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Received: 4 June 2018    Revised: 25 September 2018    Accepted: 6 November 2018 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.12838

PARTING THOUG HT

Olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic traditions Ilaria Gorini PhD1 | Silvia Iorio PhD2

 | Rosagemma Ciliberti ML3 | Marta Licata

PhD1 | Giuseppe Armocida MD1 1 Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy

Summary

2

Among the numerous natural substances used in medical remedies, oil certainly plays

Unit of History of Medicine and Bioethics, Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

3

Department of Science of Health, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy Correspondence Silvia Iorio, Unit of History of Medicine and Bioethics, Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected]

an important role and, over the centuries, there have been many functions and prop‐ erties attributed to it. We present the processes that have seen it as protagonist in the pharmacological field and in the cosmetic field. KEYWORDS

cosmetics, olive oil, pharmacology

Olive oil finds ample space in medicine, from antiquity to mod‐

From this, Jacopo Panzani published his “critical reasoning about the

ern times, historiography, and from the scientific work of Alberico

internal use of olives for severe fevers, on the ordinary treatment of

Benedicenti,1 it has been highlighted how difficult it is to give an

putrid and biliary affections, and on the indole of the most obvious

accurate interpretation of oil as a substance and its uses in the phar‐

acute illnesses that are observed in the city of Venice”5 to deny the

maceutics. 2 Vegetable oils have been used for a wide range of pur‐

supposed benefits of oil use in many diseases (Table 1). We know

poses since ancient times, especially as skin moisturizers.3 Because

that there are many beliefs on the medical benefits of olive oil, but

of their remarkable effectiveness, a low profile of side effects and

we must also acknowledge that certain proposals did not gain ap‐

acceptable costs, these oils were extremely popular as moisturizers.

proval from doctors throughout the ages. Oil was also used as an

This article focuses on the different types of vegetable oils and their

immunizing agent against the bite of poisonous serpents. With this

various uses in the dermocosmetic field.

in mind, it is interesting to note a story of a great supporter of this

From the East Mediterranean to Southern Italy, from the North

remedy, William Oliver, in Windsor 1734 and in the presence of phy‐

Provence to Garda Riviera, the cultivation of the olive tree offered a

sicians who were called to verify the quality of his work, was inten‐

possibility for people to understand oil as a substance, not only, for

tionally bit by two vipers and survived.

alimentary use.4

It was well known that oil, useful to the tasks of medicine, was

Ancient people believed in the virtues of oil as a “high medicine.”

given by God to man, also ut corpus eo niteat ac vires concipiat. Now

From a curative function for wounds and burns, oil, with its emollient

we can reflect on how, since ancient times, it has been adopted by

properties, was used as a moisturizing and soothing lotion. Moreover,

men for its many uses in cooking, medicine, and cosmetics. Ancient

it was considered effective in treating numerous diseases. For exam‐

herbalist’s texts are full of dietary6 and hygienic prescriptions for

ple, it was particularly useful in the treatment of intestinal diseases.

maintaining health and oil seems to play a major role, especially in

Classical medicine recommended the application “of oil and wine”

the preparation of ointments, in preserving or enhancing the es‐

on wounds, a Quercetin dietetic precept also recommended using

thetic harmony of the body.

“to the external” oil while suggesting honey “to the inside.” If there

It is important to consider issues from the beginning of its use

was no old oil available, which was considered more effective, it was

and to reflect upon the ideology of oil and its uses, more specifically

necessary to boil new oil and then let it cool down so it could obtain

the intersection between cultural factors, the concept of magic and

the same effective properties.

scientific dimension, from mythology to rational medical practice. It

Olive oil was also recommended for fevers. Perhaps Archigene

is well known that oil, in the composition of medical prescriptions,

d’Apamea healed his master Agatino from a delirious fever with oil.

was considered to be a drug. In ancient Mediterranean countries,

J Cosmet Dermatol. 2019;1–5.

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GORINI et al.

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TA B L E 1   History and uses of olive oil Historical Epoch

Use of olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic traditions

Egyptian

In Egyptian culture, olive oil was used for hair care and to counter wrinkle

Greek

The use of oil, which was recounted in Homeric scripts, was deeply rooted in Greek culture. Dioscoride described the oil therapeutic virtues in his work, an undisputed source of botany and medicine

Roman

The culture of olive oil use in massage was especially appreciated by the Romans who give great importance to it in general skin care. They called olive oil treatments “Beauty baths”

Medieval

Even if the monastic orders gave new impulse in the consumption of olive oil, the medieval medical literature is not rich of oil annotations

Renaissance

The “Return to nature” of the Renaissance stimulated the naturalistic observations. In Dioscoride’s comment, Pierandrea Matthioli described the use different types of oils. Leonardo Fioravanti wrote several pages explaining the virtue and the occult quality of the olive tree

17th‐18th century

Even the French scientist Nicolas Lèmery, author of the Pharmacopée universelle believed in the specific properties of olive oil. His work was used as a guide for subsequent authors for almost the whole of the 18th century

19th century

In the 19th century, medicine was moving away from the tradition which acknowledged the medical properties of oil but, on the contrary, the beneficial properties of olive oil used for cosmetics are still claimed. In the second half of the century, Paolo Mantegazza wrote about the olive oil properties. At the end of the 19th century, olive oil was used in cosmetics industry

20th century

We read about the many uses of this product in forms that give it valid justification, even in the modern pharmacological world

Today

Recently, numerous epidemiologic studies show that the dietary consumption of extra virgin olive oil by Mediterranean populations correlates to positive effects on human health

the use of oil in cosmetics was common practice. In Egyptian culture,

of using different types of oils and numerous artifices for use

olive oil was used for hair care and to counter wrinkles; the Greeks

in many different ways. For oil obtained from unripe olives, the

applied oil to the bodies of athletes to highlight their esthetic perfec‐

omphacino, it was written that: “acerbo, it’s great for healthy use

tion and to prepare them through thermal massage.

[…] and is healthy for the stomach […] Restraining the gums […]

The use of oil, which was recounted in Homeric scripts, was

Each oil commonly warms […] preserves the body from the cold.” 7

deeply rooted in Greek culture. Ampoules, alabaster containers, or

Through certain preparations, oil seemed to help ease any pain.

blown glass containers became symbols of status. The culture of

Hot by mouth, mitigated “Colic, side and kidney pains” and it was

olive oil use in massage was especially appreciated by the Romans

useful to “expel worms.” It was also possible to remedy cases of

who give great importance to it in general skin care; they called olive

poisoning with a composition of substances including old oil.7 All

oil treatments “Beauty baths.” Galen suggested the use of olive oil

the recipes show a widespread use of precious vegetable fat, and

to lighten the face and hands, but also to stimulate hair growth and

there are innumerable literary testimonies of the use of olive oil in

long‐lasting use to counter alopecia and dandruff.

cosmetic preparations. Particularly in the preparation of white oil,

In the work of Dioscoride, an undisputed source of botany and

the oil obtained from wild olives, which “prevents sweat and hair

medicine, it is evident that he uses oil in essences for its therapeutic

loss.” 8 The oil called Sicionio, the oil obtained from non‐ripe olives,

virtues, but for other naturalist physicians of that time it was not

was prepared by boiling water and white oil slowly over a fire in

common practice to use oil. Olive oil continued to serve as a remedy

a copper pot. A second boil in water completed the procedure for

for hemorrhages or scabies. Even if the monastic orders gave new

the production of the oil.

impulse in the consumption of olive oil, the medieval medical liter‐

In addition, the daily use of oil was consolidated to the whole of

ature is not rich of oil annotations. Only in Modern Age, texts does

the body in the bathroom. The relationship between nutrition and

the medicinal qualities of oil plants became more and more vigorous.

medical knowledge was documented by a vast literature of recipes.

The “Return to nature” of the Renaissance stimulated the naturalistic

The knowledge, passed by an authority, coordinated by a mysteri‐

observations.

ous and far‐fetched tradition, and excluded from experimental test‐

The botanists who were educated on the reading of classi‐

ing, did not exclude the use of cosmetics, according to established

cal texts began to observe and study again the remedies offered

models that were maintained in a doctor’s practice. One of the most

by the vegetable kingdom. In Dioscoride’s comment, Pierandrea

prolific authors of “secrets” was the Bolognese knight Leonardo

Matthioli offered a guide with his monumental work. His work was

Fioravanti, who wrote several pages explaining the virtue and the

considered to be a classic point of reference and a source of useful

occult quality of the olive tree. The oil, which was familiar to him,

medical news, which was printed in numerous editions and was

was used to make many compositions and ointments, in addition to

generally adopted as a medical text almost until the emergence

medical indications, Fioravanti explained how the oil‐dried leavings

of modern pharmacotherapy. From him, we learnt the practice

preserved color in hair.9

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GORINI et al.

Recently, the cosmetic qualities of olive oil were rediscovered

therefore, it has an advantage over other resins when regarding

and its return to the beauty field in the 17th century in products

products for exterior application “exotic resins that are expensive

specifically used for skin care became apparent. Prior to the great

could be replaced by olive resin.”12

eighteenth‐century scientific systematization, several substances,

In early 19th‐century treatise, the tradition and/or recom‐

distilled water of roses, and such like, were proposed to contain

mended use of oily joints, since antiquity, continued to be acceptable

properties that kept oil dependant skin fresh. The advantages that

and not solely for athletes, to: soften the skin, diminish perspiration.

oil brought to the inhabitants of affluent places with its production

Oily clutches, which were intended as protection against pathologi‐

have been ingeniously symbolized since ancient times. In that pe‐

cal events, were regularly practiced by washing the body thoroughly

riod, olive oil was the best and most sought after of all oils, not just

with water and vinegar and then rubbing the body with a warm oil

for table use, lighting, or as part of many prescriptions. We want to

sponge.

remember Nicolas Lèmery, author of the Dictionnaire ou traité univer‐

Leaving the early decades of the 19th century, to move into the

sel des droghe simples and of the Pharmacopée universelle. His work

second half of the century, a number of other authors wrote about

was used as a guide for subsequent authors for almost the whole of

the property of oil. In particular, Paolo Mantegazza published the

the 18th century. Even the French scientist believed in the specific

works with these titles: Igiene della pelle and Igiene della bellezza in

properties of olive oil and his message was so strong that some of his

two volumes of his Enciclopedia igienica popolare. Mantegazza ex‐

traditions are still practiced.10

plained that the primary tool to preserve the qualities of our skin

In the 19th century, medicine was moving away from the tradi‐

was certainly water, he also recommended enriching bath water

tion which acknowledged the medical properties of oil, but, on the

with olive oil: about 60 g of oil. Warm bath water requires only

contrary, the beneficial properties of olive oil used for cosmetics are

minimal amounts of cocoa butter, laudate, and glycerin. The man‐

still claimed today. Despite all of this, more specifically in the rec‐

ual recommended the use of olive oil for cleaning and softening the

ognition and comparison of art and beauty and health, we must re‐

skin “to maintain or enhance the beauty of the body.”13 He also rec‐

member the expression regarding medicine of the early nineteenth

ommended that women use oil to care and condition their hands

century, which stated “it is not beauty without health.”11

during the night by using cosmetic gloves coated with an ointment

In 19th‐century medicine, the only cosmetics that were recom‐

of olive oil and rose‐pomace. For hair care, among the various reme‐

mended were, along with frequent water lotions, “some oily joints.”

dies, Mantegazza did not forget the so‐called Olio di Celebes (1000 g

The use of ointments was derived from the habitual practice of cov‐

of olive oil, 30 g of cinnamon, 45 g of citrine sandalwood and 4 g

ering the body with olive oil after each bath, but the extender of the

of orange essence). These were suggestions that had already been

voice olio for the Dizionario Classico di Medicina Interna ed Esterna,

featured in Elementi di Igiene that he had published a few years be‐

in 1836, commented on these particular habits and considered them

fore.14 A great cosmetic soap made with olive oil and soda. In those

to be preferential over medicine.12 However, the discourse between

years, when experimenting was not accepted or performed by both

the art of beauty and medical science authorities continued. The

physicians and cosmetics, he still depended on remedies that had

general properties that medicine recognized in oil, on the eve of the

been inherited from tradition and manuals which provided advice

modern development of chemistry, were the fluidity in ordinary at‐

to women wishing to improve their appearance. Among the many

mospheric temperature in temperate climates, greens, solubility in

recommendations, it was suggested for use on “friabili” and “vitree”

ether, and combustibility. Robust olive oil was administered as laxa‐

nails, “tartar cream,” in addition to tartar oil, white wax, powder,

tive or emetic and it was still used to treat poisoning. Combined with

and lemon essence, which also included 20 g of olive oil. It was on

fats and resins, it became the basis of ointments and pharmaceutical

the eve of the establishment of a cosmetics industry, at the end of

oils which were used as emollients when applied to the skin, or, it

the 19th century, that it finally gained economic importance, offer‐

could also be administered by mouth, for the treatment of an inflam‐

ing a large number of esthetic, hygienic, and eutrophic products.

mation of the intestinal tube, in colic, diarrhea, disparity treatments

It was an important moment as it generated ideas for production,

etc

formulating methods, quality control, packaging, and pharmaceuti‐ Nineteenth‐century chemistry examined the specific weight of

cals. He also promised to contribute to maintain the best functional

oil, “about a fifth higher than that of water” which led to other anal‐

and anatomical conditions in the areas where cosmetics were de‐

ysis to highlight its composition, to the extent that it was a ternary

signed. When identifying raw materials of vegetable origin, olive

compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Reddish brown resin

oil was also subjected to basic research which, when applied in this

gum was observed in olive trees, “in irregular tears, or in variously

perspective, outlined any active properties due to the mechanisms

voluminous masses.”12 This resin was already known to Teofrasto

revealed by chemistry. In the preparation of a cosmetic product, the

and Dioscoride who had spoke of olive tears, resumed by Pliny, cited

active ingredients for inducing functional effects were associated

by Strabone and assimilated by Matthioli, all agreeing that it was

with emulsifiers, additives, or stabilizers. In dermatological medicine

a useful substance to be used as a medicine applied externally in

of the early 20th century, the applications of the vegetable grease

the form of a plaster. It consisted of two substances, one of which

as an excipient or a component of a cosmetic formula could not be

was analogous to resinous materials and the other approximated

ignored; its validity was confirmed by the active ingredient azelaic

to the tears. In ancient times, olive was used widely in pharmacies;

acid. We read about the many uses of this product in forms that give

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GORINI et al.

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it valid justification, even in the modern pharmacological world. Oil

including joint‐degenerative disease, neurodegenerative disease,

is sometimes used as a mild laxative and as a protective emollient in

and specific cancers. 29

inflammatory states of the enteric tube. Even the cosmetics sector

In addition, similar contents of squalene in human sebum and

has renewed its validation as it appears in the preparation of various

olive oil makes it an excellent natural ingredient of biocosmetic prod‐

products. In addition, vitamins and high concentrations of squalene,

ucts. Several current studies show the wide variety of uses of this

phytosterols, and tocopherols, as well as the presence of linoleic and

compound in dermocosmetic field.

linolenic acids, gives olive oil emollient and protective properties

We also know that extra virgin olive oil plays today an important

for the epidermis,15 and the antioxidant properties make it a pre‐

role in dermatology as it has a unique concentrate of regenerating

cious beauty product. Olive oils acidity, a level which is compatible

substances. The high amount of vitamin E produces antioxidant ef‐

with that of the skin, makes it a very useful tool in beauty products,

fects and helps to fight free radicals, responsible for the aging of hair

even today an old remedy of minted oil is used to counteract aging,

and skin.30 Vitamin E, combined with vitamin A, stimulates cell re‐

weakness, and depletion of skin and hair, to strengthen nails, to fight

generation. Today, olive oil is recognized in dermatology as a useful

redness and irritation, and to soften and tone. There appears to be

remedy against wrinkles and is also applied in treatments to prevent

an eternal interest from doctors and nutritionists in olive oil and the

stretch marks.

many possible preparations for its internal or external use that still form chapters of herbal treatments.16 Recently, numerous epidemiologic studies show that the dietary

Olive oil can usually be applied to any type of skin. Before pro‐ ceeding, however, it is indicated consider possible hypersensitivity or the presence of disorders that advise against the application.

consumption of extra virgin olive oil by Mediterranean populations

Damby et al showed that, despite its beneficial effects in wound

correlates to positive effects on human health.17 The source of its

healing promotion and reduction in skin cancer development, top‐

beneficial influence health comes from the combination of biophe‐

ical treatment with olive oil has a detrimental effect on stratum

nols and squalenes (oleocanthal, tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and oleu‐

corneum integrity and skin barrier function and has the potential

ropein) contained in it.18,19 Olive oil differs from most of the other vegetable oils in the

to promote the development of, and exacerbate existing, atopic dermatitis.

method of extraction, allowing it to be consumed in the crude form,

Historically, the olive industry has been concentrated in and

hence conserving its vitamins and other natural, healthy, and high‐

controlled by mediterranean countries. in recent decades, economic

value compounds. However, it is known that environmental factors,

reasons have encouraged the expansion of olive cultivation also in

climatological conditions, tree variety, time, and methods of harvest

new continents (including North and South America, Southeast Asia,

influence the different organoleptic properties of different olive oils.

South and North Africa, and the Middle east of Australia.) The use of

Today, the specific pharmacological properties of olive oil are

genetic material, techniques innovative cultivations as well as envi‐

recommended especially in the prevention of several disorders such

ronmental factors are encouraging this trend, particularly in desert‐

as bone aging, digestive and cardiovascular diseases, arteriosclero‐

marginal environments. 31

sis, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, memory loss, and some types of cancers. 21,22 The compounds of olive oil, in particular the phenolic sub‐ stances exert positive effects on lipid oxidation, platelet and cel‐

ORCID Silvia Iorio 

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9741-7838

lular function, inflammatory marker, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral properties, 24 as well as in preventing the development of chronic degenerative diseases and reducing oxidative damage and inflammation.

25,26

An animal research has shown that oleuro‐

pein aglycone, the main phenol in the extra virgin olive oil, may prevent or delay the appearance of Alzheimer’s disease and re‐ duce the severity of its symptoms. 27 Trapani et al28 demonstrated that an adequate amount of olive oil during pregnancy exposes the children to a lower risk of wheezing in the first period of their lives. The same study shows that an appropriate consumption of olive oil at an early age childhood and adolescence has an im‐ portant effect in the prevention of adulthood diseases and an key role on many inflammatory diseases, even in the early pe‐ riod of life. In addition, studies show that oleocanthal, a natural anti‐inflammatory compound contained in newly pressed extra virgin olive oil, has a potency and profile strikingly similar to that of ibuprofen with pharmacological qualities able to exhibit var‐ ious modes of action in reducing inflammatory‐related disease,

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How to cite this article: Gorini I, Iorio S, Ciliberti R, Licata M, Armocida G. Olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic traditions. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2019;00:1–5. https://doi. org/10.1111/jocd.12838