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• Nicolas Ojeda

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TENSES SIMPLE PRESENT: we use the Simple Present tense for: 1. Repeated Actions: use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens: I get up at 7 a.m. every day. - I play tennis every Friday afternoon. - I always forget my wallet on the table. 2. Facts or Generalizations: the Simple Present tense can also indicate the speaker believe that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. Besides, it can be used to make generalizations about things or people: Dogs hate cats. - The sun rises in the East. - Ice is cold. 3. Scheduled Events in the Near Future: speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well: The train leaves tonight at 9 p.m. - The bus does not arrive at 9 a.m., it arrives at 11 a.m. - The party starts at 8 p.m.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS: we use the Present Continuous for: 1. Now: use the Present Continuous with normal verbs to express that something is or not happening now, at this very moment: You are learning English now. - You are not swimming now. - Are you studying? 2. Longer Actions in Progress Now: in English, “now” can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the present continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress, changing or that is developing; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second: I am studying to become a doctor. 3. Future: the Present Continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events in the near future or about planned events. There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event, and that some preparation has already happened: I’m meeting Jim at the airport (Jim and I have discussed this). - I’m leaving tomorrow afternoon (I’ve already bought my train ticket). - We are having a staff meeting next Monday (all the members of the staff have been told about it) Typical time expressions for the Present Continuous include: at present, currently, at the moment, for the time being, today, etc.

4. To talk about annoying or surprising habits: He’s always making long calls on the phone. 5. To ask about future social arrangements: Are you doing something tonight? - Are you and Dawn meeting this evening?

PRESENT PERFECT: we use the Present Perfect to… 1. Say that an action happened at an unspecific time in the past. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, recently, before, so far, already, yet, the last days/months/years/etc.: I have just called Monica. - I have cooked dinner. 2. Talk about life experience: I have never been to France. - I have driven a car only once in my life. 3. Put emphasis on the result: She has written five letters. 4. Refer to actions that began in the past and continued for some time in the past until now: She has been there for 3 months. 5. Actions that have stopped recently: She has just finished cooking dinner. 6. Refer to finished actions that have an influence on the present: I have lost my key. 7. Describe a habitual action in a period of time up to the present moment: I’ve never worn a tie to work, and I refuse to start now.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS: we use the Present Perfect Continuous to… 1. Put emphasis on the activity and the duration of an action (not the result): I have been writing for two hours. 2. Emphasize the process of changer over a period of time and that these changes are not finished: Your English has been improving a lot since you started the course. 3. Talk about activities that started in the past and continue to the present: She has been studying since this morning.

4. Talk about repeated actions up to the present: We have been trying to call Miriam all day, but there’s no answer.

PAST SIMPLE: we use the Past Simple to… 1. Express the idea that an action or an event started and finished at a specific time in the past, such as: yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, last Friday, and so on: I visited Egypt last year. 2. Refer about situations in the past: When Alex was a child; he spent each summer with his grandparents. 3. Actions in the past taking place in the middle of another action: While I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang. 4. Talk about a clear sequence of events in the past: They had lunch, got in the car and drove away. 5. If we think of a definite place or event, this may suggest a definite or exact time: I left my shopping bag on the bus.

PAST CONTINUOUS: we use the past continuous to… 1. Talk about actions that were in progress in the past: Yesterday at 6 p.m. I was having a snack with my friend George. 2. Talk about an event that was in progress when another event happened: I was walking home when it started to rain. 3. Talk about an activity which started before and continued after an event in the past: I was watching television when the news was announced. 4. Actions happening at the same time in the past: While I was cooking, he was laying the table. 5. Used for background description: I was in my car and on the radio they were playing my favorite song.

Signal words: while, when, as soon, as, etc.

6. Describe a habitual or repeated action in the past after an annoying habit. A frequency adverb is necessary: He was always making up excuses for not handing in his practical works in time. 7. With the verb “wonder” it has a polite meaning: I was wondering if you could help me to solve this problem. 8. With the verb “think” it suggests uncertainty: I was thinking of having a party next week.

PAST PERFECT: we use the Past Perfect to… 1. Indicate that we are talking about something that happened before something that is described in the past simple: When he got to the station, the train had already left. 2. Make clear an action is out of sequence. This tense makes the order of the actions clear: After we had eaten lunch, we went for a walk. 3. It is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. However, if the past perfect is no referring to an action at a specific time, past perfect is not optional: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1995 before she moved in with them in 2001. 4. If “before” or “after” is used, Past Perfect is optional: I washed the dishes before I had a shower/had had a shower.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS: we use the Past Perfect Continuous to… 1. Show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.” For five minutes” and “for two weeks” are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous: Jeff had been teaching at university for more than 5 years before he left to Asia. 2. Say how long something happened/lasted up to a point in the past: He had been playing for Arsenal for only two games when he scored his first goal. 3. Talk about events which started before a time in the past and which finished, but where the effects or results were stull important at a point in the past: It had been raining a lot and the ground was still wet.

FUTURE SIMPLE: 1. WILL:  One of the main uses of “Will” is to refer to things in the future that we think are certain, especially with verbs such as: think, expect, hope, believe, etc. or with adverbs, for instance: probably: I think it’ll be cold next week. - The room will be redecorated but all the facilities will be the same.  “Will” is used to make predictions about the future: The climate will change.  “Will” can also be used to:  Make requests: Will you help me with my homework?  Make promises: I will never forget what you did.  Make offers: I will buy you a sandwich if you feel hungry.

2. GOING TO:  We use “be going to” to talk about future plans and intentions. Usually the decision about the future plans has already been made: I’m going to look for a new place to live next month.  When we give commands or state that something is obligatory: You’re going to pick up all these toys right now! The room is a mess!  To predict something that we think is certain to happen or which we have made evidence to say it: It’s going to snow again. (The speaker can probably see dark snow clouds)  Used to describe a present intention: I’m going to fix the television tomorrow.

FUTURE PERFECT: we use the Future Perfect tense for… 1. Things completed before a time mentioned in the future. We usually use a time phrase, for example: by the time, by tomorrow, for 3 years, etc.: He will have made 1 million dollar by the time he’s 30. - Next moth I will have worked for the company for 3 years.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS: we use the Future Continuous for… 1. Something happening / in progress at a specific time in the future, or over a period of time in the future: In 2030, sea levels will still be rising.

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: we use the Future Perfect Continuous for… 1. When we are looking back to the past from a point in the future and we want to emphasize the length or duration of an activity or event: In September, the head teacher will have been teaching at that school for 20 years. - In August, she will have been living in France for a year.

GRAMMAR STATE VERBS: They are verbs that describe states, not actions, are not usually in the continuous but in the present simple and present perfect. These verbs describe: 1. Emotions: like, dislike, appreciate, feel like, love, hate, adore, despise, care, hope, wish, admit, prefer, satisfy, want, etc. 2. Possession: have, own, belong, possess, want, need, owe, include, etc. 3. Thought: know, believe, think, remember, remind, recognize, understand, suppose, expect, agree, disagree, doubt, forget, mean, imagine, dream, daydream, realize, suspect, mean, etc. 4. Sensing: see, hear, listen, smell, taste, sound, watch, look, etc. 5. Other verbs: live, contain, deserve, punish, cost, look like, matter, promise, appear, seem, involve, depend on, admire, regret, etc.

PAST HABITS AND STATES: 1. We can use the past simple (with a time word/expression) for past habits. Example: Every day I got up at 7 in the morning and went to work by bus. 2. We use used to + infinitive for habits and states which are no longer true: Examples: I used to go out every Friday. (habit) We use to live in Britain. (State) 3. We can use would for habits, moving verbs (but NOT for states) which are no longer true: Example: When I was younger I would help my mother in the kitchen.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVES: Types of comparison 1. We use the comparative form or as…as to compare two or more people, places, things, etc. Examples: - Chloe is a better singer than Hanna (to a higher degree) - Chloe is as good a singer as Harry (to the same degree) - Amie is less confident than Peter (to a lower degree) 2. We use the superlative form when we want to pick out one person, thing, place, etc. from all others. Example: Ben Nevis is the highest mountain Scotland.

MODIFYING ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS: 1. To express a big difference:  Far/a lot/ (very)much/ a great deal, considerably + comparative Examples: - He is far better that the other singer in the band. - The food is a lot nicer in this café. - The festival is much more popular this year.  By far/easily + superlative. Examples: - He is by far the best singer in the band, - The festival is easily the most popular in the country.  Not nearly as/nothing like/ nowhere near as Example: - The party is not nearly as good as last year. 2. To express a small difference:  Slightly/a bit/a little/barely/scarcely/ somewhat/hardly any + comparative. Examples: - The music is (only) slightly better than before. - The concert was a bit/a little better than I expected.  Just about + superlative: Example: - It was just about the longest carnival procession ever.  Nearly/not quite as/much the same as Examples: - The first show was nearly as good as the second one. - The weather isn’t quite as hot as it was last time.

COMPARATIVE PHRASES PATTERNS: 1. Adjective …, adjective: - The harder a job is, the more regarding I find it. 2. Adverb …, adverb: - The sooner we start, the quicker we will finish. 3. Adjective …, adverb: - The easier a job is, the more quickly I do it. 4. More (+ noun) …, more (+ noun): - The more money Jack got, the more clothes he bought. 5. More (+ clause) …, less (+ clause): - The more you sleep, the less you do.

FOR AND SINCE: 1. FOR: to talk about a period of time. Example: I’ve been waiting for my exam result for three weeks. 2. SINCE: to talk about a point in the past. Example: We’ve been living in this flat since last year.

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: 1. COUNTABLE: They are separated units that can be easily counted. With more than one we can make them plural by adding “s” but some plurals are irregular. - Expressions of quantity:  Some: For countable nouns and a limited number. For offers and requests.  Any: Plural countable nouns. In negative sentences and for questions.  Several, many, a few.  Lots/a lot of.  A/An.  (a) Lack of sth.  No sth at all.  Plenty of sth. 2. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: They are things that we cannot count, or can only be counted with difficulty; also abstract nouns and ideas are uncountable. We cannot make them plural. These include: liquids and measures, things which are difficult to separate, abstract nouns. - Expressions of quantity:  Some: For uncountable nouns, requests and offers.  Any: For uncountable nouns. In negative sentences and to make questions.  Much/a little.  Lots of/a lot of.  (a) lack of sth.  No sth at all.  Good/great deal of sth.  Small/large amount of.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE: 1. To make adjectives and other adverbs stronger:  Extremely, very, really, remarkably. Examples: - The castle is really/remarkably popular. - It’s a very/extremely popular attraction. 2. To make adjectives and adverbs weaker:



Rather, fairly, pretty (positive and negative adjectives) Examples: - The city wall is rather/fairly/pretty long. - It’s rather a/a rather/ a fairly/ a pretty small town. (fairly a; pretty a)  A bit, a little (negative adjectives only) Examples: - London’s a bit/a little expensive. - London is a bit of an expensive city.  Quite. Examples: - The palace is quite interesting. - It’s quite an interesting place. 3. To emphasize ungradable adjectives:  Absolutely. Example: - The temperatures were absolutely freezing.

TIME CONJUNCTIONS: 1. AFTER: To put two events into one sentence. It is used with the first event, but can be at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Example: My children can only watch TV after they’ve done their homework. 2. AFTERWARDS: At the beginning of the second sentence to talk about a second event. However, sometimes we can use it in the middle of the sentence, after a word like “and” or “but”. It means the same as after that. Example: We went shopping. Afterwards we went bowling. 3. DURING: We can use it before nouns and noun phrases to refer to when something happens over a period of time. Example: During the war millions of young men joined the army. 4. AS/WHILE: Can be used for a longer action happening ‘around’ a shorter action and for two actions happening at the same time. Examples: - As/while I was watching TV, I heard a noise outside. - As/while I was working, my brother was sitting on the beach. 5. BEFORE: Always goes with the second action in a sequence. Example: Before we left, I filled up/had filled up with petrol. 6. AS SOON AS: This conjunction can be used to show that something happens immediately, i.e. at the very moment another action is completed, or shortly after another action is completed. Example: I’ll call you as soon as I arrive. 7. BY THE TIME: To mean “before” or not later than the moment something happens.

Example: I expect your room to be tidy by the time I get home.

BE USED TO / GET USED TO + ING: 1. BE USED TO: To talk about situations and habits that were once unfamiliar or difficult, but that are now familiar and easy. Example: When I moved to England I wasn’t used to drive on the left.

2. GET USED TO: To talk about the process of developing a habit. Example: I can’t get used to driving on the left.

MODALS: A. Obligation and Necessity 1. MUST/MUSTN’T:  Used to express strong obligation, prohibition or necessity when we impose this on ourselves. Examples: - I must go to the doctor. - I mustn’t forget to take out insurance. NOTE: For future of must, we use will/’ll have to. For the past we use had to.  To express strong opinions. Example: We must meet more often.  To give instructions, especially in writing. Examples: - Mobile phones must be switched off for take-off and landing. - You mustn’t talk loudly in the library. 2. HAVE TO/NEED TO: we use them when an obligation is imposed by someone else. Examples: - You have to say where you got the information from. - You need to write a report. 3. MUST/HAVE TO/NEED TO: we use them to express general necessity. Examples: - We must try to talk to each other more often. - We have to reduce our dependence on technology. - We need to take control of our lives. 4. NOT HAVE TO/NOT NEED TO/NEED NOT (semi-modal): we can use them when there’s lack of necessity. Example: Safaricom users don’t need to have a bank account. NOTE: NEED has two past forms with different meaning:  DIDN’T NEED: When there was no need to something so you didn’t do it.

Example: They said that lunch is provided, so I didn´t need to bring anything from home.  NEEDN’T HAVE: When you didn’t need to do something but you did it anyway. Example: I didn’t remember that lunch was provided so I needn’t have brought sandwiches. 5. We can use other expressions and non-modal verbs to talk about obligation and necessity.  MAKE: we use make for strong obligation imposed by someone else. Example: Her parents make her wash the dishes.  BE REQUIRED TO + INFINITIVE: Example: You are required to say where you got the information from.  BE TO + INFINITIVE: Example: The next task will be to find out how people use their phones.  HAD BETTER + INFINITIVE: Example: You’d better finish your homework before you start playing computer games.  FEEL/BE OBLIGED TO + TO INFINITIVE: Examples: I feel obliged to answer all my emails straightaway. We are obliged to attend all the lecturers.  IT’S YOUR DUTY/RESPONSIBILITY + TO INFINITIVE: Example: It’s the moderators’ duty/responsibility to ensure that nobody is online.  THE ONUS IS ON SB TO DO STH: The responsibility for something. Example: The onus is on the prosecution to provide proof of the guilt.  OUGHT TO/SHOULD and OUGHT NOT TO/SHOULDN’T: To express a slightly less strong obligation or a duty/responsibility. Examples: You ought to/should apologize for being late. You shouldn´t leave without permission.  SHOULD HAVE/OUGHT TO HAVE: used when something was the right thing to do, but you didn’t do it. Example: You should have gone to bed early last night. You look tired.  BE (NOT) SUPPOSED TO: To talk about rules that people or beings in general are expected to follow, but which are often not respected. Example: You are not supposed to bring brinks to the computer room.

B. Advice, recommendation and criticism.

1. MUST: It is used for strong advice and recommendation. Example: You must visit the castle. 2. SHOULD/OUGHT TO: They are used when the advice is less strong. Example: You should/ought to charge up your phone before you go out. NOTE: We rarely use (and prefer to avoid) OUGHT TO in questions and negative statements. Example: You didn’t ought to shouldn’t borrow my phone without asking. 3. HAD BETTER (NOT): The non-modal had better (not) is stronger than should/shouldn’t. 4. Example: Outside is freezing! You’d better wear a coat! 5. MIGHT HAVE/WOULD (HAVE): They are used to criticize people. Examples: - You might have told me that you’d borrowed my phone. - I warned her to leave him alone but she would keep texting him. 6. SHOULD/SHOULN’T HAVE: It is used to express regret or criticism of a past action. Example: - You shouldn’t have read my email. - I should have said no.

C. Prohibition 1. MUSTN’T or SHOULDN’T: used for prohibition imposed by the speaker. Example: - You mustn’t start a fight (strong prohibition) - You shouldn’t be so thoughtless (weaker prohibition) NOTE: We do not use MUSTN’T to talk about the past. Example: I mustn’t couldn’t ride my bike to school because the road was muddy. 2. CAN’T or MAY NOT: used for prohibitions imposed by someone else. Example: You can’t drive a car yet, you´re only 15! 3. COULDN’T: It is used for prohibitions in the past. Example: As children, we couldn’t stay up later than 10 p.m. 4. We can use other non-modal expressions to talk about prohibition and rules that are made by someone else.  BE (NOT) SUPPOSED TO + INFINITIVE: To talk about rules that people or beings in general are expected to follow, but which are often not respected. Example: You’re not supposed to park here.  ALLOW TO/BE (NOT) ALLOW TO + INFINITIVE: Example: My manager won’t allow me to take the day off. You’re not allowed to take photographs here.  PERMIT TO/ BE (NOT) PERMITTED TO + INFINITIVE:

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Examples: You are not permitted to smoke in here. Smoking is not permitted here. (More formal than allow) FORBID/BAN: Example: Cars are forbidden/banned in the town centre.

D. Permission. 1. CAN: Examples: - Can we sit by the window? Is that alright? (asking for permission) - You can use my computer (giving permission) 2. COULD: Examples: - Could we move to another table? (asking for permission, more polite than can) - She said that I could go to the party (reporting permission) 3. MAY: it is used in more formal situations. Examples: May I leave the office early today? 4. MIGHT: Example: I wonder if I might have a word with you? (formal, polite) 5. We can use other non-modal verbs and expressions to talk about permission.  LET + OBJECT + INFINITIVE: Example: My parents let me eat whatever I want.  ALLOW TO/BE (NOT) ALLOW TO + INFINITIVE: Example: The organizers allow you to go backstage afterwards. I was allowed to leave classes early today.  PERMIT TO/ BE (NOT) PERMITTED TO + INFINITIVE: Examples: You are permitted to smoke in the designated areas only. Smoking is permitted only in the designated areas. (More formal than allow)

E. Ability 1. CAN/CAN’T and BE ABLE TO in the present but only BE ABLE TO for Perfect and Future tenses. Besides BE ABLE TO can’t be used in the continuous form. Examples: - Sussy can speak in French, but she can’t speak in Chinese. - The doctor is not able to see you now, but she will be able to make you a check-up tomorrow in the morning. 2. COULD: It is used for general abilities in the past.

3. 4.

5.

6.

Example: I could play the piano when I was 7. WAS/WERE ABLE TO: It is used for ability in a specific situation in the past. Example: I was able to pass my driving test last year. WASN’T/WEREN’T ABLE TO and COULDN’T: they can be used to refer to negative general and specific ability in the past. Examples: They couldn’t/weren’t able to make the wedding on time. COULD/MIGHT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE: It is used for a past ability or opportunity not used. Example: He could have gone to college, but decided against it. Other ways of expressing ability:  SUCCEED IN: Example: I succeeded in beating my sister last week (suggests some difficulty)  MANAGE TO: Example: I managed to beat my brother as well (suggests a lot of difficulty)

F. Possibility and Probability 1. CAN/COULD/MAY: We can use them for things that are theoretically possible and happens sometimes. Examples: - Damaging comments can destroy your company’s reputation. - John couldn’t take the photo because he didn’t have his phone. - These chemicals may cause cancer. 2. COULD/MAY/MIGHT: we can use them for possibility in the present or future. Examples: - It could be weeks before he returns. - People may post criticism in a blog or in a forum. - You might find it difficult to delete the comments. 3. COULD: for things that did happen from time to time in the past. Example: My father could be really strict with me when I was young (on some occasions he was strict with me) 4. CAN/COULD/MAY/MIGHT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE: for specific past possibility. Examples: - Shakespeare could have used a writing table. - We think Shakespeare might have used a writing table because he shows Hamlet using one. - Desktop publishing may have led to a decline in quality. 5. COULD + HAVE: it is used to express a theoretical possibility in the past.

Example: They could have found the information on the Internet (It’s possible but we don’t know if they did or not) 6. COULD/MIGHT (+ HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE): They can be used to express criticism/annoyance. Examples: - You might at least say “thank you”. - They could/might have let us know they weren’t coming. 7. MAY/MIGHT (WELL): They can be used to acknowledge something is true before introducing a contrast. Example: It may well be in the newspaper, but it is not true. 8. SHOULD/SHOULDN’T: for probability expectation. Examples: - We should be able to find the answer in the dictionary. - It shouldn’t take long to work it out.

G. Deduction 1. MUST: for something we are sure because of evidence and to make deductions in the present. Example: He must be a vegetarian. He doesn’t eat meat. 2. MUST + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE: It is used to make deductions about the past. Example: Working together must have given them an advantage. 3. CAN’T/COULDN’T (not mustn’t): we use them for deduction in the past. Examples: - It can’t be true. I don’t believe it. - It couldn’t have been an interesting article, there were no comments. H. Offers, promises, suggestions, requests, orders 1. Offers and promises: CAN/MAY; SHALL; WOULD Examples: - Can/May I help you? I’ll come with you if you like. - Shall I carry that for you? - Would you like a cup of tea? 2. Suggestions: CAN/COULD; MIGHT Examples: - You could join a club. - You might think of taking a gift. - We can/could take a takeaway. 3. Requests: CAN/COULD; SHALL; WOULD

Examples: - Can/Could you help me? - What shall I bring? (asking for advice) - You wouldn’t lend me $30, would you? 4. Orders Examples: - All payments shall be made in cash. - Passengers will please proceed to the gate.

I. Frequency, habits and characteristics 1. Habits and typical behavior in the present: WILL Examples: - Accidents will happen. - This car will do 0 to 60 in ten seconds. 2. Past habits: WOULD (only with verbs that imply movement or action) Example: He would sit for hours watching the birds. 3. To express annoyance: WILL Example: She will play music at full volume.

THE PASSIVE: Focusing on the thing affected: the passive Many actions involve two people or things – one that performs the action and one that is affected by the action. These actions are typically referred to using transitive verbs, that is, verbs that have an object. In English the person or thing you want to talk about is usually put first as the subject of the clause. So, when you want to talk about someone or something that is the performer of an action, you make them the subject of the verb and you use an active form of the verb. The other person or thing is made the object of the verb. However, you may want to focus on the person or thing affected by an action, which would be the object of an active form of the verb. In that case, you make that person or thing the subject of a passive form of the verb. For example, you could report the same event by using an active form of a verb, as in The dog has eaten our dinner or by using a passive form of a verb, as in Our dinner has been eaten by the dog, depending on whether you wanted to focus on the dog or your dinner. In an active sentence, the subject is the person/thing that does the action. In a passive sentence, the subject is the person/thing to whom/which something happens: Active  Subject

+

active verb

+

object

My mum

won

Passive Subject

+

The prize

passive verb

the prize +

was won

agent by my mum

A. STRUCTURE SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONT. PAST SIMPLE PAST CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT Be going to Will FUTURE PERFECT Present/future modal PAST MODAL

It

BE + Is Is being Was Was being Has been Had been Is going to be Will be Will have been May be Must have been

PAST PARTICIPLE

Made in Taiwan.

B. USING THE PASSIVE: we use the passive when 1. The agent is unknown. Example: More food will be imported. 2. The agent is obvious or not important. Example: Some tribes in the Amazon have been contacted. 3. We do not want to say who the agent is (non-accusatory) Example: New hydroelectric dams are planned across Brazil and Peru. 4. We use the passive + by + agent when we want to focus on the agent. Example: The crops are pollinated by insects. 5. We use the passive when we want to be formal and impersonal.  In academic and scientific works.  For giving rules, orders and instructions, often on notices. Example: Dogs must be kept under control.  For talking about events and achievements. Example: The lion cubs have been introduced into the wild.  To describe procedures or processes, focusing on what was done rather than who did it. Example: The figures were collected over a ten-year period. 

To avoid repeating the agent in a description or narrative.

Example: The police have made good use of CCTV. It’s been introduced into many city centres. Rather than: The police have made good use of CCTV. The police have introduced it into many city centres.

C. FORM 1. Passive Infinitives  We form the passive infinitives using be + past participle

Simple Perfect

TENSE

ACTIVE To write To have written

Continuous

To have be writing

Perfect continuous

To have been writing

PASSIVE To be written To have been written To be being written rarely used) To have been being written (rarely used)

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We often use passive infinities in set expressions: - There’s nothing to be done. - It’s nowhere to be found. - It’s only to be expected. 2. Modal Passives We form the modal passives of modal verbs using modal verb + be + past participle in the present, and modal verb + have + been in the past.

Present Past

Active We mustn’t destroy the forest. Tourists shouldn’t have approached the animals.

Passive The forest must not be destroyed. The animals should not have been approached.

3. Passive –ing and infinitives When verbs are followed by an –ing or infinitive form, these forms can be made passive.  Some verbs and expressions can be followed by the passive infinitive: Active: People have to sort rubbish into different containers. Passive: Rubbish has to be sorted into different containers.  Other verbs and expressions (e.g. adjectives + prepositions) can be followed by the passive –ing form. Active: They were terrified of people taking their children into slavery. Passive: They were terrified of their children being taken into slavery.

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Both forms can also come at the beginning of a sentence. - To be asked to give a talk on the environment was quite a surprise. - Being made to leave their homes and move to the city wasn´t easy for the tribe. - Having been kept in cages for all their lives, the chicken didn´t know what to do when they were finally released. 4. NEED + -ING can have a passive meaning - The cups need washing. = The cups need to be washed.

D. IMPERSONAL PASSIVE STRUCTURES 1. We use impersonal passive structures after reporting verbs (e.g. say, know, ask, suggest, explain, etc.)  Subject + passive verb + to infinitive: He is considered/said/ thought to be the greatest writer ever Orang-utans are known/believed/reported/thought to use leaves as gloves.  It + passive verb + that clause: It is acknowledged that logging damages the weather. It is thought/expected/said/understood that the weather will get worse.  There + passive verb + to be: There are thought/expected/ said/known to be huge food shortages.

E. HAVE/GET + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE 1. We can use this structure to talk about something which someone else does for us: We had our photos taken before we left. 2. To describe an accident or unexpected event, often unpleasant. They had their land stolen.

REPORTED SPEECH 1. Tense changes in reported speech:  PRESENT SIMPLE  PAST SIMPLE: “I live in Berlin.”  “He said she lived in Berlin.”  PRESENT CONTINUOUS  PAST CONTINUOUS: “I’m watching TV.”  “She said she was watching TV.”  PRESENT PERFECT  PAST PERFECT: “I’ve seen the film already.”  “He said he had already seen the film.”  PRESENT CONTINUOUS  PASR PERFECT CONTINUOUS: “I have been writing for 2 hours.”  “He told me that he had been being writing for 2 hours.”  PAST SIMPLE  PAST PERFECT: “I missed the concert.”  “She said she had missed the concert.”

 WILL/WON’T  WOULD/WOULDN’T: “I’ll phone you soon.”  “She said she would phone me soon.”  CAN/CAN’T  COULD/COULDN’T: “I can read German, but I can’t speak it.”  “He said he could read German but couldn’t speak it.”  MAY  MIGHT: “I may give the book to John.”  “She suggested she might give the book to John.”  MUST  HAVE TO: “I must have it ready before noon.”  “He said he had to have it ready before noon.” NOTES: - MUST usually changes to HAVE TO when reported, but we don’t change it when:  It is in its negative form: You mustn’t tell anyone our secret  Caro said that Pedro mustn’t tell their secret to anyone.  It expresses deduction: He must still be asleep  She said that he must still be asleep. 2. If the reporting verb is in the Present Tense, no changes are necessary: I´ll help you with your homework  He promised he’ll help me with my homework. 3. Questions in Reported Speech:  We change the word order in the question to be the same as a normal or affirmative sentence.  Make the same tense changes as above.  We use the same question words (what, when, who, how, where, etc.)  We use IF or WETHER for yes/no questions.  We do not use the auxiliary verb do: “What time did the lesson started?”  “Caro asked what time the lesson started.”  Verbs and phrases to introduce reported questions: ask, wonder, want to know, enquire, etc. 4. Word changes in reported speech:     

You  he/she/it Your  his/hers/its This  that Here  there Tomorrow  the next day/the following day  Yesterday  the previous day

 Now  then  Before  earlier/previously  The day before yesterday  two days earlier  Today  that day

REPORTING VERBS: 1. VERB + INFINITIVE TO:  Agree: Pablo agreed to look after the children.  Offer: He offered to take the children to the zoo.  Refuse: He refused point-blank to pay the fines.  Promise: She promised me she’ll be here for my birthday.  Hope: She hoped to God she hasn’t left the car window open.  Prefer: When Carly was a kid, she preferred to eat grapes rather than apples.  Threaten: The disturbed young man threatened to jump off the bridge. Decide: The costumer decided not to buy the laptop.  Demand: The judge demanded to see the documents.  Hesitate: He hesitated to tell her the truth.  Remember: Susan remembered to phone her father.  Expect: She was expected to win the race.  Stop: Halfway through the marathon, he stopped to drink some water (he stop to do sth else)  Afford: In the past, he couldn’t afford to buy a house.  Appear: There appeared to be some mistake.  Arrange: They arranged to have dinner the following month.  Attempt: He attempted to escape through a window.  Choose: They chose to be happy.  Dare: Everyone in the office would complain that he smells awful, but nobody dared to mention it to him.  Deserve: They certainly deserved to win that game.  Force: She was forced to make a decision.  Guarantee: Just looking at a picture of the sea is guaranteed to make her feel sick.  Help:  Intend: Last year, we intended to go to Australia.  Manage: Somehow, she managed to beat my brother in chess.  Need: She needed to talk to him to make sure he was doing well.  Neglect: He neglected to mention the fact that we could lose money on the deal.  Prepare: She was prepared to confront him with the truth.  Pretend: He just pretended to be interested in the matter but actually I couldn’t care less.  Volunteer: During the emergency many staff volunteered to work through the weekend.  Want: He wanted to go to the cinema.  Wish: They wished to make a complaint, but they couldn’t. 2. VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE TO:

        

Advise: The doctor advised her to take a long break. Ask: Our neighbors asked us to turn our music down. Invite: They invited them to go to the party. Order: The police ordered everyone to leave the building. Remind: She reminded me to call the doctor. Tell: Carl told Jane to close the window. Warn: They warned us not to walk on the ice. Persuade: Matt persuaded Victoria to become a vegetarian. Recommend: The teacher recommended us to read the whole book rather than just few pages.  Encourage: My mom encouraged him to continue the course.  Beg: Chris begged her to tell him what had happened.  Afford: Her seat afforded her an uninterrupted view of the stage.  Choose: She chose her granddaughter to become the new queen.  Deserve:  Expect: Her mother expected her to become a lawyer.  Force: His parents forced him to marry that old woman.  Help: She helped him to go through a difficult time in his life.  Want: They wanted him to join them.  Wish:  Allow: They allowed them to stay up late.  Cause:  Command: The officer commanded his men to shoot.  Compel: His parents compelled him to wear those hideous shorts.  Urge: Lawyers urged the parents to take further legal action.  Leave: They left John alone to make up his mind and make a decision himself.  Instruct: I need someone to instruct me to use the computer. 3. VERB (+ OBJECT) + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO:  Let, had better, make, would rather Examples: You’d better go. Please let me come with you. He made me finish my report. NOTES: dare, help, need can be followed by infinitive with or without to. 4. VERB + -ING: 

CONDITIONALS: