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Music PRODUCTION COURSEWORK EDITION GRADE 4

All accompanying and supporting audio can be downloaded from: www.rslawards.com/downloads Input the following code when prompted: C98NGTSPUV For more information, turn to page 5

Cover Artist: Björk www.rslawards.com

Acknowledgements Published by Rockschool Ltd. © 2016, 2018 Catalogue Number: RSK200084 ISBN: 978-1-78936-040-0 Initial Release | Errata details can be found at www.rslawards.com SYLLABUS

Syllabus revised by Tim Bennett-Hart Syllabus authoring by Ash Preston, Antony Greaves, Nik Preston and Max Wheeler Syllabus advisors: Joe Rubel, Chad Jackson, Sam Vasanth and Hannah V Edited by Simon Troup, Abbie Thomas, Zoe Woodroffe, Nik Preston and Grace Roberts PUBLISHING

Cover design and artwork: Phil Millard Original illustrations: Simon Troup Typesetting and design: Simon Troup and Jennie Troup Front cover photography: Björk by AFP © Getty/AFP AUDIO

Audio composition: Ash Preston and Max Wheeler Audio mixing and mastering: Ash Preston EXECUTIVE PRODUCERS

Norton York John Simpson

IMAGES & ILLUSTRATIONS

Copyright info and credits for images and illustrations can be found below the image or in the image rights summary at the back of the book. SPECIAL THANKS

Ableton, Alesis, Apple, Audio-Technica, Avid, Drawmer, Fluid Mastering, Magix (Sequoia), Merging (Pyramix), Miditech, MOTU, Neumann, Prismsound (SADiE), RME, RØDE, Samson Technologies, Sennheiser, Shure, Sound Technology, Steinberg, TL Audio and Universal Audio. PRINTING

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Caligraving Ltd.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

CONTACT

2

RSL, Harlequin House, Ground Floor, 7 High Street, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8EE Tel:  +44 (0)345 460 4747 Web:  www.rslawards.com Email: [email protected] DISTRIBUTOR Hal Leonard 7777 West Bluemound Road Milwaukee WI 53213 Email: [email protected]

DISTRIBUTION | EUROPE Hal Leonard Europe Limited Distribution Centre Newmarket Road Bury St Edmunds Suffolk IP33 3YB Email: [email protected]

DISTRIBUTION | AUSTRALIA Hal Leonard Australia Pty. Ltd. 4 Lentara Court Cheltenham Victoria 3192 Australia Email: [email protected]

Table of Contents Introductions & Information

1 Title Page 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 4 Welcome to Music Production – Grade 4 6 Entering Rockschool Exams 6 Marking Scheme

Section A | Music Production Theory

7 Summary 8 Music Production Terminology 18 Sound and Audio Fundamentals

Section B | Listening Skills

27 Summary 28 Sonic Fidelity 29 Music Theory & Harmony 30 Stylistic Awareness

Section C | Coursework Task

33 Summary 34 Technical Skills 35 Coursework Task

Sample Paper

37 Rockschool Music Production Grade 4 Exam – Sample Paper



46 Glossary 71 Useful Information (Non-assessed) 72 Image Copyright Information

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Additional Information

3

Welcome to Music Production – Grade 4 1991 saw a paradigm shift in UK music education with the inception of Rockschool graded syllabi and now, some 25 years later, over 350,000 contemporary musicians, performers and artists have been awarded Rockschool qualifications. Subsequently, contemporary music education provision has seen universal acceptance from all areas of education and truly phenomenal growth the world over. In keeping with our history of innovation, Rockschool’s 25 year anniversary sees the release of the world’s first ever music production graded syllabus. A syllabus that has been devised to afford opportunities to all aspiring producers, engineers, composers and performers that has not previously been available in an accredited, graded syllabus. All students can now develop their skills and knowledge in what is currently the fastest growing area of the music education industry whilst earning a globally recognised qualification. As with all Rockschool syllabi, academic rigour and industry relevance are crucial and the 2018 Music Production Coursework Edition syllabus is no exception. The syllabus has seen contributions from hugely respected producers, engineers, composers, performers and educators from a diverse range of backgrounds. Amongst their glowing list of achievements, these industry experts can count credits such as: ■■ Blockbuster movie soundtracks ■■ Production and engineering duties for iconic, global artists ■■ Top ten singles ■■ Games soundtracks ■■ Conservatoire & university lecturing ■■ Degree programme authoring ■■ World DJ championships Upon successful completion of Grade 8, all students will have demonstrated the skills and knowledge to progress to both higher education and ultimately the professional ranks. Whatever your desire, be it music producer, recording engineer, mix or mastering engineer, editor, electronic music composer or merely to improve your knowledge of traditional and contemporary production techniques, this syllabus will ensure you gain the most comprehensive range of skills and knowledge currently available. Nik Preston – Head of Product Development and Publishing

Book Contents

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

The book is divided into a number of sections:

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■■ Music Production Theory Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus provides you with the necessary material needed to achieve an understanding of key music production terminology, as well as sound and audio fundamentals, in relation to modern music production. ■■ Listening Skills Using audio examples provided, you will learn how to demonstrate effective listening skills relevant to modern music production. In this section, Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus looks at sonic fidelity, music theory & harmony and stylistic awareness. ■■ Coursework Task In order to enhance your technical skills, you will be asked to complete a coursework task which will demonstrate your ability to use the digital audio workstation (DAW) of your choice. You must complete the coursework task before your exam and will be asked to upload your task and screen shots during the exam. In this section you will be given the opportunity to demonstrate both your skills and creativity in a simulated professional situation. You will be assessed on your ability to resolve industry standard scenarios using appropriate techniques and your DAW of choice.

Audio

In addition to the grade book, we have also provided audio to support both curriculum content and the sample exam paper. This can be downloaded from RSL directly at www.rslawards.com/downloads You will need to input this code when prompted: C98NGTSPUV The audio files are supplied in MP3 and/or WAV format(s). Once downloaded you will be able to play them on any compatible device. You can find further details about Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus by downloading the syllabus specification from our website: www.rslawards.com

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

All candidates should download and read the accompanying syllabus specification when using this grade book.

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Entering Rockschool Exams Entering a Rockschool exam is easy, just go online and follow our simple process. All details for entering online, dates, fees and regulations can be found at www.rslawards.com  ll candidates should ensure they bring the hard copy of their Grade syllabus book or their proof of digital purchase, their A coursework task and screen shots, and headphones to the exam. All Grade 6–8 candidates must ensure that they bring valid photo ID to their exam.

Marking Scheme

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

MUSIC PRODUCTION GRADES 1–8

6

ELEMENT

Pass

Merit

Distinction

PART A: TERMINOLOGY & FUNDAMENTALS

15–18 out of 25

19–20 out of 25

21–25 out of 25

PART B: LISTENING SKILLS

9–10 out of 15

11–12 out of 15

13–15 out of 15

PART C: COURSEWORK TASK

36–44 out of 60

45–50 out of 60

51–60 out of 60

TOTAL MARKS

60%+

75%+

85%+

Section A | Music Production Theory

© OSABEE/Shutterstock

SUMMARY SECTION (Current section highlighted)

MARKS

>

Theoretical Written Exam

25 [25%]



Listening Test

15 [15%]



Coursework Task

60 [60%]

■■ Music Production Terminology ■■ Sound & Audio Fundamentals At Grade 4 the theory content covered will include subject areas such as describing equipment controls, surround formats, wireless connectivity, backing up files, plugin concepts, stereo microphone techniques, nonlinear editing, software instruments, sidechaining and sound propagation.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

The Theoretical Written Exam section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:

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Section A | Music Production Theory Music Production Terminology Compressors

A compressor is used to reduce the dynamic range of a recording. It will make the loud parts and quiet parts closer in level. This can be very useful if the level of a recording is inconsistent or if you want to make the recording sound louder and fuller. The controls you will find on a compressor are: Threshold This is the level at which the compressor will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, it does nothing but as soon as the signal level is higher than the threshold it will reduce the level proportionally, defined by the ratio. Ratio This is the amount of compression that will be applied when the threshold is passed. For example, if the ratio is set to 5:1, then for every 5dB of signal that goes over the threshold at the input, only 1dB will be heard from the output.

Threshold

1:1

2:1

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Output Level (dB)

8

4:1

∞:1

Input Level (dB)

Attack This is how quickly the compressor reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack slower makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the compressor unaffected. Release This is how quickly the compressor returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns below the threshold.

Music Production Theory | Section A Knee This adjusts how harshly the compressor reacts when the threshold is passed. A ‘hard knee’ causes the compressor to immediately apply the ratio as soon as the threshold is passed, whereas a soft knee will gently ease from no compression to the full ratio as the signal increases. A soft knee can be useful for natural instruments where you want the compression effect to be subtle. Threshold

Hard Knee Soft Knee Output Level (dB)

Input Level (dB)

Sidechain The Sidechain is an insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for further processing. See ‘Sidechains and Key Inputs’ (p.22). Bypass This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the compressor on and off. Using this function you’ll be able to check whether you’re actually improving the sound.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Example Compressor: Alesis 3630 Compressor (showing single channel in detail).

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Section A | Music Production Theory Limiters

A limiter is very similar to a compressor but with a much harsher effect on the dynamics of the recording due to it’s very high compression ratio. The controls you will find on a limiter are: Threshold This is the level at which the limiter will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, it does nothing but as soon as the signal level is higher than the threshold it will limit the output level. Ratio This is generally fixed at a ratio of 80–100:1, but some limiters may provide some flexibility. Attack This is how quickly the limiter reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack slower makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the limiter unaffected. Release This is how quickly the limiter returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns below the threshold. Knee This adjusts how harshly the limiter reacts when the threshold is passed. A ‘hard knee’ causes the limiter to immediately limit the signal as soon as the threshold is passed, whereas a soft knee will gently ease from no limiting to the full ratio limiting as the signal increases. A soft knee can be useful for natural instruments where you want the limiting effect to be a little more subtle. Bypass This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the limiter on and off. Using this function you’ll be able to check that you’re actually improving the sound.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Example Limiter: Universal Audio 1176LN

10

Music Production Theory | Section A Gates

A gate is used to remove unwanted sound from a recording, it works by listening to the sound level of the recording and removing anything that is quieter than the wanted signal. Here are the controls you will find on a gate: Threshold This is the level at which the gate will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, the gate ‘closes’, stopping any signal getting through. When the signal level is above the threshold, the gate opens allowing all the signal through. Range Rather than having a ratio control like a compressor, a gate will have a range control which specifies the amount the output signal is to be reduced by when the gate is closed. This is an absolute value in decibels which can be adjusted all the way down to minus infinity, meaning the gate is completely closed. Attack This is how quickly the gate reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack slower makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the gate unaffected. Hold In addition to attack and release, a gate will also include a hold control. This determines how long the gate will stay open once the threshold has been passed. Once the hold time has elapsed, the release phase will start. Release This is how quickly the gate returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns to above the threshold. Key Input It is possible to use a signal other than the one you are affecting to make the gate react by feeding that signal into the key input.

Bypass This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the gate on and off. Using this function you’ll be able to check that you’re actually improving the sound. Example Gate: Drawmer Powergate DS501 (channel 1 shown in detail).

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Duck The duck control on a gate reverses the way it responds to the key input. Normally if a signal is quieter than the threshold it will reduce the level. However, with the duck function active, the gate reduces the volume when the signal is louder than the threshold. This is a common function used by DJs to make the music reduce in level when they are speaking over the top.

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Section A | Music Production Theory Expanders

An expander is very similar to a gate and uses many of the same controls, but rather than use a range control it uses a ratio like a compressor. This means that when the gate is closed the signal is reduced by the ratio, rather than an absolute number of decibels. This enables the effect to be a little more natural sounding. Example Expander: Dedicated hardware expanders are rare as the feature tends to be incorporated with other units such as gates and compressors. Most DAWs include a dedicated expander such as the one shown below found in Logic Pro X.

Sound Formats

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

You’re no doubt already familiar with the two most common audio formats, mono (one channel) and stereo (two channels). However, there are numerous other formats out there for enhancing the listening experience.

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2.1 Sound The next most basic format is known as 2.1. This features the usual stereo left and right channels but adds a subwoofer. This ‘.1’ reference to a subwoofer is a common convention which you will see in numerous other formats.

In addition to the above, more channels can be added to enhance the experience for the listener. These formats can collectively be grouped as ‘surround sound’: 4.0 Quadraphonic Sound This is a format which uses four equally spaced speakers, located in the corners of a room. This made it very convenient for the home listener and some albums including the classic ‘Dark Side of the Moon’ by Pink Floyd were released in this format. Quad (as it’s sometimes abbreviated) was an early version of surround sound, which remains to this day, but has largely been superseded by the following surround sound formats.

Music Production Theory | Section A 5.1 Surround Sound This has become the most common form of surround sound for the home user. 5.1 surround sound kits are available as standard packages from electrical retailers, including cinema receivers which help distribute the surround sound as it’s played back from a DVD or other digital medium. This format is most widely used for film and TV sound, however, there have been many live show DVDs mixed in 5.1 surround sound, so it is certainly a format to be familiar with. The standard channels of a 5.1 surround system are: ■■ Left ■■ Centre ■■ Right ■■ Rear left ■■ Rear right ■■ Subwoofer The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:

Rear Left

Left

Rear Right

Right Subwoofer

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Centre

13

Section A | Music Production Theory 7.1 Surround Sound This is the next most common format for surround sound which slightly enhances the 5.1 standard. The difference being the addition of two more side speakers to make the experience even more realistic for the listener. The standard channels featured in 7.1 surround sound system are: ■■ Left ■■ Centre ■■ Right ■■ Left surround ■■ Right surround ■■ Rear left surround ■■ Rear right surround ■■ Subwoofer The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:

Left Surround

Left

Rear Left Surround Centre

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Rear Right Surround

14

Right Surround

Right Subwoofer

Music Production Theory | Section A Wireless Technology

While this is generally more of computer technology than a sound technology, it is very relevant to the modern recording studio. Physical connectivity is being replaced by wireless connection in many fields and it’s only a matter of time until this becomes more common in audio. RF – Radio Frequency Some wireless audio technologies have been around for a long time, such as radio frequency communication. This is a series of electromagnetic waves which travel long distances, as used in early radio broadcasting. Similar technology is still used today, although it’s fast being superseded by internet based communication. Bluetooth Whereas the above RF technology is used for long distance communication, a much more modern technology used for short distances is Bluetooth. Bluetooth is most commonly associated with mobile telephone handsfree kits, but can also be used for streaming music from devices to bluetooth speakers and connecting computers with peripherals such as keyboards and mice. Wi-Fi Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that uses radio communication to share data. As Wi-Fi and its associated technologies have developed, the speed of the data transfer has increased greatly, meaning with a good connection it is as useful as wired networking for the majority of situations. The most common use of Wi-Fi is to enable laptops and devices such as smartphones and tablets to connect to an internet enabled network. It can also be used peer to peer, to enable users to connect to other users without the need for the internet. This can be very useful in the studio when wishing to share large files from one laptop to another, without the potential for the intenet connection to slow the transfer down. A common misconception is that Wi-Fi is an abbreviation of ‘wireless fidelity’, but this is not the case. It is simply a now familiar term used by the Wi-Fi Alliance to name WLANs (wireless local area networks). Wi-Fi is currently broadcast at two radio frequencies: ■■ 2.4GHz ■■ 5GHz

This technology is constantly developing, so expect new Wi-Fi formats to become available soon.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

The 5GHz system is the more recent standard and offers the advantage of reduced interference and a more stable connection. The trade off is that the functional range of 5GHz Wi-Fi is not as far as the older 2.4GHz system.

15

Section A | Music Production Theory File Management

In the old days, which aren’t really that long ago, music was recorded to physical media such as reels of magnetic tape. At that time, it would be someone’s responsibility to label the tapes, make a copy and file them in a safe and secure place for future access. In the modern era of music production, the physical media are less widely used and we have moved on to digital storage – i.e. files stored on hard disks. While the technology has moved on, the same organisation and safety principles are just as relevant, if a tape goes missing then several days in the studio are wasted. If a hard disk goes missing, it could be hundreds of days in the studio that are lost! Therefore, the naming and organisation of files is just as important so that you know which files are saved and where, but even more important is making a copy. This copying process in the modern digital world is known as ‘backing up’. It can be said that the data on a hard disk only exists once it exists in two places. But that’s getting a little philosophical. Here’s the scenario, you work on an album, spending 10 days in the studio recording guitars, vocals, drums, then many overdubs, make many edits, you then mix and master the tracks while the band fly back to Los Angeles. Then the hard disk fails, it’s dead and all the data on it is gone. The band has gone, so you can’t re-record all the parts and even if you could, the deadline for delivering the project to the record label is tomorrow. You’ve spent all their money and now have nothing to show for it. If you had made a backup of the files by copying them all to a second hard disk, then all you would need to do when the hard disk fails is move over to the other disk and carry on as if nothing has happened. As backing up is so critical and one of those tasks which are boring and easily forgotten, there are numerous utilities available to do the job for you automatically. The Apple OSX operating system includes a function called ‘Time Machine’, which does exactly this. It will save a copy of your whole hard drive and update the backup at regular intervals (normally hourly but this can be changed). If the worst happens, you can simply enter the ‘Time Machine’ and jump back to when your file was last available – or even previous versions if you’ve made changes that you wish you hadn’t. Windows systems use something similar called ‘Backup & Restore’, and other 3rd party software is available which offers additional functionality. The basic service offered by the operating system is the absolute minimum you should use.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

When you have created a backup disk, try and get into the habit of keeping it somewhere different to where your primary hard disk is. For example, don’t keep it in your laptop bag with you laptop – if your bag is lost or stolen, you have lost your primary and backup drives at the same time.

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The same principle applies to desktop machines, if you can keep your backup in a different location then you reduce the risk of fires or floods ruining both sets of files. The most effective modern solution for backing up is to use cloud storage, where your files are located on a server somewhere on the other side of the world and automatically backed up for you. However, this can be expensive and relies on a fast internet connection.

Music Production Theory | Section A Plugins

Plugins are optional packages of software which can be installed into applications, enhancing their functionality in some way. In DAWs it’s common for some plugins to be included as standard, however, many 3rd party plugins can also be purchased which offer different functions or improved interpretations of the standard functions. Plugins can be split into two areas: Software Instruments (See ‘digital audio workstations’ in the Sound and Audio Fundamentals section.) Effects Plugins Effects plugins offer facilities such as EQ, compression, reverbs, delays, chorus, flange, phase and many other special effects or processing. When a plugin is applied to a DAW channel, it processes the sound on that channel with the selected effect. The DAW you are using will define which format of plugin you need. There are several formats available, including legacy formats which may not be compatible with your system. Always check which versions are compatible before purchasing plugins. Here are some examples of plugin formats: ■■ Audio Units ■■ RTAS ■■ AAX ■■ VST ■■ TDM ■■ DirectX Audio Units, AAX and VST are currently the most common formats. However, technology is constantly moving on and the software companies may introduce new formats at any point.

Solo

When making changes to any settings, it can sometimes be difficult to hear what effect you’re actually having on the audio because it’s hidden in the mix.

There are three types of solo function: Pre-Fade Listen (PFL) This enables you to listen to just the selected channel at the point just before the fader in the signal path. This is useful for checking the level in the channel to ensure it is loud enough and isn’t distorting. After Fade Listen (AFL) This enables you to listen to just the selected channel at the point just after the fader in the signal path. This enables you to listen to the output of the channel. Solo In Place (SIP) This enables you to listen to just the selected channel, exactly how it sounds within the mix. This is the most common form of solo used by DAWs. Not all mixing desks have all the above options, so check the specifications and look out for PFL, AFL or SIP on the switch labels.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

For this reason, mixing desks and DAWs all offer a solo function which mutes all the channels but the one you’re working on.

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Section A | Music Production Theory Sound and Audio Fundamentals Microphones Polar Patterns Microphones are designed to be able to pick up sound in different ways whether that be from every direction or focused on some directions and not others. The area that the microphone is sensitive to is known as its polar pattern. The ability to choose which polar pattern is needed makes them far more practical in a recording situation. The most common polar patterns are: Omnidirectional A microphone with this polar pattern is sensitive to sound from every direction equally. Remember that this is through three dimensions: Up, down, left, right, forwards and backwards.

Figure of 8 A figure of 8 microphone (sometimes abbreviated to fig-8) is most sensitive to sound from both infront and behind, creating a number 8 style pattern around the capsule. It rejects sound from the sides.

0°

0°

-5dB

-5dB

-10dB

-10dB

-15dB

-15dB

-20dB

-20dB

-25dB

-25dB

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

270°

18

90°

270°

90°

180°

180°

Example Omnidirectional Microphone: The Shure KSM44A is a large multi-pattern microphone that can be configured for omnidirectional work.

Example Figure of 8 Microphone: The AKG C414 is another multi-pattern microphone capable of working in a figure of 8 configuration.

Music Production Theory | Section A Cardioid A microphone with a cardioid polar pattern is more sensitive to sound from in front of its capsule, i.e. whatever the microphone is pointed at is loudest. This is probably the kind of microphone you are most familiar with. A side effect of the cardioid design is proximity effect. When a cardioid microphone is placed close to the sound source, the bass frequencies are emphasised. This can be a good or bad thing, depending on what you’re trying to achieve. Remember that it is there and exploit the effect when you want something to sound a little warmer or fuller. This can be good for ‘breathy’ vocals’

Hypercardioid A hypercardioid microphone is very similar to a cardioid, except that the front focus is exaggerated, causing it to reject even more sound from the sides. This makes it very useful in situations where you need to record a very specific sound source where there is lots of unwanted sound around it, e.g. a lead violin in an orchestra or when recording dialogue for a film in a noisy street location. There is a trade off for having a microphone that’s this focused and that’s that it is also sensitive to some sound from behind.

0°

0°

-5dB

-5dB

-10dB

-10dB

-15dB

-15dB

-20dB

-20dB

90°

180°

Example Cardioid Microphone: Sennheiser MD421

270°

90°

180°

Example Hypercardioid Microphone: Audio-Technica AT4053b

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

270°

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Section A | Music Production Theory Microphone Technique

Microphone techniques can be separated into three areas: ■■ ‘Close Miking’ ■■ ‘Multi-Miking’ ■■ ‘Stereo Miking’ Close Miking This is where you place a microphone close to the source with the intention being that you record only the desired source and as little as possible of anything else in the room. This technique is very common in modern recording, particularly in rock and pop music where a tight sound is required. Multi-Miking This is where more than one microphone is used to record a source with the intention that the microphones are mixed together later. This could be a combination of close miking and stereo miking techniques, although the result is not necessarily mixed in stereo. When using more than one microphone, a good rule of thumb for placement is to use the 3:1 rule. When using more than one microphone, you should ensure that the distance between two microphones is at least three times the distance to the source.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

1 ft

20

3 ft

Music Production Theory | Section A Stereo Miking This is where two microphones are used to record a sound source with the intention being to create a stereo representation of what that instrument sounds like in the environment that it is recorded in. This is achieved using two microphones, one of which will normally be panned hard left and the other panned hard right. For example, you may choose to record an acoustic guitar or string section in a nice sounding chamber with wooden panels to create a live reverberant sound. By using a stereo microphone technique you can better capture more of what the instruments sounded like in that nice sounding space, providing the listener with a more realistic auditory experience. There are numerous tried and tested stereo microphone techniques. Here are some examples: Space Pair / Spaced Omnis (also known as AB) This is a technique which requires two omnidirectional microphones although cardioids can also be used if omnis aren’t available. The two microphones are placed at a similar distance to the source but with a distance between them. For best effect, that distance should adhere to the 3:1 rule (see p.18). This microphone technique results in a spacious sound in which the room is very apparent and the stereo image is quite wide. As a result, this can cause problems with phase cancellation between the two microphones, so adjust the positioning of the microphones until you get the best sounding result and check that it still sounds good when in mono by panning the two microphones to the centre or using a mono switch on the mixing desk if you have one.

Coincident Pair (also known as XY) This technique requires two cardioid microphones which should be placed with the capsules directly above each other. They should then be directed in different directions to each other at an angle of between 90 and 135 degrees. This technique results in a controlled stereo image with the sound source still in focus. You might choose to use this technique for recording acoustic guitar or for drum overheads.

Source

4 ft

12 ft

Left Mic

Right Mic

Right

Left

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

4 ft

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Section A | Music Production Theory Mid-Side (also known as MS) This technique requires one cardioid microphone and one figure of 8 microphone. The two microphones are placed with the cardioid facing the desired sound source and the figure of 8 placed at a 90 degree perpendicular so that the front is pointing to the left and the rear is pointing to the right. The combination of the two microphones is now picking up sound from both the sound source and the room around it. The trick with this technique is in how the signals are handled at the mixing desk. The cardioid microphone is panned to the centre, while the figure of 8 microphone’s signal is split, panned left and right with the polarity inverted on one side. As the left and right will then be cancelled out when summed to mono, this makes the technique very good for mono compatibility.

Mid 0°

+

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Cardioid

22

= Figure 8

Side +

Side -

Music Production Theory | Section A Digital Audio Workstations

As you become more familiar with the functionality of the digital audio workstation, more and more concepts will become relevant to you. Here are some explanations of some of those concepts: Nonlinear Editing (NLE) The technology used in a DAW is known as a non-linear editing system, as opposed to a linear editing system such as tape. In a linear system the edits are made in a destructive way, i.e. any changes are applied to the original medium by cutting and reattaching pieces of tape.

As nonlinear editing leaves the original file unaffected – this is also known as non-destructive editing. Destructive Editing Some functions within a DAW can be set to make destructive edits. While still being used in a nonlinear system, you can override the nondestructive functionality to force the DAW to make permanent edits to the original file. This should be reserved for when you are 100% certain that you want to make the change. Software Instruments Software instruments are a kind of DAW plugin which are used to create sound much like a synthesiser or sound generator. Some software instruments emulate traditional instruments such as pianos, stringed instruments, horns or drumkits while other instruments known as soft synths create sound in an original way, much like a hardware synthesiser would. There is a huge variety of software instruments available which are in many cases more cost effective than buying the real instrument. The settings for all these effects and instruments can be altered to taste and saved along with the rest of the session.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

In a nonlinear system, the original medium (in this case an audio file) is not touched. The DAW uses computer trickery to make changes to what is heard from the file but without needing to change it permanently. This makes it possible to use the same piece of audio again and again, or to undo mistaken edits. This same technology is also heavily used in the video industry.

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Section A | Music Production Theory Sidechains & Key Inputs Sidechain The Sidechain is an insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for further processing. The signal received at the sidechain return is used as the trigger for the compressor but not sent to the output of the compressor – so it’s never heard. This makes it possible to make the compressor react in a different way. For example, if you want a compressor to compress more of the ‘S’s and ‘T’s in a vocal performances, you can use an EQ in the sidechain to boost those frequencies. This will make the compressor compress the sound more when those frequencies occur. Sidechain Listen Similar to a solo, this function allows you to hear what the compressor is reacting to at the sidechain return which may help you adjust the settings more accurately. Key Input The key input is similar to the sidechain of a compressor, except that it is just an input and not a loop. It is therefore possible to use a signal other than the one you are affecting to make the gate react by feeding that signal into the key input. For example, you could feed a kick drum into the key input of a gate on a bass guitar so that the bass guitar is only heard when the kick drum triggers it.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Key Listen Like a solo, this function allows you to hear what the gate is reacting to which may help you adjust the settings more accurately.

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Music Production Theory | Section A Sound & Acoustics

Sound is a series of vibrations caused by the oscillation of an object such as a speaker. When the speaker moves in and out it causes the air in front of it to compress and expand. When the speaker moves outwards, it creates a high pressure by compressing the air. When the speaker moves back again, it creates a low pressure rarefaction of the air.

Support Chassis

Cone Suspension

N Permanent Magnet Moving Voice Coil

S

Air Movement

Sound Wave

N

Input Voltage Signal

Electrical leads

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

As the speaker moves in and out at high speed, these compressions and rarefactions create waves in the air which move out in every direction. This is how sound travels until it reaches a receiver that can interpret the waves such as a microphone or our ears.

25

Section A | Music Production Theory It’s not just air that is affected by these sound waves. The same effect happens in liquids and solids too. In fact, sound travels faster in water and even faster in solids because the molecules are packed more tightly together enabling the waves to travel faster and further. Whales can talk to each other through hundreds of miles of water. Whale noises may not be particularly relevant to the production of music but it’s good to have an understanding of how sound moves around and how it is affected by what gets in its way.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

If you place your monitor speakers on a desk, you will not only hear the sound that comes from the speaker directly to your ears through the air but you will also hear the desk being resonated as well. This can be solved by placing the speakers on isolation pads or using heavy speaker stands filled with sand.

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Section B | Listening Skills

© OSABEE/Shutterstock

SUMMARY SECTION (Current section highlighted)

MARKS



Theoretical Written Exam

25 [25%]

>

Listening Test

15 [15%]



Coursework Task

60 [60%]

■■ Sonic Fidelity ■■ Music Theory & Harmony ■■ Stylistic Awareness At Grade 4 the aural content covered will include subject areas such as identifying the use of compression on instruments and mixes; identifying semitones and tones and compound time; and identifying specific genres.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

The Listening Test section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:

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Section B | Listening Skills Sonic Fidelity Objective: Identify Compressed and Uncompressed Audio

As a producer or sound engineer, your aural skills are extremely important as they enable you to hear both the music and its production values, so be mindful to always look after them. Avoid listening to music too loud and always be cautious of listening for too long. If you find yourself unavoidably subjected to high volume levels, be prepared to wear hearing protection. Whilst it is difficult to improve your hearing per se, there are ways you can improve your aural skills. This can be achieved by training your ears and brain to identify the sounds that you hear. Your aural skills are associative in nature i.e. by associating particular labels to particular sounds your brain will associate the label with the sound and subsequently you’ll stand a greater chance of identifying (and ultimately using) these sounds in the future. Always be prepared to listen intently and be aware that the producer’s analytical ear is one of his/her greatest tools. Compression is one of the most useful tools to music producers and engineers. It can be used for a multitude of different applications, but compression principally controls the dynamic range of a signal. Effective use of compression can make an instrument, vocal and even a full mix, sound smoother, warmer, fuller, smoother and richer. In certain instances, it can be used for more extreme effect. The only way you can improve your ability to hear the subtle changes in dynamic range is to practise listening to compressed and uncompressed material so that you can learn to identify the difference. Experiment with applying compression to both single instruments and full mixes, tweaking settings and allowing your ears to identify when compression is being applied. As your ears develop, you will be able to hear smaller changes. As part of the Grade 4 examination, you will be required to identify both instruments and mixes that have compression applied. ■■ In audio example LSG4SF1.wav you will hear an uncompressed bass guitar ■■ In audio example LSG4SF2.wav you will hear a heavily compressed bass guitar ■■ In audio example LSG4SF3.wav you will hear an uncompressed band recording ■■ In audio example LSG4SF4.wav you will hear a heavily compressed band recording

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Please note, Rockschool uses the term ‘sonic fidelity’ to define anything of an audible nature, but it would be just as likely for this to be referenced as ‘audio fidelity’ and subsequently both terms should be learnt.

28

Listening Skills | Section B Music Theory & Harmony Objective: Identifying Semi Tones and Tones

■■ In audio example LSG4H1.mp3, you will hear a root note followed by a semitone higher and then both notes will be played simultaneously. This is then followed by a two bar melodic phrase which consists predominantly of semi tones. ■■ In audio example LSG4H2.mp3, you will hear a root note followed by a whole tone higher and then both notes will be played simultaneously. This is then followed by a two bar melodic phrase consisting predominantly of whole tones.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Every chord, scale and arpeggio is constructed of two simple building blocks. One of these blocks is called a SEMITONE and the other, a TONE – but let’s call them ‘S’ and ‘T’ for short. You can think of the S block as a small cube and the T block as being twice as tall, like a rectangle standing on its end.

29

Section B | Listening Skills Objective: Compound Time Signature Recognition

Much of Western popular music is written in time which we discussed in Grade 2. We learned that notes to the bar and means 3 quarter notes to the bar.

d

f

f means 4 quarter

These time signatures are referred to as ‘simple time’ as each beat of the bar is divisible by 2. Another form of a time signature is compound time. In compound time signatures the top number i.e. the amount of beats in a bar, is always a multiple of 3, but not 3 itself. The bottom number of the time signature is more often 4 or 8, but could in certain instances be a 2 or 16. The top number is always divisible by 3 which makes compound time extremely useful for writing triplet-based rhythms. The resulting effect of compound time signatures is that the strongest beats in a bar have three note values between them, whereas in simple time signatures there are more commonly two. Common compound time signatures are and .

y W

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

In

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W we have 12 eight notes making up the full bar. That equates to 3 eight notes per standard quarter note (3 x 4 = 12). ■■ In audio example LSG4R1.mp3, you will hear a drum groove being played in W.

Listening Skills | Section B Stylistic Awareness Country

Country originated in the south of the USA in the 1920s, a blend of the styles that preceded it containing influences from cowboy songs, gospel, blues and European folk. Country is often characterised by eight-bar song structures and title-based choruses that encourage community singing. Like many folk music styles, country makes extensive use of (particularly major) pentatonic scales in its melodies, sometimes with a chromatic passing note. Songs are often harmonically diatonic, sometimes using only the basic I, IIm, IIIm, IV, V and VIm triads and progressions typically begin and end on the home key chord. Country songs usually feature a chorus, although there are some written in AABA form (verse-verse-bridge-verse), notably Willie Nelson’s ‘You Are Always On My Mind’ and Hank Williams Jr’s ‘Your Cheatin’ Heart’. Because country grew out of American folk music, its roots are in portable stringed instruments, particularly the acoustic guitar. Country bands rely on high-quality musicianship and virtuoso solos (typically violin, mandolin, guitar or banjo) are common. Country lyrics often deal with themes of home, love, commitment and rural life and the simple harmony underscores core ideas of sincerity, nostalgia and loyalty. Typical Country Progressions All of these progressions are examples of simple country harmony in a major key. The changes are all diatonic and the chords are not extended beyond the octave.

44

G

C

G

D

G

C

G

D

G

44 4 4

Bass Simplicity The role of the bass in country music is to underpin the harmony and it often does this as simply as possible. This classic country root-fifth bassline follows the chords harmonically and rhythmically does not deviate from the first and third beats of the bar. Country Scale The so-called ‘country scale’ is a modal inversion of the blues scale and consists of all of the notes of the major pentatonic scale with the addition of a minor 3rd. Typically the minor 3rd is used as a chromatic passing note, immediately followed by the major 3rd. The scale can be used by any melodic instrument when improvising in a major key.

■■ In audio example LSG4SA1.mp3 you will hear a country recording

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Fiddle Doublestops with Telecaster-Style Licks The guitar features prominently in country music. Acoustic guitars have long been used for accompaniment by singer/ songwriters, while electric guitars are a staple of the country band. Some of the signature sounds of country guitar are actually imitations of other instruments. Players such as Jerry Donahue and Albert Lee helped to popularise double stopping techniques reminiscent of fiddle playing, along with elaborate string bending influenced by the sound of the steel guitar.

31

Section B | Listening Skills Funk

James Brown may have been the Godfather of Soul but he was also the Father of Funk. In the late 1960s, songs like ‘Cold Sweat’ emphasised the first beat of the bar and sported roving basslines, percussive guitar and horn parts woven around a vocal. By the 1970s, acts like Sly and The Family Stone and Parliament/ Funkadelic (P-Funk) developed Brown’s sound. Funk is characterised by its lack of chord changes; instead, the extended chords of bebop feature overextended, single chord jams. Plenty of genres have co-opted the techniques of funk, most notably disco and to a lesser extent, jazz. In the 1980s, funk returned in updated guise via the likes of Prince and Red Hot Chili Peppers. The stripped-back, rhythmic style of classic funk can be achieved with bass, drums and guitar but it’s at its best when supplemented by keys and a brass section, typically consisting of saxophone, trumpet and trombone. More modern, 1980s funk-influenced music replaced the horns with synths. Funk has its fair share of virtuoso soloists, such as guitarists Eddie Hazel and Ernie Isley, but don’t forget the allimportant rhythm section with drummers such as Joseph ‘Zigaboo’ Modeliste (The Meters) and Clyde Stubblefield (James Brown) and bass players like Bootsy Collins (James Brown) counted among funk’s greats. Extended Chords Funk often makes use of extended chords where notes beyond the octave are added to underlying 7 chords (e.g. major 7s, minor 7s, dominant 7s) to create more advanced harmony. The essence of funk is the combination of extended harmony and rhythmic sophistication. In this example, this major-key progression is extended so that the chords are all major 9s, dominant 9s or dominant 11s. Parliament and Funkadelic supremo George Clinton.

44 ..

..

Horn Parts In funk bands, the core rhythm section – typically drums, electric bass, guitar and keyboards – can be augmented with additional instrumentation including percussion, backing vocals and horns. The horn part shown here would typically be played as an accompaniment under a vocal part because it features staccato ‘stabs’ in time with the snare drum. Funk-Style Rhythm Guitar The guitar’s rhythmic possibilities were taken to extremes with the pioneering players of the funk movement. Palm muting, extended chords, fast changes through three-string triads and metronomic right-hand rhythmic control are all key to a great funk part.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Funk Drum Grooves with Snare Displacement Most funk tracks are based around a 16th-note groove. This allows for substantial syncopation. In this example, the snare and bass drum are placed on weaker beats of the bar, creating rhythmic interest and establishing, through repetition of the pattern, a funk groove.

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■■ In audio example LSG4SA2.mp3 you will hear a funk recording

Section C | Coursework Task

© Menna/Shutterstock

SUMMARY SECTION (Current section highlighted)

MARKS



Theoretical Written Exam

25 [25%]



Listening Test

15 [15%]

>

Coursework Task

60 [60%]

Candidates must complete the Coursework Task before their exam and will be asked to upload the Task and screen shots during their exam.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

At Grade 4 the Technical Skills will centre around use of equalisation (EQ) for corrective/creative purposes. The Coursework Task will require candidates to remove any unwanted noise from a recording using appropriate techniques, such as manual editing, gating and crossfades.

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Section C | Coursework Task Technical Skills Once you have mastered the ability to identify frequencies, it’s time to put that into action. The Technical Skills portion of the Grade 4 examination will focus on practical use of EQ. You will be presented with a recording which requires some equalisation to balance it out. Using the skills you have developed, listen to the recording, identify the problem frequencies and use the EQ in your DAW to make the recording sound more natural. This is something that you can and should practise over and over, as your ears will develop slowly over time.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Tip: It’s good practice to use reference material. The world’s top sound engineers often have pieces of music which they listen to before they start recording or mixing as a way of ‘resetting’ their ears. These pieces of music will be commercially released audio that has a good balance of levels and frequencies.

34

Coursework Task | Section C Coursework Task Following on with the theme of enhancing music and using your ears, you should now focus on ensuring that your mixes only include the sound that you want them to include. It’s very easy to record some audio and have a little background noise become apparent. When you mix together twenty or thirty tracks of audio that all have a little background noise, it can quickly become distracting and ruin the production. Therefore, listen to your recordings and where there is background noise, either re-record it or remove it. In the Grade 4 Coursework Task, you will be presented with some audio which requires cleaning up. To prepare for this you should practise cleaning up your own recordings. Start by listening critically to what you have recorded, listen to everything that you can hear in between the instruments playing. Some things you might want to listen out for: ■■ Little creaks from floor boards ■■ Is the singer breathing particularly close to the microphone? ■■ Is the guitarist tapping his foot on the mic stand? ■■ Is there noise from the air conditioning or fans? ■■ Is a window open letting traffic noise in? These are just a few examples of what you might experience. There are two ways you can deal with these problems if you’re unable to re-record the parts. ■■ Noise gates ■■ Manual editing Each scenario might require a different solution, depending on how intrusive the noise is. Practise using a gate to allow the wanted signal through while preventing the noise from passing. If the unwanted noise is too loud, then a better result may be achieved by manually removing the problem areas. Use your DAW’s editing functions such as select, separate and delete to completely remove the noise. Be careful not to delete any of the parts you want to keep and you may like to use fade ins and outs to make the transitions a little smoother.

Don’t rely on being able to fix it in the mix. [continued on next page]

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Of course, in an ideal world you would get a good recording the first time around, so be critical of your recording technique when you are in the studio and always evaluate whether it’s as good as it can be.

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Section C | Coursework Task Coursework Task

60 Marks [60%] Assets for this task can be found in the book’s downloadable files

Your client is excited about their new track but their record label has sent it back saying it sounds ‘flat’ and ‘noisy’. You realise that it needs to be properly mixed to give it a more professional sound. Work your way through each track of the recording using EQ to remove unwanted frequencies, prevent tracks from masking each other, and try to bring out the excitement in the performance. You also notice some noisy ‘hiss’ that needs to be removed from the vocal track before it can be sent back to the label. Using EQ as well as appropriate techniques such as gating, manual editing and crossfades, work through this repair, get the track to a useable professional standard and save the file ready to send back to your stressed-out artist. Once you are happy with the final composition, render it to a stereo WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) and upload, also include screenshots of the EQ settings you have used labelled for each track so that the client can reproduce them in future if necessary.

Submission during your exam:

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

1. Submit a WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) of your finished work 2. Upload a screen shot of your main arrangement view including crossfades, EQ plugins and mixer view

36

Sample Paper

© Evgeny Drablenkov/Shutterstock

The following pages contain examples of the types of questions you will find in the Rockschool Music Production Grade 4 exam. They give an indication of the content, format, layout and level at this grade. You will see the sample paper has been split into the same three sections that have been presented earlier in this workbook: ■■ Part A: Theory ■■ Part B: Listening ■■ Part C: Coursework Task

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Please visit www.rslawards.com for detailed information on all Rockschool examinations, including syllabus specifications, marking schemes and examination entry information.

37

Grade 4 | Sample Paper Part A: Theory (25%) Section 1 | Music Production Terminology

Total marks for this section: 10 Mark:

Q 1.01 | Which control on a compressor adjusts the level at which the compressor starts to react?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.02 | Which control on a noise gate controls how quickly the gate opens?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.03 | What name is given to any arrangement of three or more speakers, arranged around the listener?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.04 | Which popular surround format uses 8 speakers?

1

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Your answer:

38

Q 1.05 | What name is given to the wireless data transfer system which allows computers, phones and other

smart devices to transfer data to each other?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.06 | What is RF?

Your answer:

1

Sample Paper | Grade 4 Q 1.07 | What name is given to the process of copying your files to an additional storage location?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.08 | Why should you backup your audio files?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.09 | What name is given to an optional piece of software which can be added to the signal path in a

DAW, offering compression, EQ and other effects?

1

Your answer:

Q 1.10 | What does AFL stand for?

1

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Your answer:

39

Grade 4 | Sample Paper Section 2: Sound & Audio Fundamentals

Total marks for this section: 10 Mark:

Q 2.01 | Which stereo microphone technique requires two cardioid microphones placed with adjacent

capsules at a 90–130 degree angle?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.02 | Which polar pattern accepts sound equally from all directions?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.03 | What does NLE stand for?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.04 | What name is given to the editing process which makes permanent changes to the original

recorded music?

1

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Your answer:

40

Q 2.05 | What name is given to a type of plugin which enables the user to create sound?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.06 | What is the difference between a software instrument and a soft synth?

Your answer:

1

Sample Paper | Grade 4 Q 2.07 | What name is given to the process of sending a signal from a compressor for further processing in

order to change the way the compressor reacts?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.08 | What does the key listen function on a gate do?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.09 | How does sound move through the air?

1

Your answer:

Q 2.10 | What happens to the air in front of a speaker cone when it is moving outwards?

1

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Your answer:

41

Grade 4 | Sample Paper Section 3: Glossary

Total marks for this section:

5

Mark: Q 3.01 | Which type of connector is used for 8 channels of balanced analogue audio?

1

Your answer:

Q 3.02 | What name is given to the rate at which something vibrates?

1

Your answer:

Q 3.03 | What does MADI stand for?

1

Your answer:

Q 3.04 | What does MS stand for?

1

Your answer:

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Q 3.05 | Which manufacturer makes the U87 microphone?

42

Your answer:

1

Sample Paper | Grade 4 Part B: Listening (15%) Section 4: Listening Skills

Total marks for this section: 15 Mark:

Q 4.01 | In audio example EXLSG4SF1.wav you will hear two solo instrument recordings. Which one

features the heaviest compression use? (Tick one box)



§A §B

Q 4.02 | In audio example EXLSG4SF2.wav you will hear two full mix recordings. Which one features the

heaviest compression use? (Tick one box)



§A §B

Q 4.03 | In audio example EXLSG4SF3.wav, which audio clip features compression being controlled by a

sidechain? (Tick one box)



whether the phrase is made up of either: (Tick one box)



whether the phrase is made up of either: (Tick one box)



1

§ Semitones § Whole tones

Q 4.05 | In audio example EXLSG4H2.mp3 you will hear a melodic phrase played on the piano. Identify



3

§A §B

Q 4.04 | In audio example EXLSG4H1.mp3 you will hear a melodic phrase played on the piano. Identify



3

§ Semitones § Whole tones

1

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition



3

43

Grade 4 | Sample Paper Q 4.06 | Identify the time signature of the drum groove in audio example EXLSG4R1.mp3: (Tick one box)



§d §f §W

Q 4.07 | Identify the time signature of the drum groove in audio example EXLSG4R2.mp3: (Tick one box)



§d §f §W

Q 4.08 | In which genre would you classify audio example EXLSG4SA1.mp3? (Tick one box)



Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition



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§ Country § Pop § Funk § Blues

1

1

2

Sample Paper | Grade 4 Part C: Coursework Task (60%) Section 5: Coursework Task

Total marks for this section: 60 15 Mark:

Q 5.01 | Bring your coursework task and screen shots to your exam – you will be asked to upload these

during the exam. There will also be a number of questions for you to answer regarding the task. These will focus on:

60

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

■■ The skills used to complete the task ■■ How you approached the professional nature of the task ■■ How you interpreted the creative elements

45

Glossary 1/4" Jack A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 1/4”. 2.1 Sound An audio format which uses the traditional left and right of stereo but adds a subwoofer. The subwoofer does not have its own discrete channel, but rather is fed the lower frequencies of the left and right signal via a crossover. 3.5mm Jack Also known as mini-jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by consumer headphones. 5.1 Surround Sound A surround sound format which uses 6 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround and subwoofer. 7.1 Surround Sound A surround sound format which uses 8 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround, left back surround, right back surround and subwoofer. AB A stereo microphone technique where two omnidirectional microphones are placed apart from each other, adhering to the 3:1 rule. This technique provides a very wide stereo image. Ableton Live A digital audio workstation which is very popular with electronic musicians due to its focus on real time interaction. Acoustic Instrument A musical instrument which creates sound without the need for electrical power. For example, an acoustic guitar, drum or piano.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

ADAT Lightpipe An optical digital data transfer connection capable of transferring 8 channels of high quality audio at once.

46

AFL An initialism of ‘after fade listen’, used to solo a channel after the fader. .aif A file suffix (also known as .aiff) used for AIFF files. AIFF An acronym of ‘audio interchange file format’. This file format is considered high quality as it is a lossless format. It has largely been superseded by Wav in the interest of compatibility. AKG C1000 A rugged condenser microphone, often used in live situations to amplify drum kits.

Glossary AKG C414 A high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, mainly used in studio situations for instruments such as acoustic guitars, pianos and vocals. AKG C451 \ AKG C451B A small condenser microphone with good balance between quality and price. Often used for stereo miking acoustic guitars or drum kits. AKG D112 An industry standard dynamic microphone most commonly used for recording kick drums. Amp/Amplifier An electrical or electronic device which increases the amplitude of a signal. Analogue Constantly varying. Refers to audio devices which are not digital. App Store An abbreviation of ‘application store’, an online cloud based service which provides access to new applications. Many software companies use an application store, such as Apple, Microsoft and Google. Arrange Window The main area of a DAW which enables the user to organise and edit audio clips. Artist Manager The person or company who looks after the interests of the artist. This might include negotiating their contracts, managing finances, organising transport and other logistics or managing their diary to ensure they are in the right place at the right time.

Audio File An audio recording in digital format, most commonly on a computer system. Audio Interface The computer peripheral which enables the user to input and output audio from a computer, converting the analogue sound into digital when recording and the digital back into audio when played back. Audio Track A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording or playing back audio files. Automation Track/Lane A type of channel view in a DAW which shows the automation recorded to that channel. In most DAWs the automation is overlayed on top of the recorded audio or other channel content.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Attenuate To make quieter.

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Glossary Aux An abbreviation of ‘auxiliary’. Auxiliary This refers to the function of a mixing desk which can send part of a signal in a channel to an additional destination. Often used for sending a varying amount of signal to a reverb or other effects. Auxiliary Track A type of channel in a DAW which is used purely for routing and processing audio. Backup A copy of the materials from a project created to ensure that nothing is lost if the originals are damaged. Bandwidth The range of audio frequencies which directly influence the fidelity of a sound. Bass Guitar A kind of guitar with a register that is one octave below a traditionally pitched guitar. In its most common 4-string format, the pitching mirrors the lowest four strings of a traditional guitar. Bluetooth A wireless connection technology, mainly used for consumer peripherals such as connecting mice or keyboards to computers or connecting mobile telephones to handsfree devices. Boost To raise the level of an audio signal or part of an audio signal in the case of equalisation. Bounce The creation of a new mix file from the audible elements of a session.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Cable A wire which connects two devices, normally coated in rubber or plastic for durability.

48

.caf A file suffix used for CAF files. CAF An acronym of ‘core audio format’. This is a file format developed by Apple, to enable users to create large file sizes for example, long audio recordings. Cardioid A microphone polar pattern. Cardioid pattern mics are most sensitive to sounds in front of the mic, rejecting sounds from the rear.

Glossary CD An abbreviation of ‘compact disc’. CD-ROM An acronym of ‘compact disc read only memory’. CDs can store both audio for playback on consumer CD players or data for retrieval by computers using a CD-ROM drive. Cello A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres. It is larger than a viola, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch. Channel (MIDI) One of 16 different paths of data that can be used to carry MIDI messages. Channel (Mixing Desk) A default signal path through a mixing desk. A mixing desk will have a set number of channels, each of which will be numbered. Chord A musical collection of notes played at the same time to form harmony. Chord Progression A sequence of chords. Chrome An internet browser created and developed by Google.

Collaboration A method of working which involves working with others with the shared goal of achieving something greater than what may have been achieved in isolation. Compact Disc An optical digital audio medium used for sharing music. Compact disc was the largest selling music medium from the late 80’s to early 2000s and remains widely used. A CD can hold 74 minutes of stereo audio or up to 700MB of data. Compressor An audio device which reduces the dynamic range of a signal. Computer The hardware which hosts the DAW software, typically an Apple Macintosh or Windows PC.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Coincident Pair A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are as close together as possible.

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Glossary Computer Keyboard A computer peripheral used for entering letters into a computer. It can also be used with certain software applications to trigger shortcut functions. Condenser A microphone design which uses a capacitor and requires 48v phantom power. Achieves a crisp and clear sound. Console Also known as mixing desk or mixing console. Contrabass A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres. It is larger than a cello, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch. It is commonly transposed up an octave due to the notes it is capable of, requiring excessive ledger lines making it difficult to read. Control Room The part of a recording studio where the sound engineer will operate the equipment such as the mixing desk. Controller Keyboard An emulation of the piano which is unable to generate sounds on its own. It will generally be MIDI enabled so will use the MIDI protocol to trigger sounds on a synthesiser. Copy A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the clipboard (RAM). CPU An abbreviation of ‘central processing unit’. A silicon chip that performs calculations and acts as the ‘brain’ of a computer.

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Crossover An electronic device which divides up the frequency spectrum so that the different frequency ranges can be sent to different speakers. For example, a tweeter for high frequencies and woofer for lower frequencies.

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Cubase A digital audio workstation (DAW) created and developed by Steinberg. Cut Another name used for mute, used to silence signal paths on a mixing desk, e.g. channel or auxiliaries. Also used to refer to a reduction in level when using equalisation. Cut A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the clipboard (RAM) while simultaneously deleting it from its original location.

Glossary D-Sub A kind of connector used in computing and audio applications which has multiple pins. There are numerous sizes, the most common of which in audio technology would be the DB-25 which has twenty five pins capable of carrying 8 channels of balanced analogue audio (either 8 in one direction or 4 in and 4 out). It may also be used in digital audio applications using the TDIF standard. DAT An abbreviation of ‘digital audio tape’. DAW An abbreviation of ‘digital audio workstation’. De-esser A device which is used to balance out the sibilance in a performance. It combines a compressor and EQ in one device. The EQ is used to boost the sibilant frequencies of the input (normally a vocal) which causes the compressor to compress these frequencies more than the others. Delete A computer software function, common to most software which removes a selected portion. Destructive Editing The editing of an original file or recording which cannot be undone. Digital A digital device uses binary to function. Digital Audio Audio recorded to a digital device such as a computer.

Digital Audio Workstation Music production software for recording and editing MIDI and audio data. Examples include Cubase, Logic, Pro Tools, Garageband and Ableton Live. The DAW can be used for recording audio, editing audio, cutting up and rearranging audio recordings and loops, mixing, creating MP3 files and many other functions. DIN A five pin plug or socket, most commonly used by MIDI devices but can also carry audio when connected to audio devices. Distortion When the maximum sound level of an analogue device is exceeded. Unlike digital clipping, analogue distortion can be appealing for example, when overloading a guitar amplifier.

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Digital Audio Tape A linear medium which uses tape to record sound as digital data. Introduced in 1987, it was once the industry standard for recording final mixes before sending to be duplicated.

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Glossary DJ A performer who plays back pre-recorded material, crossfading between tracks. A modern DJ may also create content of his own for playback and interact with the music. Drum Editor A piano roll style DAW editor but tuned to enable easier drum editing. Drum Kit A rhythmic instrument commonly used in modern music featuring a combination of drums and cymbals. Drum Machine A hardware device or software instrument used to create drum patterns. Duck When the duck function is active, the signal arriving at the key input causes the signal at the input to lower in level. Duplicate A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected portion and replicates it immediately after the original instance. DVD An initialism of ‘digital versatile disc’. An optical format much like a CD but with far greater storage capacity. This made it the standard for consumer video playback. DVD-ROM DVDs can be used to store video content for playback on consumer DVD players or data which can be retrieved by computer systems using a DVD-ROM drive. This is a cost effective medium for sharing large session files with others if a network transfer isn’t practical.

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Dynamic A microphone design which uses electro-magnetism to convert acoustic energy into electrical energy.

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Dynamics The variation in perceived level of a mix. Ear The part of the human body which enables us to hear sound. It converts acoustic energy into electrical nerve impulses for the brain to interpret as audio. Editing The process of altering the arrangement of recorded audio or MIDI data in order to composite a more favourable version.

Glossary Electric Guitar A guitar which uses an electromagnetic pickup to convert the vibrations in the strings to waves of electricity which is then amplified to create sound. Electrical Sound Source A source of sound which is created through electrical means for example, a synthesiser. Electrostatic Another name given to a condenser or capacitor microphone. Emulation The effect of recreating something analogue in the digital domain. For example, a software instrument piano is an emulation of a real piano. EQ An abbreviation of ‘equaliser’, a function which alters the tone of the input signal. Equalisation The process of changing the frequency content, tone or timbre of an audio signal. Ethernet The name given to the networking standards of LAN devices. It most commonly uses an RJ45 cable. Event Editor A DAW editor window which enables the editing of individual MIDI events using text. Expander An audio device which works much like the opposite of a compressor, in that it increases the dynamic range of a signal so that the quiet signals are made even quieter. It can be used instead of a gate to achieve a more natural effect.

Fade Out To gradually reduce the level of a signal until it disappears. Fader The component on a mixing desk which adjusts the channel level. Faders are also emulated in DAWs. Finder The area of the Apple OSX operating system which enables users to organise files and folders. Firefox An internet browser created and developed by Mozilla.

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Fade In To gradually increase an audio signal from nothing to its normal level.

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Glossary Firewire A peripheral connection with two different versions available; Firewire 400 and 800. The number represents the speed in Mbps. It may also be referred to as IEEE 1394. FL Studio A digital audio workstation, originally called ‘Fruity Loops’ but renamed as it grew more popular. Created and developed by Image-Line. Frequency The rate at which something vibrates, measured in cycles per second (Hertz/Hz). In sound, the higher the frequency of a sound wave then the higher the pitch that we hear. Fundamental Frequency The core frequency within a sound which determines its musical pitch. Gain A function of an amplifier circuit which makes the signal louder. Among other places you will find it at the input stage of a mixing desk channel to control how much signal is entering the console. Garageband An entry level digital audio workstation, created and developed by Apple. Currently supplied free with every new Apple Macintosh computer. Gate An audio device which helps to remove unwanted signals below a certain threshold for example, to remove the sound of the cymbals from a snare microphone. Graphic Equaliser A type of equaliser which divides the frequency spectrum into bands, typically by octaves or 1/3rd of an octave.

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Guitar Pickup The component of a guitar which converts the vibration of the string into electrical energy using an electromagnetic field.

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Hard Disk Also referred to as ‘hard drive’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system where files are saved to be retained after the computer has been switched off. Hard Drive Also referred to as ‘hard disk’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system, where files are saved to be retained after the computer has been switched off. HDD An initialism of ‘hard disk drive’.

Glossary Headphone A portable pair of speakers which can be worn on the head. Headphone Volume The function on a device which alters the volume specific to the headphones. This control would be independent of the volume sent to the main monitor speakers in a studio. Hertz The unit of frequency, cycles per second, abbreviated ‘Hz’. High Fidelity High quality audio. High Pass Filter A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies below a defined frequency allowing the higher frequencies to pass. High Shelf A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies above a set frequency. HPF An initialism of ‘high pass filter’. Hz An abbreviation of ‘hertz’. Internet The global system of connected computers which use a standard communication protocol.

iTunes An application created and developed by Apple for purchasing, organising and listening to music files. It can also be used for managing the content on Apple’s smart devices such as iPhones, iPods and iPads and stream content to Apple TVs. iTunes Store Apple’s online music and multimedia purchasing/rental service. Music, film and TV shows can be purchased/rented and downloaded immediately. The user will be required to set up an Apple ID. Jack Connector A male connector commonly used in patch bays, line level equipment and guitar connections.

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Internet Explorer An internet browser created and developed by Microsoft.

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Glossary Key Input An input on a gate or expander. The gate or expander uses the key input as its trigger, making it possible to have the gate react to something other than the signal that is being processed. For example, you could have a synth pad playing through the gate with a hi-hat fed into the key input, meaning that the synth would only be heard when the hi-hat is played. Keyboard An electronic version of a piano, regarded as an artificial sound source as it requires a synthesiser to make sound. Knee A function of a compressor which determines how severely the dynamics of a signal are affected when they exceed the threshold. Launchpad A part of the Apple OSX operating system which provides a shortcut to all the installed applications. Layering Recording additional parts over the top of existing parts so that they sound like one part when they are mixed together. For example, a string section playing the same melody as a piano. LCD An initialism of ‘liquid crystal display’. Most commonly found as small screens. Level The absolute volume of an audio signal in electrical terms. LFE An initialism of ‘low frequency effects’ which refers to the subwoofer used in surround systems.

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Limiter A type of compressor which reduces the dynamic range drastically using a very high ratio above the set threshold.

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Line Input Used for connecting line level devices, such as synthesisers or outboard equipment. Linear Editing The historical editing process which involved cutting tape in order to make edits. This was very limiting and has since been superseded by non-linear editing. Live Room The part of a recording studio where the performance takes place and microphones are used to record. Lo-Fi An abbreviation of ‘low fidelity’. Sometimes used for creative effect.

Glossary Logic Pro A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called C-Lab and now owned and developed by Apple. .logicx The file suffix for a Logic Pro X session file. Loop A repeating pattern of MIDI data or segment of audio. Low Fidelity Low quality audio. Sometimes used for creative effect. Low Pass Filter A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies above a defined frequency, allowing the lower frequencies to pass. Low Shelf A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies below a set frequency. LPF An initialism of ‘low pass filter’. MADI An acronym of ‘multichannel audio digital interface’. A high quality digital audio transfer protocol which is capable of carrying up to 64 channels of audio and at samples rates of up to 96kHz. You are unlikely to find this level of technology in a home studio but far more likely in a professional studio or in high end location recording.

Memory Stick A term used to describe a USB flash based storage device. The term memory stick was initially used by Sony, but has since become a term used for all such devices. Metronome A device which emits a regular click in time with the tempo and time signature. Microphone A transducer which converts acoustic sound into electrical signal. Mid-Side A stereo microphone technique where a figure of 8 microphone is placed at 90 degrees to a cardioid. The figure of 8 microphone is used to collect left and right while the cardioid is focused on the subject. The figure of 8 microphone’s signal is split, panned left and right with one side phase inverted. As the left and right will then be canceled out when summed to mono, this makes the technique very good for mono compatibility without requiring remixing.

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Marker A way of labeling time or arrangement locations in a DAW project for example, verse 1, chorus, middle 8 etc.

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Glossary MIDI An acronym of ‘musical instrument digital interface’. The protocol used to transmit and receive musical information between MIDI devices. This could be used for many purposes, including triggering notes on a synthesiser and adjusting settings on an effects processor. MIDI In The MIDI input connector of a device. MIDI Interface A device which enables MIDI devices to be connected to a computer. Some MIDI devices now use USB to avoid the need for a MIDI interface. MIDI Keyboard A piano like electronic device for triggering a MIDI synthesiser or recording into a DAW. MIDI Merge A device which combines the MIDI output of two devices into one input of another. MIDI Message An instruction sent between MIDI devices for control purposes. MIDI Out The MIDI output connector of a device. MIDI Port A female MIDI connector on a MIDI device which enables connection to other MIDI devices using a MIDI cable. Ports include ‘in’, ‘out’ and ‘thru’.

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MIDI Thru A MIDI connector which enables MIDI devices to be chained together. All data that arrives at the MIDI input of the device is replicated at the MIDI thru port for passing on to the next device.

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MIDI Track A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording and playing back MIDI data. It creates no sound in itself and requires its output to be routed to a MIDI synthesiser or software instrument on a different channel. Mini Jack Also known as 3.5mm jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by consumer headphones. Minidisc An evolution of the CD which housed the optical disc inside a plastic case making it smaller and more durable. Mix The version of a recording which features all the required recorded elements balanced together coherently.

Glossary Mix Window An area of a DAW which enables the user to balance the levels of the recorded sounds. Mixer The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different locations. Also referred to as mixing desk or mixing console. Mixing The process of balancing the relative level of the recorded audio tracks. The ideal result being a coherent and wellbalanced sound. Mixing Desk The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different locations. Monaural A single channel of audio. Monitor Display The visual interface of a computer system. Monitor Speaker The main set of speakers that the sound engineer will use to listen to their mix in the studio. Mono An abbreviation of ‘monaural’.

MP3 An abbreviation of ‘mpeg-2 audio layer 3’. A lossy compressed audio format which has a smaller file size than a WAV file. Their combination of small file size and acceptable audio quality have made them very popular with consumers. MS An initialism of ‘mid-side’. Mute The function which silences a device or channel. My Computer The area of the Microsoft Windows operating system which enables users to organise files and folders.

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Mouse A common computer peripheral used to control the pointer on screen.

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Glossary Natural Sound Source A source of sound which is created through natural means for example, the vibration of a string or drum skin. Near Coincident Pair A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are within 30cm of each other but not immediately next to each other. Neumann U87 A very high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, it is considered to be an industry standard in commercial studios, used for vocals, acoustic guitars, pianos and other acoustic instruments. Noise Unwanted sound, such as hiss, hum or buzz. Non-Destructive Editing The type of editing employed by modern DAW software where the original file is not affected by changes made to it in the software. Non-Linear Editing A non destructive form of editing, as used in modern DAW software. Note On A MIDI message which triggers a note to sound. Octave 12 semitones. One octave up is double the frequency of the starting pitch.

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Offline Any computer action which takes place through local processing.

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Operating System The software installed on a computer which controls its most basic functions such as how it communicates with peripherals and interacts with other installed software applications. The operating system is the graphic user interface that the user interacts with. OSX An operating system created and developed by Apple which comes preinstalled on all new Apple Macintosh computers. Outboard Device Any piece of equipment which is not part of the mixing desk or computer system. Pan An abbreviation of ‘panorama’. Commonly referring to the pan pot, a control on a mixing desk or DAW channel which moves the signal from left to right in the stereo image.

Glossary Parameters Programmable elements of device or system. Parametric EQ An accurate form of equalisation where the gain, frequency and Q factor can all be changed. Paste A computer software function common to most software which inserts the contents of the clipboard at a chosen location. Patch Settings that have been saved for future recall in hardware devices such as synthesisers or effects units. Patch Cable A short cable which is used to make connections on a patch bay. Some guitarists also use patch cables to connect their pedals together due to their conveniently short length. Patch Bay A series of rackmount sockets, which represent every connection in the studio. This makes it possible to connect two devices together without running cables across the room and overcoming inaccessible rear connections. Period One cycle of an oscillation for example, a sound wave. Peripheral An external device that can be connected to a computer system to enhance its capabilities, e.g. audio interface, MIDI interface, keyboard, monitor and mouse.

PFL An initialism of ‘pre fade listen’. This enables signal to be sent from a channel independently of the fader level. A common use of this is for headphone mixes. Phantom Power The 48v power supply required by condenser microphones. Phono Connector Also known as RCA connector. Piano A stringed instrument which uses keys to trigger hammers that strike the strings.

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Personnel The people involved in a project or task.

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Glossary Piano Roll Editor A DAW editor window which enables the manipulation of MIDI note data which is arranged in a matrix with the piano keys from top to bottom and time from left to right. Pitch A fixed note determined by its fundamental frequency. Plugin An optional piece of software which operates within a DAW. Many plugins are supplied with a DAW, however, further plugins can be purchased from 3rd party manufacturers. There are several formats of plugin, including Audiounit, AAX, VST and RTAS. Post-fader Anything that occurs after the fader in channel signal flow. Pot An abbreviation of ‘potentiometer’. Potentiometer A variable resistor which exists on mixing consoles in the form of knobs such as gain, EQ and pan. Pre-fader Anything which occurs before the fader in chanel signal flow. Preamp An amplifier which brings the input signal up to an acceptable operating level for example, the gain stage of a mixing desk is a microphone preamplifier.

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Preset The memory settings which come pre-installed on a device such as a synthesiser, effects unit, software instrument or plugin.

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Pro Tools A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called Digidesign but now owned and developed by Avid. Producer The person who leads a music recording project, quite often making creative decisions and managing budgets where applicable. It is the producer’s responsibility to ensure a project runs to time. Programme Change Message A MIDI message which instructs a device to switch between stored programmes. Promoter The person or company who is responsible for ensuring live performances are advertised to the public and other organisations such as the press.

Glossary .ptx The file suffix of a Pro Tools session file. Punch In/Out The function of a recording device to enable and disable recording during playback, enabling small sections to be recorded over. Q An abbreviation of ‘quality’. A function of parametric EQ which adjusts the accuracy of the frequency band which is being affected, a high Q is more accurate, a low Q affects a wider frequency band. Quadraphonic Sound Also referred to as 4.0 surround. An early surround sound format which uses four speakers located in the corners of the room. Quantisation An automatic MIDI editing process which shifts the start of notes onto the selected beat, e.g. the closest 1/4 note, 8th note etc. RAM An acronym of ‘random access memory’, short term storage in a computer system which is cleared on restart. Ratio The control on a compressor or expander with controls how much compression or expansion is applied. RCA Connector Also referred to as a phono connector. An unbalanced connection most commonly used in consumer hi-fi equipment.

Record Decks A playback device for the vinyl format. Used by DJs normally in pairs with a DJ mixer to crossfade between playback from each. Recording The process of capturing real-world audio and storing it on a physical medium. Recording Studio A room or complex of rooms which is used to record sound. Release (Dynamic Processing) The time it takes for the dynamic processor to recover to normal.

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Real Time Processing that is applied in the same amount of time as it takes to play back the affected audio.

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Glossary RF An initialism of ‘radio frequency’. ROM An acronym of ‘read only memory’. An area of computer storage which can only be read from and can not be overwritten. Routing A function, commonly found on mixing desks which enables the user to set the signal path. For example, you could route a microphone signal to the input of the DAW. Sample Editor An area of a DAW which enables the user to edit an audio clip in detail. Sampler A hardware or software device which can record and manipulate short audio clips and trigger them using MIDI note messages. Samplers are also emulated in software instrument plugins. Sampling The process of converting acoustic audio into digital audio by measuring the waveform amplitude at set time intervals. Save To retain any work in progress. In a DAW this would be the generation of a ‘session’ file. Score Editor A DAW editor window which enables the user to input or edit musical notation. Semi-Parametric EQ A simplified version of a parametric EQ where there is no Q control, just gain and frequency.

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Sennheiser MD421 A high quality dynamic microphone, often used for recording guitar amplifiers and toms.

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Sequencer A legacy name for a digital audio workstation referring to the sequencing of audio or MIDI regions in the arrange page. Session File A DAW saved file which will often also require additional assets such as audio files. Shelving A kind of equaliser which affects all frequencies above (hi-shelf) or below (lo-shelf) a specified frequency.

Glossary Shortcut Function Software applications use combinations of key presses on a computer keyboard to trigger certain actions. Some are standardised for example, Command-S on a Macintosh is the shortcut to save in all applications, the equivalent being Control-S on a Windows PC. Shure SM57 A rugged dynamic microphone, similar to the SM58 but without the mesh protection. Commonly used for recording guitar amps and close miking drum kits. Shure SM58 A rugged dynamic microphone, most commonly used for vocals in live performances. Sidechain An insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for processing. The signal received at the sidechain return is used as the trigger for the compressor. This makes it possible to make the compressor react in a different way, perhaps to certain frequencies more than others, as in the case of de-essing. Sine Wave A basic waveform with constant amplitude and consistent frequency. Soft Synth An abbreviation of ‘software synthesiser’. A software version of a synthesiser, a software instrument plugin. Software Instrument An optional piece of software which operates within a DAW as a synthesiser of various kinds of instrument. Many software instruments are supplied with a DAW, however, further instruments can be purchased from 3rd party manufacturers.

Solid State Drive An evolution of the hard disk drive, which uses solid state technology to save the files rather than using physical magnetic disk plates. This makes the drive less prone to damage and enables faster data transfer rates. Solo A function of a mixing desk and DAW which enables the sound engineer to listen to channels in isolation. Song A piece of music, composed and arranged. Sound Engineer The person who is primarily in control of the equipment and aims to achieve the best quality of sound possible. They would work under direction from the producer.

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Software Instrument Track A type of channel in a DAW which is a hybrid between audio and MIDI. It has an audio output which responds to MIDI input by triggering a software instrument added to one of the plugin slots.

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Glossary Spaced Omni Another name for the AB microphone technique. SPDIF An acronym of ‘Sony Philips digital interface’. This is a audio data transfer protocol used over short distances to make a single stereo connection between two devices. In most cases it will use an RCA connector, however, it can also use an optical TOSLINK connection. Speaker The device which converts electrical energy into acoustic energy, i.e. the opposite of a microphone. Speakon A cable connector created by Neutrik, used most commonly for connecting amplifiers and speakers in PA systems. Spill Unwanted sound that enters a microphone for example, spill from the headphones on a vocalist or spill from the cymbals on a snare microphone. Spotify An online music streaming service which has a free subscription with advertising or for a monthly subscription the user can bypass advertising and obtain additional functionality. SSD An initialism of ‘solid state drive’. Standard MIDI File A standard format for saving MIDI data for sharing between devices. There are two kinds, type 1 (multiple tracks of MIDI) and type 0 (a single track of MIDI).

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Status Byte An initial message sent to a MIDI device which identifies its purpose.

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Step Sequencing Recording MIDI into a sequencer or DAW one note at a time without needing to keep up with the tempo. Stereo A realistic sounding format for audio which uses two channels to emulate the feeling of space around a sound. Stringed Instrument An instrument which generates its sound from the resonation of a pitched string. Strings A collective term used for stringed instruments, most commonly referring to bowed instruments such as violin, viola, cello and contrabass.

Glossary Studio Assistant The person in the studio who assists the sound engineer for example, setting up microphones or operating the patch bay. Studio One A digital audio workstation created and developed by Presonus. Studio Runner The person in the studio whose role it is to ensure that everyone has what they need during a recording session. They might be tasked with fetching equipment or making tea. Subwoofer A speaker which is designed to produce very low frequencies, often referred to as the ‘.1’ in surround formats, i.e. 5.1, 7.1. Surround Sound An audio format which uses more than two speakers arranged around the listener to provide a more realistic environment. Sustain Pedal A MIDI controller used to emulate the sustain pedal of a piano. When the sustain pedal is held, any notes that are played will continue to sound beyond the release of the key/note off message. Sweep EQ Another name for the mid band of a semi parametric EQ. Synth An abbreviation of ‘synthesiser’.

System Preferences The part of an operating system that enables the user to optimise the computer for the required purpose such as audio recording. Tape / Magnetic Tape A linear magnetic medium used to record sound and music. It is now rarely used due to its inconvenience and expense but many engineers still maintain that it sounds better than the digital equivalents. TDIF An abbreviation of ‘Tascam digital audio interface’ named after its founding company. Initially a standard for connecting Tascam digital tape machines, it has also been adopted by other manufacturers to connect digital mixing desks and other multichannel devices. The technology has since been superseded by MADI and ethernet based standards.

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Synthesiser An electronic device which generates sound. This may be original sound, designed for its own tone and timbre or it may be to emulate acoustic instruments such as piano and drums.

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Glossary Template Predefined settings which enable the user to get started more quickly. Threshold The control on a compressor, expander or gate which defines the sound level at which the device will react. Thunderbolt A peripheral connection which is capable of very high data transfer rates. There are three versions available with Thunderbolt 3 being capable of 40Gbps. Timbre The tonal colour of a sound. Time Machine A component of the OSX operating system which enables automatic backup of data stored on that computer or any connected hard drives. Individual files can easily be retrieved if needed. TOSLINK An acronym of ‘Toshiba link’, named after its founding company. It uses the same connector as ADAT lightpipe to connect two digital audio devices, using the SPDIF protocol to transfer the data. This is most common on consumer hi-fi equipment for example, connecting a CD player to an amplifier. Track An individual element of recording or recorded material such as a vocal or guitar. When working with more than one track, it is referred to as ‘multi tracking’. A track is different to a channel. Track Pad An alternative to a mouse which is useful in small spaces. Commonly found on laptop computers but also available as a peripheral.

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Trackball An alternative to a mouse which uses a ball on the top for control of the pointer. Sometimes preferred by sound engineers due to it remaining static on the work surface.

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Transducer A device which converts one kind of energy into another for example, acoustic energy into electrical energy in the case of a microphone. Transport The controls of a DAW which enable the user to play, stop, pause, fast forward, rewind and record. Trim Another name for the gain stage of a mixing desk, except that trim can also be used to reduce the level of the input.

Glossary Trombone A brass instrument which uses a telescopic slide to alter the note. Commonly used in classical music among many other genres. Trumpet A brass instrument with three valves, the highest register in the family of instruments. Commonly used in jazz and classical music, among many other genres. Tweeter A speaker which is designed to produce higher frequencies. Unity Gain When the output of an audio circuit is at the exact same level as the input level, i.e. when a fader is at zero on a mixing desk. USB An initialism of ‘universal serial bus’. A standard peripheral connection used on both PCs and Macs. Three versions are available with varying speeds. USB3 is the fastest at the time of going to print with a data transfer rate of 480 megabits per second. Vinyl Record A flat circular piece of vinyl with grooves cut into it. A record player needle sits in the groove as it rotates, the vibrations in the needles are amplified to playback the recorded sound, making it an analogue medium. Viola A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres. It is slightly larger than a violin, giving it a deeper sound. Violin A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres.

.wav A file suffix used for Wav files. Wav An abbreviation of ‘waveform’. Wav files are the industry standard digital audio file format. They are considered high quality as they are a lossless format. Waveform The visual representation of an audio wave, as seen in the DAW arrange page or sample editor.

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Voice A natural sound source created from air (breath) passing over the vocal cords in the throat.

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Glossary Wi-Fi Also known a WLAN. Windows An operating system created and developed by Microsoft. There are numerous versions including Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10. WLAN An acronym of ‘wireless local area network’. A wireless connection to a local network. Woofer A speaker which is designed to produce lower frequencies. World Wide Web The content that is stored and accessed via the internet. XLR Connector A balanced connection used in most professional level equipment. The standard connection for microphones. Also referred to as a cannon connector. XY A stereo microphone technique where two cardioid microphones are placed at an angle of 90–135 degrees of each other, with the capsules as close as possible (coincident) or within 30cm of each other (near coincident).

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Youtube An online video streaming service provided by Google.

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Useful Information (Non-assessed) Organisation & Management

The music industry is a competitive one to be a part of which means you need to be good, cost effective and reliable to others. So when selling your services to others, whether that be as a sound engineer, producer or songwriter, it’s important to be clear on what you can provide, for how much money and in what timescale. This is called expectation management and is not specific to the music industry. Once everyone is clear what is expected and have agreed the terms then a contract can be drawn up that everyone signs. Another concept which is also not specific to the music industry is ‘job creep’. If you explain this concept to anyone in any industry, they will almost certainly be able to identify with it. This is where the expectations aren’t clear, leaving them open to interpretation. The person who is receiving the service from you may ask to change what is expected after you have started work. The conversation will normally start with “Could you just…” followed by an extra piece of work that they expect you to do.

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If you are able to do this and you’re happy that it doesn’t require more time or money and will improve the result, then it’s normally a good idea to grant the request. However, if the request results in you missing the deadline because it takes you more time to complete, then further discussion needs to take place to agree new terms.

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Image Copyright Information Images listed by page, left to right, top to bottom. p.9 © Alesis, inMusic Brands, inc. p.10 © Universal Audio Inc. p.11 © Drawmer Electronics Ltd. p.18 © Shure Incorporated © AKG by Harman p.19 © Sennheiser Electronic GMBH & Co. © Audio-Technica Corporation p.23 © Nick Watson / Fluid Mastering

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Additional vector technical illustrations by Simon Troup © 2016 Rockschool/RSL

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