the wrist as the phrase develops, and drop it again as the phrase comes to an end. With a tapering phrase, however, the wrist should be lifted toward the end. Sideways motions of the wrist are also important. They are used mainly for widely spaced broken-chord figures, e.g., in Chopin's A-fiat Etude. The principle is to move the wrist (almost ahead of the fingers) in such a way that each finger, if called into action, forms the straight prolongation of the arm. In playing chords the wrist acts as a shock absorber. For percussive and harsh effects, a stiff wrist may be used, but as a rule the wrist should be flexible and elastic to make the sound full and sonorous. In octave-playing the wrist may be used in one of two ways: light, quick octaves require an upand-down movement of a flexible wrist (particularly for octave repetitions on the same keys), while octave passages in forte or fortissimo call for arm action combined with a fixed wrist. IV. Sense of touch. Many difficulties in elementary piano instruction result from the teacher's failure to develop the pupil's sense of touch on the keys. Beginners, trying to find a note, may fall into the habit of shifting their eyes constantly up and down between music page and keyboard. The hesitations that mar the playing of otherwise promising students are often caused by this habit. While trying to avoid such hesitations, students may develop the even more detrimental habit of haphazardly playing from memory. The only remedy is to show the pupil how to find the intervals (third, fifth, octave, etc.) through his sense of touch, i.e., without looking at the keys. Wide jumps (which for this reason should be avoided in the first two or three years of piano playing) are an exception to the rule. How much a well-developed sense of touch facilitates sightreading is obvious [see Sight-reading III]. V. Touch and tone quality. The word "touch" is widely used in piano teaching to denote (somewhat vaguely) the method of producing different tone qualities, ranging from soft and lyrical to harsh and percussive. The theory of touch assumes that the piano permits not only dynamic gradations of sound (pp, p, mf, etc.), but at a given

intensity, additional variations of timbre so that mfmay be, e.g., "lyrical," "decisive," or "percussive." Whether this is possible or not is a hotly contested issue. One group holds that the percussive noise accompanying the attack of a tone determines its quality (timbre) and proposes that, by varying the speed and force of finger action, different timbres can be produced in each dynamic register. The other group holds that no such variation is possible with a single sound ("a piano key struck by Paderewski and the same key struck by an umbrella sound absolutely the same"), and that the varieties of timbre noticeable in the playing of accomplished pianists result from the relationship of varying intensities produced either simultaneously (as in chords) or successively (as in melodies). In any case, the perception of tone quality, even if not scientifically measurable, is an important illusion. VI. Mental approach. Certain mental processes are as important as the purely technical methods: "Brains as well as hands play the piano" [see T. Fielden, in PMA lix]. Particularly important is a "look-ahead" attitude, a mental anticipation of the actual playing by the fingers. A well-developed sense of touch is the first step in this direction. Difficult passages are mastered by "positioning" the hand, i.e., analyzing the changing hand positions needed for a passage, and using preparatory hand movements that lead to the new position while the fingers are still occupied in the old one. Another application of the same principle is the so-called "long hand," or "pre"-formation of wide skips often encountered in left-hand accompaniments. VII. History. Information about 16th-century keyboard technique (clavichord, organ) is contained in Tomas de Santa Maria's Llibro 1/amado arte de tafier Fantasia (1565; see 0. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts, 1910) and in Girolamo Diruta's II Transilvano (1593, 1609). Extremely difficult passages occur in the works of the *virginal composers, particularly those of John Bull (rapid scales in parallel thirds for the left hand, repeated notes, etc.). J. S. Bach contributed to the development of a modern fingering system [see Fingering], whereas his contemporary, Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), explored the virtuoso resources of the harpsichord to the fullest (crossing hands, wide skips, extensive arpeggios). The "old school" of piano playing (emphasizing finger technique) is represented by M. Clementi (1752-1832), J. N. Hummel (1778-1837), and C. Czerny (1791-1857). Beethoven, Chopin,

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PIANO QUARTET

PIERROT WNAIRE

Liszt, and Anton Rubinstein were probably in full command of the advanced methods of modern pianism, but Ludwig Deppe (1828-90) was the first to point out the importance of armweight [see Amy Fay, Music-Study in Germany, c. 1880]. T. Leschetizky (1830--1915) established systematic training in the new playing style. R. Breithaupt (1873-1945) introduced the principles of relaxation, Rollung (rolling and rotating hand movements), positioning, and coordination of finger and arm, but had a tendency to underestimate the importance of finger training. The same applied to the relaxation school of T. Matthay (1858-1945) who, with his emphasis on freedom and suppleness, to some extent discredited a good cause. See Fingering. Lit.: G. Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing [1958]; W. S. Newman, The Pianist's Problems (1950); M. Bree, The Groundwork of the Leschetitzky Method, rev. ed. (1905); R. M. Breithaupt, Natural Pjanotechnic (1909; original G. ed. 1905); T. A. Matthay, The Act of Touch in All Its Diversity (1903); id, The Visible and Invisible in Pianoforte Technique (1932); 0. R. Ortmann, The Physiological Mechanics of Piano Technique (1929); M. Levinskaya, The Levinskaya System of Pianoforte Technique and Tone-colour (1930); Arnold Schultz, The Riddle of the Pianist's Finger (1936); Y. Bowen, Pedalling the Modern Pianoforte (1936); J. Dichler, Der Weg zum kunstlerischen Klavierspiel [1948]; C. A. Martienssen, Die individuelle Klaviertechnik ( 1930); W. Bardas, Zur Psychologie der Klaviertechnik (1927); F. A. Steinhausen, Ueber die physiologischen Fehler und die Umgestaltung der K/aviertechnik (1905); H. Klose, Die Deppesche Lehre des Klavierspiels (1886); T. Fielden, "The History of the Evolution of Pianoforte Technique" (PMA lix).

Piano quartet. See under Quartet. Piano-violin. See Sostenente piano. Piatti [It.]. Cymbals. Pibgorn, pibcorn. See under Clarinet family IV; Reed II. See H. L. Balfour, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute xx, 142ff. Pibroch. A type of Scottish bagpipe music consisting of highly ornamented variations on a theme called urlar. They were formerly written in a curious notation called canntaireachd, in which syllables such as em, en, dari, dili, etc. stand for tones or stereotyped motifs. See J. P. Grant, in ML vi, 54-63; A. Mackay, A Collection

of Ancient Piobaireachd, rev. ed. (1839; repr.

1899). Picardy third [F. tierce de Picardie]. The major third as used for the final chord of a composition in a minor key. This practice originated c. 1500 when, for the first time, the third was admitted in the final chord of a piece. An early example is in Tromboncino's frottola "Non val aqua" of c. 1500 [see HAM, no. 95]. The extent to which it was used prior to 1550 is difficult to assess, this being largely a problem of *musica ficta. In the second half of the 16th century the practice became fairly common. In A. Willaert's Musica nova of 1559 the final chord always includes the major third, in plagal as well as in authentic cadences. The Picardy third continued to be used until the end of the baroque period (c. 1750). No plausible explanation has been found for the name "tierce de Picardie," first used in J.-J. Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (1767). Piccolo [It.]. Abbr. for piccolo flute; see Flute I (b). Pickelftiite [G.]. Older name for piccolo flute. The modern German name is k/eine Fliite. Pictures at an Exhibition. Collection of descriptive piano pieces by M. P. Mussorgsky, composed in 1874. Each piece illustrates a picture by the Russian painter Victor A. Hartmann (d. 1873) shown at a memorial exhibition ofhis paintings in 1874. The highly "picturesque" pieces are preceded and connected by a recurring "promenade" theme suggesting the walk from one picture to the next. The work is usually heard in an orchestral version by Ravel. Piedi [It.]. See under Ballata. Pien. In *Chinese music pien (pronounced biann) denotes the two tones that are a semitone below the fifth degree and the octave note respectively on a diatonic scale. Thus they are f# and bon a scale from c to c'. The term is often used by modern writers with reference to other kinds of music [see Gregorian chant V] in which certain degrees of the scale are considered less important than others and therefore are treated as mere ornaR.C.P. mental or passing tones. Pieno [It.]. Full; organo pieno, full organ; a voce piena, with full voice. Pierrot lunaire [F., Pierrot in the Moonlight]. Cycle of twenty-one short pieces for a "singing narrator" (*Sprechstimme) and chamber orchestra (flute, violin, clarinet, cello, piano, etc.) by

677

PIFFERO

PITCH

A. Schoenberg, op. 21 (1912), based on poems by A. Giraud in a German translation by 0. E. Hartleben. The poems, highly decadent and macabre (one of them describes Pierrot contentedly smoking tobacco out of a human skull), are composed in a novel melodramatic style, accompanied at times by the full group of instruments and sometimes by only one or two. Piffero [It.]. Old term for various popular wind instruments, such as the shawm, fife, and bagpipe, all of which were used by shepherds. Hence, the name pifferari for the peasants who, in the 18th century, went to Rome every Christmas morning to play there in imitation of the Biblical shepherds. Berlioz still heard them. For pifferari, see Pastorale. Pince [F.]. (I) See under Mordent. (2) Term for

plucked instruments (lute, harp, etc.) and for pizzicato. Pini di Roma [It., Pines of Rome]. Symphonic

poem by Respighi (1924), depicting four musical "landscapes" near Rome (the Villa Borghese, a catacomb, the Janiculum [a hill named after the god Janus], and the Appian Way). In the third section a recording of the song of an actual nightingale is introduced. Piobaireachd [Gael.]. *Pibroch. P'ip'a. See Pyiba. Pipe. (1) A small instrument of the recorder type

that was held and played with the left hand only, while the right hand played the tabor, a small drum. [For ill. see under Percussion instruments.] The playing of the pipe and tabor [Prov. galoubet and *tambourin; Sp. jiaviol and tamboril; Cat. jiuviol and tambori] was popular as early as the 13th century, as is shown by the famous miniatures of the Cantigas MSS of the Escorial [ill. in GDB iii, opp. p. 176; iv, opp. p. 500]. It was the usual accompaniment to the *farandole and the English morris dance, and is still used for the Spanish *sardana. See D. Fryklund, Le Galoubet provem;al (1939). (2) Generic name for various groups of instruments: all the *wind instruments; the woodwinds; the flutes; the pipes of the organ; primitive instruments in the shape of a simple tube. Pique Dame [F.]. See Queen of Spades, The. Piston. Piston valve [see Valve].

Pitch. (I) [F. hauteur; G. Tonhohe; It. intonazione; Sp. entonacion]. The location of a musical sound

in the tonal scale, proceeding from low to high. The exact determination of pitch is by frequency (number of vibrations per second) of the sound; see Acoustics I. Pitch as a physiological sensation also depends to a small degree on other factors (e.g., intensity), which are, however, negligible from the musical point of view; see Stevens and Davis, Hearing (1938). (2) [F. diapason; G. Kammerton, Stimmung; It. diapason; Sp. diapason]. The absolute pitch of one specific note, standardized for the purpose of obtaining identical pitches on all instruments. The present-day standard of pitch is a' = 440 (double) vibrations (cycles) per second. This standard was universally adopted in 1939 by an international conference held in London under the auspices of the International Standards Association. It replaced the old standard of 435 that had been fixed by the Paris Academy in 1859 (diapason normal) and confirmed, under the term "international pitch," at a conference held in Vienna in 1885. Before these agreements there was a confusing variety of pitches. Bach frequently had to transpose his orchestral and choral parts owing to different tuning of organs in various churches, or had to score woodwind parts in C, for example, while the parts for organ, voices, and strings were scored in A (a different scoring for voices and strings was unnecessary since these could easily be adapted to the pitch of the organ). These discrepancies resulted from the use throughout the baroque period of different pitch levels for different ensembles: Kammerton (chamber pitch) for domestic instrumental music; Chorton (choir pitch, organ pitch) for church organs and, consequently, for sacred choral music; Cornett-ton for the brass instruments used by town musicians. The confusion in this matter has been compounded by numerous modern writers concerned more with terminology than with historical fact [see, e.g., the contradictory statements in H. Riemann, Musiklexikon, 11th ed., 1929, pp. 316 and 856]. By far the clearest account, though not trustworthy in every detail, is found in N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musical Instruments (1941), pp. 357-59, 377-78, and 442. Following his suggestion, the different pitches are represented below by pitch names (disregarding microtonic deviations), the standard pitch of the present day (a' = 440) being represented by the key of C. The standard pitches used during the baroque period were as follows:

678

PITCH AGGREGATE

PITCH NAMES

Praetorius (De Organographia, 1619) Tertia minore Chorton Kammerton Cornett-ton

Common designation after Praetorius Bb Tief Kammerton B Hoch Kammerton C~ Chorton D Cornett-ton The names in the right column are used below. The hoch Kammerton must be regarded as the standard instrumental pitch from c. 1700 to c. 1820. Thus, Bach's instrumental compositions (as well as the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven) sounded a semitone lower than they do when performed today [see Absolute pitch]. On the other hand, his organ works and cantatas (which involved organ participation) sounded a semitone or even a whole tone higher than today. Following is a list of some characteristic data covering the period from c. 1700 to 1850: Source Pitch Date Strasbourg, Silbermann 1716 396 organ B 422 1751 Handel's tuning fork 422 1780 Mozart's tuning fork 427 1811 Paris, Grand opera c 440 1834 Scheibler (Stuttgart pitch) 446 1856 Paris, Grand opera Bb

English: c D E German: c D E French: ut re mi Italian: do re ffi1 Spanish: do re mi

F G F G fa sol fa sol fa sol

English: German: French: ltali'an: Spanish:

C-sharp cis ut diese do diesis do sostenido

C-flat ces ut bemol do bemolle do bemol

English: German: French: Italian:

C-double-sharp cis is ut double-diese do doppio diesis

C-double-flat ceses ut double-bemol do doppio bemolle do doble bemol

Spanish: do doble sostenido

Note that in German a sharp is denoted by the suffix -is and a flat by the suffix -es, a doublesharp by -isis and a double-flat by -eses. Irregular formations are: B, B-flat, instead of Hes; Es, E-flat, instead of Ees; As, A-flat, instead of Aes. Note particularly that the English B is in German H (pronounced hah ), and that the English B-flat is in German B. II. Unfortunately there is no uniform practice for indicating different octaves. The accompanying table shows the system employed in this dictionary and widely used elsewhere (1), together with two others, (2) and (3). The chief source of confusion is that some writers designate middle c (the C in the middle of the keyboard) by c' and

Long lists given by A. J. Ellis and N. Bessaraboff also include pitches from earlier centuries but their accuracy is highly questionable. For instance, Ellis' calculations of the "low" and "high" organ pitch in Arnolt Schlick's Spiegel der Orgelmacher (1511) have been rejected by Kendall, and Kendall's calculations by Mendel. 8 ____j Lit.: A. J. Ellis, The History of Musical Pitch Contra Great Small One 1880); N. Bessaraboff [see above]; W. L. Sumner, "A History of Musical Pitch" (Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book vii [1952], 233ff); R. Kendall, "Notes on Arnold Schlick" (AM xi); R. Mendel, "Pitch in the 16th and Early 17th Centuries" · Three - line Four-line (four parts in MQ xxxiv); id., "On the Pitches in c' c Use in Bach's Time" (two parts in MQ xli, 332ff, 1. 2. c c 466ff).

~1:>:~~~ .. ~-I

--

3.

Pitch aggregate. A collection or cluster of pitches (usually, but not necessarily, simultaneous). See under Aleatory music. Pitch names. I. The accompanying table gives the English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish names for the tones of an octave.

A B A H Ia si Ia si Ia si

c

c

I@_

II

line Two - line

c"' c"

r?

c"" c"' c3

others by c. Method (3) is perhaps the simplest and most logical; however, it has not been widely accepted. See R. W. Young, in Journal of Musicology i, no. 2, pp. 5-8. For other systems of pitch designation, see Solmization; Letter notation.

679

PITCH PIPE

PLAINSONG

Pitch pipe. (A device used since the 18th (17th?) century to set the pitch for a choir or to tune stringed instruments. In its early form it was a wooden pipe with a movable stopper that m~de it possible to raise or lower the sound accordmg to graduated marks. Present-day pitch pipes, used mostly by amateurs, are in the form of a disk containing a free reed whose length can be regulated, or consist of a n~mber of pip~s giving the pitches of, e.g., the stnngs of a guitar. The most accurate device, used for professional tuning, is the tuning fork. Piil [It.]. More; piit allegro, more quickly; piuttosto allegro, rather quick. Piil tosto. See Tosto. Piva. (1) An Italian term for bagpipe. (2) The fastest measure (misura) or step unit of the bassa dansa (*basse danse). It consisted of a series of rapid steps (passetti presti) embellished by leaps

and turns. In one of the dances, Domenico da Piacenza suggested that three measures of the piva be danced in a herringbone or zigzag pattern. (3) One of the fastest dances of the early 16th century. Seven examples of music survive in Dalza's Intabulatura de !auto (Petrucci, iv, 1508), where they appear as the third dance of a suite including a *pavane, a *saltarello, and a piva. All are in compound quadruple meter (12/8). The last dances of the other two suites in the collection are of the same genre as the piva but are called spingardo. One isolated piva in the Intabolatura di !auto of M. Barberiis (ix, 1549) is in the 6/8 meter of a saltarello or galliard. For a detailed description and bibl., see L. H. L.H.M. Moe in MGG x, 1313-15.

Placido [It.]. Calm, tranquil. Plagal cadence [G. Plagalschluss]. The cadence with the subdominant preceding the tonic: IV -I.

This cadence, also known as the Amen cadence because it was traditionally used for the "Amen" at the end of hymns, was prominent in early music (15th, 16th centuries). It became obsolete or archaic during the 18th and 19th centuries and again became important in 20th-century music, particularly in the works of Hindemitli. This revival is concomitant with the modern aversion to the leading tone, which is the characteristic note of the authentic cadence. See Cadence. Plagalis, plagius [L.]. A plagal mode; e.g.,primus plagius, first plagal mode. See Church modes. Plainchant. Another name for; see plainsong,

Gregorian chant. Plain-chant musical [F.]. A 17th-century French

type of plainsong, characterized by the use of more "expressive" melodic progressions than in Gregorian chant, of accidentals (leading tone), and of strictly measured note values (half and quarter notes) in the free arrangement of"multimetric rhythm" [see Rhythm II (b)]. The rhythmic principles in plain-chant musical are obviously derived from the *vers mesure of the 16th century. Plain-chant musical originated c. 1620 and spread all over France in the 17th and 18th centuries but is now extinct. Henri Dumont (Cinq Messes enplein-chant, 1701), F. Bourgoi~g, Chastelain, and G. Nivers wrote many melodies

1

Pivot chord. See under Modulation.

&J J J J J J r ~~r r Jqr r J,w J" I

Kyrie

Pizzicato [It.; abbr. pizz.]. For violins (violas, etc.), indication that the string is to be plucked with the finger, as it regularly is in guitars, harps, etc. The earliest known use of pizzicato occurs in Monteverdi's Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (1624), where it is indicated by the remark: "Qui si lascia l'arco e si strappano le corde con duoi ditti" (Here the bow is laid aside and the strings are plucked with two fingers; see HAM, no. 189). Other early instances of the technique occur in Reinhard Keiser's Adonis (1697) and Handel's operas Agrippina (1709) and II Pastor fido (1712), Paganini introduced the virtuoso technique of plucking the strings with the left hand in alternation or simultaneously with bowed tones.

(all monophonic) in this style [see Ex.: beginning of a "Messe royale" by Dumont, which was included as "Missa regia" in the Liber gradualis of 1895, ed. Dom Pothier]. See A Gastoue, in TG ix, 81-92: ;d., Cours ... de chant gregorien(l917), pp. 84ff; .d. Quittard, Un Musicien en France . .. Henry duMont (1906), pp. 175ff. Plainsong. Term derived from *cantus planus, a 13th-century name for *Gregorian chant. It is

used synonymously with the latter, but also is employed as a generic term for the ancient style of monophonic and rhythmically free melody that is common to various Western liturgies (Gregorian, *Ambrosian, *Gallican, *Mozarabic chant) as well as of those of the East (Byzan-

680

PLAINSONG AND MEDIAEVAL MUSIC SOCIETY

PliCA

tine, Syrian, Armenian chant). It may also be used for similar kinds of non-Christian liturgical music (Jewish, Hindu) in order to indicate that this music is neither harmonic nor strictly measured.

Public Library, 1966); R. S. Hill, "The Plate Numbers of C. F. Peters' Predecessors" (PAMS 1938); K. Meyer and I. M. Christensen, "Artaria Plate Numbers" (Notes, no. 15); W. B. Squire, "Publishers' Numbers" (SIM xv). J.LaR.

Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society. See Editions XLIII.

Platerspiel [G.]. Old term for bladder pipe; see Bagpipe.

Plainsong Mass. In the proper sense of the word, a monophonic Gregorian Mass, either the Proper, the Ordinary, or both combined. Usually, however, the term is used for a special type of polyphonic Mass composition in which each movement is based on a corresponding item of a Gregorian Mass Ordinary; see Mass C II a. Occasionally it is used for a cantus firmus Mass [see Mass C II b] based on any plainsong melody, e.g., Alma redemptoris mater.

Player piano. See under Mechanical instruments lV. Also see S. Grew, The Art of the Player-Piano (1922).

Plainsong notation. The notation of Gregorian chant; see Neumes. The term has also been used for the notation of medieval secular monophony [G. Choralnotation]; see Monophonic notation. Plainte [F.]. (I) See Lament (2). (2) A baroque ornament, either a *portamento (in 17th-century viol music) or a *Nachschlag. Plaisanterie [F.]. Name for a playful movement in the suites of the 18th century; also, a collection of pieces in the light style of *rococo. Plane, planh [Prov.], planctus [L.]. See Lament (2).

Planets, The. Programmatic suite for orchestra, organ, and women's chorus by G. Holst (191416), describing in successive movements the astrological nature of seven planets. Plantation songs. See under Negro music. Plaque [F.]. Indication for notes of a chord to be played simultaneously, as opposed to *arpeggio. Plate numbers. A device used by publishers to keep track of the engraved metal plates from which music was printed. The plate numbers appear as small figures, usually at the bottom of pages. Some publishers, e.g., Pleyel, also used letters to identify their plates. Plate numbers often enable musicologists to date a composition fairly precisely when no other chronological evidence is available. Lit.: 0. E. Deutsch, Music Publishers' Numbers (1946; G. ed. 1961); 0. W. Neighbour and A. Tyson, English Music Publishers' Plate Numbers in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (1965); A. Zakin, "Pleyel's Plate Numbers" (New York

Plectrum. A small piece of horn, tortoise shell, wood, ivory, metal, etc., used to pluck certain stringed instruments, such as the Greek lyre and the modern mandolin and zither. The quills of the harpsichord are a mechanized form of plectrum. Plein-jeu [F.]. Full organ. Also, name for pieces written for the full organ. Demi-jeu, half organ, i.e., softer registration. Plena [Sp.]. In Santo Domingo, name used for certain work songs consisting of short lines (sometimes an entire quatrain) sung by a leader and answered by a chorus in meaningless syllables called chuins. In P:uerto Rico the plena shows strong Negro influence, as it does in Santo Domingo, but has developed into a narrative folk ballad about a real event. After each stanza, sung by a soloist, the chorus answers with the same refrain. The music of the Puerto Rican plena is in 2/4 meter and usually employs the following rhythmic pattern:

1m

n 1JJTI 1

J.O-S.

Plenary Mass [G. Plenarmesse]. A polyphonic Mass composition that includes both the Ordinary and the Proper. All *Requiem Masses belong to this type, which otherwise is very rare. Examples are Dufay's Missa Sancti Jacobi and the Mass (for Marian feasts) by Reginald Liebert [DTO 53], both from the early 15th century. PUca [L.]. A notational sign of the 13th century calling for an ornamental tone to be inserted following the note to which it is connected. The sign for the plic.a is an upward or downward dash that is attached to single notes (tonga, brevis) as well as to the final note of a ligature (ligatura plicata). The direction of the dash indicates whether the grace note is higher or lower than the main note (usually a second or, more rarely, a third, depending on the position of the next note). The accompanying example shows three plicae longae

681

PLUT

I•

"'1

POETIC METER 2

3

4

5

u

r

~

~

., , 6

7

Musical

Poetic

ill

Iamb Trochee Dactyl Anapest

[1, 2, 4], characterized by a longer dash on the right side, two plicae breves [3, 7] with a longer dash on the left side or two dashes of about equal length, and two ligaturae plicatae [5, 6]. See ApNPM, passim. The plica developed from the liquescent *neumes of Gregorian chant. According to 13thcentury theorists (Pseudo-Aristoteles; see GS i, 173ff) it was sung in a special manner, probably a tremolo [see Tremolo III]. The theory advanced by H. Riemann (Mus. Wochenblatt, 1897, p. 17), and adopted by P. Runge (Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift, 1896), that the plica played a prominent part in the music of the minnesingers is erroneous. The German scribes of the 14th and 15th centuries used notational characters shaped like the plica notes of 13thcentury music but without their meaning. See H. Angles, in CP Fellerer.

Plot. [L.]. Abbr. for pluteus, shelf (of a library). Pneuma. See N euma (2). Pneumatic action. See under Organ II. Pochette [F.]. *Kit. Poco, un poco [It.]. Little; a little, somewhat. Derivative forms are pochetto, pochettino, pochissimo. Podatus. See under N eumes I. Poetic meter. I. Poetic meter, with its regular patterns of accented (strong) and unaccented (weak) syllables or, in ancient Greek terminology, of thesis and *arsis, is very similar to musical meter with its various schemes of accented and unaccented notes. The terminology of ancient Greek poetry therefore is frequently used for corresponding schemes of musical rhythm. The chief patterns (called "feet") of the Greek system are:

-

,_,

-

,_,

-- -- .... -----......

Spondee

-

-

Tribrach

-........

~j I J j I J ~ lj j I J jl ~ IJjj IJjjl ~jjljjj

~ --- ~ -

-

IJ

lj j I J J I ljjj ljjjl

The sign v indicates a short syllable, the sign - a long one. Each of the examples here includes two feet.

This terminology is used particularly for the 13th-century system of rhythmic modes, in which, however, nearly all the musical schemes differ in some detail from those indicated above [see Modes, rhythmic]. II. According to the number of feet contained in a line of verse, one distinguishes between dimeter (two feet), trimeter (three), tetrameter (four), pentameter (five), and hexameter (six). For instance, dactylic hexameter (Homer) consists of six dactyls, the last of which usually lacks one arsis (katalectic): - v v - v v - v v v v - v v - v. In classical verse, in the case of an iambic or trochaic foot, however, the numbering proceeds in pairs of feet (dipody, i.e., two feet). Thus, a line including four iambs, v - v - v - v -, is called iambic dimeter (not tetrameter). In hymnody certain standard meters have special names, e.g., common meter, indicated thus: 8 6 8 6 (the figures give the numbers of syllables in each line). Here each line may be considered an iambic dimeter, the lines "8" complete, the lines "6" katalectic, with one arsis and thesis missing at the end. III. In applying metrical schemes to words (versification), there are two principles that determine on which syllables the thesis falls and on which the arsis, one ancient and one modem. In ancient poetry the division of lines into feet was quantitative, based on the principle of short and long syllables [G. Si/benmessung], whereas in modem poetry the division is accentual, based on the principle of weak and strong syllables [G. Silbenwiigung]. The former method is indicated by the signs v - , the latter by X '. In modern poetry the thesis and arsis syllables are essentially the same as they are in prose; in other words, poetic accentuation follows the

682

POLAND

POETIC METER natural accent of the words, e.g. (for the sake of clarity, secondary accents are omitted here): /XX

X

XtX

X

Meantime we shall express our darker purpose [See Cursus.] In Greek and Latin poetry, however, thesis and arsis were not determined by accent, as the following example shows: XIX/XX/XX/XX

Prose accent:

Maecenas atavis edite regibus __ -

Poetic meter:

~~

-1 -

~~-

~ ~

(For the rules governing ancient poetry, see any Greek or Latin grammar.) The early Christian hymns, e.g., those of St. Ambrose, are essentially quantitative, although not always strictly so. Often they are written so that the accents are both quantitative and accentual. The rhymed sequences of the 12th and 13th centuries (Adam de St. Victor; Stabat mater) are purely accentual. IV. The musical sources of the 13th and later centuries often show a disregard for the natural accent. Thus, the iambic verse, "0 nati6 nefandi generis," whose poetic structure would suggest the first mode, is cited in the "Discantus positio vulgaris" of c. 1225 as an example of the third I

X

X

I

X

X

I

mode. hence a dactylic verse: "0 nati-o nefan-di X X

1

gene-ris" [see CS i, 96-97]; similarly, Franco of Cologne quotes the verse "Eximie pater et regie," changing the accentuation from x ' x x ' x x tXxtO,XX'XX'XX'

There are similar ambiguities in the poems of the troubadours and trouveres, owing to the peculiar indifference to accentuation of medieval (and, to some extent, modem) French, in contrast to English or German. Practically all poems in decasyllabic (ten-syllable) lines can be read either as iambic pentameter or as dactylic tetrameter, e.g.: (a)

X

f

X

X

f

X

X

Quar eusse je cent mile mars d'argent (b)

f

X

X

X

X

I

X

X

While (a) is no doubt the correct literary accentuation, the notation of the melody as found in the "Chansonnier Cange" clearly shows the pattern of the third mode, as under (b) [see J.-B. Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours (1908), pp. 132, 138]. Since the majority of troubadour and trouvere melodies are notated without indication of note values, this ambiguity often presents great difficulties in determining the "cor-

rect'' rhythm [see Monophonic notation]. An example in point is the Reis glorios of Guiraut de Bomelh (d. c. 1250), which has been interpreted both in the first and in the third mode [see HAM, no. l8c, versions I and 3]. See also Modal theory. Lit.: C. F. Abdy Williams, "The Aristoxenian Theory of the Rhythmical Foot" (MA ii); I. Krohn, "Der metrische Taktfuss in der modemen Musik" (AMW iv); F. Rosenthal, "Probleme der musikalischen Metrik" (ZMW viii). Pohjola's Daughter. Symphonic poem by J. Sibelius, op. 49 (1906), based on a story from the *Kalevala. Poi [It.]. Then, afterward. Poi Ia coda, "then the coda," usually given at the end of the trio to indicate that the resumption of the scherzo is to be followed by the coda: S-T-S-C. Point. (I) The upper end of the violin bow. (2) Point of perfection, of division, etc. [see Punctus]. (3) In the motets of the 16th century, point of imitation means a section of the polyphonic texture in which a single subject, connected with a small division of the text, is treated in imitation. These points are the structural parts of the motet, which consists of a succession of them. They are usually marked off diagonally rather than vertically, so that the conclusion of one point overlaps the beginning of the next. Ex. in HAM, no. 114; SchGMB, no. 107. Point d'orgue [F.]. (1) The *pause and its sign. (2) *Pedal point. (3) A *cadenza in a concerto, so called because its beginning is customarily indicated by a pause sign placed above the preceding chord of the composition proper. Pointing. See under Anglican chant. Polacca [It.]. Generic name for Polish dances, usually the polonaise. However, the "Polacca" in Bach's Brandenburg Concerto no. 1 shows hardly any affinity to the polonaise. See Polonaise. Poland. I. To 1600. Aside from liturgical books, the earliest example of Polish music is the famous war song, "Bogurodzica" (Mother of God), dating from the 13th century [see MGG x, 1388]. The earliest known Polish composer is Mikolaj z Radomia (Nicolas of Radom; early 15th cent.), who wrote a Magnificat, three Glorias, and three Credos, all in three-part writing [see F. Ludwig, in AMW vii, 430]. A continuous development in Polish music began

683

POLAND

POLAND

in the 16th century with Sebastian of Felsztyn (b. c. 1480), who wrote motets, hymns, and a Mass, all in Flemish style, and published several theoretical books between 1519 and 1543. He was followed by Waclaw Szamotulczyk (psalms), Martinus Leopolita (Martin Lwowczyk; 1540-89), Thomas Szadek, and Mikolaj Gomolka (c. 1535-1609), all brought up in the tradition of the Flemish school or, later, of Palestrina. In 1543, King Sigismund I founded the *Rorantists chapel. Three organ tablatures (Tablature of Johannes of Lublin, 1537-48; Tablature of Cracow, 1548; Tablature of Warsaw [Krasinski Libr.], also called T. of Martin Leopolita, c. 1580) contain c. 400 keyboard compositions, liturgical organ music, intabulations of vocal music, preludes, dances, etc. Toward the end of the 16th century Polish dances appeared at the Saxon court, as is shown by a number of pieces ("Polnischer Tantz") contained in the tablature of N ormiger of 1599 [see Colorists]. Their music, however, does not show any specific national traits. II. 1600-1900. Under King Sigismund III ( 1587 -1632), Venetian polychoral music was cultivated at the Warsaw court and at numerous private chapels of the nobility. About 1625, opera was established at the court, under the direction of Marco Scacchi (1602-c. 1685) of Rome. Noteworthy composers of vocal and instrumental music were M. Zielenski, A Jarz~b­ ski, M. Mielczewski, B. P~kiel, J. Rozycki, S. Szarzynski, and G. G. Gorczycki (c. 16641734). About 1700, many Christmas songs were written [see Koleda]. During the first half of the 18th century, when Poland was ruled by the Kings of Saxony (Augustus II, Augustus III), musical activity declined considerably. The Polish opera came to new life under Mathias Kamienski (1734-1821), who between 1780 and 1800 composed numerous operas in the style of the *Singspiel. Josef Kozlowski (1757-1821) is interesting mainly as a composer of numerous *polonaises, as is his pupil, Prince Michael Oginski ( 1765-1833). Joseph Elsner, known mainly for being Chopin's teacher, wrote numerous operas of which only the titles have been preserved, as well as symphonies, chamber music, songs, and a famous Passion oratorio. He also founded the first conservatory at Warsaw (1820), where Chopin studied. Even more important was Karol Kurpinski (1785-1857), a composer of operas, conductor, and teacher. The foremost instrumental composer of the "classical" period of Polish

music was Ignacy Feliks Dobrzynski (1807-67; two symphonies, chamber music). Frederic Chopin (1810-49), whose father was French and mother Polish, was the first to make Polish music famous throughout the world. Along with Schumann and Mendelssohn he founded romanticism, to which he imparted a distinct national tinge, particularly in his polonaises and *mazurkas. Stanlislaw Moniuszko ( 1819-72) wrote numerous songs, many of which became a part of the national treasure of Poland. His opera Halka (1848; expanded 1858) is the first Polish national opera. Five of his fifteen operas belong to the permanent repertory of Polish opera houses. His most important successor was Wladyslaw Zelenski ( 183 7-1921 ), who composed operas of some merit but deserves mention mainly for his chamber music in a moderately romantic style, influenced by Schumann and Mendelssohn. Henryk Wieniawski (1835-80) became world-famous as a violin virtuoso and composed two well-known violin concertos as well as other pieces for his instrument. Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860-1941) occupied a similar place in piano music, to say nothing of his outstanding position in Polish political life. III. 1900-. The next generation is represented mainly by Karol Szymanowski ( 18821937), an outstanding modern composer. Successively influenced by R. Strauss, Scriabin, and, after World War I, Debussy, he arrived, c. 1920, at a mature style of his own, a mixture of romantic and impressionist elements but at the same time consciously Polish, and in his latest works, tending towards atonality and constructivism. Among his most important works are a Stabat mater, the ballet Harnasie (1926), a Symphonie Concertante for piano and orchestra, and his Second Violin Concerto (1933). Ludomir Rozycki (1883-1953) was celebrated as both teacher and composer. Other important modern composers are Karol Rathaus (1895-1954) and Aleksander Tansman (b. 1897), who both emigrated to the U.S. in the 1940's, Stanislaw Wiechowicz (1893-1963) and Tadeusz Szeligowski (b. 1896), who became interested in neoclassicism, as did Jerzy Fitelberg (1903-51), Roman Palester (b. 1907), and Michal Spisak (b. 1914). Witold Lutoslawski (b. 1913) is a popular present-day composer of Poland. Since 1955 a number of composers have taken advantage of more open contact with the West. Lutoslawski, T. Baird, K. Serocki, and others have incorporated the new influences into their styles. The

684

POLKA

avant-garde, represented by W. Szalonek (b. 1927), W. Kilar (b. 1932), H. Gorecki (b. 1933), and K. Penderecki (b. 1933), have been strongly influenced by Western developments yet continue to show imagination and individuality in their compositions. Lit.: E. Rayson, Polish Music and Chopin Its Laureate (1916); Z. Lissa, Music in Poland, 1945-55 (1955); LavE i.5, 2568-85; A. Wieniawski, La Musique polonaise (1937); H. Opienski, La Musique polonaise (1918, '29); M. Glinskiego, Muzyka polska (1927); Z. Jachimecki, Historja muzyki polskiej (1920); id., "Polish Music" (MQ vi). For I: ReMR, pp. 741-57; J. M. Chomiti.ski and Z. Lissa, :j:Music of the Polish Renaissance (1955); *Editions LIII; *Editions XI, 6; A. Chybiti.ski, "Uber die polnische mehrstimmige Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts" (CP Riemann); id., "Polnische Musik ... des 16. Jahrhunderts in ihren Beziehungen zu Deutschland" (SIM xiii); id., "Die Musikbestande der Krakauer Bibliotheken von 1500-1650" (SIM xiii); id., t36 Tiinze aus der Orgeltabulatur des Johannes de Lublin (1950); Z. Jachimecki, "Eine polnische Orgeltabulatur aus dem Jahre 1548" (ZMW ii); J. W. Reiss, "N. Gomolka und seine Psalmen-Melodien" (ZIM xiii); F. Starczewski, in SIM ii (dances); T. Norlind, in SIM xii (dances); J. R. White, in MD xvii (Lublin tablature). For II: H. Opienski, in CP 1911, pp. 146-49, and in RdM 1929, pp. 92-8 (opera); id., in RdM 1934, pp. 193-96 (symphony). For III: Z. Jachimecki, in AdHM ii, 1144-51; M. Glinski, "La Jeune Musique polonaise" (RM 1931, no. 117); S. Jarocinski, "Polish Music after World War II" (LBCM, also MQ li). rev. J.s.

Melody Accompaniment

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add. by J.O-S. Polo. An Andalusian (south Spanish) dance in moderate 3/8 meter with frequent syncopations of the *hemiola type [see Ex.] and rapid coloraturas sung to words such as "Ay," "Ole," etc. The dance movements show Oriental influence, being movements of the body rather than ofthe feet. Two famous polos were written by Manuel Garcia (1775-1832), "Yo soy el contrabandista"

and "Cuerpo bueno" [see LavE i.4, 2293fl], the latter of which was used by Bizet in the prelude to Act IV of Carmen. A modern example is found in De Falla's Seven Spanish Popular Songs, no. 7. Polonaise [F.]. A Polish national dance of a stately and festive character. The music (a) is always in moderate triple meter, (b) consists of (usually) phrases without upbeat and with feminine ending, and (c) often includes measures containing a short repeated rhythmic motif. About 1800 it acquired its classic form, which, in addition to the features named above, is characterized by ~he specific rhythmic pattern shown in Ex. 1.

Polka. A Bohemian dance in quick duple meter with characteristic rhythms. It originated c. 1830 in Bohemia and soon spread to the European salons, causing a veritable "polkamania" that lasted until the end of the century. The polka was introduced into art music by Smetana (The Bartered Bride; From My Life; Bohemian Dances), Dvorak, and others. See Dance music IV.

The polka Paraguaya is an offshoot of the European polka in which the accompaniment has triplet rhythm against the binary meter used in the melody. A common pattern is the following:

685

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liffiiJTII 2

tr

POLONAISE

POLYCHORAL STYLE

An example of this type is Beethoven's Polonaise op. 89, shown in Ex. 2. The origin and early history of the polonaise are obscure. It seems to have originated in connection with court ceremonies and processions. Beginning in the late 16th century, dances entitled "Polnischer Tanz," "Chorea polonica," "Polacca," etc., appear in various sources, e.g., a manuscript by Loffelholtz (1585; see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbiichern [1927), p. 187), the "Tabulaturbuch" by Normiger (1598; see ibid., pp. 24lff), Besard's Thesaurus harmonicus (1603), Biagio Marini's Sonate, symphonie, canzoni (1629; see BuMBE, p. 44), etc. None of these, however, bears any resemblance to the polonaise. The earliest known examples with the above-mentioned

traits (a), (b), and (c) are polonaises written by J. S. Bach (French Suite no. 6, see Ex. 3; Orchestral Suite no. 2). A large number of vocal polonaises are found in Sperontes' Singende Muse an der Pleisse [DdT 35/36). J. G. Goldberg (for whom Bach wrote the *Goldberg Variations) composed 24 polonaises in a routine rococo style, while W. F. Bach wrote 12 polonaises in a highly idealized style with great artistic imagination. The classic polonaise, characterized by the rhythmic pattern in Ex. 1, emerged c. 1800 in Poland in the works of J. Kozlowski (1757-1831) and Prince M. Oginski(l765-1833). Well-known 19th-century examples are by Beethoven [Ex. 2], Schubert (Polonaises for four hands, op. 61, 75), Weber (op. 21, 72), Liszt (Deux Polonaises, 1851), Mussorgsky (in Boris Godunou), Tchaikovsky (in Eugene Onegin), and above all, Chopin, who made the polonaise the symbol of Polish heroism and chivalry. In the 17th and 18th centuries, under such titles as polonez, polonesse, *polska, *polacca, taniec polski, galanterie polone, etc., there appeared throughout Europe a variety of pieces in numerous media, which occasionally but not necessarily bear some resemblance to the classic polonaise. The polonaise also plays an important role in Polish folk music. The earliest known examples

are in a MS collection by Joseph Sychra from 1772, considerably later than those found in art music. Lit.: H. Dorabialska, Polonez przed Chopinem (The Polonaise before Chopin; 1938); A. Lindgren, in CP 1901; F. Starczewski, in SIM ii; T. Norlind, in SIM xii; Z. Steszewska, in Muzyka v, no. 2; J. W. Reiss, in Poradnik Muzyka 1950, no. 12, 1951, nos. 1, 2. See also under Mazurka. Polska. A Swedish dance, probably of Polish origin, similar to the mazurka rather than the polonaise. Ex. in GD iv, 219, GDB vi, 848, and ·W. Niemann, in SIM v, 99. See E. Ala-Konni, Die Polska-Ttinze in Finn/and (1956). Poly-, multi-. Prefixes meaning "many" or "diverse." Applied to music, they are often used indiscriminately but could be employed to differentiate two kinds of "diversity," vertical and horizontal. Thus, "polyrhythmic" or "polymetric" would mean the simultaneous use of different rhythms or meters, and "multirhythmic" or "multimetric" their successive occurrence. Similarly for polytonal and multitonal. See Homo-, iso-; also Multimetric, Polymetric. Polychoral style. Term used for compositions in which the ensemble (chorus with or without the orchestra) is divided into several (usually two or n ~

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three) distinct groups performing singly (in alternation) as well as jointly. Italian terms are coro battente and coro spezzato (broken choir), the latter of which also implies separate placement of the groups. The earliest known ex-

686

POLYCHORD

POLYRHYTHM

amples of this technique are in the works of Ruffino Bartolucci, who was musical director at the Cathedral of Padua from 1510 to 1520. Willaert used it in his salmi spezzati (broken psalms) found in publications of 1550 and 1557. The common notion that G. Zarlino in his Istituzioni armoniche (1558) credited Willaert with the invention of the coro spezzato is not correct. Zarlino merely says that Willaert formulated some rules for composing pieces employing coro spezzato. The polychoral style was also cultivated by Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1520-86), who wrote a Deus misereatur nostri for three four-part c~o.ruses, and was fully exploited by G. Gabneb (c. 1557-1612; see Ex.). It is a characteristic feature of the "Venetian school. Its development was furthered by the alternate playing on the two organs of St. Mark's at Venice, which were installed in the two apses of the cathedral. Accordingly, different choruses were placed with the organs and elsewhere in 'the building. The polychoral style persisted throughout the baroque period, particularly in Rome (Orazio Be~evoli; see Roman school) and Germany (Handl, Hassler, Schutz), the latest examples being found in Bach (first movement of the St. Matthew Passion). The term "polychoral" is also used, less appropriately, for compositions performed by ~wo groups that m~rely alternate, without joinmg forces. The earhest record of this method is an Italian MS from the second half of the 15th century (Modena, Bibl. Est. lat. 454/455). Such pieces should be called "antiphonal" rather than "polychoral." Nor is "polychoral" a wholly accurate term for the decani and cantoris choirs of the Anglican rites. These sing alternately as well _as toget~er, but in the latter case merely duplicate therr parts, so that the result is an increase of volume rather than voice-parts. Lit.: L. Reitter, Doppelchortechnik bei Heinrich . Schutz (1937); A. E. Ray, "The DoubleChmr Music of Juan de Padilla" (diss. Univ. of Southern California, 1953); E. Hertzmann, in ZMW xii; H. Zenck, in CP 1949 and MF ii (Willaert); G. d'Alessi, in JAMS v (Bartolucci); W. Boetticher, in AMW xii (Lasso); M. Bukofzer, in Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (1950), pp. 181-84 (cod. Modena); D. Launay, in RdM 1957, p. 173 (France, 17th cent.); D. Arnold, in ML xi, 4, and MF xii (A. Gabrieli). Polychord. See under Monochord. Polycbronion. See under Acclamation.

Polymetric. Term used for modern editions of 16th-century vocal music in which the bar lines are ~laced at irregular intervals according to the requn:em~nts of the musical and textual phrases, resultmg m a succession of different meters. This practice might better be called "multimetric," while "polymetric" would be reserved for the simultaneous use of different meters, e.g., 2/4 against 3/4 or 6/8 [see under Polyrhythm]. See Poly-, multi-. Polyphony [F. polyphonie; G. Mehrstimmigkeit; It. polifonia; Sp. polifonia]. Music that combines several simultaneous voice-parts of individual design, in contrast to "monophonic music, which con~ists o~ a single_ melody, or *homophonic ~u~IC, which c_ombmes several voice-parts of similar, rhythiDically _identical design [see also Heterophony]. The prefix "poly-" [from Gr. polys, many] should not be taken literally, since as few as ~wo parts can _make perfect polyphony -better, mdeed, than SIX or eight. Polyphony is largely. synonymous with _counterpoint, except for a difference of emphasis [see Counterpoint]. There are numerous theories regarding the "origin of polyphony," but none is more than hypothetical. Some scholars regard the earliest extant examples of polyphony (c. 900) not as a beginning but as a "first culmination" of a de~elopment whose origin, they believe, lies in Onental and primitive music [see ReMMA, pp. 249ff]. Lit.: M. Schneider, Geschichte der Mehrstimf!Zigkeit, i, ii (1934-35); L. B. Spiess, "Polyphony m Theory and Practice from the Ninth Century to the Close of the Thirteenth Century" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1942; rev. 1947); P. Wagner, "0ber die Anfange des mehrstimmigen Gesanges" (ZMW ix); E. Steinhard, "Zur Frlihgeschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit" (AMW iii); F. Ludwig, "Die mehrstimmige Musik des 14. Jahrhunderts" (SIM iv); id., "Studien iiber die Geschichte der mehrstiiDinigen Musik im Mittelalter" (SIM v); M. Schneider, "Kaukasische Parallelen zur mittelalterlichen Mehrstimmig~eit" (AM~); P. Collaer, "Polyphonies de traditioD:popularre ~~Europe mediterraneenne" (AM xxxn); for additional bibl. see ReMMA, p. 45lf. Polyrhythm. The simultaneous use of strikingly contrasted rhythms in different parts ofthe musical fabric. In a sense, all truly contrapuntal or polyphonic music is polyrhythmic, since rhythm~c variety simultaneous parts more than anythin~ else g1~es the voice-parts the individuality that IS essential to polyphonic style [see Texture].

687

!n

POLYRHYTHM

PONTIFICAL

Generally, however, the term is restricted to cases in which rhythmic variety is introduced as a special effect that is often called "cross rhythm." Two types can be distinguished: contrasting rhythms within the same scheme of accents (meter) [Ex. 1, a and b]; contrasting rhythms involving a conflict of meter or accents [Ex 1, c and d]. The latter is sometimes termed "poly-

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metric." Polyrhythmic designs play a prominent role in music of about 1400 and in 20th-century music. A passage from Baude Cordier's "Amans ames secretement" of c. 1400 [Ex. 2; ApNPM, p. 175] and one from Hindemith's Klaviermusik, op. 37 [Ex. 3] serve as illustrations. The bass part of the latter actually is in 3/8 meter but is written in 4/8 for the sake of easier reading. Polytextuality. The simultaneous use of different texts in various parts of a composition. Polytextuality is a characteristic trait of the early motets, from c. 1225 to 1400 [see Motet A, I and II]. It is implicitly present in the cantus .firmus Masses of the 15th century, particularly those based on a liturgical cantus .firmus. Thus, in Regis' Missa Ecce ancilla Domini and in Obrecht's Missa Sub tuum praesidium the text and melody of the respective antiphons are retained. In addition, there are other cantus .firmus texts and melodies used as well as the Mass Ordinary text; they may occur together, in sequence, or in alternation [see ReMR, p. 195]. In the Missa L'Homme arme by Regis the cantus .firmus carries the text "Dum sacrum mysterium." However, in Morales' Mass on the Spanish song Tristezas me matan, the original Spanish text is retained. Both Josquin and Morales wrote a number of"bilingual" motets; see Motet B I. See also Motet-chanson; Quodlibet III. Polythematic. See Monothematic, polythematic. Polytonality. See Bitonality, polytonality. Pommer, Pombart [G.]. Corruptions of *bombarde [see Oboe family III].

8

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Pomp and Circumstance. Five concert marches for orchestra by Elgar, op. 39 (nos. 1 to 4 composed 1901-07, no. 5 in 1930). The title is taken from Shakespeare's Othello, Act III: "Pride, pomp and circumstance of glorious war." Ponticello [It.]. The bridge of stringed instruments. Sui ponticello, see Bowing (k). Pontifical [L. ponti.ficale]. See under Liturgical books I (13).

688

PORGY AND BESS

PORTUGAL

Porgy and Bess. Opera in three acts by George Gershwin (libretto by D. B. Heyward, adapted from D. B. and D. Heyward's play, Porgy, with lyrics by Ira Gershwin), produced in New York, 1935. Setting: Charleston, S.C., in the recent past. The music features the styles of blues, jazz, and Negro spirituals. Porrectus. See under Neumes I. Port. Old Scottish term for an instrumental piece, usually for the harp. See GD iv, 232; GDB vi, 882. Portamento [It.]. (1) A special manner of singing in which the voice glides gradually from one tone to the next through all the intermediate pitches. A similar effect, frequently but erroneously called *glissando, can be obtained on the violin and trombone. In vocal compositions the portamento is indicated by a slur connecting two notes of different pitch when the notes have different syllables; otherwise the slur means repetition of the same vowel. If the effect of portamento is desired on the interval with one vowel, the word "portamento" is printed. See Portato. (2) The term is also used for anticipation or appoggiatura. Portative organ. A small portable organ of the late Middle Ages (12th-15th cent.). It was held with the left arm and resting on the left knee, in such a way that the keyboard was nearly at a right angle to the upper body. Thus it could be played only with the right hand (the small bellows were operated by the left hand) and therefore was a pure melody instrument, like the recorder or panpipes. An Italian 14th-century name is organetto. The blind master Francesco Landini was celebrated for his playing of the organetto. The famous illumination from the Squarcialupi Codex [see, e.g., BeMMR, opp. p. 168] shows him with this instrument. Giovanni da Prato, in his Paradiso degli Alberti (c. 1389), gives a vivid description of Landini's playing, saying it was "so beautiful that even the birds listened to it." Paintings of the 14th and 15th centuries frequently show the organetto in the hands of angels [see SaHMI, pl. XVI, opp. p. 272, and pl. XVIII, opp. p. 304). See H. Hickmann, Das Portativ (1936); H. Wolff, in ZMW xv; L. Parigi, in LRM 1949, p. 40. Portato [It.]. A manner of performance halfWay between legato and staccato [see Legato). The use of the term "portamento for this is misleading and should be avoided.

Port de voix [F.]. (1) In modern French, same as *portamento. (2) One of the most important French agrements of the 17th and 18th centuries. Essentially it is an upward-resolved suspension or appoggiatura, generally expressed by sign or a particular notation [see Appoggiatura (2)]. Usually, however, both appoggiatura and resolution are repeated, so that the ornament consists of four notes, the last three forming a pince ("mordent). In keyboard music this fuller execution is usually indicated by combining the sign for port de voix with that for the pince [see Ex., J.-H.

I. Port de voix.

2. Port de voix pince.

d'Anglebert, Pieces de c/avecin (1689)). In music for the voice and all other instruments the pince was taken for granted. P.A. Portee [F.]. Staff. Porter (portez) Ia voix. See Port de voix (1). Portugaliae musica. See Editions XLIV. Portugal. I. To 1700. In the 13th century Kings Alfonso III (reigned 1248-79) and Diniz (Denis; reigned 1279-1325) attracted Proven~al troubadours to their courts. Very likely they aroused interest and following among native musicians, one of whom, Martim Codax (late 13th cent.), is known through seven songs that were discovered in_ 1914 in the binding of a 14th-century MS of Cicero's De officiis [see ML v, 29f; I. Pope, in Speculum~). John I (reigned 1385-1433) was a munificent and lavish ruler who kept a large orchestra at his court for festivities and ceremonial occasions. A collection of anonymous threepart songs from c. 1500 is preserved in the Cancioneiro of Elvas [see Cancionero (2)). In the 16th century Portuguese musicians such as Damiii.o de Goes (1501-74; well known as a historian, diplomat, and traveler), Cosme Delgado (c. 1530-96), and Manuel Mendes (c. 1550-1605) came under the influence of Flemish polyphony, but very little of their work has been preserved (a motet, "Ne laetaris," by Goes in Glareanus' Dodecachordon ). About 1600 a splendid school of Portuguese polyphonic music emerged, known as the school of E.vora. To this belong Duarte Lobo (c. 15651646), Manuel Cardoso (1571-1650), Felipe de Magalhii.es (d. 1648), Joii.o Louren~o Rebello

689

POSITION

PORTUGAL

( 1609-61 ), and Diogo Dias Melgaz ( 1638-1700). To these must be added King John IV (1604-56), who studied music under Rebello, composed many works for church use (of which two motets are preserved), wrote a book and pamphlet in defense of Palestrina, and founded the worldfamous library whose destruction in the Lisbon earthquake of 1755 meant the loss of innumerable priceless musical works. A contemporary of Lobo's was Manuel Rodrigues Coelho (b. 1583), who in 1620 published an important collection of organ music (Flores de mU.sica; *Editions XLIV, 1 and 3), containing tentos (ricercars) and liturgical compositions [see HAM, no. 200]. Recently, several extensive MS collections of Portuguese organ music from the end of the 17th century have come to light, among them a Libro de cyfra and a Livro de obras de orgfio of 1695 (both in the BibI. Mun. of Porto). They contain tentos, jogos de versos, entradas, batalhas, and other pieces [see Lit., B. Hudson, K. Speer]. II. 1700-present. Under King John V (170650) Portuguese music came under the influence of Italian musicians. Domenico Scarlatti stayed at the Portuguese court from 1721 to 1729, and his influence is seen in the works of Carlos de Seixas (1704-42), who wrote numerous "toccatas" and "sonatas," some of which are interesting forerunners of sonata form [see S. Kastner, Cravistas Portuguezes]. Even more penetrating was the Italian influence on opera, which came entirely under the domination of Neapolitan composers. Among the first Portuguese composers of operas was Francisco Antonio de Almeida (d. c. 1755). He was followed by Jolio de Sousa Carvalho (1709-98), whose pupil, Marcos Portugal (1762-1830), became the greatest Portuguese opera composer. Jolio Domingos Borntempo ( 1775-1842) was Portugal's first composer of symphonies, writing orchestral works in the style of Haydn and Mozart. Unfortunately he had no followers of note. In the 20th century, Jose Vianna de Motta (Mota; 1868-1948) was a champion of nationalism (Portuguese Scenes; The Lusiades for chorus and orchestra). Freitas Branco (1890-1955) combined impressionist idioms with national elements. Ruy Coelho (b. 1892) has written many operas, ballets, and symphonic and chamber works in the national tradition. Frederico de Freitas (b. 1902) composed orchestral and instrumental pieces in the impressionist vein. Other important modem composers include Oscar da Silva (b. 1870), Claudio Cameyro (b. 1895), Croner de Vasconcelos, Armando Fernandes,

Fernando Lopes Gra~a (b. 1906), Joly Braga Santos, and Ivo Cruz (b. 1901). Among modernists interested in serial or electronic music are Filipe Pires, Jorge Peixinho, and Alvaro Cassuto. Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain, rev. ed. (1959), ch. xviii; LavE i.4, 240lff; J. de Vasconcellos, Os musicos portuguezes (1870); J. de Freitas Branco, Historia de musica portuguesa (1959); A Soubis, La Musique au Portugal (1890); S. Corbin, Essai sur Ia musique religieuse Portugaise . .. (1100-1385) (1952); S. Kastner, Contribucion a/ estudio de Ia musica espanola y portuguesa (1941); id., Carlos de Seixas [1947]; A Pinto, Musica moderna portuguesa (1930); M. de Sampayo Ribeiro, A Musica em Portugal nos seculos xvii e xix (1938); J. E. dos Santos, :j:A Polifonia cltissica portuguesa (1938); M. Joaquim, ed., Composic;oes polifon de Duarte Lobo, vol. i (1945); B. Hudson, "A Portuguese Source of Seventeenth-Century Iberian Music" (diss. Indiana Univ., 1961); K. Speer, "A Portuguese Manuscript of Keyboard Music from the Late Seventeenth Century" (diss., Indiana Univ., 1956); S. Kastner, tCravistas Portuguezes; AT. Luper, "Portuguese Polyphony in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries" (JAMS iii); F. D. Perkins, "Music in Portugal Today" (LBCM, also MQ li); *Editions XLIV. For Portuguese folk music, see under Fado. Portuguese hymn. The hymn "Adeste fideles" (0 come, all ye faithful), so called because it was frequently used, c. 1800, in the Portuguese chapel at London. Pos. Abbr. for *position, or [F.] *positif, or [G.] *Posaune. Posaune [G.]. Trombone. Positif [F.]. *Choir organ. Position. (1) With reference to chords (close, open position), see Spacing. (2) On the violin, etc., positions are the p!aces on the fingerboard to which the left hand shifts in order to obtain higher or lower tones. Thus, on the G-string the first position covers the fifth from g to d', g being the open string and the four successive notes, a, b, c', d', being stopped by the four fingers. The second position starts with the first finger on b and ends with the fifth finger one', third position starts on c', etc. Moving from one position into another is known as a "shift." Both terms apply also to the trombone with reference to the position of the slide. The home position is called the

690

POSITIVE ORGAN

PRECES

first, and each successive position lowers the pitch a semitone.

P. R. In French organ music, abbr. for PositifRecit, i.e., choir organ and swell organ coupled.

Positive organ [F. orgue positif; G. Positiv]. A medium-sized medieval organ, which was not built into the walls of the church but was a selfcontained instrument that could be moved by two or four men. It had one manual, no pedal, and only flue pipes, often in two rows (4' and 2'). A famous illustration is found on Van Eyck's Altar of Ghent. There also was a very small positive that was set on a table. It was as "portable" as the *portative, but differed from it in that it was played with both hands, the bellows being worked by an assistant. It was exclusively a domestic instrument. Later the name was used for a special section of the church organ in which there were flue stops (principal, etc.) suitable for the accompaniment of the choir; hence, synonymous with *choir organ, Positif[F.], Ruckpositif[G.]. See Organ III, VII, XII. See H. Bornefeld, Das Positiu (1947); E. Bonitz, Das Positiv und die Zukunft (1951 ); R. Quoicka, Das Positiv in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1957); F. W. Galpin, in MA iv.

Praeambulum [L.]. A 15th- and 16th-century name for *prelude.

Post Epistolam [L.]. Alternative name for the Hallelujah of the Ambrosian Mass; see Ambrosian chant. Post Evangelium [L.]. An item of the Ambrosian Mass; see Ambrosian chant. Postlude. An organ piece played at the conclusion of the service, during the exit of the congregation. It is usually improvised. The term is also used for a *coda. Potpourri [F.]. A medley of popular tunes, operatic airs, patriotic songs, etc., which are played in succession, connected by a few measures of introduction or modulation. The name Qiterally "rotten pot," i.e., a dish made of many ingredients) was used as early as C. Ballard's collection of *brunettes (Brunetes ou petits airs tendres, 3 vols., 1703-11 ). J. B. Cramer was the first to use it for the 19th-century drawing-room piece. Poole, La [F., The Hen]. Popular name for Haydn's Symphony no. 83, in G minor (1785), no. 2 of the *Paris Symphonies. The name seems to refer to the second theme of the first movement, which vaguely suggests a hen cackling. Pousse, poussez [F.]. Up-bow; see Bowing (a). Pp. Abbr. for pianissimo. Sometimes ppp and pppp are used to indicate still greater degrees of softness.

Praeconium paschale [L.]. Name for the Exsultet jam Angelica turba [see Psalmus idioticus], which is sung on Holy Saturday during the Blessing of the Paschal Candle (Easter Vigil). The text is given in LU, p. 776M; a melody (obviously of a relatively late date) is in the Officium et Missa ultimi tridui (1947), p. 227. For older melodies, see P. Wagner, Einfuhrung in die gregorianischen Melodien, vol. iii (1921), pp. 229ff. See Psalmus idioticus. Praefatio [L.]. See Preface. Praelegenda [L.]. Name for the Introit in *Gallican and *Mozarabic chant. Praeludium [L.]. See Prelude. Prague Symphony. Mozart's Symphony in D (K. 504), composed in 1786 in Vienna and first performed (1787) in Prague, where it was enthusiastically received. It has no minuet. Pralltriller [G.]. See under Inverted mordent. Preambule [F.], preambulum [L.]. Same as *prelude. Precentor. (1) The director of music in a cathedral or monastic church. (2) Deacon, elder, or "chorister" in the Puritan churches of New England in the 17th and 18th centuries who "lined out" the psalm and hymn tunes. See Lining. Preces [L.]. In the rites of the Latin and Anglican churches, name for supplications in the form of versicles and responses. They play an important role in the *Gallican and *Mozarabic rites, where they were sung during the Mass on certain penitential days. Several Mozarabic preces are reproduced, )Vith the designation "ex Liturgia Gothica," in the publication Variae Preces (rev. ed., 1939, pp. 112, 114, 135, 264; in this title the word "Preces" has no specific significance). Many Gallican preces ( Variae Preces, p. 266) are preserved, and these make up the largest remnant of Gallican chant. Both the Mozarabic and the Gallican preces usually have a refrain form, R V1 R V2 R Va .... In the Roman Catholic rite the preces play a much lesser role, being confined to the Office of Prime on ordinary Sundays [LV, p. 231]. However, the *litanies belong to the same type of chant. In the Anglican Prayer Books, preces means the por-

691

PREC/PITANDO

PRELUDE

tion of Morning and Evening Prayer that begins with the versicle "0 Lord, open Thou our lips." There are polyphonic settings of the Preces by Tallis, Morley, and others, that by Tallis being the one most widely used [see The Hymna/1940, p. 699]. See Suffrages. See W. Meyer, "Die Preces der mozarabischen Litbrgie" (Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Philologisch-historische Klasse. Neue Folge, vol. xv, no. 3, 1914); R. P. G. Prado, "Mozarabic Melodies" (Speculum iii). Precipitando [It.]. Rushing, impetuous. Preface [L. praefatio]. In the Roman Catholic Mass, a solemn declaration of praise beginning (after short versicles and replies) with the words "Vere dignum et justum est." It is, together with the immediately following Sanctus, an introduction to the Canon of the Mass, hence the name [see Mass A, table, nos. 12-14]. In addition to the Common preface [LV, p. 3f] there are a number of Proper prefaces for special feasts, all beginning with the same words [LV, pp. 8ff]. The "Tones for the Prefaces" given in LV, p. l09f are used for the initial versicles and replies. An example of a recitation tone for the preface itself is found in Officium hebdomadae sanctae et octavae paschae (1962), pp. 456, 458. Prelude [L. praeludium; F. prelude; G. Priiludium, Vorspiel· It., Sp. preludio]. A piece of music designed to be played as an introduction, e.g., to a liturgical ceremony or, more usually, to another composition, such as a fugue or suite. This connotation, which prevails throughout the entire early history of the prelude [see below], was lost in the 19th century, when Chopin, Scriabin, and Debussy used the word as one of numerous noncommittal titles for piano pieces [see Character piece]. How completely the term lost its proper meaning is evident in the fact that even the most pedantic listeners do not seem to have objected to twenty-four preludes being played in succession. With few exceptions the prelude has always been restricted to instrumental solo music, that is, to keyboard instruments and the lute [see Ensemble (3)]. The history of the prelude is of particular interest since it represents the earliest type of idiomatic keyboard music as opposed to types based on or modeled after vocal music (liturgical organ music, intabulations, ricercars, and canzonas). Its history can be divided into three periods. In the first period (c. 1450-1650) the prelude is a single composition that may be used

for any suitable purpose, sacred or secular; in the second period (c. 1650-1750) the prelude becomes the "first movement" of a special composition to which it is inseparably connected; in the third period (19th century) it becomes an independent piece to which no function or other composition is attached. I. The preludes of the 15th and early 16th centuries are mostly short pieces (ten to twenty measures long) remarkable for their free keyboard style, made up of passages and chords, in marked contrast to the strict contrapuntal style of contemporary vocal music. This repertory includes about fifty pieces (praeambula) in the Ileborgh tablature (1448); in C. Paumann's *"Fundamentum organisandi" (1452); in the *Buxheim Organ Book (c. 1460-70); in H. Kotter's tablature (c. 1520); and in L. Kleber's tablature (c. 1520; ex. in HAM, no. 84; MQ xxiii, 213; ApMZ i). Similar although frequently longer are the lute preludes in the tablatures of F. Spinaccino and J. A. Dalza (Intabulatura de /auto i, ii, iv, 1507--08; pub. by Petrucci), Judenkiinig (1523), Hans Newsidler (1536), H. Gerle (1552), and others. The preludes of the Petrucci publications are called recercari [see Ricercar II (a)] or tastar de corde [Ex. in HAM, no. 99; SchGMB, nos. 63b, 93; ApMZ i, 20]. Toward the end of the century John Bull wrote a number of preludes [see HAM, no. 178] that are noteworthy for their virtuoso character and to which the simultaneous lute pieces by J. B. Besard (Thesaurus harmonicus, 1603; see ApMZ ii, 24) offer a striking contrast of style and expression. See also Intonatione. II. About 1650 composers began to combine the prelude with a special composition. The prelude as an introduction to suites or a suitelike series of pieces was used by Louis Couperin, who created a unique type of prelude, completely free in rhythm and, therefore, notated without the conventional note values [see rev. ed. by P. Brunold and T. Dart [1959]; also TaAM viii, 40, where the "Transcription" on p. 43 completely obscures the basic character of the composition; for a similar prelude by D'Anglebert, see HAM, no. 232]. Particularly remarkable are the preludes to the lute suites of E. Reusner (1636-79; ex. in HAM, no. 233, and RiME; see also H. Riemann, in SIM vi). Handel preferred a prelude in a free, improvisory style for his suites, whereas Bach's introductory pieces to suites and partitas are full-sized concerto grosso movements, overtures, toccatas, or sinfonias. The combination of the prelude with a fugue

692

PRELUDE

A L'APRES-MIDI D'UN FAUNE

PRIME

that became classic with Bach can be traced to organ preludes of the early 17th century, which, after a section in free style, continue and close with a short fugal section. A piece such as the "Praeludium" of Heinrich Scheidemann (c. 1596-1663) in *Editions XLI ( Vierte Reihe, i, p. 16) or the "Praeludium" by F. Tunder (161467) in HAM, no. 215, may be considered the beginning of this interesting development, which, half a century later, led to the monumental "Praeludium cum Fuga" of Buxtehude [Ex. in HAM, no. 234] and finally to those of Bach. For a closely related form of keyboard music, see Toccata. For the chorale prelude, see Organ chorale II. III. The 19th-century prelude is represented by the preludes of Chopin and his numerous imitators, chiefly Scriabin (90 preludes), Debussy (24 in two books), and Rachmaninoff(op. 23). These are essentially pianistic character pieces. Except for those of Debussy, they are usually based on a short figure or motif that is exploited by means of harmonic modulations. See L. Hibberd, "The Early Keyboard Prelude" (diss. Harvard Univ., 1941); W. Apel, "Der Anfang des Praludiums in Deutschland und Polen" (The Book of the First International Musicological Congress . . . of Frederick Chopin, ed. Z. Lissa [Warsaw, 1963], p. 495). Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un faune. See Apresmidi d'un faune, L'. Preludes, Les. Symphonic poem by Liszt (first perf. 1854), based on a poem of the same title by Lamartine. Preparation. A harmonic device whereby the impact of a dissonant note in a chord is softened by first sounding it as a consonant note in the preceding chord. In the strict counterpoint of the Palestrina style dissonant notes always are prepared, while in Bach's this principle is largely discarded. See N onharmonic tones, particularly appoggiatura. Prepared piano. A piano whose sound is artificially altered by various devices, e.g., metal clips or metal bolts attached to the strings; strips of paper, rubber, felt, etc., inserted across the strings; altered tuning of the unison strings, etc. The prepared piano was introduced by John Cage (b. 1912). Presa [It.]. In canons, a sign, usually like an S, to indicate the place where the imitating voice or voices enter.

Pressante [It.]; pressez [F.]. Urgent, hurrying. Pressus. An ornamenting neume; see Neumes I (table). Presto [It.]. Very fast, faster than allegro. Prestissimo denotes the greatest possible speed. See Tempo marks. Priamel [G.]. A 16th-century misspelling of Praeambel, i.e., prelude. The explanation in Brenet's Dictionnaire de musique is erroneous. Prick song. A 16th- and 17th-century English term for a written or printed composition, distinguishing it from the oral tradition of plainsong, folksong, popular dance music, etc., as well as from improvised music. Prim [G.]. *Prime (1). Prima donna [It.]. Originally, the singer of the principal female role of an opera, as distinguished from the primo uomo, the leading male singer, and the seconda donna, the second female singer. These parts were basic in the plot construction of !8th-century operas, as can be seen, e.g., in Mozart's Don Giovanni and Figaro. In the 19th century the term came to mean a conceited, jealous, capricious operatic star, a meaning also extended to her male counterpart, both in performing and conducting. See H. S. Edwards, The Prima Donna, 2 vols. (1888); K. Homolka, Die grossen Primadonnen (1960). Prima (seconda) prattica [It.]. E!i!ly 17th-century terms used (first by Monteverdi?) to distinguish the polyphonic style of the 16th century from the monodic style of the 17th. Synonyms are stile antico and stile moderno. Prima vista [It.]. Playing without previous study. See Sight-reading. Prima volta, seconda volta [It.]. The different endings for the first and second performances of a repeated section. In scores, abbreviations such as fl. and 12. are used. The practice of using different endings occurs occasionally in Gregorian chant, e.g., in the Offertory "Eripe me ... Domine," which in its full form with two verses [see C. Ott, Offertoriale, no. 30] can be diagramed as O-e1 V1 O-e1 Vz 0-ez ( 0 = Offertory; V = verse; e = ending), with e 1 closing on the "dominant" b and e2 on the tonic e. It appears fully established in the ballades and virelais of Machaut; see Ouvert and clos. Prime (1) The interval "zero," i.e., unison. (2) The third of the canonical hours. See Office.

693

PRIMGEIGER

PRINTING OF MUSIC

Primgeiger [G.]. First violinist, also concertmaster. Primitive music. See Ethnomusicology. Prince Igor [Rus. Knyaz Igor]. Opera in four acts by Borodin (to his own libretto), composed between 1871 and 1887, the year of his death, completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov, produced in St. Petersburg, 1890. Setting: semilegendary Russia, ll85. Best known are the Polovtsian Dances, which are often heard in concerts, and the selections adapted for the Broadway musical Kismet. Principal. In German organs, the "open diapason," in 8', 16', 32', and 4' [see Foot]. In American and British organs, a 4'-open diapason only, or an 8'-open diapason on the pedal. Printing of music. The printing of music began soon after the invention of movable letter type (Gutenberg's Bible, c. 1455). A Psalterium, printed in 1457 by Gutenberg's associates, Johann Fust and Peter SchOffer, has printed staves on which the notes were written by hand. The earliest method used for the complete reproduction of music was double printing, in which the staff lines and notes were printed in two different processes, usually the former in red and the latter in black. Various printers of the 15th century used this method for liturgical books (missals), e.g., Ulrich Han (Rome, 1476), Jorg Reyser (Wiirzburg, 1481), Octavianus Scotto (Venice, 1482), J. Sensenschmidt (1485), and Erhard Ratdolt (1487). In the early 16th century it was perfected by 0. dei Petrucci (first printed book, the *Odhecaton, 1501), the only music printer who can be compared to Gutenberg. Equally skilled was Peter SchOffer, who printed the beautiful publication of Amolt Schlick's Tabulaturen (1512). Most printers, however, found double printing too difficult and replaced it with two other methods, which, with many variations and improvements, have persisted side by side until the present day: (a) block or sheet printing, and (b) type printing. (a) In block printing, the block for the entire page of music is prepared as a whole. While woodcuts, such as those used in N. Burtius' Musices opusculum (1487; printed by De Rugeriis in Bologna), yielded extremely clumsy results [ill. in GD iv, 254; GDB vi, 929], handengraved metal plates proved very satisfactory, as is shown by the beautiful publications of the Roman printers Simone Verovio (Diletto spirituale, 1586; C. Merulo's Toccate, 1597, 1604), and

Nicola Borbone (Frescobaldi's Toccate, 1637), by the *Parthenia, etc. Not infrequently the composers themselves engraved their music, as, for instance, Johann Ulrich Steigleder (Ricercar Tabulatura, 1624) and probably also Bach (Clavier- Vbung iii). Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries engraving was the most common method of printing. American publishers imported engraved plates from England (as early as 1690), Paul Revere being the first American to engrave music (c. 1760). An important advance was made in the early 18th century by John Walsh who c. 1710 (1730?) mechanized the process of engraving with the use of punches, long tools having a note or other character at one end, which were struck with a hammer. A combination of punching and hand-engraving (e.g., for long lines) is still used today. About 1800, Senefelder's lithographic process (writing on a smooth stone with a greasy ink) was used for music publications; C. M. von Weber helped perfect this method and in 1800 lithographed his op. 2 himself. Later the stone was replaced with a copper plate covered with beeswax on which the musical signs were scratched. When the plate was etched with acid, the signs appeared as grooves in the copper plate. In the modem offset process (also called photolithography) the characters are first hand-engraved (with the aid of punches) on a lead plate from which a clear proof on paper is drawn. Eight or sixteen such proofs are pasted on a large sheet and a negative photograph is made. The negative is reproduced photographically on a sensitive zinc plate (covered with a photographic emulsion), which, after treatment with acid, shows the signs engraved. (b) In type printing, movable type, comparable in size to letter type, is put together in order to prepare the block for the printing. In the 16th century such type consisted of a note combined with a small section of the staff, as illustrated.

Although this method proved successful for printing *partbooks (vocal music), in which each staff carried only one melodic line, it was very tedious and costly for keyboard music, which frequently included chords. Examples of keyboard music printed in this manner are Attaingnant's books of 1529. Type printing was largely abandoned after 1600 but was reintroduced, greatly improved, by J. G. I. Breitkopf (1755), who used tiny pieces of type, one each for note-

694

PRIX DE ROME

PROFESSION OF MUSIC

heads, stems, flags, etc., that were put together in a complicated mosaic. This troublesome method is used today chiefly for short musical examples inserted in printed books and for plainsong. Lit.: W. Gamble, Music Engraving and Printing (1923); A. H. Littleton, A Catalogue ... Illustrating the History of Music Printing (1911); H. M. Brown, Instrumental Music Printed before 1600 (1965); G. Marco, The Earliest Music Printers of Continental Europe [1962]; K. MeyerBaer, Liturgical Music Incunabula (1962); A. H. King, Four Hundred Years of Music Printing (1964); D. B. Updike, Printing Types, Their History, Form, and Use, rev. ed. (1962); R. Steele, The Earliest English Music Printing (1903); K. Meyer, "The Printing of Music, 1473-1934" (The Dolphin, 1935); 0. Kinkeldey, Music and Music Printing in Incunabula (1932; repr. from Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America xxvi); M. Foss, in ML iv, 340; L. M. Spell, ''The First Music Books Printed in America" (MQ xv); K. Meyer, "The Liturgical Music Incunabula in the British Museum" (The Library xx [1939], 272-94); W. H. Cummings, in PMA xi; A. Thurlings, in VMW viii; H. Springer, in CP 1906, p. 37; M. Dona, La Stampa musicale a Milano fino all'anno 1700 (1961); WoHN ii, 475ff. Prix de Rome. See under Scholarships II. Prizes. See Scholarships. Processional [L. processionale]. See under Liturgical books I (8). Prodam\ Nevesta. See Bartered Bride, The. Prodigal Son, The. See Enfant prodigue, L'. Profession of music. I. Teaching. The largest number of opportunities for a musical career are in teaching, which also is the surest and steadiest method of earning an income. a. Public schools. Teaching in public elementary and high schools usually requires a teaching certificate based on completion of a degree program in an accredited institution. Often the teacher is asked to give instruction in one or more subjects besides music. b. Private schools, elementary and secondary. The requirements for teachers in private schools vary greatly. Most private schools require a B.A. and often an M.A. degiee. In some instances a single teacher is employed for all classroom teaching-theory, history, solfege, appreciation, etc. He may also be required to teach an instru-

ment or voice, direct a chorus or band, etc., or to teach another subject in addition to music. c. Colleges and universities. The B.A. degree is prerequisite (or B.S., or B.Mus.). The M.A. is more and more widely required, while the Ph.D. is indispensable for obtaining positions in top-ranking colleges and universities. A balance of musical knowledge (theory and history) with performing ability is ideal, the one or the other being stressed according to the teacher's special abilities. A knowledge of the other arts is receiving wider recognition as an important part of the understanding of music. d. Music schools. Here the emphasis is more specifically on performance. Although the better music schools include on their staffs teachers of theory and history, they also have a place for the virtuoso, whose interest is primarily in performance and in training performers. e. The private music teacher. Except for a few "stars" who have become famous as performers, the private teacher's career tends to be uncertain. Moreover, anyone who wishes to do so may take on pupils, with the result that many incompetent persons set themselves up as teachers. More security results from cooperation with high schools and colleges, which may refer students to private teachers for instruction. Private teaching often is done on a part-time basis, e.g., by church organists, orchestra players, and occasionally by school music teachers. In addition, recognized concert artists frequently accept a few gifted pupils. II. Performing. Performing as a soloist on the concert or operatic stage is the most "glamorous" profession, but the number of such opportunities is limited compared to the quantity and quality of talented performers available. Frequently performance is combined with teaching. Conducting is an even more limited field. There may be a good future for local concert artists-performers who appear principally in a given region, where they also participate, as teachers or otherwise, in the musical life of the community. Symphony orchestras (and a few opera and ballet companies) provide employment for good instrumental players, and the growth in recent years of good orchestras in smaller cities has created new opportunities. Musical shows and operettas offer employment to orchestral players but seldom on a permanent basis. Many musicians find semipermanent work in small groups, playing popular and dance music. Churches employ a large number of musicians and singers, usually for quite a small fee. Many

695

PROGRAM CHANSON

PROGRAM MUSIC

churches, however, pay their organist and choirmaster enough to enable him (usually with the help of private lessons) to support himself. III. Various other activities are open to professional musicians. Some of them, such as composition, offer little in material returns. Others, such as writing and arranging for motion pictures, radio, or television, recording for the phonograph, acting as commentator for radio programs, or making arrangements for popular bands or folk singers generally pay handsomely but employ a relatively small number of persons. Newspaper criticism pays very little, with a few important exceptions. Opportunities for music librarians have increased during the past few years and may become even broader in the future. Lit.: W. R. Anderson, Music As A Career (1939); E. B. Helm, Music (Vocational Monographs, no. 6, 1940); W. Martin, The Conditions of Life and Work of Musicians, 2 vols. (1924); K. Singer, Diseases of the Music Profession (1937); H. Taubman, Music as a Profession (1939); H. Johnson, Your Career in Music (1945). E.B.H.

Program chanson. See under Chanson (2); Program music III. Program music. I. General. Music inspired by a program, i.e., a nonmusical idea, which is usually indicated in the title and sometimes described in explanatory remarks or a preface. Thus, program music is the opposite of "absolute music. Although examples of program music are found in nearly all periods from at least the 14th century, it was not until the 19th century that it became a serious rival of absolute music, to the point of ousting the latter-at least temporarily-from its dominating position. About 1900, many persons, particularly writers on music, believed that in order to be understandable music must "express something" or "tell a story." In pursuit of this idea, Bach's Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues were given descriptive titles (Queen Carmen Sylva of Rumania), and some writers maintained that the word giocoso at the head of a sonata movement indicated a particular mood of the composer and hence a program (F. Niecks). Today such views are a thing of the past, and it is generally agreed that music is an art in its own right, that it must work with its own tools, and that too great a reliance on outside program will weaken rather than enhance a composition's artistic merit [see Aesthetics of music III]. In fact, one cannot help feeling that a good deal of the

interest of composers in program music is owing to a lack of purely musical imagination, a lack for which they try to compensate with an interesting program. In the last analysis, there are two types of program music: music that is good regardless of the program, and music that is mediocre or poor although it is a skillful rendition of the program. Although the former category includes such outstanding compositions as Beethoven's *Pastoral Symphony and Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique, as well as such remarkable works as R. Strauss' Till Eulenspiegel and Debussy's Prelude d l'apres-midi d'un faune, the great majority of program compositions tend to fall into the second category. Programmatic ideas are frequently found in the works of 17th- and 18th-century composers. F. Couperin with his numerous program pieces [see below] and Bach with his word painting in arias and choral preludes have frequently been cited to support the cause of 19th-century program music. The old masters, however, did not identify themselves with the programmatic thought but used it only as a point of departure, from which they derived not much more than the

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general design of the initial theme. A comparison of Bach's aria "So schnell ein rauschend Wasser schiesst," from the cantata Ach wie jiuchtig [Ex. 1], with Debussy's Rejiets dans l'eau [Ex. 2], both "interpreting" water, clearly illustrates this difference. Moreover, early program pieces in

696

PROGRAM MUSIC

PROGRAM MUSIC

which the programmatic idea is pursued as thoroughly as in modem examples are usually mediocre from the musical point of view. This is particularly true of the program chansons of Janequin and the battle pieces [see Battaglia] of Byrd, Kerll, and others, among which Beethoven's * Wellingtons Sieg is no exception. II. Methods. In the history of program music, a general trend from the pictorial (objective) to the psychological (subjective) approach can be observed. Prior to 1600, composers limited themselves to imitating natural sounds (birds, battlecries, thunder, trumpet fanfares, etc.), bodily movements (flight, running, hobbling, throwing, falling, stopping), and words closely associated with movement (e.g., heaven = high; death = fall; see Word painting). Beginning in the 17th century, basic emotions or feelings were "translated" into music through associated movements or sounds. Thus, anguish is portrayed by a trembling or staggering motion, confidence by secure and wide steps, joy by a melody reminiscent of laughter, sorrow by descending steps in chromatic succession [see Chromaticism], etc. These examples illustrate the two basic methods of program music, imitation of sounds and imitation of movements, each used either directly or indirectly by way of association. These devices remained the chief vehicles of 19th-century program music, although they came to be used with much greater subtlety and refinement. In addition, the modem orchestral palette offered greater possibilities for convincing portrayal and faithful imitation. While Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony introduces the musical cries of the nightingale, cuckoo, and quail, Wagner very skillfully imitated the toad and serpent (in Das Rheingold), and R. Strauss a flock of sheep (Don Quixote). The climax of this trend (and, in a sense, the reductio ad absurdum of program music) is found in Respighi's The Pines of Rome, where the problem of imitating the nightingale is solved by simply using a recording of an actual nightingale's song. III. History. Several of the Italian *caccie of the late 14th century show an attempt to imitate in music the vivid scenes described in their texts, e.g., street cries, sounds of horns, the general commotion of a hunting scene, a fishing trip, a fire. From the same period dates a "bird motet" by Jean Vaillant, which recurs, with a German text ("Der May"), among the compositions of Oswald von Wolkenstein [Ex. 3; see HAM, no. 60]. More deliberate in approach but much less imaginative are the program chansons by Jane-

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quin (c. 1528)-"Le Chant des Oyseaux," "La Chasse," "L' Alouette," "LaGuerre" -the last of which, suggested by the famous battle of Marignano (1515), was followed by a host of imitations [*Editions XXV, 7; HAM, no. 107]. H. Newsidler's "Der Judentanz" (1544; ApMZ i, no. 10) is an amusing example of caricature [see Satire in music], and Byrd's The Bells is remarkable for its artistic ingenuity, far superior to the nai"ve attempts of John Munday to imitate "Lightning," "Thunder," and "Faire Wether" [see Fitzwilliam Virginal Book i, 274 and 23]. Passing over the numerous instances of programmatic portrayal in operas, oratorios, etc., some outstanding examples of instrumental program music of the baroque period are Froberger's beautiful Lamento sopra Ia dolorosa perdita della Real Maestd di Ferdinanda IV [see HAM, no. 216; see also Lament]; Poglietti's satirical Aria allemagna con alcuni variazioni [DTO 27; also TaAM viii], J. Kuhnau's Biblische Historien (depicting the fight between David and Goliath, the marriage of Jacob, etc.; see DdT 4; HAM, no. 262); the numerous descriptive pieces by F. Couperin (Pieces de clavecin, 1713-30; see HAM, no. 265), including an interesting anticipation of Schumann's Carnaval [see Menestrandise]; Rameau's "La Poule" and "Les Cyclopes" (Pieces de clavecin, 1706) or "Ramage des oiseaux" [HAM, no. 27]; and Bach's "Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo" (Capriccip on the departure of his beloved brother; c. 1704), a successful imitation of Kuhnau's program pieces. Perhaps the most startling example of baroque program music is a "Tableau de I' operation de la taille" for viol and harpsichord by Marais ( 1717), describing the painful details of a surgical operation [reproduced in LavE ii.3, p. 1776]. Between 1750 and 1800 mediocre musicians served an easily satisfied audience with battle pieces of very low quality [see Battaglia]. Beethoven's *Pastoral Symphony of 1807-08 marks the beginning of 19th-century program music. His remark, "Expression of feelings rather

697

PROPHECIES

PROGRAM SYMPHONY

than painting," also applies to Schumann's approach (Kinderscenen, etc.), except for pieces such as Carnaval, with its realistic references to the scenes of a masked ball. There followed Berlioz, with his autobiographical Symphonie fantastique (1830-31), and Liszt, who in his numerous symphonic poems created the type of program music that was to become dominant in the ensuing decades of the 19th century [see Symphonic poem]. The 20th-century development brought a sharp reaction against program music as a goal in itself, employing musical portrayal chiefly for the purpose of caricature and jest [see Satire]. Lit.: F. Niecks, Programme Music in the Last Four Centuries [1906]; W. Klatte, Zur Geschichte der Programmusik [n.d.]; 0. Klauwell, Geschichte der Programmusik (1910); N.-E. Ringbom, Ober die Deutbarkeit der Tonkunst [1955]; A. Wellek, "Doppelempfinden und Programmusik" (diss. Vienna, 1928); W. P. James, "Music Pure and Applied" (ML ii, 373); H. Antcliffe, in PMA xxxvii; M. D. Calvocoressi, "Esquisse d'une esthetique de la musique a programme" (SIM ix); M. Brenet, "Essai sur les origines de la musique descriptive" (RMI xiv, xv); K. Schubert, :t:Die Programm-Musik [1933]. Program symphony. A composition written in

the general form of a symphony (in several movements) and based on a programmatic idea [see Program music]. Examples are Beethoven's *Pastoral Symphony, Berlioz' *Symphonie fantastique, Liszt's Faust Symphony, and R. Strauss' *Alpensinfonie. Each movement of these symphonies has its own title, indicating one aspect of the general program. See Symphonic poem I. Prolation [L. prolatio ]. See Mens ural notation II.

In the early 14th century the term meant either all the mensurations (modus, tempus, and prolotio) or the four combinations of tempus and prolatio (Vitry's "quatre prolacions''). The latter meaning exists in Ockeghem's Missa prolationum, so called because each of the four voices sings in a different mensuration (in modem terms, 2/4, 3/4, 6/8, 9/8). Prologue. In early operas and ballets, an intro-

ductory scene in which one or several narrators, representing deities, virtues, etc., give a brief summary of the opera or of its symbolic meaning. The prologue sometimes developed into a small play with an entirely independent action, designed to serve as a dedication to or eulogy of the royal or noble patron. An example is the pro-

Iogue of Lully's Phaeton (1683), which consists of an overture plus twelve different pieces. The simple narrative prologue of the earliest operas (Caccini's and Peri's Euridice, 1600; Monteverdi's Oifeo, 1607) was successfully revived by Leoncavallo in I Pagliacci (1892). See H. Leichtentritt, in PAMS 1936. Prolongement [F.]. The sostenuto pedal of the

piano. Prometheus. (I) Ballet by Beethoven; see GeschiJpfe des Prometheus. (2) A symphonic poem by Scriabin, Prometheus, Poem of Fire (op.

60, 1910), for large orchestra, piano, organ, choruses, and *color organ. The first (and only?) performance with color organ took place in New York in 1915. The music is based on the so-called mystic (Promethean) chord [see under Fourth chord]. Pronunciation. See A. J. Ellis, Pronunciation for Singers (1877; E., F., G., It.); C. J. Brennan, Words in Singing [1905]; E. Wilcke, German Diction in Singing [1930]; M. Marshall, The Singer's Manual of English Diction (1953). Prooemium [L.]. Humanist (16th-century) name

for prelude. Proper [L. proprium ]. In the Roman Catholic liturgy, a term used in two ways: (I) In the classification of feasts, the Proper of Saints (Proprium Sanctorum) includes the feasts in honor of a spe-

cific Saint (St. Andrew, St. Lawrence), while the Common of Saints (Commune Sanctorum) includes those in honor oflesser Saints grouped in categories such as Martyrs, Doctors, Virgins, etc. The feasts of the Lord are set apart as Proper of the Time (Proprium de Tempore), "time" meaning the time or life of the Lord. (2) In the classification of chants for any of the above-mentioned feasts, some are classed as Proper and others as Ordinary; see Ordinary and Proper. The section in LU, pp. 317-1110, contains mostly the proper chants for the Proper of the Time. Prophecies. Lessons from the Book of Prophets in the Old Testament. In the Roman Catholic rites they are read (or chanted; see the Tone for the Prophecy, LU, p. 102f) chiefly on the four Ember Days and on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of Holy Week, as a part of the Mass. The longest readings are the nine (formerly twelve) Prophecies of Holy Saturday [LU, pp. 754ft], some of which, however, are from other books of the Scriptures. In Anglican churches, these are sung on Saturday evening.

698

PROPORTIONAL NOTATION

PROPRIETAS

Proportional notation. Same as *mensural notation. The term refers to the use of note values in the proportion of 2 to 1 (imperfect) or 3 to 1 (perfect). Proportions. (1) In *mensural notation, the diminution or (more rarely) augmentation of the normal note values in arithmetic ratios. For example, the sign ~ indicates that, in the subsequent passage, each note is reduced to threefourths of its normal value (the so-called integer valor), in other words, four notes of this passage are equal in duration to three notes of the preceding passage [Ex. 1].

The most important proportions are proportio dupla, trip/a, and sesquialtera, which call respectively for a diminution of the note values in the ratios of 1:2, 1:3, and 2:3. The first is usually indicated by a vertical dash drawn through the sign of mensuration,¢, cf>, [Ex. 2a], and the others by figures [Ex. 3a; 4a]. In the accompanying illustrations, Ex. 2 shows proportio dupla (2 S prop. = 1 S int. val.); Ex. 3, proportio trip/a (3 S prop. = I S int. val.); Ex. 4, proportio sesquialtera S prop. = 2 S int. val.). In Ex. 2 under the sign ¢ the beat (*tactus, rendered as a quarter

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studies on mensural notation (WoHN; ApNPM). Occasionally composers went quite far in devising proportional tricks, combined with canonic riddles. Nonetheless, these cases are on the whole not numerous or typical enough to justify any sweeping statements regarding the speculative and "purely intellectual" character of early Flemish music. The normal use of proportions was, through training and experience, just as familiar to the choir singer of the 15th century as operatic roles are to the modern singer. In their more complex applications they offered a combination of intellectual and artistic enjoyment for which there is no analogy today. (2) In early treatises on musical acoustics the proportions indicate the relationships of vibrating strings and hence denote intervals. For example, dupla 2: 1 is the octave, trip/a 3 : 1 the twelfth (compound fifth), sesquialtera 3: 2 the fifth, sesquitertia 4:3 the fourth. See Acoustics III. Proportz, Proportio [G.]. In the German dance literature of the 16th century, a *Nachtanz in quick triple time that follows a main dance in slower duple time. Both dances have the same melody in different meters. This is actually implied in the name, which indicates the application of a *proportion to the original melody. Nominally this proportion was proportio trip/a (another name for such a Nachtanz was Trip/a); actually, however, it was proportio sesquialtera. Therefore, three notes of the Proportz equal in duration two notes of the main dance. The accompanying example (Ammerbach, Herzog Moritz-Tanz) shows the exact rhythmic relation-

4

jcc j = J Proportio

a

note) is represented by the brevis, while under the normal signs of mensuration, ¢, cf>, it falls on the semibrevis. Therefore the latter were called alia semibreve and the former *alia breve, a name that persists as the only vestige of the proportional system. The reduction indicated by sesquialtera could also be produced by *coloration. Regarding proportio trip/a, see Proportz. See also Time signatures. The system of proportions, although relatively simple in principle, presents certain difficulties for which the reader is referred to special

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ship between the two [see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbiichern (1927), p. 77]. See H. Riemann, "Tanze des 16. Jahrhunderts a double emploi" (DM vi.3). Proposta [It.]. The subject (dux) of a fugue, as opposed to risposta, the answer (comes). Proprietas. See under Ligatures II.

699

PROPRIUM MISSAE

PSALM

Proprium missae [L.]. The Proper of the Mass. See Mass A, B.

Church music III (also for bibl.); Psalter; Anglican chant; Anglican church music.

Prosa [L.], prose [F.]. Medieval name, retained to the present day in France, for the *sequence. Originally it seems to have been used specifically for the sequence texts, as opposed to their music; hence the designations sequentia cum prosa or prosa ad sequentium, found in some early French MSS. The prosae were not in any measured poetic meter, so that the term, given its older meaning ("elevated diction"), is quite logical. Prosarium [F. prosaire] is a medieval book containing sequences. See Prosula. See H. Husmann, "Sequenz und Prosa" (AnnM ii, 61-91).

Protus [Gr.]. See under Church modes I.

Proslambanomenos [Gr.]. The lowest tone, A (not G), of the Greek scale, so called because it was added below the lowest tetrachord, e-d-c-B. See Greece. Prosomoion. See Jdiomelon. Prosula [L.]. Medieval term for certain kinds of textual trope, i.e., for textual insertions adapted to the melismas of the original chant, resulting in a syllabic setting. In MSS of the 11th century they are indicated by Prost. or Psi. They are found mostly in Alleluias and Offertories. The oldest example is a 9th-century "Psalle modolamina" underlaid to the verse of the Alleluia "Christus resurgens." An Alleluia-prosula (or Alleluia-trope) differs from the sequence (*prosa) in that the former is an Alleluia with an amplified text (the original words of the verse are skillfully worked into the fuller text), while the sequence is an addition to the Alleluia that often shows no musical relationship to the mother chant. See Trope. See ApGC, p. 433; J. Smits von Waesberghe, in CP 1958, p. 251. Protestant church music (German). Martin Luther (1483-1546), who founded the German Protestant Church, retained many elements of the Roman Catholic liturgy, particularly the Mass Ordinary (also the Gradual and Communion), but replaced the Latin texts with German translations. To these he added the sermon and his great contribution to the development of music, the Kirchenlied, known as the German Protestant *chorale. Important developments of the 17th century are the *organ chorale and church cantata [see Cantata III]. L. Senft (c. 1490-1543), H. SchUtz (1585-1672), and J. S. Bach (1685-1750) are probably the greatest of the many great masters who contributed to the development of Protestant Church music. See

Prussian Quartets. (1) A set of three string quartets by Mozart, in D, B-tlat, and F (K. 575, 589, 590), composed 1789-90 and dedicated to Friedrich Wilhelm II, King of Prussia, who in 1789 had invited him to Berlin. The cello parts are unusually elaborate, obviously intended to please the King, who played this instrument. (2) The name is also used for Haydn's string quartets op. 50, nos. l-6, for which the title page of the Artaria first edition (1787) bears a dedication to Friedrich Wilhelm II. Ps. Abbr. for *Psalm. In German scores, abbr. for Posaune, i.e., trombone. Psallenda. An item of the Vesper service of *Ambrosian chant, somewhat comparable to the Magnificat antiphons of the Roman rites. Psalm [F. psaume; G. Psalm; It., Sp. salmo]. The Book of Psalms has been, no doubt, the single most important source of text in music history. In their original form the psalms were not pure poetry but songs, perhaps with instrumental accompaniment. However, the inscriptions of many psalms do not, as was formerly assumed, refer to instruments but to standard melodies to be used for a given psalm. For instance, the inscription translated in the King James Version as "To the chief musician upon Gittith (Shoshannim, etc.)" [seePs. 8, 45] actually means: "To be sung to the main melody 'Wine-press' ('Lilies,' etc.),'' terms that indicate *melody types similar to the Arab maqamat [see SaHMJ, pp. 124ft]. The Book of Psalms contains 150 poems. The numbering system in the Latin version of the Bible, used in the Roman Catholic services, differs slightly from that of the English version. The English nos. 9 and 10 correspond to no. 9 of the Vulgate (Latin version) and the English no. 147 corresponds to nos. 146 and 147 of the Vulgate. Therefore, for all the psalms between nos. 10 and 147 the English number is one digit higher than the Vulgate's. References in this dictionary are to the Latin number, with the English number (if needed) added in parentheses (or brackets), e.g., Psalm 49 (50). In the original Hebrew, the psalms are poems based mostly on the principle of accentuation. Each psalm consists of a number of verses (marked 'II in the liturgical books of the Roman Catholic Church), each of which consists of two (sometimes three) parts that correspond to each

700

PSALM COMPOSITION

PSALMODY, GREGORIAN

other, often expressing the same thought or contrasting thoughts. They were sung to music somewhat similar to that of the Gregorian psalm tones, which are obviously derived from ancient Hebrew models su::h as exist to the present day among Jewish communities in the Near East [see Jewish music I]. The psalms were used as texts for the music of many Christian Churches, except for the Lutheran, whose music is based on *chorale texts. For the psalm music of the Roman Catholic Church, see Psalmody; Psalm tones; for that of the Anglican, see Anglican chant; for that of the Reformed Churches, see Psalter; for the polyphonic composition of psalm texts, see Psalm composition. See also Penitential psalms. Psalm composition. The psalms have often been used as texts for polyphonic compositions. Aside from early polyphonic settings of Graduals and Alleluias (Winchester Troper, school of Notre Dame), whose texts are nearly always taken from psalms, this activity began in the 15th century. The earliest example is Binchois' fauxbourdon-like setting of the entire Psalm 113 (114), "In exitu Israel" [see J. Marix, Les Musiciens de Ia cour de Bourgogne, p. 196]. Simple homophonic settings of the psalms were widely used throughout the period from c. 1450 to 1600. Examples are the three-part settings for alternating choruses in MS Modena, Bibl. Est. lat 454-455 (c. 1450-1500); the numerous four-part settings in *falsobordone style in MS Jena, Univ. Bibl. 34 (c. 1500-20); Willaert's *polychoral Salmi spezzati (1550); and the Spanish fabordones for voices (Guerrero, Victoria, and others; see Editions XX, 6) or for organ (A. de Cabez6n; see ibid., 3, pp. 32fl). Of greater musical interest are the 16th-century settings of psalm texts in motet style (psalm motets). Probably the first and, at the same time, the greatest master in this field was Josquin, who used psalm texts for more than thirty of his motets ("De profundis," "Dominus regnavit," "Domine, ne in furore"; see Editions VIII, 33). Among the later contributions, Lasso's Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales of 1560 [see Penitential psalms] are noteworthy. In the field of organ music, Cabez6n was the first to write a complete set of psalm *versets, four versets for each psalm tone [see Alternation]. Most of the *anthems use psalm texts in English translation. In the 17th and 18th centuries paraphrased psalm texts were used, e.g., in SchUtz's Psalmen Davids (1619) and Benedetto Marcello's Estro

poetico-armonico (8 vols., 1724-26). Often single psalm verses were composed. Examples are Viadana's Exaudi me (Ps. 69:16) and F. Couperin's Qui dat nivem (Ps. 145:16); see HAM, nos. 185, 266. In Germany, cantatas were occasionally based on psalm texts, e.g., by Andreas Hammerschmidt, Tunder, and Buxtehude. Bach used psalms for his motets "Lobet den Herrn, alle Heiden" (Ps. 116 [117] and "Singet dem Herrn" (Ps. 148 [149] and 149 [150]), as well as for his early cantata, "Der Herr denket an uns" (Ps. 114 [115]: 12-15). In some of his later cantatas he based the initial chorus on a psalm verse, e.g., "Du Hirte Israel, hOre" (Ps. 79 [80]: 1) and "Herr, gehe nicht ins Gericht" (Ps. 142 [143]: 2). Among 19th-century psalm compositions, those by Schubert (Ps. 23, op. 132), Mendelssohn (cantatas and motets), Brahms (op. 29, no. 2), Liszt (Ps. 13, for tenor solo, chorus, and orchestra), and Bruckner (Ps. 150) are outstanding. Important 20th-century compositions are Reger's Der 100. Psalm (1908), KodaJ.y's Psalmus Hungaricus (1923), Honegger's Le Roi David (1921), Stravinsky's Symphonie des Psaumes (1930), Milhaud's various works based on psalm texts, and Britten's Psalm 150. See also Penitential psalms; Miserere; Psalter; Bay Psalm Book. Lit.: M. Cauchie, "Les Psaumes de Janequin" (CP Laurencie); B. Widmann, "Die Kompositionen der Psalmen von Statius Olthof' (VMWv).

PsalmeUus. In *Ambrosian chant, name for the Gradual. Psalmody, Gregorian. The psalms are by far the most important texts used in Gregorian chant [see Gregorian chant II]. In the early days of Christian worship the service consisted only of psalm singing, and in spite of the many fundamental changes that took place in ensuing centuries the psalms retained their dominant position in the Roman liturgy. This development, which may have taken place between the years 400 and 800, led to a variety of forms and types for the different items of the chant, each item receiving the structure proper to it from the standpoint of the liturgy. All these forms stem from three original types: direct psalmody, responsorial psalmody, and antiphonal psalmody. The last two terms originally meant two different methods of performance, alternation between soloist and chorus (responsorial) and alternation between two half-choruses (antiph-

701

PSALMODY, GREGORIAN

PSALMODY, GREGORIAN

onal). However, this distinction is no longer valid [see Responsorial singing] and the terms have only historical and stylistic significance, the responsorial types being the more elaborate of the two. I. Direct psalmody means singing a psalm (or a number of verses thereof) without any textual addition or modification. This method survives in two types, one for the Mass and the other for the Office for the Dead. The former is the *Tract. The latter is known as psalmus directaneus (in directum, indirectum) and means singing a psalm to a psalm tone but without antiphon [see under III below]. For this method, which is rarely used, special psalm tones called tonus in directum are provided. II. Responsorial psalmody was directly taken over from the Jewish service. Originally, the entire psalm was sung by a soloist (cantor), with the chorus (congregation; eventually the church choir, or schola) responding after each verse with a short affirmative phrase such as Amen, Alleluia, etc. (A direct model for this exists in Ps. 135 [136], in which each verse ends with the sentence: "For his mercy endureth forever.") The resulting form may be indicated as follows:

Y. B Y. B Y. etc. B (R is the recurrent *respond, V stands for the

verses of the Psalm; straight underlining indicates choral performance; dotted lines mean solo performance; the length of the underlines, i.e., long or short, and the number of dots, i.e., one to four, indicate the relative length of the section.) Although originally the singing of the cantor consisted of a simple recitation in the style of an inflected monotone, similar to that of the psalm tones, there developed, probably in the 4th to 6th centuries, more elaborate methods of singing that finally led to a highly melismatic style of singing psalm verses. A similar development took place with the responds, which, originally sung by the congregation, eventually passed over to the trained chorus (schola) and grew considerably longer, both in text and music. Naturally the increase in length of the single sections, verses as well as respond, necessitated a drastic reduction in the number of sections (a similar development is that leading from the *canzona to the *sonata). Instead of singing an entire psalm, single verses were selected, varying in number from four to one. The respond was also cut, so that it was not repeated in full after each verse but in a reduced form, its initial half (or third) being omitted.

It is in these more or less radically reduced forms that responsorial psalmody entered the Gregorian repertory. In only a few special chants does the original scheme survive to some extent. An unusually full example is the responsory "Aspiciens a Ionge" for Matins on the First Sunday in Advent [see Processionale monasticum, p. 18]. Its scheme is: ~

.Y;

~,

.Y?

~"

.Y:J

~"'

P.

~

R is the respond: Aspiciens a Ionge, ecce video Dei potentiam venientem, et nebulam totam ferram tegentem. *Ite obviam ez~ et dicite: t Nuntia nobis si tu es ipse tqui regnaturus es in populo Israel. In the repetitions of the respond, this is successively shortened from the beginning, as indicated by the signs *, t, t (R': Ite, etc.; R": Nuntia, etc.; R"': qui regnaturus, etc.). The letter D stands for the Lesser *Doxology, the first part of which, Gloria patri et filio et spiritui sancto, is frequently added in the forms of responsorial (and antiphonal) psalmody as a final "verse." A chant of almost equally complete structure is the responsory "Libera me," sung at the Burial Service [LV, p. 1767; HAM, no. 14]. Yet another responsory showing the rondo structure of the early responsorial psalmody is the "Subvenite" of the Burial Service [LU, p. 1765]. Aside from such isolated examples, the surviving categories of responsorial chant are still shorter. The most important of these types are the *responsory, the short responsory (responsorium breve), the *Gradual, and the *Alleluia. The following table shows the usual form of these chants: (I)

Responsory: ..B.. Y. ..B.. Y. B' P.. ,B

R' or ._g_ Y. B' B or

(2) Short responsory: ..B_ B (3) Alleluia: R' B .Y_ .R._ (4) Gradual: .13:. ..Y_ or .13:. Y.

Y. B' J?. ..R...

B

The signs · - and · · · - indicate respectively soloist beginning (*incipit of a choral section) and choral conclusion of a solo section. Examples for (l) are found in LU, pp. 725ff, 72lff, 375. The short responsory has a fairly long (somewhat variable) scheme, but short and simple melodies in each section. The accompanying example of a short responsory [LU, p. 229] will also help clarify the structure of the other, more melismatic chants. In the Alleluias the response consists of the word "Alleluia" only. This is sung first by the soloist (R'), after which the chorus repeats it and continues with the *jubilus on (allelui)a-(R). With the Graduals the repetition

702

PSALMODY, GREGORIAN

lc

• • • • • .......I

PSALM TONES • il•

~

I. R. Chri-ste Fi-Ji De-i vi-vi • Mi-se-re 2. R. Chri-ste Fi-Ji De-i vi-vi Mi-se-re 4. Mi-se-re6. R. Chri-ste Fi-Ji De-i vi-vi Mi-se-re-

•

;;. •· re re re re

··I

no-bis no-bis no-bis no-bis

. 'i . . .- . ,

3. V. Qui se- des ad dex- te- ram Pa- tris

1

c

••• ~t;-••

~.,ii

..

l••••••

_.•. 1

5. D. Glo-ri-a Pa-tri, et Fi-li-o, et Spi-ri-tu-i Sane-to.

of the respond is optional [see LU, p. 320f]. III. Antiphonal psalmody originally consisted of the psalms sung by two alternating halfchoruses. This method was introduced into the Western Church by St. Ambrose (A.D. 1333-97) in imitation of Syrian models. The exact procedure in the early antiphonal psalmody is not known; there may have been alternating performance for the two halves of each single verse, or (more likely) for each pair of verses [see Antiphon, History]. The antiphonal method of psalm singing was at an early time enriched by the addition of a short sentence sung by the whole chorus (perhaps originally the congregation) after every two verses, which was called antiphon (A). There resulted a rondo-like scheme: A V1 V2 A V3 V4 A etc. A, similar in structure to that of early responsorial psalmody. As in the latter, the full scheme survives only in special chants, such as the *invitatory at the beginning of Matins, in which Ps. 94, "Venite exultemus Domino" (Ps. 95, 0 come, let us sing unto the Lord) is sung according to the following scheme [see LU, p. 368; also pp. 765,863,918, 1779]:,A.A Y.1 Y.2A Y.3 Y.4 A' Y.5 Y.s Y. 1 A Y8 Y.9 A' Y.10 Y.u A Q A'A (A is the antiphon Christus natus est nobis, Venite adoremus; A' stands for the second half alone; the verses of the Latin text [here, the Itala Bible] do not always agree with the divisions of the English version). A similarly extended structure (A V1 A V2 A V3 A D1 A D2 A) occurs in the antiphon Lumen ad reuelationem gentium, sung in alternation with the verses of the canticle Nunc dimittis during the distribution of the candles on the feast of Purification [LU, p. 1357].

Aside from such special chants, there are four standard types of chant that are considered derivatives of antiphonal psalmody, the Office psalms and the *Introit, *Offertory, and *Communion of the Mass. The Office psalms are complete psalms sung to a psalm tone (the same for each verse) and introduced and closed by a short antiphon: A V1 V2 etc. Yn A [see Psalm tones]. The form of the Introit is A .Y Q A (D is the Lesser Doxology; see above). In the Offertory and Communion the verse has been entirely lost, so that only the antiphon remains. In the Ordo Romanus primus from c. 775 both Introit and Communion are described as consisting of several verses sung in alternation with the antiphon, the doxology appearing in the middle rather than at the end. The Offertories had one, two, or three verses as late as the 11th or 12th century [see C. Ott, Offertoriale sive versus offertoriorum ]. See ApGC, pp. 179ff; H. Avenary, "Formal Structure of Psalms and Canticles in Early Jewish and Christian Chant" (MD vii). Psalm tones. In Gregorian chant, the recitation melodies used for singing (complete) psalms during the Office [see Psalmody III]. There are eight such tones, one for each church mode, and all in the character of an inflected *monotone. The main note of the recitation, called tenor (repercussio, tuba, reciting note), is always the fifth degree of the mode [see Church modes II]. In Ps. I (tonus !.D) intonation tenor

I@ • 8

C• • •

flexa tenor mediatio

~-

•

Be- a - tus vir ... impio - rum, tenor

I@ • • •· 18 non ste- tit

.

•

+ et ... to-rum

-.

et ... -Jenti- ae non se - dit,

accordance with the binary structure of the psalm verses, the psalm tone falls into halves, the first half consisting of intonation, tenor, and mediation, and the second of tenor and termination. If the first half is too long to be sung in one breath, there is another slight inflection at the breathing point, the flex. The accompanying example (verse 1 of Ps.l: Beatus vir, qui non abiit in consilio impiorum, tet in via peccatorum non stetit, *et in cathedra pestilentiae non sedit; see LU, p. 923) shows all these details. Each psalm is sung with an enframing *anti-

703

PSALMUS IDIOTICUS

PSALTER

phon that occurs in full at the end and is reduced to its first word or two (incipit only) at the beginning, except on greater feasts ("Doubles"), when the whole antiphon is sung before as well as after. The antiphon determines not only the psalm tone, which must be in the same mode as the antiphon, but also its termination, for which a number of different formulas called differentiae (differences) are provided. The one to be chosen is designed so as to lead back smoothly to the initial note of the antiphon, as sung after the last verse of the psalm. It is indicated, e.g., as follows: Ant. 8.c (mode 8 with the ending on c). Since the Gloria patri ... seculorum amen [see Doxology] invariably serves as a last verse of the psalm, the liturgical books give the differentia with the syllables *E u o u a e ( seculorumAmen). The antiphon Beatus populus with some verses of Psalm 143 serves as an example (note that the intonation is sung only with the first psalm verse). See also HAM, no. 11.

=

Ant. Sc

1@· -s.s . • . 1 8 Be - a - tus po- pu - Ius. diff. c

Ps. 143

I@ I~ •. I. De - us 2. 10. II.

M

• • • •· :II

canticum ... psal - lam ti - bi. Qui das . . . e - ri - pe me. Gloria ... tu - i Sane-to. Sicut ... lo -rum.A-men.

Ant.

I®. ........ • • • • ••

C• •••.

··II

8 Be-a-tus po-pu-lus cu-jus Do-mi-nus De-use-jus.

An exceptional psalm tone is the tonus peregrinus, which has different tenors for its first and second halves. It is used for the psalm In exitu Israel [LU, p. 160]. See H. Gaisser, in TG vii, p. 129. For tonus directaneus see Psalmody I. Psalmus idioticus [L.]. A literary production of the 3rd and 4th centuries consisting of texts written in imitation of the psalms. Among the few surviving examples are the Gloria of the Mass, the Te Deum, and the "Exsultet" [see Praeconium paschale]. Psalter. Name for the Book of Psalms translated into the vernacular (English, French, Dutch Psalter), frequently in rhymed versions (metrical

Psalter) and provided with music for congregational singing [for a Psalter of the 3rd century, see Hymn I]. Collections of prose psalms set to *Anglican chant are also known as psalters. For all branches of the Christian faith as well as for Judaism, the Book of Psalms has been a perennial resource. It was natural, therefore, that the Reformed Churches should, with one exception (the German), tum to it for texts. The earliest and most influential of the psalters was the French or Genevan Psalter, begun in Strasbourg in 1539 and completed, with metrical versions by Marot and Beze and music by Bourgeois, in Geneva in 1562. Bourgeois adapted existing melodies, some of them from secular sources, and composed others to fit the various meters. In conformity with the Protestant trend toward musical simplification, the settings are almost uniformly one note to a syllable. Calvin opposed the setting of psalter melodies in parts, but it was inevitable, of course, that they should be so treated. Among the composers who contributed part settings of the French Psalter were Bourgeois (1547, 1560), Goudimel (1564, 1565), Claude Le Jeune (1564; also settings in *vers mesure, 1606), Mauduit, and the Dutchman Sweelinck (1604--21). Ex. in HAM, nos. 126, 132. The Dutch Psalter is represented by the *Souterliedekens collections of 1540 (S. Cock) and 1556-57 (Susato). In 1566 the French Psalter was adopted in the Netherlands, replacing the Dutch versions. During the persecutions under Queen Mary, about the middle of the 16th century, many English Protestants fled to Geneva, where they came under the influence of the French Psalter. As a result, the so-called Anglo-Genevan Psalter was published with the help of both Englishmen and Scots. The French style is strongly represented in this work, and even after the refugees returned to Britain the Scottish Psalter of 1564 perpetuated the French influence, whereas the English Psalter pursued a quite different course with regard to both verse and music. Among the better-known English Psalters are the "Old Version" of Sternhold and Hopkins, completed and published by Day in 1562; Ravenscroft (1621); Playford (1671; another in 1673); and the "New Version" of Tate and Brady (1696). The English type of psalm tune consists of a number of shorter notes between two longer ones. Such a fixed pattern tends, after many repetitions, to be monotonous, and it compares most unfavorably with the freeflowing and infinitely varied melodies of the French prototype.

704

PSALTER

PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC

Another group of refugees came under the influence of the French form, this time in Amsterdam, where Henry Ainsworth in 1612 brought out a Psalter for the benefit of the English "Separatists" called The Ainsworth Psalter. Thence it traveled to America with the Pilgrims in 1620. Its hold on its devotees must have been remarkable, for though the highly influential *Bay Psalm Book appeared in 1640, Ainsworth's Psalter was not entirely displaced for many years thereafter. In the early 18th century in both England and America, the grace or ornament became popular in psalm singing. Clerical protests against this practice are similar to other attempts in music history to preserve a medium that was becoming outmoded. The music of the Psalter was, if praiseworthy for its dignity, very monotonous. Aside from the fact that the pace was probably painfully slow, the custom of *"lining out" disrupted the sense of the text and destroyed musical continuity. In the 18th century the *hymn began to make its way among English-speaking Protestant congregations. Its eventual adoption with a corresponding neglect of psalm singing was neither completely profitable nor wholly to be deplored. However, Scottish devotion to the Psalter remained so strong that not untill861 did the Established Church of Scotland authorize the singing of hymns. Lit.: A. C. Welch, The Psalter in Life, Worship and History (1926); E. B. Cross, Modern Worship and the Psalter (1932); C. C. Keet, A Liturgical Study of the Psalter [1928]; F. J. Metcalf, American Psalmody (1917); W. S. Pratt, The Music of the French Psalter of 1562 (1939); C. Schneider, La Musique originelle des psaumes huguenots

(1934); H. Expert, Le Psautier huguenot du XVIe siecle (1902); P. Pidoux, Le Psautier huguenot du XVI• siecle, 2 vols. (1962); M. Frost, English and Scottish Psalm and Hymn Tunes, c. 1543-1677

(1953); M. Patrick, Four Centuries of Scottish Psalmody (1949); N. Livingston, The Scottish Metrical Psalter of 1635 (1864); C. S. Smith, tThe Ainsworth Psalter (1938); J. Warrington, Short Titles of Books Relating to or Illustrating the History and Practice ofPsalmody in the United States, 1620-1820 (1898); S. J. Lenselink, De nederlandse psalmberijmingen (1959); G. R. Woodward, "The Genevan Psalter of 1562" (PMA xliv); W. Tru-

ron, "The Rhythm of Metrical Psalm-Tunes" (ML ix, 29); W. S. Pratt, "The Importance of the Early French Psalter" (MQ xxi); L. Ellinwood, "Tallis' Tunes and Tudor Psalmody" (MD ii). A.T.D.

Psaltery. A class of ancient and medieval instruments (also called *zithers) consisting of a fiat soundboard over which a number of strings are stretched. They are plucked with the fingers or a plectrum. This manner of playing distinguishes the psaltery from the *dulcimer, which is struck with hammers. In the general classification of instruments, the term is used for a group that includes, among others, the harpsichord, a keyed psaltery [see Instruments IV, A, 1, a]. The name psalterion is encountered in Greek literature, probably meaning a harp [see SaHMI, p. 136, also p. 115f]. In a letter attributed to St. Jerome (c. 330-420) a psalterium decacordum (ten-stringed psaltery) depicted in the shape of a rectangle is interpreted symbolically, the strings representing the Ten Commandments and the sides of the frame the four Gospels. From the 14th to 16th centuries psalteries of various shapes were used. One of the most common was shaped like a symmetrical trapezoid, sometimes with the slanting sides curved inward. Such instruments were called cafio or canon, after their Arab model, the *kanun. Another type, shaped like half of a trapezoid, was called media canon or micanon (sometimes corrupted into medicinale). This shape, which persisted in the winged form of the harpsichord and piano, slightly resembled a pig's head and so was called istromento di parco by M. Praetorius (Organographia, 1619). Among the more recent types of psaltery are the Austrian *zither and Finnish kantele. See also Bell harp. See ill. under Zither. Psychology of music. The study of the relationship of music to the human mind. From very early times people have been aware of such a relationship and have described in more or less definite terms how the human mind is affected by music [see Affections]. Specifically the term applies to a relatively new field involving the use of scientific methods of investigation. The first impulse for such studies came from Helmholtz' On the Sensation of Tones (Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, 1863), primarily a physiologi-

cal study. Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) was the first to apply the scientific method (experiments, tests, statistics) to musical-psychological phenomena-particularly to the problem of consonance and dissonance-in his Tonpsychologie (2 vols., 1883, '90) and other publications. Another important step was taken by Ernst Kurth who, in his Musikpsychologie [1931], proceeded from the "psychology of tone" to a more penetrating "psychology of music" based not

705

PUBLISHING

PUBLICA ClONES

only on the perceptive but also on the interpretative faculties of the human mind (Gestaltlehre, psychological dynamics, tension, anticipation, etc.). Stumpfs experimental approach to the problem was continued and enlarged by G. Revesz, C. E. Seashore, A. Wellek, and many others. Among the main fields of research today are: sound perception, especially the problem presented by the phenomenon of the *octave; consonance and dissonance (Stumpfs theory of Tonverschmelzung; see Consonance, dissonance I d); *absolute pitch; *key characteristics; tone and color synesthesia [see Color and music]; musical talent and aptitude [see Tests and measurements in music]; special aptitudes of the child prodigy, the blind, the deaf; heredity and musical talent; *music therapy; reading of music; and sexual and psychoanalytical aspects of music. Lit.: G. Revesz, Introduction to the Psychology of Music [1953]; M. Schoen, The Psychology of Music [1940]; id., The Understanding of Music [1945]; R. P. Farnsworth, The Social Psychology of Music [1958]; C. E. Seashore, Psychology of Music (1938); R. W. Lundin, An Objective Psychology of Music [1953]; J. L. Mursell, The Psychology of Music [1937]; H.-P. Reinecke, Experimentelle Beitriige zur Psychologie des musikalischen Horens (1964); A. Wellek, Musikpsychologie und Musikiisthetik (1963); J. Handschin, Der Toncharakter [1948]; A. Wellek, "Der gegenwmtige Stand der Musikpsychologie" (CP 1961); C. Stumpf, "Musikpsychologie in Eng-

land" ( VMW i, 266, 299). Additional bibl. in books above; also in D. H. Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodical Literature in Musicology

(1940), pp. l08ff. Publicaciones, Publications, etc. See Editions XLV-XLVII. Public school music. See Music education in the United States II. See also article in 0. Thompson, The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians (1939), bibl. pp. 2270ff. Publishing, music. Music publishing began with Octavianus Scotus of Venice, who in 1481 printed the first Missale Romanum with music, and Ottaviano dei Petrucci of Venice, who in 1498 obtained from the Seignory a twenty years' monopoly on the printing of music (other than plainsong). Petrucci's first publication was the famous *Odhecaton of 1501, which was followed by a score of important books of Masses, motets,

and frottole. Thirty years later, Pierre Attaingnant founded a publishing house at Paris, which from 1528 to 1550 issued books of lute music, organ music, motets, Masses, and thirty-five books of chansons. In the latter part of the 16th century, as a result of generally improving economic conditions and the increase in music production and consumption, quite a number of music publishers were at work: The Gardano firm in Venice (1538-1685); Verovio in Rome (1586-1608; the first publisher of engraved music; see Printing of music); Jacques Moderne at Lyons (153267); Christophe Plan tin at Antwerp (1578-1639); Nicolas du Chemin at Paris (1549-76); Pierre Phalese at Louvain, later Antwerp (1545-1674); Tielman Susato at Antwerp (1543-60 and later); and the firm of Ballard and Le Roy at Paris, which, founded in 1551, continued to exist until c. 1814, using its first type for more than 200 years. In England Tallis and Byrd were granted a monopoly on music printing in 1575, which in 1598 was transferred to Morley. The publishing, however, was done by Thomas and Michael East, who issued practically all the books of English madrigals from 1587 till 1638. There followed Playford, from 1648 to 1700, and in the 18th century, the house ofWalsh (c. 1695-1766), the first music publisher to use "high-pressure" methods, including a good deal of pirating [see Lit., Pincherle]. At the same time the house of Roger flourished in Amsterdam and that of Haffner in Nuremberg [see Haffner collection]. About 1750 the world-famous house ofBreitkopf (later Breitkopf & Hartel) published its first music books, using a new typographic method that revolutionized the printing of music [see Printing of music (b)). In 1773 the house of Schott (Mainz) was founded, which together with Artaria (1778, Vienna) published many of Beethoven's works. There followed Simrock of Berlin (1790), Peters of Leipzig (1814), Bote and Bock of Berlin (1838), and Steingriiber of Leipzig (1878). Modem music publishing in England started with Novello (1811) and continued with Augener (1853), Chester (1860), and numerous others. Music publishing in the United States began in the last two decades of the 18th century. Publishing houses known to have existed before 1790 include John Aitken (1785), Thomas Dobson ( 1785), and Alexander Reinagle (1787), in Philadelphia; and Thomas Dobson ( 1787) and George Gilfert (1787) in New York. In the following decade about twenty more names were added to the list, e.g., Joseph Carr (1794) in Baltimore, and

706

PULCINELLA

PUERTO RICO

Contredanse], which has inspired many composers from the 19th century to the present. Among the earliest of them were Aurelio Duefto (d. 1870) and Carlos Segnet (c. 1837-87). By the end of the 19th century this dance showed the additional influences of both Italian opera and French romanticism, and, in the hands of such composers as Manuel Gregorio Tavarez (1843-83), it became a stylized form used by such composers as Julian Andino ( 1845-1926), Casimiro Duchesne (1852-1906), and Federico Ramos (1857-1927). The most famous 19th-century Puerto Rican composer is Juan Morel Campos (1857-96), Isles ... to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century whose creative output went far beyond the con[1954]; C. Hopkinson, A Dictionary of Parisian tradanza, including music for the church, theater, Music Publishers, 1700-1950 (1954); A. Wein- and instrumental ensembles. He also helped mann, Wiener Musikuerleger ... von Mozarts Zeit train a large number of composers who reflected his gegen 1860 ( 1956); C. Sartori, Dizionario degli his influence in their cultivation of the danza editori musicali italiani (1958); 0. E. Deutsch, puertorriquefla; the most prominent of these were Music Publishers' Numbers ... 1710-1900(1946); Juan Peiia Reyes (1898-1948), Juan Rios Ovalle W. C. Smith, A Bibliography of the Musical Works (c. 1863-1928), and Juan F. Acosta (b. 1893). Published by John Walsh During the Years 1695- Their contemporaries and successors, Braulio 1720 (1948); F. Lesure and G. Thibault, Biblio- Dueiio Colon ( 1854-1934), Jesus Figueroa graphie des editions d'Adrian Le Roy et Robert (b. 1878), Jose E. Pedreira (1904-59), Narciso Ballard, 1551-1598 (1955); C. Sartori, Biblio- Figueroa (b. 1906), and Jose J. Quinton (1881grafia delle opere musicali stampate da Ottavian 1925), also produced major forms, especially Petrucci (1948); J. A. Stellfeld, Bibliographie des chamber music and solo instrumental music. editions musicales plantiniennes [1949]; M. Dona, Puerto Rico's 20th-century music still reflects La Stampa musicale a milano fino all'anno 1700 the influences of the traditional dance forms, (1961); C. Hopkinson, Notes on Russian Music even in abstract works by such composers as Publishers (1959); F. Lesure and G. Thibault, Amaury Veray (b. 1922), Russian-born Jack "Bibliographie des editions musicales publiees Delano (b. 1914), and Luis Antonio Ramirez par Nicolas du Chemin, 1549-1576" (AnnM i); (b. 1923). The best-known Puerto Rican conR. Eitner, "Buch- und Musikalien-Handler, temporary composer is Hector Campos-Parsi Buch- und Musikaliendrucker" (MJM, 1904, (b. 1922), who studied in both the United States suppl.); F. Kidson, "John Playford" (MQ iv); id., and France and whose works have won interna"Handel's Publisher, John Walsh" (MQ vi); tional recognition. M. Brenet, "La Librairie musicale en France de In addition to the traditional *seis and con1653 a 1790" (SIM viii); G. Cucuel, " ... La tradanza, the *plena and sonduro are excluLibrairie musicale au XYIIIe siecle" (SIM xiii); sively Puerto Rican folk forms whose popularity M. Pincherle, "De Ia Piraterie ... aux environs equals that of the *guaracha, *bolero, *son, and de 1700" (RdM 1933, p. 136). See also Bibliog- *punta, all forms of Cuban origin that were raphy of music; Printing of music; Plate adopted in Puerto Rico as a result of the continual contact between the two islands. numbers. Puerto Rico also has an outstanding composer Puerto Rico. Material concerning Puerto Rico's of popular songs, Rafael Hernandez, who befour and one-half centuries of music history came well known in New York shortly after (since its discovery in 1493) deals mainly with World War I. Lit.: M. Deliz, Renadio del cantar folklorico folk music. Early 16th-century chroniclers report performances of a dance called el Puertorrico in de Puerto Rico (1952). Also see under Latin Peru, Chile, and other South American Spanish America. J.O-S. colonies. This was most likely the forerunner of Pui. See Puy. the *seis, a dance familiar to the islanders during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Further evolu- Pulcinella. Ballet by Stravinsky, produced in tion of this form resulted in the contradanza [see Paris, 1920. The music is a modern setting of

G. Graupner (1800) in Boston. [See H. Dichter and E. Shapiro, Early American Sheet Music (1941), pp. 165ff.] The first publishing house of importance was Ditson in Boston (1835). There followed Schirmer (Beer & Schirmer, 1861; Schirmer, 1866), and Carl Fischer (1872) ofNew York, Theodore Presser (1884) of Philadelphia, and many others. Lit.: G. Dunn, Methods of Music Publishing (1931); F. Kidson, British Music Publishers [1900]; W. A. Fisher, 150 Years of Music Publishing in the United States (1934); C. Humphries and W. C. Smith, Music Publishing in the British

707

PUMHART

PUZZLE CANON

numerous passages from anonymous works formerly thought to be by the 18th-century composer Pergolesi. Many of the melodies are intact, while the accompaniment is cleverly altered into a sophisticated 20th-century idiom that is often *pandiatonic. See Neoclassicism. Pumhart [G.]. Old term for bombarde; see Oboe family III. Punctum. (1) See under Neumes I. (2) Same as *punctus. Punctus [L.]. (1) In *mensural notation, a sign like the dot of modern notation and having the same meaning, but also having a function somewhat like that of the modern bar line. In its first meaning it is called punctus additionis or augmentationis and is used for binary (imperfect) notes to which it adds one-half of their value. In the latter meaning it is called punctus divisionis and is used only in triple meter (tempus perfectum, prolatio perfecta) in order to mark off groups of perfections (i.e., of three semibreves, or three minims) for the sake of clarity. In the accompanying example, the second, third, and fifth dots are puncti additionis while the others are puncti divisionis.

ic i r·IO

c; Ir r Ir Fl FOfttJlffi J] Ip·ll

The system of puncti has been unnecessarily complicated by early theorists who deal in detail with a number of other puncti, such as punctus perfectionis, imperfectionis, alterationis, syncopationis, etc. Unfortunately these unnecessary complications have been perpetuated by modern writers. Especially misleading is the "simplified" explanation [seeS. T. Warner, in PMA xlv] that distinguishes only between the punctus divisionis and punctus perfectionis, since a further distinction must be made between the punctus perfectionis in perfect mensuration and the punctus "perfectionis"-properly, additionis-in imperfect mensuration. For a fuller explanation, see ApNPM, passim. (2) In the *estampies of the 13th and 14th centuries the various sections, each of which is repeated, are called punctus (primus punctus, secundus punctus, etc.).

Punta, punto [It.]. Point. A punta d'arco, with the point of the bow (of the violin); punto d'organo, the pause and its sign. Punto [Sp.]. Gay rural Cuban folksong of Spanish origin, usually sung to the accompaniment of the *bandurria and *claves. It is generally in 3/4 meter unexpectedly alternating with 6/8, and rarely in 2/4 meter with occasional shifts to 3/4 and 6/8. It has a short melody that is repeated for each line of a quatrain, alternating with short instrumental interludes. The music is always in the major mode, with seventh chords predominating over the tonic. Freedom of expression and use of descending vocal portamentos are characteristic of the form. J.o-s. Purajhei. Paraguayan folksong that musically reflects strong European 19th-century influences but is sung to Guarani texts, whose euphonic character gives the songs a highly individual, flowing sweetness. J.o-s. Purfting. The inlaid border of violins, etc., consisting of three small slips of wood, the middle one black, the other two white. Besides its ornamental value, it helps prevent chipping of the edges. Puritani di Scozia, I [It., The Puritans of Scotland]. Opera in three acts by Bellini (libretto by C. Pepoli, based on a play by F. Ancelot and X. B. Saintine), produced in Paris, 1835. Setting: near Plymouth, during the English Civil War. Puritans and music. See under United States. Also see P. Scholes, The Puritans and Their Music in England and New England (1934); W. S. Pratt, The Music of the Pilgrims (1901). Puy, pui. Name for medieval French societies that sponsored literary and musical festivals, held regularly with competitions and prizes. They are documented as far back as the 11th century (earliest troubadours) and existed as late as the 16th century. The most famous was the Puy d'Evreux, held annually on St. Cecilia's Day from 1570 till 1614 (founded by Guillaume Costeley and others). Among its laureates (roy du puy) were Orlando di Lasso, Titelouze, and Du Caurroy. The puys of the troubadours served as a model for similar competitions of the German minnesingers, such as the "Sangerkrieg auf der Wartburg," which Wagner used as the basis for Tannhiiuser. See also Meistersinger III; Tenso. Puzzle canon. Riddle canon [see Canon II].

708

PYIBA

PYTHAGOREAN SCALE

Pyiba, pyipar (p'i-pa, p'i-p'a). A Chinese pearshaped short lute with a rather fiat body and four strings [see ill. under Lute], usually tuned A-d-e-a. On the traditional model the frets, when pressed over the A-string will produce the notes B-c-c~-d-e-f-f~-g-a-b-c+'-d'-e'­ fW-g+'-a'. The pyiba player uses a variety of finger techniques. Some distinctive features of pyiba music are the sustained rolls on one or more strings, the long portamento, the gradual crescendo and decrescendo, and numerous kinds of percussive effect. The repertory ranges from pieces expressing deep pathos to comical parodies. The name pyiba was used in the 3rd century for a hand-plucked stringed instrument with a long neck and round body. In the 6th century a short lute with a crooked neck, played with a large plectrum, was introduced into China from the Middle East. This instrument survives in its original form in the present-day biwa of Japan, where 8th-century specimens can still be seen. In China, it went through modifications in shape and arrangement of the frets. It is now played mainly with the fingers instead of a plectrum. The pyiba figured prominently in Tarng (T'ang) dynasty (618-906) orchestras. It was also used to accompany songs and dances and as a solo instrument. Numerous romantic anecdotes and poems have been written about it. Unlike the *chyn, which traditionally belongs to the scholars and philosophers, the pyiba has always been associated with popular entertainment. Today, the pyiba is played as a solo instrument, in instrumental ensembles, and as accompaniment to singing in certain theatrical performances. Although it has popular appeal, its demanding technique keeps it from being readily accessible to dilettantes and amateurs. Since the 1920's there have been serious efforts to revise interest in the pyiba. A notable exponent was Liou Tianhwa (1895-1932), a virtuoso pyiba player and composer of a few widely known pieces for it. Other outstanding contemporary players today are Lii Tyngsong, Tsaur Anher, Suen Peiljang, Leu Jennyuan (Lui Tsun-yuen), and Leu Peiryuan. One result of the revival has been a change in the positions of some of the frets; on the newer models they have been rearranged to produce a complete chromatic scale. As far as is known, there are about ten pyiba music collections in existence. Most of these have been published, the earliest in 1819. Besides descriptive pieces, they also include lengthy

works in the form of a medley or variations on a theme or on a group of thematic materials. The traditional notation for the pyiba consists of pitch symbols and abbreviated Chinese characters indicating the finger techniques. In all these collections, beats indicating larger units of time are given. At the beginning of the 20th century, a manuscript with twenty-five pyiba compositions dating from sometime before the mid-lOth century was discovered in the Duenhwang caves of northwest China. The notation is a tablature indicating strings and frets closely related to the notation still used for the biwa and the mouth organ (shO) in gagaku today. Lit.: Hayashi Kenzo, "Study on Explication of Ancient Musical Score of P'i-p'a" (Bulletin, Nara Gakugei University, v, no. 1, Dec. 1955, based on Jap. article in Gekkan Gakufu [1938], pp. 23-58); S. Kishibe, "Origin of the P'i-pa" (Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan xv [1940], pp. 259-304); L. Picken, "Origin of the Short Lute" (GSJ viii, 32ff); SaHMI, pp. 189ff. R.C.P.

Pyknon [Gr.]. In the ancient Greek scale [see Greece II], the lower segment of the enharmonic and chromatic tetrachords, containing the two microtones or semitones. In either case, this segment was smaller than the interval above it. Its three notes were sometimes described (in descending order) as oxypyknon, mesopyknon, and barypyknon. The theory of Sachs, connecting these notes with a fixed pentatonic tuning of the lyre and with the structure of Greek notation, is dubious [see Greece IV], though it is generally possible that these and other notes were rendered on the lyre by stopping strings. I. H.

Pythagorean hammers. Pythagoras is said to have discovered the basic laws of music by listening to the sound of four smith's hammers, which produced agreeable consonances. They turned out to weigh 12, 9, 8, and 6 pounds respectively. From these figures he derived the octave (12:6 = 2:1), fifth (12:8 = 9:6 = 3:2), fourth (12: 9 = 4: 3) and whole tone (9: 8). See, e.g., Guido's "Micrologus," ch. xx (ed. Smits van Waesberghe, p. 228). Pythagorean scale. A scale, said to have been invented by Pythagoras (c. 550 B.C.), that derives all the tones from the interval of the pure fifth, 3h [see Acoustics III]. The tones of the diatonic scale are obtained as a series of five successive upper fifths and one lower fifth:

709

QANON

F

c

2

3

QUADREBLE

b"

e"

g

apotome 32 28 - 32 35 37 23 · 35 - 23 X 2s =

3

By reducing these tones to a single octave (c-b), the following scale results: Frequency:

Intervals:

c I

e f g a b c' .§1. ~ 1 27 243 2 .........-8.........-64--.....;3....___-2 .........-16 ..__,128.........d

2

9

9 8

8

256 9 243 8

9 8

9 8

256 243

[For the calculation of the frequencies and intervals, see Intervals, calculation of, I-III; see also the tables under Intervals and under Temperament.] The Pythagorean whole tone is slightly larger than that of the well-tempered scale (204 cents instead of 200), while the semitone is considerably smaller (90 instead of 100). Likewise, the Pythagorean third is 8 cents higher than the well-tempered third, which in turn is higher than the "pure" third (408, 400, and 386 cents). The Pythagorean semitone was called limma (left over) or diesis (difference) because it was obtained by subtracting two whole tones from the fourth. Like all tones of the Pythagorean system, it can be represented by powers of 3 and 2: diesis

22 (32 )2 3 : 23

2187 zu = 2048 = 114 cents

0

2

In the Greek scale it appears as the interval between b-ftat and b natural. It is slightly larger than the diesis. In medieval theory these two semitones were distinguished as semitonium majus (apotome) and semitonium minus (diesis) . Their difference-or that between the whole tone and two dieses-is the Pythagorean comma: comma 37 28 211 : 35

37

35

312

531441

= 211 X 28 = 219 = 524288 = 23 cents

The accompanying diagram illustrates the processes just described. fourth

~one

~

G

a

~~

::..----=--------------= ----------

A

= apotome.

c

Bb~'7'B

= comma.

d

C

= diesis (limma).

The succession of Pythagorean fifths can be continued beyond the tone b, leading to chromatic tones f~, c~, etc., and finally to b~~. which is slightly higher than c, the interval between the two pitches again being the Pythagorean comma 312 h of 219 (t e ratiO of 12 fifths to 7 octaves). See 0

22

=T

26 X 34

28 = 35

=

256 243

= 90 cents

The difference between the whole tone and the semitone was called apotome (cut off). Its value is:

under Circle of fifths. The Pythagorean system was also known in China [see China II], possibly earlier than in Greece [see F. Kuttner, in CP 1958, p. 174]. See E. Krenek, "Proportionen und pythagoriiische Hammer" (Musica xiv, 708ff).

Q Qiiniin. See Kamin.

Q.-L. Customary abbr. for R. Eitner's QuellenLexikon [see under RISM].

because it was in the major mode using B natural (B quadratum) whereas the passamezzo antico was in the minor and used B-ftat. See 0. Gombosi, in MQ xxx, 145.

Quadran pavan. English name (late 16th cent.) for the *passamezzo moderno, used by Bull, Mor-

Quadratnotation [G.]. *Square notation.

ley, and other Elizabethans, probably so called

Quadreble. See under Sight.

710

QUADRILLE

QUATREBLE

Quadrille [F.]. (1) A French dance of the early

19th century performed by two or four couples moving in a square. It consisted of five figures (Le Pantalon, L'Ete, La Paule, La Trenise and La Pastourelle, Finale), the music for which, alternating between 6/8 and 2/4 meter, was chosen from popular tunes, operatic airs, and even sacred music. The dance was very popular during the Napoleonic era and remained fashionable until it was replaced by the *polka. (2) In 17thand 18th-century French ballet (Campra, Lully), quadrille is the name of the group of dancers (4, 6, 8, or 12) who performed the figures of an *entree. See Dance music IV. Quadrivium. In the medieval system of educa-

tion, the four "mathematical arts" -arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy-as opposed to the trivium of "rhetorical arts" -grammar, logic, and rhetoric. In this scheme music was not considered an art in the modem sense but a science allied with mathematics and physics (acoustics). Quadruple counterpoint. See Invertible counter-

point. Quadruple-croche [F.]. See under Notes. Quadruple fugue. A fugue with four different subjects, such as the last (unfinished) piece of Bach's *Art of Fugue. See Double fugue. Quadruple meter, time. See Meter. Quadruplet. A group of four notes, to be played

in the time of three. Quadruplum. See Duplum. Quality. (1) Tone quality; see Tone color. (2) As opposed to quantity, see Poetic meter III. Quantity. See under Poetic meter III. Quarrel of the Buffoons. See War of the Buffoons. Quart, Quarte [G.]. The interval of the fourth. As a prefix in the names of instruments, it indicates that the instrument is a fourth higher (Quartflote, Quartgeige) or a fourth lower (Quartfagott; see Oboe family II, D) than the normal instrument. Quartal harmony. Term for a harmonic system based on the *fourth, as distinguished from the common system of *tertian harmony, based on the third. Quartal harmonies have been recommended for replacing tertian harmonies in harmonizations of Gregorian chant [see J. Yasser,

Mediaeval Quartal Harmony (1938); also in MQ xxiii, xxiv]. See Accompaniment V. Quarter note. See under Notes. Quarter tone. An interval equal to one-half semi-

tone, there being twenty-four quarter tones to the octave. See Microtone. Quarter tones have been frequently used since World War II by serial composers such as Boulez, Stockhausen, and others. Boulez has demonstrated how a serial principle of organization, which can be generalized to any number of elements (i.e., not necessarily restricted to the twelve chromatic semitones), can accommodate quarter tones. See P. Boulez, Penser Ia musique aujourd'hui [1964]; id., "Eventuellement ... " (RM 1952, no. 212). Also see under Microtone. E.S. Quartet [F. quatuor; G. Quartett; It. quartetto; Sp. cuarteto ]. A composition for four instruments

or voices. Also, the four performers organized to play or sing such compositions. By far the most important combination is the *string quartet. A number of piano quartets (for piano, violin, viola, and cello) have been written: 2 by Mozart, 4 by Beethoven, 3 by Mendelssohn, 2 by Schumann, 3 by Brahms, 2 by Dvorak, 2 by Faure, 1 by Chausson, 1 by Copland, etc. See J. Saam, Zur Geschichte des Klavierquartetts (1933); W. Altmann, Handbuchfilr Klavierquartettspieler (1937). The "vocal quartet," i.e., a polyphonic composition for four voices, was established c. 1450 by the early Flemish composers, although there are isolated earlier examples, such as Perotinus' organa quadrupla [see Organum; Ars antiqua] and Machaut's Mass. Much of the music of the 16th century (motets, Masses, madrigals, chansons, etc.) is written in four parts, although there was a tendency toward increasing the number of parts to five, six, and more. In the 17th century four-part writing was limited chiefly to the English *glee and the German *chorale. In the 19th century the a cappella quartet was extensively cultivated by glee clubs, Liedertafel, etc. Fourpart writing has traditionally served as the basis for studies in harmony and counterpoint. Quartfagott, QuartOote, Quartgeige [G.]. See

under Quart; also Violin family (a). Quartole [G.], quartolet [F.]. *Quadruplet. Quartsextakkord [G.]. The second inversion of

the triad (six-four chord). Quatreble. See under Sight.

711

QUATTRO

QUINTSEXTAKKORD

Quattro [It.]. Four. Quattro mani, four hands; quattro voci, four voices. Quatuor (F.]. *Quartet.

Quinta vox [L.]. See under Part (2); Partbooks. Quinte [F.]. (1) Interval of the fifth. (2) Obsolete French name for viola (quinte de viole).

Quaver. See under Notes. Queen, The. See Reine, La. Queen of Spades, The [Rus. Pikovaya Dama]. Opera in three acts by P. Tchaikovsky (libretto by M. Tchaikovsky, rev. by the composer, based on a story by Pushkin), produced in St. Petersburg, 1890. Setting: St. Petersburg, end of the 18th century. Quempas. Abbr. for L. Quem pastores laudavere (He, whom the shepherds praised), a Christmas song that was popular in Germany in the 16th century. The term was used as a generic designation for Christmas songs, particularly in the term Quempas Singen, i.e., the singing of carols by students in Latin schools, an activity in which Luther participated. The alms earned by singing from house to house were often a welcome addition to a student's meager income [see Currende]. Quempasheft was the collection of carols that every student copied for himself. Quer- (G.]. Cross, transverse. Querflote (transverse) flute; Querpfeife, fife; Querstand, false relation. Querelle des bouffons [F.]. See War of the Buffoons. Queue [F.]. The stem of a note. Piano grand piano.

Quinta falsa [L.]. False (i.e., diminished) fifth.

a queue,

Quick-step. In military parlance, a *march in quick steps (c. 108 per minute). Also, music for such a march. Quiebro. See under Ornamentation I. Quilisma [L.]. The most important of the early "ornamental" neumes; see Neumes I (table). See C. Vivell, in Gregorianische Rundschau iv, v (several installments); ApGC, pp. 113ff. Quilt canzona. English equivalent of G. Flickkanzone (patch canzona), a term introduced by H. Riemann for a type of canzona consisting of rapidly changing, extremely short .sectio~s in contrasting styles. An example of th1s relatively rare type is a canzona by J. H. Schein [see comp. ed. by Priifer, i, 41]. For another example, by G. B. Grillo (1608), see RiHM ii.2, 127. Quindezime (G.]. The interval of the fifteenth, i.e., the double octave.

Quinte, Quint [G.]. Fifth. Quintenparallelen, parallel fifths. Quintenzirkel, *circle of fifths. Quintero [G.]. A 16th- and 17th-century name for the guitar or similar instruments. SeeK. Geiringer, in AMW vi. Quintet (F. quintette, formerly quintuor; G. Qui~­ tett; It. quintetto; Sp. quinteto]. Chamber mus1c for five players. The string quintet is usually for two violins, two violas, and cello (the repertory includes 12 by Boccherini, 6 by Mozart, 3 by Beethoven, 2 by Mendelssohn, 2 by Brahms, 1 by Bruckner, 1 by Vaughan Williams, etc.). The less usual combination of two violins, viola, and two cellos prevailed in Boccherini (113) but survived only in Schubert's famous Quintet inC, op. 163. A piano (clarinet, etc.) quintet is a composition for piano (clarinet, etc.) and string quartet. The literature of piano quintets includes Schubert's op. 114 (Trout Quintet, for piano, violin, viola, cello, double bass), Schumann's op. 44, Brahms' op. 34, and compositions by Dvorak, Franck, Reger, Pfitzner, Faure, Elgar, Hindemith, Bloch (in quarter tones), Shostakovitch, et a!. See W. Altmann, Handbuch for Klavierquintettspieler (1936). Vocal quintets are usually for two sopranos, alto, tenor, and bass. There is a large literature of vocal music in five parts in the madrigals, balletti, etc., of the late 16th century (Lasso, Lechner, English madrigalists). Quintfagott [G.]. See under Oboe family II, C. Quintierend (G.]. See under Wind instruments III. Quintole [G.], quintolet [F.]. Quintuplet. Quinton (F.]. According to some authorities (Sachs, Bessaraboff), a violin with five (instead of four) strings tuned g d' a' d" g"; according to others, a French 17th-century viol (pardessus de viole) with five (instead of six) strings tuned g c' e' a' d". Quintoyer [F.]. See under Wind instruments III. Quintsaite [G.]. E-string of the violin. Quintsextakkord [G.]. Six-five chord; see under Seventh chord.

712

QUINTUOR

QUODLIBET Quodlibet [L.]. A humorous type of music in

Quintuor [F.]. Old name for quintet.

which well-known melodies or texts are combined in an advisedly incongruous manner. The Quintuple meter can usually be considered a following types can be distinguished: compound of2/4 and 3/4, or, less frequently, of I. The polyphonic quodlibet. In this type, by far 3/4 and 2/4. Examples are found in Chopin's the most interesting one, different melodies or Sonata op. 4, Tchaikovsky's Symphony no. 6 snatches _of melodies are used simultaneously in [Ex. 1], Wagner's Tristan, Act III, Scene 2 [Ex. 2], different voice-parts of a polyphonic composiand K. Loewe's ballad "Prinz Eugen." Quintuple tion. This method appears in some 13th-century meter is used very frequently in 20th-century motets, in which refrains of trouvere songs occur music, e.g., in Rachmaninoff's The Isle of the in the upper voice against the liturgical melody Dead (1909). (borrowed from Gregorian chant) in the tenor [see Refrain III; also Motet II]. A particularly interesting example is no. 178 of the Codex Montpellier. In the 15th and 16th centuries numerous quodlibets were written in which different folk tunes are combined contrapuntally, the only license being that the time values may be lengthened or shortened according to the requirements of consonance. One of the earliest Quintuple meter was known in ancient Greek examples, in the Glogauer Liederbuch of c. 1480 music as Cretic meter [see the "First Delphic [see Liederbuch], contrasts the then famous "0 Hymn," HAM, no. 7a]. In Western polyphony it rosa bella" melody with snatches of German appeared in the late 14th century, resulting from folksongs [see HAM, nos. 80, 82]. A composithe juxtaposition of a perfect and an imperfect tion by Tinctoris (Proportionate musices; CS iv, value (black and white semibrevis; see the anon- 173) combines fragments of "0 rosa bella," ymous Fortune discussed in ApNPM, p. 400f). "L'Homme arme," "Robinet tu m'as la mort In the Sanctus of Isaac's Missa paschalis the donne," and other material. Several quodlibets same rhythm is expressed by half-blackened are found in the Chansonnier of Seville [see breves, each equal to a black plus a white semi- D. Plamenac, in MQ xxxvii, xxxviii]. An outbrevis [see WoHN i, 420]. Sequential passages standing composer of quodlibets was Ludwig based on five-beat patterns are not uncommon in Senft [see SchGMB, no. 85], and comprehenthe works of Obrecht and Isaac. In all these in- sive collections were published by Wolfgang stances quintuple meter is used in one part only Schmelzl (Guter, seltzamer und kunstreicher and therefore is likely to be obscured by the teutscher Gesang, 1544) and Melchior Franck regular pulse of the other parts. One of the earli- (Musicalischer Grillenvertreiber, 1622). These est compositions written entirely in quintuple pieces proved extremely valuable sources of time (5 = 4 + 1) is a *"Felix namque" in the 16th-century German folksong [see Lied II]. The English MS Brit. Mus. Roy. App. 56 (c. 1530). best-known example of this type is the final variOther examples are found in Spanish music, e.g., ation of Bach's *Goldberg Variations, in which in several pieces in the Cancionero de Palacio of two popular melodies of his day, "Ich bin so lang c. 1500 (*Editions XXXII, 5; see nos. 59, 102, nicht bei dir g'west" (Long have I been away 151, probably not correctly transcribed by from thee) and "Kraut und Riiben" (Cabbage Angles), in the tientos of Correa de Araujo, 1626 and turnips) are artfully combined within the (*Editions XXXII, 12, p. 31), and in the harmonic frame of the theme [see Ex.]. Quintuple meter. The measure of five beats.

*zortziko.

(a) lch bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west

Quintuplet. A group of five notes played in the

duration of (normally) four.

II } I

Quire. Obsolete spelling for choir. Qui toUis [L.]. Section of the *Agnus Dei of the

Mass [see under Mass]. Medieval settings of the Agnus Dei frequently begin with these words, the initial words being sung in plainsong.

713

rc

fJ ' J fV$71

(b) Kraut und

r

•r

-L...-..Jf

....__._I

Rii - ben

u

JI

ha-ben m1ch ver-tne - hi en •

0

RABAB

R

Of a more serious nature are quodlibets combin- Masses mentioned in the entry Polytextuality ing different liturgical melodies. Several exam- and the motets by Josquin and Morales quoted ples are found in theMensuralkodex des Nikolaus under Motet B 1 (e.g., Josquin's Stabat mater Ape/ [*Editions XVIII A, 32], e.g., one combin- with "Comme femme"). The text of a number of ing the hymn "Exsultet caelum" with the anti- 18th-century pieces consists of a nonsensical sucphon "Vos eritis" (no. 12). Particularly famous is cession of jocose and deliberately incongruous a motet by Gombert, which combines the "Salve sentences. To this type belongs a quodlibet beRegina," "Ave Regina," "Alma redemptoris lieved to be an early work of J. S. Bach's [pub. by mater," and four other chants [see ReMR, M. Schneider, in Veroffentlichungen der Neuen p. 345]. Its title, "Diversi diversa orant," reveals Bachgesellschaft, xxxii.2]. It consists of a large the prayerlike significance of the liturgical quod- number of short texts (the "seafaring allusions" libet. To the same category belongs a composi- mentioned by C. S. Terry in an article in ML xiv tion by Kindermann, based on three Protestant have a clearly obscene meaning) set to music chorales [see DTB 32, p. 13]. evidently without using pre-existing melodies. II. The successive quodlibet. A simpler type of Possibly this piece, rather than the truly polyquodlibet is that in which various melodies are phonic quodlibet from the Goldberg Variations, quoted in succession, as in a potpourri. This illustrates the "improvised quodlibet singing" technique is used in several of the above- that, according to K. P. E. Bach, was traditional mentioned quodlibets, e.g., in the upper part of in his family for many generations. Numerous the motet from the Codex Montpellier and in the examples of the same type are found in Valentin lower parts of the "0 rosa bella" quodlibet from Rathgeber's Tafelconfekt of 1733 (*Editions the Glogauer Liederbuch. Several compositions XVIII, A, 19). See also Moser, Lit. Other terms for quodlibet are *cento or centone, in the collections of Schmelzl and Franck also are of this type. fricassee [F.], and incatenatura [It.]. The Italian III. The textual quodlibet. The term quodlibet terms misticanza and messanza, as well as the is also used for pieces that contain a mixture of Spanish *ensalada, seem to mean "potpourri" borrowed texts without involving borrowed rather than quodlibet. See also Pasticcio. For musical material. As in the musical quodlibet, the quodlibet Mass, see Mass C, II, b. texts may occur simultaneously or successively. Lit.: K. Jeppesen, in CP 1939 (Venetian cenThe polytextual motet of the 13th century is fre- tone); D. Plamenac, in CP Sachs (Seville Chanquently cited as an example of textual quodlibet, sonnier, quodlibet); R. Becherini, in Collectanea but it should be observed that in all such motets historiae musicae i (incatenatura); E. Bienenfeld (except in a special type, the refrain motet) in SIM vi (Schmeltzl Liederbuch); K. Gudewill, the texts of the upper parts are not borrowed in CP 1961 (origin); R. Eitner, in MJM viii, ix, but freely invented, while the tenor has no Beilage (Germany, 15th-16th cent.); H. J. Moser, full text but only an *incipit. Clearer examples tCorydon, 2 vols. (1933). of the textual quodlibet are certain 15th-century

R R. In early orchestral music, *ripieno; in French organ music, *recit; in Gregorian chant (~..), *responsory. Rabab. Arabic name for various bowed string instruments found in Islamic countries. They occur in various shapes, e.g., elongated boat,

halved pear, trapezoid, rectangle, etc., and usually have three strings. With the spread of Islam the rabab was carried both eastward, to Malaya and Indonesia (early 15th century), where it is called rebab, and westward, via Spain into Europe (8th or 9th cent.), where it was known as rabec, rabeca, rebec, rebelle, ribibe, ribible (Chau-

714

RABEL

RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

cer), rubeba, rubebe (Machaut), rybybe, etc. Jerome of Moravia, in his "Tractatus de musica" (c. 1280), describes the rubeba as having two strings tuned a fifth apart and played with a bow [CS i, 152]. The most common European form was in the shape of an elongated pear and its most common name was rebec. In France it was used as late as the 18th century by street fiddlers, who were forbidden to use the violin. A genuine specimen, dating from the 15th century, is preserved in Bologna [see B. Disertori, in RMI xlii]. See ill. under Violin. Rabel. See Mejoranera. Racket. See under Oboe family III. Raddolcendo [It.]. Becoming softer. Raddoppiare [It.]. To double, usually at the lower octave. Radel [G.]. A 14th-

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ld ld Ij j >

Ij j

I

>

(c) placing a stress on the weak beat. The examples in Ex. 2 show the practical application of these methods [a. Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 28, no. 1; b. Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 57, "Appassionata"; c. Beethoven, String Quartet, op. 18, no. 4]. Normally, syncopation is only "partial," i.e., it occurs in one part only (either the melody or the bass), while other parts maintain and emphasize the normal pulse of the meter. In his late works Beethoven, however, becomes the first to use "complete syncopation," i.e., the displacement 2 a

,.---....

I®~~~ rIr ill ~j),J

G.W.W.

Symphony of Psalms. A work for chorus and orchestra (without violins or violas) by Stravinsky, completed in 1930. Its three movements are based on psalms (in Latin): I. Psalm 38, v. 13-14, treated in an archaic chordal style; II. Psalm 39, v. 12-13, a double fugue with one subject for the orchestra, the other for the chorus; III. Psalm 150, in a free, sectionalized form. Syncopation. Syncopation is, generally speaking, any deliberate disturbance of the normal pulse of meter, accent, and rhythm. The principal system of rhythm in Western music is based on the grouping of equal beats into two's and

827

ffi r

SYRIAN CHANT

SYNEMMENON

of accents in the entire texture [Ex. 3, Piano Sonata, op. 101]. This procedure creates a complete imbalance in the listener's feeling of rhythmic security, an effect that occurs in romantic music (Schumann) i~ the sense of blurring, and in modem music Gazz) in the sense of a shock. Still another type of syncopation, resulting not from a displaced accent in unchanged meter but from a sudden change of the meter itself, is common in the works of modem composers, notably Stravinsky [Ex. 4, L'Histoire du soldat~ Syncopation first was used in the French ars nova (Machaut) and reached its all-time peak of complication in the music of the late 14th century (Cunelier, Grimace, B. Cordier, Solage, et al.). In 14th-century theory, syncopation was not explained as it is today (such an explanation would have been impossible since dynamic accent or strong beat are concepts foreign to early theorists), but as a separation of a normal a

1~ b

m J 1J

J 1----)n J J J ~

lmj tJ) .U

c

~l=lsDI~JJI~J~I

group of notes by the insertion of larger values, e.g., as in Ex. 5a. Instead of rendering this rhythm by tied notes in unchanged meter [Ex. 5b], a rendition similar to the methods employed by contemporary composers [Ex. 4] is preferable in order to convey the true meaning of early syncopation, as in Ex. 5c. For the original notation of 14th-century syncopation, see ApNPM, pp. 395ff. Synemmenon [Gr.]. In ancient Greek theory, name for an additional tetrachord, whereby the b-flat was introduced into the scale [see Greece II]. In medieval theory, the term was used for the b-fiat, and later (13th cent.) also as a general indication of chromatic alteration, e.g., deuterus synemmenon, or e-flat [MS Mensura Monochordi Boetii de Musica; CS i, 345].

Synthesizer. An electronic instrument (tool) of great versatility and complexity that translates the composer's desires into actual sound. The RCA electronic music synthesizer consists of thousands of individual electronic circuits that generate simple wave forms and then modifY them (by changing frequency, intensity, duration, etc.) and combine them to synthesize more complex wave forms characteristic of musical sounds (the Hammond organ also synthesizes its tones but with considerably less flexibility). The numerous functions of the RCA synthesizer are controlled by a punched paper tape. The output of the instrument is preserved on a phonograph record or on magnetic tape. A completed composition usually consists of several such synthesizer outputs mixed together. See also Computer. Additional bibl. under Electronic instruments. Syrian chant. Syria, being one of the first countries converted to Christianity, has a long history of church music. The entire early development of Christian hymnody took place in Syria, beginning with the Gnostic Psalter (hymnlike versions of the psalms, embodying the Gnostic doctrine) of Bardesanes (d. 223) and his son, Harmonios (fl. 3rd cent.), and continuing with the hymns, still used today, of St. Ephraim (306-73), which mark the beginning of Orthodox hymnody. Antiphonal psalmody also was developed in the heretical Church of Syria, whence the monks Flavianus and Diodorus imported it into the Orthodox Church of Antiochia (c. 350). Both hymns and antiphonal psalmody were brought from Syria to Milan by St. Ambrose (c. 333-97). Important successors of Ephraim were Narses of Edessa (fl. end of 5th cent.), Jacob ofSerugh (451-521), and Simeon of Gesir, the Potter (after 500). The two chief types of ancient Syrian poetry are the madrasha (ode), consisting of a number of stanzas for a soloist with a refrain for chorus, and the sogitha (hymn), which was performed antiphonally by two choruses, with soloist leaders. Since no early MSS of Syrian chant have been preserved, the present practice of Syrian chant is the only material available for study. Modem Syrian chant is based on multimetric rhythm [see Rhythm II (b)], as appears from the accompanying example. It is a good deal more rhythmic and syllabic than Gregorian chant. To what degree modem Syrian chant is representative of

828

TABLATURE

T

the early chant is a matter of conjecture. Contentions to the effect that Syrian chant shows Hellenic influence [see BeMMR, p. 48] seem rather farfetched. Such rational features as are evident in Syrian chant may well be the result of 18th- and 19th-century Occidental influence [see ReMMA, p. 70]. A characteristic trait of Syrian church music is the use of standard melodies for a number of different poems of a similar verse pattern. Such standard melodies (which allow for a certain amount of rhythmic modification) are known as risqolo (for similar methods used in other musical traditions, see Melody type). In a Syrian MS of c. 515, the "Plerophoriai," we find the earliest mention of the oktoechos [see Echos].

Lit.: NOH ii, 7ff; ReMMA, pp. 67ff, 432; J. Jeannin, Melodies liturgiques syriennes et chaldeennes, 2 vols. (1926, '28); L. Bonvin, "On Syrian Liturgical Chant" (MQ iv); H. Husmann, "The Practice of Organum . . . of the Syrian Churches" (CP Reese); A. Z. Idelsohn, "Der Kirchengesang der Jakobiten" (AMW iv); J. Jeannin and J. Puyade, "L'Octoechos syrien" (Oriens Christianus, New Series iii, 82ff, 277ff); S. Jargy, "La Musique liturgique syrienne" (CP 1950). Bibl. in Notes vi, 133ff. Syrinx. Greek name for *panpipes (perhaps also for a single flute). System. The collection of staves, two or more, as used for musical notation.

T T. Abbr. for tonic, tutti, toe (in pedal parts of organ pieces), trill (in 17th-century music, usually a mordent only). In 16th-century *partbooks, abbr. for tenor.

Ta'amim. Notation symbols in Jewish chant. See Jewish music II; Ecphonetic notation. Tabarro, II. See under Trittico. Tabatiere de musique [F.]. See under Mechanical instruments III. Tablature [G. Tabulatur; It. intavolatura; Sp. tablatura]. (1) The set of rules that regulated the musical activities of the *Meistersinger. (2) General name for the various early (15th17th cent.) systems of notation (for keyboard instruments, lute,· guitar, viol, flute, etc.), in which the tones are indicated by letters, figures, or other symbols instead of notes on a staff (as in the contemporary *mensural notation for vocal music). The most important are the keyboard (organ) tablatures and lute tablatures. There are two types of keyboard tablature, the German and the Spanish, and three types of lute tablature, the Italian (also used in Spain, for the vihuela), the French (used everywhere after 1600), and the German. What are sometimes called French, Italian, and English organ tabla-

tures (e.g., in WoHN ii) are written entirely in notes on two staves in practically the same manner as the modern piano score. Although they were called intauolatura in the 16th century, they are not tablatures in the present-day meaning of the term. I. German keyboard tablatures. Ex. 1 (Buxheim Organ Book, c. 1460-70) and Ex. 2 (B. Schmid, Tabulatur Buch, 1607), illustrate the "old" and "new" German keyboard tablature. The former, which employs notes for the upper part and letters for the lower parts, was used prior to 1550; the latter, written in letters exclusively, was used after 1550 (as late as 1720 Bach reverted to this system in his OrgelbUchlein when there was not enough space on a page to complete the piece in ordinary staff notation; see ApNPM,

la

829

TABLATURE

r

TABLATURE

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t

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I+

I IJ I

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bn

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n

u

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fac. 13). The letters a, b, c, etc., mean the same as they do today; however, in German terminology b means B-fiat, B natural being indicated by the letter h [see the ~ntry B (1)]. Chromatic

2a

alterations are indicated by adding a loop or hook to the letter. This was the stenographic sign for the Latin syllable is (e.g., arbor-is) so that c with a loop means cis, German for C-sharp. The tones of the higher octave (usually from c' to b'; in some sources from a to g') are marked with a dash above the letter: c (one-line c). Rhythmic values are indicated by the signs c

.I ~ ~ illustrated [Ex. 2c], standing for (left to right) a semibrevis, minima, semiminima, and fusa. II. Spanish keyboard tablature. Here a number

of lines (three, four, five) represent the different voice-parts of a composition [Ex. 3, Cabez6n, Obras de musica, 1578]. The figures 1 to 7 stand

I

I

I

I

I

I

-

JI

LJ

I

for the notes of the diatonic scale beginning with f (1 = f; 2 = g; 3 = a; 4 = b or b 11 , according to whether the sign q or B is given at the beginning of the piece; 5 = c'; etc.). Higher and lower octaves are marked by special signs, e.g., a tick on the 3 = A [see the third symbol on the bottom line of Ex. 3a]; the plain figure 3 = a; a dot beside it = a'; a prime beside it, a". A comma (,) indicates tying of the preceding note; a diagonal slash(/) indicates a rest. III. Italian (Spanish) lute tablatures. All lute tablatures are based on the idea, revived in certain modem instruments (ukulele, zither, guitar), of directing the player's fingers to the position necessary for the desired tone or chord. Thus they avoid the entire matter of "solfege" (pitch, interval, scale, key, accidentals, etc.). They are a "finger notation" [G. Griffschrift], as distinguished from the usual "pitch notation" [G. Tonschrift]. In the Italian system, a form of which was also used for the *vihuela, six horizontal lines represent the six courses of the lute, tuned (in theory) G-c-f-a-d'-g', in reverse order, so that the highest line represents course G (only in Milan's El Maestro of 1535 is the highest line used for the highest course; see also under IV). On each line, figures from 0 to 9 indicate the fret on which the player is supposed to put his finger, with 0 signifying the open string, 1 the first fret, etc. Since these frets proceed in semitones, the figures 1, 2, 3, etc., represent tones that are one, two, three, etc., semitones higher than the open string; thus, 3 on the second line from the top indicates c ~econd open string) plus 3 semi tones, i.e., d# or e . The rhythmic values are indicated above the staff by the accompanying signs [Ex. 3c], the first of which represents the semibrevis (usually transcribed as a half note). Despite the contrapuntal character of 16th- and

17th-century lute music, no distinction is made between the different temporal values of simultaneous sounds, e.g., between an eighth note in the upper part against a simultaneous half note

830

TABLATURE

TABLATURE

in a lower part. The rhythmic signs merely give the shortest of all the simultaneous notes, e.g., the eighth note; further, in most later tablatures a rhythmic sign is to be repeated until replaced by another note value [Ex. 4a, Fuenllana, Libro de MUsica ... Orphenica Lyra, 1554]. The two transcriptions [Ex. 4b, 4c] illustrate the "exact" 4a

!

a!

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ll~i

1

t• 1: I~ I ~I;~ I ~I;;:

1:

A-d-f-a-d'-f'. Here, the Italian staff of six lines is used for the six courses that cross the frets, while the signs

9

9

3

ZZ

1

9

9

i

rendition together with the contrapuntal interpretation usually preferred in modem editions [see ApNPM, pp. 59ft']. IV. French lute tablature. This system differs from the Italian only in details. The staff has only five lines, which represent the five highest courses in their natural order (as in Milan), while the lowest course is represented underneath on short ledger lines. Instead of figures, letters (a, b, c, etc.) are used, with a standing for the open course [Ex. 5a, G. Bataille, Third Book of Airs, 1611]. After 1600 this system ofnotation underwent various modifications that, c. 1650, led to a new system based on Denis Gaultier's novel method of tuning (nouveau ton),

5a

a,

a,

4

a,

a,

4

written underneath the staff indicate the bass courses, tuned (normally) G, F, E, D, C, which are unalterable in pitch. V. German lute tablature. This system is much more awkward than the others, mainly because it was originally designed (15th cent.) for a lute with only five courses and was broadened later (16th cent.) by the inclusion of signs for the sixth (lowest) course. The table here shows the most common system of designation: figures 1-5 for the open courses (read from bottom to top); the letters of the alphabet (completed by two special signs designated here* and**) for the frets 1-5; the same letters with dashes for the higher frets. The table shows that, e.g., the sign h denotes the Frets 01234567 5 e k p v ** k 4diot*dT 3chnszch 2bgmr ybg

e

g' d'

Courses a f

!~~!~~af 12345678

c G

tone b (two semitones above a), and the sign x the tone f (five semitones above c). See Ex. 6, H. Gerle, Ein neues . .. Lautenbuch, 1552.

6

r rrr rrr

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VI. Modern tablatures. Tablature notation is used today for several popular instruments that are much easier to play when the notation directs 831

TAMBORITO

TABOR

the player's fingers to the desired place. The notation of the modem guitar resembles the 16th-century lute tablatures, and a similar method is used for the four-stringed ukulele. Lit.: ApNPM, pp. 21-81; WoHN ii, 1-247; GD, GDB, s.v. "Tablature." Tabor, taborel, tabour, tabourin, tabret. See Tambourin; also Pipe (I). For ill. see under Percussion instruments. Tabulatur [G.]. See Tablature. Tace [It.L tacet [L.]. Be (is) silent. Term used in orchestral scores for parts not needed for a movement or a long section. Tact [G.]. See Takt. Tactus [L.]. The 15th- and 16th-century term for beat, both with its temporal meaning and as in "conductor's beat." However, the tactus is a relatively fixed duration of time, about M.M. 60-70 (one second), whereas the modem beat may take on any value within broad limits, according to the tempo and character of the composition. This means that throughout the 16th century there was a uniform "normal" tempo from which only slight deviations were possible. Since the tactus was normally represented by the semibrevis (S), the proper tempo of the motets of Obrecht, Josquin, and Palestrina can be expressed by the metronomic mark: S = M.M. 60-70. For a discussion of complications caused by the use of the alia breve sign ¢ instead of the alia semibreve sign C, seeApNPM, pp. 188-95. See also Tempo marks. From the 13th to the late 15th centuries there were similar units of time, called *tempus (e.g., Franco of Cologne), which were of considerably shorter duration and which changed somewhat during the course of this period. There also was a successive shift in the note values used to represent the "normal" beat, from the longa (c. 1200, school ofNotre Dame) to the brevis (13th cent.), the semibrevis (14th-16th cent.), the minima (c. 1550), and finally the semiminima, i.e., the modem quarter note (during the 17th century). For a tentative table of the changes in tempo prior to 1400, see ApNPM, p. 343. Lit.: A. Auda, Theorie et pratique du tactus (1964); E. Praetorius, Die Mensuraltheorie des Franchinus Gafurius (1905), pp. 68ff, in Publikationen der lnternationalen Musikgesellschaft, supp., series ii, vol. ii; A. Chybinski, Beitrtige zur Geschichte des Taktschlagens (1908); G. SchUnemann, Geschichte des Dirigierens (1913),

ch. iii; A. Auda, "Le 'Tactus' dans Ia Messe 'L'Homme arml:' de Palestrina" (AM xiv); C. Dahlhaus, "Zur Theorie des Tactus im 16. Jahrhundert" (AMW xvii). Tafelmusik [G.]. Table music, i.e., music to be performed at a banquet, e.g., Telemann's Musique de table (DdT 61/62) and J. A Reutter's Servizio di tavola (DTO 31). TageUed [G.]. See under Alba. TagUato [It.]. Obsolete term for the *alia breve sign. Tallie [F.]. Old name for a middle voice, particularly the tenor. See Recit. The term was also used for instruments performing such a part, e.g., taille de basson, tenor oboe; tai/le de vio/on or simply tail/e, viola. The indication tail/e in some of Bach's cantatas appears always to call for the tenor oboe (oboe da caccia, English hom). Takt [G.]. (I) Beat (schwerer, Ieichter Takt, i.e., strong, weak beat). (2) Measure (nach 10 Takten, after 10 measures). (3) Meter, time {3/4 Takt, 3/4 meter). Im Takt, in strict tempo and meter; Taktart, meter; taktmiissig, in strict meter; Taktmesser, metronome; Taktstock, baton; Taktstrich, bar line; Taktvorzeichnung, time signature; Taktwechsel, change of meter; Taktzeichen, time signature; taktieren, to indicate the beat. Talea. See under Isorhythmic. Tales of Hoffmann, The. See Contes d'Hoffmann, Les. Talon [F.]. The nut of the violin bow [see Bow]. Tambora [Sp.]. Two-headed drum constructed from the hollowed trunk of the lana tree. It is considered the national instrument of the Dominican Republic. A male goatskin is used for the top head and a female one for the bottom. These are mounted on three hoops and held in place by additional sets of hoops tied to the body with a cord. The drum is played with the palm and fingers of the left hand and with a palito (small stick) held in the right hand. J.o-s. Tamborito [Sp.]. A Panamanian dance of African origin, in which a solo singer (always a woman, called cantaora a/ante) alternates with a chorus singing an- unchanging refrain. The melody is mainly syllabic, usually in the major, in the Phrygian or Hypodorian modes, and proceeding by disjunct thirds and fourths. It is always in

832

TAMBOUR

TARANTELLA

duple meter and involves a fair amount of syncopation. The tamborito is usually sung and danced to the accompaniment of percussion and handclapping. Toward the end of the piece, the drums often shift from 2/4 to 6/8 meter, gradually increasing the tempo. Tamboritos danced in street J.o-s. parades are known as tunas. Tambour [F.]. Drum; also, drummer. Tambour militaire, snare drum; tambour de Basque, tambourine (the modem percussion instrument). Tambourin [F.]. (1) A small (occasionally tiny) two-headed medieval drum, cylindrical in shape, with both heads covered with skin. It is mentioned as early as c. 1080 in the Roman de Roland as a tabor, which is of Arab origin. It was played together with the galoubet, a small flute (pipe and tabor; Sp. flaviol and tamboril,· see Pipe (1). D.-F.-E. Auber used the tambourin in his opera, Le Philtre (1831). However, in modem scores the term usually means *tambourine. (2) An old Proven~al dance, originally accompanied by pipe and tambourin (or tambour de Basque, i.e., tambourine), in lively 2/4 meter. Rameau's operas contain many tambourins, in which the drum is represented by a monotonous bass accompaniment. A famous example, found among his harpsichord pieces, is from his opera Les Fetes d'Hebe (1739). Tambourine. See under Percussion instruments B, 4. In early music, the term usually means *tambourin. Tambur. A long-necked, round-bodied lute of Afghanistan, also called *rabab. Also see Tan bur. Tambura (also tanbura, tanpura). Long-necked, unfretted, round-bodied drone lute of India. It has four metal strings that are plucked with one finger. See India VIII. Tamburin [G.], tamburino [It.]. Usually, the modem tambourine; rarely, the obsolete *tambourin.

Tamtam. Same as gong [see Percussion instruments B,7]. Not to be confused with *tom-tom. Tanbur. A long-necked lute with a pear-shaped body that is found throughout the Balkans and Near East. It has a variable number of metal strings. See Lute II. Tanbura. See Tambura. Taiier [Sp.]. See under Tastar. Tangent [G. Tangente]. See under Clavichord. Tango [Sp.]. An urban modem dance of Argentina, performed by couples, which had adopted its characteristic features by the first decade of the 20th century in Buenos Aires. Before then it was a hybrid form, combining elements of the Andalusian tango, *habanera, and *milonga. It consists of two sections of equal length (14-20 measures), with the second generally in the dominant or relative minor of the original key. It is based on syncopated patterns within a 2/4 meter. Its texts usually deal with urban topics, often melodramatic or pathetic. J.o-s. Tannhiiuser, or Der Siingerkrieg auf Wartburg [G., The Singers' Contest at Wartburg]. Opera in three acts by Wagner (to his own libretto, after a medieval legend), produced in Dresden, 1845. Setting: Venus berg and in and around Wartburg, near Eisenach, early 13th century. The formal structure is essentially that of the traditional *number opera, with distinct arias, numerous choruses, and even a ballet (first scene), although the actual numbering of the different items is abandoned. The harmonic style also is fairly traditional. It is by reason of its expressive and emotional qualities that Tannhiiuser opens a new period in the history of opera. Tanpura. See Tambura. Tanz [G.]. Dance. Tape recording. See under Phonograph and recorded music.

Tamburo [It.]. Drum, kettledrum; t. grande, grosso, old name for bass drum; t. rullante, tenor drum; t. militaire, snare drum.

Tapiola. Symphonic poem by Sibelius, op. 112 (1926). The name is based on Tapio, the forest god of Finnish legend (*Kalevala).

Taming of the Shrew, The. Opera in three acts by V. Giannini (libretto by the composer and D. Fee, based on Shakespeare's play), produced in Cincinnati, 1953. Setting: Padua, 16th century. Tampon [F.]. Two-headed drumstick used to produce a roll on the bass drum. It is held in the middle and moved by shaking the wrist.

Tarantella. A Neapolitan dance in rapid 6/8 meter, probably named for Taranto in southern Italy, or, according to popular legend, for the tarantula spider whose poisonous bite the dance was believed to cure. In the mid-19th century it was frequently composed (Chopin, Liszt, S. Heller, Auber, Weber, Thalberg) in the style

833

I

TARDO

TE DEUM

of a brilliant perpetuum mobile. SeeM. Schneider, "La Danza de espadas y la tarantela" (AnM ii). Tardo, tardamente [It.]. Slow, slowly. Tardando, slowing. Tarogato. Hungarian instrument of ancient origin, originally a wooden *comett having only natural tones. It was used for sounding military signals such as occur in the well-known Rakoczy march. Later, the name was used for a wooden shawm (oboe mouthpiece) with five or more holes. The modem tarogato, built by W. J. Schunda, is a wooden saxophone, i.e., with a clarinet mouthpiece. It has a somewhat darker timbre than the normal saxophone. See ill. accompanying Clarinet family. Tartini's tone. Same as differential tone [see Combination tone]. Tartold. A strange instrument mentioned in the inventory of the ducal collection at Schloss Ambras in the Austrian Tyrol (1596): "Tartold wie Drackhen [dragons] geformirt" [see J. Schlosser, Die Sammlung alter Musikinstrumente (1920), p. 85, Tafel XL]. Five instruments have been preserved (now in Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, nos. 219-23). They are rackets with metal bodies of dragon shape and painted red, green, and gold. Probably they were used in masquerades. Tasche [It.]. Popular name for festivals celebrated at Lucca for several centuries until c. 1800. Boccherini was among those who wrote music for them. See A. Bonaventura, in RMI xxxvi (Boccherini); U. Rolandi, in Bollettino bibliografico musicale vii. Taschengeige [G.]. *Kit. Tasso. Symphonic poem by Liszt, based on a poem by Byron, composed 1849-51 and first performed as an overture to Goethe's drama, Torquato Tasso. Tastar [It.]. Italian 16th-century term for a lute piece in the style of a free prelude (tastar de corde, "touching of the strings"). Ex. in HAM, no. 99a, and in ApMZ i, 20. The Spanish equivalent was tafier (Milan). See Ricercar II (a). Taste [G.]. Key (of piano, organ, etc.). Untertaste, white key; Obertaste, black key. Tastiera (It.]. Keyboard. For the tastiera per luce (clavier a lumieres) in Scriabin's Prometheus, see Color organ.

I I

Tasto [It.]. (1) The key of a keyboard. For tasto solo (t.s. ), see Thoroughbass I, 6. (2) Fingerboard of the violin, etc. For sui tasto, see Bowing (1). ' 1

Tattoo [F. rappel; G. Zapfenstreich; It. ritirata; Sp. retreta]. The military signals sounded on bugles and drums for recalling soldiers to their quarters at night.

1

Tecla [Sp.]. A 16th- and 17th-century term for key and keyboard. Musica para tecla (e.g., Cabez6n's Obras de musica, 1578) is music for keyboard instruments. Tedesca [It.]. In the 17th century, name for the *allemande. About 1800, name for the* Liindler and similar dances in rather quick triple meter (e.g., Beethoven, op. 79, op. 130). Te Deum. A celebrated song of praise and rejoicing, "Te Deum laudamus" (We praise Thee, 0 God), also known as the hymn of thanksgiving. It was formerly attributed to St. Ambrose (hence the designation Ambrosian hymn). It may have been written by Nicetus (or Nicetius; d. 568), bishop of Remesiana (now Nish in Yugoslavia), but certain lines are taken from the De mortalitate of St. Cyprian (A.D. 272). It is one of the few remaining examples of the *psalmus idioticus. In the Roman Catholic liturgy it usually replaces the last responsory of Matins on feast days and Sundays [see LU, pp. 876, 939] and also may be sung as a hymn of thanksgiving on various occasions. Its presentday form is the result of various changes and intercalations, rarely encountered in the tradition of Gregorian chant [see P. Wagner, Einfuhrung in die Gregorianischen Melodien (191121; repr. 1962), iii, 224ff]. It is sung to a highly archaic psalmodic melody [LU, p. 1832], employing formulas almost the same as some in Yemenite cantillations of the Torah. The Te Deum has often been composed. One of its verses, "Tu patris sempiternus es filius," is used in the *"Musica enchiriadis" (c. 900) as an instructive example of organum of the fifth. The closing verse, "In te Domine speravi," was set in English discant c. 1300 [see Discant (2)]. Binchois composed the entire melody in a simple fauxbourdon style. There are 16th-century contrapuntal settings, all based on the Gregorian melody, by Hugh Aston (*Editions LI, 10; also a Missa Te Deum], Festa, Palestrina, Anerio, Kerle, and Vaet, and settings for organ in Attaingnant's Magnificat sur les huit tons avec Te Deum laudamus (1530) and in the *"Mulliner Book" (W. Blitheman). Since 1549 it has been

834

1

TELEPHONE, THE

TEMPERAMENT

one of the canticles of Morning Prayer in *Anglican church music. In the 17th century and later the Te Deum became a hymn of thanksgiving for special occasions (e.g., a great victory) and was composed in a festive and grandiose style, frequently for double chorus with orchestra (Purcell, 1694; Handel, for the Peace ofUtrecht, 1713, and the victory at Dettingen, 1743; K. H. Graun, 1757, battle of Prague; Berlioz, for the Paris Exhibition of 1855; Bruckner, 1884; Dvohik, 1896; Verdi, 1898; Sullivan, for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, 1897). The German translation (by Luther) is "Herr Gott, dich loben wir." Under this title J. S. Bach wrote a long organ piece (hardly to be classified as a "chorale prelude") in which he shows great ingenuity in providing different polyphonic settings for the frequently repeated phrases of the (somewhat simplified) plainsong melody. Settings of the 20th century include those of Britten (1945), Kodaly (1936), Pepping (1956), and Vaughan Williams (1937). See E. Kahler, Studien zum Te Deum (1958). Telephone, The. Opera in one act by Menotti, a companion piece to his *Medium, produced in New York, 1947. Setting: Lucy's apartment, the present. Telharmonium. See under Electronic instru-

ments. Telyn. Welsh harp. See Harp III. Tema [It., Sp.]. *Theme, subject. Temperament [G. Temperatur]. I. General. A

system of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the "pure" (i.e., acoustically correct) intervals of the *Pythagorean system and *just intonation. The deviations are necessary because these two systems, although perfect within a small range of tones (mainly those of the C-major scale), become increasingly inadequate with the successive introduction of the chromatic tones. For instance, the acoustically perfect fifth [see Acoustics III] might well be used to obtain a succession of five or six fifths, c, g, d, a, e, b. However, if tones such as f~, c~, g~, d~ are added in the same manner, the resulting tones cannot be satisfactorily used for melodies such as d e f~ g, or d~ f g g~ (meaning eb f g ab). Moreover, the twelfth tone of the succession of fifths, b~, is noticeably higher than the tone c it would represent in our system of notation [see Circle of fifths]. Thus, it is necessary to devise methods that, instead of being perfect in the simple keys

and intolerably wrong in the others, spread the inevitable inaccuracy over all the tones and keys. The most consistent realization of this principle is the equal temperament [see III] universally used today. Prior to its general acceptance, various other systems of tempered intervals, generally referred to as "unequal temperament," were in use, among which the mean-tone system was the only one to attain practical significance. II. The mean-tone system. This system, which was in use c. 1500 (A. Schlick, Spiegel der ... Organisten, 1511; fully explained in P. Aaron's Thoscanello de Ia Musica, 1523) is based on a fifth that is one-fourth of the syntonic *comma (c. 22 cents) smaller than the perfect fifth (697, instead of 702 cents), the result being that four such fifths in succession (c-g-d' -a' -e") lead to a major third (e"). In the simple keys with one or two sharps or fiats, the mean-tone scale is very satisfactory both melodically and harmonically. In fact, owing to the presence of a perfect third and an almost perfect fifth, the triads sound much purer than in equal temperament. However, the continuation of the series of mean-tone fifths leads to a very noticeable discrepancy between sharp and fiat tones, indeed a difference of almost a quarter tone (42 cents) between any two enharmonic tones (e.g., G~ = 772, Ab = 814); this difference is known as the "wolf." Having to choose between these two tones (the corresponding choice between C~ and ob, or between D~ and Eb, being relatively easier, i.e., in favor of C~ and of Eb), Schlick interestingly enough preferred the Ab, in order to obtain the "stiss und fremd lautende Konkordanz" (sweet and strange-sounding consonance) of the triad on A-fiat, which actually occurs in his "Da Pacem" [new ed. by G. Harms (1957), p. 37; all the pieces here are transposed down a four.th]. Since this tone could not be used to represent G~, Schlick recommends avoiding the G~ or concealing it with a quick ornament [see G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels i, 93f]. A better expedient is the use of divided keys, which, as a matter of fact, were not infrequently used in organs of the 16th century. However, even this improvement did not meet the needs of the more fully developed harmonies, modulations, and keys used during the 17th century. The increased use of keys with three to six sharps and fiats necessarily led to the system of equal temperament. III. Equal temperament. The principle of equal temperament is to divide the octave into twelve equal semitones. Since the frequency ratio of the

835

TEMPERATUR

TEMPO major and minor keys, The Well-Tempered Clavier ( 1722, '44), or its less complete predecessor, J. K. F. Fischer's Ariadne musica (1715), referred to equal temperament or merely a close approximation is not entirely clear. At any rate, the system was not universally adopted in Germany until c. 1800, and in France and England until c. 1850. Other systems of temperament, such as that of the mathematician Leonardt Euler (1707-83) and of J. P. Kirnberger ( 1721-83), never attained practical significance. See also Cycle. Lit.: J. M. Barbour, Tuning and Temperament (1951); id., "Equal Temperament: Its History from Rarnis (1482) to Rameau (1737)" (diss. Cornell Univ., 1932); W. Dupont, Geschichteder musikalischen Temperatur (1935); P. Garnault, Le Temperament, son histoire et influence sur Ia musique du xviii• siecle (1929); J. M. Barbour, "Bach and The Art of Temperament" (M Q xxxiii); id., "Irregular Systems of Temperament" (JAMS i, no. 3); H. J. Watt, in ML iv, 246ff; L. S. Lloyd, in M L xix, 443ff, xx, 365ff, xxi, 347ff; id, in MR v, no. 4 (mean-tone tuning); J. Handschin, in Schweizer Jahrbuch for Musikwissenschaft ii; K. Hasse, in ZMW xiii.

octave is 2, the frequency ratios of this semitone is given by the equation: s12 = 2; s = \7'2 = 1.05946. The successive powers of this figure give the frequency ratios for the tones of the chromatic scale, e.g., c = I; c# = 1.05946; d = 1.059462 = 1.12246; d# = cd' = 1.059463 = 1.18921; etc. Usually a logarithmic measurement is used in which the whole octave equals 1,200 cents and each sernitone 100 cents [see Intervals, calculation of, IV, V]. In equal temperament no interval other than the octave is acoustically correct or pure. The deviation of the fifth (2 cents) is too small to be perceived. With the thirds, the difference is considerably greater, the well-tempered third (400 cents) being 14 cents (one-eighth semitone) larger than the pure third (386 cents). However, the modem ear has become completely accustomed to this "error," and the advantages of the system far outweigh its flaws. The following table shows the actual frequency ratios of the Pythagorean system (P), of just intonation (J), and of the tempered tones (E): P. J. E.

c" 520 520 520

d" 585 585 584

e" 658 650 655

f"

g"

a"

b"

693 693 694

780 780

877 867 874

987 975 982

779

c'" 1040

1040 1040

Temperatur [G.] *Temperament. Gleichschwebende, ungleichschwebende T., equal, unequal temperament.

The accompanying illustration shows the difference between E and J in cents. 0

I 0 c

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

I

I

I

204 d

I

I

I

385 e

I I

I

I

498

I

702 g

f

Equal temperament is usually said to have been invented by Andreas Werckmeister c. 1700. However, the history of equal temperament can be traced back at least to 1518, when H. Grammateus recommended dividing the octave into ten equal sernitones and two of somewhat smaller size. V. Galilei, in his Dialogo (1581), proposed using a semitone of the frequency 1IYJ.1 (99.3 cents), a close approximation of the welltempered sernitone. The principle of equal temperament was clearly expounded by the Chinese Prince Tsai-yu in 1596 and by Mersenne in 1635. Contrary to common belief, Werckmeister never stated equal temperament correctly. The introduction of equal temperament into musical practice was very slow. Whether Bach's famous collection of pieces in all the

I

I

I

885 a

I

I

I

1088 b

I 1200 c

Tempo. The speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from very slow to very fast, as indicated by tempo marks such as largo, adagio, andante, moderato, allegro, presto, prestissimo. More accurate are *metronome indications, such as J M.M. 100, i.e., the quarter note lasts Yloo of a minute. The practical limits for the duration of the beat are M.M. 50 and M.M. 120. M.M. 60-80 represents a "normal" tempo that agrees with various natural paces, e.g., moderate walking or the human pulse. The question of the "right" tempo for a piece is a favorite one among musicians, listeners, and critics. Discrepancies in tempo among performances of a particular work are often explained as being conditioned by external factors, e.g., the size and reverberations of the concert hall, the

836

=

TEMPO GIUSTO

TEMPUS

sonority of the instruments, or the size of the orchestra. Such explanations, however, account for only minute modifications and not the startling differences often found among performances. These are purely a matter of interpretation, and the differences encountered in the interpretation of tempo are no greater than those in style, phrasing, and orchestral treatment. Generally, it can be said that, where the classical repertory is concerned (Mozart, Beethoven, and especially Bach), modem conductors and performers play the fast movements too fast and the slow ones too slowly. See also Tempo marks. For tempo in early music, see Tactus. Lit.: C. Sachs, Rhythm and Tempo (1953); S. A. Aronowsky, Performing TimesofOrchestral Works (1959); R. Donnington, Tempo and Rhythm in Bach's Organ Music [1960]; C. Jacobs, tTempo Notation in Renaissance Spain [1964]; E. Barthe, Takt und Tempo (1960); I. HerrmannBengen, Tempobezeichnungen ... im 1 7. und 18. Jahrhundert (1959); S. Gullo, Das Tempo . .. des X/1/. und XIV. Jahrhunderts (1964); E. 0. Turner, "Tempo Variation" (ML xix, 308ff); H. Gal, "The Right Tempo" (Monthly Musical Record lxix, 174ff); R. Kolisch, "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music" (MQ xxix). See also under Metronome. Tempo giusto. See Giusto. Tempo marks. To indicate the tempo of a piece, a number of Italian terms are used, the most important of which are given here, in order of slowest to quickest: largo (broad), Iento (slow), adagio (slow; lit., at ease), andante (walking), moderato (moderate), allegretto, allegro (fast; lit., cheerful), presto (very fast), prestissimo (as fast as possible). In addition to these are terms calling for gradual change of speed, mainly ritardando (slackening) and accelerando (quickening); *rubato indicates a deliberate unsteadiness of tempo. With the use of tempo marks, the duration of any given note value becomes variable within large limits. In actual practice, the range of variation is much larger even than one might assume, owing to the practice of writing quick pieces in the larger values (whole to eighth notes) and slow pieces in the smaller ones (quarter to sixty-fourth notes). The first two examples [Ex. 1, Mozart, Piano Concerto, A major, K. 488, last movt.; Ex. 2, Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 10, no. 3, slow movt.] show that the duration ofthe half note may vary from less than half a second to four seconds. The difference between "ex-

I. Allegro assai

I@!&~ rd ' It CI IQ EtfF I 2. Largo e rnesto

I@~§ QE])I 3.

J = 70

44!!fJ 4.

J = 70

1@5EH,Jl,f Eiii~¥2:J,J :J I Jp :J I tremely quick" and "extremely slow" is clear if the two examples are written according to the "natural" principle of using small values for quick notes and large values for long notes [Ex. 3, 4]. If this principle were accepted, tempo marks would become practically obsolete. Prior to 1600, tempo marks were practically unknown, since the pace of a composition was expressed in the notation itself, the note values then used having absolute durations that were variable only within small limits [see Tactus]. An isolated early example of tempo indication is in the vihuela book El Maestro (1935) ofLuis Milan [*Editions XLVI, 2], who points out that certain sections of his fantasias must be played apriessa (quick) and others espacio (slow). One of the first composers to use modem tempo marks was Adriano Banchieri (1568-1634), who in his Organo suonarino (1611, '22) prescribes adagio, allegro, ueloce, presto, piu presto, and prestissimo [see ApMZ i, 27ff]. In the 17th and 18th centuries presto did not have the presentday meaning of "extremely fast" but only meant "fast." Thus, players of Bach's E-minor Prelude from The Well- Tempered Clavier i commit a grave error if they try to play its final section in a speed comparable to that of a presto etude by Chopin. It was not until the time of Mozart that presto had its present-day meaning. Temporale. In the Roman Catholic rite, generic designation for the feasts of the Lord, as opposed to the Sanctorale, the feasts of Saints. They are also called de tempore, i.e., feasts referring to the "time" (life) of the Lord. See Gregorian chant I. Temps [F.]. Beat; temps fort ifaible), strong (weak) beat. Temps premier, see under Chronos. Tempus [L.]. In 13th-century theory, the unit of musical time, comparable to the *tactus of the 16th century. Franco of Cologne describes it as "minimum in plenitudine vocis," i.e., the small-

837

TEN

TER SANCTUS

est time in which a "full sound" can be conveniently produced (c. M.M. 80). In the 13th century this duration was represented by the brevis, whereas with the beginning of the ars nova the semibrevis was used instead. However, the term tempus continued to indicate the mensuration of the brevis, whether it was equal to three or to two semibreves (tempus perfectum, imperfectum). See Mensural notation II. See S. Gullo, Das Tempo in der Musik des XIII. und XIV. Jahrhunderts [1964]. Ten. Abbr. for tenuto. Tender Land, The. Folk drama in three acts by A. Copland (libretto by H. Everett), produced in New York, 1954. Setting: Midwestern farm, early 1930's. Tenebrae [L.]. In the Roman Catholic liturgy, the service of Matins and Lauds on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of Holy Week. It is so called [lit., darkness] because of the gradual extinguishing of the candles, one after each psalm of Matins and Lauds on Thursday [LU, pp. 626ff]. At the first nocturn of Matins the *Lamentations of Jeremiah are sung; at the beginning of Lauds, the *Miserere (Ps. 50). Teneramento [It.]. Tenderly, gently. Tenor. (1) In early polyphony (c. 1200 to 1500 and later), the part that carries the cantus firmus and therefore is the basis for the addition of other parts [see Successive counterpoint]. In the earliest stages of polyphony this part was called vox principalis (*"Musica enchiriadis," c. 900) or cantus (lith cent.; see Part [2]). It came to be called "tenor" (from L. tenere, to hold) in connection with the development of melismatic organum, in which the notes of the cantus were drawn out and sustained. In the motets of the 13th and 14th centuries the tenor usually carries only a single syllable or word, such as NOSTRUM, IN SECULUM, GO, because its melody is taken from a melisma (not a fully texted section) of a chant [see Clausula; Motet A I]. (2) With the development of four-part writing (c. 1450), "tenor" came to mean second-lowest part, since the bassus (originally *contratenor bassus) was added below it. (3) The highest natural voice of men, of approximately the same range as the contrapuntal tenor requires [see Voices, range of]. (4) An instrument of about the same range as the vocal tenor, as tenor trombone, tenor horn, tenor saxhorn, tenor violin, etc.

(5) In plainsong psalmody, the "held" (i.e., repeated) recitation tone; see Psalm tones. Tenorgeige [G.]. Tenor violin [see under Violin family (f)]. Tenor horn. Same as tenor tuba; see Tuba. Tenorhorn [G.]. Baritone; see Brass instruments III (c). Tenor Mass. A polyphonic Mass based on a cantus firmus that is used as a tenor. Most cantus firmus Masses of the 15th and 16th centuries are of this type [see Mass C II b]. See also Discant Mass. Tenoroon. See under Oboe family II, C. Tenorschliissel [G.]. Tenor clef. See Clef. Tenor violin. See under Violin family (f). Tenso. A form of troubadour and trouvere poetry, in the nature of a dialogue or debate (real or feigned) about politics or other controversial subjects. A similar form was the jeu-parti (parture; Prov. partimen), an actual dialogue, usually about love [see ReMMA, p. 213f]. They played an important part in the competitions of the troubadours (*puys) and the *minnesingers (Siingerkriege). Tenth. See under Interval. Tento [Port.]. *Tiento. Tenuto [It.]. Held, sustained; usually equivalent to legato. Teponaztli. A pre-Columbian wooden drum in the shape of a barrel, enclosed at both ends and with an H-shaped slit on top that creates two tongues facing each other. When the player strikes the drum, using a pair of rubber-tipped mallets, the tongues vibrate and the body acts as a resonator, while a rectangular opening cut on the bottom serves to increase the volume. The inside is cut away in layers so as to produce different pitches. In Central America, three- and J.o-s. four-key teponaztlis have been found. Terce. The fourth of the canonical hours. See Office. Teretism. See under Anenaiki. Ternary form. See Binary and ternary form. Ter Sanctus [L.]. Term used with reference to the "Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus" (Holy, holy, holy) of the *Trisagion, of the Sanctus of the Mass, or of the *Te Deum.

838

TERTIAN HARMONY

TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN MUSIC

Tertian harmony. A harmonic system based on the third, i.e., the triad; hence, the common Western system of harmony as opposed to, e.g., *quartal harmony. See also under Third. Terz [G.]. Third. Terzdezime, a thirteenth, i.e., upper sixth. Terzquartakkord, see under Seventh chord. Terzverwandtschaft, the relationship between keys a third apart, e.g., C and E, or C and Eb. Terzjlote (Terzfagott), a flute (oboe) in E. Terzett [G.], terzetto [It.]. A vocal composition for three voices. An instrumental piece in three parts is called *trio. Terzina [It.]. Triplet. Terzo suono [It.]. Tartini's name for the *combination tones discovered by him. Tessitura [It.]. The general "lie" of a vocal part, whether high or low in its average pitch. It differs from range in that it does not take into account a few isolated notes of extraordinarily high or low pitch. Testo [It.]. *Narrator (in oratorios, Passions, etc.). Tests and measurements in music. Psychological tests in all fields had their inception at the time of World War I. The history of the development of tests of musical capacities and abil4.ties has paralleled that of psychological tests. Tests in music have been devised to measure efficiency of teaching, general musical knowledge and achievement, musical taste or preference, and innate musical capacity. They may be divided into two groups: (a) tests and measurements of musical capacities; (b) tests and measurements of musical abilities. The former are independent of training, whereas the latter depend on capacity and training. (Capacity means undeveloped, innate, native talent, receptive powers, i.e., potentiality for development; ability denotes acquisition of knowledge, skills, and techniques, i.e., development of a capacity.) (a) Tests and measurements of musical capacities. Research in music tests began with experiments by C. E. Seashore in the Psychological Laboratory at the University of Iowa at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1919 the original phonograph recordings known as the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent were released for use. This set of six records purports to measure innate sense for the following musical factors: pitch, intensity, time, consonance, tonal memory, and rhythm. The 1939 revision consists

of two series. Series A is suggested for group surveys to discover talent. Series B constitutes an individual measurement where greater reliability is desired and is suggested as a basic entrance requirement for admission to music schools, assignment to musical instruments, and diagnosis of special problems. Both revised series measure the same factors: pitch, loudness, time, timbre, rhythm, and tonal memory. The 1956 revision retains Series A but discontinues the more difficult Series B of the 1939 revision. The Kwalwasser-Dykema Music Test, developed by J. Kwalwasser and P. W. Dykema, has been available since 1930. It consists of phonograph records measuring the following abilities and capacities: tonal memory, quality discrimination, intensity discrimination, feeling for tonal movement, time discrimination, rhythm discrimination, pitch discrimination, melodic tastes, and rhythm imagery. The Kwalwasser Music Talent Test of 1953 presents three tones that are repeated with changes in pitch, time, loudness, or rhythm. The subject must determine which variable has been changed. There are two forms: Form A has forty items; Form B, the more difficult test, has fifty items. The Wing Standardized Tests of Musical Intelligence (1939-60), which became available in 1948 on ten records, included chord analysis, pitch change, memory, rhythmic accent, harmony, and intensity phrasing. Piano music was used in an attempt to place each of these tests in an integral musical setting. The 1957-58 revision was in the form of two types of tape recording, standard and long-playing. German and French editions, as well as an edition for the blind, have been made available. All the capacity tests are measures of auditory perception and may be given in groups or individually for the purpose of individual diagnosis and prognosis. They can be given to persons musically trained or untrained, to adults and to children as young as nine years or in the fifth grade. Early research substantiated by later investigations proved that records of musical capacities do not vary with age, training, and general intelligence. A high Intelligence Quotient is no assurance of keen pitch discrimination or superior talent in any other musical factor. Training is effective in developing the power to use a fixed capacity. Variation with age may be attributed to an increase in maturity, and may therefore mean that there is no improvement in the physiologic limit of pitch discrimination itself.

839

TEXT AND MUSIC

TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN MUSIC As would be expected, ratings determined by capacity measures have been high for successful musicians or students who have made satisfactory or outstanding progress in music. This and other reasons have been considered evidence of the validity of the measures of musical capacity and justify their use in vocational and avocationa! guidance in music. The reliability and validity of all psychological measures depend on the training and experience of the examiner. It is generally agreed that no one should assume responsibility for the administration, interpretation, and application of tests and results without knowledge of the nature of the psychology of music, principles of testing, and principles of musical interpretation and guidance. (b) Tests and measurements of musical abilities. Tests in this group may be classified as (I) those measuring appreciation and information, and (2) those measuring performance. Tests of appreciation and information based on knowledge acquired in elementary school, high school, and college measure general information, recognition, and comprehension of music from notation, musical symbols, terms, musical instruments, composers, artists, and melodies. These are largely written tests in the form of completion, multiple choice, true and false, or answer to a direct question. Tests measuring performance include tests of sight-singing ability, melodic and rhythmic dictation (writing in musical notation what one has heard played), and the analysis of musical performances directly or from phonograph recordings by means oflater developments in phonophotography (see Lit., The Vibrato, Seashore, ed.). Many college music departments have devised placement tests in music that are given to applicants in order to estimate the extent and quality of their previous musical training. These tests often combine tests of appreciation and information and tests of performance. Lit.: C. E. Seashore, The Psychology ofMusical Talent [1919]; id., Psychology of Music (1938); id., ed., The Vibrato [ 1932]; H. M. Stanton, Measurement of Musical Talent (1935); J. L. Mursell, The Psychology of Music [1937]; C. W. Flemming and M. Flagg, A Descriptive Bibliography of Prognostic and Achievement Tests in Music (1936); S. K. Gernet, Musical Discrimination at Various Age and Grade Levels ( 1939); V. R. Ross, Relationships between Intelligence, Scholastic Achievement, and Musical Talent [1937]; W. E. Whybrew, Measurement and Evaluation in Music (1962); E. Franklin, Tonality As A Basis for the Study of Musical Talent (1956); H. Lowery, in

PMA lxvii; C. E. Seashore, in MQ i; J. C. Moos, "The Yardstick Applied to Musical Talent" (MQ xvi). For miscellaneous discussions, see Mental Measurements Yearbooks (1938-), which form a comprehensive bibliography of tests for use in education, psychology, and industry. o.o. Testudo [L., tortoise]. ( 1) The ancient Greek

*lyra, which was frequently made of tortoise shell. (2) A 16th-century humanist name for the lute (e.g., L. Fuhrmann, Testudo GalloGermanica, 1615). Tetrachord. In ancient Greek music, succession

of four descending pitches, at the intervals of a whole tone, whole tone, semitone (t-t-s), e.g., e'-d'-c'-b, or a-g-f-e. By joining several tetrachords the entire diatonic scale from e' down to B was obtained [see Greece]. In Greek theory, a tetrachord always has the structure above; groups of four tones with a semi tone at another place (e.g., d'--c'-b-a, c'-b-a-g, etc., which some writers call Phrygian, Lydian, etc., tetrachord) did not exist in the Greek system. There were, however, chromatic modifications of the tetrachord, the chromatic tetrachord e'-c'jj:-c'-b and the enharmonic tetrachord e'-c'-x-b (x designating the quarter tone between c' and b). The tetrachord was adopted by medieval theorists, although in a modified form, always ascending and sometimes with a different intervallic structure. According to the *"Musica enchiriadis," the scale consists of four tetrachords of the type t-s-t, beginning respectively on G, d, a, e' and designated tetrachordum gravium, finalium, superiorum, excellentium [GS i, 153f]. J. Tinctoris distinguishes seven tetrachords of the type t-t-s, each forming the first four notes of a hexachord, hence beginning on G, c, f (with b-flat), g, c', f', g' [CS iv, 220f]. Tetrardus [Gr.]. See under Church modes I. Tetrastemorium. Term used by Regino of Priim

(d. 915) in his "Epistola de Harmonica Institutione" for *quarter tone [see GS i, 232b]. The term is a corruption of tetarton marion [Gr., the fourth part]. He also used tristemorium [Gr. triton marion, the third part] for Ya of a tone. Text and music. In vocal music, particularly songs, the text is one of the prime considerations of the modem composer. Correct accentuation, clarity of pronunciation, emphasis of important words, etc., are basic requirements of good vocal style and indispensable to the main object of conveying musically the general character of the text as well as subtle nuances. Any song, from

840

TEXT AND MUSIC

TEXT AND MUSIC

Schubert's to those of the present day, will show the composer's concern about text. In fact, from 1880 on, one finds a tendency to emphasize text at the expense of melody, the latter frequently being reduced to a mere "recitation" (Hugo Wolf, Debussy, Schoenberg). Modern composers have been very discriminating in their selection of poetic texts, choosing only those of outstanding literary value. Such 19th-century poets as Goethe, Heine, Morike, Baudelaire, and Mallarme gave great impetus to the composition of songs. On the other hand, this has not always been the case; indeed, Bach wrote some of his greatest arias to inferior texts. The principles of textual treatment developed gradually in the 16th century. Earlier composers seem to have been less interested in these matters, which they often considered irrelevant. Two examples are an Ave regina by Dufay, in which the following accentuation occurs: ra-dfx, an-ge-lo-rum, re-gi-nd; and a motet from the Roman de Fauvel (c. 1300), in which an almost deliberately absurd declamation is used with Ovidian hexameter: In nova fert animus [see ApNPM, pp. 117ff, 336]. It was not until the *musica reservata of the 16th century that the attitude toward textual accent changed. Of Josquin, it has been said that "Latin accents are not infrequently mishandled even in his latest works, although, inconsistently, at other times great care seems to be exercised in this matter" [ReMR, p. 245]. Naturally, the use of texts in the vernacular emphasized the need for more care in textual treatment. This is especially true of the Italian madrigal, which, almost from its inception, is characterized by precise and beautiful declamation of the text in all the voice-parts. Equal care was exercised by the English composers. Byrd's anthems contain many examples of a most careful interpretation of the text, J. Wilbye's "rhythmic rendition of the prosody is invariably just as regards accent and quantity" [ReMR, p. 829], and the declamation in Purcell's dramatic works is generally admired as a model. German composers were slower to adopt the new point of view. A striking example of misdeclamation-not lacking, however, a certain forcefulness of expression-occurs at the end of SchUtz's Christmas Oratorio (1664), where the accentuation mft Schi11-le is consistently used instead of the correct mit Schalle [cf. also spii-de side by side with spa-de in Monteverdi's II Combattimento; HAM, no. 189]. This cannot be considered wholly negligence or error, but a de841

liberate attempt to avoid the weakness of feminine endings. The same was true of Bach, e.g., in the tenor aria, "Geduld, Geduld" of the St. Matthew Passion, where the accentuation rllchen is used instead of riichen. In other cases in Bach's music, however, such lapses result from his preoccupation with purely musical (melodic) considerations, e.g., in his cantata no. 105 (BWV), Herr gehe nicht ins Gerfcht, instead of Herr, gehe mcht ins Gericht. Carelessness in text underlaying is very common in early sources, particularly those of the 14th and 15th centuries. A striking exception, however, is presented by the Italian MSS of the 14th century, in the works of Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna, Francesco Landini, and others. Possibly the difference between these and contemporary French sources is the result of negligence on the part of the copyists rather than the composers. In the earliest printed collection of vocal music, the *Odhecaton (1501), only the incipits of the texts are given, obviously because of the typographical difficulties involved in presenting music together with words. The Parisian publisher Attaingnant was probably the first printer to place the words carefully under their corresponding notes. For the numerous problems concerning the text (more properly, the absence or scarcity of text) in 15th-century Masses, the reader is referred to special studies. The modern editorial practice of repeating words for passages lacking a text in the original (e.g., "Kyrie eleison" ten times, instead of once or, perhaps, thrice) is of very doubtful authenticity. Long *vocalizations (on the syllable e of Kyrie) are much more plausible from the musical as well as the liturgical point of view. See also Word painting. Lit.: A. T. Davison, Words and Music (1954); R. Hinton Thomas, Poetry and Song in the German Baroque (1963); N. Frye, ed., Sound and Poetry (1957); J. Miiller-Blattau, Das Verhiiltnis von Wort und Ton in der Geschichte der Musik (1952); J. Jacquot, ed., Musique et Poesieau XVI• siecle (1954); L. Gamberini, La Parola e Ia musica nell'antichita (1962); H. E. Wooldridge, "The Treatment of Words in Polyphonic Music" (MA i); H. Monro, "Words to Music" (ML i); G. Adler, "Uber Textlegung in den 'Trienter Codices'" (CP Riemann); K. Jeppesen, "Die Textlegung in der Chansonmusik des spateren 15. Jahrhunderts" (CP 1927); E. Wellesz, "Words and Music in Byzantine Liturgy" (MQ xxxiii). For extensive bibl., see BeMMR, p.319.

TEXTURE

THAILAND

Texture. Much like woven fabric, music consists

of horizontal ("woof") and vertical ("warp") elements. The former are the successive sounds forming melodies, the latter the simultaneous sounds forming harmonies [see also Counterpoint 1]. It is these elements that make up the texture. The texture stands out particularly clearly in part music, i.e., music written in a given number of parts. Each part represents a horizontal line of individual design, connected with the other lines by the (vertical) relationship of consonance or harmony. Such music is said to have a contrapuntal or polyphonic texture. In accompanied melody, on the other hand, the texture is primarily vertical, based on a succession of chords that are horizontally connected by a top melody. This texture is called chordal or homophonic. Ex. la and lb illustrate the two kinds of treatment of a single melody.

Between the two extremes of strictly polyphonic and strictly homophonic music lie a large variety of intermediate textures. Ex. 2 [Beetho-

ven, Piano Sonata op. 106] illustrates a mixture of horizontal and vertical elements that is particularly common in 19th-century piano music (Beethoven, Brahms). As early as the 16th century the strictly contrapuntal texture of the polyphonic era was often modified into a pseudocontrapuntal texture described as *freistimmig. Distinctive of contrapuntal music is the rhyth-

mic relationship between the parts. There are two types of polyphonic texture, one in which the four parts move in identical rhythm (as in a church hymn), and another in which they are rhythmically wholly independent (as is frequently the case in Palestrina or Bach). Only the latter texture, known as *polyrhythmic, is truly contrapuntal. The former, called *homorhythmic, borders on chordal texture, and indeed is often called strict chordal style (as opposed to free chordal style, where the number of notes in a chord is not fixed and there is usually no horizontal movement except in the top melody. One may also distinguish between light and heavy texture. Light texture results from the use of few instruments, or instruments of light color (e.g., flute), or both. G. Gabrieli's *polychoral compositions and Sibelius' symphonies exemplify heavy texture; Dufay's chansons and Stravinsky's L'Histoire du soldat are light. Many 20th-century composers prefer light texture (e.g., Stravinsky, Hindemith). See G. Dyson, "The Texture of Modem Music" (ML iv, 107ff, 203ff, 293ff). Thailand. During the past six hundred years, Thai music has absorbed instruments and musical ideas from neighboring cultures into its indigenous musical culture. The strongest influences came from China, where the Thai resided before migrating in the 13th century into presentday Thailand, and from the Khmer at Angkor in Cambodia, through whom also came indirect influences from India and Indonesia. Because of the rich interchange among Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, the traditional music and instruments of these countries are essentially similar today. Three main ensembles are used in Thai traditional music: ( 1) the pi phat, consisting of xylophones, metallophones, sets of gong-kettles, hand cymbals, gong, drum, and the pi, a doublereed wind instrument; (2) the khruang sai, composed of various stringed instruments, rhythmic percussion, and a bamboo flute; (3) the mahori, consisting of melodic and rhythmic percussion, stringed instruments, and the flute. In the Thai musical system, the octave is divided into seven relatively equidistant intervals. The instrumental music consists of a main melody combined simultaneously with variations of itself, a practice that may be termed "polyphonic stratification," each layer usually being performed by only one instrument and

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THAILAND

THEME

having characteristics idiomatic to that instrument. Music in a definite tempo is always in duple meter, emphasized by accented and unaccented beats played by the small hand cymbals in patterns indicating the form of the piece. Melodies are created mainly out of a repertory of standard melodic species and cadential formulas. The rhythmic emphasis falls on beats two and four of the groups, shorter or longer, of four beats. The pitches falling on the fourth beat of each period (usually two or four measures) form a pattern that indicates the mood or mode of a piece. Of the seven available pitches, five are used at any one time to form the principal scale; music in "Thai" style is therefore basically pentatonic. In another style, called mqn (pronounced mawn), the other two pitches are used more freely as passing tones. Melodies, basically conjunct, are in one of two styles: motivic, the older style, in which the rhythms are simple and in which standard patterns are employed, and lyric, the more modem style, in which the melody is spun out in a variety of rhythms. The melodic line may shift from one pitch level to another, usually to a level a fifth above or below the preceding one. Thai music does not employ many forms. The majority of pieces are through-composed, with elementary use of repetition and sequential treatment. A type of variation form was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries: a previously existing piece is enlarged to twice its original length and contracted to onehalf its original length according to specific principles. The extended version may be played alone, or the extended, middle (original), and short versions may be played in that order as a three-part suite, with or without alternating vocal sections. Vocal music uses a voice quality rich in partials with much ornamentation. Although vocal sections are used between the main divisions of the variation form described above, vocal techniques are most broadly represented in theater music, where speech, semichants, chants, simple and elaborate songs-solos, as well as leader and chorus styles-are used. Solo music for stringed and wind instruments is also characterized by much ornamentation, similar to that for the voice, often making use of pitches not in the fixed tuning system. Within relatively limited means, Thai traditional music exhibits great variety. However, because of the restrictions imposed by the princi-

ples of the music and the discontinuance in 1932 of the royal households under whose aegis it evolved, this music has probably reached its apogee of development, beyond which it cannot go without a broadening of its strict organizational principles and the stimulation of new musical ideas. Nevertheless, although it has reached an impasse and may soon become a museum piece, Thai traditional music (together with that of Laos and Cambodia) stands as one of the high musical cultures of Asia. There is much folk music in Southeast Asia that has not yet been fully studied. Characteristic types include ensembles of gongs and long drums used in processions, serenades, and love songs accompanied by stringed or wind instruments, and unaccompanied, extemporaneous rhymed verses, usually humorous and often bawdy, generally created by members of two opposing groups in friendly competition. Although there has been little if any influence from Western music in Thai traditional music, contemporary popular Thai music does show such influence, the melodies, generally pentatonic, being harmonized principally by primary triads. Lit.: (Phra) Chen Duriyanga, Thai Music (Thailand Culture Series, no. 8, 4th ed. [1955]); D. Yupho, Thai Musical Instruments [1960]; A. Danielou, La Musique du Cambodge et du Laos (1957); D. Morton, "The Traditional Instrumental Music of Thailand" (diss. U.C.L.A., 1964); K. Pringsheim, "Music of Thailand" (Contemporary Japan xiii, 745-67). D.M. Theater music. See Incidental music. Theme [F. theme; G. Thema; It., Sp. tema]. A mu-

sical idea that is the point of departure for a composition, especially a sonata (symphony, string quartet, etc.), fugue, or set of variations. In sonatas and fugues it is also called *subject. An important field of musical scholarship is the thematic catalog, which shows the themes (beginnings) of the works of a given composer, e.g., those of Bach (by W. Schmieder), Mozart (Kochel-Einstein), or Beethoven (M. G. Nottebohm; replaced by Kinsky-Halm). Attempts have been made to create a general catalog of musical themes, in which the themes of all compositions (or a large segment) would be listed according to some "alphabetical" system so that they could be looked up and identified. Lit.: R. Reti, The Thematic Process in Music (1951); A Check List of Thematic Catalogues (1954); H. Barlow and S. Morgenstern, A Dictionary of Musical Themes (1948); id, A Diction-

843

THEMENAUFSTELWNG

THEORY

ary of Vocal Themes (1950); W. Altmann, "Uber thematische Kataloge" (CP 1927); 0. Koller, in SIM iv; I. Krohn, ibid.; N. Bridgman, in MD iv; W. Reinitz, in AMW iii. Themenaufstellung [G.]. Exposition. Theorbo. See under Lute III. See H. Quittard, "La Theorbe comrne instrument d'accompagnement" (BSIM i, 22lff, 362ff). Theory, musical. I. General. The theory of music

as taught today includes elementary studies classified as fundamentals, music writing, *solfege, and advanced studies in harmony [see Harmonic analysis], as well as *counterpoint, *form, and *orchestration. In this curriculum at least one important study is missing, that of *melody. Other aspects of musical theory, closely bound up with melody, are *rhythm and *phrasing. More scientific in approach are the studies of *acoustics, *intervals (calculation of), *scales, etc., while the philosophical and speculative aspects are in the province of musical *aesthetics. See also Musicology. II. History. The rest of this article is devoted to a survey of fourteen centuries of Western musical theory (c. 500-1900) through a list of representative treatises. Many of these are briefly described (with bibl.) in G. Reese, Fourscore Classics of Music Literature (1951). SSR

(1950) contains translated excerpts; see also RISMB III. A. 500-1200.

1. Boethius (c. 480-524). De institutione arithmetica libri duo; De institutione musica libri quinque (ed. G. Friedlein, 1867; SSR, pp. 79ff). Transmits Greek theory; considered authoritative source through the Middle Ages. 2. Aurelianus Reomensis (mid-9th cent.). Musica disciplina (GS i, 27ff). Early writing concerning the organization and character of the church modes. 3. *"Musica enchiriadis," with commentary, "Scholia enchiriadis," c. 900, formerly ascribed to Hucbald (GS i, 152ff, l73ff; G. trans. by R. Schlecht, in MfM vi, vii, viii; SSR, pp. 126ff; L. B. Spiess, in JAMS xii). Earliest detailed account of *organum and *Daseian notation. 4. Regino of Priim (d. 915). Epistola de harmonica institutione (GS i, 230ff); Tonarius (CS ii, lff). Discusses music as one of the seven liberal arts. 5. Odo de Clugny (d. 942). Dialogus de musica or Enchiridion musices (GS i, 252ff; G. trans. by P. Bohn, in MfM, xii; SSR, pp. l03ff); Into-

narium ( CS ii, 117). Presents a *letter notation beginning with great G (f) and extending upward to a' (aa). 6. Guido d'Arezzo (c. 990-1050). *Micrologus de disciplina artis musicae ( GS ii, 2ff; new ed. by J. Smits van Waesberghe, 1955; G. trans. by M. Hermesdorff, 1876); Item aliae Regulae de ignoto cantu: Prologus in antiphonario ( GS ii, 34ff; SSR, pp. ll7ff); Epistola de ignoto cantu (GS ii, 43ff; SSR, pp. 12lff). Essential text; establishes the hexachordal system of *solmization using the six syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, Ia; introduces a staff similar to the modem staff. 7. Anonymous [J.-A.-L. de la Page], Tractatus de musica, c. 1150 (J.-A.-L. de la Page, Essais de diphtherographie musicale, 2 vols. [1864], i, 335ff). Describes six species of *discant. B. 1200-1400. 8. Discantus positio uulgaris, c. 1225 (CS i, 94ff; F. trans. in part in E. Coussemaker, Histoire de l'harmonie au moyen age [1852], pp. 247ff; E. trans. J. Knapp inJMTvi [1962]). Description

and commentary of the various species of discant in use at Notre Dame in the early 13th century; particularly emphasizes the motet. One of earliest treatises to discuss modal rhythm as a factor in polyphonic compositions. 9. Johannes de Garlandia (c. 1195-c. 1272). De musica mensurabili positio (CS i, 97ff; another version, Vatican Codex, in CS i, 175ff). Describes six rhythmic modes; codifies and discusses in detail concordance and discordance. 10. Franco of Cologne. Ars cantus mensurabilis, c. 1260 (CS i, ll7ff; GS iii, lff; SSR, pp. l39ff). Improvement and standardization of system for mensural notation. Remained authoritative text for nearly a century. 11. Anonymous IV. De mensuris et discantu, c. 1275 (CS i, 327ff; new ed. with E. trans. by L. Dittmer, 1959). Deals with premensural notation; describes the literature and mentions composers of the *Notre Dame school of 11801240. 12. Walter Odington. De speculatione musicae, c. 1300 (CS i, l82ff; new ed. and commentary by F. Hammond, diss. Yale Univ., 1965). Comprehensive coverage of 13th-century compositional practice in England. 13. Jacques de Liege. Speculum musicae, c. 1330 (Books vi, vii in CS ii, l93ff; comp. ed. by R. Bragard, Corpus scriptorum de musica 3, 1955-; SSR, pp. 180ff). Plea for a return to the security of "Franconian" principles. 14. Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361). Ars nova, c. 1325 (CS iii, 13ff; new ed. by Reaney, Gilles,

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and Maillard, in MD x, xi, xii, xiv [1956--60] Wolf; MGG iv, cols. 1237-43). Unlike his predeincludes F. trans.; G. trans. by P. Bohn, in MJM cessors, Gafurius did not depend on Boethius xxii; E. trans. by L. Plantinga, in JMT v). Ars but read Latin translations of Quintilian, perfecta in musica, c. 1350 ( CS iii, 28ft'). Speaks Ptolemy, and other Greek writers. for the inclusion of duple mensuration and 21. Pietro Aaron (1480-1545). Libri tres de presents symbols for indicating Modus, Tempus, institutione harmonica, 1516; Thoscanello de Ia Prolatio. · musica, 1523; Trattato della natura et cognitione 15. Marchetto da Padua. Lucidariwn in arte di tutti gli tuoni di canto figurato, 1525 (SSR, musicae planae, c. 1318 (GS iii, 64ff); Pomeriwn pp. 205ff); Lucidario in musica, 1545. Reports in arte musicae mensuratae, c. 1319 (GS iii, l2lff; the abandonment of the successive manner of G. Vecchi, Corpus scriptorum de musica 6 [1961]; composing parts. SSR, pp. l60ff). An account of contemporary 22. Lodovicos Fogliani (d. 1538). Musica practices in Italy. Earliest text accepting duple theorica, 1529 (partly in Riemann, History of Music Theory, ch. xii). Describes syntonic mensuration. diatonic tuning requiring just major third made c. 1400-1600. 16. Prosdocimus de Beldemandis (c. 1380). up of a major and a minor whole tone. 23. Giovanni Maria Lanfranco (d. 1545). Tractatus practice de musica mensurabili, 1408 (CS iii, 200ff); Tractatus de contrapuncto, 1412 Scintille di musica, 1533 (trans. and comm. by (CS iii, l93ff; G. trans. by R. Schlecht, in MjM B. Lee, diss. Cornell Univ., 1961). An excellent ix); Tractatus practice de musica mensurabili ad example of the Renaissance primer on music. 24. Henricus Glareanus (Heinrich Loris; modum ltalicorum, 1412 (CS iii, 228ff; new ed. in C. Sartori, La Notazione italiana del trecento 1488-1563). Isagoge in musicen, 1516 (E. trans. [ 1938]). Summarizes practices in Italian notation by F. Turrell, in J MT iii [1959]); *Dodecachordon. and prescribes use of chromatics that produce a 1547 (G. trans. by P. Bohn, in *Editions XLVII, 16; SSR, pp. 219ff; E. trans. by C. Miller, in complete chromatic scale. 17. Johannes Tinctoris (l436-l5ll). Termino- Musicological Studies and Documents 6, 2 vols. rum musicae diffinitorium, c. 1475, printed [1965]). In Dodecachordon the number of modal c. 1494 (CS iv, l77ff; new ed. with F. trans. by scales is increased to twelve. 25. Nicola Vicentino (1511-72). L'Antica A. Machabey, 1951; G. trans. by H. Bellermann, in J MW i; E. trans. by C. Parrish, 1963); Propor- musica ridotta alia moderna prattica, 1555 (fac. tionate musices, c. 1474 (CS iv, l53ff; SSR, repr. ed. E. Lowinsky, 1959); Descrizione delpp. l93ff; E. trans. by A. Seay, inJMTi[l957]); l'arciorgano, 1561 (E. trans. by H. Kaufmann, in Liber de arte contrapuncti, 1477 (CS iv, 76ff; JMT v [1961]). Describes a tuning system and SSR, pp. l97ff; E. trans. by A. Seay, in Musico- gives specifications for building an instrument logical Studies and Documents 5 [1961]); De with 36 pitches (in practice only 34 keys) within inventione et usu musicae, c. 1485 (new ed. each octave, providing intervals of ancient Greek K. Weinmann, Johannes Tinctoris und sein diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic genera in unbekannter Traktat, 1917). Eight other treatises addition to just and mean-tone scale require(all in CS iv) are described in ReMR, p. 140. The ments. 26. Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-90). Le istitutioni twelve treatises present a sequential exposition harmoniche, 1558 (fac. repr. by Broude, 1965; of musical knowledge of the time. 18. Bartolomeo Ramos de Pareja (c. 1440- SSR, pp. 228ff; G. Marco, diss. Univ. of after 1491). Musica practica, 1482 (ed. J. Wolf, Chicago, 1956; ReMR, p. 377). Notes natural 1901; SSR, pp. 200ff). Presents a simpler method opposition of major and minor triads; renumbers of dividing a string than that transmitted by Glareanus' twelve modes, placing Ionian first. Boethius. Uses the just major third. This intona27. Francisco de Salinas (1513-90). De musica tion was discouraged by Gafurius, championed libri septem, 1577 (fac. repr. M. Kastner, 1958). A comprehensive statement of contemporary by Foglianus. 19. Guilielmus Monachus. De preceptis artis knowledge of music, supporting the work of musicae, c. 1485 (CS iii, 273ff; new ed. by Zarlino and Glareanus. 28. Vincenzo Galilei (c. 1520-91). Dialogo A. Seay, in Corpus scriptorum de musica II della musica antica e della moderna, 1581 (SSR, [1965]). Discusses fauxbourdon and gymel. 20. Franchinus Gafurius (1451-1522). Prac- pp. 302ff). Musical mentor of Florentine tica musicae, 1496; Theorica musicae, 1492 (fac. "Camerati." 29. Giovanni M. Artusi (c. 1540-1613). L'Arte ed., G. Cesari, 1934; see also P. Hirsch, in CP

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del contraponto, 1586-89. Clear statement of fundamental rules of counterpoint as taught in late 16th century. 30. Ludovico Zacconi (1555-1627). Prattica di musica, 2 vols., 1592, 1622. Extensive description of instruments of his time and directions for executing ornaments. 31. Ercole Bottrigari (1531-1612). Ildesiderio, overo de' concerti di varii strumenti musicali, 1594 (fac. ed. K. Meyer, 1924; E. trans. by C. ,MacClintock, in Musicological Studies and Dod'uments 9 [1962]). Discusses combinations of instruments. ,3f. Thomas Morley (1557-1602). A Plaine and &isie Introduction to Practicall Musicke, 1597 (mod. ed. R. A. Harman, 1952; SSR, pp. 274ft"). AD. excellent book describing forms and compositional techniques. 33. Girolamo Diruta (b. 1550). II Transilvano, 2 vols., 1593, 1609 (part in Q!:trans. by C. Krebs, in VMW viii). Significant for consideration of aesthetic as well as technical aspects of performance; includes many musical examples. D. 1600-1800. 34. Michael Praetorius (1571-1621). Syntagma musicum, 3 vols., 1615, '18, '19 (vol. ii, Organographia, repr. in *Editions XLVII, 13; fac. ed. W. Gurlitt, 1929; repr. 1958-59; E. trans. of pts. I, 2 of vol. ii by H. Blumenfeld, 1949; vol. iii, new ed. E. Bernoull~ 1916; E. trans. of vol. iii by H. Lampl, diss., Univ. of Southern California, 1957). Encyclopedic effort. Vol. iii describes secular composition. 35. Camillo Angleria (c. 1580-c. 1630). La regola del contraponto e della compositione, 1622. The subtitle states "in which is treated briefly everything about consonance and dissonance with examples in 2, 3, and 4 parts." Uses the eight church modes. 36. Charles Butler (d. c. 1647). The Principles of Musick, 1636 (Short Title Catalogue). Though based on Morley's work, an interesting attempt to codify the author's later observations concerning the practice of composition and the development of the concept of harmony. 37. Marin Mersenne (1588-1648). Harmonie universelle, 1636 (fac. ed. F. Lesure, 1963; E. trans. "The Books on Instruments," R. Chapman, 1957). Extensive coverage of experiments on physical properties of sound. Full description of contemporary instruments. 38. Adriano Banchieri (1568-1634). L'Organo suonarino, 1605. Several editions; 2nd ed. includes detailed discussion of figured bass and performance practice.

39. Antoine Parran (1587-1650). Traite de Ia musique theorique et pratique, 1639. Excellent text on 17th-century techniques of composition employing the twelve modes of Glareanus as renumbered by Zarlino. 40. Christoph Bernhard (1627-92). Von der Singe-Kunst oder Manier; Tractatus compositionis augmentatis (both MSS, c. 1657; in J. MiillerBlattau, Die Kompositionslehre Heinrich Schutzens, 1926). Describes motifs and compositional procedures in accordance with the doctrine of affections. 41. Christopher Simpson (c. 1610-69). The principles of Practical Musick [Delivered in a Compendious, Easie, and New Method], 1665. Under the title A Compendium of Practical Musick in Five Parts, this book (1st ed., 1667) was reprinted in at least nine editions. The five parts are: I. The rudiments of song. 2. The principles of composition. 3. The use of discords. 4. The form of figurate descant. 5. The contrivance of canon. 42. Giovanni Maria Bononcini (1642-78). Musico prattico, 1673. Deals with counterpoint, consonance, dissonance, the twelve tones, composition in two, three, and four parts. 43. Lorenzo Penna (1613-93). Li primi albori musicali per li principianti della musica figurata, 1st ed. 1656, 2nd ed. corrected and enlarged by author, 1679 (actually issued 1694). Includes three books: I. The principles of singing. 2. The rules of counterpoint. 3. Fundamentals of playing from a figured bass. 44. John Playford (1623-86). A Breefe introduction to the skill of musick for song & violl., 1654. Nineteen numbered and six unnumbered editions of this popular work appeared between 1654 and 1730. 45. Jean Rousseau (late 17th cent.). Methode claire, certaine et facile pour apprendre achanter Ia musique, 1678. In this little book on the art of singing the seventh syllable si appears as a normal part of the solmization system. 46. Angelo Berardi (c. 1653-c. 1700). Ilperche musicale, 1693. Detailed and clear rules "in which reason dissolves difficulty, examples demonstrate how to avoid errors and to weave with artifice the components of music." 47. Andreas Werckmeister (1645-1706). Harmonologia musica, 1702. This short book deals with composition and describes techniques of improvisation. 48. Zaccaria Tevo (1651-between 1709-12). II musico testore, 1706. The work is divided into four parts, of which the last two deal extensively

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THEORY

THEORY

with the materials and procedures of composition. The last part includes examples of composition for voices and instruments, double counterpoint, fugue. 49. Alexandre Frere. Transpositions de musique, 1706. An attempt to provide proper signatures for all keys and particularly a single basis for minor scale signatures. 50. Alexander Malcolm (b. 1687). A Treatise of Musick, Speculative, Practical, and Historical, 1721. Concerned mainly with elementary matters but notable for including the first "correct" table of key signatures, essential to the full development of the major-minor key system. 51. Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764). Traite de l'harmonie reduite a ses principes nature/s, 1722 (SSR, pp. 564ff; fac. Broude Bros., 1965). A text of prime importance to the history of music theory. Rameau's concept of centre harmonique firmly establishes the major-minor system. Nouveau systeme de musique theorique, 1726; Generation harmonique ou Traite de musique theorique et pratique, 1737; Demonstration du principe de l'harmonie, 1750; and Nouvelles reflexions sur sa demonstration du principe de l'harmonie, 1752 (all available in fac.) with numerous letters and articles. These consistently expound a belief in the corps sonore as the source, musical practice as the means, and psychological response as the arbiter. 52. Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741). *Gradus ad Parnassum, 1725 (E. trans. A. Mann, Steps to Parnassus, 1943). An 18th-century codification of contrapuntal practice, still used as a manual for the development of compositional skills. 53. Johann Mattheson (1681-1764). Grosse General-Bass-Schu/e, 1731; Kleine GeneralBass-Schu/e, 1735; Der vol/kommene Capellmeister, 1739 (fac. M. Reimann, 1954; partly trans. by H. Lenneberg, in J MT ii, 1 and 2; B. C. Cannon, Johann Mattheson, 1947). A wellorganized presentation of essential theoretical knowledge and, in the last book, a complete presentation of the doctrine of *affections. 54. Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770). Trattato di musica secondo Ia vera scienza del/'armonia, 1754 (A. Planchart, in JMT iv, 32). Uses phenomena ·of "third sound" (difference tone) to explain harmonic relation. 55. Georg Joseph Vogler (Abbe; 1749-1814). Tonwissenschaft und Tonsetzkunst, 1776. Systematic but complicated derivation of harmonies from the first 32 partials. He is better known for producing low-pitched organ tones by combining two higher-pitched pipes.

E. 1800-1900. Of the numerous texts that appeared during the 18th century after Rameau's basic work, most were of a decidedly practical nature. Similarly, after 1800 only a few are concerned with purely theoretical problems. Among ·these are: 56. Gottfried Weber (1779-1839). Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst, 181721. Practical and nonacoustical approach. Remembered for advancing the use of Roman numerals for chord identification within key structures; also contributed evaluation of harmonic constructs on artistic grounds. 57. Anton Reicha (1770-1836). Cours de Composition Musicale, 1818. A friend of Beethoven's and a composer of some repute. His pupils included Berlioz, Gounod, and Franck. 58. Fran~ois-Joseph Fetis (1784-1871). Traite complet de Ia theorie et de Ia pratique de l'harmonie, 1844. Rejects mathematical and acoustical bases of harmony. The first to employ the term tonality (tonalite) to explain, in almost identical terms, the centre harmonique described by Rameau in 1722. 59. Moritz Hauptmann (1792-1868). Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik zur Theorie der Musik, 1853. Based on the philosophical method of Hegel. Though severely criticized, warrants consideration. 60. Abramo Basevi (1818-85). lntroduzionead un nuovo Sistema d'Armonia, 1862. Directs attention to sensation and perception. The work is mentioned by Helmholtz in On the Sensations of Tone. 61. Hermann (Ludwig Ferdinand) von Helmholtz (1821-94). Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen a/s physiologische Grundlage fur die Theorie der Musik, 1863 (E. trans. On the Sensations of Tone, A. J. Ellis, 1885; repr. 1954). Major contribution to knowledge of musical materials on physical and physiologic grounds. 62. Hugo Riemann (1849-1919). Though most important as the author of Geschichte der Musiktheorie im IX.-XIX. Jahrhundert, 1898 (E. trans. ofbooks I and II [2nd ed.] by R. Haggh, 1962), Riemann wrote several additional texts on music theory, including Musikalische Logik, 1873; Musika/ische Syntaxis, 1877; Die Natur der Harmonik, 1882; and Vereinfachte Harmonie/ehre, 1893 (E. trans. by Bewerunge, 1896). For systematic presentation of fundamental knowledge, Riemann's work is outstanding although colored by 19th-century positivism. Among modem contributions to musical theory, the writings of Heinrich Schenker

847

THIRD

THEREMIN {1868-1935; see Schenker system), Charles Koechlin (1867-1950), and Paul Hindemith {1895-1963) are noteworthy. Intentional expansion of existing tonal systems are the basis of the writings of Alois Haba (b. 1893; Neue Harmonielehre des diatonischen, chromatischen . . . Tonsystems, 1927); Joseph Yasser (b. 1893; A Theory of Evolving Tonality, 1932); and Olivier Messiaen (b. 1908; Technique de mon langage musical, 1944; E. trans. J. Satterfield, 1956). For

serial techniques, the work of J. Rufer (b. 1893; Die Komposition mit zwolf Tonen, 1952; E. trans. H. Searle, 1954) is basic. Lit.: H. Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie im IX.-XIX. Jahrhundert (1898; 2nd ed. 1921; Eng. trans. bks. I and II, R. Haggh, 1962); G. Pietzsch, Die Klassifikation der Musik von Boetius bis Ugolino von Oruieto {1929); A. Hughes, in OH 1929, Introductory Volume; AdHM ii, 1232ff (bibl.); LavE i.l, 566ff; ReMMA, pp. 17ff (Greek), 125ff (medieval); ReMR, pp. 178ff, 185f, 586f; ApNPM, pp. 201ff; J. Smits van Waesberghe, ed., The Theory of Music from the Carolingian Era up to 1400, i [1961]; A. Davidsson, Bibliographie der musiktheoretischen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts (1962); E. Coussemaker, L'Art harmonique aux XII• et XIII• siecles (1865; repr. 1964); M. Shirlaw, The Theory of Harmony [1917; repr. B. Coar, 1955]; J. B. Coover, "Music Theory in Translation: A Bibliography" (JMT iii, 70); A. Basart, Serial Music; A Classified Bibliography of Writings on Twelve- Tone and Electronic Music (1961); H. Boatwright, Introduction to the Theory of Music [1956]; G. Reaney, "The Question of

Authorship in the Medieval Treatises on Music" (MD xviii), J. Wolf, "Early English Musical Theorists" (MQ xxv); id., "Die Musiktheorie des Mittelalters" (AM iii, 63f; bibl.); U. Kornmi.iller, "Die alten Musiktheoretiker" (KJ 1891, 1899, 1903); D. von Bartha, "Studien zum musikalischen Schrifttum des 15. Jahrhunderts" (AMF i); A. Mann, The Study of Fugue (1958; paperback ed. 1966); Deutsches Musikgeschichtliches Archiv Kassel. Katalog der Filmsammlung I-VI (sect. ii), 1955-1963; K. Eschman, Changing N.P. Forms in Modern Music [1945]. Theremin. See under Electronic instruments. Theresienmesse [G., Theresa's Mass]. Popular name (unexplained) for Haydn's Mass in B-flat, composed in 1799. Thesis. See Arsis and thesis.

Third [F. fierce; G. Terz; It. terza; Sp. tercera]. The third degree of a scale, and the interval thus formed with the first degree [see Interval]. The third is the most characteristic interval of the Western harmonic system, which, indeed, might be called the system of triadic (or *tertian) harmony (c. 1400--1900), as distinguished from an earlier period (c. 900-1400) when the third was not fully admitted, and from a later one (c. 1900-) in which it has lost its former important position [see Harmony II]. Guido d'Arezzo in his "Micrologus" (ch. xviii) admits both the major and the minor third as concordiae of the diaphonia (organum), and both intervals occur in his instructive examples. They also occur sporadically in the early 12th-century organa of Fleury and Chartres, occasionally even in groups of three parallel thirds. In the five organa from Chartres 130 [see Bannister, in RG i, 29ff] the third actually is the most common of all intervals (66 thirds, 63 unisons, 46 fourths, etc.). The St. Martial organum Senescente mundano filio (c. 1150) contains an entire section in parallel thirds [see Ex.; see W. Apel, in CP Angles i, 66; also Handschin, in CP Adler, p. 57. Whereas these findings invalidate the customary

8

Di - gna

di - gnis

pa- rat o- spi- ci-a

view that the third is "of English origin," there is evidence of an English (or Scandinavian) predilection for thirds, beginning with the well-known hymn for St. Magnus, "Nobilis, humilis" (HAM, no. 25c), which may date from the 12th century. In French treatises of the 13th century the third is regarded as an imperfect consonance, but Anon. IV says that "in the part of England called Westcuntre they are considered as excellent consonances" (optime concordiante; see CS i, 358b). This statement is supported by a number of English compositions written in *gymel and in *sixth-chord style. An interesting early example of a tertian and, at the same time, pentatonic melody is Neidhardt von Reuenthal's "Der May," written c. 1225 [see Ex., from HAM, no. 20c]. Melodies outlining a major triad play an important role in the works of Dunstable [see HAM, no. 62; SchGMB, nos. 34, 35]. Prior to 1500, the third was not admitted in the final chord [see Picardy third]. In the Pythagorean system the major third is obtained as the fourth consecutive fifth (c-g--d'a'--e"), with the frequency 8li4, and the minor

848

THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE

THOROUGH BASS

u uJ r r r J r rr r 1& J r r r J J J J B 1 J 1@ r J J J r r r J J J J 1@ J

B Der may hat me-nigHer- cze hoch er-stai- gett

8 sprach ein maider hatt es wol er- czai- get was

8 sein siis-serwun-ne thut wanner klai- det swar-

I@ J J J 8 czen dorn in

third as the third consecutive fourth (c-f-bb'--el'') with the frequency 3 ¥.!1. The consonant (pure) third of "'just intonation, ¥.!, was already known to Aristoxenos (b. c. 354 B.C.) but does not appear in medieval theory until c. 1300, in W. Odington's "De speculatione musicae." The difference (in cents) between the thirds of the various systems is shown in the following table: Pythagorean Just intonation Mean-tone system Equal temperament

Minor third 294 315 315 300

Major third 408 386 386 400

The difference between the tempered and pure major third can easily be demonstrated on the organ by playing on one manual the tone e" with a normal 8' register, and on the second manual the tone c with a mutation stop (I¥.;') which produces the fifth harmonic e" in just intonation.

1. A figure given with a bass note calls for the corresponding interval above this note in the key indicated by the signature. For instance, in Ab major, a 6 written under (or above) g indicates Eb, and the figures g indicate Db and Eb. 2. The intervals of the third, fifth, and octave often are not indicated by figures (3, 5, 8), it being understood that these were to be added where suitable. 3. Chromatic alterations are indicated by a sharp or fiat placed in front of (occasionally behind) the figure. A sharp or fiat without a figure calls respectively for the major or minor third. The natural sign is used in a similar way. Sharping is frequently indicated by a diagonal stroke through the figure or by an apostrophe. 4. A horizontal dash following a figure or a vertical group of figures indicates that the notes of the right hand are to be held, even if the bass proceeds to other tones. 5. A small diagonal dash indicates repetition of the same figures above a changed bass note, i.e., sequential transposition of the chord. 6. The figure 0 indicates tasto solo, i.e., no accompaniment other than the bass note. 7. Frequently, two or more successive figures do not indicate chords proper but only voiceleading, appoggiaturas, or passing tones, e.g., 4 3, or 9 8, or 5 4 3. The accompanying examples illustrate these principles.

r

I~

'I

I

'I

Thirteenth, chord of the. See under Ninth chord. 6~

Thirty-second note. See under Notes. Thirty-two foot stop. See under Foot (2). Thoroughbass, figured bass [F. basse chi.ffree, continue, figuree; G. Genera/bass, bezi.fferter Bass; It. basso continuo; Sp. bajo cifrado]. Note: "thorough" (old spelling for "through") means the same as continuo, i.e., continuing throughout the piece. I. A method of indicating an accompanying part by the bass notes only, together with figures designating the chief intervals and chords to be played above the bass notes. This stenographic system was universally used in the baroque period (1600-1750). The chief principles of the fully developed system (c. 1700) are:

849

~ I~

7gi2

11:: I=: I·; I: I: 1: I: I 6

~

r

6

1

8

~

6

#

,

7

~

g g~-- 9

i#

s

6 /

/

7b 5

THROUGH-COMPOSED

THOROUGHBASS

II. The principles above constitute only the are Cavalieri's Rappresentazione and (less comrudiments of a very difficult art. A good thor- pletely) Peri's and Caccini's operas Euridice, oughbass accompaniment is considerably more all from 1600. Here as well as in numerous later than a mere translation of figures into musical works, different figures are used for the different notes. At the proper places, the musical material octaves, e.g., 10 for the tenth (upper third), 15 used in the solo parts (voice, violin) should be in- for the double octave [see, e.g., WoHN ii, 315]. corporated into the accompaniment, in free Among the numerous 17th- and 18th-century imitation, or in doubling thirds, or in contra- writers on basso continuo are A. Agazzari, Del puntal contrast. How far this should be carried sonare sopra'l basso, 1607 (fac. ed. by Bollettino is a difficult and controversial question. Obvi- Bibliografico Musicale, 1933); M. Praetorius, in ously, different situations are presented by dif- Syntagma musicum iii, 1619 (ch. vi: De basso ferent compositions and in different periods. generali seu continuo); M. Locke, Melothesia, Between the years 1600 and 17 50, the style of or Certain General Rules for playing upon a Conimprovised accompaniment changed from sim- tinued-bass, 1673; M. de Saint-Lambert, Nouveau ple homophony to real counterpoint. Thus an Traite de l'accompagnement (1707); J. D. Heinielaborately contrapuntal realization for, e.g., chen, Der General-Bass in der Composition, 1728; arias of the mid-17th century is clearly inappro- J. Mattheson, Grosse General-Bass-Schule, 1731; G. P. Telemann, Singe-, Spiel-, und Generalpriate. Bach himself left two records of his own bass Vbungen 1733/4 (new ed. by M. Seiffert, thoroughbass improvisation, one in the second 1914); K. P. E. Bach, Versuch uber die wahre Art aria of the solo cantata Amore traditore and an- das Clavier zu spielen, 1753 (trans. W. J. Mitchell, other in the second movement of his sonata in 1949); D. G. Tiirk, Kurze Anweisung zum GenB minor for flute and harpsichord. Although eralbassspielen, 1791. See also Partimento. Lit.: F. T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment both parts are designated Cembalo obbligato, their style differs markedly from that of other from a Thorough-bass (1931); H. Keller, Thorwritten out parts and so probably indicates his oughbass Method [ 1965]; F. Oberdorffer, Der style of thoroughbass improvisation [see Genera/bass in der Instrumentalmusik des ausM. Schneider, in JMP xxi/xxii]. Another in- gehenden 18. Jahrhunderts (1939); G. Kirchner, formative example of written out thoroughbass Der Genera/bass bei Heinrich Schiltz (1960); accompaniment is in a sonata by Handel for E. Ulrich, Studien zur deutschen Genera/bassviola da gamba and harpsichord [Handelgesell- Praxis ... des 18. Jahrhunderts (1932); M. Schneider, Die Anfonge des Basso continuo und seiner schaft ed., xlviii, 112-17]. In addition to the accompanying harpsichord- Bezijferung (1918); G. J. Buelow, in AM xxxv; ist, the realization of a thoroughbass part calls L. Landshoff, in CP Sandberger; RiHM ii.2, for a cello or viola da gamba that reinforces the 72ff; E. Stilz, in ZMW xiii; L. Torchi, in RMI i, bass line. It would be entirely in keeping with ii; A. Toni, in RMI xxvi; H. H. Eggebrecht, baroque *performance practice for the players "Arten des Generalbasses" (AMW xiv); WoHN of such instruments to simplify the written part ii, 314ff. somewhat whenever it includes rapid figures, intelligently underlining the contours instead of Three-Cornered Hat, The. See Sombrero de tres disturbing the equilibrium with a forced dis- picas, El. play of virtuosity. Threepenny Opera. See Dreigroschenoper, Die. III. The thoroughbass practice of the baroque Also see under Ballad opera. grew out of the improvisation techniques of the 16th century. About 1600, motets were occasion- Through-composed. This term, which is widely ally accompanied on the organ by a bassus pro accepted as a translation of G. durchkomponiert, organa, a separate bass part from which the is applied to songs in which new music is proorganist played the harmonies. The earliest vided for each stanza. Its opposite is "strophic known instance of this method is in a forty-part song," a song in which every stanza is sung to motet of 1587, "Ecce beatam lucem," by the same melody. The latter method is frequently A. Striggio [see M. Schneider, p. 67]. A similar used for simple lyrics, while the former is prebass part, printed for Giovanni Croce's Motetti ferred for dramatic or narrative texts in which of 1594, has ~ and 11 above the notes in order to the situation changes with every stanza, e.g., indicate major or minor triads (thirds). The Schubert's "Der Erlkonig." Schubert and Karl earliest examples of a basso continuo with figures Loewe [see Ballade (G.)] were among the first

850

TIENTO

THROUGH-IMITATION

to employ the through-composed style. Since then it has been almost universally adopted for lyrical songs. The term also applies, in a more general sense, to the use of new music where musical repeat would be possible or normal. Thus, in most church hymns the individual stanza is throughcomposed, but some use repeat forms such as a a b c. From the over-all view, of course, they are strophic since the music is repeated in each stanza. Similarly, in troubadour and trouvere songs, the individual stanza may be throughcomposed or have initial repeat [see Canzo ].

plays with music, somewhat similar to Chinese opera. There is a large repertory of folk dances, folksongs, work songs, etc. A detailed description of Tibetan music is found in GDB viii, 456ff. Tibetan musical notation consists of elaborate scrolls of a highly ornamental design; ex. in L.A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, rev. ed. (1934). See also LavE i.5, 3084ff (examples doubtful); NOH i, 137ff; T. H. Somervell, in C. G. Bruce, The Assault on Mount Everest 1922 (1923), ch. xiv; T. H. Somervell, in Musical Times lxiv, 107f; W. Graf, in Studia musicologica (Budapest) iii, 133ff.

Through-imitation [F. imitation syntaxique; G. Durchimititation]. The procedure of basing a composition entirely on the principle of imitation. In this sense, Bach's fugues are throughimitative. However, the term is chiefly applied to the fully imitative polyphony of the 16thcentury motet [see Motet B II], in distinction to earlier compositions based on a cantus jirmus or employing imitation only sporadically. Although some pieces by A. Busnois, L. Compere, and Josquin come fairly close to being throughimitative, it was Gombert (c. 1490-1556) who established through-imitation (or, as it is also called, "pervading imitation") as the standard method of motet composition. See C. van den Borren, "Quelques Reflexions a propos du style imitatif syntaxique" (RBM i).

Tibia [L.]. Name for the Greek *aulos; see Oboe family III. Tibicen [L.], flute player.

Thunder machine [G. Donnermaschine]. A device introduced by R. Strauss in his Alpensinfonie, op. 64 (1915), to imitate thunder. It consists of a big rotating drum with hard balls inside that strike against the drumhead. Thus Spake Zarathustra. See Also Sprach Zarathustra.

Tibet. Since World War II, a considerable amount of research has been done on Tibetan music. The liturgical chant traditionally practiced in the numerous monasteries (especially in the capital, Lhasa) is a kind of recitative of a very low bass range (E to G) in an unstressed rhythm of equal pulses, accompanied by metallophones, drums, and an even lower drone held by long trumpets, often extending like telescopes to a length of twelve or more feet. There are also religious performances with dancing by large groups of masked performers, often lasting several days and making use of large orchestras similar to those of ancient China. Secular music is cultivated by touring troupes performing

Tie, bind. A curved line, identical in appearance to the *slur, that connects two successive notes of the same pitch and has the function of uniting them into a single sound equal to their combined durations. The tie is used (1) to connect two notes separated by a bar line; (2) to produce values that cannot be indicated by a single note, e.g., the value of seven eighth notes:

j..__,j,

(7

= 4 + 3).

The tie, together with the bar line, is the most conspicuous achievement of modern notation over the earlier system of *mensural notation, where it does not exist (the earliest known instance occurs in a keyboard score of 1523, Recerchari motetti, canzoni of Marco Antonio Cavazzoni [da Bologna]; see ApNPM, p. 5). Owing to the nonexistence of the tie in mensural notation, a note equaling five units was never used in duple meter (tempus imperfectum) in any vocal composition prior to c. 1600; only in triple meter (tempus perfectum) oould such a value be obtained, by subtracting one from six (imperfection). Occasionally a tie calls not for a complete suppression but for a subtle repetition of the second note; see under Tremolo I.

Tiento [Sp.]., tento [Port.]. A 16th- and 17thcentury form that is the Iberian counterpart of the Italian ricercar (not, as has been stated, of the toccata). Like the ricercar, it originated in vihuela (lute) music (Milan, Libro de 1nUsica ... El Maestro, 1535-36) as a free "study" [see Ricercar II] in idiomatic style for the instrument and was later used for organ music (L. Venegas de Henestrosa, A. Cabez6n; see Editions XXXII, 2, and XX, 3, 4, 7, 8), where it became a study in imitative counterpoint. However, the erudite

851

TIERCE

TIM PAN

formal treatment often found in the ricercar is rarely present in the tientos, which also are usually much shorter than the contemporary ricercars. Tientos continued to be composed throughout the 17th century, mainly by Manuel R. Coelho (Flores de mU.sica, 1620), F. Correa de Araujo (Libra de tientos, 1626; *Editions XXXII, 6), and Juan Cabanilles (1644-1712; Opera omnia, ed. by Angles). Most of these are long compositions in which imitation appears only at the beginning, the thematic material serving only as the springboard for a wealth of playful motifs, lively figurations, and picturesque ideas. Tierce [F.]. (1) Third. Tierce de Picardie, see Picardy third. (2) An organ stop of the mutation type that sounds a note two octaves and a major third above the key played. See Organ. (3) Tierce coule. See Appoggiatura, double II. Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche [G., Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks]. Symphonic poem by R. Strauss, op. 28 (1895), based on the 16thcentury German folk tale of Till Eulenspiegel. The music develops, in a free rondo form, around two themes, one representing Till as a popular hero, the other as a vagabond and prankster. There are no specific programmatic connotations except at the end, where the sentencing and hanging of Till are clearly suggested. Timbale [F.], timpano or timballo [It.]. Kettledrum [see Percussion instruments A, 1]. Timbre [F.]. (1) Medieval name for *tambourin.

(2) Same as *tone color. (3) A standard melody, especially for popular tunes underlaid with new texts (opera comique, vaudeville). See also the "Catalogue des timbres" in E. Misset and P. Aubry, Les Proses d'Adam de Saint- Victor, pp. 119ff. Timbrel. Old name for *tambourine. Time. Term used loosely to indicate *meter, tempo, or the duration of a given note. Time signatures. The time (meter) is indicated at the beginning-of a piece by two numbers, one above the other; the lower indicates the chosen unit of measurement (half note, quarter note, etc.), while the upper indicates the number of such units comprised in a measure. See Meter. Early time signatures and their proportional modifications are explained under Mensural notation II and Proportions. Two of them survive, the sign C for 4/4, and the sign ¢ for 2/2

(*alia breve). In the sources of the 17th century more complicated signs such as C3 , q are still common, often puzzling the modem reader to whom a combination of C (4/4) and 3/2, 6/4, 8/9 [sic] seems contradictory and senseless. Such signs actually combine two meanings, the older proportional meaning with the more recent metrical one. Thus, the sign q [see Froberger, Suite no. 5, in DTO 13] means that (a) each measure contains six quarter notes, and (b) these six notes are equal in duration to the four notes of the preceding section. These signs have a strictly metronomic significance (relative to the normal tempo of the piece), a fact usually overlooked by modem readers. Particularly noteworthy is the signature C3 (3, Y), which is very frequently used for sections containing three whole notes to the measure [see Froberger, Suites nos. 1-5, DTO 13]. Although this may suggest a very slow tempo, the correct speed for such pieces is moderately quick, since these three whole notes will have to be played in the time normally consumed by one whole note:

If, however, the composition is notated in alia breve (as is usual in 16th-century vocal music; Palestrina), then the relationship is not 3: 1 but 3:2 [seeApNPM, pp. 193ff]. Time signatures such as 8/9 or 8/12, found, e.g., in Frescobaldi [see HAM, no. 193] do not mean "eight ninth or twelfth notes," but servein accordance with 15th-century theory-to cancel previous proportional indications, 9/8 or 12/8. See explanation in HAM ii, 281. About 1700 the symbol was used to indicate measures of double length, i.e., 8/4 instead of 4/4 (e.g., Bach, Partita no. 6, Gigue), a method of designation that was still used by Schubert (¢ ¢; = 4/2) in his Impromptu op. 90, no. 3.

Timing [F. minutage]. The duration of a performance, a matter of importance in planning programs, particularly for radio and television. See S. Aronowsky, Performing Times of Orchestral Works (1959); W. Reddick, The Standard Musical Repertoire, with Accurate Timings (1947); T. C. York, How Long does It Play? (1929). Timpan. (l) A medieval stringed instrument

(psaltery? bowed harp?). (2) Kettledrum [see Timpani].

852

TIMPANI

TOCCATA

Timpani [It.]. Kettledrums. Timpani coperti, t. sordi, mufHed kettledrums. For ill. see under Percussion instruments.

Tirer, tirez, tire [F.]. Indication for downstroke of the bow [see Bowing], the drawing of organ stops, or slowing of tempo.

Tin Pan Alley. Slang term for anything connected with popular song publishing in the United States. The term originated in the early 1900's, when the popular music trade was concentrated on West 28th Street, New York City; it is now largely outmoded. See I. Goldberg, Tin Pan Alley (1930); A. Shaw, "The Vocabulary of Tin-Pan Alley Explained" (Notes, 2nd series, vii).

Toada. See Tonada.

Tintinnabulum [L.]. Medieval term for bell. Tiorba [It., Sp.]. Theorbo. See Lute III. Tiple [Sp.]. Soprano, upper voice. Also, a small guitar. The meaning of titles such as "Tiple a tre" (A. Falconieri, c. 1620; see L. Torchi, L'Arte Musicale in Italia vii, 128, 143, 151) is not clear. Tipping. See Tonguing. Tirade [F.], tirata [It.]. Baroque ornament consisting of a scale passage of more than three notes that serves as a transition between two principal melody notes. It was written out or

~ ''*tr-'7;;' ~ 8...2....J

indicated by the sign illustrated in Ex. I but often was improvised to fill in large intervals. Tirades are typical of the French overture style [see Ex. 2, from Bach's Goldberg Variations]. A late example appears in the fourth measure of Beethoven's Piano Concerto no. 4 in G major, P.A. op. 58. Tirana. A type of Andalusian dance-song. Bias Laserna (1751-1816; see Tonadilla) wrote a "Tirana del Tripidi" that was famous throughout 19th-century Europe. Tirare [It.]. To draw. Tira tutti [draw all], full organ. Tirarsi [to be drawn], sliding mechanism of the *trombone. Tirando, slowing of tempo. Tirasse [F.]. Originally, the pedals of a small organ that had no separate pipes but were mechanically connected (coupled) to the manual keys. Hence, a pedal coupler of the organ, e.g., Tirasse du Positif (Tir. P.), coupler "choir to pedal."

Toccata. (I) A keyboard (organ, harpsichord) composition in free, idiomatic keyboard style, employing full chords and running passages, with or without the inclusion of sections in imitative style (fugues). The earliest toccatas, by A. Gabrieli [*Editions III, 3], consist of full chords and interlacing scale passages only. To consider them merely virtuoso pieces (as many writers have) is scarcely appropriate, since the passages are decidedly expressive, particularly if played in the free tempo typical of the toccata [see reference to Frescobaldi under Rubato (1)]. With Claudio Merulo (1533-1604) the toccata became organized into alternating toccata (free, idiomatic keyboard style) and fugal sections, usually arranged T F T FT. Frescobaldi's (15831643) toccatas are written in a series of short sections, exhibiting a variety of moods in rapid succession. A special type (already written by his predecessors, Trabaci and Ascanio Mayone; see W. Apel, in MQ xx) is the short liturgical toccata (e.g., "Toccata avanti l'elevazione," to be played before the Elevation of the Host; see Offertory), which is a short prelude in dignified style. With Bernardo Pasquini (1637-1710) and Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) the Italian toccata became the arena for empty keyboard virtuosity and soon declined into a *perpetuum mobile type very similar to the etudes of the early 19th century (Clementi). The development of tht toccata in Germany was twofold. The South German composers (Fro berger, Kerll, Muffat). followed the Italian model (Frescobaldi), enriching its stylistic resources and enlivening its contents. More important is the North German development, which led to an entirely novel, rhapsodic toccata that has sometimes been termed *Gothic. The new style appeared first in the toccatas of Matthias Weckmann (1619-74) and was developed with great artistry by Dietrich Buxtehude (c. 16371707), Nicolaus Bruhns (1665-97), and J. S. Bach (1685-1750). Most of these toccatas, particularly those of Bach, retain Merulo's fivesection scheme alternating between free and contrapuntal style. Bach's great organ toccata in F major, however, combines the large dimensions of the North German type with the rhythmic precision of the late Italian toccata (Pasquini). The toccata style is also frequently used

853

TONAL AND REAL

TOCCATINA

for preludes of fugues, e.g., Bach's organ fugue in A minor. Both the North German and Italian toccatas survive in a few isolated romantic and modem works. Schumann, Debussy (in Pour le Piano, 1901), Honegger, Prokofiev, and Casella have written toccatas of the perpetuum mobile type, whereas the free, rhapsodic style appears in the toccatas of Busoni (1921) and Petyrek (1934). (2) About 1600, the name toccata was also used for a festive brass fanfare, e.g., in the introduction of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607). The reason for using the name for pieces so different from the keyboard toccata is not clear. Possibly the latter connotation is bound up with the use of kettledrums for the bass part of such pieces [see Toccatina; Toccato; Touche (4); Tucket; Tusch]. Lit.: E. Valentin, Die Entwicklung der Tokkata im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert (1930); L. Schrade, "Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Tokkata" (ZMW viii); 0. Gombosi, "Zur Vorgeschichte der Tokkate" (AM vi, no. 2); S. Clercx, "La Toccata, Principe du style symphonique" (La Musique instrumentale de Ia Renaissance, ed. J. Jacquot (1955]); L. Torchi, tL'Arte musicale in Italia iii; F. Boghen, tAntichi Maestri ltaliani: Toccate [1918]; E. Valentin, tDie Tokkata (1958). Toccatina. A short toccata, serving as a prelude to a suite. Examples by J. K. F. Fischer and Murschhauser show a style closer to that of the orchestral toccata [see Toccata (2)] than the free style of the keyboard toccata [Toccata (1)].

a definite pitch, may be double-headed or single-headed, and represent an imitation of African drums. Ton [F.]. (1) Pitch; donner le ton, to give the pitch. (2) *Pitch pipe. (3) Key or mode; ton d'ut, key of C; ton majeur, major key; ton d'eglise, church mode. (4) Whole tone, as distinct from demiton, semitone. (5) Crook; ton du cor, ton de rechange, crook of the hom. Ton (G.]. *Tone, chiefly in the meanings (1)

and (3). Tonabstand [G.]. *Interval. Tonada (Sp.]., toada [Port]. Almost any folksong

of prevailingly lyrical character, set to four-, fiveor ten-line stanzas, or to quatrains with refrain. Whenever the setting is for a text in the last of these forms, contrasting tempos between a slow refrain and a lively quatrain are employed, usually a slow 3/4 meter and a fast 6/8 meter. J.O-S.

Tonadilla [Sp.]. A short, Spanish, popular comic

Maiden]. Schubert's String Quartet no. 14 in D minor (1826), whose second movement consists of variations on his song of the same name (1817).

opera, with one to four characters, consisting of solo song and, occasionally, choruses. Its origins were short scenic interludes performed between the acts of a play or serious opera, but (like the Italian opera buffa) it later became an independent piece. It flourished from about the middle of the 18th to the early 19th centuries. One of the first tonadillas is a comic musical dialogue between a woman innkeeper and an itinerant Bohemian, written in 1757 by Luis Mis6n (d. 17 66). Besides Mis6n, the chief composers of tonadillas are Pablo Esteve (b. c. 1730) and Bias Lasema (1751-1816). The tonadilla superseded the older *zarzuela, which was an elaborately staged serious opera, usually based on mythological subjects. Lit.: LauE i.4, 2227-57; J. Subira, La Tonadilla escenica (1933); F. Pedrell, Teatro lirico espafzol anterior al siglo XIX, 5 vols. (1897-98); M. N. Hamilton, Music in Eighteenth Century Spain (1937); J. Subira, in CP Laurencie. D.J.G.

Tod und Verkliirung (G., Death and Transfigura-

Tonal and real. In a fugue, an answer is "real"

Toccato. In 17th-century music for trumpets, the

bass part of a trumpet piece, so called probably because it was originally played on, or together with, kettledrums. See bibl. under Clarino (2). See also Toccata (2). Tod und das Miidchen, Der (G., Death and the

tion]. The second of R. Strauss' six famous symphonic poems, completed in 1889. The music, in four sections, depicts the fevered fantasies of a patient at the crisis of a fatal illness. Tokkate (G.]. Toccata. Tombeau [F.]. See Lament (2). Tom-tom. Set of high-pitched drums used in dance bands. The drums, which can be tuned to

if it is an exact (diatonic) transposition of the subject and "tonal" if certain steps are modified. Such modifications frequently take place if the subject contains the interval of the fifth (d-a), this being answered not by the transposed fifth (a-e') but by the fourth (a-d'), as illustrated in the accompanying example from Bach's The Art of Fugue. The purpose of this procedure is to avoid sudden oscillations between the keys of

854

TONALE

I @1v

TONALITY

J I J 1p l j I J mII J f I FJI11J J f lrm t)

•

the tonic and dominant. In fact, with the theme in question the "real answer" a-e'-c' ... would result in a somewhat irritating clash between the low d in the subject and the high e in the answer. It is difficult to formulate rules as to when tonal and real answer is properly used. In general, the fugal themes called *soggetto lend themselves more readily to tonal treatment, whereas the newer types of subject called *andamento are frequently too "individual" and well ~efined to admit any modification. In early mus1c, before c. 1550, most fugal answers are real, if only because they are usually at the unison or the fourth. Also, the themes rarely include the fifth. An early instance of a tonal answer, by A. Gabrieli, appears in the instance given under Double theme. The tonal-real dichotomy has also been applied to entire fugues, a fugue b~~g. called tonal if the answer is tonal and real 1f 1t 1s real. This distinction, however, implies that in a fugue one or the other type of answer is strictly maintained. Whereas there are numerous examples of tonal fugues, there are scarcely any of real ones. The terms "tonal" and "real" are also used in connection with imitation at intervals other than the fifth, particularly with the imitation at the higher or lower second that oc~u~s in sequential passages [see Sequence I]. Th1s 1s called real if the intervals are imitated exactly, thus involving modulation, and tonal if it stays within the key. Tonale [L.]. See Tonary. Tonalitiit [G.]. *Tonality in the sense of "loyalty to a key," but admitting modulations into another key that are not necessarily included in the German term Tonart. Thus, the beginning of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata, op. 53, shows the Tonarten of C, G, B-fiat, F, and C in quick succession but has only one Tonalitiit, C major. Tonality. Loyalty to a tonic, in the bro~d.est sense of the word. One of the most stnkmg phenomena of music is the fact that, thro_ughout its evolution-in non-Western cultures, m Gregorian chant, and in harmonized musicpractically every single piece gives preference to one tone (the tonic), making this the tonal center to which all other tones are related. [Also see Key (2); Atonality.]

Although nearly all music in this sense of the word is tonal, the means of achieving tonality have greatly varied throughout history. ~here~s in Gregorian chant and other monop~omc mus1c the relationships are purely melod1c, a mu~h more complex situation is encountered m harmonized music. About 1700 came general acceptance of a system of tonal functions based on the establishment of three main chords-the tonic, the dominant, and the subdominant triads-as the carriers of harmonic as well as melodic movements. Broadened by the ample use of chromatic alterations and modulation into other keys, this system prevailed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. For subsequent developments, see Atonality. In current usage the terms "tonality" and "modality" are mutually exclusive, the former referring to music written in a '.'key" (~ajor _or minor mode) and the latter to p1eces wntten m, or showing the influence of, the church modes [see Modality]. This usage is obviously not compatible with the broad definition o~ tona_lity above, which includes all tonal relatlonships, whether "tonal" or "modal." If the explanation of mode as the constituent scale is accepted [see Mode (1)], then tonality exists in different "modal" varieties, based, e.g., on the church modes, the major and minor modes, the pentatonic mode, the whole-tone mode, the diatonic mode [see Pandiatonicism] or, as in some modem music, the chromatic mode. Tonality also exists in the quarter-tone mode (e.g., in the Greek enharmonic genus), although modern *quarter-tone music tends to be atonal. Other uses of the term "tonality," e.g., in the sense of "tonal system" (almost synonymous with what has been termed modality above), or in the sense of major-and-minor tonality (as opposed to modality in the accepted meaning of the term), also have become firmly entrenched in current usage. Lit.: J. Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tonality (1932); E. E. Lowinsky, Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music (1961); A. Machabey, Genese de Ia tonalite musicale classique ( 1955); J. Chailley, Traite historique d'analyse musicale (1951); F. Neumarm, Tonalitiit und Atonalitiit (1955); D. F. Tovey, "Tonality" (ML ix, 34lff); J. Yasser, "The Future of Tonality" (MM viii); H. Reichenbach, "The Tonality of English and Gaelic Folksong" (ML xix, 268ff); W. H. Frere, "Key-relationship in Early Mediaeval ~usic" (SIM xiii; also in CP 1911, p. 114); L. H1bberd, "'Tonality' and Related Problems in Termi-

855

TONART

TONE COLOR

nology" (MR xxii); M. Touze, "La Tonalite chromatique" (RM 1922, no. 9). W. Margraff, "TonalitiH in Machaut und Dufay" (AMW xxiii). Also see under Atonality. Tonart [G.]. Key. Tonary (L. tonarium, tonarius, tonale]. A medie-

val book similar to a "thematic catalog" [see Theme] in which the chants are listed (with their beginnings) according to mode, and often with subdivisions within each mode. Tonaries contain the chants that are (or were) connected with a psalm verse sung to one of the various recitation tones organized into a system of eight tones [see Tone (3)], e.g., antiphons, responsories, Introits, Communions. The purpose of the tonaries was to show the mode of a chant, a matter of great practical importance, since the selection of the proper tone (e.g., first psalm tone, third Introit tone) depP.nded on the mode of the antiphon, Introit, etc. The subdivisions fulfilled the even more urgent need for determining the correct termination of the tone. The most important tonaries are those by Regino of Prtim (c. 900), Odo de Clugny (lOth century), and one ascribed to Guido d'Arezzo (llth century), all published in CS ii, lff, 78ff, ll7ff. Theoretical writings of a similar nature are the Tonarius Bernonis (GS ii, 79ff) and the Commemoratio brevis de tonis et psalmis modulandis ( GS i, 213ff). Different from these is the so-called Mass Tonary (tonale missarum) of Montpellier (*Editions XLII A, 7 and 8], which contains all the chants of the Mass, fully written out (with an additional *letter notation) and arranged according to their modes. See F. X. Mathias, Die Tonarien ( 1903); W. Lipphardt, Der Karolingische Tonar von Metz (1965); M. Runge, in MfMxxxv. Tonbuchstaben [G.]. Tone letters [see Letter

notation]. Tondichtung [G.]. Tone poem; also, any compo-

sition of a poetic character. See Symphonic poem. Tone [F. ton; G. Ton; It., Sp. tono]. (1) A sound

of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from noise and from less definite phenomena, such as the violin *portamento. (2) The interval of a major second, i.e., a whole tone, as distinct from a semitone (minor second). This is the usual British meaning of the term, the word "note" being used for (l ). (3) In Gregorian chant, tone [L. *tonus] is the generic name for all recitation formulas, such

as lesson tones, prayer tones, gospel tones, psalm tones, canticle tones, Introit tones, responsorial tones, etc. All these consist essentially of a recitation on one pitch (reciting tone, reciting note, repercussion, tenor, tuba), which probably explains the name tonus. The Introit tones are used for the verses of the Introits, the responsorial tones for those of the great responsories. Both are organized as a system of eight tones, one for each mode, as are the *psalm tones and the canticle (or *Magnificat) tones. Tone cluster. A strongly dissonant group of

tones lying close together and produced, usually on the piano, by depressing a segment of the keyboard with the fist, forearm, or a board of specified length. The term was invented by Henry Cowell, who, along with Charles lves ("Concord" Sonata), used the device extensively. See H. Cowell, New Musical Resources (1930), pp. ll7ff. Tone color [F. timbre (also in Eng. usage); G. Klangfarbe]. The quality ("color") of a tone as

produced on a specific instrument, as distinct from the different quality of the same tone if played on some other instrument. As shown by H. Helmholtz and others, tone color is determined by the harmonics, or, more precisely, the greater or lesser prominence of one or another harmonic. Thus, the c of the cello and the c of the hom have the same harmonics (c', g', c", e", g", ... ), but their intensities differ widely. The sound of a tuning fork and of the stopped diapason of the organ have practically no harmonics; the "pure sound" of the flute results from its lack of nearly all the harmonics except the first (octave); the rich and mellow timbre of the clarinet result from the lack of evennumbered harmonics (c', c") and the prominence of the odd-numbered harmonics (g', e" ... ). The pungent, nasal sound of the oboe is caused by the presence of practically all the harmonics, which also appear, in different degrees, in the tones of the violin. The classical theory of tone color, as outlined above, has been modified to some extent by the recent theory of the formant. According to the former, the characteristic constituents of, e.g., a tone on a violin, are in a fixed relation to the fundamental tone and, therefore, are shifted up or down if the fundamental changes. For example, if for the violin tone g the characteristic partials are g" and b", the violin tone d' would have the (much higher) characteristic partials d'" and f'". According to more recent investiga-

856

TONE POEM

TONIKA

tions, however, the characteristic partials of a violin tone lie within an absolutely fixed range of rather narrow limits, regardless oLthe pitch of the fundamental. This characteristic "absolute range of partials" is called the formant. In most violins the formant lies between 3,000 and 6,000 cycles per second. The formant theory also plays an important part in explaining the different "timbre" of the vowels in singing. For each vowel, the human voice represents a different "instrument" with the formant in a different region. See the modern books under Acoustics; SaHMI, p. 354; W. T. Bartholomew, "Voice Research at Peabody Conservatory" (BAMS vi). Tone poem. *Symphonic poem. Tone row [G. Tonreihe]. See under Serial music. Tonfarbe [G.]. *Tone color. Tongeschlecht [G.]. Distinction of a chord or key, whether major or minor. Tonguing. In playing wind instruments, the use of the tongue for greater articulation. It consists of momentary interruption of the windstream by an action of the tongue as if pronouncing the letter t or k. Three types of tonguing are distinguished: single tonguing (t-t . .. ), double tonguing (t-k t-k . .. ), and triple tonguing (t-t-k t-t-k ... ). The first is employed in slower passages, the last two in rapid passages in groups of two or three notes. Single tonguing is used for practically all the wind instruments; double and triple tonguing is used chiefly for brass instruments (trumpet, horn, etc.) as well as the flute. A special type of tonguing called Flatterzunge (fluttertonguing) was introduced by R. Strauss. It calls for a rolling movement of the tongue, as if pronouncing d-r-r-r. Tonhohe [G.]. *Pitch. Tonic. The first and main note of a key, hence, the keynote. See Scale degrees; Tonality. Tonic accent. An accent caused by a higher pitch, rather than a stress or a larger note value, e.g.,

jjj

>

jjj

jj

Domine, not Domine or Do-mine. The last two kinds of accent are called dynamic and agogic respectively. The term "tonic accent" is also applied to a melody to indicate that a strong syllable of the text receives a note of higher pitch than the surrounding weak syllables. The tonic accent plays an important role in

the discussion of Gregorian chant [see ApGC, pp. 289ff]. Tonic sol-fa. An English method of solmization designed primarily to facilitate sight singing. It was developed from earlier methods (Lancashire system) by Sarah A. Glover and perfected c. 1840 by John Curwen (1816-80). It is widely used for teaching in England, and has also become known in some other countries, e.g., in Germany (as Tonika-do ). Tonic sol-fa is a system of "movable do," i.e., the tone syllables do, re, mi, fa, sol, Ia, ti are used with reference to the key of a piece or any section thereof where there is a change of key. The syllables, or rather, their initial consonants, d r m f s 1 t, are also used for notation in a manner reminiscent of the German keyboard tablatures of the 16th century. Octave repetitions iii or are indicated for the higher octave thus: d' r' m'; for the lower octave thus: d r m or d, r, m,. For the minor scale the third -degree becomes do, owing to the changed intervals of this scale: 1 t d r m f s l. Actually this succession represents the Aeolian scale (white keys from A, or any transposition). In order to arrive at the minor scale, the sixth and seventh degrees must be sharped. Sharped tones are usually indicated by changing the vowel to e (de, re, fe, se, /e), flatted tones by changing it to a (ra, rna, Ia, ta). [For exceptions, see GDB viii, 504ff.] For the sixth degree of the ascending melodic minor scale a separate syllable ba is introduced, since the use of fe would suggest a half-step to the next note, whereas actually a whole-step follows (to se). Therefore the melodic minor scale is designated (up and down): 1 t d r mba se 1; 1 s f m r d t l. The tones and their relation to each other are shown in a chart called Modulator. If the piece modulates into another key, the new key is indicated (in various ways), and the tone syllables are now reckoned in the new key. For the indication of meter and rhythm, additional signs (horizontal strokes, single dots, colons, commas, etc.) are used. Lit.: J. Curwen, The New Standard Course of Lessons and Exercises in the Tonica So/fa Method (3rd ed., 1872); W. R. Phillips, A Dictionary of the Tonic So/fa System (1909); W. G. Whittaker, in ML v, 313, and vi, 46, 161; id., in MQ viii; J. Taylor, J. C. Ward, in PMA xxiii; C. A. Harris, in MQ iv; J. A. Fuller-Maitland, in MQ vii.

ar

Tonika [G.]. Tonic. Tonika-do, German modification of *tonic sol-fa.

857

TOURTE BOW

TON KUNST

Tonkunst [G.]. Music. Tonkunstler, composer. Tonleiter [G.]. *Scale. Tonmalerei [G.]. *Word painting or descriptive music. Tono [It.]. Tone; whole tone; key; mode. Primo (secondo, etc.) tono, first (second, etc.) church mode. Tono Uanero [Sp.]. Folksong of the Venezuelan plains that shows many early Spanish influences intact without any trace of the Negro influences that dominate the coastal region of the country. The music, for voices without instrumental accompaniment, uses inverted chords and plagal cadences, as well as long melodic phrases and melismatic sections. J.o-s. Tonos, pl. tonoi [Gr.]. See under Greece II. Tonsatz [G.]. Composition. Tonsetzer, composer. Tonschrift [G.]. Notation.

fectus, see Church modes III; tonus peregrinus, see Psalm tones. See K. Speer, in CP Ape'· 0. Gombosi, "Studien zur Tonartenlehre" (AM

x, xi, xii).

rev. L.G.

Tonverschmelzung [G.]. See under Consonance, dissonance I (d). Tonwort [G.]. A method of solmization invented in 1892 by K. A. Eitz, designed for a 53-note scale with particular reference to chromatic progressions and enharmonic changes. See M. Koch, Einfuhrung in das Tonwort (1925). Torbellino [Sp.]. Traditional Colombian dance in 3/4 meter with heavy accents on the strong beats and usually with elaborate fast accompaniments to vocal melodies sung in parallel thirds. Long pauses are often made on the upbeat and are used by the instrumentalists for certain tonal elaborations. J.o-s. Torculus. See under N eumes I (table). Tordion. See under Basse danse.

Tonysystem [G.]. System of tones, i.e., *tonality, used mainly in combinations such as Europliisches Tonsystem, javanisches Tonsystem, Pythagorliisches Tonsystem. See E. M. von

Hornbostel, "Musikalische Tonsysteme" (in H. Geiger, Handbuch der Physik, vol. viii [1927D. Tonus [L.]. (1) Whole tone. (2) Generic name for the plainsong recitation formulas, such as tonus lectionum, toni psalmorum, tonus peregrinus, toni v. Gloria Patri ad introitum, etc. [see Tone (3)]. (3) Church mode, e.g., primus tonus, tonus authenticus, tonus plagalis. Medieval writers used three designations for the church modes: tonus, tropus, and modus. The earliest writers, Flaccus

Alcuinus (c. 753-804) and Aurelianus Reomensis (whose text incorporated all of Alcuin's) used the term tonus. The latter used the term in a general sense, i.e., "tone" = discrete musical pitch, as well as specifically, i.e., whole tone, and further, to mean church mode and recitation formula. In the last sense it has as a synonym tenor, owing to the long-standing use of both terms by Latin grammarians to refer to syllabic accent (stress or musical). Consequently, both tonus and tenor may also mean the reciting tone of a psalm formula. While both these terms (with their translations into modem languages) survive into the Renaissance and later, tropus in this meaning passes out of use in the later Middle Ages. Tonus in directum (indirectum), see Psalmody I; tonus mixtus, commixtus, perfectus, imper-

Tornada. See under Envoi. Tosca. Opera in three acts by Puccini (libretto by G. Giacosa and L. Illica, based on V. Sardou's drama of the same title), produced in Rome, 1900. Setting: Rome, June 1800. Tosto [It.]. Quickly, at once. Piu tosto means either "more quickly" or the same as piuttosto, "rather." Tost Quartets. Twelve quartets by Haydn, written 1789-90 and dedicated to Johann Tost, Viennese merchant and violinist. They comprise op. 54, nos. 1-3; op. 55, nos. 1-3; op. 64, nos. 1-6. Touch [G. Anschlag]. See under Piano playing (particularly IV and V). Touche [F]. (1) Key of the piano. (2) Fingerboard of the violin [see Bowing (1)]. (3) A 16th-century term for fret (of a lute, guitar). (4) A 17th-century term (also used in English sources) for the "orchestral" toccata [see Toccata (2)]. Tour de gosier [F.]. A vocal ornament of the 17th and 18th centuries, consisting of a tum composed of five notes. The term is also applied to the closing notes of the trill. P .A. Tourdion [F.]. Tordion. See under Basse danse. Tourte bow. A violin bow made by F. Tourte (1747-1835), famous bowmaker. See Bow.

858

TOYE

TRANSFORMATION OF THEMES

Toye. Title for a short light composition for virginal.

Thagic Symphony. Subtitle provided by Schubert for his Symphony no. 4, in C minor, composed in 1816. The work is clearly more somber than his first three symphonies.

Toy Symphony. A playful composition often ascribed to Haydn and scored, aside from the first and second violins and double bass, for toy instruments such as cuckoo, quail, nightingale, trumpet, drum, rattle, and triangle. It is now thought to be the work of Mozart's father, Leopold (1719-87), or of Michael Hay~. See K. Geiringer, Haydn, rev. ed. (1963), p. 316.

Thagische Ouvertiire [G., Tragic Overture]. Orchestral composition by Brahms, op. 81, composed in 1880 as a companion piece to the *Akademische Festouverture.

'JPt. Abbr. for trumpet.

Thakt [G.]. *Tract.

Tr. Abbr. for trill, treble, transpose.

Traktur [G.]. *Tracker action.

Thacker action. In organs, the purely mechanical system of key action used in most organs constructed before 1900. It derives its name from the tracker, a wooden trace rod connecting the key to the pipe valve in the windchest. See Organ C.B.F. II, XI. Tract [L. tractus]. In Gregorian chant, an item of the Proper of the *Mass, used instead of the Alleluia for various feasts during Lent, for Ember days, and for the Requiem Mass. It consists of two to fourteen psalm verses, without the addition of an antiphon or response, and thus is one of the few remaining examples of direct psalmody [see Psalmody I]. All the Tracts are in either the second or eighth mode, a restriction not elsewhere encountered in Gregorian chant. Also, the Tracts are sung to a limited number of standard melodies (actually, standard phrases), which are used, with minor modifications, for a large number of texts. The principle is illustrated in the two subsequent schemes, (I) for the Tract "Attende caelum," (2) for "Sicut cervus" (I, II, etc., indicate the different verses; a, b, etc., various musical phrases): (I) (2)

I abc aec

Trait [F.]. *Tract.

Transcendental Etudes. See Etudes d'execution transcendante. Thanscription. See Arrangement. Thansfigured Night See Verkltirte Nacht. Thansformation of themes. The modification of a musical subject with a view to "changing its personality." This is a 19th-century device that differs markedly from earlier, more "technical" methods of modification, as, e.g., the augmentation and diminution of a fugal subject, or the ornamentation of a theme. A characteristic example is the various appearances of the idee fixe in Berlioz' Symphonie Jantastique. Liszt exploited I

0

A •

la@dlJJjj Ib) @~4JJtwffluHI.0Jrl f

2 a

I@hl¥ t

.ff

n1J IJl1( ..__,.___,.

~

W

)1 J. I

III IV V II dec ec dec d f decg decf

This method, called centonization [see Cento], is reminiscent of the use of *melody types in many kinds of non-Western music and probably reflects a very early stage in the development of the chant. In the recent edition of the Liber usualis some tracts (e.g., "Attende caelum," "Sicut cervus," and "Cantemus Domino" [LU, pp. 776U; 776BB; 776R]) are named canticles, and others (e.g., those of Good Friday) responsories. See H. Riemann, inS/Mix; ApGC, pp. 312ff.

the principles of "transformation des themes" in his symphonic poems, and Wagner applied it to the *leitmotiv of his operas [see Ex. Ia, lb, both from Gotterdammerung]. In Sibelius' symphonies the metamorphosis is more abstract, as shown in Ex. 2a, b, c (Symphony no. 5, first movt.).

859

TRANSIENT MODULATION

TRANSPOSITION

Transient modulation. Same as passing *modulation. Transition. (1) Same as passing *modulation. (2) A lasting change of key effected abruptly rather than through regular modulation. (3) A passage (bridge) that leads from one main section to another, e.g., from the first to the second theme of a movement. Transitorium. An item of the Ambrosian Mass [see Ambrosian chant], corresponding to the Roman Communion.

transposed notation might in a sense be considered obsolete. However, in cases where the *tone color of a particularly pitched instrument is desired (e.g., the same pitch on a Bb trumpet is "richer" than on a D trumpet) transposed notation is much more convenient for the player although, of course, it presents an obstacle to the conductor, who may have to read as many as six or seven different types of transposed notation in a single orchestral score. Nearly all the wind instruments not pitched in C are transposing instruments, except for the trombones, which, although pitched to Eb, Bb, etc., are written as they sound. The term is also used for instruments such as the piccolo flute, which is, quite sensibly, notated an octave lower than it sounds, to avoid ledger lines. Here, the use of a special clef such as ~ would exclude 8 the instrument from the category oftransposing instruments. A number of 20th-century composers (Prokofiev, Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, et a!.) have published nontransposed scores. ,Berg has even notated piccolo, contrabassoon, and double bass parts in their actual octaves. Many recent compositions are published in concert-pitch scores.

Transmutatio [L.]. In the 13th-century theory of rhythmic modes, transmutatio modi means the transfer of a given composition (clausula, motet, hocket, conductus) from one mode to another, most frequently from mode 1 to mode 2 or vice versa. This practice is mentioned by Anonymous IV (CS i, 350] and other late 13th-century theorists. See AdHM i, 237; M. F. Bukofzer, in AnnMi, 90. Transposing instruments. Instruments for which the music is written in a key or octave other than that of their actual sound. This method is widely used for wind instruments, such as the clarinet in Bb, whose natural tones are the harmonics of Bb. Since for the player of this instrument Bb is the simplest key, it has become customary Transposition. I. General. Rewriting or ex temto present this key to him in the simplest nota- pore performance of a composition in another tion, i.e., C major. The transposition to be made key, e.g., E-fiat instead of the original D, etc. from the written part to the actual sound is indi- This practice is particularly common with songs cated by the interval from C to the pitch note of in order to accommodate different voice ranges. the instrument, e.g., to Bb in the case of the Bb A skilled accompanist can extemporize transclarinet, A in that of the A clarinet [see Ex., position. The easiest transposition is that of a Bruckner, Symphony no. 7]. With certain instru- semitone, e.g., from F to F-sharp, or from E to ments the transposition includes a change to E-fiat, since here most of the written notes rethe lower octave, e.g., for the horn in Eb. main unaltered and only a different signature has to be imagined. Transposition of a third or fourth calls for a thorough knowledge of harmonies, intervals, etc., and becomes increasingly difficult with music involving many modulations, chromatic alterations, etc. II. History. Transposition is a basic part of ancient Greek theory [see Greece]. The Gregorian repertory contains a number of transposed chants, which close on one of the *a./fiClarinet in A: 1. As written. 2. As it sounds. nales, a, b, and c'. These were originally a fifth The use of transposing instruments or, more or a fourth lower and were transposed because accurately, transposing notation, dates from the they involved the semitonal cluster, f-f~-g~ or time when only natural tones were available eb-e-f (not, of course, in immediate succession), (18th cent.). With the introduction of valves which could be notated only as bb-b-c', a fourth and keys the difference in facility for playing or a fifth higher [see ApGC, pp. 157ff]. The various keys was greatly diminished and even- author of "Musica enchiriadis" repeatedly emtually almost eliminated. As a result, today phasizes the possibility of "diatonic" trans-

860

TRANSVERSE FLUTE

TREMOLO

position at the distance of a whole tone or semitone [GS i, 156, 165]. This method is used in Josquin's Missa L'Homme arme super voces musicales, in which the "L'Homme arme" melody appears in six diatonic transpositions. In the 16th century, organists were expected to be proficient in transposing compositions. Detailed instruction for transposition is given in J. Bermudo's Declaracion de instrumentos musicales (1555); 0. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier (1910), p. 17 and passim; G. Diruta's II Transilvano, part ii (1609); and elsewhere. Giovanni Paolo Cima, in his Partito de ricercari e canzoni alia Francese (1606), gives instructions and examples for transposition through all the degrees of the chromatic scale. See A. Mendel, "Devices for Transposition in the Organ before 1600" (AMxxi). Transverse flute [F. flute traversiere; G. Querflote; It. flauto traverso; Sp. flauta traversa]. The modem flute, as opposed to the recorder. See Flute. Thaps. (I) In dance or theater orchestras, devices used for special effects (e.g., whistles, whip crack, ratchet, cowbell, etc.), usually notated for the percussion section, although many of the devices are not, strictly speaking, percussion instruments. (2) In jazz, term for both the devices in (I) and the complete "set of drums," which then includes such devices along with actual percussion instruments. Thaquenard. A dance found in German orchestral suites [see Suite V] of the late 17th century, e.g., by Georg Moffat [see DTO 4, p. 188], J. K. F. Fischer [see DdT 10, p. 54], P. H. Eriebach, J.P. Krieger, and others. In French traquenard means a horse's ambling gait, and the dotted rhythm of the music, usually in alia breve, evidently imitates this movement. See P. Nett!, in StM viii, 93f. Trascinando [It.]. Dragging, slowing. Trattenuto [It.]. Delayed, slowed down. Trauermusik [G.]. Funeral music. Trauermarsch, funeral march. Trauer-Ode [G., Funeral Ode.]. Choral work by Bach, written in 1727 on the death of the Electress Christiane of Saxony. It is based on an ode by Gottsched and is in the form of a cantata. Trauer-Symphonie [G., Mourning Symphony]. Popular name (because of its somber character)

for Haydn's Symphony no. 44 (c. 1771), in E minor. Triiumerisch [G.]. Dreamy. Trautonium. See under Electronic instruments. Traverso [It.], traversiere [F.], TraversftOte [G.]. See under Flute III. Traviata, La [It., The Erring One]. Opera in three acts by Verdi (libretto by F. M. Piave after Dumas' La Dame aux camelias), produced in Venice, 1853. Setting: Paris and environs, about 1850. Traviata is one of the earliest instances of the use of a contemporary plot in opera, a practice that became established, c. 1890, by the *verismo movement. Musically it follows the tradition of the grand opera, a mixture oflyrical and pathetic elements, with popular melodies and concentration on effective vocal numbers. *Rigoletto and *Trovatore belong to the same category. Traynour. According to the 14th-century theorist Philippus de Caserta, the use of conflicting rhythmic groupings in different voice-parts, e.g., nine or three notes against two, four notes against three, etc. [see CS iii, 123]. This was a common practice toward the end of the 14th century. See ReMR, p. 3If; W. Apel, French Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth Century (1950), p. 8. Tre [It.]. Three. A tre voci, in three parts. Tre corde, see Una corda. Treble. The highest part of a choral composition, hence synonym of soprano. However, treble clef is not the same as soprano clef [see Clef]. For treble viol, recorder, see under Descant. For the early (15th cent.) meaning of the term, see under Sight. Trecanum. An item of the *Gallican Mass, corresponding to the Roman Communion. Tredezime [G.]. The interval of the thirteenth, i.e., the compound *sixth. Treibend [G.]. Hurrying. Tremblement. The most important of the French agrements of the 17th and 18th centuries, more P.A. commonly known as *trill. Tremolo [It.]. I. In stringed instruments, the quick reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid up-and-down movement of the bow, indicated as in Ex. a. The string tremolo is an

861

TREMOLO

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

important orchestral effect, widely used for dramatic passages or for the purpose of orchestral coloring. It appeared in some of the earliest compositions for the violin (B. Marini, Affetti musicali, 1617; see RiHM ii.2, 101). Monteverdi, in his Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (1624; HAM, no. 189), used it to express excitement and danger, for which it has since been used innumerable times, e.g., in Bach's St. Matthew Passion ("Und siehe da, der Vorhang im Tempel zerriss in zwei StUck"), in the oracle scene of Gluck's Alceste, etc. The term is also used for rapid alternation between two notes of a chord, usually a third apart, as in Ex. b, this being called a "fingered tremolo." Some 18th-century names for the string tremolo are bombo [It.] and Schwiirmer [G.]. a

b

c

l'f i ISll@hJJ 'JJ I 'JJ ~ "--"'

~ ,......._ ___......

d

,......._ e

"--"'

"--"'

trillo

1®& l%vWtftfJ I g ...II~NJWJjJJJllJii 1

In violin music of the 18th century (J. W. A. Stamitz, Gluck, Haydn) a special tremolo, known as "undulating tremolo" [It. ondeggiando; F. ondute], is much used. It produces a series of moderately fast pulses, usually four to a note. It was indicated by a wavy line extending over repeated eighth or quarter notes [see table under Ornamentation], a sign that is sometimes misinterpreted as indicating a vibrato. Beethoven used the undulating tremolo several times, e.g., in the theme of his Great Fugue, op. 133, where it is indicated by placing a tie over two successive notes of the same pitch [see Ex. c]. II. In keyboard instruments the tremolo is of much less importance. In organ music a tremolo effect is produced by the *tremulant stop, which changes the steady wind pressure into a pulsating one. In piano music the genuine tremolo is a device used mainly in highly virtuoso compositions, such as Liszt's La Campanella, where it also occurs in the form of quickly repeated octaves. In piano arrangements of orchestral compositions the tremolo of the strings is imitated by the rapid alternation of a note and its octave, sometimes also of its third and fifth. A famous passage in the third movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata op. 110, which is usually referred to as an example of *Bebung, actually is an imitation of the undulating string tremolo,

indicated in the same manner as in the example from the Great Fugue [see Ex. d]. III. In singing, "tremolo" commonly means the excessive vibrato that leads to deviation of pitch. It usually results from lack of breath control and faulty control of singing muscles (in jaw, base of tongue). The true vocal tremolo, i.e., the quick reiteration of the same pitch, is an effect that is practically never used today. In early music, however, it was one of the most important ornaments. The bistropha and tristropha of Gregorian chant, which often occur in groups of five, six, or more notes of the same pitch [see, e.g., the Offertory "Anima nostra"; LU, p. 430], were originally performed as a rapid tremolo; indeed, Aurelianus Reomensis says that the tristropha is sung "as a rapid beat, like a vibrating hand" [GS i, 57]. Other 13th-century terms, such as repercussio gutturis and reverberatio [see CS i, 91], seem to indicate a vocal tremolo [also see Plica]. In the early 17th century the vocal tremolo was widely used; called trilla, it was usually written out in quick notes [see Ex. e, from Benedetto Ferrari's Musiche varie a voce sola, books i-iii (1633-41); see also GD v, 20 (Caccini); GD iv, 234, GDB vi, 885 (Walter Porter); RiHM ii.2, 28, 297 (Caccini, C. Saracirri)]. During this period, the term tremolo meant a trill; see Ornamentation I. In the 18th century the vocal tremolo fell into disuse and was henceforth known by such derogatory names as chevrotement [F.] and Bockstriller [G.], which liken it to the bleating of a goat. Tremulant. An organ stop producing alternating

increases and decreases of wind pressure, thus causing a rapid fluctuation of pitch, an expressive effect similar to the violinist's vibrato. Although considerably abused during the period of the theater and orchestral organ, to the point where it became anathema to purists, it existed in French and German organs of the baroque period and, when properly regulated and judiciously used, it has a legitimate musical function in the literature of the baroque, romantic, and contemporary periods. rev. B.J.o. Trenchmore. An English country dance of the

16th and 17th centuries, in lively triple meter with dotted rhythms. An amusing description from 1689, showing that its only rival in popularity at the court of King Charles was the cushion dance, is quoted in GD (and GDB). Trent, Council of. See Council of Trent.

862

TRENT CODICES

TRICINIUM

Trent Codices (G. Trienter Codices]. Seven MS volumes of 15th-century polyphonic music, the first six of which were discovered by F. X. Haberl in the library of the Cathedral of Trent (in northern Italy, also famous for the *Council of Trent) and described in his Bausteine fllr Musikgeschichte: I. Wilhelm du Fay (1885). In 1891 they were purchased by the Austrian government but became Italian state property through the Treaty of St. Germain of 1918 and are now back in Trent (Castel del Buonconsiglio). The first six volumes (Cod. 87-92) contain 1,585 compositions, mostly from the mid-15th century; a seventh volume, discovered later, contains mostly duplicates. The major part of the collection was copied by Johannes Wiser for Bishop Johannes Hinderbach. This collection, by far the most extensive source of 15th-century music, contains compositions by about 75 French, English, Italian, and German composers, e.g., Dunstable, Lionel Power, Reginald Liebert, J. Ciconia, J. Brassart, Du(ay, Binchois, Ockeghem, Busnois, and Isaac. A large selection has been published in six volumes of DTO (*Editions XV]: nos. 14/15 and 22 (all the French, Italian, and German secular songs); 38 (five complete Masses); 53 (Mass of Reginald Liebert, motets, antiphons, hymns); 61 (Masses and Mass sections by various composers); 76 (sacred and secular motets by Dunstable, Dufay, Brassart, De Vitry, and others). Lit.: G. Adler, "Uber Textlegung in den 'Trienter Codices'" (CP Riemann); R. von Ficker, "Die Kolorierungstechnik der Trienter Messen" (StM vii); A. Orel, "Einige Grundformen der Motettkomposition im XV. Jahrhundert" (StM vii); R. Wolkan, "Die Heimat der Trienter Musikhandschriften" (StM viii). Trepak. A Cossack dance in quick duple time.

a

b

c

d

!@!: ~~~ ~~* Triads: a. ma;or. mented.

b. minor.

c. diminished.

d. aug-

sions, the *sixth chord (e-g-c') and the *six-four chord (g-c' -e'). The triad is the basis of the harmonic practice of the 17th to 19th centuries. See Harmony II; Harmonic analysis II. In the earliest three-part writing (13th-century organa, motets, conductus) the harmonic structure consists mainly of pure consonances, 1-5-5, 1-1-5, 1-5-8; full triads occur only sporadically. Thus, the organum triplum "Hec dies" (Perotinus?; see HAM, no. 31) contains, among c. two hundred chords, eleven triads. However, the Englishman Walter Odington was the only theorist writing about 13th-century practices to recognize the triad, both major and minor, as a consonant chord [CS i, 202b]. English compositions from c. 1300 use considerably more triads [see, e.g., "Alleluia psallat"; HAM, no. 57]. One of them, a fourvoice "Pro beati Pauli," closes with 1-3-5-1, and *"Sumer is icumen in" has a 1-3-5-8 in nearly every measure. French compositions of the 14th century also used more triads, but rarely at the end of phrases and almost never at the end of a composition. As late as 1500 the inclusion of the third in the final chord was unusual (see Picardy third]. A remarkable exception is the Missa Virgo Parens Christo by Jacques Barbireau (c. 1408-91), in which every movement closes with a full triad [*Editions XII, 7]. Trial of Lucullus, The. One-act opera by R. Sessions (libretto by B. Brecht), produced in Berkeley, California, 1947. Triangle. See under Percussion instruments B, 5.

Tresor musical. See Editions L. Trezza. A dance in some German suites of the 17th century, e.g., the ballets of J. H. Schmelzer [see DTO 56, p. 9]. It is similar to the *courante or *galliard.

Tricesimoprimal temperament. Division of the octave into thirty-one equal steps, advocated in the 17th century by Christiaan Huygens and revived, mainly by Dutch composers and theorists, in the 20th. See Microtone. E.S.

Triad [G. Dreiklang]. A chord of three notes consisting of a root and the third and fifth above it. There are four kinds of triad: major (major plus minor third); minor (minor plus major third); diminished (minor plus minor third); and augmented (major plus major third). The first two are consonant and the last two dissonant chords. Each triad (e.g., c-e-g) has two inver-

Tricinium [L.]. A 16th-century name for a vocal composition in three parts. There is a large repertory of such works in publications such as G. Rhaw, Tricinia ... Latina, Germanica, Brabantica, et Gallica (1542); J. Montanus and U. Neuber, Selectissimorum triciniorum discantus (1560); Sethus Calvisius, Tricinium (1603; see SchGMB, no. 160); Melchior Franck, Tricinia

863

TRILL

TRIENTER CODICES

cadences. Later it was freely introduced at other positions in the musical phrase, but until the end of the 18th century it retained its primary function as the ornamental resolution of a dissonance. II. In music of the 17th and 18th centuries the trill, instead of being written out in notes or left to the improvisation of the performer (as had hitherto been the case), was often indicated in the score by one of the following signs:

nova (1611); Michael Praetorius, Musae Sionae

(9 vols., 1605-10; vol. ix); and elsewhere. Praetorius' three-voice elaborations of chorale melodies in particular are true gems. Trienter Codices [G.]. *Trent Codices. Trigon. See under N eumes I. Trihori(s). See Triori.

TriU [E., formerly shake; F. cadence, tremblement; G. Triller; It. trilla; Sp. trino]. A musical

ornament consisting of the rapid alternation of a given note with the diatonic second above it. I. The trill originated in the 16th century as an ornamental resolution of a suspension dissonance at a cadence. Ex. 1 shows various forms of the 16th-century trill: Ia and 1b represent the typical vocal cadence found in the works of Palestrina, Lassus, etc. The other variants occur I

i'~~rtJJJdW;Piml ~I

r,, ~pmnn~~~f&?rmljjjl~ll frequently in instrumental transcnptwns of vocal works and in independent keyboard compositions. It is probable, however, that even in vocal performances the singers of this period customarily embellished the simple written cadence in this more elaborate manner. The cadence formulas given above have the following characteristics in common: (1) the trill begins on the penultimate strong beat of the phrase, with a dissonant note (suspension or appoggiatura); (2) it consists chiefly of the alternation of that dissonant note with its resolution; (3) the dissonant note receives the accent throughout, since it coincides with the accented subdivisions of the beat; (4) the note below the resolution may be introduced, near either the beginning or the end of the trill. These characteristics became the basis of the most important agrement of the 17th century, the French cadence or tremblement, which was adopted in Germany as the Triller, in England as the shake, and in Italy as the trilla [for the early meaning of this term, see Tremolo III]. As the French name implies, the ornament was at first (early 17th cent.) invariably associated with

tr

t

t...

"" "

+

These signs are exactly synonymous; the use of one instead of another has no meaning in the performance of the ornament and reveals nothing but the composer's personal preference. Since the sign is always placed over the harmony note, the accent must always fall on the upper auxiliary, which, as the dissonance, requires the greater emphasis. Apart from this factor, which is constant throughout the period, the execution of the trill was varied considerably in individual cases by adding prefixes or terminations and by varying the number and rhythm of the notes comprising the ornament. In the time of Bach and Handel, three ways of ending the trill were almost equally popular [Ex. 2]. The use of a simple sign (t, tr) for the trill left the performer free to choose interpretation a, b, or c. If the composer desired a particular execution as at 2b or 2c, he used one of the notations shown here:

The number and rhythmic distribution of the notes comprising the trill were generally left entirely to the performer's discretion. Ex. 3

864

TRILL

TRILL

shows several realizations of a cadence formula that is particularly common in the works of J. S. Bach and his contemporaries. All these interpretations are equally correct according to the traditions of Bach's time; the choice among them should depend on the tempo and character of the passage in which the trill occurs. Obviously a greater number of notes should be used for a trill on a long note than for one on a short note. Interpretations in Ex. 3e and 3f are therefore more appropriate for a rapid tempo, and Ex. 3b, 3c, and 3d for a slow tempo. Also, the most expressive interpretations are those giving the most weight to the initial dissonance, as in Ex. 3d and 3e. Sometimes the composer expressly indicates dwelling on the introductory note of the trill, known in French as tremblement appuye and in German as vorbereiteter Triller, by (I) inserting the sign for an appoggiatura, (2) prefixing a vertical stroke to the sign for the trill, or (3) writing the introductory appoggiatura as an ordinary note. The excerpts in Ex. 4 show J. S. Bach's use of all three procedures. In the music of this period, trills on very short notes are best rendered as four notes of equal value, or, if the tempo is too rapid to permit this, the trill should rather be abbreviated to two notes, i.e., a single appoggiatura, with which it is, in a sense, synonymous. In no case must the

hiJ

I

does not affect the interpretation. A hook extending down from the beginning of the trill sign indicates a prefix starting below the main note; a hook extending up represents an introductory tum beginning with the upper auxiliary [Ex. 5]. The prefix from below is especially

common; indeed, throughout the 18th century, it was customary to start a long trill with such a prefix, even when not indicated, whenever the main note was approached conjunctly from below, as in the illustrated passage from Beethoven's Piano Sonata op. 10, no. 3 [Ex. 6]. IV. The modem trill, which begins with the main n.ote, was first introduced early in the 19th century by the Viennese pianists J. N. Hummel, Czemy, and Moscheles. It is usually played with a two-note termination [G. Nachschlag~ This 7 a

6

tr--===-

.. .....-...............--....

I@ rf rf r f T 6

I F ~·

rv~rv=\u"

1@ rr rr r r r r r r r r r r

~v~~~~ar

1@QS

b

trill be reduced to a triplet beginning with the main note, for the accent would then fall on the wrong note. [See under Tum.] III. The beginning of a trill is often varied by the addition of a prefix, which may be indicated by one or more small notes or by a modification of the ordinary sign for the trill. The number of small notes used in the notation of the prefix

etc.

tr

trill no longer fulfills the appoggiatura function with which the ornament had been associated for nearly two centuries; it is a virtuoso effect and serves merely to accentuate the main note or add brilliance or color to the performance, as shown in Ex. 7 [a. Chopin, Bolero; b. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody no. 14).

865

TRIO SONATA

TRILLER

The "main note" trill did not entirely supplant the traditional form, which often appears in the works of Chopin, Schumann, and Liszt. It is customary, however, in the romantic and modem periods, for the composer to indicate the first note of the trill by means of a small grace note. In the absence of such an indication the trill should begin on the main note. The "main note" trill also occurs in early Italian music, usually as an ornamenting prolongation of a single pitch, as in Ex. 8 (Mayone, 1603). In a MS from about 1620 it occurs repeat-

edly in its 19th-century form, leading to the upper second and therefore including an uneven P.A.; add. by W.A. number of notes [Ex. 8b, c).

liiller [G.). "'Trill. Trillerkette, chain or series of trills. TriUo [It.). "'Trill. In the 17th century, the true vocal tremolo [see Tremolo III]. Trinklied [G.]. Drinking song.

Trio [It.]. (1) Originally, a contrapuntal composition in three parts. This meaning applies to Bach's six sonatas for the organ [see Trio sonata) as well as the three-voice pieces in Hindemith's Reihe kleiner Stucke, op. 37. (2) In the scherzo or minuet movement of the "'sonata, the middle section played between the scherzo (minuet) and its repetition [see Scherzo]. For its use in the march, see March. The term "trio" comes from the 17th-century custom of writing minuets and other dances in three parts, frequently for two oboes and bassoon (Lully), a treatment that was used particularly for the second of two dances played alternately, resulting in the arrangement Menuet, Menuet en trio, Menuet. A good example is Bach's Brandenburg Concerto no. 1, in which the minuet is fully orchestrated whereas the trio is written for two oboes and bassoon. The accompanying example, from Bach's French Suite no. 6, shows the use of the same type of trio for harpsichord. As late as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven (e.g., Symphony no. 7), the trio

usually retained the lighter texture and woodwind character of Lully's trio. Schubert and others used the term for the middle section of compositions in ternary form. See E. Blom, in ML xxii, 162ff. (3) Chamber music for three players. The most important type is the piano trio, for piano, violin, and cello. In most of Haydn's 31 trios the violin and cello are chiefly reinforcements for the piano part. Mozart's 7 piano trios (K. 254, K. 496, K. 498, K. 502, K. 542, K. 548, K. 564) show greater individuality of the parts, paving the way for such great works as Beethoven's op. 70 and op. 97, and Schubert's op. 99 and op. 100. The standard trio repertory also includes those of Schumann (3), Mendelssohn (2), Brahms (3), Dvorak (3), Franck (4), Faure (1 ), Ravel (1 ), and others. The string trio, usually for violin, viola, and cello, has attracted far fewer composers. Mter Haydn's 20 trios (for two violins and cello) came a divertimento by Mozart (K. 563), Beethoven's op. 3, 9, 87, and a few later compositions. See W. Altmann, H andbuch for Klaviertriospieler; Wegweiser durch die Trios for Klavier, Violine und Violoncell (1934).

Triole [G.), triolet [F.). "'Triplet. Trionfo di Afrodite [It., Triumph of Aphrodite). Concerto scenico by C. Orff (to his own Latin and Greek libretto, after Catullus, Sappho, and Euripides), produced in Milan, 1953. Setting: timeless. Trionfo di Dori, D. See under Triumphes of Oriana. Triori (also trihory, trihoris, etc.). A 16th-century Breton dance, described by Arbeau in his Orchesographie (1589) as a kind of branle in duple meter. Trio sonata. The most important type of baroque chamber music, written in three parts, two upper parts of similar range and design and a supporting figured-bass part. The trio sonata is usually performed on four instruments, two violins (or, in the earlier period, viols, cornetti) for the two upper parts, a cello (viola da gamba, violone)

866

TRIO SONATA

TRISTAN UND ISOLDE

for the bass part, and a harpsichord (organ, theorbo) for the bass part together with the realization of the thoroughbass accompaniment. Other instrumentation was occasionally employed, e.g., in Biagio Marini's Sonatas for violin and organ, op. 8 (1626), in which the organ has two written parts; in Bach's six organ trios, written for organ alone in three parts without thoroughbass figures; and in G. B. Bononcini's op. 4 (1686), for which there are five partbooks, first and second violin, cello, theorbo, and organ. Throughout the 17th century there were trio sonatas written in four voices, the cello part becoming somewhat different from the bass part for the harpsichord [see Tommaso A. Vitali, Sonate a tre, 1693]. There even were orchestral trio sonatas, sometimes entitled Sinfonia. In all these cases, however, the writing is essentially in three parts, and it is this texture that is indicated in the customary designation a tre. Early three-voice compositions, mostly in the form and style of the instrumental *canzona, were written by Salomone Rossi (II Terzo Libra de varie sonate, 1623), G. B. Buonamente (Books 4, 5, 7 of Sonate, 1626-37), Tarquinio Merula, Marini, and others [see Editions III, 7]. Toward the end of the 17th century two types of trio sonata developed, the sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and the *sonata da camera (chamber sonata). The trio style became popular particularly in France, where it was known as sonate en trio. The form persisted into the classical period, the last examples being by Gluck (1746), the *Mannheim school, and Haydn [Six Sonates a deux violins & basse, op. 8, c. 1766]. Thereafter it changed into the classical trio for three instruments, with a fully written out part for piano [see Trio (3)]. The literature of ihe trio sonata includes most of the illustrious names of the late baroque, among them Corelli (48, op. 1-4), Purcell (12), Buxtehude, Handel (28, 6 of which are for two oboes and bass), F. Couperin (14), and Vivaldi (12). Bach wrote only a few trio sonatas of the standard type (i.e., for two melody instruments and thoroughbass accompaniment), one in the *Musikalisches Opfer and several others. His sonatas for two violins and harpsichord as well as his organ sonatas represent the trio sonata with three obbligato parts, i.e., without thoroughbass accompaniment. However, the fact that the opening measures of the third movement of one (B WV 1036) have thoroughbass figures suggests (along with some other consid-

erations) that a second, "accompanying" harpsichord was used to play the main notes of the bass part and improvise the chordal accompaniment. See H. Hoffmann, Die Norddeutsche Triosonate (1929). See also under Sonata. Trip Ia. (l) Term in mens ural notation, i.e., proportio trip/a; see Proportions. (2) Same as *Proportz. (3) Plural of trip/urn [see Duplum]. Triple concerto. A concerto for three solo instruments, such as Bach's two concertos for three harpsichords, and Beethoven's concerto for violin, cello, and piano, op. 56. Triple counterpoint. See Invertible counterpoint. Triple-croche [F.]. See under Notes. Triple fugue. See under Double fugue. Triplet [F. triolet; G. Triole; It. terzina; Sp. tresillo] A group of three notes to be performed in place of two of the same kind, indicated by a 3 and, usually, a slur:

For the indication of triplet rhythm by dotted notes, see Dotted notes II (a). Triple time. Triple meter [see Meter]. Triplum. See under Duplum. Tris(h)agion [Gr.]. The Sanctus in its original, Greek version, which in turn is derived from the Jewish kadusha, the threefold "Kadosh" (Holy) from the Boo~ of Isaiah 6: 3. As early as c. A.D. 90, Pope Clement I mentioned in a letter "Hagios, Hagios, Hagios." About 500 it passed from the Greek to the Mozarabic and Gallican rites, where it was known as A ius. In the Roman rite it is used during the Adoration of the Cross on Good Friday, as a part of the *lmproperia (LV, p. 737]. It consists of three acclamations in Greek (Agios o Theos, etc.), each of which is answered antiphonally and to the same melody in the Latin translation (Sanctus Deus, etc.). Tristan und Isolde. Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner (to his own libretto, based on G. von Strassburg), produced in Munich, 1865. Setting: aboard a ship, Cornwall, Brittany, in legendary times. Tristan is without doubt the fullest incarnation of romantic love ever presented in opera. Practically the whole second and third acts are an "unending love duet," in which every feeling and sensation, ranging

867

TROMBA

TRISTE from the tenderest to the most passionate, is portrayed. Owing to the relative simplicity of the plot, the *leitmotiv plays a secondary role in this opera (as compared with the *Ring), and the most conspicuous features of the music are the "unending melody" and a harmonic vocabulary full of daring chromatic progressions and bold appoggiaturas. In fact, so conspicuous are these traits that "Tristan melody" and "Tristan harmony" have become common terms. Triste [Sp.]. Melancholy love song of Peruvian origin adopted in northern Argentina by the second half of the 19th century. The melody is predominantly pentatonic, although occasionally it follows patterns based on the European seven-note scale. The texts frequently combine J.o-s. Indian and Spanish words. Tristropha. See under Neumes I. Trite [Gr.]. See under Greece II. Tritone. The interval of the augmented fourth (c-f~) or diminished fifth (c-gj'), so called because it spans three whole tones. It has always been considered a "dangerous" interval, to be avoided or treated with great caution [see Diabo/us in musica]. As a melodic progression it was rarely used before 1900, except in combinations such as c-f~-g, where f~ is the leading tone before g. In modem music, however, it is a legitimate interval, e.g., in the *whole-tone scale or in various experimental devices based on the fact that the tritone is exactly one-half of the octave. Tritonic progressions such as f-a-b-a are not uncommon in Gregorian chant, but most of them were later eliminated by the use of a Bb. Of particular interest is a standard cadential formula of the Graduals of mode 3, having the outline f-b-e and therefore involving a tritone whether sung with or without Bb [see, e.g., "Eripe me," LU, p. 570f]. The formula f'--d'-b occurs in practically every Gradual of•mode 2 [e.g., Haec dies, LU, p. 778f, on "e-a"]. Probably the first writer to forbid the melodic tritone was Guido d'Arezzo, who said that the b rotundum (B-flat) was added to the scale because the F has no concordiam with its fourth, being at the distance of a tritonium (Micrologus, ch. viii; in GS ii, 8). Later the tritone was subsumed under the rule Mi contra fa, diabolus in musica [see Mi-fa]. The vertical tritone plays an important role in the early organum of the fourth ("Musica enchiriadis," c. 900), where its inconsonantia led to the replacement of strictly parallel motion

[Ex. b] by oblique motion [Ex. a]. However, the sources of 13th- and 14th-century polyphonic music contain numerous instances like that in Ex. c. Ramos de Pareja said that using the tritone is not a "deadly sin" (peccatum morta/e) but a necessity (Musica practica, 1482; ed. J. Wolf,

p. 50f). In classical harmony the tritone is allowed only in combination with other intervals, mainly in the seventh chord (c-e-g-b~ and its inversions, the second of which is sometimes called tritone because it usually contains the interval in a particularly conspicuous position (e-bb-c'-g'). Trittico [It., Triptych]. A cycle of three independent one-act operas by Puccin~ first produced together in New York, 1918: Suor Angelica (Sister Angelica; libretto by G. Forzano; setting, a convent near Siena, 17th century); Gianni Schicchi (libretto by G. Forzano, based on Dante; setting, bedroom of a house in Florence, 1299); II Tabarro (The Cloak; libretto by G. Adami, after D. Gold's play La Houppe/ande; setting, a barge on the Seine, 19th century). Tritus [L.]. See under Church modes I. Triumphes of Oriana, The. A collection of English madrigals, published by Morley in imitation of an Italian collection of madrigals, // Trionfo di Dori (1592), and dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. The book was scheduled to appear in 1601 but was not published until 1603, after the Queen's death. It contains twenty-nine madrigals in five or six parts, by Morley, Weelkes, Ellis Gibbons, and others, all of which close with the refrain "Long live fair Oriana" (in imitation of the refrain "Viva la bella Dori" in the Trionfo), except for the last three, which have the refrain "In Heaven lives Oriana." List of contents in GD v, 385; GDB viii, 550; repr. in *Editions XVI, 32. 'ftochee, trochaeic. See under Poetic meter I; Modes, rhythmic. 'ftojans, The. See Troyens, Les. 'ftomba [It.]. Trumpet, bugle. T. a macchina (venti/e), valve trumpet. T. bassa, bass trumpet. T. da tirarsi, t. spezzata slide trumpet [see Trumpet II].

868

TROMBA MARINA

TROMBONE

Tromba marina [It.]. A late medieval bowed in-

strument, still in use in the 18th century, that cor.sisted of a tapering three-sided body, 5 to 6 feet long, over which a single string was stretched. The string was not stopped, as in violin playing, but lightly touched with one finger to produce harmonic notes, the bow playing above the "stopping" point (between it and the nut). Inside the long soundbox. were a large number (up to twenty or more) of sympathetic strings that were tuned in unison with the playing string [see ill. accompanying Violin]. The most peculiar feature was the bridge, in the shape of a wide inverted U whose left foot, shorter than the right, was free to vibrate against the soundboard, resulting in a drumming noise (hence G. Trumscheit, drum log). While its trumpetlike sound probably accounts for the tromba part of the name, no explanation for marina has been found. The fantastic identification of marina with "marine" may have led to the name "sea-trumpet." The instrument was frequently used by nuns and hence another German name, Nonnengeige (nun's fiddle). The tenor marked "Trompette" in Pierre Fontaine's chanson "J'ayme bien celui" (c. 1400) was probably written for the tromba marina. [See P. Aubry, in SIM viii, 525f.] Antonio Vivaldi (c. 1669-1741) wrote solo parts for two tromba marinas in one of his concertos [see A. Schering, Geschichte des Instrumentalkonzerts (1905), p. 62], and the Swiss Johann M. Gletle (1626-84) wrote duets for the instrument (new ed. in A. Stem and W. Schuh, Schweizer Sing- und Spielmusik vi). A Memoire sur Ia trompette marine by J. B. Prin of 1742 is reprinted in BSIM iv.2, 1176ff. For a detailed description of the instrument, see N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musical Instruments (1941), 317ff; also SaHMI 290ff [pl. XVIII, opp. p. 304]; GD, s.v. "Tromba marina"; GDB, s.v. "Trumpet marine." Lit.: F. W. Galpin, "Monsieur Prin and his Trumpet Marine" (ML xiv, 18ff); LavE ii.3, l757ff (bibl.); P. Gamault, La Trompette marine (1926). Trombetta [It.]. Old name, used by Dante, for a small trumpet. Trombone [G. Posaune; Sp. tromb6n]. I. The

modem orchestral trombone is a brass instrument with a cylindrical bore except for the lower third of its length, which gradually expands into the bell, and a cup-shaped mouthpiece. It consists of two separate pieces, one made up of the mouthpiece, _cylindrical bore, and bell, held

together by a crossbar, and the other of a U-shaped middle piece that, by means of another crossbar, can be moved toward and away from the player and therefore is called slide. [See ill. under Brass instruments.] The slide takes the place of the valves used with other brass instruments and, like them, fills in the gaps of the natural tones [see Wind instruments IV (a)]. There are seven recognized positions (six plus the original one) of the slide, each a semi tone lower, changing the natural tuning of the trombone successively from, e.g., B-flat to A, A-flat, etc. The range for each position is about two octaves (B 1b-Bb-lf> for the normal position), but the lowest note of this series, called pedal tone, is difficult to produce in the three lowest positions. Since the movement from position to position requires a certain amount of time, a true legato cannot be executed on the trombone. On the other hand, a *glissando (properly termed *portamento) can. This effect has been used by some composers for comic purposes. The trombone may be regarded as the bass of the trumpet although its tone is more dignified and solemn and less brilliant. This difference in tone color is due mainly to the trombone's larger mouthpiece. Trombones have been made in many sizes, ranging from soprano to contrabass, and in many keys. The four types used in the modem orchestra are: (a) Tenor trombone. It is pitched in B-flat and has a complete chromatic compass as shown in Ex. a, in addition to which four pedal tones,

shown in Ex. b, are available. It is notated at its sounding pitch (not transposing as, e.g., the hom). . (b) Bass trombone. It is pitched in F, although instruments pitched in G or E-flat may be used in England. Its compass is a fourth below that of the tenor trombone. Owing to the great length of the pipe the slides are difficult to handle, and today the instrument is generally replaced by the tenor-bass trombone. (c) Tenor-bass trombone. It has the size (and pitch) of the tenor trombone but the bore of the bass trombone, which facilitates playing pedal tones and makes the sound similar to the bass trombone's. It has a single valve that lowers the pitch a fourth (Bb to F), i.e., to that of the bass

869

TROMBONE

TROPE

trombone. The tenor-bass trombone has virtu- trombones, called Alt Posaun, Rechte gemeine ally supplanted the bass trombone in the modern (right common) Posaun, and Quart-Posaun orchestra. respectively. Bach and Handel used the instru(d) Contrabass trombone. It is pitched an ment occasionally, but mostly in unison with octave below the tenor trombone (British instru- voices for the sake of greater sonority. Gluck ments are sometimes pitched in C). The diffi- was perhaps the first to make effective use of culty caused by the ·great length of its pipe was the trombone for accompanying chords, e.g., overcome in 1816 (by Gottfried Weber) with the in the aria "Divinite du Styx" from Alceste, invention of the "double slide," the pipe being and Mozart gave the trombones a prominent bent into four parallel tubes. Wagner used it in place in his Zauberflote and Don Giovanni. Beehis Ring des Nibelungen and other composers thoven introduced the trombones into symhave followed his example (e.g., D'Indy in Jour phonic music in the final movement of his Fifth d'ete a Ia montagne). It is, however, very tiring Symphony, but it was not until after 1850, with to play, owing to the great strain on the player's Berlioz and Wagner, that the trombone became lungs and lips. firmly established as a member of the orchestra. Occasionally valve trombones have been In the 20th century the trombone has been used made (used by D'Indy in Le Chant de Ia cloche). as a solo instrument with orchestra and in Their tone, however, is less noble than that of chamber music combinations by A. Hovhaness, the slide trombone. H. Cowell, Stravinsky, Poulenc, and Hindemith. II. History. The trombone was the first of the Lit.: W. Worthmiiller, Die Instrumente der modern orchestral instruments to appear in its Nurnberger Trompeten- und Posaunenmacher present shape. It developed in the 15th century (Mitteilungen des Vereins for Geschichte der Stadt from a large trumpet (hence the name trombone, Niirnberg, 1955); id, Die Nurnberger Trompeteni.e., large tromba) through the addition of a slide, und Posaunenmacher des 17. und 18. Jhs. (Mitand the earliest representations, in paintings of teilungen des Vereins for Geschichte der Stadt the late 15th century, show all the essentials of Niirnberg, 1954); H. Besseler, "Die Entstehung the present instrument. The German name der Posaune" (AM xxii); C. Sachs, "Chromatic Posaune points to another line of descent, the Trumpets in the Renaissance" (M Q xxxvi); F. W. large and straight buisine, a name that in turn Galpin, "The Sackbut, Its Evolution and Hisgoes back to L. *buccina [see E. A. Bowles, tory" (PMA xxxiii); F. Jahn, "Die Nurnberger AMW xviii, 63ff]. The medieval name for the Trompeten- und Posaunenmacher im 16. Jahrtrombone was sackbut (derived from the old hundert" (AMW vii). Spanish sacabuche, "draw tube," or from old French sacqueboute, "pull-push"). Throughout Trommel [G.]. Drum [see Percussion instruthe 16th century trombones were commonly ments B, 1-3]. Trommelschlegel, drumstick. used in the ceremonial bands of princes and Trommelbass [G.]. Pejorative name for stereolarge cities as well as in churches. Their sliding typed bass figures, such as the piano tremolo in mechanism made them suitable for performing octaves. art music at a time when horns and trumpets were still limited to the performance of military Trompete [G.], trompette [F.]. Trumpet. Tromsignals. Owing to the narrower bell of the old pette a coulisse, slide trumpet. trombones, their sound was relatively soft and 'ftompetengeige [G.]. *Tromba marina. therefore combined well with voices and other instruments. They were, no doubt, often used Troparia. See under Byzantine chant II. for the performance of sustained tenors in the 'ftoparium [L.]. See Troper. isorhythmic motets of the 14th and 15th centuries. Several compositions of the early 15th Trope [L. tropus]. (1) In certain medieval treacentury have lower parts marked trompetta or tises, designation for church mode: see Tonus tuba [see H. Besseler, "Die Entstehung der (3), Tropus. (2) Term used by J. M. Hauer Posaune," in AM xxii]. G. Gabrieli's Sacrae (b. 1883) in a kind of twelve-tone system devised symphoniae of 1597 are scored for cornetti, by him. In his Zwolftontechnik (1926), which trombones, bassoons, and strings [see Orchestra differs from that of Schoenberg [see Serial music] II]. Michael Praetorius, in his Theatrum instru- and has not been generally accepted, Hauer mentorum (1620), Syntagma musicum, ii, part 6, divides each series of twelve notes into two included illustrations of alto, tenor, and bass hexachords and groups all the series having the 870

TROPE

TROPE

same notes in each of the hexachords into a class called trope. Thus, one such trope (no. 44) contains all series beginning with the tones c d e f# g# a# (in any order) and closing with c# d# f g a b (in any order). There are 44 tropes, and each represents, in a sense, a key with two fundamental chords, the change from one trope to another then being comparable to modulation. (3) A category of plainchant that flourished from the lOth through the 12th centuries, comprising musical and textual additions to the established repertory of Mass (both Proper and Ordinary) and Office chants. The classic definition is that of Leon Gautier, "!'interpolation d'un texte liturgique" [Les Tropes, 1886]. The methods of interpolation are now often designated [e.g., in ApGC] as: (a) the addition of a new text to a melisma of a traditional "Gregorian" chant; (b) the composition of a new melody and text, which is then sung together with a traditional chant in various ways, before and/or after it, or by alternation of the phrases of the trope with those of the original chant, or, in the case of a short text like the "Benedicamus Domino," embedqing the few original words or their synonyms in an elaborate new melody and text; (c) an independently composed melody without text added to an item of the standard repertory. However, such a precise classification falsely implies a far greater knowledge of the quite large and still not thoroughly studied repertory of medieval tropes, not to speak of their prehistory, than we actually possess. It is particularly difficult to apply it to the highly original (in melody and text) and numerous group of Ordinary tropes (especially, but not only, the Kyrie), which first appeared in musical notation in late lOth- or early 11th-century chant books. Before this there may have been a primitive unadorned melody to which the trope was added, but this assumption cannot be proved. The question arises whether the entire text and melody may not have been first composed in the elaborate, troped form. It should be observed that, although the unadorned Ordinary texts are very old and were surely used liturgically before Carolingian times, by either the schola or the congregation, the music of the simple Ordinary chants also may be considered an accretion to the traditional sung ~turgy; such untroped Ordinary chants appear no earlier than the tropes, and in the same collections. The practice of appending or interpolating long untexted melismas to pre-existing liturgical chant is thought by some scholars (e.g., B. Stab-

lein, J. Handschin) to date from long before the 9th century. In any event, Amalar of Metz (c. 775-c. 850) provides, in various works between A.D. 823 and 844, the first substantial evidence for what appear to be tropes of the Alleluia (i.e., sequences, probably without text), Kyrie ("Kyrie eleison Domine pater miserere"), and responsory (a neuma triplex, i.e., a thricerepeated melisma, is mentioned as having been transferred from its original use with the responsory "In medio ecclesiae" to the responsory "Descendit de caelis"). The first composers of tropes known by name are two monks of St. Gall, Notker (Balbulus; c. 840-912) and Tuotilo (d. 915). The former is associated with the *sequence, which, although it is a trope in a broad sense, has been studied separately, perhaps because it rapidly became an independent component of the Mass. The best known ofTuotilo's works is the trope "Hodie cantandus" [SchGMB, no. 3] to the Introit for the third Mass of Christmas; it has often been cited as a forerunner of the *liturgical drama. It is clear that Notkerwas no innovator, but rather a refiner of a technique transmitted to St. Gall from northern France about the middle of the 9th century. This may also be true of Tuotilo's work. Some 19th-century scholars overemphasized the originality of St. Gall; shortly after 1900 the situation was reversed [cf. particularly the introductory essay by C. Blume and H. Bannister to Analecta hymnica liii] and since then France, with special but not exclusive emphasis on St. Martial de Limoges, has been considered the cradle of the sequence, and possibly also the trope. The existence of very early (lOth-century) *tropers from Aquitaine is a significant point of evidence; however, there is a group of important early tropers from St. Gall as well. The later history of the trope parallels that of the sequence, particularly in the increased degree of poetic and tonal regularity. .All the tropes were abolished by the *Council of Trent. Their traces survive, however, in the present-day names of many Kyries [see Kyrie] and the corresponding Mass Ordinaries, e.g., Missa Cunctipotens genitor for Mass IV [see Mass A]. It should be observed that, in the Middle Ages, an Ordinary chant in its troped form was often proper to a particular feast or local saint. (4) In musicological research, the term "troping" is also used in connection with the polyphonic elaborations of liturgical chants. For instance, the early motet may be considered a "polyphonic trope" (or "vertical trope"), since

871

TROPER

TROUBADOUR

here a new text, elaborating upon the idea of the original chant in the tenor, is used for the upper parts. Finally, the process of troping can also be observed in trouvere music, in which new texts were interpolated between the two halves of a refrain, a procedure that is believed to have been the origin of the *rondeau (Gennrich) and that is clearly evident in the motets entes [see Ente]. See Prosula. (I) and (3) rev. L.G. Lit.: ApGC, pp. 429ff; J. Chailley, L'Ecole musicale de -Saint Martial de Limoges [1960]; J. Handschin, in NOH ii (1954), pp. 128-74; id., in ZMW x; R. Weakland, in MQ xliv (beginnings); H.-J. Holman, in JAMS xvi (responsory tropes); P. Evans, in JAMS xiv (origin); B. Stablein, in CP 1961 (text underlay); id., inAMxxxv ("classical" tropes). See the summaries (Waesberghe) in KJ 1962, p. 68, KJ 1963, p. 17, KJ 1964, p. 131. Also see Troper. (I) and (3) rev. L.G. Troper [L. troparium]. A liturgical book containing tropes. The oldest extant tropers are those from St. Martial (lOth, 11th centuries). An 11th-century English MS known as the Winchester Troper (Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 473) is of particular importance because it contains, in a separate section entitled Melliflua organorum modulamina, organa for more than 150 chants, making it by far the most extensive source of early organum. Unfortunately, it is written in nondiastematic neumes that cannot be deciphered with total certainty. See W. H. Frere, ed., The Winchester Troper (1894); H. Husmann, Tropen- und Sequenzenhandschriften (RISM, ser. B, i [1954]); J. Handschin, "The Two Winchester Tropers" (Journal of Theological Studies xxxvii); A. Machabey, "Remarques sur le Winchester Troper" (CP Besseler); G. Weiss, "Zum Problem der Gruppierung siidfranzosischer Tropare" (AMW xxi). Troppo (It.]. Too (much). Allegro non troppo, not too fast. Tropus. In medieval treatises, designation for mode or scale. See Tonus. Troubadour. Name for any of a large number of 12th- and 13th-century poet-musicians of southern France (Provence), who were the first in Western history to establish a tradition of songs in the vernacular. Their Provenc;al name was trobador, possibly derived from tropator, i.e., writer of tropes. The movement was begun by Guilhem IX, seventh Count of Poitiers

(fl. 1087-1127), and included members of the French nobility as well as commoners, all

devoted to poetry and music in the service of chivalrous love. In the mid-12th century it spread to northern France (*trouveres) and Germany (*minnesingers). Scholars do not agree about the origins of this movement. ArabSpanish models as well as Carolingian love lyrics and liturgical hymns in honor of the Virgin Mary all have been cited as sources. Very likely each contributed certain elements. Another question is to what extent the noblemen were assisted by jongleurs. Probably the practice varied in different cases. Among the troubadours whose melodies survive are Guilhem IX, Marcabru, a commoner (d. c. 1150), Bemart de Ventadom (c. 1127-95), Peire Vidal, a commoner (d. 1215), Rambault de Vaqueiras (d. 1207), Folquet de Marseille (c. 1155-1231), Raimonde Miraval (d. c. 1220), Aimeric de Peguillan (120575), and Guiraut Riquier (d. 1294), the "last of the troubadours." About three hundred troubadour poems (c. thirty with devotional texts) are preserved with melodies. The main sources are listed under Chansonnier. The texts of most of the songs are love lyrics. Special types are the *alba, pas tore/a [see Pastourelle ], plane [see Lament (2)], partimen [see Tenso], and *siroentes. Practically all of them are strophic poems, normally with five or six stanzas and a concluding half-stanza (tornada; see Envoi). Most often the stanza is throughcomposed, but the form with initial repeat, a a b, also occurs [see Canzo]. Of c. 270 lyrical songs, about 90 are in a a b form, but it is significant that nearly one-half of the latter are found among the works of the "last" troubadour, Riquier, who probably was influenced by trouvere music, in which the repeat form far outweighs the other. Two Provenc;al *lais also survive. The melodies of the troubadours (and of the trouveres) all are monophonic and were never accompanied in the modem sense of the word. Instrumental participation in the performance, suggested by some pictures showing a singer holding a fiddle or being assisted by an instrumentalist, was restricted to a strict or slightly varied unison duplication of the melody [see Heterophony] or, perhaps, to some short extemporization in the way of a prelude, interlude, or postlude. For the notation and rhythmic interpretation of the troubadour songs, see under Trouvere. Ex. in HAM, no. 18. Lit.: J.-B. Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours and TroWJeres (1908); id., La Musique des trouba-

872

TROUT QUINTET

TROVATORE, IL

dours [1910]; H. G. Farmer, Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence (1930); R. Briffault, Les Troubadours et le sentiment romanesque (1945); F. Gennrich, tDer musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours, 3 vols. (1958-65; comp. ed. of all the melodies); U. Sesini, Le Me/odie trobadoriche ... della Biblioteca Ambrosiana (1942); C. Appel, Die Singweisen Bernart de Ventadorn (1934); A. Jeanroy, Le Jeu de Sainte Agnes (1931); B. Stablein, "Zur Stilistik der Troubadour-Melodien" (AM xxxviii); R. H. Perrin, "Some Notes on Troubadour Melodic Types" (JAMS ix); B. Smythe, "Troubadour Songs" (ML ii, 263); A. Restori, "Perla Storia musicale dei Trovatori provenzali" (RMI ii, iii); P. Aubry, in TG x (Marcabru); H. Angles, in Estudis Universitaris Catalans xi (Riquier); id, in AnMxiv. Literary studies: A. Pillet, Bibliographie der Troubadours [1933]; H. J. Chaytor, The Troubadours (1912); R. Croft-Cooke, Troubadour (1930); A. Jeanroy, Bibliographie sommaire des chansonniers provem;aux (1916). See also Trouvere.

Trout Quintet. Popular name for Schubert's Quintet in A, op. 114 (1819), for violin, viola, cello, double bass, and piano, in five movements, the fourth being a set of variations on his song "The Trout" [G. Die Forelle]. Trouvere. Collective designation for the 12thand 13th-century poet-musicians active in northem France, who imitated the movement initiated by the Proven" (1540-1609), G. Paolo Maggini (1580-c. 1630), both working in Brescia, and the brothers Amati (Antonio, 1550-1638; Girolamo, 1556-1630), who made Cremona famous as the center of violin making. Girolamo's son Niccolo Amati ( 1596-1684) was the first o(the great three violin makers. The Amatis created the classical shape of the violin, flattening the body (which is deeply bulging in instruments of Gasparo da Salo) by deepening the middle bouts, sharpening the corners, rounding the holes in a more elegant shape, and improving the varnish. Niccolo Amati's pupil Antonio Stradivari ( 1644-1737) built the most famous of all violins. Working at first along the lines of his master, he created in 1690 the model that came to be known as the "Long Strad" (length 14¥!6 in., width 8 in., vs. ordinary length 14 in., width 841 in.). In 1698 he returned to the shorter pattern and made violins about 14 in. long but in widths similar to those of the "Long Strad." It was in this pattern that, from 1700 on, Stradivari made his finest instruments, such as the "Betts" (1704), now in the Library of Congress, "Viotti" (1709), "Parke" (1711), "Boissier" (1713), "Dolphin" ( 1714), "Messie" ( 1716), "Cessol" ( 1715), "Maurin" (1718), "Rode" ( 172'2), "Sarasate" ( 1724), "Wilhelmj" (1725), and "Song of the Swan" ( 1737). All together Stradivari is believed to have made more than 1,000 instruments between 1666 and 1737; of these, 400 violins, 16 violas, and 39 cellos are actually known to be his. Giuseppe Guarneri (1666-c. 1740) worked along different lines from Stradivari's. He revived the bold and rugged outline and with it the massive build and powerful tone of the earlier Brescian masters, Gasparo da Salo and G. Paolo

Maggini. He was interested mainly in tone quality. Unlike Stradivari, he worked with no uniformity of design, size, appearance, or finish, relying only on his intuition and experience. Other famous violin makers of Italy were the Ruggieri (Francesco, known as "il Per," Giovanni Battista, and others), whose instruments bear a general resemblance to the Amatis'; the Rogeri (Giovanni and Pietro) of Brescia; and the Testore (Carlo Giuseppe, Carlo Antonio, and Paolo Antonio) of Milan. A famous German violin maker, scarcely second to the great Italians, was Stainer of Absam, Tyrol (1621-83), whose tradition was continued by the Klotz family of Mittenwald, Bavaria (Matthias, 16531743; Sebastian, 1696-1768; and others). Ninetenths of the violins that pass as "Stainers" were made by the Klotz family and their followers. In England violin making began with Thomas Urquhart (active 1648-80) and continued with Edward Pamphilon (fl. 1670-90) and Barak Norman (1688-1740). A French maker of note was Nicolas Lupot (1758-1824), known for his valuable copies of Stradivari violins. For information concerning other instruments illustrated under Violin and Violin family, see Gusle; Hardingfele (Hardanger fiddle); Hurdygurdy; Lira (Lira da braccio); Tromba marina; Viol (bass viol; lyra viol; baryton); Viola da gamba; Viola d'amore; Viola pomposa. · Lit. (selected): W. Henley, Universal Dictionary of Violin and Bow Makers, 5 vols. (1959); F. Geminiani, The Art of Playing on the Violin, 1751, fac. ed., D. D. Boyden [1951?]; E. HeronAllen, De Fidiculis Bibliographia, 2 vols. (1890, '94); A. Bachmann, An Encyclopedia of the Violin (1925); F. B. Emery, The Violinist's Encyclopedic Dictionary [1928]; R. Vannes, Dictionnaire universe/ des Luthiers, rev. ed. (1951; suppl. 1959); E. van der Straeten, The History of the Violin, 2 vols. (1933); H. Poidras, Critical and Documentary Dictionary of Violin Makers, 2 vols. (1928, '30); P. Stoeving, The Story of the Violin (1904); id., The Violin (1929); W. M. Morris, British Violin Makers, rev. ed. (1920); W. Henley, Antonio Stradivari, Master Luthier (1961); W. H. Hill, The Violinmakers of the Guarneri Family (1931); H. Petherick, Antonio Stradivari (1900); id., Joseph Guarnerius (1906); id., The Repairing and Restoration of Violins (1903); W. L. F. von Ltitgendorff, Die Geigen- und Lautenmacher, 2 vols. (1922); 0. Haubensak, Ursprung und Geschichte der Geige (1930); L. Grillet, Les Ancetres du violon et du violoncelle, 2 vols. (1901); E. Heron-Allen, De fidiculis bibliographia: Being

909

VIOLIN FAMILY

VIOLIN an Attempt towards a Bibliography of the Violin, 2 vols. (1890, '94); A. K. Tottman, Fuhrer durch die Violinliteratur ... Auf/age von Wilhelm Altmann (1935); A. Seiffert, "Eine Theorie der Geige" (AMW iv); A. Jarosy, "The Secret of the Italian Violin Makers" (ML xvi, ll6ff); E. Peluzzi, "Chi fu l'inventore del violino" (RMI xlv).

Violin concerto. See under Concerto II, III (b). Violin family. The chief members of this family

are the *violin, *viola, *cello, and *double bass. These four instruments form the string section of the orchestra, the first three also being used in chamber music (*string quartet) and the last in *jazz. For more details, see the separate entries. A great number of in-between sizes have been constructed, none of which achieved permanent importance. Among them are (in order ofsize): (a) Violino piccolo [G. Quartgeige]. Tuned a fourth above the violin. Bach scored for this instrument in his Cantata no. 140 and his first Brandenburg Concerto. The violini piccoli of

pegs --•·...-: peg box --....=:!'1!---- nut

upper bouts--

center

3 Violin family: 1. Violin.

2. Cello.

910

3. Viola.

4. Viola pomposa.

7

6

5

8

11

9

10

12

Violin family: 5. Vielle (fidel). 6. Hardanger fiddle. 7. Hurdy-gurdy. 8. Lira da braccio. 9. Bass viol. 10. Viola da gamba. 11. Viola d'amore. 12. Lyra viol.

13

16 15

14

.· ..··

::. '··

19

18

17

Violin family: 13. Kamanja. 19. Rabab. 20. Baryton.

20 14. Gus/e.

15. Rebec.

912

16. Kit.

17. Tromba marina.

18. Sarangi.

VIOLIN MUSIC

VIOLIN MUSIC

Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607) have been interpreted as true violins (SaHMI, p. 358), as Bach's violino piccolo (A. Moser, in ZMW i), as the pochette or *kit (GD v, opp. p. 524; GDB viii, opp. p. 146), and as the modern %-size violin, a major third above the violin (Forsyth). (b) Contra-violin, introduced (1917) by H. Newbould, slightly bigger than the normal violin and designed to take the place of the second violin in chamber music. (c) Viola alta, introduced by H. Ritter and used during the Bayreuth festivals 1872-75. This was a larger viola (length 19 in.) and was later provided with a fifth string tuned e". (d) Contralto, a larger viola with a fuller tone, constructed by J.-B. Vuillaume, 1855. (e) Violotta, constructed by A. Stelzner in 1891, a tenor violin, measuring 28 in., tuned G d a e'. F. Draeseke, Max von Schillings (Pfeifertag), and others have scored for it. (f) Tenor violin. Name for various instruments between the viola and cello in size (27~ to 29~ in. in length). They were used from the mid16th century but became obsolete in the 18th century. The most common baroque tuning appears to have been F c g d'. Later attempts to build similar instruments include those of Vuillaume (1855), H. Ritter, A. Stelzner [see (c), (d), (e)], and others. See H. Besseler, Zum Problem der Tenorgeige (1949). (g) Viole-tenor [F.], constructed by R. Farramon in 1930; it is held like a cello. Also called alto-moderne. (h) Violoncello piccolo. An instrument 36 to 38 in. long that Bach frequently preferred to the cello because its smaller size facilitated the execution of solo passages. It was tuned like the cello. The violoncello a cinque cordes, which Bach scored for in the sixth of his Suites for cello solo, was probably only slightly smaller than the usual cello. (i) Cellone, constructed by Stelzner [see (e)], a large cello (length 46 in.),- tuned G 1 D A e (a fourth lower than the cello) and intended chiefly as a contrabass for chamber music. (j) Octobasse, constructed by J. B. Vuillaume in 1849, a giant double bass, about 13 feet high, with three strings tuned Cz Gz C1. They were stopped by a mechanical system of levers and pedals. An American model made by John Geyer in 1889 measures almost 15 feet. See also Quinton. Violin music. The violin first appeared in Italian polyphonic compositions of the late 16th cen-

tury, with one part marked Violino. In this period, however, the term was also used for the *viola, so only the range can indicate which instrument was intended. The uiolino part in Giovanni Gabrieli's celebrated Sonata pian'e forte (Sacrae Symphoniae, 1597; see HAM, no. 173) is obviously written for a viola (range d to a'). On the other hand, many of the canzonas in the same publication have undesignated upper parts that could hardly have been performed on any instrument other than the violin (e.g., Canzona IX, with sixteenth-note passages up and down from fW to a"). From similar evidence, it appears that the two Violini accompanying the aria "Possente spirto" of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607) are probably violins. Among the first composers of solo violin music were Salomone Rossi (1587c. 1630) and Giovanni Battista Fontana of Brescia (d. 1631 ). Rossi published four books, the first three (1607, 1608, with only 2nd ed. of third book preserved, 1623) designated for "due viole," and the fourth (1622) for "due violini" [see W. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era (1959), p. 111]. Most probably they all contain music for two violins (and accompaniment). Fontana's compositions are preserved in a po_sthumous edition of 1641, containing eighteen sonatas, the first six for solo violin and accompaniment [see HAM, no. 198; also Wasielewski, Instrumentalsiitze]. Two composers who treated the instrument with striking virtuosity were Biagio Marini (c. 1595-1665) and Carlo Farina (c. 1600-c. 1640). Their sonatas and other pieces make use of double-stops, trills, and tremolos [see HAM, no. 199; SchGMB, nos. 182, 183], and in Farina's "Capriccio stravagante" (in Ander Theil newer Paduanen, Gagliarden, 1627) these techniques as well as pizzicato, col legno, and harmonics are used to imitate the barking of dogs, caterwauling, fifes and drums, etc. [see Wasielewski, Instrumentalsiitze, no. 11]. Doublestops and higher positions (up to the 5th) are common in the pieces of Marco Uccellini (b. c. 1610; see Wasielewski, Torchi). While virtuoso exploitation of the instrument continued in Germany under J. H. Schmelzer (c. 1623-80), Nicolaus Adam Strungk (1640--1700), Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644-1704; see DTO 11 and 25; HAM, no. 238; SchGMB, no. 238; see Scordatura), and J. J. Walther (b. 1650), the Italian composers after 1650 turned to the true musical qualities of the violin and developed its "singing" style. Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-90), G. B. Vitali (c. 1644--92), G. Torelli (1658-1709), and others led up to the "classical" simplicity of

913

VIOLIN MUSIC

VIOL ONE

Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), who, despite somewhat academic tendencies, holds a central position in the history of violin music [see also Bologna school]. Still another type of violin music, characterized by animated flow and rhythmic precision, was inaugurated by Antonio Vivaldi (1669-1741), whose violin concertos attracted the interest of Bach. Francesco Maria Veracini (1690-c. 1750), Giuseppe Tartini (16921770), and Pietro Locatelli (1695-1764) represent the acme of Italian baroque violin music. Their sonatas opened new possibilities of lyric and passionate expression, while their concertos, particularly those of Tartini, are written in a highly virtuoso style. The contemporary French school is represented by J.-B. Anet (c. 16611755) and J. M. Leclair (1697-1764). Bach wrote an early suite (A major) and six sonatas for violin and harpsichord. His six sonatas for violin without accompaniment (actually three sonatas and three suites, one of which includes the celebrated Chaconne) represent a peak in the extensive literature for violin solo, which includes pieces by Thomas Baltzar (c. 1630-63; see SchGMB, no. 237), J. J. Walther (Hortulus Chelicus, 1688), Nicola Matteis (fl. c. 1672), H. I. F. von Biber (1644-1704), F. Geminiani (1687-1762), G. P. Telemann (1681-1767), and Johann Georg Pisendel (1687-1755) [see A. C. Roncalio, in The Journal of Musicology ii, no. 2, 72ff]. The violin pieces of the *Mannheim group, particularly the sonatas of J. Schobert (c. 1720-67), are written in a dynamic style that foreshadows the idiom of Mozart and Beethoven [see DdT 39]. A happy amalgamation of this style with the achievements of the Italian school is represented by G. B. Viotti (1755-1824), of whose twenty-nine violin concertos no. 22 is outstanding (also eighteen violin sonatas and numerous duets). Of his predecessors, Antonio Lolli (c. 1730-1802) and Gaetano Pugnani (1731-98) merit mention. With Mozart and Beethoven begins a new period of violin music. Throughout the 19th century the favored type of violin music was the concerto [see Concerto II]. Violin sonatas were written by Schumann (3), Brahms (3), Grieg (3), Franck (1), Reger (7; also 11 for unaccompanied violin), Debussy (1 ), Ives (5), Hindemith (3; also 3 for unaccompanied violin), Bartok (2), Bloch (2), Prokofiev (3), Martinu (3), and many others. Lit.: H. Letz, Music for the Violin and Viola (1948; a checklist); A. Tottmann, FUhrer durch die Violin-Literatur, rev. ed. (1935); W. S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era ( 1959); id.,

The Sonata in the Classic Era (1963); A. Moser, Geschichte des Violinspiels (1923); W. J. von Wasielewski, Die Violine und ihre Meister, rev. ed. ( 1883; lasted., 1927); id., Die Violine im XVII Jahrhundert (1874; musical suppl., pub. separately as tinstrumentalsiitze vom Ende des XVI. bis Ende des XVII. Jahrhunderts); G. Beckmann, Das Violinspiel in Deutschland vor 1700 (1918); B. Studeny, Beitriige zur Geschichte der Violin Sonate im 18. Jahrhunde~~ (1911); H. Lungershausen, Probleme der Ubergangszeit von der altklassischen zur klassischen Epoche: Stilkritische Anarysen am nordeutschen Violinsolokonzert des 18. Jahrhunderts (1928); A. Pougin, Le Violon, les violinistes et Ia musique de violon du XVIe au XVIIIe siecle (1924); L. de La Laurencie, L'Ecole fram;aise du violon de Lulry a Viotti, 3 vols. (1922-24); D. D. Boyden, The History of Violin Playing from Its Origins to 1761 (1965); A. Bonaventura, Storia del violino, dei violinisti e della musica per violino (1925); A. BaudetMaget, Guide du violoniste; oeuvres choisies pour violon ... classees d'apres leur degre de difficulte [n.d.]; G. Beckmann, tDas Violinspiel in Deutschland vor 1700, 5 vols. (1921); G. Jensen, tClassical Violin Music [1890?]; H. Riemann, tOld Chamber Music, 4 vols. (1896-98); id., tCollegium musicum, 70 vols.; A. Schering, tAlte Meister des Violinspiels; J. W. Wasielewski, +Jnstrumentalsiitze ... des XVII Jahrhunderts; L. Torchi, tL'Arte musicale in Iwlia, vol. vii [*Editions III]; D. Boyden, "The Violin and Its Technique in the 18th Century" (MQ xxxvi); M. Scott, "Solo Violin Sonatas" (ML x, 46ff); K. Gerhartz, "Die Violinschule ... his Leopold Mozart" (ZMW vii, 553ff); M. Pincherle, "La Technique du vio1on chez les premiers sonatistes fran~ais (1695-1723)" (BSIM 1911).

Violino piccolo. See Violin family (a). Violin playing. See Bowing. Violon [F.]. Violin. Violon [Sp.], viol, bass viol, double bass. Violoncello. See Cello. Violoncello piccolo. See under Violin family (h). Violoncino. Old name for violoncello (cello), e.g., in G. B. Fontana, Sonate . .. per if violino or cornetto, fagotto, chitarone, violoncino ( 1641 ). Violone [It.]. The largest size of the viols [see Viol IV, 1]. In Diego Ortiz' Tratado de glosas . .. en Ia musica de violones (1553) it obviously is a synonym for viola da gamba. Praetorius, in

914

VIRELAI

VIOLOTTA "Syntagma musicum," describes it as a much larger instrument, approximately of double-bass size. That the name also meant a member of the violin family, "intermediate between the violoncello and the double bass" (SaHMI, p. 363), is doubtful. See B. Disertori, in RMI xlvi. Violotta. See under Violin family (e). Virelai [F.]. I. An important form of medieval French poetry and music (also called *chanson balladee), consisting of a refrain (R) that usually alternates with three stanzas (S): R S1 R S2 R S3 R. The stanzas begin with two rhyming versicles and close with a versicle paralleling the refrain (the term *versicle here means a section of the text; it may consist of one, two, three, or more lines of the poem). The musical structure corresponds exactly to that of the poem, the two parallel versicles being sung to the same music and the closing versicle to that of the refrain. In the following diagram, for R S1 R and a two-line refrain, the refrain is indicated by italics in the textual structure and by capital letters in the musical structure: S1 R ab cca b A bba

Text Music

R ab A

The entire musical structure is A b b a A b b a Abba A, but usually the virelai form is understood to comprise only the first five units. In modern scores it is represented as follows: A 1.5. (refr.) 4.

II=B

=II

2..... . 3. The music B usually has different endings for lines 2 and 3 (*ouvert and clos). A few examples of the virelai have been found in 13th-century' sources, one of them, "C'est la fin" (HAM, no. 19f), in a late trouvere chansonnier (Vaticana, Fond Christ.) and three or four others in tenors of motets, among them "E, dame jolie" (HAM, no. 19g). Two examples are among the monophonic songs of Jehannot de l'Escurel (d. 1304), preserved in an appendix to the Roman de Fauuel (see Sources, no. 8; see P. Aubry, ed., Le Roman de Fauuel (1907)]. It was Machaut who established the virelai as one of the *formes fixes of French poetry and music. It continued to be composed in the late 14th century, and sparingly throughout the 15th, by Dufay and Ockeghem [see HAM, nos. 74, 75] and by Busnois, who preferred the shorter *bergerette, as did others after him. 0

0

0

0

0

II. The virelai is not a form of *trouvere music, as was formerly assumed. More likely its origins are Spanish, and perhaps ultimately Arab [see Zejel]. The Spanish *cantigas of the second half of the 13th century (some possibly even earlier) include, among c. 400 songs, more than 100 in strict virelai form and many more showing essentially the same form with some modifications [see below]. The Italian laude of the same period also have a general virelai structure but with some variants of the musical form. The strict form appears in 14th-century Italian music, known as the *ballata, and in Spanish music of the 15th and 16th centuries as the *uillancico. Unlike the French type, the Italian and Spanish forms do not always restate the refrain after each stanza, nor do they always have the strict conformity of poetic structure to musical form that is characteristic of the French virelai. This is . especially evident in their rhyme structure, which in many cases is asymmetrical, e.g., a b I c c c b, instead of symmetrical, a b I c c a b. Practically all the Italian ballate (Landini) are asymmetrical. In the Spanish repertory both types are encountered, in the 13th-century cantigas as well as in the polyphonic *cancioneros of the 15th and 16th centuries, where the name uillancico is reserved for the asymmetrical type, the symmetrical one being called *canci6n. Below are some examples of each type (a, b, etc. indicate rhymes; the designations ripresa, piedi, volta are adopted from the ballata):

0

0

0

0

0

Music Symmetrical text Asymmetrical text

ripresa A aa abba abab

piedi B B b b cd cd ca ca

volta A aa abba abab

aa

b b

ba

5.

aa

be be

ca

6.

abb

cd cd

dbb

r·

2. 3.

r

L___j

L____j

L___j

1. Cantigas, no. 86 ( • Editions IV, 15). 2. Cancionero del palacio, no. 30 (*Editions XXXII, 5). 3. Machaut, Virelai, no. 3 (L. Schrade, ed.,:j: Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, vol. iii). 4. Cantigas, no. 114 (HAM, no 22c). 5. Landini, "Amor c'al tuo suggetto" (HAM, no. 53). 6. Cancionero del palacio, no. 54 ( • Editions XXXII, 5).

Besides the normal virelai form, there are various modified types, particularly in the laude and cantigas, e.g.:

915

VIRGINAL MUSIC

VIRGA Normal. 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

ripresa piedi volta AB cc AB AB a a AB AB bb AB AB BA aa AB cc DB AB cd AB

Types 1, 2, and 3 involve more repeat than the normal form, while the others represent "weakened" modifications. Lit.: See under Rondeau (1); F. Gennrich, Rondeaux, Virelais, und Balladen, 2 vols. (1921, '27); E. Heldt, Franzosische Virelais aus dem 15. Jahrhundert (1916); I. Pope, "Musical and Metrical Form of the Villancico" (AnnM ii); G. Reaney, in MD xiii; id., in CP Fellerer. Virga [L.]. See under Neumes I. Virgil clavier. A practice piano, patented by the American A. K. Virgil in 1892, that has no sound-producing parts but that, by means of a slight click accompanying the depression and the release of the key, gives perfect control over legato playing. Virginal. A type of *harpsichord with one choir of transverse strings described as early as 1511, in S. Virdung's Musica getutscht, a fact that clearly refutes the idea that the name refers to the "maiden Queen Elizabeth." Whether it is so called because "like a virgin, it sound with a sweet and tranquil voice" (Paulus Paulirinus, 1460; see J. Reiss, in ZMW vii) or because "virgins play on them" (John Minshen, 1617; see his Ductor in Linguas), or with reference to L. virga (rod, i.e., jack: see SaHMI, p. 335), is uncertain. The earliest virginals were in the shape of a small oblong box, to be placed on a table or even held in the player's lap. Toward the end of the 16th century the term was indiscriminately applied to all types of harpsichord, whether rectangular, wing-shaped, or trapezoidal [see Spinet]. Thus it cannot be assumed that the virginalist composers wrote for the oblong virginals. The common term was "pair of virginals," an idiom whose origin is not known. Lit.: F. Hubbard, Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making (1965); D. Boalch, Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440-1840 (1956). Virginal music. The earliest extant examples of virginal music are a few dances in an English MS of c. 1530 (Brit. Mus., Roy. App. 58), including a "Hornepype" by H. Aston, "My Lady Carey's Dompe" [HAM, no. 103], and "My Lady Wynk-

fyld's Rownde." The *Mulliner Book (c. 1560) also contains some dances, among them "A Pavan" by Newman in the key of C minor. A large repertory of such music exists in the socalled virginal books of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The most important of these are (in approximate chronological order): (a) "My Ladye Nevells Booke" (1591), containing 42 compositions by William Byrd (ed. H. Andrews, 1926); (b) "Fitzwilliam Virginal Book" (also called, erroneously, "Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book"), the most extensive and most important collection, containing 297 compositions by practically every composer of the virginalist school (2 vols., ed. J. A. Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire, 1894-99; for a detailed list of contents, see GD v, 545ff; GDB ix, 4ff); (c) "Benjamin Cosyn's Virginal Book," containing 98 pieces, chiefly by John Bull, Orlando Gibbons, and Benjamin Cosyn; (d) "Will. Forster's Virginal Book," containing 78 pieces, mostly by William Byrd. Numerous later MSS ofless importance are in the libraries of London, New York, and Paris. A printed collection is the *Parthenia. The most important composers of virginal music, arranged in three generations, are: I. William Byrd (1543-1623); II. Thomas Morley (1557-1602), Peter Philips (1561-1628), Giles Farnaby (c. 1560-1640), John Bull (c. 15621628); III. Thomas Weelkes (c. 1575-1623), Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656), Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625). The "three famous Masters William Byrd, Dr. John Bull and Orlando Gibbons," as they are called in the title of the Parthenia, were born twenty years apart and all of them died in the 1620's. Although Byrd seems to have been the first to concentrate on the virginal, his music qualitatively dwarfs that of all the other virginalists except Gibbons. John Bull is noted mainly for his exploitation of the technical means of the instrument (rapid passages, scales in parallel thirds, broken-chord figures, etc.), a contribution that left traces in the works of Sweelinck and Scheidt. The repertory of the virginalist composers comprises dances (mainly *pavanes and galli~rds), variations, *preludes, fantasias, liturgical p1eces (organ hymns; see also In nomine), and transcriptions of madrigals. Lit.: W. Apel, Geschichte der Klavier- und Orgelmusik his 1700 (1967), pp. 288-318; C. van den Borren, Les Origines de Ia musique de clavier en Angleterre (1912; Eng. trans. 1914); M. H. Glyn, About Elizabethan Virginal Music and Its

916

VOCALIZATION

VIRTUOSO

Composers, rev. ed. (1934); W. Niemann, Die Vivace [It.]. Quick, lively. Vivacissimo, very Virginalmusik (1919); H. Andrews, tMy Ladye quick. Nevel/s Book (1926); J. A. Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire, tThe Fitzwilliam Virginal Vivement [F.]. Lively. Book, 2 vols. (1894-99; repr. 1949); id, +TwentyVI. Abbr. for violin. VIa., viola. VIc., violoncello. five Pieces for Keyed Instruments from Benjamin VII., violins. Cosyn's Virginal Book (1923); William Byrd, tForty-five Pieces for Keyboard Instruments, ed. Vocalization [F. vocalise; G. Vokalise; It. vocaS. D. Tuttle (1939); K. Stone, ed., tParthenia lizzo; Sp. vocalizacion]. A long melody sung on (1951); J. M. Ward, ed., tThe Dublin Virginal a vowel, i.e., without text. The term is used Manuscript (1954); Thomas Weelkes, tPiecesfor chiefly for vocal exercises (*solfege) and so has Keyed Instruments, ed. M. H. Glyn (1924); *Edi- a somewhat pejorative connotation, implying tions XXXIV, 5, 14, 19, 20, 24; H. Andrews, technical display for its own sake. However, "Elizabethan Keyboard Music" (MQ xvi); M. H. without a text the singer can concentrate on Glyn, "Famous Books on Virginal Music . . . using pure tone in the sense of the instrumentalin the New York Public Library" (Musical ist, unimpeded by words, for expressive purCourier lxxvii~ 12); T. Dart, "New Sources of poses. In the case of study vocalises, the added Virginal Music" (ML xxxv, 93); M.-L. Pereyra, . hazard of a text is eliminated until the sensation "Les Livres de virginal de la Bibliotheque du of making pure tone has been firmly established. Conservatoire de Paris" (RdM 1926-33, nos. 20, Throughout the early history of singing (i.e., 21, 24, 28, 29, 37, 42, 45). prior to 1800) composers have fully appreciated Virtuoso. A performer who excels in technical this fact. Bach's and Handel's works contain ability; sometimes, one who excels in this only. numerous highly artistic vocalizations (usually Perhaps the first virtuoso was Amolt Schlick called *coloraturas), and the untexted melismas (c. 1460-after 1517), whose Ascendo ad patrem of Gregorian chant are even more remote from any inference of virtuosity for its own sake [see meum [see Amolt Schlick, tHommage d /'emNeuma]. pereur Charles-Quint, ed. M. S. Kastner and Particularly interesting is the role that vocaliM. Querol Gavalda (1954)], in six parts for the zation played in the polyphonic music of the manuals and four parts for the pedal, indicate 13th to 15th centuries. The textless tenors of he was an amazingly accomplished organist. John Bull (c. 1562-1628) was an eminent master 13th-century motets, which have frequently been of the harpsichord, as was, more than a century interpreted as "instrumental tenors," are actually later, Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757). The vocalizations on the vowel of the *incipit [see virtuoso qualities of the violin were exploited Clausula; Motet A, I]. For an example of a long vocalization in the upper parts of a 13th-century by Carlo Farina (c. 1600-c. 1640), Heinrich motet, see ApNPM, pp. 315ff. Most of the Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644-1704), Giuseppe accompanied songs (bal/ades [F.], madrigals) of Tartini (1692-1770), and others [see Violin the 14th century contain long passages without music]. In the L8th century, the famous *castrati a text, passages that no doubt were to be sung as developed a vocal technique that has never been vocalizations. Unfortunately, some modem equaled. The 19th century saw the spectacular editors, such as H. Riemann and A. Schering, rise of virtuoso pianists (Chopin, Liszt, Anton have interpreted such passages as "instrumental Rubinstein, Leschetizky, . Busoni), violinists preludes" (or interludes, postludes), a procedure (Paganini, Sarasate, Jan Kubelik), singers (Malibran, Sontag, Lind, Melba, Caruso, M. Batti- that frequently leads to an artificial interruption of a continuous melodic line [see, e.g., RiHMi.2, stini), and other performers. 306-34, and SchGMB, no. 19; for a correct rendition of Giovanni da Cascia's "Nel mezzo a Visigothic chant. See Mozarabic chant. sei paon," cf. WoGM iii, 92ff]. See also Text and Visitation, The. Opera by Gunther Schuller music (reference to Kyrie). {libretto by the composer, based on Kafka), There is a considerable literature of pieces to produced in Hamburg, Germany, 1966. be performed in vocalization throughout. This Vista [It.]. Sight. A prima vista, at sight [see manner of performance is indicated in various 16th-century publications inscribed "da cantare Sight-reading]. e sonare" (to sing and to play), e.g., Willaert's Ricercari of 1559 or C. Merulo's Ricercari da Vite, vitement [F.]. Fast, quickly.

917

VOICE

VOCAL MUSIC

cant are, a quattro voci (1574). These long pieces (in three or four parts) have no text, and they probably are meant Gudging from the precedence given to the word cantare) to be vocalized throughout in all the parts. This practice persisted in the numerous two-part ricercars of the 17th century, some of which are expressly designated as "vocal exercises" [see Ricercar II (d)]. Spontini, in his opera Nurmahal, chose vocalization for the "Chorus of Heavenly Spirits," and several later composers have written for vocalizing voices, e.g., Debussy ("Sin!nes," movt. 3 of Nocturnes, 1899), Ravel (Vocalise en forme d'habanera, 1907), Rachmaninoff (Vocalise, op. 34, no. 14, 1912), Medtner (Sonata- Vocalise, op. 41, no. 1; Suite- Vocalise, op. 41, no. 2); and Roussel (Padmavati, comp. 1914, perf. 1923). See W. Apel, "Die menschliche Stimme als Instrument" (Zeitschrift: Stimmen [1949], p. 404); M. Dauge, "Essai sur Ia vocalise" (RM, 1935, no. 16).

Vocal music. Music written for voices, either solo or chorus [see Choral music]. Practically all music prior to 1500 is vocal, as is nine-tenths of the music of the 16th century. During the baroque period vocal and instrumental music were about equal in quality and prominence, but after 1750 instrumental music gained the upper hand [see Instrumental music]. Below is a survey of the most important types of vocal music (italics indicate accompanied vocal music): A. Period of superior importance (to 1600). 6th-9th centuries: Gregorian chant. 9th-12th (13th) centuries: Sequence; trope; organum. 12th-13th centuries: Troubadours; trouveres; minnesingers. 13th century: Clausula; conductus; motet. 14th century: Motet; Mass items; ballade; virelai; rondeau; madrigal,· ballata; caccia. 15th century: Motet (Flemish); Mass; chansons. 16th century: Motet; Mass; madrigal; polyphonic lied; chanson; frottola; lute song; villanella. B. Period of equal importance (1600-1750): Cantata; opera; oratorio; aria; anthem; glee. C. Period of inferior importance ( 1750present): Lied; French, English, etc. song; opera. Regarding vocal versus instrumental style in early music, see under Ensemble (3). See also S. Kagen, Music for the Voice; A Descriptive List of Concert and Teaching Material (1949); J. M. Knapp, ed., Selected List of Music for Men's Voices (1952); L. Hibberd, in MQ xxviii, no. 2, xxxii, no. I. Also see under Choral music.

Voce, pl. voci [It.]. Voice. A due (tre) voci, for two (three) voices. Colla voce, see Colla. Voce di go/a, throat voice, guttural voice; voce di petto, chest voice; voce di testa, head voice, *falsetto. Voci pari or eguali, equal voices. Voces [ L ]. See Vox. Vodoum. See Voodoo. Voice. The physical process of voice production was for a long time understood only superficially. Formerly, it was thought that the larynx, containing the "vocal cords," initiates the tone much as the lips do in the mouthpiece of a brass instrument. The breath is pressed upward from the lungs through these "vocal lips," which are held close together, at varying tensions according to the pitch desired, setting the lips and breath into vibration. However, in the case of brass instruments, the player presses his lips together deliberately and learns how much to do so for a desired pitch. The muscular motion of his lips is thus a matter of conscious control. The vocal cords, on the other hand, are not among the muscles that can be controlled consciously. Thus the origin of the sound must lie elsewhere. Observation of children reveals that sound in singing, as in speech, is originated by an impulse to produce it. A spontaneous, strong impulse of this kind starts deep in the body, moving the muscles of the lower abdomen, which in turn cause the diaphragm to push air from the lungs through the vocal apparatus. The vocal mechanism in tum has been set in position to produce a desired pitch as preconceived by the singer. The resulting tone is modified by contact with all the inner surfaces of the mouth, nose, throat, and even the lungs. While singers generally concur on what constitutes an agreeable tone, there is a great difference of opinion as to how to achieve this ideal. Physically, singing is intensified and prolonged speech, and the same complex of muscles is used in both processes. Therefore attempts to achieve conscious control over all the muscles is futile. There are, however, initial and important points of control that involve positioning the body, jaw, larynx, and tongue, which in turn shape speech. So-called "natural singers," untutored vocally, among them such figures as F. I. Shaliapin and A. Galli-Curci, have instinctively known how to use and coordinate the proper muscles. What, however, creates good tone quality? Almost any singer will agree that muscular

918

VOICE

VOICE EXCHANGE

tension is the main cause of bad tone. Most often, muscular tension results from undue pressure or restraint of the tone, and such forcing or holding the tone is in tum caused by selfconsciousness. Self-consciousness diverts the singer's attention. If he could concentrate wholly on the expression of his song, he would relax and sing well. However, such total concentration is very difficult to attain, and the very presence of tension in a particular area Gaw, throat, etc.) tends to compound the problem. To counteract tension, teachers use many devices to divert the singer's attention from such problems. For example, the tongue under tension thickens and draws back, partly closing the throat. The back nasal passages become too stretched, or too relaxed; the jaw becomes set and stiff, and a corresponding distortion appears in the tone. If the pupil is taught to "place the voice" or imagine the vibration of the tone gently in the front mouth surfaces and nose, his throat and tongue tend to relax and the nasal passages become free of their own accord. Unfortunately, the singer may then feel that he must push his tone into place, causing a new set of tensions. Various devices are then employed to teach the pupil to "support the breath," leading him to find the knack of avoiding this "forcing." Thinking now of his breath, the pupil tends to strain breathing, feeling that he is aiding the process. Tension returns and he finds his throat closing again. The great problem of singing, therefore, is to coordinate all of the many areas involved, and different teachers tend to concentrate on different areas and techniques. For a historical view of the art of singing, see Singing. Lit.: W. T. Bartholomew, Acoustics of Music (1942); J. F. Cooke, Great Singers on the Art of Singing [1921]; S. Fucito and B. J. Beyer, Caruso and the Art of Singing [1922]; H. P. Greene, Interpretation in Song (repr. 1931); I. Franca, Manual of Bel Canto [1959]; W. E. Ross, Secrets of Singing (1959]; G. Henschel, Articulation in Singing (1926]; S. Kagen, On Studying Singing (1950); Lilly Lehmann, How to Sing, rev. ed. (1914); P. A. Duey, Bel Canto in Its Golden Age (1951); C. L. Reid, Bel Canto: Principles and Practices (1950); P. M. Marafioti, Caruso's Method of Voice Production (1922); G. 0. Russell, Causes of Good and Bad Voices [n.d.]; W. E. Brown, Vocal Wisdom: Maxims of G. B. Lamperti (1931); D. Stanley, The Science of Voice (1929]; E. G. White, Science and Singing (1938);

J. C. Wilcox, The Living Voice (1935]; F. Martienssen-Lohmann, Der wissende Slinger (1956]; M. Benharoche, L'Art vocal, 2 vols. [1957]; M. Garcia, Traite complet de !'art du chant (1847). See also Pronunciation. rev. O.A. Voice exchange [G. Stimmtausch]. The restatement of a contrapuntal passage with the voiceparts exchanged, so that, e.g., the soprano part sings the alto part and vice versa (without the octave transposition found in *invertible counterpoint). The result of duple or triple exchange can be indicated as: b a

a b

c a b c a a b c

or

b

This method is described by Walter Odington (CS i, 246f), who called it rondellus and gives an

example of the triple form [see OH i, 320f ]. Sporadic examples of voice exchange occur in the 12th-century sources of St. Martial and Compostela [see NOH ii, 302] and are common in the upper parts of the organa trip/a and quadrupla of the school of Notre Dame, as well as in the conductus [see Y. Rokseth, Polyphonies du XI//e siecle iv, 87ff]. The accompanying example shows a double voice exchange from the conductus "Quod promisit" [Wolfenbtittel

!tit;:;;1::::1:::: I:~: :1 ~: :: I'" 8

MS 677, f. 130']. The conductus "Veris ad imperia" [Florence, Plut. 29.i, f. 228; see F. Gennrich, Grundriss einer Formenlehre ( 1932), p. 85] begins with a duple exchange over a repeated tenor, whereas a "Benedicamus Domino" [ibid., f. 47v, also in Codex Huelgas, f. 25v; see Gennrich, p. 88] consists entirely of triple exchanges: "Veris" c b c b c b a a a etc.

"Benedicamus" c a b c b c a b a b c a etc.

c a b b c a a b c

In the late 13th century the technique of voice exchange was taken over by English composers, who used it as a structural device rather than a stylistic element. Many of the compositions of

919

VOICE-LEADING

VOLTA

the so-called school of Worcester are, or include, ronde/li, usually duple rondelli over a repeated tenor [ex. in HAM, no. 57a]. Voice exchange, although usually not recognized as such, is used in all *rounds. It also occurs in the two upper parts of baroque trio sonatas. See J. Handschin, in ZMW x, 535; id, in ZMWxvi, 119; M. Bukofzer, in MQ xxvi, 35. Voice-leading. In contrapuntal music, the principles governing the progression of the various voice-parts (particularly those other than the soprano), especially in terms of the individual lines. Among such principles are preference of step-wise motion (at least in the three upper parts), contrary motion in at least one part, and avoidance of parallel fifths and octaves. Voices, range of. Human voices are usually divided into six ranges: three female voices, soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto, and three male voices, tenor, baritone, and bass. In choral singing the middle voice of each group may be omitted. The normal range of these voices is roughly an octave (or a seventh) below and above the notes d, f, a, and e', g', b' [see Ex.]. The

..

..

a

..

Tenore robusto (robust tenor), with full voice and vigor; lyric tenor, corresponding to the lyric soprano; Heldentenor (heroic tenor), combining agility, brilliant timbre, and expressive power. Basso profondo [F. basse profonde), with low range, powerful voice, and solemn character; basso cantante [basse chantante], with qualities similar to the lyric soprano; basso buffo, comical, agile bass.

Voicing. In organ building, adjustment of the timbre and pitch of the pipes. In piano building, the adjustment of the hammer felts to produce a pleasing timbre. Voile [F.]. Veiled, subdued. Voix [F.]. Voice. Voix de poitrine, chest voice; voix de tete, head voice; voix mixte, the medium register. Voix celeste, organ stop; see Organ IX (c). Voix de ville [F.]. See under Vaudeville. Vokal [G.]. Vowel. Vokalisieren, to vocalize; Vokalise, vocalization. Volante [It.]. Rushing. Volkslied [G.]. Folksong.

Bass Baritone Tenor Contralto Mezzo Soprano

indication of range differs markedly in different countries, e.g., England, Italy, Germany, Russia. Trained soloists frequently exceed these ranges. The soprano Lucrezia Agujari (1743-83) could reach c"", and a bass part in Handel's Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (1708), written for Giuseppe Boschi, shifts, within one measure, from a' to C#, more than two and one-half octaves. Some Russian basses have reached F 1 , a fifth below low C. Contemporary composers often demand such tremendous ranges. Opera singers are further classified, mainly with regard to the character and timbre of the voice: Dramatic soprano, with powerful voice and marked declamatory and histrionic ability; lyric soprano, with lighter quality and pleasant cantabile style; coloratura soprano, with great agility and a high range. Dramatic contralto, with slightly lower range than the dramatic soprano (one or two tones) but capable of producing a powerful sound, as well as great dramatic expression.

Volkstibnliches Lied [G.]. The German art song of the latter part of the 18th century, which, in reaction to the alleged artificiality of the coloratura aria [G. Kunstlied], reverted to a somewhat affected simplicity of expression and style approximating folk music. Representative composers of such songs include J. A. P. Schulz (1747-1800), J. F. Reichardt (1752-1814), K. F. Zeiter (1758-1832), and F. Silcher (1789-1860). See Lied IV; Berlin school. Ex. in SchGMB, no. 309b. Voiles Werk [G.]. Full organ. Volo di Notte, II [It., The Night Flight]. Opera in one act by L. Dallapiccola (libretto after A. Saint-Exupery), produced in Florence, 1940. Setting: Buenos Aires airport, about 1930. Volta, volte [It.]. (l) A dance of the period c. 1600, usually in dotted 6/8 meter. It was extremely popular, perhaps owing to its lascivious connotations (e.g., in the dance, the woman was lifted high in the air). English writers (Shakespeare) and musicians often called it Lavolta or Leva/to. (2) See under Ballata. (3) In modem scores, prima and seconda volta indicate the first and second ending of a section to be repeated: 1a !]12a. See also Ouvert and clos.

920

vox

VOLTEGGIANDO Volteggiando [It.]. Crossing the hands (in piano playing). Volti [It.]. Tum over (the page); volti subito (abbr. u.s.), turn quickly. Voluntary. Name for an English organ piece played at the church service. As suggested by the name, voluntaries originally were free, quasiimprovisatory pieces. Thus, Morley says in his A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical/ Musicke (1597): "To make two parts upon a plainesong is more hard then to make three parts into voluntary." The earliest voluntaries (Mulliner Book, c. 1550) are short pieces in imitative counterpoint, not based on a cantus firmus (plainsong). Three voluntaries by Byrd are in "My Ladye Nevells Booke" [see Virginal music]; others are among keyboard works by 0. Gibbons and T. Wedkes [see the editions by M. H. Glyn]. During the 17th and 18th centuries the voluntary changed along with general changes in style, incorporating elements of the prelude, toccata, operatic aria, suite, sonata, etc., and frequently far exceeding the limitations of proper church style. Among, the composers of such voluntaries are Benjamin Rogers (1614-98), John Blow (1648/9-1708), Purcell (c. 1659-95), John Stanley (1713-86), Maurice Greene (1695-1755), Thomas Roseingrave (1690-1766), Samuel Wesley (1766-1837; see GD v, 700ff; GDB ix, 262ff), and numerous lesser composers of the 18th and 19th centuries. The voluntary had no fixed place in the service but was most commonly played either between the reading of the psalms and the first lesson, or between the end of Morning Prayer and the beginning of Communion. During the 19th century voluntaries began to be used as preludes and postludes, those written for this use generally being called opening and concluding voluntaries. In many churches today a voluntary is played as an *offertory piece. Voluntaries were and still are frequently improvised, and during the Ia te 19th and early 20th centuries they often degenerated into transcriptions from anthems, oratorios, and instrumental works, a practice that by now has fortunately almost vanished through the efforts of contemporary composers of voluntaries, such as H. Willan, E. Thiman, and many others. Lit.: C. H. Trevor, ed., tOld English Organ Music for Manuals, 4 vols. (1966); G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposiadd. by B.J.o. tion, 2 vols. [1935, '36],passium.

Voodoo, vodoum. Haitian ritual that represents a mixture of European and African traditions. It is a sort of social and religious code to which most of the songs and dances of the country are related and with which the most important native instruments are associated. Hence the term is also used for certain drums [see Arada drums], for various styles of dancing and singing, and for a vast system of magical practices in which music plays an important role. J.o-s. Vorausnahme [G.]. Anticipation. Vorbereiten [G.]. To prepare in advance (organ stops). Vordersatz [G.]. First subject. Vorhalt [G.]. Suspension (vorbereiteter Vorhalt) or appoggiatura (freier Vorhalt). Vorimitation [G.]. In organ chorales or vocal settings of chorales, the fugal treatment of a

chorale line (or its initial motif), frequently in halved or quartered note values (*diminution), in preparation for the final appearance of the chorale line in full note values. Usually each line of the chorale is preceded by such a Vorimitation. See Ex., from Bach's organ chorale Ach Gott und Herr (BG xl, 5). Vorschlag [G.]. See Appoggiatura (2). Kurzer, Ianger Vorschlag, short, long appoggiatura. Vorspiel [G.]. Prelude, overture. Also, performance (vorspielen, to perform before an audience). Vortrag [G.]. Interpretation; performance. Vortragszeichen [G.]. Expression marks. Vorwiirts [G.]. Go ahead, continue. Vorzeichnung [G.]. Signature, both of key and of meter. Vox, pl. voces [L.]. In medieval treatises, the word has the following meanings: (1) Sound, tone color. Aurelianus Reomensis (c. 850) enumerates, in a chapter called "De vocum nominibus" [GS i, 34f], a large number of types, e.g., vox

921

WALTZ

WACHSEND

harmonica (human voice), v. organica (organ, wind instruments), v. spissa (thick, low?), v. acuta (high), v. aspera (rough), v. pinguis ut virorum (fat, as that of men), v. vinola .. . jlexibilis (charming, flexible), etc. Adhemar von Chavanne (d. 1034) speaks of voces tremulas, vinnolas, collisibiles, which the Franks supposedly could not master [see ApGC, p. 116]. (2) In the "Musica enchiriadis," vox principalis and vox organa/is mean the two voice-parts of organum (GS i, 152ff). (3) Same as note, pitch; i.e., the seven notes of the scale (Guido, septem discrimina vocum; GS ii, 7). Later the term was used especially for the six notes of the hexachord, called sex voces or voces musicales. In Josquin's Missa

L'Homme arme super voces musicales, the L'Homme arme melody is used successively on the degrees of the hexachord from c to a. In Senft's Fortuna ad voces musicales [SchGMB, no. 86], the counterpoint to the Fortuna melody consists of the hexachordum naturale as it was used in elementary instruction: c c-d c-d-e c-d-e-f, ... c--d-e-f-g-a, and descending. V.s. Abbr. for *volti subito. Vuoto [It.]. "Empty," toneless. Corda vuota, open

string. Vv. Abbr. for violins.

w Waldstein Sonata. Beethoven's Piano Sonata in

Wachsend [G.]. Growing, increasing. Wagner tuba. See under Tuba. Wait. Originally, an English town watchman

who (like the Nachtwiichter in Wagner's Meistersinger) sounded the hours of the night. In the 15th and 16th centuries the waits developed into bands of musicians, paid by the town and supplied with handsome uniforms, who played on ceremonial occasions. At Christmas they performed before the houses of notables; it is this meaning that has survived, a wait today being a street performer of Christmas music. The term wait (wayte) was also used for the waits' characteristic instrument, a shawm, as well as the tunes played by the various local guilds, e.g., London Waits, Chester Waits. Many of these tunes are preserved in 17th- and 18thcentury dance books, such as J. Playford's The English Dancing Master (1651). See W. L. Woodfill, Musicians in English Society from Elizabeth to Charles I (1953); G. Hayes, King's Music (1937); L. Langwill, The Waits [1953]; A. H. Frere and F. W. Galpin, "Shawms and Waits" (ML iv, 170ff); J. C. Bridge, "Town Waits and Their Tunes" (P MA liv). Waldhom [G.]. The French *horn, either natural

or with valves.

C, op. 53 (1803-04), dedicated to Count Ferdinand von Waldstein. It consists of three movements, the second being a relatively short Adagio in somewhat improvisory style, serving as an introduction to the Finale, a long movement in rondo form. Wales. See under Bard. Also see P. CrossleyHoiland, Music in Wales (1948). Walkiire, Die. See Ring des Nibelungen, Der. Waltz. A dance in moderate triple time that

originated c. 1800 and not only has retained its popularity to the present day, but has, time and again, inspired composers. The waltzes of Beethoven [sup. vol., ser. xxv of B.-H. edition; cf. also the well-known theme of the Diabelli Variations] still resemble the earlier Liindler or deutsche Tanz, as do, to some extent, Schubert's numerous waltzes [vol. xii of comp. ed.]. Weber's "Aufforderung zum Tanze" (1819) is the first example of the characteristic rhythm and accompaniment associated with the waltz. Later notable composers of waltzes include Chopin, Johann Strauss (father and son; see DTO 63 and 68), Berlioz (Symphonie fantastique), Brahms (Liebeslieder), Richard Strauss (in Der Rosenkavalier), and Ravel (Valses nobles et sentimentales; also La Valse, for orchestra).

922

WALZE

WECHSEL-

The waltz developed from an Austrian peasant dance, the *Liindler (the erroneous theory ofits French origin and de.:vation from the *volta is discussed in GD v, 623; GDB, ix, 165). As early as 1700 its characteristic_ idio~ appeared in the ritornello of a pastoral Smgspiel [see Ex.].

As a dance in which the partners embraced one another, the waltz evoked both enthusiastic response and violent protest. Burney, "in R_e~s' The Cyclopaedia (c. 1805), speaks of the fannliar treatment" and "obliging manner in which the freedom is returned by the females" and, probably confusing walzen with sich wiilzen, makes an allusion to "rolling in the dirt of mire." Although the waltz was already popular in Vienna in the time of Haydn and Mozart-the Irish singer Michael Kelly records its vogue in 1783 [The Reminiscences of Michael Kelly, 2 vols. (1826)]-it is misleading to assume that Haydn and Mozart wrote waltzes. Mozart's Deutsche Tiinze (K. 509, 536, 567, etc.) are true Liindler in musical style. Beethoven's name has been associated with a qumber of waltzes ("Beethoven's Last Waltz," "The Spirit Waltz," "Jubelwalzer") so utterly trivial that such attribution is clearly false. Lit.: E. Reeser, The History ofthe Waltz [1949]; M. Carner, The Waltz (1948); B. Weigl, "Die Geschichte des Walzers" (Musikalisches Magazin xxxiv [1910]); I. Mendelssohn, in StM xiii; P. Nettl, in BUM iii; H. J. Ullrich, in Musicology ii, no. 2. Walze [G.]. (1) Crescendo pedal of the organ. (2) An 18th-century term for ste.reotyped un-

dulating figures, such as an* Alberti bass.

War of the Buffoons [F. querelle (guerre) des

bouffons; G. Buffonistenstreit; It. guerra ~ei buffoni]. A famous quarrel tha! _develop.~ m 1752 between two parties of Pansian musiCians and opera enthusiasts-those favoring the national French serious opera (exemplified by the works of Lully, Rameau, Destouches) and those preferring the Italian opera buffa (e.g., that of Pergolesi). Pergolesi's comic opera La Serva padrona, composed in 1733 as an *inter~ezzo, had been first given in Paris in 1746 without arousing more than moderate interest. The second performance, however, given in 1752 by a troupe of Italian comedians (bujfi), led. to a quarrel that split Paris in t":o. The n~twnal party consisted largely of the anstocracy (mcluding Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour) and plutocracy, while the Italian side wa~ ta~en by intellectuals and connoisseurs of music (mcluding the Queen, Roussea~, D'Alem?ert, and Diderot). The latter considered Itahan opera superior because it had more melody, expression, and naturamess, and had shaken off completely the "useless fetters of counterpoint." In effect, the querelle des bouffons was a fight between the rising rococo and the dying baroque. [For a similar movement in Spain, see Zarzuela.] Rousseau's famous Lettre sur Ia musique franr;aise of 1753 (repr. in part in SSR) was one of numerous pamphlets issued during this controversy. The efforts of French musicians ~ compete with the popular opera buffa resulted m a new kind of French comic opera known as comMie melee d'ariettes [see Comic opera II C]. Lit.: G. Cucuel, Les Createurs de l'operacomique franr;ais (1914); L. Richebourg, Contr~~ bution a l'histoire de Ia "Querelle des Bouffons (1937); N. Boyer, La Gue"e des bouffons et Ia musique franr;aise 1752-54 (1945); E. Hirschberg, Die Encyclopiidisten und die franzosische Op~r i'!" 18. Jahrhundert (1903); L. de La Laurencie, m BSIM viii (1912); A. van der Linden, in CP Masson ii. Wasserorge1 [G.]. *Hydraulos.

[G., Wanderer Fantasy]. Schubert's Fantasy (actually a sonata) in C for piano, op. 15 (1822), s~ called ?e~ause the second movement is a senes of vanatlons on a theme from his song "Der Wanderer" (1816). The initial pattern of this theme is also used at the beginning of the other three movements, making this work the earliest example of a completely *cyclic sonata. Wanderer-Fantasie

Wlirme, mit [G.]. With warmth.

Water Music. Orchestral suite by Handel, com-

posed in 1715 for a celebration that t?ok pia~ in boats on the Thames. See W. Michael, m ZMWiv. Wechse1- [G.]. Change. Wechseldominante, the

dominant of the dominant, i.e., the (major) supertonic. Wechselgesang, alternating or antiphonal singing. Wechselnote is somewhat loosely used for *nonharmonic tones involving

923

WEDGE FUGUE

WESTERN WYNDE

a change of direction, e.g., cambiata, echappee, appoggiatura; verlassene or Fux'sche Wechselnote is always the cambiata, particularly in combination with a suspension:

Wedge Fugue. Popular name for Bach's great

organ fugue in E minor, so called because of the increasingly wider intervals in the subject. Wehmiitig [G.]. Sad, melancholy. Weihnachtsmusik [G.]. Christmas music. Weihnachts Oratorio.

Oratorium

[G.].

See Christmas

Wellingtons Sieg [G., Wellington's Victory]. A

"battle symphony" by Beethoven (full title: Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria, op. 91, 1813), \vTitten in celebration ofWellington's victory over Napoleon. It consists of English and French fanfares, settings of "Rule Britannia" and "Marlborough s'en va-t-en guerre," the Battle (punctuated by English and French guns), a Charge, and, in the second part, a Victory Symphony containing a quotation from "God Save the King." It was originally written for a mechanical instrument invented by Malzel but was orchestrated by the composer.

of view has proved detrimental. Some writers have gone so far as to maintain that certain preludes of the Well- Tempered Clavier are written for clavichord while the corresponding fugue is written for the harpsichord. An important forerunner of Bach's work is J. K. F. Fischer's Ariadne musica (c. 1700; ed. by E. von Werra, 1901), which contains 20 preludes and fugues in 19 different keys. Particularly interesting is the unmistakable thematic similarity between some of Fischer's fugues and those of Bach in the same key, e.g., those in G minor (Wt. Ct. i), E major (Wt. Cl. ii), and F major (Wt. Cl. i), a similarity too striking to be coincidental [see HAM, no. 248]. On the other hand, a collection of 24 preludes and fugues by B. C. Weber, with the same title as Bach's first collection, is not a forerunner but an imitation of Bach's work (the date 1689, which appears on the MS of the Brussels Conservatory, is spurious; Weber lived from 1712 to 1758). See W. Tappert, in MfM xxxi, no. 8, 123-27 and no. 9, 129-33; ed. in Veroffentlichungen der Neue Bach-Gesellschaft XXXIV (1933). Lit.: J. A. Fuller-Maitland, The "48," Bach's Wohltemperiertes Clavier (1925); C. Gray, The Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues of J. S. Bach (1938); W. Emery, "The London Autograph of 'The Forty-Eight'" (ML xxxiv, 106ff). See also under Keyboard music. Welsh music. See under Bard; Wales.

Well-Tempered Clavier, The [G. Das WohltemWerk principle. In organs, a rule often followed perierte Clavier]. Bach's collection of 48 [see in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, according Forty-eight] preludes and fugues, published in to which the pipework controlled by any one two parts (1722, '44), each of which contains keyboard of the organ is set forth in its own 24 preludes and fugues, one for each major and separate tone cabinet, separated both aurally minor key (C major, C minor, C~ major, q and visually from the pipework controlled by minor, etc.). The name refers to the then novel the other keyboards. Implicit is the concept of system of equal temperament [see Temperament each keyboard, including the pedal, as a separate III], which made it possible to play equally well instrument in its own right. See Organ VII. in all the keys and of which Bach's collection C. B. F. was the first complete realization [see, however, the reference to Cima (1606) under Transposi- Werther. Opera in four acts by J. Massenet tion II]. The first printed edition appeared in (libretto by E. Blau, P. Milliet, and G. Hartmann, 1799 (Kollmann, London). The pieces in the based on Goethe's Die Leiden des jungen two collections date from various periods of Werthers), produced (in German) in Vienna, Bach's life. The most obvious difference in style 1892. Setting: Germany, 1772. between the first and second parts lies in the preludes in aria style and binary form, which Western Wynde. An English tune of the 16th appear in the second collection but not in the century, known from three Masses, by Taverner, first. The "proper" instrument for these pieces, Tye, and J. Shepherd, that use it as a cantus i.e., harpsichord or clavichord, has long been .firmus. In Taverner's setting [*Editions LI, 1] disputed. In this problem, as in many others the melody is stated 34 times, so that the Mass concerning early music, the "either-or" point consists of 34 sections, each a "variation" of

924

WHISTLE

WIND INSTRUMENTS

the tune [see H. B. Collins, in PMA xxxix, 58]. Two of the sections, "Benedictus" and "Osanna," are in HAM, no. 112. J. Shepherd followed this plan but reduced the number of sections to 23. The Qui sedes from Tye's setting is partly reproduced in OH ii, 326f. Whistle. A small, simple, end-blown pipe, made of wood, cane, metal, or plastic. Whistle Oute. In the classification of instruments, generic designation for flutes blown by means of a "flue" [see Instruments III, B, 2, c]. A synonymous term is fipple flute. The upper end of the pipe is stopped by a plug or fipple [G. Block, hence B/ockfliite for recorder], with a narrow slit remaining (flue). The breath is led through the flue toward the sharp edge of a small opening below the fipple. The same principle is used in organ flue pipes [see Organ VIII]. The whistle flutes include the *recorders and flageolets. The flageolets differ from the recorders mainly in that they have fewer finger holes, four in front and two thumb holes in the rear. In the 19th century the flageolet acquired keys. See N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musical Instruments (1941), pp. 60ff. For ill. see under Flute. Whole note. See under Notes. Whole tone. The interval of the major second. See Interval. Whole-tone scale [G. Ganztonleiter]. A scale consisting of whole tones only, six to the octave. Only two such scales exist: c-d-e-f#-g#-bb-c' and c#-d#-f-g-a-b-c#'. The whole-tone scale lacks three fundamental intervals of traditional music, the prefect fifth, perfect fourth, and leading tone. Thus its use by Debussy represented a rebellion against the harmonic system of the 19th century. Owing to the presence of only one kind of interval, the whole-tone scale completely lacks the feeling of "centralization" and "localization" that, in the normal scales or in church modes, is indicated by the term "tonic." Its inherent indecision and vagueness make it appropriate for the impressionist style but at the same time limit its usefulness for other styles. Indeed, after a short vogue in the first decade of the 20th century, it lost most of its appeal and is seldom used today. Rebikov's (1866-1920)Les Demons s'amusent is written entirely in the whole-tone scale, as are sections of Debussy's "Voiles" (from Preludes pour piano, 1910; see Ex.). Whole-tone formations in earlier composi-

tions (Schubert, Rossini, Berlioz) are merely modulatory progressions within the conventional system of melody and harmony. An "Ut, re, mi, fa, sol, Ia" by John Bull [*Editions XXXIV, 14, p. 56] is based throughout on such progressions. A true whole-tone scale occurs repeatedly in Glinka's opera Russian and Ludmilla (composed 1842). Whole-tube instruments. See under Wind instruments II. Wie aus der Feme. See Ferne. William Tell. See Guillaume Tell. Winchester Troper. See under Troper. Wind band. See.Band. Wind cap [G. Windkapsel]. In 16th-century double-reed instruments, a cylindrical cap (also called reed cap), with a blowhole on top, that was placed over the upper end of the pipe, enclosing the reeds from the lips of the player. Thus the reed was set in vibration by a wind pressure comparable to that of the organ. The wind cap was used mainly on the crumhoms [see Oboe family III; also see ill. of crumhom under Oboe family]. Wind chest. In organs, an airtight box that receives the wind from the bellows and controls its passage to the pipes. See Organ I. Wind gauge. (1) Device for indicating the pressure of air in the bellows of organs. It is usually a simple S-shaped tube partly filled with water, the pressure being measured in inches ofwater. It is used by organ builders to check chest pressures before *voicing. (2) In older organs, a device that indicated to the organist when sufficient pressure was available for playing. Wind instruments. Generic name for all instruments in which the sound-generating medium is an enclosed column of air. They are also known as aerophones, although strictly speaking the aerophones also include the "free aerophones," which usually are not included in the category wind instruments [see Instruments III A, B]. The main wind instruments are the *brass instruments (*trumpets, *horns, *trombones, *tubas, etc.), and *woodwinds (*flutes, *clari-

925

WIND INSTRUMENTS

WIND INSTRUMENTS

nets, and *oboes); there is a separate entry for each of these [see also Reed]. I. In each wind instrument an enclosed column of air, cylindrical or conical (depending on the bore of the instrument), is set into vibration [see Acoustics V]. Neither the material (whether brass or wood) nor the shape (whether straight or bent) is important. The pitch of the sound produced depends on the length of the pipe and whether the pipe is an open or closed resonator; its timbre depends mainly on the mouthpiece (single reed in the clarinets, double reed in the oboes, mouth-hole in the flutes, cupped mouthpiece in the trumpets, funnel mouthpiece in the horns, etc.), shape of the bore, widening of the bell, etc. II. A pipe of given length gives one tone only. However, by proper control of the breath and lips, called overblowing, a pipe can easily be made to sound not only its normal tone, the fundamental, but also the higher harmonics. These tones constitute the "natural tones" of a wind 12345678

910

· trumen t, e.g..· c c' g' c" e" g" bb" c"' d"' e"', ms etc. Another name for the fundamental tone is pedal tone. In a number of instruments the pedal tone is practically unobtainable, and a distinction is made between whole-tube instrwnents, in which the air column can be made to vibrate as a whole, thus producing the pedal tone, and half tube instrwnents, in which even the slightest air pressure is likely to set up vibrations of the half length, thus producing the first harmonic (c'). To the former category belong all the woodwinds and the brass instruments of wide bore (tubas); to the latter, nominally, the brass instruments of narrow bore (trumpets, horns, trombones, higher saxhorns). Today, however, skilled players can obtain the pedal notes on trumpets and saxhorns, so that the French horn and the trombone in the lower positions of the slide remain, for all practical purposes, the only half-tube instruments. III. The description above applies to the socalled open pipes, i.e., pipes that are open at their lower end. If a pipe of the same length is closed at the lower end (stopped pipe), its fundamental is an octave lower than in the open pipe [see Acoustics V), and, moreover, only the odd-numbered partials above this fundamental are obtainable. If an open pipe and a stopped pipe half its length are compared, the fundamentals will be the same but the natural series will differ as follows:

Open 4' pipe c Stopped 2' pipe c

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 c' g' c" e" g" bb" c"' d"' e"' g' e" lf" d"'

Stopped pipes are frequently used in organ building to obtain lower tones from relatively short pipes [see Organ IX (b)]. Wind instruments with a cylindrical bore usually act as stopped pipes although they are not actually stopped at the lower end. The most important instrument of this type is the clarinet, which is said to "overblow at the fifth" (actually, at the twelfth), whereas the instruments with a conical bore (oboes, horns, etc.) overblow at the octave. The German name for the former is quintierend [F. quintoyer) and for the latter oktavierend [F. octavier]. IV. In a wind instrument that consists simply of a pipe, only the natural tones are available (e.g., the "natural" hom or trumpet). In order to obtain the numerous tones between the gaps of the natural series, there must be a means of temporarily shortening or lengthening the pipe. Four main kinds of device are so used: (a) slides; (b) crooks; (c) valves; (d) side holes. (a) Slide. The instrument consists of two separate portions of tubing, one sliding inside the other so that it can be drawn out. Thus the tube can actually be lengthened, and in each position a new series of natural tones, beginning respectively with C, B, Bb, etc., becomes available. Since the largest gap in the series of overtones is the fifth (c-g'), a complete chromatic scale can be obtained by the combined tones of seven series of overtones, e.g., from c-g-c' ... down to F#-c#-f# .... This principle is used with the *trombone. (b) Crook or shank. An additional piece of tubing is inserted by the player when needed. Since adding a crook or shank takes time, it does not really serve to fill in the gaps of the natural scale but only gives the instrument a different (lower) tuning for different pieces or different sections of a piece. This method was used with trumpets in the 18th century [see Trumpet II; also Horn II]. (c) Valves. The name is misleading, since what is really meant are crooks attached permanently to the instrument, to be opened and closed momentarily by means of a valve. Normally the instrument is provided with three valves (1, II, III), which lower the pitch respectively by 2, 1, or 3 semitones, while their combined use yields a lowering of 5 (I + III), 4 (II + III), and 6 (I + II + III) semitones. Thus seven series of over-

926

Miscellaneous wind instruments: J. Sheng. 2. Bagpipe. relation to the others). 4. Accordion. 5. Melophone.

3. Harmonica (shown twice its actual size in

WIND MACHINE

WORD PAINTING

tones become available, resulting in a complete chromatic scale, as explained under (a). Also see Valve. (d) Side holes. These are holes bored in the side wall of the instrument (today, in woodwinds only; formerly, also in trumpets and comets, e.g., key trumpet, key bugle) that can be opened and closed by the fingers, usually with the help of a key mechanism [see Key (1)]. If all the holes are closed, the pipe sounds its fundamental. If some of the holes are opened, the acoustical length of the air column is shortened and higher tones are produced. In the horns pitch can also be altered by "stopping" [see Hom]. For the miscellaneous wind instruments illustrated in this article, see the separate entries for each. For bibl. see under Brass instruments; Woodwinds. Wind machine [F. Eoliphone; G. Windmaschine].

A device designed to imitate the sound ofwind, occasionally used for descriptive purposes (R. Strauss, Don Quixote, Eine Alpensinfonie). It consists of a barrel framework covered with cloth, which is rotated so that the cloth rubs against cardboard or wood. Winterreise [G,. Winter Journey]. Cycle of

twenty-four songs by Schubert, in two parts, composed in 1827 to poems by Wilhelm Muller. They are romantic pictures of a rejected lover's lonely journey in wintertime. Wirbel [G.]. (1) Peg of a violin; Wirbelkasten,

peg box. (2) A drum roll. Wobltemperierte Clavier, Das [G.]. See WellTempered Clavier, The. Wolf [G.]. Any disagreeable effect resulting from

imperfect tuning in instruments, e.g., by organ pipes not quite in tune. Specifically: (1) The slight difference in pitch between G# and AD in the mean-tone system, and similar discordance in other systems of unequal temperament [see Temperament II]. (2) In violins and cellos, Wolf note is a term used for certain tones that differ markedly in both intensity and quality from those in adjoining parts of the compass. This undesirable effect is particularly noticeable near the F# on the D-string of the cello, a tone that has a poor and somewhat wobbly sound. In the violin a similar effect occurs near the C# on the A-string. The wolf is found in practically all instruments, regardless of their quality. In fact,

the more sonorous the general sound of the instrument, the more obtrusive the wolf. The wolf has often been attributed to some defect in construction of the particular instrument, e.g., uneven thickness of the belly, unequal elasticity of the wood, etc. However, later investigators have shown that it is a defect inherent in the design of the violin and other instruments of the same family, the result of particularly strong vibration patterns of the belly. See C. V. Raman, in Nature, vol. xcvii (1916), 362f, and in Philosophical Magazine xxxii (1916); J. A. Kessler, "Mechanical Operation of Stringed Instruments: Wolf notes" (honors thesis Harvard Univ., 1942). Woodwinds. See under Orchestra I; Wind instruments. Lit.: A. Baines, Woodwind Instruments and Their History, rev. ed. [1962]; id., European and American Musical Instruments [1966]; R. Houser, Catalogue of Chamber Music for Woodwinds, rev. ed. (1960); L. G. Langwill,AnindexofMusical Wind-Instrument Makers, rev. ed. [1962]; A. Carse, Musical Wind Instruments (1939); M. Rasmussen and D. Mattran, A Teacher's Guide to the Literature of Woodwind Instruments (1966); F. W. Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds [1962]; T. Warner, "Indications of Performance Practice in Woodwind Instruction Books of the 17th and 18th Centuries" (diss. New York Univ., 1964); GSJ,passim; Brass and Woodwind Quarterly (continuation of Brass Quarterly viii), passim. Worcester, school of. A repertory of English compositions of c. 1300, many of which seem to have originated at the Cathedral of Worcester. They are preserved only in fragments, the original sources having been cut up to serve as flyleaves. A characteristic trait of the Worcester style is the frequent use of *voice exchange. Some pieces are remarkable for their extensive employment of *sixth-chord style. Ex. in HAM, nos. 57a, b. Lit.: Dom A. Hughes, +Worcester Mediaeval Harmony (1928); L.A. Dittmer, tThe Worcester Fragments (1957); id., "An English Discantuum Volumen" (MD viii); id., "Binary Rhythm, Musical Theory and the Worcester Fragments" (MD vii); K. J. Levy, "New Material on the Early Motet in England" (JAMS iv). Word painting. The expression through music of

the ideas presented or suggested by the words of a song or other vocal piece. The term usually refers to the portrayal of single words or phrases

928

WORD PAINTING

WYDAWNICTWO DAWNEJ MUZYKI POLSKIEJ

that lend themselves to specific treatment, rather than the rendition of the "general mood" of the text. Modern composers usually reject word painting as nai've. In earlier music, however, particularly in the baroque period, it played a prominent role. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that, in the entire vocal literature of the baroque, it would be difficult to find the word "heaven" or "water" without an ascending or undulating motion in the music. As explained under Program music II, there are two main kinds of direct word painting: imitation of natural sounds (laughing, fanfares, birds), and imitation of physical movements (running, falling, ascending, descending). Both may, of course, occur with associated words, such as "war" (fanfare), "heaven" (ascent), "death" (fall). The accompanying examples from Bach's cantatas nos. 8, 26, and 12 illustrate the descriptive treatment of the words "Ruhstatt" (resting place), "Tropfen" (drops), and "Ich folge" (I follow). There are, of course, other associations that can

I~

_jl

1#0 E]Utl W:f) 1 sei - ne

Ruh'

statt

calls, etc.); to (2), "to stand, to run, to jump, heaven, hell, mountains," etc.; to (3), "quick, slow, twice, often, rarely," etc. Less direct and highly suggestive word painting can be achieved mainly through scoring. Some of the best examples of this technique are in the works of Josquin. For instance, in his motet "Tu pauperum refugium" the harmonic and contrapuntal treatment is orthodox up to the point where the words via errantium (the life of the erring ones) occur; here the ensuing aimlessness of lines and the absence of harmonic agreement between them result in a startlingly vivid portrayal of the idea of the text, a portrayal strengthened by the clear and obviously appropriate harmonic implications of the music at the words veritas et vita (truth and life). Countless instances of word painting of one sort or another might be cited in every period from the time of Josquin on. Some contemporary composers, to be sure, seem little concerned with this matter, perhaps because the idiom they employ is better suited to the conveyance of abstract musical ideas expressed instrumentally. Many stimulating examples, however, may be found in the vocal works of such composers as Milhaud, Honegger, Walton, R. Thompson, Vaughan Williams, Pizzetti, and Holst. Words and music. See Text and music.

wie sich die 3

I:>=J;, u )

Trop - fen

pliitz - lich thei -

~ p v PI ff--

Ich fol- ge Chris - to

nach

be "translated" into music. For instance, Weelkes in As Vesta Was from Latmos Hill Descending successively uses voices numbering two, three, six, and one for the words, "First two by two, then three by three to-gether, Leaving their goddess all alone." In Schutz's oratorio Die sieben Worte am Kreuz, Christ's words "Warum hast du mich verlassen" (Why hast thou forsaken me) are accompanied by two violins playing mere fragments and ending without the final notes (as if "forsaken") [see HAM, no. 20lb]. Word painting is aptly summed up by Joachim Thuringus (Opusculum bipartitum, 1625; see F. Feldmann, in AMW xv, 130, fn. 2), who classifies it as: (1) Verba affectuum; (2) Verba motus et locorum; (3) Adverbia temporis, numeri. To category (1) belong "rejoicing, weeping, laughing," etc., as well as words suggestive of a sound (bird

Wozzeck. Opera in three acts by Alban Berg (to his own libretto, based on G. Buchner's drama of 1836), produced in Berlin, 1925. Setting: Germany in the 1830's. The entire score, atonal without adhering to the twelve-tone technique, is organized in abstract musical forms. The first act is a suite in five movements; the second, a symphony in five movements with the usual classical forms; the third, a series of inventions in the form of variations. The opera, revived in the mid-20th century after years of neglect, is widely admired for its musical craftsmanship and emotional appeal.

W.-T. C., Wt. Cl. Abbr. for Bach's *Well-Tempered Clavier. Wuchtig [G.]. Weighty, heavy.

Wiirdig [G.]. Stately, with dignity. Wurstfagott [G.]. Racket bassoon; see under

Oboe family III. Wydawnictwo dawnej muzyki polskiej (Publica-

tions de musique ancienne polonaise). See Editions LIII.

929

X non-Western cultures, particularly in Africa, and have attained a high degree of perfection in the *Javanese orchestra. About 1500 they became known in Europe as hultze glechter ("wooden percussion"; Amolt Schlick, Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten, 1511) and Strohftedel (straw fiddle, so called because the bars lay on straw). Still other names are Holzharmonika [G.], gigelira [It.], and ligneum psalterium [L.]. About 1830 a Russian Jew, J. Gusikow, a famous Strohfiedel player, aroused the interest of Mendelssohn [see GD v, 765n; GDB ix, 379]. The instrument has been employed by Saint-Saens in his Danse Macabre (1874) to describe the rattling of skeletons, and in several later works, e.g., Shostakovitch's Fifth Symphony. Lit.: 0. Boone, Les Xylophones du Congo Beige (1936); D. Vela, La Marimba (1962); A. M. Jones, Africa and Indonesia (1964).

Xacara [Sp.]. See Jdcara. Xango. Afro-Brazilian invocation to St. Jerome, employing the *macumba ritual music. The saint, who is regarded as one of the most powerful spirits guiding the people's daily life, is honored in these ceremonies, which are part of a folk heritage based on the fusion of Christian and African traditions. J.o-s. Xerxes or Serse. Opera in three acts by G. F. Handel (It.; librettist unknown), produced in London, 1738. Setting: Persia, 5th century B.C. Xota. *Jota. Xylophone. A percussion instrument consisting of graduated bars of hardwood that are struck with a stick. For the modem orchestral instrument, see Percussion instruments A, 3; also Marimba. Xylophones are commonly used in

y Yankee Doodle. A popular American tune that, in the course of 150 years, has been used for numerous humorous texts. The origin of the tune is as mysterious as that of the words "Yankee" and "Doodle." It first appeared in James Aird's Selection of Scotch, English, Irish and Foreign Airs (c. 1775), where it is given with its title but without words. It may have originated as a tune for the flute. Dvorak used it, somewhat modified, in the last movement of his New World Symphony. See 0. G. T. Sonneck, Report on "The Star-Spangled Banner," "Hail Columbia," "America," "Yankee Doodle," (1909), pp. 79-156. Yaravi [Sp.]. A plaintive song of the Bolivian Andes, also known in Peru and Ecuador, generally in slow 3/4 meter and set to an elegiac text. Metaphors and mythological allusions are often used by the singer. The Indian name for this type of song is llaqui-aru. J.o-s. Yevgeny Onyegin. See Eugen Onegin.

Yodel [G. Jodef]. A special type of singing practiced by the mountain peoples of Switzerland and Austria (Tyrol) and characterized by frequent and rapid passing from a low chest voice to a high falsetto. A Jodler is a vocalization appended to a song, with low vowels (a, o) used for the low tones and high vowels (e, i) for the high ones. Possibly this type of singing in Europe originated as a vocalization, in imitation of the harmonic intervals of the *alphorn, although African Pygmies also yodel. See W. Sichardt, Der alpenliindische Jodler (1939); W. Wiora, Zur Frilhgeschichte der Musik in den Alpenliindem (1949); E. M. von Hornbostel, in CP 1924; G. Kotek, in CP 1927; C. Brailoiu, in CP 1949. Youth's Magic Hom, The. See Knaben Wunderhorn, Des. Yuehchyn (yiieh ch'in). A Chinese guitar. See under Guitar family.

930

YUGOSLAVIA

ZARZUELA

Yugoslavia. Since the political entity of Yugoslavia has existed only since 1918 and represents a union of several related southern Slavic peoples, it is impossible to speak of Yugoslav music as a uniform body. In western Yugoslavia the Slovenes and Croats were for centuries dominated and influenced by the culture of Austria and Italy, and as a result art music had an earlier beginning in those areas. Of Slovenian origin was the internationally famous Jacobus Gallus (1550-91), who worked chiefly in Bohemia. Under the influence of Venice a very active musical life developed in the 17th and 18th centuries on the Dalmatian coast, where the most prominent figures were Ivan Lukacic (c. 1574/871648), Vinko Jelic (1596-1636?), and the Italian composer and organist Tomaso Cecchini (c. 1580-1644). In the city of Dubrovnik, Luka Sorkocevic-Sorgo ( 1734-89) wrote preclassical sy~honies. J. B. Novak (c. 1756-1833) wrote a Siiil;spiel, Figaro, in 1790. Romanticism appeared in the works of Vatroslav Lisinski (181954). Since the mid-19th century almost all contemporary trends in music were represented in both Slovenia and Croatia. Probably the greatest composer from that region of Yugoslavia was Josip Slavenski (1896-1955), who in his

works combined modernist trends of the avantgarde with nationalist and folk elements. In eastern Yugoslavia, the strong cultural influence of the Byzantine Empire and the long period of Turkish domination delayed the beginnings of art music. In this area is a strong tradition of epic poetry [see Gusle] among the Serbs, Montenegrins, Bosnians, and Macedonians, as well as a folk tradition of great variety and intricacy. The first important composer, Stevan Mokranjac (1856-1914), wrote choral works based on folksongs, not merely stylizing them but revealing a great artistic talent. Prominent also are the works ofStevan Hristic(l885-1958), composer of the ballet The Legend of Ohrid, and of Petar Konjovic (b. 1882). Among the Yugoslav composers born after 1918, internationally known is Milko Kelemen (b. 1924), one of the leaders of the avant-garde. Lit.: MGG vii, cols. 306-78, with bibl.; E. Helm, "Music in Yugoslavia" (LBCM); J. Andreis and S. Zlatic, ed., Yugoslav Music (1959); A. Dobronic, "A Study of Jugoslav Music" (MQ xii); AdHM ii, 1168; P. Pan6ff, in BilHM i; E. Wellesz, "Die Struktur des serbischen Oktoechos" (ZMWii); ReMR, pp. 757ff. M.V.

z Ziihlzeit [G.]. Beat. Zajal. See Zejel. Zaleo. Same as *jaleo. Zamba [Sp.]. Argentine danza de paiiue/os (scarf dance) in 6/8 meter, slightly slower than the *gato, consisting of a guitar introduction followed by a vocal section based on a fourmeasure theme repeated twice. It came to Argentina from Peru in colonial times, when it was called zambacueca or zamacueca, and thereafter it was divided into two different dances, J.o-s. the zamba and cueca. Zambumbia. See under Caramba. Zampogna [It.]. A mouth-blown *bagpipe. Zanfona [Sp.]. *Hurdy-gurdy.

Zapateado [Sp.]. A Spanish solo dance in triple time, the rhythm being marked by stamping of the heels, frequently in syncopation and other rhythms contrasting with the rhythm of the melody. Zapfenstreich [G.]. A *tattoo; on special occasions the Zapfenstreich is a much more elaborate performance of military music, including signals as well as marches played by a large band. Zarabanda [Sp.]. See Saraband. Zarge [G.]. The ribs of the violin. Zart [G.]. Tender, soft. Zarzuela [Sp.]. The most important type of Spanish opera, distinguished from ordinary opera in that the music is intermingled with

931

ZIEHHARMONIKA

ZARZUELA

spoken dialogue, as in *comic opera. Its sub- Dolores (1895) and La Verbena de Ia paloma jects, however, are not restricted to comedy. Its (1897) are outstanding examples of each type. name comes from the Palace of La Zarzuela Later important composers of the zarzuela (a royal country seat near Madrid, comparable grande are Francisco Alonso (b. 1887) and to Versailles), where festive representations Federico Moreno-Torroba (b. 1891); of the called Fiestas de Zarzuela were given. The earli- genera chico (with features derived from Vienest on record is Lope Felix de Vega Carpio's nese operetta and even American jazz), Jacinto *eclogue La Selva sin amor (The Forest without Guerrero (1895-1951), and others. Love) of 1629. The earliest known composer of Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain, rev. ed. zarzuelas is Juan Hidalgo, whose Los Celos hacen (1959),passim, bibl.; E. Cotarelo y Mori, Historia estrellas (text by Velez de Guevara; produced de Ia zarzuela, i (1934); M. Muiioz, Historia de Ia 1644?) uses recitative [see LauE i.4, 2066] as well zarzuela y el genera chico (1946); LauE i.4, as choruses in the style of a madrigal. He also 2052ff; H. Angles and J. Pena, Diccionario de Ia composed the music for Pedro Calderon de la musica Labor, 2 vols. (1954), s.v. zarzuela; Barca's Ni amor se libra de Amor (c. 1640; see A. Salazar, "Music in the Primitive Spanish F. Pedrell, Teatro lirico espaflol, iv, v) and Celos Theatre" (PAMS 1938); G. Chase, "Origins of aun del aire matan (1662; first act pub. by Subira, the Lyric Theatre in Spain" (MQ xxv); id, 1933). In the latter part of the 17th century the "Barbieri and the Spanish Zarzuela" (ML xx, zarzuela resembled the French ballet de cour, 32); J. Subira, in AM iv, no. 2; A. Pedrell, in with its emphasis on elaborate stage production S/Miv. and the addition of ballets and popular dances ZauberOote, Die [G., The Magic Flute]. Opera in accompanied by guitar and castanets (Jose two acts by Mozart (libretto by E. Schikaneder), Clavijo y Fajardo, 1730-1806). This type of produced in Vienna, 1791. Setting: magical "aristocratic opera," based largely on mytho- world. Zauberjlote, Mozart's last opera, is a logical subjects, reached its zenith with Sebas- blending of diverse operatic elements into a truly tifm Duron (c. 1650-c. 1716) and Antonio Literes German style which transcends *Singspiel. The Carrion (1670-1747). At the same time there Italian opera buffa idea, which prevails in *N ozze arose a "popular" reaction against the zarzuela di Figaro and *Don Giovanni, is replaced here by in the *tonadilla, a development parallel to the a seriousness of purpose and sincerity of feeling *War of the Buffoons. The increasing influence of that presage Beethoven. Italian opera-clearly present in the works of Jose de Nebra (c. 1688-1768)-also contributed Zeitmass [G.]. Tempo. to the decline of the zarzuela, a decline that went hand in hand with that of the Spanish drama. Zeitmesser [G.]. Metronome. An attempt at revival in a more popular form, Zejel [also zajal]. A type of medieval Arab poetry made c. 1770 by the dramatist Ramon de la Cruz characterized by the alternation of a refrain and in collaboration with the composer Antonio various stanzas. Aben Guzman (Ibn Kuzman, Rodriguez de Hita (d. 1787), was only briefly c. 1080-1160) wrote numerous zejels, ·most of successful. It was not until the middle of the them in a form such as ab ccc ab ddd ab, etc., 19th century that a forceful national movement which has been cited as the model for the led to a new era for the zarzuela. This revival *virelai or, more properly, its Spanish counterbegan chiefly with Francisco A. Barbieri (1823- part as found in many of the 13th-century 94; Jugar con Fuego, 1851) and Pascual Arrieta *cantigas. However, the most characteristic y Corera (1823-94; Marina, 1871). In 1865 the trait of the virelai form, the inclusion of two Teatro de Ia Zarzuela was founded, and the lines paralleling the refrain at the end of the movement found numerous participants, e.g., stanza, is not found in the zejel. See ReMMA, Ruperto Chapi y Lorente (1851-1909), M. Fer- p. 245f; H. Spanke, in AnM i, 13ff. mindez Caballero (1835-1906), Tomas Breton y Hernandez (1850-1923), Joaquin Valverde Zeunertanz [G.]. Old term for Zigeunertanz, i.e., (1846-1910), and Amadeo Vives (1871-1932). gypsy dance (in H. Newsidler, Lautenbuch, 1536). The modem zarzuelas are classified as zarzuela Zhizn za Tsarya. See Life for the Czar, A. grande, in three acts, and genera chico or zarzuelita, in one act. The former tend to deal · Zibaldone [It.]. Same as *quodlibet. with serious, dramatic subjects; the latter are essentially comic. Breton y Hernandez' La Ziehhannonika [G.]. *Accordion.

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ZIEMLICH

ZYMBEL

Ziemlich [G.]. Rather. Ziemlich schnell, rather fast. Zigeunerbaron, Der [G., The Gypsy Baron]. Operetta in three acts by J. Strauss, J~. (~bretto by I. Schnitzer after a story by ~- Jokm), produced in Vienna, 1885. Settmg: AustroHungarian Empire, mid-18th century. Zigeunermusik [G.]. Gypsy music. Zimbalon. *Cimbalom. Zingarese, alla [It.]. In the style of Gypsy music. Zink(en) [G.]. *Cornett. Zirkelkanon [G.]. Circular canon. Zither (1) A folk instrument used chiefly in Bavaria and Austria, consisting of a fiat wooden soundbox over which 4 or 5 melody strings and as many as 37 accompaniment strings are stretched. The melody strings, nearest to the player, are stopped on a fretted fingerboard with the fingers of the left hand and are plucked by a plectrum worn on the right thumb. The accompaniment strings are plucked by the fingers of the right hand. See T. Norlind, Geschichte der Zither (1936); C. Maclean, in ZIM x. (2) A large class of stringed instruments, also called *psalteries [see Instruments IV, A, 1, a]. Also see accompanying ill. For the instruments. illustrated under Zither, see the separate entnes for each; also Finland (kantele); India VIII (viiJ.a). (3) Old German spelling for cittern. See Guitar family. Lit.: J. Brandlmeier, Handbuch der Zither (1963). Znamenny chant. The chant of the Russian Church, as used from the 12th through 17th centuries. The name is derived from znamia, sign or neume. The oldest extant musical sources date from c. 1200 and are notated in signs very similar to those of early Byzantine notation. Later sources (11th to 17th cent.) are written in the so-called kriuki (or znamenny) notation, a system including more than ninety different signs for single notes as well as for stereotyped melodic formulas. They have not yet been deciphered. In time the number of signs was reduced and certain auxiliary symbols were added, usually in red ink (hence the name Cinnabar letters) by I. Schaidurov (16th cent.). About the same time the simple outlines of the original chant were amplified into rich and ornamented contours, the two types being distinguished as "lesser" and "greater" chant.

Beginning in the 17th century there were a_buses [see Anenaiki] that finally led to the decline of the chant. See also Russia I. Lit.: A. J. Swan, "The Znamenny Chant of the Russian Church" (MQ xxvi; shortened version in PAMS 1938); ReMMA, pp. 97ff (bibl. p. 435f); P. Pan6ff, Die alt~lauische Vol~s- und Kirchenmusik (in BilHM 1); WoHN 1, 89ff; 0. von Riesemann, Die Notationen des altrussischen Kirchengesanges (1909); AdHM i, 141. Zopf, Zopfstil [G.]. A derogatory term for the conventional style of the period when a pigtail [G. Zopfi was fashionable attire, particularly the latter part of the 18th century. Zoppa, alia [It.]. Inverted dotted rhythm [see Dotted notes III]. The term zoppa also was used for 17th-century dance movements in syncopated rhythm, e.g., by Vitali [see Editions III, 7]. Zortziko. A Basque folk dance in quick 5/8 time and dotted rhythm. The Castilian *rueda is also in quintuple time but without dotted notes. See the examples in LauE i.4, 2363. Zuffolo [It.]. General name for a primitive shepherd pipe, whistle flute, flageolet, etc. Zug [G.]. Slide. Zugposaune, slide trombone, the ordinary trombone. Zugtrompete, slide trumpet. Zunge [G.]. Reed. Zungenpfeife, reed pipe. Zuriickhalten [G.]. To hold back, rallentando. Zwerchflote. Old name for transverse flute. Zwischendominante [G.]. Secondary dominant. Zwischensatz [G.]. The middle section in ternary form, also used for the development section in sonata form. Zwischenspiel [G.]. Interlude, particularly the instrumental interludes between the stanzas of a song (ritornello) or the tutti sections in a concerto. Also, name for fugal episodes [see Durchfohrung], or the episodes in rondo form. Zwolftonsystem [G.]. Twelve-tone technique. See Serial music. Zyklisch [G.]. *Cyclic, always in the sense explained under Cyclic (1). Zymbel [G.]. *Cymbal.

933

ZITHER

2

3

4

5

6

7

Zithers: 1. Zither. 2. Kante/e. 3. Kanun. 4. Psaltery. 5. VIQa. 6. Chyn. 7. Cimbalom (Hungarian). 8. Kata.

934

ZYMBELSTERN

ZYMBELSTERN Zymbelstern [G.]. A percussion stop found in many organs of the baroque period that produces a random tinkling sound of fairly high pitch. It is found in several forms, from a rotating star with bells at its points on the outside of the organ case (from which its name derives) to a

pneumatically operated device inside the organ that spins suspended steel plates centrifugally against fixed bars. This device is again coming into use, although modern versions generally consist of small brass bells or telephone bells revolved electrically. B.J.O.

935