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THE PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF TRANSNATIONAL HISTORY THE PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF TRANSNATIONAL HISTORY Edited by Akira Iriy

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THE PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF TRANSNATIONAL HISTORY

THE PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF TRANSNATIONAL HISTORY Edited by Akira Iriye Harvard University, USA

and

Pierre-Yves Saunier Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France

pa grave

macmillan

*

© Macmillan Publishers Ltd 2009 Softcover re print of the hardcover 1st edition 2009 978-1-4039-9295-6 AU rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-1 O Kirby Street, London EC 1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The editors have asserted their rights to be identified as the editors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2009 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St. Martin's Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-74032-1 ISBN 978-1-349-74030-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-74030-7 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09

Contents Editorial Board List of Contributors Introduction Acknowledgements Notes for the Reader List of Acronyms Tree Diagrams List of Entries Entries

Namelndex Subject Index

vi vii xvii xxi xxiii XXV

xxvi xxxvii 1

1153 1197

Editorial Board General Editors Akira lriye

Harvard University, USA Pierre-Yves Saunier

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France

Associate Editors jane Carruthers

Mariano Plotkin

University of South Africa, South Africa

Instituto de Desarrollo Econ6mico y Social, Argentina

Donna Gabaccia University of Minnesota, USA

Rana Mitter University of Oxford, UK

Patrick Verley Universite de Geneve, Switzerland

List of Contributors Monia Abdallah Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France

Christopher Balme Institut fur Theaterwissenschaft, Germany

Phina Geraldine Abir-Am Brandeis University, USA

Greg Bankoff University of Huli, UK

ThomasAdam University of Texas at Arlington, USA

Kelly Bannister University of Victoria, Canada

Maude M. Adjarian University of Arizona, USA

Tani Barlow University of Washington, USA

Alexis K. Albion The World Bank, USA

Thomas Bender New York University, USA

Carlos Altamirano Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Argentina

Jonathan Benthall University College London, UK

Sunil Amrith Birkbeck College, University of London, UK

Fran~oise Berger Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Grenoble, France

Irene Anastasiadou Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Volker R. Berghahn Columbia University, USA

Gerhard Anders Universităt Ziirich, Switzerland

Universite de Paris 1 - Pantheon Sorbonne, France

Erik Anderson Brown University, USA

Andries Bezuidenhout University ofThe Witwatersrand, South Africa

A. Aneesh University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA Peder Anker Universitetet i Oslo, Norway Sonia Ashmore Victoria and Albert Museum, UK William J. Ashworth University of Liverpool, UK Cemil Aydin University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA Tony Ballantyne Washington University in St Louis, USA

Steve Bernardin

Sanjoy Bhattacharya University College London, UK Margaret C. Boardman Independent scholar, USA Philip Bonner University of The Witwatersrand, South Africa Paolo Brenni Fondazione Scienza & Tecnica, Italy John Britton Francis Marion University, USA Natalia Brizuela University of California at Berkeley, USA

viii

List of Contributors

Tom Brooking University of Otago, New Zealand

Robert Cliver Humboldt State University, USA

Tom Buchanan University of Oxford, UK

Yves Cohen Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France

Elizabeth Buettner University of York, UK Carlos F. Câceres Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Peru

G. Daniel Cohen Rice University, USA Patrick Cohrs Yale University, USA

Melissa L. Caldwell University of California at Santa Cruz, USA

Val Colic-Peisker RMIT University, Australia

Robert M. Campbell Mount Allison University, Canada

Ken Conca University of Maryland, USA

David Cantor National Institutes of Health, USA

Matthew Connelly Columbia University, USA

Jane Carruthers University of South Africa, South Africa

Sebastian Conrad European University Institute, ltaly

Keith Cartwright University of North Florida, USA Youssef Cassis Universite de Geneve, Switzerland Ernesto Castafieda-Tinoco Columbia University, USA Luiz A. Castro-Santos Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazii Richard Cavell University of British Columbia, Canada John T. Chalcraft London School of Economics and Politica[ Science, UK Christophe Charle Ecole Normale Superieure, France

Sahr Conway-Lanz National Archives and Records Administration, USA Dorota Dakowska Universite de Strasbourg Robert Schuman, France Shao Dan University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, USA Thomas Richard Davies University of Oxford, UK Evan N. Dawley Harvard University, USA Simona De Iulio Universite de Strasbourg Robert Schuman, France Sarah E. Dedonder Kansas State University, USA

Charles C. Chester Brandeis University, USA

Mathieu Deflem University of South Carolina, USA

Lucy Chester University of Colorado at Boulder, USA

Luiz Fernando Dias Duarte Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazii

Mark Cioc University of California at Santa Cruz, USA Patricia Clavin University of Oxford, UK

Maria Paula Diogo Universidade Nava e Lisboa, Portugal Cornelis Disco Universiteit Twente, The Netherlands

List of Contributors

Colin Dival University of York, UK Marie-Laure Djelic ESSEC Business School, France Kurk Dorsey University of New Hampshire, USA Paul J. Dosal University of South Florida, USA Rafiqu Dossani Stanford University, USA Stephen Dovers Australian National University, Australia Jaap Dronkers European University Institute, Italy Prasenjit Duara University of Chicago, USA Ellen Carol DuBois University of California at Las Angeles, USA Laird M. Easton California State University, USA Jean-Frant;:ois Eck Universite Charles de Gaulle - Lille 3, France Andreas Eckert Humboldt Universităt zu Berlin, Germany Pieter Emmer Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands Clive Emsley The Open University, UK

ix

Laurence Fontaine Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France Barbara A. Frey University of Minnesota, USA Harriet Friedmann University of Toronto, Canada Peter Fritzsche University of Illinois, USA Carlo Fumian Universita degli Studi di Padova, Italy Ellen Furlough University of Kentucky, USA Jonathan Furner University of California at Las Arzgeles, USA Donna Gabaccia University of Minnesota, USA Ilya V. Gaiduk United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Russia Oded Galor Brown University, USA Karina Galperin Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Argentina Arlette Gautier Universite de Brest, France

Sandra Gayol Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento, Argentina

Shane Ewen Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Didier Georgakakis Universite de Strasbourg Robert Schuman, France

Stefano Fait University of St Andrews, UK

David Gerlach University of Pittsburgh, USA

Giovanni Federico European University Institute, Italy

Karl Gerth University of Oxford, USA

Olivier Feiertag Universite de Rouen, France

Michael Geyer University of Chicago, USA

Andreas Fickers Universiteit Maastricht, The Netherlands

Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht foharzn Wolfgang Goethe-Universităt Frankfurt/Main, Germarzy

Robert Fitzgerald Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

Petra Goedde Temple University, USA

x

List of Contributors

Marisa Gonzalez de Oleaga Universidad Nacional de Educaci6n a Distancia, Spain David Goodman University of Melboume, Australia Timothy Gorringe University of Exeter, UK Christopher Goto-Jones Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands Gabriele Gottlieb Grand Valley State University, USA Harrison Grafos University of Pittsburgh, USA Julie Greene University of Maryland, USA Raymond Grew University of Michigan, USA Bernd-Stefan Grewe Universităt Konstanz, Germany J. Bishop Grewell Politica[ Economy Research Center, USA Tom Griffiths Australian National University, Australia

Christiane Harzig Arizona State University, USA Pierre-Cyrille Hautcoeur Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France Johan Heilbron Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Hans Heiss Universităt Innsbruck, Austria Madeleine Herren Ruprecht-Karls-Universităt Heidelberg,

Germany

Winton Higgins University of Technology Sydney, Australia Neville Hoad University of Texas at Austin, USA Dirk Hoerder Arizona State University, USA Eri Hotta Independent scholar, USA Peter Hough Middlesex University, UK Guy Houvenaghel Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Nicolas Guilhot Social Science Research Council, USA

Elisabeth Hsu University of Oxford, UK

Nicolas Guirimand Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France

Madeline Y. Hsu University of Texas at Austin, USA

Kolleen M. Guy University of Texas at San Antonio, USA Jane L. Guyer Johns Hopkins University, USA

Michael Huberman Universite de Montreal, Canada Tobias Hiibinette Multicultural Centre, Sweden

Cindy Hahamovitch College of William and Mary, USA

Jonathan Hyslop University of The Witwatersrand, South Africa

Peter L. Hahn Ohio State University, USA

Akira Iriye Harvard University, USA

Jean-Louis Halperin Ecole Normale Superieure, France jessica L. Harland-Jacobs University of Florida, USA Stephen L. Harp University of Akron, USA

Ruud Janssens Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands Laurent jeanpierre Universite Paris XII- Val de Mame, France

List of Contributors

Alan]eeves Queen's University, South Africa

Glen David Kuecker Depauw University, USA

Robert David Johnson City University of New York, Brooklyn College, USA

Nancy H. Kwak University of California at San Diego, USA

Val Marie Johnson Saint Mary's University, Canada

Nora Lafi Zentrum Moderner Orient, Germany

Dorothy V. Jones Independent scholar, USA

Vincent Lagedijk Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Guy Julier Leeds Metropolitan University, UK Wolfram Kaiser University of Portsmouth, UK Hussein Kassim University of East Anglia, UK Justin J Kastner Kansas State University, USA Jennifer E Keelan University of Toronto, Canada Kathleen Kete Trinity Collgge, USA Akram F. Khater North Carolina State University, USA Anatoly M. Khazanov University ofWisconsin-Madison, USA Aysegiil Kibaroglu Orta Dagu Teknik Universitesi, Turkey

xi

Deep Kanta Lahiri-Choudhury Jamia Millia Islamia, India Marilyn Lake Latrobe University, Australia Nancy Langston University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Solange Lefebvre Universite de Montreal, Canada Yannick Lemarchand Universite de Nantes, France MarkLevene University of Southampton, UK Harry Liebersohn University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, USA Marianne Elisabeth Lien Universitetet i Oslo, Norway

Masato Kimura Bunkyo Gakuin University, Japan

Raphael Liogier Institut d'Etudes Politiques d'Aix-enProvence, France

Martin Klimke Universităt Heidelberg, Germany

Lisong Liu University of Minnesota, USA

Jack R. Kloppenburg jr University ofWisconsin-Madison, USA

Tessie P. Liu Northwestern University, USA

Peter Knight University of Manchester, UK

Isabella Lohr Universităt Leipzig, Germany

Sandrine Kott Universite de Geneve, Switzerland

james Longhurst University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, USA

Gary Kroll State University of New York at Plattsburg, USA

Ana Longoni Universidad de Buenos Aires - CONICET, Argentina

Pedro Krotsch Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Walton Look Lai University ofThe West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago

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List of Contributors

Emanuelle Loyer Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris, France Leo Lucassen

Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands

Piers Ludlow London School of Economics and Politica/ Science, UK Eithne Luibheid

University of Arizona, USA

W. Caleb McDaniel

Rice University, USA

Patrick F. McDevitt State University of New York at Buffalo, USA Clay McShane

Northeastern University, USA Jens Meirhenrich

Harvard University, USA C. Michael Mellor

Charles Maier

Matilda Ziegler Magazine for the Blind, USA

Michael Makovsky Bipartisan Policy Center, USA

Karen Merrill

Erez Maneta Harvard University, USA

Ikechi Mgbeoji

Michel Mangenot

Alain P. Michel

Harvard University, USA

Universite de Strasbourg Robert Schuman, France Patrick Manning

University of Pittsburgh, USA

Peter L. Manuel

City University of New York, John Jay College, USA Dominique Marshall Car/etan University, Canada Jill Julius Matthews

Williams College, USA

Osgoode Hall Law School, Canada Universite d'Evry-Val d'Essonne, France Redner Miklos

Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Edward Miller Dartmouth College, USA Michael B. Miller University of Miami, USA

Australian National University, Australia

William Minter

Tracie Matysik

Tony Mitchell

University of Texas at Austin, USA

Chloe Maurel

Africa Focus Bulletin, USA University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France

Gregg Mitman

John Maynard

Rana Mitter

University of Newcastle, Australia

University of Oxford, UK

Cedric Mayrargue

jean-Yves Mollier

Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Bordeaux, France

Universite de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-enYvelines, France

Bruce Mazlish

Gijs Mom

Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, USA

Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Sucheta Mazumdar Duke University, USA

Fernando Monge Fundaci6n General de la UNED, Spain

University ofWisconsin-Madison, USA

List of Contributors

Veronica Montecinos Pennsylvania State University, USA

Karen Hunger Parshall University of Virginia, USA

Christian Montes Universite Lumiere Lyon 2, France

Kiran Klaus Patel European University Institute, Italy

William Moomaw Tufts University, USA jonathan Morris University of Hertfordshire, UK jose C. Moya University of California at Los Angeles, USA Michelle Murphy University of Toronto, Canada joseph j. Murray Mayo Clinic, Norway joe Nasr Independent scholar, UK Holger Nehring University of Sheffield, UK Wing Chung Ng University of Texas at San Antonio, USA David Paull Nickles Office of the Historian, State Department, USA Abbey L. Nutsch Kansas State University, USA Tim Oakes University of Colorado, USA David O'Brien University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, USA Scott O'Bryan Indiana University, USA Irene Oh University of Mia mi, USA Gary B. Ostrower Alfred University, USA Connie Oxford State University of New York at Plattsburg, USA Dominique Padurano Horace Mann School, USA Soyang Park Ontario College of Art And Design, Canada

xiii

Renaud Payre Universite Lumiere Lyon 2, France Peter Pels Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands Gyorgy Peteri Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet, Norway Pascal Petit Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Ivan Petrella University of Miami, USA Howard Phillips University of Cape Town, South Africa Richard Pierard Gordon Ca/lege, USA jeffrey M. Pilcher University of Minnesota, USA Paulo G. Pinto Universidad Federal Fluminense, Brazii Claire B. Pitner Northern Arizona University, USA Mariano Plotkin Instituto de Desarrollo Economica y Social, Argentina David Priestland University of Oxford, UK Viviane Quirke Oxford Brookes University, UK Mare Raffinot Universite Paris Dauphine, France Dhruv Raina fawaharlal Nehru University, India Michel Rainelli Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Kapil Raj Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France

xiv

List of Contributors

Linda Reeder University of Missouri, USA

Dorothee Schneider University of Illinois, USA

Chris Reid University of Portsmouth, UK

johan Schot Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Pietra Rivoli Georgetown University, USA Libby Robin Australian National University, Australia Ron Robin New York University, USA Philip Robins University of Oxford, UK Daniel T. Rodgers Princeton University, USA jonathan Rosenberg City University of New York, Hunter College, USA Neal Rosendorf Long Island University, USA jay Rowell Centre National de la Recherche Scienti(lque, France Federico Ruozzi Universita degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Italy Dominic Sachsenmaier Duke University, USA Nicole Sackley University of Richmond, USA Mark B. Salter University of Ottawa, Canada Daniel Sargent Harvard University, USA Samir Saul Universite de Montreal, Canada Pierre-Yves Saunier Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA Oliver Schmidt Georg Simmel Center for Metropolitan Studies, Germany

Brigitte Schroeder-Gudehus Universite de Montreal, Canada Rachel Schurman University of Minnesota, USA Giles Scott-Smith Roosevelt Study Center, The Netherlands Paolo Scrivano Boston University, USA Bruce E. Seely Michigan Technical University, USA Milton Shain University of Cape Town, South Africa Yaacov Shavit Tel Aviv University, Israel Sydney Shep Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Thomas Shevory Ithaca College, USA Hatsue Shinohara Waseda University, Japan Christiane Sibille

Ruprecht-Karls-Universităt Heidelberg,

Germany

Detlef Siegfried Kobenhavns Universitet, Denmark Hannes Siegrist Universităt Leipzig, Germany Suzanne Sinke Florida State University, USA jeffrey Sissons Victoria University ofWellington, New Zealand Glenda Sluga University of Sydney, Australia Ron P. Smith Birkbeck College, University of London, UK

List of Contributors

Maui Solomon Independent scholar, New Zealand Gustavo Sorâ Universidad Nacional de C6rdoba, Argentina Carlotta Sorba Universitit degli Studi di Padova, Italy Nadege Sougy Universite de Neuchâtel, Switzerland Phia Steyn University of Stirling, UK Michael Strangelove University of Ottawa, Canada Sarah Strauss University of Wyoming, USA ]an Susina Illinois State University, USA Kristina Tamm Hallstrom Stockholms Universitet, Sweden Horacio Tarcus Centro de Documentaci6n e Investigaci6n de la Cultura de Izquierdas en Argentina, Argentina Hsu-Ming Teo Macquarie University, Australia Daya Thussu University of Westminster, UK Humphrey Tonkin University of Hartford, USA lan Tyrrell University of New South Wales, Australia EddyU University of California at Davis, USA

Lucien van der Walt University of The Witwatersrand, South Africa Eric Verdeil Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Verges Goldsmiths College, UK

Fran~oise

Timothy Verhoeven University of Melbourne, Australia Patrick Verley Universite de Geneve, Switzerland Philippe Videlier Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Jakob Vogel Universităt KOln, Germany Penny Von Eschen University of Michigan, USA Anne-Catherine Wagner Universite de Paris 1 - Pantheon Sorbonne, France Adam Walaszek Uniwersytet Jagiellmiski, Poland Kyle Walker University of Minnesota, USA Kevin Wamsley University of Western Ontario, Canada Stephen Ward Oxford Brookes University, UK Deena Weinstein DePaul University, USA Kenneth Weisbrode Harvard University, USA

Nicole Ulrich University ofThe Witwatersrand, South Africa

Blaise Wilfert-Portal Ecole Normale Superieure, France

ScottUrban University of Oxford, UK

Ara Wilson Ohio State University, USA

Jasmien Van Daele International Labour Office, Switzerland

Roberta Wollons University of Massachusetts at Boston, USA

Erik van der Vleuten Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands

xv

Aida Yuen Wong Brandeis University, USA

xvi

List of Contributors

Laura Elizabeth Wong

Rumi Yasutake

Harvard University, USA

Konan University, Japan

Sappho Xenakis

Elliott Young

London School of Economics and Politica[ Science, UK

Lewis and Clark College, USA

GuoqiXu

Western Michigan University, USA

Kalamazoo College, USA

ZhouXun School of African and Oriental Studies, UK

Elizabeth Zanoni Thomas Zeiler University of Colorado, USA

Eduardo Zimmermann Universidad de San Andres, Argentina

Introductio n THE PROFESSOR AND THE MADMAN

Borrowing the title of Simon Winchester's novel as the title of this introduction is quite appropriate. Not so much because it would approximately describe the division of roles between the two general editors. Or because this was the very volume that one of us randomly pulled out from the other's bookshelves at the time we tuned the first sketches of this volume. Rather, it is because we want to stress from the start that the making of this volume was not as difficult as the making of the Oxford English Dictionary at the end of the 19th century. ]ames Murray had to face many obstacles we have been spared. Making a dictionary is probably easier today than it was just thirty years ago, and a major reason lies in the development of information technologies. We sometimes had an attack of vertigo when we thought about the energy and time that one had to spend during the postal age to invent entries, find contributors, follow up with hundreds of authors and liaise with an editing and publishing team. When we think of how web searches have been complementary to library work when establishing a list of entries or a list of possible contributors, and when we browse the 15,000 e-mails or so that have been generated just by the two of us during the development of this project, we realize how the ability to communicate quickly and cheaply with colleagues from across the globe has been crucial in shaping this endeavour. We also believe that it was an incentive to stretch our editorial suggestions. While you certainly hesitate to send a fourth manuscript or typed letter with editorial comments about a couple of sentences when it takes several weeks to travel

back and forth, you do not hesitate to send an e-mail that asks for clarification about a single word or a comma. While you'd tire of chasing an overdue entry by phone at great expense, you now have the ability to swoop down on contributors using Voice over IP software. Somehow, this also makes the standards higher, and we hope to have lived up at least partially to the new claims that are laid on us academics by the possibilities of digital communication. The use of these possibilities was part of the excitement and pleasure we had in developing this project. But there was something else, where we quite likely touched upon some of ]ames Murray's and other encyclopedia makers' feelings when they worked out their projects. We were starting from scratch without a matrix, without a precedent. There were no 'obvious' entries or contributors that we had to enlist or do without, because of their presence in a previous attempt to do what we were doing. It was definitely not like working on just another edition in a long line of reference volumes on the history of one or another country, or any spin-off from a long series of formatted companions and dictionaries. This provided us with freedom and room for manoeuvre, invaluable possessions if you want to keep a high and even level of commitment and stamina during several years. This does not mean that we considered we were inventing anything. In the world of knowledge, such a stance is bound to be exposed as a boast at one moment or another. Instead, as historians of the modern age, we simply faced the fact that more and more people were paying attention to the circulations

xviii lntroduction

and connections between, above and beyond national polities and societies, from the 19th century to current times. While the history of the modern age had been, more than that of other periods in human history, written from a national perspective, the last twenty years have witnessed the mounting of an explicit challenge to this position, originating from the whole spectrum of the social sciences and the humanities. It was manifest in the growing number of forums, meetings, journals, courses and research projects which addressed the modern world by considering the entangled nature of the different national and local histories. We saw this trend developing and were ourselves part of it in our fields and specialties. It had many labels, and more have developed since. Some distinguished historians such as Patrick Manning, ]erry Bentley, Chris Bayly and Anthony Hopkins prefer 'world history' to name their concern for cross-cultural and global comparisons and connections. Similarly, a number of people consider that 'international history' is an appropriate way to designate their interest. At the other end of the spectrum, other scholars have coined new terms: Sanjay Subrahmanyam uses the term 'connected histories', Shalini Randeria goes for 'entangled history', Michael Werner and Benedicte Zimmerman have sketched what an 'histoire croisee' would be, David Thelen and his US colleagues have popularized the term 'transnational history' with prompt support from Jtirgen Kocka and a host of German colleagues, Bruce Mazlish and Akira Iriye have defended the idea of a 'new global history', while 'shared histories' has taken its cue from people studying the connections between the history of separate ethnic groups. More recently, William Gervase ClarenceSmith, Kenneth Pomeranz and Peer Vries have chosen 'global history' to name the new journal they have been co-editing since 2006. We would not spend a minute disputing the advantages and limits of these and other labels, for we feel those who use them share a

similar interest in what moves between and across different polities and societies. Because of our idiosyncrasies, we just felt that 'transnational history' gave the most faithful indication of what we were trying to do. We are interested in links and flows, and want to track people, ideas, products, processes and patterns that operate over, across, through, beyond, above, under, or in-between polities and societies. Among the units that were thus crossed, consolidated or subverted in the modern age, first and foremost were the national ones, if only because our work addresses the moment, roughly from the middle of the 19th century until nowadays, when nations carne to be seen and empowered as the main frames for the politica!, cultural, economic and social life of human beings. Both in our research and in our classroom activities, we had the feeling that there did not exist a kind of reference volume that would provide facts and leads as to the shape, content, role and impact of these transnational circulations and connections. This was not available from the existing reference volumes, we thought. The flows of people, goods, ideas or processes that stretched over borders were sidelined or altogether neglected by national dictionaries. Area studies reference volumes also limited their perspective to the area that was studied. World history encyclopedias were mostly organized by national or regional categories, and focused on civilizations while rarely dealing with the relationship among contexts. The time range of world history is so large, from the Big Bang onwards, that the age of nations is just a very brief and recent moment seen from this point of view. Some biographical dictionaries had a wide range but were strictly limited to biographical entries, while the most relevant thematic reference volumes were of course limited by their thematic orientation. Our earliest sketches, and discussion of them with colleagues strengthened our idea that there was room and need for a reference volume that would document the

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history of connections and circulations in the modern age, from about 1850 to the present. It was very clear to us from the start that such a project had to be developed by a group of scholars who would share some common dispositions. Discipline or subdiscipline were not discriminating factors, as long as a potential author had a bent for grappling with time and the history of the last 160 years. We sought contributors not only in the discipline of history but also ali around the social sciences and humanities rim, from anthropology to economics, theology, linguistics, geography or sociology and the whole range of interdisciplinary studies. But we also imagined that, if the Dictionary was to effectively address connections and circulations across polities and societies, it had to be edited and written by people who would be 'transnational' themselves, with regard to their linguistic abilities, their interests and connections with worldwide communities of researchers in their fields, their command of existing literature and, according to aur hunch, their personal trajectories. This basic position has found its expression in the list of associate editors and of contributors. However, we were not in search of any politically correct balance of gender, race, ethnicity, countries or continents, and we certainly do not purport to have eliminated biases that are connected to 'wherefrom we write'. Conditions of personal availability, documentation facilities, visibility and command of the English language have also informed aur search for contributors and the response of those we have approached. The inequalities of resources throughout the academic world have thus left their mark on this volume, because there are certainly some bright scholars we left aside because we simply did not know them, or because we felt it would be difficult for them to assemble the material from which to write wide-ranging pieces. Last but not least, we were also the complacent victims of our own networks and locations: there is no doubt that the list of

xix

contributors, the headword list and the content of the entries would have been different if this Dictionary had been edited, say, by a Latin American historian born/living in China and a Middle Eastern scholar with some experience in Indian universities. We are the first to believe that aur historical imagination needs to be enlarged to be able to write transnational history transnationally and we are just looking forward to another such dictionary or encyclopedia, or to a new edition of this one, to add other approaches to our own current attempts. We are pretty sure this will come quite soon as we consider the ongoing development of research and teaching endeavours that endorse a transnational perspective. Indeed, it may be one of the most salient features of this specific volume that it emerges from a work in progress. Dictionaries and encyclopedias more usually pertain to well established disciplines, and claim to provide an ultimate state-of-the-art survey, whereas many of the entries written for this volume are exploratory to the point that we were tempted to name it the Tentative Dictionary of Transnational History. lnventing the list of entries, identifying possible contributors, was an exciting and difficult task for which we had no previous model or matrix. Accordingly, we established aur list of headwords in an attempt to cover the widest possible range of themes for this first foray, leaving comprehensiveness's dreams to lie dormant for a while. We are aware of the gaps that others may recognize in this list: some have been caused by the lack of imagination, curiosity and expertise on aur part, and others by the excess of the same at the moment when we trimmed aur original list of 1,500 possible entries to establish the framework for a workable volume. We take the blame for both, and consider these flaws an incentive for future endeavours. The unprecedented nature of this project is also reflected in the contents of the entries themselves. Some subjects may be riper than others, and the

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lntroduction

content is more 'state of the art'. Other entries are venturing onto new ground, blazing trails that had not been explored as such: they are full of hunches, questions, possibilities, and they focus on the moments and places that are more familiar to their authors. Some other contributors chose the well rounded way, and carne up with a piece that will satisfy readers in search of data, facts and figures. Last but not least, while most of the contributors have focused their attention on the development of historical processes, another group have ventured onto more theoretical ground and coped with concepts that have been used to understand such processes, to assess how they have been shaped, appropriated and disputed across borders. It has not been uncommon for entries to eventually take a direction that was not foreseen, and this has always been a pleasure for us as editors. In all these instances, the contributors to this Dictionary have been aware that they were just having a first try, and generously offered their insight with the bitter awareness that they could not harness the breadth of literature in various languages and from many disciplinary or subdisciplinary landscapes. Their willingness to expose the range and limits of their expertise has been very generous. Because of all these limits, this volume is not intended to be canonical. There is no disciplinary brief included in its text, subtext or paratext. We think it is a tool that will be used by scholars to develop their own projects to study other circulations and connections, and to revise or update what has been written in this Dictionary about some of these. It is a step, a prop for further research to develop. On the other hand, we do not want to establish a new field or a new subdiscipline, and it is just for

the sake of clarity that we have adopted the name of The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History. We believe the transnational approach to be an angle, a perspective that can be adopted by everyone who wants to address the entangled condition of the modern world and contribute answers to some very specific questions. To summarize, there are three prongs that this volume wants to contribute to. First, the historicization of interdependency and interconnection phenomena between national, regional or cultural spheres in the modern age, by charting the development of projects, designs and structures that have organized circulations and connections through and between them, in an uneven and non-linear way. Second, the advancement of knowledge on neglected or hazy regions of national and other self-contained territorial histories, by acknowledging foreign contributions to the design, discussion and implementation of patterns that are often seen as owing their features to domestic conditions. Third, the understanding of trends and protagonists that are often left on the periphery of national or comparative frameworks; and this leads us to the study of markets, trajectories, concepts, activities and organizations that thrived in-between and across the nations: international voluntary associations, loose transnational ideas networks, diasporas or commodities. Readers and users will be able to tell if this volume delivers on these fronts and on others. But for us, as editors, the contributors to The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History have made aur historical education more complete on all these frontiers. This volume is theirs. AKIRA IRIYE PIERRE-YVES SAUNIER

Acknowledgements Our list of people who have been wonderfully helpful, punctual and conscientious starts with the editorial team. Alison Jones was an enthusiastic publisher when presented with the idea for this volume back in the Spring of 2004 and she has retained the same level of enthusiasm and commitment ever since. It was a pleasure to work with her and her companion in the Palgrave Macmillan offices, Ruth Lefevre, with whom we have exchanged literally thousands of e-mails on pleasant and not so pleasant subjects throughout the past few years. We know now how important it is to be able to rely on an able publishing team to embark on this kind of long-term endeavour. This also includes people behind the scenes such as Senior Production Editor Phillipa Davidson-Blake and many others whose names we do not know, despite their vital contribution. The five associate editors who joined us after the initial phase of the project underscore another fundamental requirement of such a project: the pleasure and usefulness of working with colleagues who want to achieve the same gaal, and who provide their knowledge, time, wit and energy to do so. Jane Carruthers, Donna Gabaccia, Rana Mitter, Mariana Plotkin and Patrick Verley macte us feel part of a community while the seven of us built up the list of entries, looked for contributors and edited the essays received. Making a dictionary also involves crucial practica! tasks: Brian Morrison was a very effective and diplomatic copy editor, who had the additional challenge of mending the English of two non-native speakers in addition to the usual painstaking attention that is

expected of copy editors. Piroska Csuri, Karina Iacono and Rosemary Williams translated several pieces from Spanish or French with grace and accuracy, while Susan Curran elaborated the indexes without which no dictionary can exist. Phil Isenberg, Marie-Fran~oise Cachin and other, anonymous translators also offered their services to aur contributors on specific entries. There are many other contributions that need to be acknowledged here, among which we need to single out the input by Michael Geyer and Marilyn Lake, who should have been associate editors and had to withdraw for personal reasons. A very important moment in the making of this Dictionary was the inspirational three-day workshop we were able to organize in the Spring of 2005 with the members of the editorial team. This meeting was funded by the Rockefeller Archives Center in North Tarrytown, New York State, where Norine Hochman, Camilla Harris, Kenneth Rase and Darwin Stapleton were perfect hosts and hostesses. Throughout the process, a large number of colleagues and friends, some we knew and some we have never met, provided advice, warnings, suggestions, comments or support. They are, in alphabetical order, Arturo Almandoz, Dennis Altman, Chris Arup, Douglas Baynton, Volker Berghahn, Steve Bernardin, Thomas Bender, Denis Bocquet, Paul Boyer, ]ohn Braithwaite, Judith Brown, ]ohn Chalcraft, Juan Cale, Miriam Cooke, Jasmien van Daele, Michele Dagenais, Shao Dan, Marie-Laure Djelic, Peter Drahos, Ellen Carol DuBois, Timothy Farnham, Olivier Feiertag, Michael Geyer, ]essica Gienow-Hecht, Pascal Griset, Aaron Gillette, Kristin Hoganson,

xxii

Acknowledgements

Marta Hanson, Roger Hart, Pierre-Cyrille Hautcoeur, John Heilbron, Madeleine Herren, Anthony Hopkins, Braj Kachru, James Kloppenberg, Martti Koskenniemi, Joseph Kinner, Jiirgen Kocka, Marilyn Lake, Bruce Lawrence, Mark Levene, Walter K. Lew, Sergio Luzzatto, Gregg Mitman, Veronica Montecinos, ]oe Nasr, Holger Nehring, David O'Brien, Scott O'Bryan, Johannes Paulmann, Rosalind Petchesky, Gyury Peteri, Anne Rasmussen, Annelise Riles, Harriet Ritvo, Daniel Rodgers, Emily Rosenberg, Helen Rozwadowski, Leila Rupp, Johan Schot, Christiane Sibille, Kathryn Sklar, Carlotta Sorba, Darwin Stapleton, George Thomas, Charles Tilly, Humphrey Tonkin,

Christian Topalov, Ludovic Tournes, Chantal and Eric Verdeil, Kenneth Weisbrode, Blaise Wilfert, Daniel Wilson and Rumi Yasutake. Some of them are also contributors to this volume, and it is to our contributors in general that we feel most obliged. They coped with aur nagging, with our extravagant edits and with our demands for punctuality. Thanks to their labour of love, we have learned so much. Just to write it down at the opening of this volume seems to us an inadequate way to say 'thank you' for all they have dane for us. The list of their names, a few pages back, is the rollcall of those who have macte our project a reality.

Notes for the Reader There are always several ways to navigate a dictionary. Most are invented by readers themselves, but the editors can nevertheless provide some guidance. The most obvious is the alphabetical list of entries, mirrored in their arrangement in the volume itself. Thus, headwords have been arranged in alphabetical order, and some appear twice in the case of a complex headword: for instance, the 'GATT and WTO' essay appears under 'G' in the alphabetical arrangement of the volume, but 'WTO and GATT' also appears as a signpost entry under 'W', to direct the reader to the essay itself. lndividuals are listed by their family name ('Schwimmer, Rosika'), and books by the first substantive word of their title, for example, under 'Bible' rather than 'The Bible'. When the topic being sought cannot be found in the alphabetical list, the indexes are the place to look. It is fully developed at the end of this volume and allows readers to find the entry which includes or documents the term they are searching for, be it a place name, an individual name, or a topic. 'Automobile', which is not a headword, will thus point to the entries 'assembly line', 'car culture', 'car safety standards', 'industrial organization', 'International Road Federation', 'Toyotism', and 'transportation infrastructures', and perhaps others. Related essays in the Dictionary are also cross-referenced at the end of each essay, even when they have not been explicitly mentioned in the body of the essay. Our rationale for crossreferencing entries was, of course, to connect obvious companion and complementary entries (like 'news and press agencies' with 'information society', or 'advertising' with 'marketing'. But

we have also tried to suggest hidden or far-reaching connections, that can only be seen after reading the entries; thus we believe it is stimulating to cross-reference 'food' and 'literature', for their methodological hindsight; or to tie 'theatre' with 'kindergarten' and 'organization models' as these three offer detailed views on how some practices and ideas have been exchanged and appropriated; or to suggest that readers of 'League of Nations Economic and Financial Organization' also read 'philanthropic foundations', despite the fact that the financing of the Economic Intelligence Service by the Rockefeller Foundation is not explicitly mentioned in the former article. Cross-references thus give access both to the clusters of substance that group some articles together, and to clusters that we editors have identified at different stages of the editorial process. Finally, we have provided graphic presentations that may allow readers to find their way into the themes and territories explored by the Dictionary. Alphabetical lists and indexes are fine when you know what you are looking for. When you don't, or when you want to get some idea of the general picture, what you need is a kind of map or plan. Ideally, we would have loved to be able to conceive and represent a tangled web of topics, but the result would have been both literally unprintable and unreadable. We eventually carne up with a less suggestive but more expressive solution, embodied in the 'tree' diagrams that complete our search tools section. This is an idea we borrowed from our colleagues Victoria de Grazia and Sergio Luzzatto 's Dizionario del Fascismo (Turin: Einaudi, 2003) after

xxiv Notes for the Header

discussions with them, and that we had used earlier on as a development tool for our headword list. At draft stage, we began by using alphabetically arranged lists, which were useful for launching the whole project and receiving feedback on its usefulness. But when we tried to move towards a final list of entries, development by list was no longer sufficient. Our aim was to cover a wide range of circulatory and connective processes, types and moments, if only to trim the results ata later stage. What we needed were categories within which this development process would take place. In order to open the range of entries, it would have been counterproductive to start from areas, regions, chronological chunks or subdisciplinary fields, and try to imagine entries within those frames. So we started from wide themes, like 'people flows', asking ourselves what the potential headwords were that would appropriately cover the circulations and connections pertaining to people movements between 1850 and today. We imagined some big-picture entries: 'international migration regimes', 'human mobility'; a typology of such movements: 'diasporas', 'labour migrations', 'forced migrations', and from each of these derived a number of entries that grappled with a specific aspect: 'slavery', 'brain drain', 'guestworkers', 'Lebanese Diaspora'. We used the same process for some twenty families/groups of entries, which went from 'places' to 'Planet Earth', trying

to build threads of connected essays within each of them in order to cover our chronological, geographical and thematic range. These families and groups allowed us to distribute the articles amongst the editorial team so that each one could be dealt with and eventually commissioned by the associate editor with the greatest experience or curiosity in that particular field, although several of these groups were eventually handled by several editors. This exercise made it clear that the families/groups allotment was to serve as the basis for building a graphic map of the volume in its final stage. To do so, we have recombined the entries into ten large families. This graphic presentation in the 'tree' diagrams should not be taken literally: these are not Linnaean trees, nor ]oshua trees. Some entries are repeated in several of them and their presence in one family or the other is not a consequence of any particular conceptual assignment. Moreover, the presentation of a graphic link between two entries is not an expression of the subordination of one entry to another, nor of an exclusive connection between the two. Our 'tree' merely suggests to the reader that there are gains tobe made in reading a number of entries together, just as there was some gain in conceiving, writing or editing them as a cluster. We feel that this will help readers to find their way into the volume, just as we had to find ours.

List of Acronyms AIDS AI BBC ECLAC

EU GATT GMOs HSBC IT ICAO IATA IMF INGOs IRF

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Amnesty International British Broadcasting Corporation Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) European Union General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Genetically modified organisms Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited Information technology International Civil Aviation Organization International Air Transport Association International Monetary Fund International nongovernmental organizations International Road Federation

ICANN

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization IUCN World Conservation Union MBA Master of Business Administration MSF Medecins Sans Frontil~res NBA National Basketball Association NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries UCLG United Cities and Local Government UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UPU Universal Postal Union WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

Tree Diagrams KEY • Words in italics refer to a theme, and not to an existing entry. • Links between entries suggest a relation of complementary nature, but do not exhaust the entanglements of the entries.

1

People ftows

1

diasporas

international migration regimes

human mobility

remittances family migration chinese diaspora , lebanese diaspora

individual identication systems gender and sex , adoption marnage sexuality and migration

temporary migrations

missionaries border commuters guestworkers

tourism

international students nomads Thailand and sex tourism

labour migrations,brain drain

/

body shopping

domestic service perlorming artists executives and professionals rush migrations

forced migrations\ exile ~ refugees ~ refugee relief ~ displaced persons asylum seekers

slavery

white slavery

empire and migration - - - - - - - - - contract and indentured labourers transportation infrastructures

-=:::::::::::::

steamships railways

Tree Diagrams xxvii 2

World order and disorder environmental diplomacy

~ outer space

internationalisms~regional

Moon treaty oceans - - - - - - International Maritime Conference climate change Stockholm Conference

communities -European Union ~European institutions ----. European civil servants

cosmopolitanism and universalism world federalism

~

Paul Otlet Harry von Kessler Aurobindo Ackroyd Ghose

pan-isms - - - - - - - - - - - - - • z i o n i s m historians and the nation state borders and borderlands governing science

accounting systems statistics police

-"""~==-------national

language diplomacy

·

governance public policy transfer --==============taxation welfare state health policy intergovemmental organizations

Commission on International Labour Legislation League of Nations Health Organization League of Nations Economic and Financial Organization Woodrow Wilson Washington Consensus United Nations Hammarskjtild family system "'E::=---Intemational Monetary Fund World Bank United Nations decades and years United Nations Women's Conferences Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Mexican Revolution

world orders

war

Cold War ~ Abolttion of Forced Labour Convention Marshall Plan North Atlantic Treaty Organization Pugwash Conferences reparations Congress for Cultural Freedom partitions Vietnam War warcrimes armssales arms trafficking pacifism - - - - - - disarmament - - - - - Pugwash conferences

Pax Americana~ Wo?drow Wilson ----. reg1ons

IDEOLOGY""''I!~~~::::======= liberalism-------------1848 anarchism maoism - - - - - Little Red Book neoliberalism fascism and anii-fascism Che Guevara nazism Russian Revolution Comintem/Cominform socialism .....,E-------------1989 Communist Manifesta (Continued)

xxviii Tree Diagrams

2

World order and disorder (Continued)

world orders

Empires/ imperialism modernization theory ~Economic Commission for Latin America underdevelopment \ technical assistance programs Raul Prebisch developmental assistance

development and growth

empire and migration - - - - - - - - - contract and indentured labourers justice

--=::::::::::::

lntellectual property rights legal order

repara~ions

===========:

warcnmes

biopatents indigenous knowledges

Cade civil lawfirms genocides

Holocaust -----. Armeman genoc1de

~

terrorism crime - - - - - - illicit drugs remittances financial centres

euromarkets -......... dollar

~

financial markets ~ Swiss banks -......... HSBC money

financial diplomacy -.:::::-- investment -...... Pierre Quesnay loans

= " debtcrises

- - - - . debt crises (developing countries) ------~ Paris Club

technical standardization - - - - - - - - information technology standardization

Internet Corporation for Assigned Namesand Numbers

labour standards =~=========:::::~ Abolition of Forced Labour Convention food safety standards International Comm1ss1on on Labour Leg1slat1on car safety standards traffic signals bibliographic classification - - - - - - - - Paul Otlet measurement

Tree Diagrama xxix

3 Words, sounds, images internet - - - - - - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers information technology offshoring information economy

news and pres::ag~e:n~ci:es~====================== AI-Jazeera radio broadcasting telephone and British Broadcasting telegraphy Corporation publishing ~ intellectual property rights Bible The Wretched of the Earth Communist Manifesto Koran Little Red Book War and Peace in the Global Village mail - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - U n i v e r s a l Postal Union

language ~ pidgins and creoles ~ Esperanto Braille code language diplomacy sign languages translation

1

literatura

libraries

cultural capitals

~

modernismo romanticism surrealism children's literatura com1cs literary capitals

-====--" book and periodica! exchange

~ bibliographic classification - P a u l Otlet

.....;::==::=:--- Harry van Kessler italian opera

cantonese opera music 'lliii~~=====~ classical music - - - - - - - orchestras world music salsa jazz rock - - - - - - - - - - Beatles performing artists film ~Hollywood wildlife films James Dixon Williams

knowledge

higher education ~ fellowships and grants United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization educational programmes kindergarten intellectual elites prizes

--=:::::::::::: French theory

international schools

Congress for Cultural Freedom

xxx

Tree Diagrams

4

Production and trade pedlars trade agreements

trade

~ open door and free flow GATTIWTO

OPEC

services - - - - information technology offshoring trademarks

~

body shopping

counterfeit goods ---...,. advertising

~

;::;=:::::::=: t-shirt silk

trade (manufac~textiles tured goods) iron and steel arms sales rubber commodity trading gold oii salt

convergence and divergence

industrialization

iron and steel textile financial markets Samsung

auditing advertising marketing management

development and growth

~~

~zero growth

modernizat1on theory \

forests agriculture

fisheries

Marshall Plan ~ productivity missions

~

debt cnses (developing loans mvestment

acclimatization

countnes)---~

Pans Club

Econom1c Commission for latin Amenca \ underdevelopment

-=::::::::::::: Umted rubber Frwt Company

seeds

Master of Business Administration

techmcal assiStance developmental ass1stance

green revolution genetically modified organisms biopatents pesticides, herbicides, insecticides ---~ Monsanto

freshwater management

Raul Prebisch

Tree Diagrams xxxi

5

Planet Earth climate change -

air pollution

natural hazards

ENVIRONMENT

genetically modified organisms acclimatization sustainable development

zero growth germs

~

environmentalism outer space -

epidemics

~cancer

AIDS smallpox

vaccination animal diseases

L Greenpeace environmental diplomacy - - - - - - - Stockholm Conference Moon Treaty

freshwater management ------~ Tigris-Euphrates basin

/ population agricultura

demographic transition

~eugenics

:::::::::!

birth control --=:::::: condom rubber Aletta Jacobs silk green revolution seeds pesticides, herbicides, insecticides United Fruit Company food

--------=-----'

Monsanto

International Road Federation International Maritime Conference ~::---JPanama Canal containerized freig~t

INFRASTRUCTURES electricity infrastructures civil engineering works L------~ Dar ei-Handasah

xxxii Tree Diagrams

6 Space and time

~

===========comics

America~Dollar

McDonald's Coca-Cola jeans

Africa~ African liberation - - - - - Nelson Mandela

PLACES

Asia

orientalism

China Japan

tropics

Panama Canal ____. scientific stations non-lieux ..........--. theme parks

cities ~ expositions cultural capitals

spatial regimes

global cities literary capitals

United Cities & Local Governments

~PauiDtlet 1848 International Maritime Conference Mexican Revolution Armenian genocide Russian Revolution 19605

MOMENTS

VietnamWar Second Vatican Ecumenical Council Stockholm Conference 1989 Millennium September 11 , 2001 Christmas and Halloween

Tree Diagrams xxxiii

7 Body and soul

- - - - - - - Aurobindo Ackroyd Ghose