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Basic,ITdensity, WBT, Modules, drilling, Inter face, well WCS, com pletion, WPC, CTS, SWBT, T BT

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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / Legal Information

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Legal Information

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Copyright © 2008 Schlumberger, Unpublished Work. All rights reserved. This work contains the confidential and proprietary trade secrets of Schlumberger and may not be copied or stored in an information retrieval system, transferred, used, distributed, translated or retransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in whole or in part, without the express written permission of the copyright owner. Trademarks & Service marks Schlumberger, the Schlumberger logotype, and other words or symbols used to identify the products and services described herein are either trademarks, trade names or service marks of Schlumberger and its licensors, or are the property of their respective owners. These marks may not be copied, imitated or used, in whole or in part, without the express prior written permission of Schlumberger. In addition, covers, page headers, custom graphics, icons, and other design elements may be service marks, trademarks, and/or trade dress of Schlumberger, and may not be copied, imitated, or used, in whole or in part, without the express prior written permission of Schlumberger. A complete list of Schlumberger marks may be viewed at the Schlumberger Oilfield Services Marks page: http://markslist.slb.com

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Document Control Owner:

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Revision History Rev

Effective Date

Description

Prepared by

5.1

18-Jul-2008

Updated exercises link-url to the perception-resp server.

Beena Hemkar

5.0

25-Oct-2006

Changed instructions for taking module test online. Exercises and test may be launched from perception-ws server via LMS or taken online.

Stuart Averett

4.1

12-Apr-2006

Changed label content, and revision dates

Torsten Braun

4.0

30-Sep-2005

updated graphics and text. .Added captions

Luisa Attaway, Torsten Braun

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Table of Contents

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1

Objectives

2 2.1 2.2 2.3

Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History

_______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________

2-1 2-2 2-2

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Drilling Preparations Exploration __________________________________________________ Site Selection ________________________________________________ Drilling Contracts ____________________________________________ Preparation of the Rig Site ____________________________________ Rig Setup ___________________________________________________ Rigging Up __________________________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Drilling Rig Components Rig System __________________________________________________ 4-1 Drilling Mud _________________________________________________ 4-9 Mud Surface Equipment _____________________________________ 4-10 Exercise ____________________________________________________ 4-13

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Well Control “Kick” animation _____________________________________________ Primary Well Control _________________________________________ Secondary Well Control ______________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________

5-1 5-1 5-2 5-4

6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Rig Operations Rate of Penetration __________________________________________ Adding New Pipe Joints ______________________________________ Trip Equipment In and Out of Hole ____________________________ Optimum Quality and Cost ____________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________

6-1 6-1 6-2 6-2 6-4

7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Completions Bottomhole Completions _____________________________________ Tubing ______________________________________________________ Wellhead and Chokes ________________________________________ Artificial Lift __________________________________________________

7-1 7-4 7-8 7-9

8

Casing

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Function _____________________________________________________ Casing Types ________________________________________________

8-1 8-1

9 9.1 9.2 9.3

Special Operations Offshore Operations __________________________________________ Directional Drilling ____________________________________________ Exercise _____________________________________________________

9-1 9-2 9-5

10

Summary

11

Take the module test

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Introduction to Drilling & Well Completion / List of Figures

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List of Figures 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 6-1 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13

Timeline: 1500 A.D. _______________________________________________ Timeline: 1859 ____________________________________________________ Timeline: 1500 A.D. until 1863______________________________________ Timeline: 1500 A.D. until today _____________________________________ Seismic exploration ________________________________________________ Township and range lines __________________________________________ Cleared and leveled future rig site __________________________________ Conductor pipe ____________________________________________________ Land-based rig site setup __________________________________________ Rigging up ________________________________________________________ Completed rig-up _________________________________________________ SCR: Silicon-controlled rectifiers____________________________________ Hoisting system components _______________________________________ Derrick ___________________________________________________________ Rotary system _____________________________________________________ Downhole motor ___________________________________________________ Mud circulation system_____________________________________________ Mud going to mud pit returns _______________________________________ Mud pit and mixing hopper _________________________________________ Mud pumped from pit to standpipe __________________________________ Drillstring__________________________________________________________ Mud return line ____________________________________________________ Shale shaker _____________________________________________________ De-gasser unit____________________________________________________ De-silter _________________________________________________________ Decanting centrifuge ______________________________________________ Secondary well control _____________________________________________ Annular preventer _________________________________________________ Pipe rams _________________________________________________________ Blind rams ________________________________________________________ Weight of string and bit_____________________________________________ Openhole completion ______________________________________________ Cased hole completion_____________________________________________ Perforation phasing ________________________________________________ Methods of perforating _____________________________________________ Free or unlimited motion ___________________________________________ Limited motion_____________________________________________________ No motion_________________________________________________________ Buckling effect_____________________________________________________ Ballooning effect___________________________________________________ Temperature effect_________________________________________________ Bubble flow _______________________________________________________ Slug flow __________________________________________________________ Annular or mist flow________________________________________________

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2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-7 4-8 4-8 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-12 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4 6-3 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 7-7 7-8

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Transition or churn flow ____________________________________________ Types of casing and lithology _______________________________________ Conductor casing __________________________________________________ Surface casing ____________________________________________________ Intermediate casing ________________________________________________ Liner ______________________________________________________________ Production casing _________________________________________________ Drilling ship, semi-sub and fixed platforms ___________________________ Kick-off point and deviation _________________________________________ Drilling motor-bit ___________________________________________________ Whipstock_________________________________________________________ Kick-off point (KOP)________________________________________________

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7-8 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-4 8-5 9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-4

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List of Tables

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Objectives Basic, IT Modules, density, Interfac drilling, e, WCS, well completion, WPC, CTS, SWBT, TBT WBT,

In this training module, the students will learn to do the following:

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• Identify the most common drilling method in use today. • Identify three of the most important methods used to find oil. • Put the stages of the exploration process in order. • Discriminate between the three possible systems used to determine proprietorship of a specific drilling location. • Discriminate between the three basic types of drilling contracts. • Put the stages of the drilling preparation process in order. • Identify the parts of the hoisting system and the mud circulation system. • Identify the functions of drilling mud. • Discriminate between de-gassers, de-silters, de-sanders, and centrifuges. • Identify characteristics of primary and secondary well control. • Identify the main components of the BOP stack. • Put the stages of the process of adding new pipe joints in order. • Identify three of the most important items to control during a drilling operation. • Discriminate between types of casings and liners. • Identify characteristics of special drilling operation methods.

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Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History Drilling History

_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

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Drilling History

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Basic, IT Modules, density, Interfac drilling, e, WCS, well completion, WPC, CTS, SWBT, TBT WBT,

Figure 2-1: Timeline: 1500 A.D.

Drilling originated in China with the drilling of brine wells to produce salt with primitive cable-tool rigs. The Chinese are credited with developing the cable-tool principle in drilling. To make a hole, the rigs use a cable to which workers attach a heavy, sharply pointed bit. Rig machinery lifts the cable and bit and drops them. The falling bit strikes the ground with a heavy blow, punching its way into the rock. Repeated lifting and dropping allow the bit to drill. From time to time, however, workers have to stop drilling, pull the bit from the hole, and remove the pieces of rock or cuttings that the bit produces. This is done using a bailing tool. By 1500 A.D., it is believed that the Chinese were drilling as deep as 2,000 feet using this method, which was used as late as the 1940s.

2.1

Drilling History

Figure 2-2: Timeline: 1859

In 1859, Drake’s well became the first known commercial oil well, planned and drilled solely to search for oil in the United States (Asians and Europeans had been drilling oil wells before). Using the cable-tool method, the well was drilled

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to a depth of 65 feet and produced 2,000 bbl of oil in its first year. This small project in Titusville, Pennsylvania marked the beginning of the Petroleum era in the United States.

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2.2

Drilling History

Figure 2-3: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until 1863

In 1863, a French civil engineer named Leschot became the first person to use rotary drilling to drill a water well. A rotary drilling rig turns, or rotates, a bit on the bottom, which drills and creates the hole. A series of pipes are added to lower the bit to the bottom. When the bit is at the bottom, the driller starts rotating it using a rotating machine called the rotary table. As the bit’s teeth, or cutters, rotate over the formation, they gouge or scrape the rock away. A rotary rig circulates fluid while the bit drills. A powerful pump can move fluid down the pipe to the bit and back through the annulus space to the surface. At the surface, equipment removes the cuttings, and the clean fluid is recirculated back down the pipe. Thus, with rotary drilling, drilling does not have to stop in order to bail cuttings.

2.3

Drilling History

Figure 2-4: Timeline: 1500 A.D. until today

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The advantage of being able to circulate drilling fluid has all but made cable-tool drilling disappear.

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In 1901, this method of drilling was introduced in the oil field in Spindletop, Texas, marking the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. By 1914, 10% of all oil wells were drilled using rotary drilling. Today, except for special applications or the setting of conductor casing, rotary drilling is used almost exclusively.

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3.1 3.1.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Drilling Preparations Exploration _____________________________________________________ Seismic survey animation ____________________________________ Site Selection __________________________________________________ Drilling Contracts ______________________________________________ Day-Work Contract ___________________________________________ Footage Contract ____________________________________________ Turnkey Contract ____________________________________________ Preparation of the Rig Site _____________________________________ Rig Setup ______________________________________________________ Rigging Up _____________________________________________________ Exercise ________________________________________________________

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3-1 3-2 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8

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Drilling Preparations Basic, IT Modules, density, Interfac drilling, e, WCS, well completion, WPC, CTS, SWBT, TBT WBT,

This section will address the preparatory steps prior to drilling the well:

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• exploration • site selection • drilling contracts • preparation of the rig site • rig setup • rigging up.

3.1

Exploration Almost as important as how to drill is where to drill. Exploration for oil is a difficult and risky process. Exploration (or "wildcat") wells are often not successful in their search for oil. In fact, only one out of nine exploratory wells ends in an oil strike. To define the actual location where the well is to be drilled, a series of trends must exist so that hydrocarbons are present. A hydrocarbon reservoir has a distinctive shape, or configuration, that prevents the escape of hydrocarbons that migrate into it. To improve the opportunity to find oil, geologists apply earth science to the search for oil. Many techniques have been developed, based on indirect methods to view the subsurface. Among the most important are • seismology, which is the study of the sound waves that bounce off buried rock layers. It involves seismic surveys that are analyzed by knowledgeable personnel. • geological mapping, which is used by geologists to define possible reservoir shapes or traps, due to the deformation in the rock layer that contains hydrocarbons. • educated guesses, which use physical geology and seismic information as the base material to guess where to drill. A seismic survey is conducted using: • a shooting truck or special sound generator for offshore exploration

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• geophones or hydrophones

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• recording devices in a truck or on a boat.

Figure 3-1: Seismic exploration

Here are the stages of the exploration process: 1. The shooting truck uses compressed air or explosive charges to send a seismic signal into the earth. (Searches often use compressed air because explosions in water can kill marine life.) 2. This signal is reflected back via various formations underground. 3. The returned signals are picked up by the geophones or hydrophones. 4. The information received by the geophones is then recorded using sophisticated recording devices in a truck or boat. 5. The results are analyzed by geologists to determine the likelihood of oil-bearing formations beneath the surface of the ground.

3.1.1

Seismic survey animation Multimedia 3-1: Signals emitted and captured. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.

3.2

Site Selection In addition to exploration data, the drill site, selected by the operating company, must also take into account financial, legal, and practical considerations. The ability to establish a lease agreement and drilling rights to a specific location is necessary before drilling can begin. The proprietorship of a specific location to be used for drilling is determined by one of three possible systems in the United States:

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• Township and range lines: Township and range lines are used to block off a 36-square-mile block of land called a township. That township is then subdivided into 36 sections, each one square mile in area. • Metes and bounds: Metes and bounds means "measurements and boundaries" and describes a tract of land in straight-line segments of length and bearing.

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• UTM: The UTM system (Universal Transverse Mercator) is used offshore to define nine-square-mile tracts across open water spaces.

Figure 3-2: Township and range lines

3.3

Drilling Contracts Before moving equipment onto a site to drill, a drilling contract must be agreed upon by the drilling company and the oil or gas producer. There are three basic contract types currently being used: • day-work contract • footage contract • turnkey contract.

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Day-Work Contract

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A day-work contract is the most beneficial to the drilling company. Under this type of contract, the drilling company is paid an agreed-upon fee for each day that the drilling rig is on site making the hole. If problems occur, and a job that was thought to take 20 days in fact takes 50 days, the added expenses fall entirely on the oil or gas producer. This contract can be very problematic for the producer, since the total cost for drilling cannot be determined until the well is complete.

3.3.2

Footage Contract A footage contract is usually used in a developed (or production) field where the depths to be drilled are already determined. In this type of contract, there is a fixed number of feet to be drilled, and a cost-per-foot-drilled is determined. This system allows the producer to control costs under normal drilling conditions. It also allows the drilling company to set a price that will be profitable if the drilling team is efficient in meeting the footage requirements of the contract.

3.3.3

Turnkey Contract A turnkey contract is a type of financing arrangement for the drilling of a wellbore that places considerable risk and potential reward on the drilling contractor. Under such an arrangement, the drilling contractor assumes full responsibility for the well to some predetermined milestone such as the successful running of logs at the end of the well, the successful cementing of casing in the well or even the completion of the well. Until this milestone is reached, the operator owes nothing to the contractor. The contractor bears all risk of trouble in the well, and in extreme cases, may have to abandon the well entirely and start over. In return for assuming such risk, the price of the well is usually a little higher than the well would cost if relatively trouble free. Therefore, if the contractor succeeds in drilling a trouble-free well, the fee added as contingency becomes profit. Some operators, however, have been required by regulatory agencies to remedy problem wells, such as blowouts, if the turnkey contractor does not.

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Preparation of the Rig Site

Figure 3-3: Cleared and leveled future rig site

Before drilling begins, the rig site must be prepared. Onshore, access roads and turnarounds for trucks and heavy equipment must be built and the site cleared and leveled. Offshore, buoys are set to mark the site. One important concern at a wellsite is establishing a sufficient water supply to meet drilling needs. Often, this means that a water well is dug before drilling for oil can begin.

Figure 3-4: Conductor pipe

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When the water supply is established, a cellar or rectangular pit is dug, typically 10 feet on a side and 10 feet deep. Inside the pit, the conductor hole is dug with a special bit. The conductor hole is shallow in depth, but large in diameter; the diameter can be 36 inches or more, depending on the surface condition.

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The conductor pipe or casing is then run into the hole and cemented to keep the hole from caving in. It also conducts the drilling fluid back to the surface when regular drilling begins.

3.5

Rig Setup

Figure 3-5: Land-based rig site setup

Offshore, the type of drilling to be done determines the type of rig to be used. For exploration (or wildcat) wells, mobile offshore rigs (like jack-ups, semis, or drill ships) are used. For production (or development) wells, a more-permanent platform is usually used for drilling boats to move the rig from one site to another. Onshore, trucks are usually used to transport the drilling equipment to the location. For remote, inaccessible locations, helicopters and large cargo planes can be used. Current land-based drilling rigs are very portable. A land-based rig can be moved on location, be set up, and drilling operations can be started within 24 to 48 hours.

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3.6

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Rigging Up

Figure 3-6: Rigging up

Once the contractor gets the rig to the site, the next step is for the drilling crew to put the rig together, or "rig up." For land rigs, the crew first brings in the rig’s substructure. The substructure raises the rig floor anywhere from about 10 to 45 feet above ground level. The exact height of a substructure depends on the space needed to clear the high-pressure valves and other equipment that is connected to the top of the well’s casing. Then, many pieces of equipment are set on the substructure, including a steel-and-wood rig floor on which to work, and the drawworks. Inside this large hoist is a drum on which a braided-steel cable is wrapped around. This cable is also referred to as a drilling line or wire rope.

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Figure 3-7: Completed rig-up

Rig-up involves the assembly of lots of additional equipment such as engines, steel tanks, or pits for drilling fluid, pumps, stairways and walkways, electricity generators, and water supply pumps. Rigging-up operations offshore vary with the type of rig.

3.7

Exercise Drilling Preparations Exercise (online) Drilling Preparations Exercise (offline)

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4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.4

Drilling Rig Components Rig System _____________________________________________________ Power System _______________________________________________ Hoisting System _____________________________________________ Rotary System _______________________________________________ Mud Circulation System ______________________________________ Drilling Mud ____________________________________________________ Mud circulation animation ____________________________________ Mud removing cuttings animation ____________________________ Mud Surface Equipment _______________________________________ De-Gassers ________________________________________________ De-Silters and De-Sanders __________________________________ Centrifuges _________________________________________________ Exercise _______________________________________________________

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4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-9 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-12 4-13

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Drilling Rig Components Basic, IT Modules, density, Interfac drilling, e, WCS, well completion, WPC, CTS, SWBT, TBT WBT,

Components of a drilling rig include the following:

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• rig system • drilling mud • mud surface equipment.

4.1

Rig System To make hole, a drilling rig needs a multitude of equipment, which is divided into four basic systems: • the power system • the hoisting system • the rotary system • the mud circulation system.

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Power System

Figure 4-1: SCR: Silicon-controlled rectifiers

The power system is the heart of the entire operation: without power, nothing on a rig operates. A normal drilling rig usually requires from 1,000 to 3,000 horsepower. The horsepower is delivered by diesel engines, called prime movers. A rig may need from two to four prime movers, depending on its size. The bigger the rig, the deeper it can drill, and the more power it needs. Electrically powered rigs use turbines or generators to produce electrical power. This powers electrical motors to operate all the rotating equipment (like the drawworks, rotary table, top drive, mud pumps, hoists, mud mixers, solids control equipment, etc.). Shown in the figure above is the SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers) room, where the electric power is distributed among all the rig’s components: Hoists, accommodations, pumps, etc.

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4.1.2

Hoisting System

Figure 4-2: Hoisting system components

The hoisting system is used to raise and lower pipe into the hole. In addition, it can be used to maintain weight on the bit. Illustrated here are the principal components of the hoisting system.

Figure 4-3: Derrick

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The most striking feature of a drilling rig is the derrick. In some cases, the derrick can be over 150 feet tall. The taller the derrick, the longer the section of pipe that can be handled when going in or pulling out of the hole. his can allow for the adding of two or three joints of pipe at the same time (called doubles and triples), which reduces downtime during the drilling process.

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The drawworks consists of a large spool of cable and a brake driven by the rig engines. It provides the cable used by the pulleys hung in the derrick. The remainder of the hoisting system consists of blocks and lines that do the actual hoisting: • The crown block is a stationary set of pulleys attached to the top of the derrick that gives mechanical advantage in handling large loads. • The traveling block is the lower, moving set of pulleys. • The lines between the crown block and the traveling block are called drilling lines. • The lines that run from the drawworks are called fast lines. • The dead line is a portion of line that is tied down after running from the drawworks and through the pulleys. The dead line allows for the changing of line in the pulley system when wear or fatigue requires it.

4.1.3

Rotary System

Figure 4-4: Rotary system

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To make hole, the drillstring turns, which causes the bit to cut into the rock and earth. In a vertical well, this rotary force is applied by the rotating equipment, which includes a swivel, a special length of pipe known as the kelly, the rotary table, and a kelly bushing.

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Some rigs have replaced the conventional swivel, the kelly, and the kelly bushing with a powered swivel called the top drive.

Figure 4-5: Downhole motor

In highly deviated and horizontal wells, the torque required to turn the drillstring makes rotary-table drilling impractical or impossible. In these situations, a downhole motor is used to rotate the drill bit. When a downhole motor is used, the drillstring does not rotate. Instead, the mud is used like hydraulic fluid to supply power to the hydraulic motor, which is placed in the drillstring between the bit and the drill collar. Also, a bent motor assembly is used to start deviation from vertical. The depth in which the deviation is started is commonly referred to as the kick off point (KOP).

4.1.4

Mud Circulation System

Figure 4-6: Mud circulation system

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Rotary drilling has two fundamental characteristics: • rotation • the circulation of drilling fluid.

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Here are the major components of the mud circulation system. As the name implies, the mud circulation system moves the drilling fluid (or mud) through the system. Mud is used to do the following: • remove the cuttings made by the drillbit from the hole • cool and lubricate the bit • keep the hole filled with fluid to provide primary well control.

Figure 4-7: Mud going to mud pit returns

The mud is pumped from the surface tank, through the standpipe, down the drillstring, out of the jet or bit nozzles, up the annulus, and back to the surface tanks. The annulus is the space between the wellbore and the drillstring.

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Figure 4-8: Mud pit and mixing hopper

Mud is circulated, treated, and maintained in the surface tanks or mud pits while drilling. While historically these pits were just earthen holes, environmental concerns now require that the pits most often be aboveground containers that protect the environment from contamination. A mud-mixing hopper is attached to the pit, so that materials can be added to the mud to meet changing requirements for density and other mud properties.

Figure 4-9: Mud pumped from pit to standpipe

A suction line attached to a triplex pump pulls the mud from the pit and pushes it out the discharge line to the standpipe. The standpipe is a section of steel pipe mounted vertically to one leg of the derrick that transports the mud up the rig. A flexible, very strong, reinforced rubber hose called the kelly hose, or rotary hose, runs from the standpipe to the swivel, or the top drive. The kelly hose allows the drillstring to move up and down, while the swivel or top drive allows the drillstring to rotate.

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Figure 4-10: Drillstring

Below the swivel is the kelly, a square- or hexagonal-shaped pipe joint that can be turned by the rotary table. This specially shaped joint of pipe allows torque to be applied efficiently to the drilling, without the slippage that might occur with a round joint of pipe. Below the kelly is the drill pipe, and below the drill pipe are the drill collar and the drill bit. Drill collars are heavy, thick-walled joints of pipe inserted between the drill pipe and the drill bit. The heavier weight of the drill collars add weight to the drill bit, which improves drilling performance.

Figure 4-11: Mud return line. Mud passing through shale shaker

When mud leaves the drill bit, it moves up the annulus to the mud return line, where it is taken back to the mud pit. Before entering the mud pit, the mud passes through a shale shaker, which is a vibrating screen that separates out the cuttings from the mud before the mud is returned to the mud pit to be used again.

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Drilling Mud Drilling mud has many functions. The first and most important function is to remove cuttings from the hole as it is being drilled. To accomplish this task, the mud must have sufficient viscosity to hold the cuttings in suspension as they move up the annulus.

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The mud must also cool and lubricate the drill bit to increase drilling efficiency. Also, mud is used for primary well control by establishing hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore that controls underground-formation pressures. The density of the mud must often be adjusted to match the changing pressures of the wellbore. The greater the mud density, the greater the hydrostatic pressure created by the mud. In addition to these functions, drilling mud is also used to deposit a thin impermeable filter cake on the wellbore surface. This filter cake blocks the pores of the formation and reduces fluid loss from the mud into the formation. Since fluid loss changes the density and viscosity of the mud, significant fluid loss can result in stuck equipment or formation damage. The filter cake protects against these problems. Hydrostatic pressure is maintained via the column of mud balancing the formation or pore pressure. Also, the drilling fluid is used to transmit hydraulic power to mechanical power for downhole motors.

4.2.1

Mud circulation animation

Multimedia 4-1: Mud flow. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.

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4.2.2

Mud removing cuttings animation

Multimedia 4-2: Cutting removal. Animation NOTE: Multimedia is currently available only in HTML publications.

4.3

Mud Surface Equipment

Figure 4-12: Shale shaker

In addition to the shale shaker discussed earlier, de-gassers, de-silters, de-sanders, and centrifuges are also used to clean mud before it is returned down-hole. The shale shaker uses a vibrating screen to remove large cuttings from the mud.

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De-Gassers

Figure 4-13: De-gasser unit

Since gas trapped in the drilling mud can significantly change the density of the fluid and, therefore, its ability to maintain well control, it is important that this gas be removed from the mud before it goes back downhole. The two kinds of de-gassers currently in use are • Gas buster, which is a gravity driven device. The mud is pushed from a small pipe into a large cylinder, where the liquid mud falls to the bottom. The gas rises to the top where it is vented off or otherwise removed. • Vacuum device that exposes the gas-filled mud to a vacuum, which draws off the gas. This is more efficient, but also more costly, than the gravity method.

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4.3.2

De-Silters and De-Sanders

Figure 4-14: De-silter

De-silters and De-sanders remove smaller particles or cuttings than does the shale shaker. They do not, however, remove the particulates of the mud that must remain to keep mud density correct for a given well application.

4.3.3

Centrifuges

Figure 4-15: Decanting centrifuge

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A Decanting Centrifuge is a solids control equipment device that uses the principle of acceleration and separation of particles. It is primarily used to eliminate or process fine particles from the drilling fluid (