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Introduction to the

HECTOR QUINE

INTRODUCTION to the GUITAR

by Hector Quine Professor of Guitar at the Royal Academy of Music,

Guildhall.School of Music, and Trinity College of Music, London.

PREFACE

'Introduction to the Guitar' does not claim to show you an easy way to learning the guitar. There is no such way. It is an attempt to set down in print what is often considered to be unteachable except through personal lessons: i.e. technique. Whilst the chief objective has been to provide a technical guide for the aspiring guitarist who wishes, or who is compelled, to teach himself, the book may also be useful as a textbook for the teacher who likes to work to a definite plan. No attempt is made to teach the rudiments of music, although of course these must be learned as soon as possible. Numerous textbooks on this subject are readily obtainable, and the beginner is advised to study one of these simultaneously with his practising of the guitar.

'Introduction to the Guitar' is intended to cover approxi mately the first year of study, although some beginners will inevitably make more rapid progress than others. No particular

'Method' has been followed, a logical analysis of modern prac tice in guitar-playing being the only guiding principle. No apology is offered for the quantity of detailed discussion on what may seem to the beginner to be trivial matters. Every experienced guitarist knows that it is only by careful attention to this kind of detail that a true mastery of the guitar, which

should be every aspiring guitarist's aim, is to be attained.

Oxford University Press Music Department'44 Conduit Street London W1R ODE

© Oxford University Press 1971

The illustrations were drawn by Thomas B. Pitfield.

Printed in Great Brrta-

CONTENTS

1.

Tuning the guitar

2.

Explanation of signs and symbols

3.

Nails and fingertips

4.

Left-hand nails

5.

Practising methods

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Sitting position and grip of the guitar Right-hand position Right-hand finger movements Single notes on one open string Crossing the strings Single notes with the thumb Thumb in conjunction with fingers

13. 14. 15. 16.

Arpeggio playing Left-hand position Left-hand finger positioning Crossing the fingerboard

17.

Arpeggio exercises (first set)

18.

Finger-independence exercise

19.

Playing from memory

20.

Arpeggio exercises (second set)

21.

Scale of C major

22.

Exercises for m and a fingers

23.

Arpeggio exercises (last set)

24.

Position-changing

25.

Two-octave scale

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Transposition using the same fingering Study for thumb and index finger Right-hand free strokes

33.

The barre

Application of apoyando and free strokes Memorizing studies and pieces Left-hand positioning for chords Position-changing technique in chord playing

34.

The half-barre'

35. 36.

Study No. 2, Op. 60, by Carcassi Economy of movement in the left hand

37.

Harmonic minor scale

38. 39.

Study No. 3, Op. 60, by Carcassi Arpeggio exercises with accents

40. 41.

Slurs (descending) Study No. 4, Op. 60, by Carcassi

42.

G major scale

43.

Tremolo

44. 45.

Study No. 7, Op. 60, by Carcassi Slurs (ascending)

46.

Melodic minor scale

47.

Chord playing - right-hand technique

48.

F major scale

49.

Slurs (combined)

50.

Study No. 10, Op. 60, by Carcassi

51.

Five- and six-note chords

52.

Recommendations for further study

1. TUNING THE GUITAR

Few problems cause the beginner more difficulty than the accurate tuning of the guitar. Some time and trouble should be

spent over this, as it will also help to lay the foundations of a

an acute aural sense, but all can acquire it by perseverance and concentration. It is an absolute necessity for any musician, and particularly for the player of a stringed instrument.

The 'open' strings of the guitar are tuned as follows:

training in attentive listening. Not many people are born with

Ex. 1 -3~

D

m

E

B

XE -O-

but, as guitar music is always written an octave higher than it sounds, the treble staff only is used, and the open string notes therefore appear thus:

B

D

zo:

Ex.2

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"cr

The guitar must always be tuned to the correct 'pitch', as the tension of the strings depends on this. For example, should the pitch of the instrument be too high, the strings will be very taut and difficult to press and strike. Furthermore, considerable damage may be done to the guitar itself. On the other hand, if the pitch is too low, the strings will be too slack, and it will be impossible to obtain clear notes. Playing on a guitar which has been carefully tuned will help to accustom the player to the sound of the correct pitch. Only one of the strings needs to be tuned from some

one. Most players prefer to tune the top string: Ex.3

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from a pitch-pipe, a tuning fork, or from a piano. Tuning forks are usually made to sound either A or C: Ex.4

r A

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external source, and the other five can then be tuned from this

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so that the top string of the guitar needs to be 'stopped' at either the 5th or the 8th fret to obtain these notes.

The diagram below will show their positions on the fingerbos^^.

.TUNING.

FORKS Ex.5

•&•

-9-

II

III

IV

Having tuned the top (E) string, now tune the 2nd (E) string

vi

vii

vru

ix

xi

xn

until it produces the same note (E) when stopped at the 5th fret, as the top open string.

Continue, string by string, (now always stopping at the 5tn fret) until all the strings are in tune. Finally, check to see that the top and bottom strings sound exactly two octaves apart, as

Next, tune the 3rd (G) string similarly, but stopping it at the 4th fret to produce the same note (B) as the open 2nd string.

errors can easily accumulate. These instructions should be easily understood if read in conjunction with the above diagram.

2. EXPLANATION of SIGNS and SYMBOLS used in GUITAR

5. PRACTISING METHODS

MUSIC

Four sets of symbols are used in guitar music to indicate to the player how the notes are to be played. They are as follows: RIGHT HAND

LEFT HAND

p - Thumb (French: pouce)

0

i

1

— Index finger

m — Middle finger 5 — Ring finger (French: annulaire)

2 3 4

— — — — —

Open string Index finger Middle finger Ring finger Little finger

STRINGS

(T) —E(highest sounding string)

©-B (3)-G

POSITIONS

©-D ©-A

(see notes below)

I. II, III, IV, V, VI etc.

(If)— E(lowest sounding string) The Roman figures indicating the positions in fact show the fret where the first finger of the left hand is to be placed. It frequently happens that the first finger is not being used at all, but the position number still shows where that finger would be placed.

The letter 'C' (or sometimes 'B') in front of the Roman figure indicates that the index finger stops all the strings at that fret. (See para. 33: The Barre').

3. NAILS and FINGERTIPS

Nowadays, it is considered essential to cultivate a 'nail only' technique for the right hand in order to develop power, speed,

clarity, and purity of tone. This is not to say that it is impos sible to play with the flesh of the finger, but only that nail tone is very much to be preferred. A player who, for one reason or another, cannot, or does not wish to grow his nails to the required length, can nevertheless acquire a good technique, although his tone will inevitably be less good than that of the nail player. All the instructions in this book are intended for playing with the nails, but the broad principles apply equally to the flesh player.

Length and shape of nails: When viewed from the palm side of the hand, the nails of the index, middle and ring fingers should project about 1/16th of an inch beyond the fingertip (n.b. the little finger is never used.) The shape of the nail should follow the curve of the fingertip, with no corners or projections. The thumb nail may be slightly shorter, but should also follow the contour of the thumb in shape.

The finishing of the nail edge is important, as a rough edge will invariably produce a scratchy tone. The use of fine sand

paper boards or a fine 'India' stone is recommended in preference to a metal file.

4. LEFT-HAND NAILS

It is essential that the nails of the left hand be kept short,

but it must be remembered that the fingertips are to a certain extent supported by the nails, so they must not be cut back so short that the tip of the finger can bend back over them.

The art of practising correctly is one of the most misunder stood aspects of learning to play an instrument. This remark applies to most aspiring musicians, but particularly to guitarists. The reason for this situation is not hard to see. The guitar makes a relatively pleasant sound no matter how it is played, and there is therefore a strong temptation for the beginner to select pieces which he has heard (and which are often far beyond his capabilities) and to pick his way laboriously through them over and over again. He will inevitably stumble frequently at a difficult place, hesitate, repeat the fault, and then go on. It is hardly surprising that his technique and his performance of any given piece show little improvement, even over a consider able period of time, as his 'practice' consists largely of actually perfecting his ability to make mistakes. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the only logical way to practise is to work to a pre-arranged plan, and to follow this plan strictly and systematically. Many readers of this book will be amateurs with limited time available for practising, and for them a methodical approach is vital, as every minute spent with the guitar must be productive if the learning process is not to be drawn out inter minably, and enthusiasm allowed to wane.

Broadly speaking, there are two ways of practising, and both are necessary at different stages of learning an exercise, study or piece.

The first method is the slow, rhythmic approach to specific difficulties whereby, the nature of the problem having first been analysed and understood, the difficult passage (it may be only a single bar or less) is played repeatedly at about half speed, and with meticulous attention to rhythm. If there is still some hesitation or stumbling of the fingers, the speed should be reduced still further until the passage can be played with absolute continuity. When this has been achieved the speed may again be increased by degrees over a period of several days. The second stage in practising should not be attempted until all the individual faults have been eliminated by the above pro cess. This stage consists of putting all the fragments which have been practised in detail back into their context. This is done by playing the whole scale, study etc. up to speed and con tinuously from the beginning to the end, with no stops or hesitations, even when a mistake is made. This, too, must be done many times, but always in perfect rhythm. A surprising degree of technical facility can be acquired with an average daily practice of only an hour or so. How this hour should be spent will depend on the stage of development reached, so the practising schedule will need to be modified from time to time.

6. SITTING POSITION and GRIP of the GUITAR

A chair without arms and of normal height should be used, and a footstool for the left foot. It is impossible to specify the

height of the footstool, as this must depend on the player's physique and, of course, the height of the chair. As a guide, it is useful to remember that the left thigh should slope slightly upwards towards the knee, and the right thigh should be parallel to the floor. One should sit squarely, and as far forward on the chair as possible. The back must be straight, but the whole trunk may lean forward slightly from the waist. A comfortable posture is of the utmost importance, and unnecessary tension in any part of the body must be avoided. The calves of both legs should be perpendicular to the floor from every viewpoint, and the feet should rest firmly with both heel and toe on the floor (right foot), and footstool (left foot).

This point will be found to be just in front of the elbow joint, at a small indentation in the bone of the forearm. On no account should the muscles of the forearm press on the edge ci the guitar. A common fault is to allow the right shoulder to 'hunch', causing tension in the arm, and care should be taketo see that the upper arm is fully extended, so avoiding this tension.

7. RIGHT-HAND POSITION

The underlying principle which governs the right hand's position aims at using the most natural movements of the wrist joint so that maximum comfort and relaxation of all the muscles which are not directly involved in playing may be achieved.

The beginner should make a habit of putting the right nana in position in three simple stages every time he sits down to practise and, on beginning each new exercise, this position should be checked.

First stage: Hand straight and in line with forearm, with the palm facing the floor. (FIG. 3A) 3a

^

(FIG. 1)

The lower bout of the guitar is gripped by the thighs, with pressure being mainly exerted by the left leg/which pushes the guitar against the right leg. This slight pressure causes the guitar

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Jp

to rise, and should be counterbalanced by the weight of the

right arm resting on the guitar's top edge. The exact position of the right arm is important, and will be described later. It is very important for the guitar to be held upright, and a fourth point of support (the chest, resting lightly against the upper edge of the guitar) will help to maintain this position. The pressure on the guitar at the three main points of support should be as light as possible; in fact the right arm should not really press at all, but merely rest its weight on the top of the instrument. If the guitar is correctly held according to these principles, there should be no need to grip the neck with the left hand in order to support it. The right hand should likewise be completely relaxed, and simply 'hanging' from the resting point.

Second stage:

Hand drops forward from the wrist so that the palm is now facing towards the elbow. It is particularly important that the wrist should not turn sideways. (FIG. 3B)

The exact position for the right elbow to rest on the guitar's edge can be found by a simple experiment. If one imagines the whole arm to be a dead weight (i.e. completely relaxed) then a point can be found where the forearm and upper arm exactly balance eath other.

(FIG.2)

Third stage: Without in any way altering the wrist, the forearm is now moved outwards away from the guitar to a distance of about Vh to 2 inches from its position in second stage. (FIG. 3C)

1 Now check the position as follows: 1

It is of the utmost importance that, if the nails are to be used, then the nail and only the nail should strike the string. A combined flesh and nail technique gives the worst of both, and

The inside of the forearm and the thumb should be at

the best of neither.

almost a right angle to each other. 2 The distance from the inside of the wrist to the sound board of the guitar should be approximately equal to the

The direction in which the finger moves in striking follows the line of the hand and arm or, to put it another way, the finger moves inwards towards the palm of the hand. No attempt should be made to play at a right angle to the strings. This would be very difficult physically, as well as producing a poor

width of the left hand at the knuckles.

3 The palm of the hand should be facing towards the elbow, not towards the guitar. 4 The entire hand, wrist and forearm should be completely relaxed, and should feel that they are entirely suspended from the resting point on the edge of the guitar.

tone.

In regard to the length of the stroke, it must be clearly understood that the strings of the guitar are struck and not plucked, and the finger will therefore begin its stroke about 14 inch from the string, striking, following through, and then coming to rest on the next string. This action of resting on the

8. RIGHT-HAND FINGER MOVEMENTS

next lowest string is known as 'apoyando' or 'supported stroke', and it forms the basis of all modern right-hand technique. It is also important for the finger to strike the string inwards (i.e. towards the soundboard of the guitar) rather than merely de flecting it in a line parallel to the strings. A finger must never begin its stroke by resting on a string which is about to be struck, as this would in fact cause a plucking action. Finally, it must be constantly borne in mind that the fingers should always strike very firmly in order to develop muscular strength.

Fingers should always move almost entirely from their main joints, (i.e. with the tip and middle joints remaining slightly bent but relaxed) and with a hummer-like motion.

It will be noticed that, with the hand held in the position described above, the string will be struck with that part of the

finger which is nearest to the thumb, and not with the finger zip. This is correct, and is vital to good tone production. (FIG. 4)

9. SINGLE NOTES ON ONE OPEN STRING

The following exercise should now be learned and practised, using the index (/") and middle (m) fingers of the right hand on the top (E) string, and playing apoyando strokes. A balanced movement of the fingers is essential. This is best illustrated by thinking of the action of the feet in walking, with the lower (B) string representing the ground. When one finger is descending the other is ascending, and they pass each other at about the middle of their stroke. It is always better to leave a finger on the lower string a little too long, rather than to let it bounce off too quickly.

Ex.6

Count: 1

2

i

P

i

m

m

3

2

3

1

3

+

2

a

1

+

3

m

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Try to make the sound as legato as possible, and practise the exercise until tone and volume of the two fingers is exactly matched. Also, be sure to count carefully, giving each note its full value.

F^g?

10.

CROSSING THE STRINGS

It will be apparent that to maintain the hand in the same position for every string would be impossible, unless one bent up the fingers and abandoned the apoyando stroke. Some al teration of the position of the forearm is therefore necessary. The movement is very simple; the arm, pivoting from its resting point, travels in a curve across the strings, but without any change occurring in the relative positions of the wrist, hand or fingers. (FIG. 5) This movement is usually a little more difficult to execute when travelling from bass to treble than from treble to bass. Practising in front of a mirror will be found to be an invaluable aid to correct training. The following exercise is designed to give practice in crossing the strings and more playing with / and m fingers in apoyando. Ex.7

Count: 1

a

2 m

i

4

2

m

m

4 etc.

m

i

m

m

m

m

m

TT

m m

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Note the order in which the fingers play in the following variation. In common with all exer cises, these should be practised many times, with careful attention to the sound produced, and to rhythmic accuracy. Ex.8

Count: 1 a

2

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m

1

2

m

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l m

1

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1 m

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2

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The fingers do not play on the 6th string at this stage, as apoyando strokes are impossible on this string.

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12

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3.

4 in

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G

11.

SINGLE NOTES WITH THE THUMB

The thumb is always held straight, and moves (like the fingers) from the main joint. It must be extended outwards away from the hand, and strike on that side of the nail which

is farthest from the fingers. The thumb should never play an apoyando stroke. *

Assuming that the thumb is to strike the bottom string (E), it begins its stroke held almost at a right angle to the hand (FIG. 6), then moves straight down (as though the fist were being clenched) and without bending from the tip joint, and comes to rest against the first joint of the index finger. The commonest faults are to allow the thumb to move

outwards away from the strings, or to propel it by a downward movement of the hand.

There are a few exceptions to this rule, but they occur only in advanced pieces.

Ex.9

Count: 1

m

12.

2

3

123

123

123

123

5

iFf

using a 'balanced' movement, something like that described in para 9. That is to say, when the thumb is striking and moving

THUMB IN CONJUNCTION WITH FINGERS

The actions of the thumb and fingers have been described

basic problem is to keep them out of each other's way, part

down towards the hand, the finger should be moving back wards preparatory to striking, and vice versa. Practise now the following exercise, watching carefully for this balanced

icularly when they are striking adjacent strings. This is done by

movement.

separately, and all that remains now is to combine them. The

Ex. 10

Count: 1

+

2

+

i

+

2

+

etc.

p

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p

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p

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» wwm*%m. r r

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p i p Count: l

2 + 3

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etc.

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Count: l

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etc.

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13.

ARPEGGIO PLAYING

There are of course many different combinations of fingers, moment it will be assumed that the thumb plays only the three bass (wire-covered) strings, whilst the fingers play one each of the three treble (plain nylon) strings, as follows:

Ex. 11

Count: 1

p

+

2

+

f

PfTi^ r?

'

r

Ring finger (a) strikes String Mj

thumb and strings in arpeggio playing on the guitar, but for the

14.

gfes

3

m^ m

+

LEFT-HAND POSITION

Two cardinal points must be constantly kept in mind with regard to the position of the left hand:

1 The hand plays no part in supporting the guitar, or main taining its position. 2 The thumb is the base from which the hand and fingers work, and should be positioned in the ce7?fre of the hand, and not opposite the index finger. It is necessary to go into some detail concerning point (2), as unless this point is clearly understood and put into practice, many faults can easily develop. If one imagines a line running lengthwise down the middle of the neck of the guitar, the normal place for the thumb is with its tip just meeting this line. (FIG.7) There are a few occasions when the thumb comes above

this line, but these may be disregarded for the present. The tip joint of the thumb must not bend, but remain perfectly straight, and only the ball should press against the guitar neck. Seen from immediately behind, the thumb is placed at a right angle to the edge of the neck. (FIG. 7)

Middle finger (777) strikes String (2) Index finger (/') strikes String (3) Practise now the following exercise, slowly and evenly, using apoyando strokes with the fingers, and 'free' strokes with the thumb. Do not forget the 'balanced' movement mentior.ec in paras. 9 and 12, which applies equally whether one, two or three fingers are being used.

In playing single notes (which is the only aspect of left-hand technique being discussed at the moment) the back of the hand

should be kept parallel to the edge of the fingerboard. (FIG. 8) This position can be a formidable stumbling block for many beginners, and much perseverance may be needed to train the

hand. Constant checking and correction will be necessary and here again a mirror will be found to be a valuable aid. The little finger is obviously much shorter than the other

fingers, and it is therefore only by adopting a correct position that this difference in finger length can be accommodated. All the left-hand fingers must be kept bent the whole time

at both joints so that the fingers will press only with their tips, thus developing maximum strength with the minimum of effort with a hammer-like action.

(FIG. 9)

There will be a strong tendency in the beginning to apply pressure to the strings by pulling with the arm, instead of

'squeezing' the guitar neck between thumb and fingers. This tendency can be overcome to a certain extent by (1) placing the thumb in the centre of the hand (see rule 2 above), and (2) by making sure that the thumb is in the lower half of the neck. Pushing the wrist slightly forward, particularly when stopping the lower strings, also helps to position the hand correctly.

15.

LEFT-HAND FINGER POSITIONING

The only correct place for the left-hand finger is immed iately behind the fret. If the finger is placed a little way back from, or slightly overlapping a fret, buzzes and muffled notes are frequently produced, as a simple experiment will show. It is therefore imperative that the habit of accurate finger placing be cultivated from the beginning. (FIG. 8) There may be some initial difficulty in separating the two middle fingers from each other, but by gently forcing them

apart (by their own effort, not with the other hand) this prob lem is usually overcome fairly soon. For the present purpose, it must be assumed that the four fingers will always stop four consecutive frets, e.g.: 1st finger at fret V, 2nd finger at fret VI, 3rd finger at fret VI I, and 4th finger at fret VIII.

16.

CROSSING THE FINGERBOARD

As with the right hand (para. 10) so the left hand must em ploy some means of crossing the fingerboard from the top string to the bottom and back, which leaves the basic move ment of the fingers unchanged. In the case of the left hand, the thumb acts as the pivot, remaining on the back of the guitar neck in the same place the whole time. The adjustment of the hand position itself is effected by pushing the wrist forward and withdrawing it. (FIGS. 10A & 10B)

Notice that the wrist is practically flat when the fingers are

playing on the top string, and at almost a right anglefor the bottom string. The strings in between need positions of the wrist which vary in degree between these extremes. Trying to bear all these rules in mind, practise now the following exercise at the Vth position, using the left hand only. No sound will of course be produced.

Ex. 12

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It is most important that each finger should continue to press the string down until after the next finger has pressed. In

fourth and sixth times.

other words, a somewhat 'heavy-footed' walking motion of the fingers is needed in order to make the sound legato. Premature

can be extended to include all other combinations of left-hand

lifting of the fingers results in notes being cut off, and causes a jerky, staccato progression. When this exercise has been practised for several days with the left hand alone, the right hand should be combined with it,

When the above has been thoroughly mastered, the exercise

fingers. The chief purpose of this exercise is to develop finger independence and, from a purely technical point of view, it is only necessary to know the finger-sequence as follows: (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

using the formula shown in Ex. 7. This exercise (using both hands) must be practised very slowly and with great care; con stant attention being paid to the positions and movements of hands and fingers. A good plan is to play the exercise, say six times, concentrating the attention on the right hand for the first, third and fifth times, and on the left hand for the second,

1st and 3rd fingers 1st and 4th fingers 2nd and 3rd fingers 2nd and 4th fingers 3rd and 4th fingers

using using using using using

but, for the sake of completeness, here is the notation.

Ex. 13

l-m- 3

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17.

ARPEGGIO EXERCISES (FIRST SET) Paras. 12 and 13 should be re-read before these exercises are attempted.

Ex. 14

i m i V| "Lj

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It should be remembered that the exercises given in this

book are intended to be treated as an accumulating series (see para. 5), and therefore all the previous exercises as well as the current one should be practised every day. This habit of build

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ing up a 'repertoire' will become even more important when studies and pieces are to be learned later. The writer has known

many guitarists whose 'repertoire' consisted of one piece —the current one! A further reason which applies specifically to the exercises is that they are so designed as frequently to relate to

SUMMARY

The daily practising session should now comprise the following exercises: Nos. 9 to 14 inclusive.

one another, as in the case of Nos. 7 and 12.

18.

FINGER-INDEPENDENCE EXERCISE

Before practising the following exercise, read these instruc tions very carefully, as the exercise is valueless unless practised correctly.

2 Keep the hand still, allowing only the fingers to lift and descend with the minimum of movement. Fingers must

1 All fingers must be left down behind the finger which is stopping the note to be played: i.e. when 4th finger plays the last note in bar 1, all four fingers must be pressing the string. The same with the second note in bar 3. When

4th finger returns to the string for the second note in bar 4, the 3rd finger must return with it.

be kept well spread out, and up to the frets.

3 Play slowly, very evenly in time, and make the notes as legato as possible.

The right-hand formula will again be that used in Ex. 6.

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19.

PLAYING FROM MEMORY

It will be a great aqvantage if all the exercises are memorized as quickly as possible, as there will then be no need to look at

guitar-music practice (seepara 2), the following three essentials:

the book whilst practising, and the attention can be concen trated entirely on the general posture, hands and finger

fingerboard, e.g.:

(1) the finger, (2) the string, and (3) the position on the V

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No attempt will be made in this book to teach sight reading.

itions in para 2), and the note produced

Tnere are sound technical reasons for this, and the subject is best left until a certain mastery of basic technique is achieved.

would be:

For the time being, every effort should be made to learn fingerpatterns by any available short cut, so that correct technical habits are learned before other complications are introduced. To help the beginner to learn these patterns easily and quickly, a system of left-hand fingering will be used in exercises and scales which shows clearly, and in accordance with standard

20.

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SCALE OF C MAJOR

Scales are played using the same technique as in Ex. 15, but with one important difference. Only those fingers which stop the actual notes of the scale press the strings, whilst the other

fingers remain off the strings; i.e. the first two notes of the scale are stopped by fingers 1 and 3. The 2nd finger must not descend on to the string with the 3rd, but should remain poised above it.

All the fingers which are not in use at any moment should

be kept poised about 1/2" above, and in line with the string which is being stopped. (FIG.11)

The question of how long a finger should remain after the note has sounded (in the ascending scale), is easily answered if the following rule is observed. All the fingers which have stopped a string should stay on that string until the first note on the next string has sounded; i.e. fingers 1 and 3 remain on

string (3) until finger 1 is needed to stop string (2) . Likewise, fingers 1, 2 and 4 remain on string (2) until finger 1 is needed tostop string (T) . Descending scales of course need different treatment, as each finger must be lifted before the next note can sound, and it is mainly a matter of perfect coordination. Try to use the as cending part of the scale as a standard by which to judge whether the descending part is legato and well timed.

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All the single-note exercises (Nos. 8, 12, 13, 15 & 18) should now be practised using 777 and a fingers of the right hand in an alternating sequence. This must be done in addition to and not instead of the / and 777 pattern which has been used up to now. Make a point of varying the finger which begins the sequence; i.e. do not always play the first note of (say) the /' and 777 pat tern with / but sometimes with 777. This gives practice in cross ing the strings in different ways. It will be seen that, in the

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When the above exercise has been learned, it may be incorporated with Exs. 14 and 17, to com plete the series, which should then be practised for continuity from one pattern to the next; i.e.

without a break in the rhythm when changing to the next pattern. They must also be practised, of course, for evenness in rhythm, tone and volume of the individual arpeggios.

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24.

POSITION-CHANGING

usual faults are for the thumb to drag on the back of the neck, thereby getting left behind when moving up the fingerboard,

and the fingers will therefore neither remain in line with the string, nor up to the frets. In addition to the support which a correctly positioned thumb gives to the hand in moving, it is also necessary for a finger to act as a guide to the new fret. For the present, only the first (index) finger will be used for this purpose. This finger must stay in contact with the string throughout the whole of the following exercise. Not too much pressure should be ap plied whilst the hand is moving, or a glissando sound will re sult — although even this is technically preferable to removing the finger from the string altogether. The only other finger (3rd) which is needed in this exercise simply lifts off and returns to the string without any sideways movement in relation to the other fingers. Care must be taken

or attempting to 'lead' the hand when moving downwards. The

to avoid a 'crab-like' movement; i.e. the spacing of the fingers

most apparent effect of these faults will be that the hand will change its angle to the fingerboard, (FIG. 12)

must remain constant throughout, except for a very slight adjustment to accommodate the different fret-spacings. Guide the hand to the new position by looking at the fret to which the 1st finger is about to move. Look at this fret before the hand moves away from its previous position, and do not try to watch the hand itself in motion. A useful analogy is aiming a missile at a target. The eye always focuses on the tar get before the missile is fired. Watching the hand moving along the fingerboard would be like trying to watch the missile in flight. The purpose of the exercise is to give practice in positionchanging in general, but more specifically, from II position to V and back again. Any alternating right-hand finger-pattern

Moving the hand from one position on the fingerboard to another without gaps in the sound, glissandi, or interruptions to the rhythmic flow, is one of the most exacting aspects of left-hand technique, but like all other technical problems, it can be made very much easier by careful attention to one or two basic principles.

The first of these concerns the position of the thumb in rel ation to the fingers. It was stated in para. 14 that the thumb should be placed in the centre of the four fingers. It is even more important for this rule to be observed when the hand is changing position, as there is a strong tendency for the thumb

and fingers to get 'out of step' whilst the hand is moving. The

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TWO-OCTAVE SCALE

A further scale fingering, which forms the lower octave of a two-octave scale, may now be practised, in the 11 position. Note that this scale begins at the /// fret with the 2nd finger; see para. 2 on the subject of positions.

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be played without any detectable gap in either rhythm or sound, or any glissando in the positionchange. The following is the complete pattern: II

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TRANSPOSITION USING THE SAME FINGERING

It will be apparent that any pattern like the one above, which does not use open strings, can be played in a number of different places on the fingerboard. The result of shifting the complete pattern up the fingerboard by one fret will be to raise the pitch of the scale so that it becomes a scale of C sharp

major instead of C major. Likewise, a further shift of one fret makes it into a scale of D. All the scales listed below can be played using this same fingering:

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All these scales should now be practised, and their positions

on the fingerboard carefully noted and memorized. This is more easily done if the key-note of the scale is associated with a particular fret (e.g. E flat — V).

27.

STUDY FOR THUMB AND INDEX FINGER

The following study, which is a simple practical application of the principles discussed in paras. 11 and 12, should now be memorized and practised. As a preliminary, the above paras, may be re read, Ex. 10 revised, and Fig. 6 studied. Note that the left-hand fingering always follows the rule of one finger to a fret (see para. 15) and, as the whole study is in the I position, the left-hand finger number will coincide with the fret number. Ex. 23

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RIG HT-HAND FREE STROKES

A new type of stroke has now to be learned. This is the

'free' stroke, and is so called because the finger does not come to rest on the lower string after playing, but by-passes it with a minimum clearance. The essential point which must be under stood concerning this stroke is that, in all other respects, the

finger movement is exactly the same as for apoyando; i.e. the string is struck inwards towards the body of the guitar, and must never be plucked upwards. Avoiding the lower string is relatively easy, and involves only a slight lifting of the tip joint of the finger after the note has been sounded. All the arpeggio exercises (Nos. 11, 14, 17 & 19) may now be practised using free stroke, but should still be played from time to time with apoyando. The latter practice will help to maintain a standard both for finger action and quality of tone and attack. The sound of a free stroke should match as closely as possible that of apoyando. Some difficulty is often encountered with the third (a) finger when free strokes are used. To help in overcoming this, a light apoyando stroke may be played with this finger for the time being, but care must be taken to see that the volume is evenly balanced with the other fingers.

29.

Fine

problem of damping other strings to be considered.

At this point, the use of apoyando becomes entirely a matter of musical judgment. The following can be taken as a general guide to the occasions when apoyando may be used: 1 In scale-type passages which are unaccompanied. 2 Where a scale passage is accompanied only by a single bass line which is not played on an adjacent string.

3 To bring out a melodic line on the top string where the accompaniment is in arpeggio form. 4 When playing accented notes. (This needs to be dealt with in the context of actual examples, which will be given later.)

APPLICATION OF APOYANDO AND FREE

It will be deduced from the foregoing that a mixture of apoyando and free, strokes is frequently needed. This is illus trated in a simple way in the study which follows. All apoy ando strokes will, for the moment, be indicated by the sign: > placed above the note, but it must be emphasized that this is by no means a general rule in guitar music, and the player is usually left to judge for himself which notes to play with

STROKES

apoyando, and which with free stroke.

The mechanical effect of the apoyando stroke is to give greater power in attack by making sure that the finger 'follows

through' after the string has been struck. This follow-through

This exercise will allow the right-hand problems of playing 'mixed' strokes to be studied before the left-hand tech-;c_e = dealt with in detail. Ex. 24 >

brings the finger to rest on the lower string, and in so doing prevents that string from sounding. In playing a scale or any other single-note passage this lower string damping does not matter of course, but where two adjacent strings are to sound simultaneously, (e.g. in chord-playing) the free stroke is essential.

Ex. 23 above provides an example of inadvertent damping caused by the use of apoyando. The stroke of the finger, whilst not actually preventing the lower notes from sounding, cuts them short in some instances, and interrupts the legato flow of the bass melody. The apoyando stroke is invaluable for playing melodic passages and accented notes, but there is always the

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30.

MEMORIZING STUDIES AND PIECES

Para. 19 referred briefly to the advantages of practising exer cises from memory. It is even more important for studies and pieces to be memorized, as the techniques involved are gen erally more complex and need greater attention to detail. It must be remembered that the purpose of these studies is purely technical, and the means employed to learn the notes is there fore of very secondary importance at this stage. Do not be too

of the hand, and the measure of their correctness or otherwise

is simply whether the fingertips are up to the frets. From (FIG. 13), it will be seen that the whole arm is free to

move through an arc of about 60°.pivoting on the ball of the

concerned, then, if you do not know where the notes are on the

thumb. Any position of the arm between these two extremes can be used, but for a practical example compare FIG. 14A, which shows the parallel position needed for the first chord of the following study, (Ex. 26) with FIG. 14B, where the arm is

fingerboard, but follow closely the fingering, string and pos ition signs and, having located a chord, memorize its'finger-

at an angle of approximately 45° for the second chord. The arm should move freely through this arc in order to adjust from

pattern'.

one chord to another, with as little movement of the wrist as possible.

31.

LEFT-HAND POSITIONING FOR CHORDS

In fingering chords the left hand does not always remain parallel to the edge of the fingerboard as in single-note playing

(see para. 14.). In fact, there are numerous different positions

32.

POSITION-CHANGING TECHNIQUE IN CHORD PLAYING

Finger and hand movements must be coordinated in a systematic manner if sound technical habits are to be deve

loped, and hesitations at the position changes avoided. The following rules, once learned, can be applied to every study or piece which involves chord or arpeggio playing.

1 Remove all fingers from the previous chord, excepting any which are to move along the same string to the next chord: e.g. Fingers 1 and 2 in the first bar of the study. 2 Move the hand up or down the fingerboard to the next chord position, keeping any remaining finger (or fingers) in contact with the string as a guide to the new position. (This is indicated on the music by a dotted line.) N.B. The rules contained in para. 24 concerning the thumb in position-changing must be observed.

3 Simultaneously with (2) above, adjust the angle of the hand, as described in para. 31. 4 When the left hand reaches the new position, place the

fingers in the order in which the strings are to be sounded. (i.e. from the bass note upwards in the case of this study.)

33.

THE BARRE

It frequently happens that several notes in a chord are to be found at the same fret (on different strings of course), and to

stop them with separate fingers is often inconvenient, or even impossible. It then becomes necessary to employ a technique

known as the 'barre'. This means that the index finger (very rarely any other finger) is laid flat across the fingerboard, par allel to the fret, so that all the strings are stopped by it. (The sign for the barre is given in para. 2, but in some older editions

of guitar music a square bracket: [ preceded by a figure 1 is used.)

Rather more pressure is obviously needed to stop six strings with one finger than to stop only one, but clean, accurate barre-playing is not entirely a matter of sheer strength; rather it is a question of just the right amount of force being applied in the most efficient way. Three basic rules regarding the barre must be constantly borne in mind:

1 The index finger must remain perfectly straight from the main joint to the tip. The strings can only be depressed completely if there is no arching of the finger. (FIG. 15)

2 The pressure must be applied by 'squeezing' the neck of the guitar between index finger and thumb. The arm must never be allowed to pull against the grip of the guitar in order to obtain pressure.

3 The thumb position for the barre is directly opposite the

The following exercise may now be practised for a few minutes at a time. The chord is placed at the V position and should not, at this stage, be played in any lower position on the fingerboard. The patterns for the right hand are those learn ed in paras. 17, 20 and 23. All fingers should play apoyando, as

index finger instead of in its normal place, as described

this will 'test' the cleanness of stopping by the left hand.

in para. 14.

A slight pain in the base of the thumb may be felt in the beginning, but this is simply due to unaccustomed work being

It will be seen from the illustration that the wrist is kept well forward, and this point must always be watched as it will keep the finger straight and make sure that the pressure is correctly applied.

done by an underdeveloped muscle. As the muscle becomes stronger with practice the pain will diminish. Short, but fre quent practising sessions with longer intervals between them will do much to hasten this process.

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THE HALF-BARRE

Tnere are many instances in guitar music of open bass strings oeing needed in conjunction with a barre on the treble strings. ~_ese occasions call for the use of what is loosely known as the -laif-barre.' As the term implies that exactly half the strings •E ".: be stopped with the index finger, one would imagine —at a half-barre only applied to the top three strings. In fact, tienumber of strings can vary between two (exceptional) and •

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The method of stopping the half-barre is the same as for the full barre, except that the hand is withdrawn slightly from the fingerboard to allow for the shorter length of finger needed to stop only some of the strings. There is a danger of the middle joint of the finger being bent due to this withdrawal, and the top string will then be underneath the bend. The result of this

fault will be a 'dead' note from this string, but the difficulty is easily overcome if the finger is made to bend slightly inwards from the middle joint to the tip. This is done by pushing the wrist slightly forward, and bringing the thumb a little lower cthe back of the guitar neck. (FIG. 16)

35.

STUDY NO. 2, OP. 60, BY CARCASSI

Only part of this study is printed, as this is all that is neces sary to establish the technical principles which have been ex plained in the foregoing paragraphs, but the complete study is

available if the reader should feel that further practice in this technique is needed.

The printed section should now be learned. Play very slowly and evenly at first, taking care to see that the right hand's movements are not forgotten in the effort of mastering the lefthand pattern. Be particularly aware of the rhythmic pulse, and keep the right hand playing steadily in time, even if the left hand has not managed to stop the next chord completely. This is much better training than allowing the rhythm to be broken whilst the left hand gets into position. The study will need to be practised many times, until it can be played very legato and from memory.

Ex.26

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ECONOMY OF MOVEMENT IN THE LEFT HAND

HARMONIC MINOR SCALE

The technique used in playing all scales follows the prin ciples outlined in paras. 21 and 24. The position changes should always be practised separately at first, as they are the most difficult part of the scale to per form smoothly. Remember always to keep the index finger in contact with the string whilst moving the hand from one

Passing mention has been made in earlier sections of the need for economy in both hand and finger movements. This need is even more vital where chord playing is concerned. The visual impression created by uneconomic movements is of fin gers flying all over the fingerboard, whereas the lifting and re placing of fingers should be barely perceptible to the observer. It will be readily understood that a finger never needs to lift off the fingerboard further than is necessary to allow the string sufficient clearance to vibrate freely; i.e. about % inch, although a little more lift than this is usually permissible. If the finger is kept bent at both the tip and middle joints the whole time, and only moves up and down from the main joint, it will be found that the backlift is automatically restricted, thus giving more economical movements. This has the further advantage

position to another.

This scale may be transposed in the same way as the scale of C major.

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The above aspects of technique should be carefully con sidered, and every effort made to develop efficient, economical movements.

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STUDY NO. 3, OP. 60, BY CARCASSI

This study is essentially the same as No. 2 in the application of right-hand principles; i.e. it employs both apoyando and free strokes, but there is now a clearly discernible melody. The

notes which make up this melody are those which are played by the a finger and are, of course, always apoyando strokes. It is important to keep a good balance between the melody and

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the accompanying arpeggio. The accompaniment should be only about half as loud as the melody. It is also essential for

the melody notes to be 'connected' to each other; or, in other words, played legato. This is chiefly a matter of keeping the left-hand fingers pressing the string down for as long as possible, and of making sure that a string, once sounded, is not acciden tally damped by the right hand. Fragmentation of the melody will make the study musically meaningless. The left-hand pat terns are a little more complex than those of Study No. 2, and

For the first chord, fingers 1,2 and 3 are all on the 11 fret,

so the necessary position of the arm is at about 60° to the fingerboard, with the elbow well away from the body (see FIG. 17A).

Slide finger 2 on this string to fret III, and at the same time bring the elbow right in to the side, thus bringing the hand parallel to the fingerboard. (Do not forget to keep the thumb opposite finger 2 whilst moving.) (FIG. 17B).

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Place the fingers on the new chord in the following order:

finger 3on fret IV, string (&)

finger 4on fret IV, string 0 finger 1on fret II, string (T)

greater use is made of the barre and half-barre. The chord-

change from bar 1 to bar 2 provides a perfect model for em ployment of the principles outlined in para. 32, and the follow ing is a step-by-step description of this change:

After completing the first bar, remove finger 1, leaving

only finger 2 on string (2s) .

It is not necessary for the right hand to wait for completion of all these movements before playing. It can begin its arpeggio as soon as the bottom note (G sharp) is stopped by the left hand.

The principles embodied in the above example should be carefully followed in every chord-change throughout the study.

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39.

ARPEGGIO EXERCISES WITH ACCENTS

The apoyando and free strokes in the above Carcassi study are only applied in a rather specialized way, so that the apoy ando stroke is always played by the a finger. For the further development of right-hand finger independence, it is now necessary to practise using apoyando strokes with all the righthand fingers (but not the thumb) in turn, whilst playing free strokes with the remaining fingers. The first pattern in Ex. 14 provides a useful basis for this exercise, which may be practised in the following ways:

without any help from the right hand. The finger action is best described as a lateral pulling of the string across the fingerboard. Slurs are indicated by a curved line joining two (or more) notes together, thus: Ex. 29

1 All the notes which are played by 777 finger are apoy ando — the remainder, free stroke.

2 All the notes which are played by /' finger are apoyando — the remainder, free stroke. To execute this slur, first place both 1st and 2nd fingers on

The above system of practising accented notes may then be applied to the arpeggios contained in Exs. 17 and 19.

40.

SLURS (DESCENDING)

An essential part of guitar left-hand technique is the 'slur', (or 'snap', as it is sometimes called). This consists of a move ment of the left-hand finger which sets the string in vibration

the top string MJ at frets V and VI, making sure that the tip joints of the fingers are standing square and perpendicular to the fingerboard. Then, after striking the string with a righthand finger, bend the middle and tip joints of the 2nd finger sharply, bringing the finger tip in towards the palm of the hand, thus making it snap off the string. This will sound the note (A) which is being stopped by the 1st finger. An important point concerning this movement is that the

Ex.31

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42.

G MAJOR SCALE

Note that apoyando strokes are not possible for the bottom two notes of this scale. Nevertheless, sufficient stability of the right hand should have been acquired by now to ensure a con fident attack with free stroke on the bottom string. The layout of this scale fingering makes it particularly suit able for training the hand in the movement described in para.

a stage further it is recommended that, in addition to the pre vious sequences, all scales should be practised using three fin

16.

This scale fingering can, like the others, be transposed. The keys to which it can be applied are shown under the notation.

gers in the following sequence: i, m, a, 777, /, m, a, m, etc.

To take the development of right-hand finger independence

Ex.32

iHn Si

*

43.

30

•+0

®

©'

3

20

*0

*

CD

CD-

TV 33

W-

J