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Blackwell Munksgaard 2004

Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004: 109: 19–22 Printed in UK. All rights reserved

ACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA

Review article

Lycanthropy – psychopathological and psychodynamical aspects Garlipp P, Go¨decke-Koch T, Dietrich DE, Haltenhof H. Lycanthropy – psychopathological and psychodynamical aspects. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004: 109: 19–22.
Blackwell Munksgaard 2004. Objective: The imagination of being transformed into an animal or being an animal is called lycanthropy. The phenomenon is presented and psychodynamical aspects are discussed. Method: A literature review forms the base of this discussion of a psychopathological phenomenon. Results: The lycanthropic symptomatology represents a spectrum of continuity of developmental and culture-dependent normal behaviour via partial forms to the complete picture of lycanthropy. It is observed in different mental disorders. Conclusion: Lycanthropy is interpreted by the authors as a delusion in the sense of the self-identity disorder defined by Scharfetter. It is mainly found in affective and schizophrenic disorders but can be a symptom of other psychiatric disorders as well. Psychodynamically this kind of delusion can be interpreted as an attempt to project suppressed affects, especially with aggressive or sexual content, into the figure of an animal. Psychotherapy and/or neuroleptic medication can be effective. Introduction

The imagination of being transformed into an animal or being an animal is called lycanthropy (lycos ¼ wolf). The transformation must not be verbally reported by the patient. The clinical impression of clear-cut animal-like behaviour is included in the definition. The imagination of the capability of the human being to transform into an animal is a phenomenon that has been described in many cultures since early history – ÔlÔun des syndromes psychiatriques les plus anciens de lÔhistoireÕ (1) – and can be globally found in the early developmental periods. Greek mythology and the bible show examples. In Europe the imagination of being transformed into a wolf or a dog was widespread in the Middle Age. In South-east Asia and Africa animals chosen are the tiger and hyena, the crocodile and shark, common but feared animals. Some´ (2) e.g. discussing the strength of African rituals, reports of African tribes where the shaman transforms the patient into an animal as an act of healing. The animal cannot suffer from the patients´ human disease, therefore the patient is saved.

P. Garlipp1, T. Gdecke-Koch2, D. E. Dietrich2, H. Haltenhof1 1 Department of Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and 2Department of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany

Key words: psychotic disorders; schizophrenia; delusions; psychopathology Dr Petra Garlipp, Abt. Sozialpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Carl-Neuberg Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany E-mail: [email protected] Accepted for publication September 08, 2003

Lycanthropy was first described in medical literature in the second century after Christ by the Greek Marcellus from Side (3). In the 16th and 17th century it was discussed if lycanthropy might be the manifestation of a natural disease, the influence of Satan or witches or the effect of poison or toxic salves. With the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe the belief in the demonic influences was replaced by a rational scientific view of the world. At the beginning of the third millennium, the phenomena of those metamorphoses can still be found as a human pattern of behaviour in traditional and modern societies. In general the definition of lycanthropy as a psychopathological symptom depends on the cultural context. In the Western industrial nations characterized by the principles of rationalism and causality the irrational thought contents were defined as mythology and superstition. Looking at the process of individual development the lycanthropic patterns of behaviour can be seen as psychological varieties of normality. Children do think magical and archaic (4). Speaking animals, magicians, witches, ghosts and magic have their 19

Garlipp et al. place in the fantasy and in the emotional world of children. For them, taking over the role of an animal via identification processes is easily possible. In the adultsÕ world the man–animal metamorphoses can be found in literature, in fairy tales and jokes, as well as in art. Material and methods

A Medline research was performed using the key word Lycanthropy for the time span of 1966–2002. Twenty-one articles, mostly case reports, were found. In addition cross references of the literature lists of the articles found were followed as well. Regarding this article the main review articles and the case reports were chosen. Results

Keck et al. (5) developed operationalized diagnostical criteria for lycanthropy: 1. A patient reports in a moment of clarity or looking back that he sometimes feels as an animal or has felt like one. 2. A patient behaves in a manner that resembles animal behaviour, for example crying, grumbling or creeping. In the current medical literature man–animal metamorphoses were described concerning the following animals: wolf/werewolf (1, 5–9), dog (5, 10–18), gerbil (5), rabbit (5), horse (10, 13), tiger (5, 19), cat (5, 10), bird (5, 13, 20), unspecified animal species (5, 15), frog and bee (17). In Asia, Africa and South America, metamorphoses in tiger, hyena, crocodile and shark were observed (21, 22). The reported cases of metamorphoses into werewolves (1, 8) should not be included in the definition as they represent the transformation into a virtual fairy figure, not an animal. In spite of this, as they were the first ones to be described, they are also mentioned in Table 1. The symptomatology can be seen as a continuity spectrum of developmental and culture dependent normal behaviour (5, 13) via transitional – a fantasy of an artist – and partial forms (9, 15) to the whole picture of lycanthropy described by Keck et al. (5). The length of transformation is usually short (5, 10, 11), symptomatology has mostly disappeared in a week’s time. People who live in preindustrial societies and people living on isolated countrysides are predisposed. Other precipitating factors seem to be subconscious sexual conflicts. Lycanthropic symptomatology can be seen in different mental diseases. Most of the patients suffer 20

Table 1. Case reports of lycanthropy

Authors

Diagnosis

Surawicz & Banta (8)

Gender

Drug abuse Brain syndrome Rosenstock & Vincent (7) Schizophrenia Jackson (11) Psychosis Coll et al. (18) Psychot. Depress. Knoll (13) Dementia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia ? Keck et al. (5) Bipolar I Bipolar I Bipolar I Bipolar I Bipolar I Bipolar I Major depress. Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Borderline Dening & West (10) Affective disorder

Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male (2) Male Male/Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Female

B@n@zech et al. (1) Rajna et al. (20) Kulick et al. (19) Verdoux & Bourgeois (9) Rao et al. (16)

Hysteria/Antisocial PD Schizophrenia Depression Bipolar I Psychotic Depression Depression Mixed affective episode

Male Male Male Male Male Male Female

Intermetamorphosis

Male

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia

Female Female Female

Moselhy (15)

Garlipp et al. (17)

Animal observed Werewolf Werewolf Wolf Dog Dog Bird Dog Horse Wolf Dog Gerbil Cat Bird Rabbit Cat Unspecified Wolf Tiger Dog/Horse/ Cat (serial) Werewolf Bird Tiger Wolf (partial) Dog Dog Unspecified (partial) Dog (in the other) Dog Bee Frog

from an affective disorder (5, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 19) or from schizophrenia (5, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17, 20). Furthermore, the man–animal metamorphosis can be seen after the intake of psychotropic substances including cannabinoids (8) as well as alcohol abuse (6, 14). Rarely, lycanthropy is reported in personality disorders (1, 5, 6). Case reports can be found concerning organic psychosyndromes (8), dementia (13) and epilepsy (19). Another differential diagnosis is hysteria (1, 3, 7). The diagnosis of hysteria was predominant up to the beginning of the last century, especially as the symptomatology sometimes spread epidemically (3). Discussion

In psychopathological terms the phenomenon of lycanthropy can be understood as depersonalization (8, 16), disorder of the integrity of the self (Jaspers) (12), psychotic symptom (19), overvalued idea (16) or hypochondria. In an earlier paper the authors (17) interpreted lycanthropy as a kind of delusional symptom which is not specific for a disease but mostly seen

Lycanthropy – psychopathological and psychodynamical aspects in affective and schizophrenic psychoses. They defined it as a delusional metamorphosis in a sense of a self-identity disorder defined by Scharfetter (23), who does not use the term lycanthropy, but explains Ôthe delusional metamorphosis into an animal can be foundÕ. Koehler et al. (12) discuss the lycanthropic symptomatology referring to the aspect of ÔpossessionÕ described by Jaspers (24), who emphasized the determinance of symptoms by the cultural context. He mentioned the aspect of being possessed by the Devil and related it to the phenomenon of hysteria. Koehler et al. (12) state that the lycanthropic experience Ôdoes not characterize any one specific symptom formÕ. In the literature, psychodynamics of lycanthropy is understood as follows. Verdoux and Bourgeois (9) interpreted the lycanthropy of a patient who failed in his job and was tortured by feelings of guilt and shame as a projected and felt punishment of God. Jackson (11) described a patient who externalized her sexual needs which she experienced as animalistic and loaded with guilt with a hindered aggression by transforming into a dog. Rosenstock and Vincent (7) stated that a Ôbizarre and chaotic sexualityÕ can be externalized by lycanthropy in the sense of projection when the internalized feelings overwhelm the original strategies of defence. They registered a significant inferiority complex in their patients combined with a high need of affection and attention. Rao et al. (16) interpreted the transformation of two patients into dogs after they had been bitten by dogs as identification with the aggressor. Surawicz and Banta (8) as well as Moselhy and Macmillan (25) hinted at the psychoanalytical interpretation of lycanthropy as a means of expression of primitive id-instincts that can be externalized by splitting mechanisms in an animalistic way, thereby avoiding feelings of guilt. Knoll (26) emphasized the relevance of the affects in the development of delusion and states: Ô(…) The economy of a (…) stable figure of delusion in the world of ideas seems to base on a neglect of an extreme ambiguous socially tabooed animalistic affectivity. (…) Otherwise unbearable tensions on the side of the impulsive affects seem to be bound unidimensionally with the help of a more and more structured delusional ideaÕ. Knoll also named the aspect of a lack of communication with the other which might play a symptom-maintaining role. Knoll (13) refers to the problematic phenomena of countertransference which can be induced by lycanthropic behaviour, reflecting the taboo of the animalistic part in the professionally psychiatric attitude as well. This could be the

reason why these kinds of metamorphoses are rarely described. Lycanthropy is interpreted as a variety of delusional experiences that does not form an own disease entity, but mostly appears in affective and schizophrenic psychoses. Hence the treatment primarily consists out of the disease’s treatment, e.g. with neuroleptics. The pharmacological treatment is especially efficient in short-lasting symptomatology that is secondary e.g. to a schizophrenic psychosis, using neuroleptics and in case of an agitation benzodiazepines as well. Lycanthropic symptomatology that is found repeatedly or that is persisting should be treated with a psychotherapeutic approach. As the symptomatology of lycanthropy is very pronounced clinically and seems to happen suddenly at first sight, it might be possibly judged as a psychotic symptom like others and the meaning that is expressed in the kind of animal and its behaviour will not be interpreted individually. In our view it is a delusional experience in the sense of the self-identity disorder defined by Scharfetter (23). Subconscious conflicts of the patients may be symbolized by the choice of animal and the corresponding emotional experience. The symptomatology can be interpreted as a regression in an early childhood’s developmental phase. It seems to be plausible that defence mechanisms of affect that are experienced as threatening like aggression and sexuality may fail in a conflict situation and a psychotic defence strategy, in this case the lycanthropic symptomatology, may stabilize the patient at first. In this context, we refer to the case reports mentioned above. The communication aspect of lycanthropy is relevant as well. Especially in those patients who show a therapy-resistant lycanthropy over years, this experience seems to be a self-stabilizing upgraded object replacement. Keck et al. (5) also mentioned examples of patients who faked the lycanthropic symptomatology. The diagnosis of a factitious disease and histrionic elements should therefore be considered as well. A psychodynamic way of interpretation is especially indicated in those constellations. Psychotherapy is often mentioned as a therapeutical element besides pharmacological treatment. Yet, it has to be kept in mind that even a long-lasting psychotherapy sometimes fails in changing the persistence of the symptomatology. To sum up lycanthropy, seeming primarily bizarre and often leading to taboos in the countertransference, is an ancient but current psychopathological phenomenon that can partially be analysed psychodynamically. 21

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