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FEANZ PETER SCHUBERT

GROVE'S

DICTIONAEY OF MUSIC AND MUSICIANS

EDITED BY J.

A.

FULLER MAITLAND,

IN FIVE

M,A.,

FSA.

VOLUMES

VOL. IV

Wefa gorfe

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1908 All rights reserved

/\

aas~'^'^q

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped.

Nottaiaiili

J. S.

Cashing

&

Co.

Published June, 1908.

$teM

— Berwick & Smith Co.

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

LIST OF CONTEIBUTOES The names of deceased writers are printed in

W.

A. AlKIN, Esq.

......

italics

.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS G.

Sir George Grove, O.B., D.G.L.

W. H. Hadow,

W. H. H"-

Esq.

.

H. v. H.

H. V. Hamilton, Esq.

William Henderson,

W. H.

Esq.

Georob Heubebt, Esq.

G. H.

Arthub

A.

A.

F.

Hill, Esq.

HiPKiNS, Esq., F.SA.

J.

Miss E.

J.

E. J. H.

HiPKiNS

.

Hughes -Hughes, Duncan Hume, Esq.

A.

William H. Husk,

H.

F.

A. J. H.

A.

Esq.

H-H.

D. H.

.

W. H. H.

Esq.

H. Jenks, Esq., Boston, U.S.A. M. Adolphe Jullien

P. H. J.

Frank Kidson,

F. K.

F.

A. J.

.

Esq.

.

H. E. Krehbiel, Esq., New York James Lecky, Esq. Robin H. Lbggb, Esq.

H. B. K.

Hercules MacDonnell, Esq. R. F. M'EWEN, Esq. Eev. Ghakles Mackeson, F.B.S. Herr A. Maczewski, Kaiserslautern Julian Marshall, Esq. Mrs. Julian Marshall BussBLL Martinbau, Esq. Signor Giannandeea Mazzucato

H. M'C. D.

J.

R. F.

.

Rev.

J.

H.

Rev.

J.

R.

C.

J.

.

Herbert

S.

Esq.

E.

J.

Payne,

Bart., Mus.D., Director of the

.

Esq., Barrister-at-law

Pembehton

Fbrdinanb Pohl William Pole, Esq., F.B.S., Mm.D. Victor be Pontigny, Esq. Reginald Lane Poole, Esq. Miss OiGA Racster G.

S.

ROCKSTRO, Esq.

M.

W. K.

H.

S. O.

S.

H. P.

C.

H. H. P.

Royal College

E. J. P. T. P. P. C. F.

P.

V.

DE

E. L.

L.

R,

.

W.

S.

Esq.

P.

V.

O. R.

Desmond Lumlby Byan, Carl Siewbrs, Esq. Dr. Philipp Spitta

M. M. R.

.

LuiGi Ricci, Esq.

W.

L. J.

J.

Oakbley, Mus.D.

Rev. Canon T. Percy

Herr

M. H. M.

B. M. O.

.

Sidney H. Pardon, Esq. Sir 0. Hubert H. Parry, of Music

G. J.

R. N.

E. M. Oakbley, Esq. Sir

M.

R. M.

Mrs. J.

M.

F. A.

Milne

Newmaroh Weston Nicholl,

M'E.

M.

A. M.

Mee

Miss Louisa M. Middlbton

L.

R. H. L.

P.

P

R.

P. L. R. c. s'-

P. S.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTOES S. J.

Spobling, Esq.

.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Franz Peter Schubert

Frontispiece FACING PAGE

Joseph Joachim Raff

12

Jean Philippe Kameau

18

Carl Heinrich Carsten Reinecke Ernest Reyer Hans Richter

56

Nicholas Andreievich Rimsey-Korsakov Gioacchino Antonio Rossini

80 92

...

Giovanni Battista Rubini

150 176

Anton Gregor Rubinstein

178

Charles Camille Saint-Saens Antonio Salieri Pablo Martin Meliton de Sarasate t Navascues Sarasate Alessandro Scarlatti

102

.

.

206

210 .

...

Wilhblmine Schroder-Devrient Fac-simile page of the manuscript of Schubert's great Symphony in C Clara Josephine Schumann Robert Alexander Schumann

224 240 276

328

344 368

Anton Seidl Marzella Sembrich Friedrich Smetana

408

Henriette Sontag, Countess Rossi

620

Louis Spohr

638

410 486

Gasparo Luigi Pacifico Spontini

646

Richard Strauss

718

'

DICTIONARY OF

MUSIC AND MUSICIANS Q QUADRILLE

(German Contretans), a dance executed by an equal number of couples drawn up in a square. The name (which is derived from the Italian sqimdra) was originally not solely applied to dances, but was used to denote a small company or squadron of horsemen, from three to fifteen in number, magnificently mounted and caparisoned to take part The name was in a tournament or carousal. next given to four, six, eight, or twelve dancers, dressed alike, who danced in one or more companies in the elaborate French ballets ' of the 18th century. The introduction of ' oontredanses ' Into the ballet, which first took place in the fifth act of Eousseau's ' FStes de Polymnie (1745), and the consequent popularity of these dances, are the origin of the dance which, at first known as the ' Quadrille de Contredarises,' was soon abbreviated into ' quadrille.' [The use of the Spanish equivalent, cuadrilla, for the party of four banderilleros associated with each torero in a bull-fight, and the familiar name of a card -game once very popular, may be mentioned.] The quadrille was settled in its present shape at the beginning of the 19th century, and it has undergone but little change, save It was very in the simplification of its steps. popular in Paris during the Consulate and the first Empire, and after the fall of Napoleon was brought to England by Lady Jersey, who in 1815 danced it for the first time at Almaek's" with Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan Ryde,

'

Miss Montgomery, Count St. Aldegonde, Mr. Montgomery, Mr. Montague, and Mr. Standish. The English took it up with the same eagerness which they displayed with regard to the polka in 1845, and the caricatures of the period abound with amusing illustrations of the quadrille mania. It became popular in Berlin in 1821.

The

De Madelon N'a pas de fond,

and was adapted to the dance. The music consists of 32 bars in 6-8 time. No. 2 is L'Ete,' the name of a very diflioult and graceful contredanse popular in the year 1800 it consists of 32 bars in 2-4 time. No. 3 is La Poule (32 bars in 6-8 time) which dates from the year 1802. For No. 4 (32 bars in 2-4 time) two figures are danced, 'La Tr6nise,' named after the celebrated dancer Trenitz, and La '

'

'

'

'

perhaps a survival of the old 'Pastorale.' No. 5 'Finale'— consists of three parts repeated four times. In all these figures (except the Finale, which sometimes ends with a coda) the dance begins at the ninth bar of the music, the first eight bars being repeated at the end bywayof conclusion. Themusic of quadrilles is scarcely ever original ; operatic and popular tunes are strung together, and even the works of the great composers are sometimes made use of.^ The quadrilles of Musard are almost the only exception ; they may lay claim to some recognition as graceful original musical commons, w. B. s. QUAGLIATI, Paolo, born about 1560, was a musician living In Rome, who in 1608 is indicated as holding the position of organist at the Liberian Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. In 1585 he edited acoUection of Spiritual Canzonets Pastourelle,'

for

three voices,

containing,

besides

sixteen

Florentine Stile rappresentativo for solo and the Venetian concerted style with

voices, a

Some

readers

may

recollect the clever

'Bologna QuadriUes'

on themes from Bossini's 'Stabat Mater,' which were published shortly after the appearance of that work. The plates of these qnadriUes were destroyed on the publishers learning the source from which the author (popularly supposed to be J. W. Davison) had obtained the melodies. [Hans von BUlow wrote a set of quadriUes on airs from Berlioz's Benvenuto OeUinl,']

t The Balleta were divided into fire acts, each act into three, six, nine, or twelve ' entr^,* and each ' entree ' was performed by one or of dancers,

more 'quadriUes'

VOL. IV

—

numbers by himself, some contributions by Marenzio, Nanino, and Giovanelli. His other publications before 1600 consist of two books Two Canzonets a 4 of Secular Canzonets a 3. with cembalo and lute accompaniment appear in Verovio's collection of 1591, which has been recently republished complete by Alfred Wotquenne. After 1 600 he appears to have followed

the

:

See Captain Oronow's Sfftnintxc&ncet

;

'

'

3

'

with interest the twofold direction in music emanating from Florence and Venice respectively,

quadrille consists of five distinct parts,

which bear the name of the contredanses to which they owe their origin. No. 1 is Le Pantalon,' the name of which is derived from a song which began as follows '

Le pantalon

'

(1861).

IE

B

QUALITY

-QUANTZ

basso eontinuo.

In 1606 he composed an opera with libretto by his pupil Pietro della Valle, entitled Carro di fedeltJi d' amore,' which was performed on a Carnival car in the streets of Rome, It has five solo voices, and was published in 1611, with the addition of several Arie a 1-3. His other works are a book of Concerted Madrigals It 4 for voices and instruments, with a separate book for Basso Continuo, some other books of Spiritual Madrigals a 1-3, and two books of Sacred Motets and Dialogues for two and three choirs in the concerted style with Basso Continuo (Rome, 1612-27). In Diruta's II Transilvano there appears a toccata by Quagliati for organ or clavier, which has been republished by L. Torch! in Arte, Musicale in '

'

'

L

Italia, vol.

iii.

j.

r. m.

QUALITY. See Tone. QUANTITY. See Metre, vol. iii. p. 186. QUANTZ, JoHANN Joachim, celebrated fluteplayer and composer, born, according to his autobiography in Marpurg's Beibrage zwr Auf-

nahmeder Musik, 3 3.n.

30, 1697,atOber3oheden,

a village between Gbttingen and Miinden. His father, a blacksmith, urged him on his death-bed (1707) to follow the-same calling, but, in his own words, Providence, who disposes all for the best, soon pointed out a different path for my future.' From the age of eight he had been in the habit of playing the double-bass with his elder brother at village fgtes, and judging from this that he had a talent fbr music, his uncle Justus Quantz, Stadtmusikus of Merseburg, offered to bring him up as a musician. He went to Merseburg in August 1708,' but his uncle did not long survive his father, and Quantz passed under the care of the new Stadtmusikus, Fleischhaek, who had married his predecessor's daughter. For the next five and a half years he studied various instruments, Kiesewetter being his master for the pianoforte. In Deo. 1713 he was released from his apprenticeship, and soon after became assistant, first to Knoll, Stadtmusikus of Radeberg, and then to Schalle of Pima near Dresden. Here he studied Vivaldi's violin-concertos, and made theacquaintance of Heine, a musician in Dresden, with whom he went to live in March 1716. He now had opportunities of hearing great artists, such as Pisendel, Veraoini, Sylvius Weiss, Riohter and Buffardin, the flute- player. In 1717 he went, during his three months' leave, to Vienna, and studied counterpoint with Zelenka, a pupil of Fux. In 1718 he entered the chapel of the King of Poland, which consisted of. twelve players, and was stationed His alternately in Warsaw and Dresden. salary was 150 thalers, with free quarters in Warsaw, but finding no opportunity of distinguishing himself either on the oboe, the instrument for which he was engaged, or the violin, he took up the flute, studying it with '

1

Not

1707, as

Mendel

states.

In 1723 he went with Weiss to

Buffardin.

Prague, and the two played in Fux's opera 'Costanza e Fortezza,' performed in honour of Here also he the coronation of Charles VI.

heard Tartini. In 1724 Quantz accompanied Count Lagnasco to Italy, arriving in Rome on July 11, and going at once for lessons in counterpoint to Gasparini, whom he describes In good-natured and honourable man.' as a 1725 he went on to Naples, and there made the acquaintance of Scarlatti, Hasse, Mancini, Leo, Feo, and other musicians of a similar stamp. In May 1726 we find him in Reggio and Parma, whence he travelled by Milan, '

Turin, Geneva, and Lyons to Paris, arriving on August 15. In Paris where his name was

—

—

he remained seven months, and occupied himself with contriving improvements in the flute, the most important being the addition of a second key, as described by himself in his Versitch einer Anweiswng die Mote . . zu spielen, vol. iii. chap. He was at length recalled 58 (Berlin, 1752). to Dresden, but first visited London for three

remembered ^

as

'

Quouance

'

.

He arrived there on March 20, months. 1727, when Handel was at the very summit of his operatic career, with Faustina, Cuzzoni, Castrueci, train.

He

Senesino, Attilio, and Tosi in his returned to Dresden on July 23, in the following March re-entered

1727, and the chapel, and again devoted himself to the flute. During a visit to Berlin in 1728 the Crown Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, was so charmed with his playing, that he determined to learn the flute, and in future Quantz went twice a year to give hini instruction. In 1741 his pupil, having succeeded to the throne, made him liberal offers if he would settle in Berlin, which he did, remaining till his death on July 12, 1773. He was Kammerr rausicus and court-composer, with a salary of 2000 thalers, an additional payment for each composition, and 100 ducats for each flute which he supplied. His chief duties were to conduct the private concerts at the Palace, in which the king played the flute, and to compose pieces for his royal pupil. He left in MS. 300 concertos [but see the QvMlen-Lexikon, p. 99, on this number] for one and two flutqs of which 277 are preserved in the Neue Palais at

—

Potsdam— and 200 other pieces flute solos, and dozens of trios and quatuors, of which 51 are to be found at Dresden. His printed works are three Sei Senate dedicated to Augustus III. of Poland, op. 1, Dresden, 1734 'Sei duetti,' op. 2, Berlin, 1759 [six sonatas for two flutes, op. 3, of doubtful authenticity, London, ;

—

'

'

;

;

Walsh;

five sonatas for flutes, also op. 3, Paris, Boivin], a method for the flute— Fermcfe einer Anweisimg die Flote traversi&re zu spielen

—dedicated Berlin,

to Frederick

1762,

4to, 2

Konige in Preussen,' with twenty-four copper-

In Eoivin's

'

CatiUoffiie.

;

QUARENGHI

QUAETET

This passed through three (or four) editions, and was also published in French and Dutch. He left also a serenata, a few songs, music to twenty -two of Gellert's hymns, Neue Kirchenmelodien, etc. (Berlin, 1760), and an autobiography (in Marpurg's Beiirdge). Three of the Melodien are given by von Winterfeld, Evang. Kinheng. iii. 272. Besides the key which he added to the flute, he invented the sliding top for tuning the instrument. His playing, which was unusually correct for the imperfect instruments of the day, delighted not only Frederick, but Marpurg, a more fastidious critic. He married, not happily, in 1737 and died in easy circumstances and generally respected at Potsdam, July 12, 1773. All details regarding him may be found in Lebenund JVerken, etc., by his grandson Albert Quantz (Berlin, 1877). F. G.

any other combination being more fully particularised and it is to the string quartet we will turn our principal attention. The origin of the quartet was the invention of four- part harmony, but it was long before a composition for four instruments came to be regarded as a distinct and worthy means for the expression of musical ideas. Even the prolific J. S. Bach does not

German

'

'

;

QUARENGHI,

Gugliblmo,

violoncellist

and

composer, born at Casalmaggiore, Oct. 22, 1826, died at Milan, Feb. 4, 1882. He studied at the Milan Conservatoire, 1839-42, occupied the post of first violoncello at the Scala Theatre

in 1850 became professor of his instrument at the Milan Conservatoire in 1851, and in 1879 Maestro di Cappella at the Milan Cathedral. As a composer he contributed an opera entitled 'II didi Michel'; published in 1863 some church music and transcriptions, as well as an inter;

esting

method for the violoncello a valuable upon the origin of bow instruments ;

treatise

this Metodo di Violoncello (Milan, 1876), in which he compares the earliest forms with the various barbaric and semi-- barbaric instruments previously in use amongst primitive nations. In addition the author gives the ' Personaggi of Monteverde's ' Orfeo, and the tuning of the earliest viols. Riemann, Lexikon; Baker, £iog. Diet, of Shisic. E. h-a. QUARLES, Chakles, Mus.B., graduated at Cambridge in 1698. He was organist of Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1688 to 1709. He was appointed organist of York Minster, June 30, 1722 ; and died at York early in 1727. 'A Lesson for the harpsichord by him was printed

precedes

'

'

—

;

to have favoured this combination, though he wrote trios in plenty. With the symphony was born the string quartet as we

appear

now understand it and both were

— the symphony in miniature

bom of

the same father, Haydn.

[See FoiiM.]

The early quartets of Haydn seem to ns sadly feeble in the present day ; there is not enough flesh to cover the skeleton, and the joints are terribly awkward ; but therfe is the unmistakable infant quartet, and certainly not more clumsy and \inpromising than the human infant. In the course of his long life and incessant practice in symphonic composition, Haydn made vast progress, so that the later quartets (op. 71, etc.) begin to show, in the lower parts, some of the boldness which had before been only allowed to the 1st violin. Eighty-three quartets of Haydn are catalogued and printed, while of the ninety-three of his contemporary Boooherini, scarcely one survives. Mozart, with his splendid genius for polyphony as well as melody, at once opened up a new world. In the set of six dedicated to Haydn we notice, besides the development in form, the development of the idea, which it has only been given to Beethoven fully to carry

out

— the

making each part

of equal

and importance. Theoretically, in a perfect quartet, whether vocal or instrumental, there should be no 'principal part.' The six interest

quartets just spoken of were so far in advance of their time as to be considered on all sides as

'hideous stuff.' In our time we find little that is startling in them, except, perhaps, the

famous opening of No. sound harsh from the

6,

which

will always

false relations in

the

second and fourth bars.

'

by Goodison about 1788.

w. h. h. See Violin. QUART-POSAUNE. See Tkombonb.

i35:4

Adagio.

QUART-GEIGE.

QUARTERLY

MUSICAL

MAGAZINE

AND REVIEW, of Norwich.

conducted by R. M. Bacon vol. iii. p. [See vol. i. p. 181 ;

680.]

G.

QUARTET (Fr.

Quaiuor Ital. Quartetto). A composition for four solo instruments or voices. I. With regard to instrumental quartets the favourite combination has naturally been always ;

that of two violins, viola, and violoncello, the chief representatives since the days of Monteverde of soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, in the orchestra: in fact, when 'quartet' only is spoken of, the ' string quartet is generally understood ; '

Mozart's twenty-six quartets all live, the six dedicated to Haydn and the last three composed for the King of Prussia being immortal. Those writers whose quartets were simply the echo of Mozart's such as Romberg, Onslow, Ries, and Fesca made no advance in the treatment of the four instruments. It is not our province here to speak of the

— —

>

QUARTET

QUARTET

growth of the symphonic form as exhibited in the string quartet, this subject having been already discussed under Form, but rather to notice the extraordinary development of the art of part-writing, and the manner in which the most elaborate compositions have been constructed with such apparently inadequate

They also lying too often in the top part. lose much through the pecuUar mannerism of the composer's harmony, which so constantly

4

In these points the

materials.

Beethoven so

far eclipse

all

quartets

others

that

of

we

occupies three of the parts in the performance of pedal notes, and portions of the chromatic scale. Still

might confine our attention exclusively to them.

this,

In the very

in one

first (op. 18,

No. 1) the phrase

more than Schubert does Mendelssohn

to chafe at the insufficiency of four stringed Not only instruments to express his ideas.

seem

own, fails, through no fault of his point needful for successful quartet-

but he

wi-iting.

of the

first

movement

is

delivered so impartially

to each of the four players, as

what each can make

though to

see

that we feel them to be on an equality never before attained to. If the 1st violin has fine running passages, those of the 2nd violin and viola are not a whit inferior. Does the 1st violin sing a celestial adagio, the violoncello is not put off with mere bass notes to mark the time. All four participate equally in the merriment of the scherzo and the dash of the finale. This much strikes one in the earlier quartets, but later we find that we are no longer listening to four voices disposed so as to sound together harmoniously, but that we are being shown the outline, the of

it,

faint pencil sketch, of works for whose actual presentation the most perfect earthly orchestra would be too intolerably coarse. The posthumous quartets are hardly to be regarded as pieces written for violins, but we are rather forced to imagine that in despair of finding colours delicate and true enough the artist has preferred to leave his conceptions as charcoal This fancy is borne out when we sketches. note how large a compass the four parts are constantly made to cover, a space of nearly five octaves sometimes being dashed over, with little care for the inevitable poverty of tone

produced.

There is a wide contrast between these stupendous works of genius and the polished and thoroughly legitimate workmanshipof Schubert's Here we find everything done which quartets. ought to be done and nothing which ought not.

One are indeed in-eproachable models. point deserves notice here as illustrating the comparative strength of two great men Beethoven gives frequent rests to one or two of the players, allowing the mind to fill in the lacking harmony, and thus producing a clearness, boldness, and contrast which no other composer has attained ; Schubert, on the other hand, makes all four parts work their hardest to hide that thinness of sound which is the drawback of the quartet. Mention of Spohr's quartets might almost be omitted in spite of their large number and their Technically they are no more great beauty. advanced than those of Haydn, the interest

They

little

:

Beethoven and Schubert have shown

us that the theoretically perfect string-quartet should have an almost equal amount of interest in each of the four parts ; care should therefore be taken to make the merest accompanimentfigures in the middle parts of value and Tremolos and reiterated chords character. should be shunned, and indeed the very idea The of Oiceompaniment is barely admissible. quartet, though differing from the symphony only in the absence of instrumental colouring and limitation of polyphony, is best fitted for the expression of ideas of a certain delicacy, refinement and complexity, anything like boldness being out of place, from the weakness Now the chief of the body of tone produced. of Mendelssohn's music is its broad and singing character, passage-writing is Consequently, however good his weak point. his quartets, one cannot but feel that they would sound better if scored for full orchestra. Take the opening of op. 44, No. 1, for instance this is not quartet- writing at all there is a melody, a bass, and the rest is mere fiUingup in the second, we have here as thorough an orchestral theme as could be devised the ear longs for trumpets and drums in the fourth bar. The name symphony in disguise has often, and not unjustly, been applied to these works. This is curious, because' Mendelssohn has shown himself capable of expressing his ideas with small means in other departments. The four-part songs for male voices, for instance, are absolutely perfect models for what such things ought to be. Schumann (op. 41) is the only writer who can be said to have followed in the wake of Beethoven with regard to using the quartet as a species of shorthand. All his three quartets have an intensity, a depth of soul, which, as with Beethoven, shrinks from characteristic

:

;

;

—

.

plainer methods of expression. Of the earnest band of followers in this school Bargiel, Kheinberger, and others aU

—

—

that can be said is that they (tre followers. [Brahms's three quartets, opp. 51, 67, are perfect examples of the art of spreading the interest over all the parts, and the way the return is made to the opening subject of op. 67 at the close of -the variations is a touch of unmistakable genius.] II. Quartets for strings and wind instruments are

uncommon, but Mozart has one

for oboe,

;

QUARTET

QUARTET viola, and violoncello. Next to the quartet ranks the pianoforte quartet, which, however, is built on quite a different principle here the composition becomes either equivalent to an accompanied trio, or to » symphony in which the piano takes the place of the 'string quartet,' and the other instruments usually violin, viola, and violoncello the place of wind instruments. In any case Mozart the piano does quite half the work. has written two such quartets, Beethoven only one, besides three early compositions, Mendels-

violin,

alto,

string

times.

:

—

—

sohn three, Schumann and Goetz one each, while Brahms (opp. 23, 26, 60) and the modem composers have favoured this form of quartet still more. III. Vocal quartets are so called whether accompanied by instruments or not. The fourpart songs of Mendelssohn have been mentioned. For many years no oratorio was considered complete without its unaccompanied quartet, Spohr having set the fashion with Blest are the departed in the ' Last Judgment.' Modem opera is learning to dispense with concerted music, Richard Wagner having set the fashion. To enumerate the fine operatic quartets from ' Don Giovanni to Faust, would be useless. [Brahms's first set of Liebeslieder ' for piano duet and four voices ad libitum, was one of the compositions which began his popularity in England ; in the second set, and in opp. 92, 103, and 112, he has left notable exa,mples. Hensohel's ' Serbisches Liederspiel,' op. 32 Stanford's quartets from Tennyson's 'Princess Walford Davies's ' Pastorals ; and Ernest Walker's songs from England's Helicon, may also be mentioned.] IV. The whole body of stringed instruments in the orchestra is often incoiTeotly spoken of as 'the Quartet,' from the fact that until the time of Beethoven the strings seldom played in It is now the other than four-part harmony. usual custom to write the parts for violoncello and double bass on separate staves ; in Germany (and in the present day in England) these instruments are grouped apart, a practice which is decidedly unwise, seeing that the double bass requii'es the support of the violoncello to give the tone firmness, more especially the German four-stringed instrument, the tone of which is so much lacking in body. V. The term is also applied to the performers of a quartet, as well as to the composition '

'

'

'

'

'

;

'

'

itself.

F. c.

VI. The word is used of a set of stringed instruments, corresponding to the old phrase a chest of vials.' Although, accurately speaking, quartets of musical instruments were not employed in chamber music, as we understand the term, until the era of Monteverde (15681643), yet the literature and art records of past centuries seem to point to the existence of 'sets' of instruments, analogous in pitch to the soprano, '

and bass Some ground

from very early assumption may following examples: The

tenor,

voices,

for this

—

found in the concert of eight flutes (in four sizes) discovered on one of the tombs in the Necropolis of Gizeh, dating according to Lepsius from the fifth Dynasty (b.c. 2000) which are reproduced in Carl Engel's Catalogue of the Exhibition of Musical Instruments, South Kensington Museum, 1874. Certain Hebrew coins in the British Museum ascribed to Simon Maccabaeus (of the second century of the Christian era) depicting lyres differing in size, shape, and number of strings, and a pertinent passage, quoted from Aristides Quintilianus (about B.C. 110, in Burney's History ofMusie, vol. i. p. 513). Mention may also be made of the string trio portrayed on the splendid Greek Vase in the Munich Museum. The three figures, grouped in the manner of our modern trio performers, appear Two of the to be playing ensemble music. performers have lyres of different sizes and stringing, whilst the third, Polyhymnia, plucks a small harp. Passing hence to the 11th century, it would appear from Dr. Kuhlmann's Geschichte der Bogeninslrwmente, that a ' set of crouths is to be seen in an old MS. prayer-book of that period (vide Getetbuch des JErzh. Leopold d'Heil von Osterreich. Bibl. zu Kloster Neuburg bei Wien, Codex, No. 98, Fol. 110, XI Jahrh.). Four centuries later (April 14, 1401) Charles VI. granted 'Lettres-Patentes,' to the Society of Minstrels who styled themselves 'joueurs d'lustruments tant hant que has,' and in the following century the sets of viols began to make In Martin Agricola's Musica their appearance. InstruTmntalis deutsch (1528), woodcuts of a complete quartet of viols may be seen, as also ' Rebecs,' in four different sizes, which he designates, 'Discantus,' Altus,' 'Tenor,' 'Bassus.' [In the same year, in the Oortigiano of Bald. Castiglione, there is a reference to music played

be

—

—

'

'

'

'

on 'quattro

viole

da

arco.']

In 1566, Andreas

Amati (see that name) made the famous set of bow instruments for the French King Charles IX. It consisted of twelve large and twelve small pattern violins, six tenors and eight basses, and in all probability these instruments were the On the finest examples of this maker's work. backs were painted the arms of France and other devices, and the motto 'Pietate et Justitia.' During the French revolution the mob took these instruments out of the chapel at Versailles (on Oct. 6 an^ 7, 1789), and destroyed all but two violins which were afterwards recovered by One of the small Viotti's pupil, J. B. Cartier. violins is now, or was recently, the property of Mr. George Somes. In the following century numbers o'f Chests of Viols ' (two trebles, two tenors, two basses), for the performance of the elaborate compositions in parts, called ' Fantasies,' were made, and the growing adoption '

— QUARTET

QUATRE FILS AYMON, LES

of instrumental music at the Royal Courts of Europe induced Antonio Stradivari (see that name) to turn his attention to the making of ' sets' of instruments, comprising violins, tenors,

the following Count Archinto of Milan, who This quartet passed into the died in 1860. hands of J. B. Vuillaume, and the violoncello (1689) was the instrument used by Mons. Jules Delsart. Nioolo Paganini also owned a quartet by this maker. The Due de Camposelice, who died in Paris in 1887, possessed about twenty of the great master's instruments, and M. Wilraotte of Antwerp, who died in 1893, left eight violins, two violas, and two violoncellos. M. de St. Senoch's quartet— violin, 1737 ; second violin, 1704 ; viola, 1728 ; violoncello, 1696— was sold after his death in 1886, at the H6tel Diouot. At the present time Stradivari quartets are owned by Baron Knoop, Dr. R. E. Brandt, and the Herren Mendelssohn. The late Dr. Charles Oldham's quartet was bequeathed to the British

6

and

basses. The first 'set' of instruments, recorded as by this maker, is that mentioned in the Arisi MSS., a document written by Desiderio Arisi, a Cremonese priest of the order of St. Jerome and belonging to the Church of St. Sigismondo (see Ainlonio Stradivari, his Life and Work, W. E. Hill & Sons). He states that Stradivari received an order, in 1682, from the Venetian banker Miohele Morigi, for a com-, plete ' sett of instruments, destined to be presented to James II. of England. As no trace of these instruments has as yet been found, their existence rests entirely upon the statement made in the MSS. referred to. In 1690 the same maker produced the so-called 'Tuscan Concerto,' or 'set' of instruments, for Cosmo di Medici. This probably consisted of two or three violins, a contralto (small tenor), a tenore (large tenor), and a violoncello. The tenore of this set^ has been preserved in its original state, and may be seen, together with the violoncello, in the Musical Institute at Florence. In 1696 Stradivari made the inlaid quintet which for some years was owned by Philip IV. of Spain, and at the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th, the 'set' (dated 1696-1709) destined to have been presented to Philip V. of Spain, but not sold until after Stradivari's death, when his son Paolo disposed of it (in 1775) to a priest named Padre Brambrilla for £148, and later it became the property of Don Carlos, afterwards Charles IV. of Spain. This 'set' consisted of two violins, two violas, one tenore, and o violoncello. The large tenore vanished at the dispersal of the royal collection, and the rest of the ' set ' were submitted to such barbarous reparations at the hands of Dom Vincenzo Acenzo and his successor Ortega, that, especially in the case of the violoncello now in the Chapel Royal, Madrid, little of their original character remains. In modem "times ' sets of instruments by one maker have been largely collected by ardent connoisseurs. We are told that the Dumas family, friends of Beethoven, assembled a quartet of Gio. Paolo Maggini's instruments, violin, viola, violoncello, and small bass, and that with the exception of the last, they are some of the The finest specimens of this master's work. Prince J. de Caraman Chimay owned a very interesting quartet of instruments by Stradivari's pupil (?) Ambrose de Comble of Tournay (about 1750) and also an ornamented quartet (copies of Stradivari) made by J. B. Vuillaume jn 1865. [These instruments were exhibited Quartets of in the Albert Hall in 1885.] Stradivari's instruments have been collected by '

'

,

1

For the history of the violin

of this set see article

MoBBL.

:

Museum. The quartet of Stradivaris employed by Lady Halle and her collaborators at the St. James's Hall Popular Concerts were dated as Mr. Ries' follows :— Lady Hallo's violin, 1709 ;

violin,

1710

;

Mr. Gibson's

viola,

and 1728 It would ap;

Signer Piatti's violoncello, 1720. pear that the only present-day instrumentalists who play upon a complete set of Stradivari's Dr. instruments are the Joachim quartet. Joachim's violin is dated 1715, Prof. Hausmann's violoncello, 1724, Prof Carl Halir's violin is a long-pattern Stradivarius, and the fine viola played upon by Prof Wirth is lent to the Agricola, quartet by the Herren Mendelssohn. Miisica Instrumentalis ; Burney, History of Music; Yis.v!kma, History of Music; deLaborde, Essai swr la Musiqite ; Hart, The Violin ; Hill, Antonio Stradivari ; Engel, Catalogue, South Kensington Exhibition of Znstrwtnents, 1874 Catalogue of Inventions Exhibition, 1885; von Moser, Joseph Joachim. b. h-a.

—

;

QUARTET ASSOCIATION,

A

THE.

Society for the performance of chamber music, started in 1852 by Messrs. Sainton, Cooper,

and Piatti, with such eminent artists as Sterndale Bennett, Mile. Clauss, Mme. Pleyel, Arabella Goddard, Pauer, Hall^ etc., at the pianoforte. They gave six concerts each season at Willis's Rooms, but ended with the third season, the time not having yet arrived for a sufficient support of chamber music by the London public. Hill,

The programmes were

selected

with

much

—

freedom, embracing English composers Bennett, EUerton, Loder, Macfarren, Mellon, etc. ; foreign musicians then but seldom heard

Schumann,

Cherubini, Hummel, Beethoven's Posthumous Quartets. were analysed by G. A. Macfarren.

QU ASI

,

as if

i. e.

an approach

to.

etc.,

The

and pieces g.

'

Andante

quasi allegretto' or 'Allegretto quasi vivace' means a little quicker than the one and not so quick as the other answering to poco allegretto, or piii tosto allegro. q

—

QUATRE FILS AYMON,

LES.

An

op^ra-

comique; words by MM. Leuven and Brunswick, music by Balfe. Produced at the Op&a-

— QUEISSER

QUAVEE Comique,

Paris, July IS, 1844, and at the Princess's Theatre, London, as 'The Castle of Aymon, or The Four Brothers,' in three acts,

Nov. 20, 1844.

QUAVER

G.

(Ger. Achtelnote,

whence American

eighth note ; Fr. Oroche ; Ital. Oroma). A note which is half the length of a crotchet, and therefore the eighth part of a semibreve ; hence the German and American names. It is written thus I*, its Rest being represented '

'

by T The idea

of expressing the values of notes by diversity of form has been ascribed by certain

De Muris

.(about 1340), but this undoubtedly an error, the origin of which

writers to

is is

by both Hawkins (Hist, of Music) and Muris ') to a work entitled L'antica F4tis (art. Musica ridotta alia modema Prattica, by Vicentino (1555), in which it is explicitly stated that traced

'

De Muris invented all the notes, from the Large to the Semiquaver.

It is, however, certain that the longer notes were in use nearly 300 years earlier, in the time of Franco of Cologne [Notation, vol. iii. p. 399], and it seems equally clear that the introduction of the shorter kinds is of later date than the time of De Muris. The fact appears to be that the invention of the shorter notes followed the demand created by the general progress of music, a demand which may fairly be supposed to have reached f its limit in the quarter-demisemiquaver, ox ^'fi of a quaver, occasionally met with in modern " music. The Quaver, originally called Chroma or Fusa, sometimes Unea (a hook), was probably invented some time during the 15th century, for Morley (1597) says that 'there were within these 200 years (and therefore in 1400) 'but four ' (notes) known or used of the musicians, those were the Long, Breve, Semibreve, and Minim ' ; and Thomas de Walsingham, in a MS. treatise written somewhat later (probably about 1440), and quoted by Hawkins, gives the same notes, and adds that ' of late a New character has been introduced, called a Crotchet, which would be of no use, would musicians remember that beyond the minim no subdivision ought to be made. ' Franehinus Gafurius also, in his Practiea

The subdivision of the quaver into semiquaver and demisemiquaver followed somewhat later. Gafurius, in the work quoted above, mentions a note ^ of a minim in length, called by various names, and written either

*^

1 or 4, but the true

semiquaver or semichroma, the earliest form of Q which was » does not appear until later, while the demisemiquaver must have been a novelty ,

as

late

as

1697,

at least

in

this

country,

judging from the 13th edition of Playford's Tntrodiiction to the Skill of Musick, in which, after describing it, the author goes on to say 'but the Printer having none of that character by him, I was obliged to omit it.' When two or more quavers (or shorter notes) occur consecutively, they are usually grouped together by omitting the hooks and drawing a thick stroke across their stems, thus j^jj. [This grouping, which had been in use for centuries in MS. music, was one of the great difficulties in the way of printing from musictypes it was not overcome until about 1690, when John Heptinstall brought it into use. See Heptinstall, and Music-Pkinting.] In vocal music, quavers which have to be sung to separate syllables are written detached, while those which are sung to a single syllable are grouped ; for example ;

:

"The peo-ple that walk-ed in

dark

ncas,

'

Musicae (1496), quoting from Prosdocimus de Beldemandia, who flourished in the early part of the 15th century, describes the division of the minim into halves and quarters, called respectively the greater and lesser semirainim,

and written (Ex.

1).

in

two ways, white and black

The white forms

of these notes soon

and the black ones have become the crotchet and quaver of modern music. ^ fell

into disuse,

1 There were really the Double Long.

five, iacludinff

the Large, which Morley calls

worthy of notice that in the ancient manUHCrlpt hy Engauthors known as the Waltham Holy Cross MS., a note is mentioned, called a 'simple,' which has the yalue of a crotchet, but is written with a hooked item like a modern quaver. That a note half the value of a minim should at any period have been written with a hook may help to account for the modern name crotcha, which, being clearly derived from the French croc, or ^ It ia

lish

that

F. T.

One quaver of historical importance deserves mention, that which Handel added in pencil to the quintet in 'Jephtha' in 1758, six years after he is supposed to have lost his sight, and which in Schoelcher's words shows that by looking very closely at a thing he was still able to see it a little.' G. '

QUEEN OF SHEBA.

(i.)

La Rbine de

words by Barbier and Saba, in four acts Carre, music by GounojJ. Produced at the ;

Adapted as 'Irene' by Op^ra, Feb. 28, 1862. H. B. Famie, and produced as a concert at the Crystal Palace, August 12, 1865. The beautiful Airs de ballet contain some of Gounod's best music. G. (ii.) See KoNiGiN von Saba. QUEISSER, Carl Tbaugott, a. great trombone player, was born of poor parents at Dtiben, His turn for near Leipzig, Jan. 11, 1800. music showed itself early, and he soon mastered He all the ordinary orchastral instruments. ultimately confined himself to the viola, and to the trombone, which he may really be said a hook, is somewhat inappropriate to the note in form, which has no hook. crochet,

its

present

—

—

— '

'

QUICK-STEP

QUINTE

to have created, since, for instance, the solo in the TuTm rrdrv/m of Mozart's Requiem was before his time usually played on a bassoon. In 1817 he was appointed to play the violin and trombone in the town orchestra, and by 1830 had worked his way into the other orchestras of Leipzig, including that of the Gewandhaus. He played the viola in Matthai's well-known quartet for many years ; was one of the founders of the Leipzig 'Euterpe,' and led its orchestra for a long time ; and in short was one of the most prominent musical figures in Leipzig during its very best period. As a solo trombone-player he appeared frequently in the Gewandhaus Concerts, with con-

[See the Diminished Fifth of modem music. w. s. r. Mi contra Fa.] QUINTE. The name given in France, during the latter half of the 17th and part of the

8

concertinos,

certos,

many

of

fantasias,

them composed

and

variations,

expressly for

him by

0. G. Miiller, F. David, Meyer, Kummer, and others ; and the reports of these appearances

rarely mention

him without some term

of pride

' or endearment. For fulness, purity and power of tone, lightness of lip, and extraordinary facility in passages,' says his biographer, 'he

surpassed all thetrombone-players of Germany.' There was a Leipzig story to the effect that at the first rehearsal of the Lobgesang, Queisser led off the Introduction as follows

:

18th centuries, to the now obsolete five-stringed Five-stringed viols were amongst tenor viol. Praetorius (Organographia, the earliest in use. 1619) says they were employed in ancient times, and Agricola {Mvska Instrumentalis, 1632) gives the tuning of the five-stringed viols then Although composers of vocal music in vogue. during the 16th century not infrequently called their tenor part 'Quinte' or 'Quintus,' viols of

that denomination remained under the title of tenor until a later period ; and probably the first instance where ' Quintus ' designates a musical instrument occurs in the overture to Olaudio Monteverde's opera, 'Orfeo' (Venice, 1609L'^tai de France, in 1683, gives the 1613). name of 'Fossart,' who played the 'Quinte de Violon' in the Queen's band, and in 1712-13 the Paris opera orchestra included two ' Quintes amongst the instruments. In 1773 there were four ' Quintes amongst the musicians of the '

Grande Chapelle, and Quintes were employed Jean Jacques Rousseau in aU the orchestras. (Bictionnaire de Musique, Paris, 1708) gives a good deal of information concerning the Quinte. Under 'Viole' he says that in France the Quinte and the Taille (a large six-stringed '

'

'

'

'

'

to Mendelssohn's infinite amusement.

8e non

i

Jem trovaio. Queisserwaa well known throughoutGermany, but appears never to have left his native country. G. He died at Leipzig, June 12, 1846. QUICK -STEP (Fr. Pas redaubU; Ger. Gesehwind Marsch) is the English name for the music of the Quick march in the army, a march in which 116 steps of 30 inches go to the (See Boost's Jov/rnal of Marches, minute. It may be well to Quicksteps, Dances, etc.) mention that in the Slow march there are 75 steps of 30 inches, and in the 'Double' 165 of iiero, .B

March,

G. vol. iii. p. 50.] ancient form of Neuma, [See Notation, representing a kind of shake. w. s. R. vol. iii. p. 396.] QUINIBLE. See Quintoybr. QUINT. An organ stop which causes the fifth above a given note to sound as well as the note belonging to the key which is pressed down. From the note and its fifth there arises a differential tone an octave below the note. ^y this mixture an organ with 16 -ft. pipes can be made to sound as if with 32-ft. pipes ; that is the pitch of the lowest note, but of

33 inches.

[See

QUILISMA.

'

'

Quinte or Viola.

from which it is to be inferred that the tuning was the same as that given by Agricola in 1532,

i.e.

An

course it sounds with far less

energy than

properly produced with a 32-ft. pipe.

if

T. E.

The for(False Fifth). bidden interval between Mi in the Hexachordon durum, and Fa in the Hexachordon naturale

QUINTA FALSA

JUff,

'

'

tenor viol), contrary to the Italian custom, played the same part, and under ' Partie mentions that the ' Quinte and ' Taille ' were united under the name ' Viole.' The highest and lowest notes of these instruments, according to the same writer, were

masikaUache Zeitung, July

8, 1846.

Alto and Tenor.

In England the two tenor viols which formed a part of the Chests of six Viols, so much in vogue during the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries, were probably identical with the Quinte and 'Taille' but the French title was never adopted in this country. The bulky size of the Quinte rendered it such an awkward instrument to play upon that its dimensions gradually diminished from century to century, '

'

'

'

'

and when the

;

'

violin

came into more general

use,

melted into the Haute Centre (alto viol). In the second half of the 18th century it developed into a tenor violin with four strings, clef on the third line which and adopted the

it

'

'

—

'

clef of the ' Haute Contre or alto viol. (See Tenor Viol.) Agricola (Martinus), Musica Instrumentalis ; Praetorius,

—

Orgcmographia ; Rousseau (J. J.), Dictiormaire de Musigue ; La Borde, Ussai sur la Musiqiie Grillet (Laurent), AncUres du Violon ; Hart, ;

The

E. h-a. Quintuor; Ital. Quintetto). A composition for five instruments or voices with or without accompaniment. I. Quintets for strings have been far less often written than quartets, owing to the greater complexity demanded in the polyphony. Boccherini, however, published 125, of which twelve only were written for two violins, two violas, and one violoncello, the others having two violoncellos and one viola. The former is the more usual choice of instruments, probably because the lower parts are apt to be too heavy sounding with two violoncellos, owing to the greater body of tone in this instrument. Schubert's noble Quintet in C (op. 163) is for two violoncellos, but the first is used constantly in its upper octave, soaring above the viola. Onslow's thirty-four in number are for a double bass and violoncello. Beethoven's two Quintets, in El> and C, belong to his earlier periods, and have therefore none of the extraordinary features of the later quartets. Mendelssohn's Quintet in B|> (op. 87) is so orchestral as to seem almost a symphony in disguise, but that in A (op. 18) is an exquisite specimen of what a string quintet should be. Many other combinations' of five instruments have found favour with musicians, mostly including a pianoforte. Thus there is Mozart's Quintet in El> for oboe, clarinet, horn, bassoon, and piano which the composer esteemed the the beautiful one for best thing he ever wrote, clarinet and strings, and another for the piquant combination of flute, oboe, viola, violoncello, and harmonica. Perhaps the most effective association is that of piano, violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass, as in Schubert's wellknown 'Trout' Quintet (op. 114). [The splendid quintets of Schumann and Brahms for piano and strings are for the ordinary combination above referred to, as are also those of Dvoijdk, DohnAnyi, and others. The quintet by Brahms for clarinet and strings is one of his most beautiful works.] Beethoven's quintet for piano and wind instruments (op. 16), in Eb is a noble representative of a very small class. Hummel has also written a well-known one. II. In vocal music none who have ever heard it can forget the admirable quintet (for two soprani, contralto, tenor, and bass) which forms the finale to Act 1 of Spohr's ' Azor and Zemira.' In modem opera the most striking specimen Five-part occurs in Wagner's ' Meistersinger.' harmony has a peculiarlyrich effect, and deserves to be more practised than it is, especially in

Violin.

It is, however, oratorio chorus. easy to write naturally.

—

—

—

9

by no means r. c.

QUINTON [See Viol, treble]. QUINTOYEE (Old Eng. Quinible). To sing

—

a French verb, in frequent use among extempore Organisers during the Middle Ages. [See Organum, Part-Weiting.] w. s. e, in Fifths

QUINTET (Fr.

—

'

QUINTUPLE TIME

QUINTET was formerly the

—

QUINTUPLE TIME. As a

beats in a bar.

The rhythm of

five

rule quintuple time has

accents, one on the first beat of the bar, and the other on either the third or fourth, the bar being thus divided into two unequal parts. On this account it can scarcely be considered a distinct species of rhythm, but rather a compound of two ordinary kinds, duple and triple, employed

two

Although of

alternately.

little practical value,

quintuple time produces an efiect sufficiently characteristic and interesting to have induced various composers to make experiments therein, the earliest attempt of any importance being a symphony in the second act of Handel's 'Orlando' (1732), in which the hero's perturbation is represented by this peculiar time (see Bumey,

The same rhythm occurs in words Se la sorte mi condanna in the opera of Ariadne by Adolfati, written in 1750, and it is also met in some of the national airs of Spain, Greece, Germany, etc. Thus Eeioha, in a note to No. 20 of his set of 36 fugues (each of which embodies some curious experiment in either tonality or rhythm), states that in a certain district of the Lower Rhine, named Eochersberg, the airs of most of the dances have a, well-marked rhythm of five beats, and he gives as an example the following waltz ffistory, iv. 364).

an

air to the

'

'

'

:

In the above example the second accent falls on the third beat, the rhythm being that of 2-8 followed by 3-8, and the same order is observed in a charming movement by HiUer, from the Trio, op. 64. In Reicha's fugue above referred to, the reverse is the case, the fourth beat receiving the accent, as is shown by the composer's own time - signature, as well as by his explicit The following is directions as to performance. ,

the subject

:

AUegretto.

Other instances of quintuple rhythm are to be found in a Trio for strings by K. J. Bischoff, for which a prize was awarded by the Deutsche Tonhalle in 1 8 5 3 in Chopin's Sonata in C minor, ;

op. 4

52

;

in Hiller's 'Rhythmische Studien,' op.

;

in

'

Viens, gentille

Dame

'

;

in Boieldieu's

Prinz La Dame blanche Lowe's Ballad Eugen a number in Rubinstein's Tower of '

'

'

;

Babel,' etc.

'

;

'

Another characteristic example

—

'

QUODLIBET

QUINT^US

10

occurs in the ' Gypaies' Glee, ' by W. Reeve (1 796). This may fairly be considered an example of genuine quintuple rhythm, for instead of the usual division of the bar into two parts, such as might be expressed by alternate bars of 3-4 and 2-4, or 2-4 and 3-4, there are five distinct beats in every bar, each consisting of an accent

and a non- accent.

This freedom from the ordinary alternation of two and three is well expressed by the grouping of the accompaniment. [The same true quintuple time, as distinguished from a combination of triple and duple time, distinguishes the best-known example of all, the second movement of Tchaikovsky's Pathetic symphony. The passage in the third act of ' Tristan und Isolde,' occurring at a most exciting moment in the drama, is apt to escape the attention of many hearers who are only conscious of the impatient effect it produces.' See Rhythm.] s. t. QUINTUS (the Fifth). The Fifth Part in a composition for five voices ; called also Pars quinta and Quincuplum. In music of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Fifth Part always corresponded exactly in compass with one of the other four it would, therefore, have been impossible to describe it as First or Second Cantus, Altus, Tenor, or Bassus. w. s. R. QUIRE. Another way of spelling Choik. '

;

6.

QUODLIBET (Lat. What you please '

called

and

in

also

Italian

(

'

'

G

so lang bei dir nicht gewest,' and 'Kraut und One of the Riiben, Haben mich vertrieben.' best modern examples, although only two themes are used, is in Reinecke's variations for two pianos on a gavotte of Gluck's, where, in the last variation, he brings in simultaneously with the gavotte the well-known musette of Bach which occurs in the third English suite. A good instance, and one in which the extempore '

character is retained, is the singing of the three tunes 'Polly Hopkins,' 'Buy a Broom,' and 'The Merry Swiss Boy' together, which was formerly sometimes done for a joke.

A

very interesting specimen of a 16th-century quodlibet by Johann Gbldel, consisting of five chorale-tunes viz. (1) 'Erhalt uns, Herr bei deinem Wort,' (2) 'Ach Gott, von Himmel,' (4) 'Wir (3) 'Vater unser im Himmelreich, is given glauben all,' (5) Durch Adam's Fall as an appendix to Hilgenfeldt's Life of Bach. We quote a few bars as an example of the ingenuity with which the five melodies are brought together

—

'

'

'

.

:

'

'

—

:

iipi^=^^^i^=p

;

'

'

'

mixture '). This was a kind of musical joke in the 16th and early part of the 17th centuries, the fun of which consisted in the extempore juxtaposition of different melodies, whether sacred or secular, which were incongruous either in their musical character, or in the words with which they were associated sometimes, however, the words were the same in all parts, but were sung in snatches and scraps, as in the quodlibets of Melchior Franck. (See Praetorius, Syntagma Musicwm, tom. iii. There were two ways of performing cap. V.) one was to string the melodies together this simply and without any attempt at connecting them by passages such as those found in modern fantasias the other, the more elaborate method, consisted in singing or playing the melodies simultaneously, the only modifications The effect of this, allowed being those of time. unless only very skilful musicians engaged in it, must have been very like what we now call This pastime was a favourite a Dutch chorus. (

us one delightful example of a written-down quodlibet, at the end of the ' 30 variations in major, for a detailed analysis of which see Spitta. The two tunes used in it are ' Ich bin left

As many as you please '), Messanza or Mistichanza

QuoTLiBET

A

'),

with the Bachs, at whose annual family gatherings the singing of quodlibets was a great feature (see Spitta, J. S. Sack (Engl, transl.) Sebastian Bach himself has i. 154, iii. 172-6).

-one

;

'

A^^r

[ST

—

'

R AAFF, Anton, "P

one of the most distinguished tenors of his day ; born 1714 in the village of Holzem, near Bonn, and educated for the priesthood at the Jesuit College at Cologne. His fine voice so struck the Elector,

history of Scottish music -printing. Eabau gave up business in 1649, dying in 1658. F. K.

RACCOLTA GENERALE A

from 36 to 40 francs. engraved by Gill6

Leduc&

The work was fils,

and

in folio,

published

by

Rue de

Richelieu, 78, with agents at Bordeaux, Marseilles, Leipzig, Munich, Co., Paris,

Vienna, Lyon, Turin, Milan, Rome, and Naples. It was got up with great care and taste, but seems to have ceased after about six numbers. For Alfieei's Raccolta di musica sacra '

see vol.

i.

p. 66.

G.

RACHMANINOV,

Seegei Vassilievich, a pianist of repute, and one of the most talented of the younger Moscow school of composers born in the Government of Novgorod, April 1 (March 20, O.S.), 1873. At nine years of age he entered the St. Petersburg Conservatoire, where he remained three years, making the pianoforte his chief study. Three years later, in 1885, he was transferred to the Conservatou'e at Moscow. Here he studied the pianoforte, first with Tchaikovsky's friend, Zvierev, and

'

'

opeke

:

Clement Augustus, that he took him to Munich, where Ferrandini brought him forward in an After studying for a short time with opera. -Bernacchi at Bologna, Eaaff became one of the first tenors of his time. In 1738 he sang at Florence on the betrothal of Maria Theresa, and followed up this successful debut at many of the Italian theatres. In 1742 he returned to Bonn, and sang at Vienna in Jommelli's 'Didone' (1749), to Metastasio's great satisIn 1752 he passed through Italy to faction. Lisbon; in 1755 he accepted a summons to Madi-id, where he remained under Farinelli's direction, enjoying every favour from the court and public. In 1759 he accompanied Farinelli to Naples. In 1770 he entered the service of the Elector, Karl Theodor, at Mannheim. In 1778 he was in Paris with Mozart, and in 1779 he followed the com-t to Munich, where Mozart composed the part of Idomeneo for him. He died in Munich, May 27, 1797. Mozart in his letters speaks of him as his best and dearest friend,' especially in one from Paris, dated June -12, 1778. He composed for him in Mannheim the au-, Se al labbro mio non credi (Koohel, 295).

delle

CLA.ssiCHE MUsiCALi. Collection of pieces of which the full title is as follows ' Collection generate des ouvrages classiques de musique, on Choix de chefs d'oeuvres, en tout genre, des plus grands compositeurs de toutes les Eeoles, reoueillis, mis en ordre et enrichis de Notices historiques, par Alex. E. Choron, pour servir de suite aux Principes de Composition des eeoles d'ltalie.' A notice on the wrapper further says that the price of the work to subscribers is calculated at the rate of 5 sous per page, The numbers were not to be issued periodically, but the annual cost to subscribers was fixed at

;

'

c. F. p.

EABAN, Edward,

was an Englishman, and having fought in the wars of the Netherlands, from the year 1600, settled at Edinburgh, at the Cowgate Port, as a printer, in 1620. One work with the Edinburgh imprint alone remains, and in the same year he removed to St. Andrews, and finally to Aberdeen in 1622. In this place he was under the patronage of the town dignitaries, and had the friendship of Bishop Forbes. It was, no doubt, these cii-cumstances that enabled him to carry on his craft unmolested, unlike John Forbes of the same city who, at a later date, suffered fine and imprisonment for infringing the monopoly held after

afterwards with Siloti. His masters for theory and composition were Taneiev and Arensky. The musical influences of Moscow are clearly evident in the works of Rachmaninov. In 1892 he won the gold medal for composition, and on quitting the Conservatoire, in the same year, he started on a long concert-tour through In 1899 Rachthe chief towns of Russia. maninov appeared in London at one of the concerts of the Philharmonic Society, and made a good impression in the threefold capacity of In 1893 composer, conductor, and pianist. he was appointed professor of pianoforte to the Maryinsky Institute for girls, in Moscow, a post which he still holds. Several of Rachmaninov's songs and pianoforte pieces, especially the famous prelude in CJt minor, have attained immense popularity. His compositions are as

Baban by the King's printer in Scotland. at once commenced the printing of liturgical works, including a prayer-book, dated 1625, which is stated to have the music to the Psalms. In 1629 he printed two editions ofCL. Psalmes of the princelie prophet David, a quarto for binding with Bibles and a 16mo edition. Also, in 1633, two editions of The Psames of David in prose and metre according to the Church 2n Aberdene, imprinted by of Scotland. ... Edward Rohan for David Mdvill, 1633, 8o. These have the music to the Psalms printed from movable type. Though probably not so well executed as the music of Andro Hart of Edinburgh, these are of great interest in the

follows

:

A, Obcbbstbal 'The Rock,' fontaala, op. 7; Gipsy Capriccio,

op. 12;

SymphoDy,

op. 13 (1895).

B. PlAWOFORTE

Two

Concertoa, opp. 1 and 18 ; pieces for four hands, op. 11

11

two ;

and 17 ; six two hands, op. 3

Suitea. opp. 5

five pieces for

—

;

EADZIWILL

KACKET

12 (Including the

C$ minor

Moments Muaicaux, Prelude In

C

op. 16

minor, op. C.

Panoaldi— a Bolognese lawyer— wrote an eulogy in his memory, but unfortunately mentions but one date, that of his election at Padua on

prelude) ; levea plecea, op. 10 ; six TaTiations on the theme of Chopln'B

;

22.

Chamber Mubio

memory of Tchaikovsky) for pianofoirte, violin, violoncello, op. 9 (1893) ; Bonata for violoncello and pianoforte, op. 19; two pieces tor violin and pianoforte, op. 6; two pieces for violoncello and pianoforte, op. 2.

and

D. Vocal Six choruses tor female voices, op. Ifi; humorous chorus for mixed voices ; Cantata, Spring,' for chorus, baritone solo, and orchestra, op. 20 six songs, op. 4: six ditto, op. 8; 12 ditto, op. 14 ; Fate (to Beethoven's Fifth Symphony), op. 17. ' Aleko,' opera in one act, first performed at the Imperial Opera-n «House, Moscow, 1892. '

;

'

'

BACKET, EACKETT, or RANKETT (also known as Cervelat). An obsolete instrument of small cylindrical bore, played with a double

reed of the bassoon type. It is described both by Praetorius and by Mersenne, and was made both of wood and ivory. The apparent length of the instrument was very small, as the bore doubled many times upon itself, the true length being thus disguised. In addition to the holes or ventages closed by the tips of the fingers in the usual way, the doubling of the tube allowed of the piercing of several holes which were closed by other joints of the fingers, or soft According to Praetorius parts of the hand. the rackets were made in families, the compass of a set of four extending from C to d'. D. j. B.

EADIOATI, FelicbdaMaurizio di, violinist and composer, bom at Turin in 1778 ; died, according to the Quellen-LexiJcon, at Vienna, April 14, 1823. His parents belonging to the poor nobility of Italy, the child's singular music was encouraged the more, and he began his studies at a very early age. Profiting Pugnani taught him the violin. by the precepts of this great master, Eadicati interest in

acquired many of Pugnani's finer qualities, and, on reaching manhood, toured with unqualified success in Italy, France, and England. The love of his native land, however, and the additional inducement of a post at the Court of King Victor Emanuel V., drew him back to Italy, whither he returned, accompanied by his accomplished wife Teresa Bertinotti. In the year 1815 the town of Bologna announced a competition for the post of leader of the town orchestra at that time celebrated ; but when it came to be known that Eadicati had entered the lists, no one would contend against him with the result that he was elected to the post on March 31, 1815, without contest. After this his talents obtained for him the appointments of director of the great orchestra of the Basilica di S. Pietro, and professor of the violin at the famous Liceo Filarraonico of Bologna. His career was calamitously cut

—

short, in the

prime of

life,

by a

fatal carriage

accident.

The authorities on the subject of Eadicati's According to the career give but few dates. Quellen- Lexikon he was in London 1806-7, and toured in Lombardy (Fitis, Biog. desMus.) in

1816.

His

principal

biographer.

Carlo

As a violinist his qualities 31, 1815. appear to have been those of a musician rather Pancaldi tells us than those of a virtuoso. that his style was dignified and his tone sonorous, that he counted Haydn, Beethoven, and Romberg among his friends, and that he was well educated in other respects than music.

March

Elegiac trio (In

*

As a composer he devoted himself

especially

to perfecting the Quartet, which at that time was less in spite of Boccherini's influence thought of in Italy than in other countries.

—

It would seem that his interest in the cause of chamber music was aroused by a German critic, who, reviewing some of Eadicati's quartets performed in Vienna, remarked that 'The Italian mind is not apt to compose works of

the highest

character ; in this matter the Eadicati's to take precedence.

Germans seem

more than melodies accompanied by harmonies in secondary parts.' This so incensed Eadicati that he gave a number of concerts of Italian music in Vienna, in order that the German critic might be convinced of his error and, on his return to Italy, not only devoted himself to the writing of many quartets and quintets, but also endeavoured to induce other Italian composers to do likewise, and thus efface the stigma cast upon Italian music by the Germans. Besides his numerous contributions to chamber music, Eadicati wrote six or seven operas, among which are included his 'Ricardo Cuor di Leone," produced at Bologna a couple of farces, I due Prigionieri,' II Medico per forza ; a concerto for violin, and a number of small Arias,' Cavatinas,' etc. All these were in the possession of his son in 1828. The most complete list of his compositions published and MS. is probably that given in the Qiiellen- Lexikon. Radicati's wife and his son Karolus, who became a lawyer, erected a monument to his memory in the Campo Santo at Bologna. Pancaldi (Carlo), Cenni intomo Felice Sadicali, Bologna, 1828 ; Eitner, Quellen-Lexikon ; Fttis, £iog. des Mus. ; Baker, Biog. Diet. Mus. e. h-a. RADZIWILL, Anton Heinrich, Prince of, Royal Prussian Statthalter of the Grand Duchy of Posen, bom at Wilna, June 13, 1775, married in 1796 the Princess Luisfe, sister of that distinguished amateur Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia. [See vol. ii. p. 772.] Eadziwill was known in Berlin not only as an ardent admirer of good music, but as a fine violoncello player, and 'a singer of such taste and ability as ia very rarely met with amongst amateurs. 'i Beethoven was the great object of his admiraHe played his quartets with devotion, tion. made a long journey to Prince Galitzin's on purpose to hear the Mass in D, was invited by quartets are nothing

;

'

;

'

'

'

'

—

—

—

'

1

A.M.Z. 1831, July W.

'

See also 1809, June 28

;

1814, Sept. 28.

JOSEPH JOACHIM KAFF

BAFF

EAFP

Beethoven to subscribe to the publication of that work, and indeed was one of the seven who sent in their names in answer to that appeal. To him Beethoven dedicated the Overture in C, op. 115 (known as 'Namenafeier '), which was published &a Grosses Ouverture in dur gedicAtet,' etc., by Steiner of Vienna in 1825, Eadziwill was not only a player, a singer, and a passionate lover of music, he was also a composer of no mean order. Whistling's Handhuch (1828) names three Romances for voice and PF. (Peters), and songs with guitar and

reviewer finding in it ' something which points to a future for the composer.' Encouraging notices of opp. 2 to 6 inclusive are also given in the A. M. Zeitvmg for the 21st of the same month. Amidst privations which would have daunted any one of less determination he worked steadily on, and at length having fallen in with Liszt, waa treated by him with the kindness which always marked his intercourse with rising or struggling talent, and waa taken by him on a concert-tour. Meeting Mendelasohn for the first time at Cologne in 1846, and being afterwards invited by him to become his pupil at Leipzig, he left Liazt for that purpoae. Before he could carry this project into effect, however, Mendelasohn died, and Ralf remained atCologne, occupying himself inter alia in writing critiques for Dehn's Caeilia. Later, in 1854, he published Die Wagnerfrage, a pamphlet which excited considerable attention. Liszt's endeavours to secure him a patron in Vienna in the person of Mecohetti the publisher, were frustrated by Mecchetti's death while Raff was actually on the way to see him. Undismayed by these repeated obstacles he devoted himself to a severe course of study, partly at home and partly at Stuttgart, with the view to remedy the deficiencies of his early training. At Stuttgart he made the acquaintance of Billow, who became deeply interested in him, and did him a great service by taking up his new Concertstuck, for PF. and orchestra, and playing

'

violoncello (B.

&

H.), and

Mendel mentions

duets with PF. accompaniment, a Complaint of

Maria Stuart, with PP. and

violoncello, and MS.) composed for Zelter's Liedertafel, of which he was an enthusiastic supporter.' But these were only preparations for his great work, entitled Com-

many

part-songs

(still

in

'

positions to Goethe's dratoatic poem of Faust.' This, which was published in score and arrange-

ment by Trautwein of Berlin

in Nov. 1835, contains twenty -five numbers, occupying 589 pages. A portion was sung by the Singakademie as early as May 1, 1810 ; the choruses were performed in May 1816, three new scenes as late as Nov. 21, 1830, and the whole work was brought out by that institution after the death of the composer, which took place April 8, 1833. The work was repeatedly performed during several years in Berlin, Danzig, Hanover, Leipzig, Prague, and many other places, as may be seen from the index to the A, M, Zeiiung. It made its appearance in a performance at Hyde Park College, London, on May 21, 1880, under the direction of L. Martin-Eiffe. full analysis of it will be found in the A. M. Zeitung for 1836, pp. 601, 617 ; and there is a copy in the British Museum. 6,

A

RAFF, Joseph Joachim, born May 27, 1822, at Lacheu on the Lake of Zurich. He received his early education at Wiesenstetten in Wurtemberg, in the home of his parents, and then at the Jesuit Lyceum of Schwyz, where he carried off the iirst prizes in German, Latin, and mathematics. Want of means compelled him to give up his classical studies, and become a schoolmaster, but he stuck to music, and though unable to afford a teacher, made such progress not only with the piano and the violin, but also in composition, that Mendelssohn, to whom he sent some MSS., gave him in 1843 a recommendation to Breitkopf & Hartel. This introduction seems to have led to his appearing before the public, and to the ibat drops of that flood of compositions of all sorts and dimensions which from 1844 he poured forth in an almost unceasing stream. Of op. 1 we have found no critical record ; but op. 2 is kindly noticed by the N. Zeitsclwift for August 5, 1844, the 1

Zelter's Correspondence with Ooethe

Prince.

teems with notices of the

13

it (Jan. 1, 1848).

By degrees Raff attached himself more and more closely to the new German school, and in 1850 went to Weimar to be near Liszt, who had at that time abandoned his career as a virtuoso and waa settled there. Here he remodelled an opera, Kbnig Alfred,' which he had composed in Stuttgart three years before, and it was produced at the Court Theatre, where it was '

often performed. It has also been given elsewhere. Other works followed a collection "of ' PF. pieces called Friihlingsboten in 1852, the first string quartet in 1855, and the first grand sonata for PF. and violin (E minor) in 1857. In the meantime he had engaged himself to Doris Genast, daughter of the well-known actor and manager, and herself on the stage ; and in 1856 he followed her to Wiesbaden, where he was soon in great request as a pianoforte teacher. In 1858 he composed his second violin sonata, and the incidental music for Bernhard von Weimar,' a drama by Wilhelm Genast, the overture to which speedUy became a favourite, and was much played throughout Germany. In 1859 he married. In 1863 his first symphony, 'An das Vaterland, obtained the prize offered by the Gesellsohaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna (out of thirty-two competitors), and was followed by the 2nd (in C) and the 3rd (in F, ' Im Walde') in 1869, the 4th (in G minor) in 1871, the 5th ('Lenore') in 1872, the 6th ('Gelebt, gestrebt,

—

'

'

'

—

;

;

RAFF

14

EAFF umworben

gelitten, gestritten, gestorben,

')

in

1876, and the 7th (' Alpensinfonie ') in 1877, the 8th (' Friihlingsklange ') in 1878, and the 9th (' Im Sommerzeit ') in 1880. A 10th (' Zur Herbstzeit ') was played at Wiesbaden and the ;

11th, left unfinished at his death, was revised by Erdmannsdbrfer. In 1870 his comic opera ' Dame Kobold was produced at Weimar. Other operas for which he himself wrote the libretti '

Two

have not been performed in public.

'Wachet

can-

and another written for the Festival in commemoration of the battle of Leipzig, were his first works for men's voices, and are popular with, choral societies. His arrangement of Bach's six violin sonatas for PF. is a work of great merit. tatas,

auf,'

Detailed analyses of the

first

six of these

Symphonies will be found in the Monthly Musical Secord for 1875, and from these a very good idea of the composer's style may be gathered. Remembering his struggles and hard life it is only a matter for wonder that he should have striven so earnestly and so long in a path that was not his natural walk. glancei at the nearly complete list of his works at the foot of this notice will explain our meaning. The enormous mass of ' drawing-room music tells its own tale. Eaff had to live, and having by nature a remarkable gift of melody and perhaps not much artistic refinement, he wrote what would pay. But on looking at his works in the higher branch of music his symphonies,

A

'

—

—

and chamber music one cannot but be struck by the conscientious striving towards a high ideal. In the whole of his published Symphonies the slow movements, without a single exception, are of extreme melodic beauty, although weak from a symphonic point of view the first movements are invariably worked out with surprising technical skill, the subjects appearing frequently in double counterpoint And however and in every kind of canon. modern and common his themes may appear, they have often been built up with the greatest showing that care, note by note, to this end he does not, as is often said, put down the first Observe the thing that comes into his mind. following treatment of the first subject in his 1st Symphony 'An das Vaterland' concertos,

;

:

5=^^g Viola

S ^^ ^^^^m

pp

Violoncello

a canon in augmentation and double augmentaSuch instances as this are numerous, and tion. the art with which these contrapuntal devices

are

made

to appear spontaneous is remarkable.

minor (op. 185), In the Pianoforte Concerto in in each movement all the subjects are in double counterpoint with one another, yet this is one of Eafl"s freshest and most melodious works; To return to the Symphonies: the Scherzos are, as a rule, weak, and the Finales without excepWriting vulgar. an uneducated public. Raff has forgotten that for a symphony to descend from a high tone is for it to be unworthy of the tion boisterous

and indeed

here, as ever, for

name. A remarkable set of thirty Songs (SangesFriihling, op. 98) deserves notice for its wealth of fine melodies, some of which have become national property (' Kein Sorg um den Weg' Sohon' Else,' etc.) ; and among his pianoforte is a set of twenty Variations on an original theme (op. 179) which displays an astonishing of five and fertility of resource, the theme seven quavers in the bar being built up into canons and scherzos of great variety and elegance. Raff's Pianoforte Concerto was very popular, and his Suite for Violin and Orchestra (op. 180) His versatility need not be only little less so. enlarged upon. In all the forms of musical composition he showed the same brilliant qualities and the same regrettable shortcomings. His gift of melody, his technical skill, his inexhaustible fertility, and above all his power of never repeating himself all these are beyond praise. But his very fertility was a misfortune, since it rendered him careless in the choice of his subjects ; writing ' pot-boilers injured the '

music

—

—

—

'

development of a delicate feeling for what is lofty and refined in short, the conscientious ;

allow him a place in the front rank of composers. Even those who have least sympathy with Raff"s views on art- must admire the energy and critic hesitates to

with which he worked his way upwards throw in his way. He was a member of several societies, and received various orders. In 1877 he was appointed with much &lat director of the Hooh oonservatorinm at Frankfort, a post he held until his death, in the night of Jiine 24-25, 1882. [Since his death liis music has passed, alike in Germany and England, into an oblivion which cannot excite surprise in those who realise the inherent weaknesses of the composer and the sudden change on the part of the public, from a widespread admiration to almost complete neglect, is of itself a severe criticism on his work.] The first of his large works performed in this country was probably the Lenore Symphony at the Crystal Palace, Nov. 14, 1874. [The Musical World oi kagast 1890, p. 629, contains translation of a Raffs letters explaining the meaning of the work.] This was followed by the 'Im Walde,' and the PF. Concerto in C minor (Jaell), at the Philharmonic ; the Symspirit

in spite of every obstacle poverty could

;

;

'

RAFF

RAFF

phonies in G minor, Im Walde,' Friihlingsklange' and 'Im Sommerzeit,'witli the Concertos '

for violoncello

and

'

and the Suite

violin,

for

PF. and orchestra, at the Crystal Palace. His Quintet (op. 107), two Trios (opp. 102, 112), Sonata (op. 128), and other pieces, were played at the Monday Popular Concerts. f. g.

71. 72.

Suite in 0. PF. solo. KUhn. Suite in E minor, PF. solo,

KUhn. Grand Sonata.

74.

75.

1.

Kistner, 1855. Illustrations de ' L'Af ricaine' (4 Nos.). PF. solo.

berth. Suite de

10 SungB for Men's Voices.

2. a. 4.

.

!>.

6. 7. 8.

KUcken

44.

45. 46.

47.

;

9.

10.

au

HoiDinage

Ndoroman-

tisuie. Grand Caprice. PF. sulo. B. & H. 11. Air Suisse, transcrit. PF. solo. B. & H. 12. Morceau de Salon. Fant. gracieuse. PF. solo. B. & H.

VaUa

Kondino sur

.

PF.

(3 Nos.).

de

.

.

solo.

Divertissement sur La Juive.' PF. solo. Schuberth. Fantasina sur *Le Barbier de Seville.' PF. solo. Schuberth. Souvenir de 'Don Giovanni.' PF. solo. Schuberth. ' La dernldre Rose (The last rose of summer). Impromptu. PF. solo. Cranz. 3 Lieder (by J. G. Fischer) for Bar. or Alto and PF. '

'

2 Lieder for Voice and PP. Seutf.

49.

3 Lieder (by J. G. Fischer)

50.

2

51.

Heinrichshofen. 5 Lieder for Voice and PF.

Les

for Voice and PF. Heinrichsliofen. Italienische Lieder (by Sternau) for Voice and PF.

B.

52. 53.

Kistner. 3 Lieder for Voice and PF. Schlesinger. 2 Lieder vom Rhein for Voice

54.

and PF. Sehloss. Tanz-capricen (4). PF. solo.

16.

Sonata &. Fogne (Gb minor). PF. Bolo. B. & H. 6 Pofimes. PF. solo. Schott. Impromptus for PF. Unpub-

17.

Album

IS.

'

PF. duet.

Huguenots.'

AH. 14. 15.

lished.

55.

PF. solo. books contain-

Lyrique.

Schuberth

(4

ing 9 pieces). Parapfarases (on Liszt's songs)

19.

Fantaisie draniatigue.

PF.

2 MoFCeaux de Salon. S^nJnadeitalienne; AirBhenan. PF. solo. Litolff.

Schuberth. Duo in A. PF. and violoncello. Nagel. Schweizerweisen (9 M'os.). PF. solo. Schuberth. No. 1. Wagner's Lohengrin,' Lyrische Fragraente.' PF. solo.— No. 2. Do. 'Tann-

tisch? Ggloge.

LitoltE.

ohne

60.

Worte. PF. solo. Spina. 2 Rhapsodies til^giaquea. PF.

61.

Dichtung

23.

Spina. solo. 3 Pidces caract^stiques. PF. solo. Kistner.

24.

Valse solo.

m^lancollque. Spina.

25.

Romance-^tude.

26.

Den

27.

Angelens

hfiuser,' Fantasie. PF. solo. No. 3. Do. ' Pliegende

—

PF.

HoUSndei*,' Reminiacenzen.

FF.

PF.

Scarlattis.

Spina.

solo.

62.

Unpublished. 2 Mazurkas

63.

and Serenade,

for PF. 31. Tarantelle, forPF.

Cranz.

32.

Am

33.

Albmnstiick, for PF. Unpnh-

Bhein, Romanze.

34.

6 Liedertlbertragungen, PF. Ebner,

Capriccietto (on themes from

PF.

'Preischlltz').

37.

grin.' \.

65.

35.

Capriccio in F minor, PF. Leockart. solo. No. 1. Fantaisie on motifs

from

for

'

(on

Sonnambula

Raff's

solo.'

themes from PF. solo. ').

Grand Mazourka.

39.

Nocturne

PP.

solo.

StoU. (on romance by FF. solo. Kistner. Capriccietto & la Boh^mlenne. FF. solo. Kistner. Romance PF. solo. Kistner. Liszt).

40.

41.

A of

'

—

Schuberth. Trauni -KOnig und sein Lleb (GTeibel). Voice and PF. Schott. 67.

'

La

F^

d' Amour.'

Morceau

caract^ristique pour Violon de Concert avec PF. Schott.

Schuberth. 38.

Benvenuto PP. solo. No. 2. on motifs from 'Alfred.' PF. solo.

Berlioz's

Cellini.'

Caprice

Schuberth. FantaisieMilitaire(on themes fi-ora 'Hi^uenots'). PF. solo. Schuberth.

Melange

farewell.

Duos on motifs from WagPF. and V. ner's operas. No. 1. 'Fliegende SiegeL Hollander.'—No. 2. 'TannhSuser.'- No. 3. 'Lohen-

PF.

Spina.

lished.

'

—

griii's

29. Llebesfrtlhling, songs.

36.

4.

'

—

airs from ' Robert le Diable,' transcribed for FF.

solo.

solo. '

Manen

Kistner.

30.

—No.

Schumann's Qenoveva.' PF. solo. Schuberth. Salon -Etuden from Wagner's operas. PF. solo. Schlesinger. No. 1. Andante from Fliegende Hollander.' No. 2. Sestet from TannIiohenhSuser.' No. 3.

PF.

solo.

letzter Tag im Kloflter. Bin Cyclus, etc. (12 pieces in 2 books). PF. solo,

2

'

'

Spina. Scherzo.

28.

solo.

Fantas-

Bachmann. 2 Nocturnes, PF. and violin.

21. Loreley. 22.

PF.

Bachmann. 'Aus der Schweiz."

PF.

solo. 20.

short Schu-

solo.

SalonstUck.

3

Bck.

solo.

— 12

berth. 56.

IS.

Bahn. FrUhlingaboten pieces for PF.

68.

6 Transcriptions (Beethoven, Gluck, Mozart, Schumann, Spohr). FF. solo. Peters,

FF. solo. Karner. Paraphrases de Salon (TroPF. solo,

Suite. 70. 2

vatore, Traviata). Peters.

1 "The Editor desires to express his obligations to Messi-s. Augener Co. tor great assistance kindly rendered him in the difficult task drawing up this list. 2 B, 4 H.=Breitkopf & HSrtel.

Kahnt. Concert - Overture

Ode au Frintemps.

Morceau

PF. and Orcb. in D minor, Schuberth,

Quatuor (No.

78.

2nd Grand Sonata for PF.

79.

and V. (in A). Schuberth. Cachoucha, Caprice. FF.eolo,

80.

'Wachetauf'

for Strings.

1)

Peters. (Geibel). Men's voices, Solo, Chorus, and Orchesti-a. Schott.

81.

No.

82.

Suite de

solo,

ger.

FF.

PF.

83.

Mi)«ourka-Caprice. Schott.

84.

'Chant de TOndih,' Grande Etude de I'Arpeggio tremo-

85.

Morceaux. FF. and V. Kistner. 2 FantaisiestUcke, PF. and Vcello. R. B.3 Introduction and All° scherzoso. FF. solo. R. B. Giessbach,' Etude. PP. solo. R. B, Vilanella, FF. solo. R. B. Quartet, No. 2, in A, for

86.

87. 88. 89. 90.

PF.

solo,

Peters.

solo.

6

*

Am

Strings.

Schuberth.

91. Suite in D. PF. solo. Peters. 92. Capriccio in minor. PF, solo, Peters. 93. 'Dans la nacelle,' ReverieBarcarolle. PF, solo. Peters. 94. Impromptu Valse. PF. solo.

D

Peten. Polka

3rd Grand Sonata, FF. and V. (in D). Schuberth. 4th Grand Sonata. PF. and V. 'Chrom, Sonate in einein Satze.' (G minor). Schuberth. 2 Etudes m^lodiques.- PF. Eolo. Schuberth. Styrieime. FF. solo. Hof-

Marche

FF.

brillante.

aolo.

^Eofmeister.

PF.

El^gie.

solo.

Hofmeis-

ter.

'Vom

Bhein,' 6 FantasiestUcke. PF.solo. Kistner, 'Blatter und BlUthen,' 12 pieces for FF. solo.

Kahnt,

3rd String quartet (E minor). Schuberth. 4th string quartet (A minor). Schuberth. 5th String quartet (G). Schuberth. Festmarsch, for Orchestra, Schott.

de la Reine,' Caprice. FF. solo. Peters. 96. 'An das Vaterland,' Prize Symphony (No. 1). Schuberth. Male 97. 10 Lieder for Voices. 95.

'

ter.

Morceaux pour

petites mains. ducts. Schuberth, les

latido.

—

Fraeger. 'Ein' feste Burg,' overture to a drama on the 30-years' war. Orchestra. Uofmeissolo.

Peters.

(12)

F).

Gavotte; Berceuse; Eapidgle; Valse. PF. solo. Siegel. ClavierstUcke Menuet, Romance.Capriccietto. FF;

3

1. Sicilionne de I'Op^ra des 'Vfipres Siciliennea.'— No. 2. Tarantelle de ditto.

PF.

(in

Siegel.

Festival-Overture on 4 favourite Student-songs, for the 50th anniversary of the ' Deutschen-Burschenschaft.' FF. 4 hands. Prae-

,

—

SeniF. 48.

Morceaux pour PF, solo.

mains.

77.

Kistner. 43.

B.B.4 (12)

Kistner.

Schott.

'Le Pritendant'

42.

solo.

V. (E minor). Schuberth. S FF, solos (Ballade, Scherzo, Metamorphosen). Schu-

de Concert.

Op. Serenade. PF. solo. Andre. Trois pieces caracbfristiques. PF. solo. B. & H.2 Scherzo (O minor). PF. solo. B. AH. Horceau de Salon . . Bur 'Maria de Kudenz,' PF. solo. B. St H. 4 Galopn. PF. solo. B. & H. Jtlorceau Inst. Fantaisie et Varns. PF. solo. B. & H. Rondeau sur 'lo titn ricco.' PF. solo. B. & H. 12 Komances en form d'Etudea en 2 Cahiers. PF. solo. B. & H. Iiuproinptu brillant. PF. sulo. B. & H.

PF.

Kistner. Fantasie. PF.solo. Kistner.

Spanish Rhapsody, for PF,

les petltes 76.

Valse favorite.

PF. and

73. lat

Catalogue of Maff's Works.^ Op.

15

Op.

'La.

2nd Symphony

(in C), for

Orchestra. Schott. Psalm 130 ('De Frofundis'). 8 voices and Orcb. Schuberth. Fantaisie (Ff). PF. solo. Kahnt. Kistner. 98. 'Sanges-Frtlhllng.' 30 Ro- 143. Barcarolle (E^). PF. solo. manzen, Lieder, Balladen, Kistner. and Gesange, for Sopr, and 144. Tarantella (C). FF. solo. PF. Schuberth. Kistuer. 99. 3 SonatiUes (A minor 145. 5thGrandSonata.FF.andV, C). PF. solo. Schuberth. (C minor). Schuberth. Auferste- 146. Capriccio (Btf minor). FF. 100. ' Deutscblands Fest Cantate on solo. R. B. hung.' 2 Meditations. FF. solo, the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig, for Male R.B. Voices and Orch. Kahnt. Scherzo in m. PF. solo. 101. Suite for Orchestra. Schott. for PP. Bolo. R. B. 102. 1st Grand Trio, for PF., 2 Chaconne (A minor). 2PFs, v., and violoncello. SchuR. B. berth. Allegro agitato. FF. aolo. 103. Jubilee Overture, for Orchestra. Kahnt. R, B. 104. 'Le Galop,' Caprice. PF. 152. 2 Romances. FF. solo. R. B. ;

G

,

^^es

153. Peters. solo. 105. 5 Eglogues. PF. solo. Peters. PF. 154. 106. Fantaisie -Polonaise. Peters. solo. 107. Grand Quintuor (A minor). 155. PF., 2 VV., viola, and 156. violoncello, Schuberth. PF. solo. R. B. 108. Saltarello. 109. RSverie-Nocturne. PF. solo.

R. B.

3rd Symphony,

'ImWalde'

Orchestra. Kistner. Kobold,' Comic opera. B. B. 3rd Grand Trio. PP., V., and violoncello. B. B, Valse brillante (fib). PF. (F).

'

Dame

solo.

Rien.

Cavatine '

La

(Ab)

Fileuse.'

La

and Etude FF,

solo,

Seiis. Gitana,' Danse Espagn. PP., Caprice. PF. sOlo. R. B. 158. 4th Grand Trio (D). v., and violoncello. Seitz. 111. Boleros and Valse, 2 CaSchu- 159. 1st Humoreske (D) In Waltz prices. PF. solo. form. PF. duet. B. B, berth. FF. PF. 160. Reisebilder (10 Nos.). 112. 2nd Grand Trio (in G). duet. Siegel. V. and violoncello. R, B. 113. Ungarische Rhapsodie. PF. 161. Concerto for Violin & Orch. (B minor). Siegel, Forberg. aolo. Suite in G minor. PP. solo, 114. 12 Songs for 2 voices and Challier. PF. Forberg. FF. Suite in major. FF. solo. lyriques. 163. 115. 2 Morceaux Seitz. solo. Forberg, PF. solo. 164. Sicilienne, Romanze, Tar116. Valse Caprice. antelle. PF. solo. B. B. Forberg. Gicereuella, Nouveau 117. FestivalOverture(in A), for 165. 'La Carnaval.' PF.solo. Siegel. Orchestra. Kistner.

110.

'

G

3

R.

B 4

=Rieter-Biederniaiin &Co, B. B.=Bote & Bock.

—

; '

,

RAG TIME

16 Op.

EAIMONDI

Op.

166. Idylle i Valse champfltre. PF. BOlo. Seitz.

198. 10 GesSnge for Mixied Choir. Seitz.

4th Symidiony (G minor). Orchestra. Schuberth. FantaJsle-Socate (D minor), FF. solo. Siegel. Romanze; Valse brillante. PF. solo. Siegel. La Polka glfsaante, Caprice. PF. solo. Siegel.

2 Scenes for Solo Voice and

169. 1'70.

171.

'

Im Kahn and Der Tanz.'

* Jiiger-braut Orch. and 'DieHlrtin.' Siegel. Suite in Eb for PF. and Orch. Siegel. 201. 7th Symphony, 'In the Alps (Bb). Orch. Seitz. 202. 2 Quartets for PF. V. Va. '

.

'

'

'

2 BongB for Mixed Cfaolr

and OrcheBtra.

'

and violoncello (G). Siegel. Volker,' cycllsohe Tondichtung

Siegel.

'Maria Stuart, eln Oyclus von GeaSngeii,' for Voice and PF. (11 Nos.) Siegel. 8 GesSnge for Voice and FF.

(9 Nob.).

V. and FF.

Siegel.

Suite (Bb). Orch. Challier. 8th Symphony 'Frllhlingakl^inge (A). Orch. Siegel. Seitz. 2nd Concerto for V. and 'Aus dem Tanzaalon, PhanOrch, (A minor). Siegel. taaieStllclEe'(12M'os.). PP. 207a. Pbantasie (G minor). 2 4 bands. Seitz. PFs, Siegel, * Orientales," 8 Morceaux. 2D7&, The same arranged for FF. PF. solo. Forberg. and strings. Siegel. Octet for stringB (C). Seitz. 208. 9th Symphony (E minor), 6fch Symphony, 'Lenore.' Ira Sommer.' Orch. SieOrch. Seitz. gel.. Sestet. 2 VV., 2 violas, 2 209. Die Tageszeiten,' for Choir, vluloncellos. Seitz. PP., and Orch. B. & H. Variations on an orlgtnal 210. SuiteforVIn.andPF. Siegel, theme. PF. solo. Seitz. 211. 'Blondel de Nesle,' Cyclus Suite for Solo V. and Orch. von OesSngen. Barit. and

176. 177.

.

'

'

178.

'

179. 180.

Siegel.

2nd Humoreske in "Waltz .form, 'Todtentanz (Danae macabre).' PF. duet. 8ie_

Komancea

2

for

Horn

cello.

184. 6

—

minor),

— Neue

Welt, oratorio. B. & H. Symphony, 'ZurHerbat-

Siegel.

Siegel.

zeit.'

214.

11th Symphony,

215.

'

216.

'Am der Adventzelt,'

ter.'

Songs for 3 women's voices

and PF.

.

PF. B. & H. Weltende Gericht

(or

Siegel.

185. Concerto,

186a.

212.

213. 10th

violoncello) and PF. Siegel. Sonata for PP. and violon-

183.

Der Win-

Von der schwiibischen Alb,' 10 PF. pieces.

PP. and Orch. (C

*

Siegel, Siegel,

8 PF.

Bahn.

pieces.

Siegel.

MorgenliedforMlxedCholr

and Orch. Siegel. WOEKB WITHOUT OpDS-NUMBHlt. Einer entachlafenen. Soprano BoIo, Chor. and Orch! Valse-rondlno on motifs from Siegel. Saloman'a Diamantkreuz.' Erlnnerung an Venedlg (6 Schuberth. Ifos.). PF. Bolo. Siegel. Beminlscences of the Meistei''

'

Sinfonietta for

wind instru-

singer' (4 Pts.).

Scbott.

ments. Siegel. Valse - Impromptu k la Tyro6th Symphony (D minor), llenne. Schott. Gelebt, gestrebt, gelltten, Abendlied by Schumann. Congestritten, gestorben, umcert-paraphrase. Schuberth. worbeii.' Orch. B. B. Berceuse on an Idea of Gounod's. '

190.

Feux

191.

PF. solo. Siegel. Improvisation on Damroscb's Blumensprache. Six Songs. Lied Der Llndenzwelg.' Llch-

follets,

Caprice-dtude.

Siegel. '

Riea and Erler. 192. 3 String Quartets.

No.

6.

tenberg. (C Valse de

Juliette

(Gounod).

minor) Suite Slterer Form. Siegel. 7. (D) Die schdne 4 Capi-icclos on Wallaohian (2) Mulleriu.—yo. 6. (C) Suite and Servian (2) themes. Siegel, In Canon-form. Kahnt. Introduction and Fugue for OrConcerto (D minor). Violongan (E minor). R. B. cello and Orch. Baff-Album containing op. 156 Siegel. 194. 2nd Suite in Ungarisuher 167, Nob. 1, 2: 166, No. 2; 196, Weiae (F). Orch. Bahn. Noa. 1—4{ 197. Seitz. 195. 10 Gesfinge for men's voices. Oper Im Salon containing op. ^ahnt. 35—37, 43—45, 61, 65. SchuBerberth. 196. Etude 'am Schllf ; ceuse Novelette ; Im- FrUhlinga-Lled, Mez. Sop. and promptu. PF, solo. Seitz. PF. Schott. Capriccio (1%). PF. solo. Stlindchen for Voice and PF.

So.

—

—

;

Seitz.

RAG TIME.

Ootta.

A modem

term, of American

origin, signifying, in the first instance,

rhythm

'

,

,

174.

first compositions, we may infer that he was He died in London born about 1735 or 1740. at his own house, 74 Great Portland Street, During his residence in January 14, 1813. Amsterdam he established periodical concerts, and produced Ms symphony entitled *The Adventures of Telemachus.' From Amsterdam he went to Paris, where his opera, La Muette,' was performed, and about 1790-91 he came to

broken

in melbdy, especially a sort of con'Rag time tunes' is a tinuous syncopation. name given in the States to those airs which are usually associated with the so-called * coon songs or lyrics, which are supposed to depict f. k, negro life in modern America. RAIF, OsKAR (born July 31, 1847, at ZwoUe, in Holland, died July 29, 1899, in Berlin), was a pupil of Tausig, and occupied a post as pianoforte teacher in the Royal Hochschule at Berlin, with the title of Koniglicher Proh. v. h. fessor, from 1875 till the time he died. RAIMONDI, Ignazio, Neapolitan violinist and composer. The date of his birth is unknown, but, judging by the fact that he went to Amsterdam in 1760, and there produced his

London, where he received

sufficient encourage-

it his permanent home. His compositions became very popular in England, particularly a symphony entitled On June 1, 1791, he gave a The. Battle.' benefit concert at the Hanover 'Square Rooms, at which he figured both as violinist and composer ; he was assisted by Signer Pacchierotti, Madame Mara, Lord Momington, and Monsieur Dahmer (vide Morning Ghromde^ June 1,1791), The following year he gave a series of subscription concerts at Willis's Rooms, and at these he both played solos and led the orchestra. Emanuele Barbella is said to have taught Raimondi the violin, but whether this be fact or no, we may infer from Dr. Bumey's remark {Bistory of Music, vol. iii.), *The sweet tone and polished style of a Raimondi,' that this artist's technique was of the then greatly adRaimondi's published mired Tartini school, compositions include two symphonies besides the 'Telemachus' above mentioned, a number of quartets for two violins, viola, and violoncello, two sets of six trios for two violins and violoncello, and some sonatas for two violins, violin and violoncello, and violin and viola. Dr. Bumey, History of Music Park (W. T.), Mtmcal Memoirs F^tis, Biog, des Mus. Eitner, Quellen-Lexikon; The Gentleman's Magazine, Jan. 1813 The Times, May 14, 1800. E. H-A, RAIMONDI, PiETRO, was bom at Rome of parents poor Dec. 20, 1786. At an early age he passed six years in the Conservatorio of the Piet^ de' Turchini at Naples, and after many wanderings, mostly on foot from Naples to Rome, from Rome to Florence, from Florence to Genoa and many years, he at length found an opportunity of coming before the public with an opera entitled *Le Bizzarrie d'Amore,' which was performed at Genoa in 1807. After three years there, each producing its opera, he passed a twelvemonth at Florence, and brought out two more. The next twenty-five years were spent between Rome, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, and each year had its full complement of operas and ballets. In 1824 he b.ecame director of the

ment

to induce

him

to

make

*

—

;

;

;

;

—

—

royal theatres at Naples, a position which he retained till 1832. In that year the brilliant success of his opera buffa, * II Ventaglio ' (Naples,

1831), procured him the post of Professor of Composition in the Conservatorio at Palermo. Here he was much esteemed, and trained several promising pupils. In December 1852, he was called

upon

to succeed BasHi as Maestro di

' ;

EAINFOETH

EALLENTANDO

Cappella at St. Peter's a post for which, if knowledge, experience, and ceaseless labour of production in all departments of his art could qualify him, he was amply fitted. Shortly before this, in 1848, he had after four years of toil completed tliree oratorios, Potiphar, 'Pharaoh,' and 'Jacob,' wliich were not only designed to be performed in the usual manner, but to be played all three in combination as one work, under the name of 'Joseph.' On August 7, 1852, the new Maestro brought out this stupendous work at the Teatro Argentina. The success of the three single oratorios was moderate, but when they were united on the

the English Opera -House. Subsequently to her public appearance she took lessons from Crivelli. In 1837 she sang in oratorio at the Sacred Harmonic Society, and continued to do

;

'

—

the three orchestras and the following day three troupes forming an ensetribU of nearly 400 musicians the excitement and applause of the spectators knew no bounds, and so great was his emotion that Raimondi fainted away. He did not long survive this triumph, but died at Kome, Oct. 30, 1853. The list of his works is astonishing, and embraces 62 operas ; 21 grand ballets, composed for San Carlo between 1812 and 1828; 8

—

4 masses with full orchestra ; 2 with 2 choirs a cappella ; 2 requiems with full orchestra 1 ditto for 8 and 16 voices a Credo for 16 voices the whole Book of Psalms, oratorios

;

ditto

;

;

for 4, 5, 6, 7,

and

8 voices

Tantum

;

many Te Deums,

and two books of 90 partimenti, each on a separate bass, with three different accompaniments a collection of figured basses with fugued accompaniments as a school of accompaniment Stabats, Misereres,

litanies

ergos, psalms,

;

;

4 fugues for 4 voices, each independent but capable of being united and sung together as a

quadruple fugue in 16 parts 6 fugues for 4 voices capable of combination into 1 fugue for 24 voices a fugue for 16 choirs 16 fugues for 4 voices 24 fugues for 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 voices, of which 4 and 5 separate fugues will combine into one. A fugue in 64 parts, for 16 four-part Besides the above feat choirs, is said to exist. with the three oratorios he composed an opera seria and an opera buffa which went equally Such well separately and in combination. stupendous labours are, as F^tis remarked, enough to give the reader the headache what must they have done to the persevering artist who accomplished them ? But they also give one the heartache at the thought of their utter futility. Raimondi's compositions, with all their ingenuity, belong to a past age, and we may safely say that they will never be revived. G. RAINFORTH, Elizabeth, bom Nov. 23, 1814, studied singing under George Perry and T. Cooke, and acting under Mrs. Davison, the eminent comedian. After having gained experience at minor concerts, she appeared upon the stage at the St. James's Theatre, Oct. 27, 1836, as Mandane, in Ame's Artaxerxes, with comShe performed there for the plete success. remainder of the season, and then removed to ;

;

;

;

:

'

VOL. IV

'

17

She made her first appearance at the Philharmonic, March 18, 1839. In 1840 she sang at the Antient Concerts, and in 1843 at the Birmingham Festival. After performing at Co vent Garden from 1838 to 1843 she transferred her services to Drury Lane, where she made a great hit by her performance so for several years.

of Arline, in Balfe's ' Bohemian Girl, on its production, Nov. 27, 1843. In the previous year she had a most successful season in Dublin, '

and repeated her visits to Ireland in 1844 and 1849. She was engaged as prima donna at the Worcester Festival of 1845. She continued to perform in the metropolis until about 1852, when she removed to Edinburgh, where she remained until about 1856. She then retired, and in 1858 went to live at Old Windsor, and taught music in the neighbourhood until her complete retirement in March 1871, when she removed to her father's at Bristol. Her voice was a high soprano, even and sweet in quality, but deficient in power, and she possessed great judgment and much dramatic feeling. Although her limited power prevented her from becoming a great singer, her attainments were such as enabled her to fill the first place with credit to herself, and satisfaction to herauditors. Shedied at Redland, Bristol, Sept. 22, 1877. w. H. H.

RALLENTANDO, RITARDANDO, RITENENTE, RITENUTO—' Becoming

slow again,'

'Holding back,' 'Held back.' two of these words are used quite

'Slackening,'

The

first

indifferently to express a gradual diminutiqn of the rate of speed in a composition, and although

the last is commonly used in exactly the same way, it seems originally and in a strict sense to have meant a uniform rate of slower time, so that the whole passage marked ritenuto would be taken at the same time, while each bar and

each phrase in a passage marked rallentando little slower than the one before it.

would be a That there

exists a difference in their uses is conclusively proved by a passage in the Quartet op. 131 of Beethoven, where in the 7th movement (allegro) a phrase of three recurring minims, which is repeated in all five times, has the direction Espressivo, poco ritenuto ' for its first three appearances, which are separated by two bars a tempo, and for the last two times has ritardando, which at length leads into the real u, tempo, of which the former separating fragments were but a presage. This is one of the very rare instances of the use of the word The conclusion from it ritenwlo by Beethoven. is confirmed by « passage in Chopin's Rondo, op. 16, consisting of the four bars which immediately precede the entry of the second Here the first two bars consist of a subject. fragment of a preceding figure which is repeated, '

C

—

:;

;

EAMANN

18

BAMEAU

so that both these bars are exactly the same the last two bars, however, have a little chromatic cadence leading into the second subject. The direction over the iirst two bars is 'poco ritenuto,'

in

and over the

direct information

last two ' rallentando, by which quite sure that the composer intended the repeated fragment to be played at the same speed in each bar, and the chromatic cadence to be slackened gradually. '

we may be

Ritenente is used by Beethoven in the PF. Sonata, op. 110, about the middle of the first movement, and again in the Sonata, op. Ill, in the iirst movement, in the seventh and fifteenth bars from the beginning of the Allegro con brio. It would seem that the same effect is intended as if ' ritenuto were employed ; in each case, the words ' meno mosso ' might have been used. Beethoven prefers Sitardando to Hallentando, which latter is common only in his earlier works. M. EAMANN, LiNA, musical writer and educationist, was bom at Mainstookheim, near Kitzingen, in Bavaria, June 24, 1833. Her turn for music and her determination to succeed were evident from a very early age. It was not, however, till her seventeenth year that she had any instruction in music. At that time her parents removed to Leipzig, and from 1850 to 1853 she there enjoyed the advantage of pianoforte lessons from the wife of Dr. F. Brendel, herself formerly a scholar of Field's. From this period she adopted the career of a teacher of music, and studied assiduously, though without help, for that end. After a period of activity in America, she opened (in 1858) an institute in Gliickstadt (Holstein) for the special training of musie-mistresses, and maintained it till 1865, in which year she founded a more important establishment, the Music School at Nuremberg, in conjunction with Fran Ida Volkmann of Tilsit, and assisted by astaff of superior teachers, under Frl. Ramann's own superintendence. The school was transferred to Aug. Gbllerich in 1890, when Frl. Eamann moved to Munich. With a view to the special object of her life she has published Die Musik als Gegenstand der two works Erziehwng (Leipzig: Merseburger, 1868), and Allgemeine Erzieh- und Unierrichts-lehre der '

Jugend (Leipzig: H. Schmidt, 1869 2nd ed. 1873), which were both received with favour by the German press. From 1 8 6 she was musical ;

correspondent of the Hamburg Jahreszeiten. A volume of her essays contributed to that paper has been collected and published, under the title of Aits der Oegcnviart (Nuremberg In the early part of 1880 she Sohmid, 1868). published a study of Liszt's ' Christus ' (Leipzig, Kahnt), and later in the year the first volume of a Life of Liszt, completed in two volumes in

The first portion was H. Eddy, Chicago, and by Miss E. Cowdery, and published in two vols. 1894

(Leipzig, Breitkopf).

translated

by Mrs.

S.

This

1882.

is

an important

work.

It

somewhat from over -enthusiasm, but and it is done with great care, minuteness, intelligence, and obviously profited largely by suffers

Slie from Liszt himself. edited Liszt's writings (1880-83, in six

also

Her

volumes).

cousin,

Bruno Ramann, was bom

April 17, 1832,

at Erfurt, and was brought up to commerce, but his desire and talent for music were so strong, that in 1857 or 1858 he succeeded in

getting rid of his business and put himself under Dr. F. Brendel and Riedel, for regular instruction. He then for five years studied under Hauptmann at Leipzig, and was a teacher and composer at Dresden from 1867 until his death,

March 13, 1897. His works are numerous, but they consist almost entirely of songs for one or more voices, and of small and more or

He sentimental pieces for the pianoforte. and some dramatic pieces. 6. RAMEAU, Jkan Philippe, eminent com' poser, and writer on the theory of music, bom at Dijon, Oct. 23, 1683,' in the house now His father,^ Jean, was No. 5 Rue St. Michel. a musician, and organist of Dijon cathedral, in easy circumstances. He intended Jean Philippe, the eldest of his three sons, to be a magistrate, but his strong vocation for music and obstinacy less

also wrote poetry,

of character frustrated these views.

According

to his biographers he played the harpsichord at

and read at sight any piece of music put

seven,

music indeed absorbed him to such an extent when at the Jesuit College that he neglected his classical studies, and was altogether so refractory that his parents were requested to remove him. Henceforth he never opened.^ book, unless it were a musical treatise. He quickly mastered the harpischord, and studied the organ and violin with success, but there was no master in Dijon capable of teaching him to write music, and he was left to discover before

him

:

for himself the laws of harmony and composition. jVt

the age of seventeen he

fell

in love with a

young widow in the neighbourhood, who indirectiy aid nim good service, since the shame which he felt at the bad spelling of his letters drove him to write correctly. To break off this acquaintance his father sent him, in 1701, to Italy, where, however, he did not remain

long, a mistake which, in after life, he regretted. He liked Milan, and indeed the attractions of

music must have been great some unknown reason he soon left with a theatrical manager whom he accompanied as first violin to Marseilles, Lyons, Nimes, Montpellier, and other places in the south of FranQg. so gi-eat a centre of

but

for

How

long the tour lasted it is impossible to no letters belonging to this period are to be found. From his ' Premier Livre de ascertain, as

1 [The date of birth Is taken from the compoaer'fl momiment at Dijon : the firat edition of this Dictionary gives the more usnal

date. Sept. S5, 1683.] 3

His mother's name was Claudine Demartin^oourt.

— RAMEAU

RAMEAU de clavecin' (Paris, 1706) we learn that he was then living in Paris, at a wig-maker'a in the Vieille Rue du Temple, as Haydn did at Keller's, though without the disastrous results which followed that connection. Meantime he was organist of the Jesuit convent in the Rue St. Jacquesj and of the chapel of the Peres de la Meroi. No particulars, however, of the length of his -stay in Pai'is are known, nor how he occupiMy/the interval between this first visit and /tSf^ return about 1717. In that year a pieces

competition took place for the post of organist of the church of St. Paul, and Rameau was among the candidates. Marchand, then at the head of the organists in Paris, was naturally one of the examiners ; and either from fear of being outshone by one whom he had formerly patronised, or for some other reason, he used his whole influence in favour of Daquin, who obtained the post. Mortified at the unjust preference thus shown to a man in all points his inferior, Rameau again left Paris for Lille, and became for a short time organist of St.

Thence he went to Clermont in Auvergne, where his brother Claude-i resigned

the—very boldness and novelty- of excited surprise and provoked His dijgovery o f the l aw of inversion criticigm. in chords was a stroke of genius, and led fo very important results, although in founding his system of harmony on the sounds of the common chord, with the addition of thirds above or thirds below, he put both himself and others on a wrong track. In the application of his principle to all the chords he found himself compelled to give up all idea of tonality, since, on the principles of tonality he could not make the thirds for the discords fall on the notes that his system required. F^tis justly accuses him of having abandoned the tonal successions and resolutions prescribed in the old treatises on harmony, accompaniment, and composition, and the rules for connecting the chords based on the ear, for a fixed order of generation, attractive from its apparent regularity, but with the serious inconvenience of leaving each chord disconnected from the rgadfir,-and

the post of organist of the cathedral in his In this secluded mountain town, with a harsh climate predisposing to indoor life, he had plenty of time for thought and study. The defects of his education drove him to find out everything for himself. From the works of Descartes, Mersenne, Zarlino, and Kircher he gained some general knowledge of the science of sound, and taking the equal division of the monochord as the starting-point of his system of harmony, soon conceived the possibility of placing the theory of music on a sound basis. Henceforth he devoted all his energies to drawing up his Treatise on Harmony Beducedtoits Naiwral Erindples, and as soon as that^ii^pBftant work was finished he determined to go to Paris and publish it. His engagement with the chapter of Clermont had, however, several years to run, and there was great opposition to his leaving, owing to the popularity of his improvisations on the organ, in which his theoretical studies, far from hampering his ideas, seemed to give them greater freshness and fertility.

Once free he started immediately for Paris, and brought out his Trail4 de VHarmonie (Ballard, 1722, 4to, 432 pp.).2 The work did not at first attract much attention among French musicians, and yet, as F^tis observes, it laid the foundation for a philosophical science of Ram^aJi^atylaJs-piolix and ob scure, often calculated rather to repel thanattract tfie

harmony.

1 Claude EameiLU, a man of indoioitable wiU and capricious temper, atld a clever organist, lived ancceiiflively at Dijou, Lyons, Marseilles, Clermont, Orltjans, Strasburg, and Autun. His son Jean Francis, a gifted musician, but a dissipated man, is admirably portrayed by Diderot in his Newti de /tameav. He published in 1766 a poem in five oantos called Le RamiXde, followed in the same year by La nmuietle UawAhie, a parody by his schoolfellow Jacques Cazotbe. Ke is mentioned by Mercier in his Tableau de Paris. ^ The third Part of this was translated into English dfteen yearn later with the title A Treatiieo/Muiiccontaininff the Principles of

Composition.

London, no date, 8vo,

160' pp.

theories

his

.

rest.

Having

ifetienne.

favour.

19

rejected the received rules for the

succession and resolution of chords which were contrary to his system, Rameau perceived the

new ones, and drew composing a fundamental bass The principles he for every species of music. laid down for forming a bass difierent from the real bass of the music, and for verifying the necessity of formulating

up a method

for

right use of the chords, are arbitrary, insufficient in a large number of cases, and, as regards many of the successions, contrary to the judgment of the ear. Finally, he did not perceive

that by using the chord of the 6-5-3 both as a fundamental chord and an inversion he destroyed his whole system, as in the former case it is impossible to derive it from the third above or below. ^ After more study, however, particularly on the subject of harmonics, Rameau

gave up

many of his earlier notions, and corrected

some of

his

most

essential

mistakes.

The

development and modification of his ideas may be seen by consulting his works, of which the following

tMorique

is

a

.

.

list .

Nouveau syslime de Ttiusique pour servir d' Jntrodnction au :

dmarmomie

Oiniration (1726, 4to) (1737, 8vo) ; Dimonstration dii, principe de I'harmmiie (1750, 8vo) Nmi-cellcs reflexions sur la dimonstration du principe de Vharmonie (1762, 8vo) Extrait d'une riponse de M. Eanwau a M. Euler sur VidentiU des octaves, all published in Paris. To etc. (1753, 8vo) these specific works, all dealing with the science of harmony, should be added the Dissertation sur les diffirentes methodes d'accompagnement traits

harmonique,

;

etc.

;

;

—

pour

le

clavecin ou

pour I'orgue

(Paris, Boivin,

1732, 4to), and some articles which appeared in the Mercwre de Fra/nce, and in the Mdmoires de Trivoux. 3 Fetis has explained, detailed, and refuted Rameau's system in EiqmiK de I'Bistotre de t'narmonio. which has been nt-ed by '\^ the writer, and to which be refers his reiuiers.

his

«

—

'

RAMEAU

RAMEAU

20

The mere titles of these works are a proof of the research and invention which Rameau brought to bear on the theory of music ; but what was most remarkable in his case is that he succeeded in lines which are generally opposed to each other, and throughout life occupied the first rank not only as a theorist, but as a player and composer. Just when his Traiti de I'Harmonie was beginning to attract attention he arranged to make music for the little pieces which his fellow-countryman, Alexis Piron, was writing for the Th6S,tre de la Foire, and accordingly, on Feb. 3, 1723, they produced 'L'Endriague,' in three acts, with dances, divertissements, and grand airs, as stated in the title. In Jan. 1724 he obtained the privilege of publishing his cantatas, and various instrumental comijositions, amongst others his ' Pitees de clavecin, avec une Methode pour la m&anique des doigts,' etc., republished as ' Pitees de Clavecin, avec une table pour les agr^ments'' (Paris, 1731 and 1736, oblong folio).

As the favourite music-master among ladies of rank, and organist of the church of Ste. Croix de la Bretonnerie, Rameau's position and prospects

now warranted

his taking a wife,

and on

Feb. 25, 1726, he was united to Marie Louise Mangot, a good musician, with a pretty voice. The disparity of their ages was considerable, the bride being only eighteen, but her loving and gentle disposition made the marriage a

very happy one. A few days later, on Feb. 29, Rameau produced at the Theatre de la Foire, a one-act piece called

'

L'Enr81ement d'Arlequin,' followed in

the autumn by Le faux Prodigue,' two acts, both written by Piron. Such small comic pieces as these were obviously composed, by a man of his age and attainments (he was now forty-two), solely with the view of gaining access to a stage of higher rank, but there was no hope of admission to the theatre of the Aoad^mie without a good libretto, and this it was as difficult for a There is beginner to obtain then as it is now. a remarkable letter, still extant, from Rameau to Houdar de Lamotte, dated Oct. 1727, asking him for a lyric tragedy, and assuring him that he was no novice, but one who had mastered the art of concealing his art." The blind poet refused his request, but aid came from another La Popelinifere, the fermier giniral, quarter. musician, poet, and artist, whose houses in Paris and at Paasy were frequented by the most celebrated artists French and foreign, had chosen Rameau as his claveoinist and conductor of the music at his fStes, and before long placed at his '

though the performance was prohibited on the eve of its representation at the Academic— an exceptional stroke of ill-fortune. [On the history of this work, see Hugues Imbert's

set to music,

for a resume of the facts, see Musical Times, 1898, p. 379 ff.] At last the Pellegrin agreed to furnish him with an opera in five acts, 'Hippolyte et Aricie,' founded

Symphonie (1891), and

AbW

on Racine's 'Phedre.' He compelled Rameau to sign a bill for 500 livres as security in case the opera failed, but showed more sagacity and more heart than might have been expected from one

for

lyric tragedy of 'Samson,' I

Both Fitia and Pongln have

Ing this a Bepar^te work.

which he promptly

fallen Into the

mietake o< comider-

I'autel et soupait du th^trp, ct lo soir idolatre,

he was so delighted with the music on

its

performance at La Popeliniere's, that he tore up the bill at the end of the first act. The world in general was less enthusiastic, and after having overcome the ill-will or stupidity of the performers, Rameau had to encounter the astonishment of the crowd, the prejudices of routine, and the jealousy of his brother artists. first

Campra alone recognised his genius, and it is to his honour that when questioned by the Prince de Conti on the subject, he replied, There is stuff enough in Hippolyte et Aricie for ten operas this man will eclipse us all. The opera was produced at the Academic on Rameau was then turned fifty Oct. 1, 1733. years of age, and the outcry with which his work was greeted suggested to him that he had possibly mistaken his career for a time he contemplated retiring from the theatre, but was reassured by seeing his hearers gradually accustoming themselves to the novelties which at The success of Les Indes first shocked them. galantes' (August 23, 1735), of 'Castor et Pollux,' his masterpiece (Oct. 24, 1737), and of 'Les Fetes d'Hebe' (May 21, 1739), however, neither disarmed his critics, nor prevented Rousseau from making himself the mouthpiece of those who cried up Lully at the expense of the new composer. But Rameau was too well aware of the cost of success to be hurt by epigrams, especially when he found that he could count both on the applause of the multitude, and the genuine appreciation of the more en'

;

;

'

lightened.

His industry was immense, as the following of his operas and ballets produced at the Academic in twenty years will show

'

disposal the organ in his chapel, his orchestra, and his theatre. He did more, for through his influence Rameau obtained from Voltaire the

C

Qui dinait de

Le matin catliolique

list

:

DardanuB, flye acta ilogue (Oct. 19. 1739).

and pro-

Platde, thi«e acta and prologue (Feb. 4, 1749). Loa Pfitea de Polymnie. three NaTa, three acta and prologue 'acta and prologao (Oct. 12. 1746), (April 22, 1749). Le Temple de la Ololre, P6te, Zoroaetre, five acta (Dec 5. '

j

in three acta

and prologue (Not,

1749).

La Guirlande, on lea Fleui-a enone act (Sept. 21. 1751). Acanthe et Cdphiao, three acts (Nov. 18, 1761). l!r48). Les Surpriaes de 1' Amour, three Lea F£te8 de I'Hymen et de acts (July 12, 1767). I'AinouT, three acta and prologue Lea Paladins, three acts (Feb.

';*, 17*i).

ZaTa, four ac1» !(Peb. 29, 1748).

;

I

1

1

and prologne

Pygmalion, one act (Aug.

chanttSea,

27,

'

'

lUarch

15, 1747).

12, 1760).

Besides these, Rameau found time to write divertissements for 'Les Courses de Temp6,' a

;

'

RAMEAU

EAMEAU Pastoral (The3.tre Franfais, August 1734), and ' La Rose' (Theatre de la Foire, March 1744), both by Piron. From 1740 to 1745 the director of the Opdra gave him no employment, and in

nauseam. developed

this interval he published his Nouvslles-Snites de Pitees de clayecifi~and his Pieoeajde-elavecin en concerts avec un violon ou une flflte' (1741), remarkable jscunpositions whtcVhave been reprinteaby Mme. Farrenc ( Le Tr^sor des Pianistes ') and M. Poisot. He also accepted the post of conductor of the Op^ra-Comique, of which Monneti was manager, probably in the hope of attracting public attention, and forcing the management of the Academie to alter their treatment of him. Finally he composed for the Court Lysis et D^lie,' Daphnis et Egle, 'Les Sybarites' (Oct. and Nov. 1753); 'La Naissance d'Osiris, and Anaorfon (Oct. 1754),

was

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

given at Fontainebleau. Some years previously, on the occasion of the marriage of the Dauphin with the Infanta, he had composed La Princesse de Navarre to a libretto of Voltaire's (three acts and prologue, performed with great splendour at Versailles, Feb. 23, 1745). Thia was the most successful of all his operas de dramstancc, and the authors adapted from it 'Les Fetes de Ramire,' a one-act opera ballet, also performed at Versailles (Dec. 22, 1745). In estimating Rameau's merits we cannot in justice compare him with the great Italian and German masters of the day, whose names and works were then equally unknown in France all

'

'

;

we must measure him with contemporary French composers for the stage.

These writers had no

idea of art beyond attempting a servile copy of LuUy, with overtures, recitatives, vocal pieces, and ballet airs, aU cast in one stereotyped form. Rameau made use of such a variety of means as not only attracted the attention of his hearers, but retained it. For the placid and monotonous harmonies of the day, the trite modulation, insignificant accompaniments, and stereotyped ritornelles, he substituted new forms, varied and piquant rhythms, ingenious harmonies,

boldmodulations, and a richer and more effective orchestration. He even ventured on enharmonic changes, and instead of the time-honoured accompaniments with the strings in five parts, and flutes and oboes in two, and with tttttis in which the wind simply doubled the strings, he gave each instrument a distinct part of its own, and thus imparted life and colour to the whole. Without interrupting the other instruments, he introduced intei-esting and unexpected passages ou the flutes, oboes, and bassoons, and thus opened a path which has been followed up with ever -increasing success. He also gave importance to the orchestral pieces, introducing his operas with a well -constructed overture, instead of the meagre introduction of the period, in which the same phrases were repeated ad ' See Monnet's Supplement au Roman comigue, Beems to have escaped aU Rameau's biographers.

p, 61.

Thie fact

interest,

Nor did he it,

21

neglect the chorus

added greatly to

its

;

he

musical

and introduced the

considerable

effect.

syllabic style with Lastly, his ballet -music

so new in its rhythms, and so fresh and pleasing in melody, that it was at once adopted and copied in the theatres of Italy and Germany, have said enough to prove that Rameau was a composer of real invention and originality.

We

His declamation was not always so just as that of Lully his airs have not the same grace, and are occasionally marred by eccentricity and ;

harshness,

and

disfigured

by roulades in doubt-

but when inspii-ed by his subject Rameau found appropriate expression for all sentiments, whether simple or pathetic, passionate, dramatic, or heroic. His best operas ful taste

;

contain beauties which defy the caprices of fashion, and will command the respect of true artists for all time. if his music was so good, how is it that never attained the same popularity as that of Lully ? In the first place, he took the wrong line on a most important point and in the second, he was less favoured by circumstances than his predecessor. It was his doctrine, that for a musician of genius all subjects are equally good, and hence he contented himself with uninteresting fables written in wretched style, instead of taking pains, as Lully did, to secure pieces constructed with skill and well versified. He used to say that he could set the Gazette Thus he damaged his de HoUande to music. own fame, for a French audience will not listen even to good music unless it is founded on an interesting drama. Much as Rameau would have gained by the co-operation of another Quinault, instead of having to employ Cahusac, there was another reason for the greater popularity of Lully. Under Louis XIV. the king's patronage was quite sufficient to ensure the success of an artist but after the Regency, under Louis XV. other authorities asserted themselves, especially the Rameau had first to encounter philosophes.' the vehement opposition of the Lullists this he had succeeded in overcoming, when a company of Italian singers arrived in Paris, and at once obtained the attention of the public, and the The partisans of support of a powerful party. French music rallied roirad Rameau, and the two factions carried on what is known as the 'Guerre des Bouffons,' but when the struggle was over, Rameau perceived that his victory was only an ephemeral one, and that his works would not maintain their position in the repertoire of the Academic beyond a few years. With a frankness very touching in a man of his gifts, he said one evening to the Abb6

But

it

;

,

'

;

Arnaud, who had lately arrived in Paris, If I were twenty years younger I would go to Italy, and take Pergolesi for my model, abandon something of my harmony, and devote myself '

—

;

EAMEAU

KAMONDON

to attaining truth of deelamation, which should he the sole guide of musicians. But after sixty

such as Dauvergne, and the organist Balb&tre. He was a vehement controversialist, and those whom he had offended would naturally say hard Tall, and thin almost to things of him. emaciation, his sharply mai-ked features indicated great strength of character, while his eyes burned with the fire of genius. There was a decided resemblance between him and Voltaii'e, and painters have often placed their likenesses side

one cannot change

enough the best to obey.'

No

;

experience points plainly

course, but the critic

mind

refuses

could have stated the

truth more plainly. Not having heard Italian music in his youth, Rameau never attained to the skill in writing for the voice that he might

have done ; and he is in consequence only the first French musician of his time, instead of taking his rank among the great composers of European fame. But for this, he might have ellected that revolution in dramatic music which Gluok accomplished some years later. But even as it was, his life's work is one of which any man might have been proud and in old age he enjoyed privileges accorded only to ;

talent of the first rank. The directors of the Op^ra decreed him a pension ; his appearance

in his box was the signal for a general burst of applause, and at the last performance of 'Dar-

danus' (Nov. 9, 1760) he received a perfect ovation from the audience. At Dijon the Academic elected him a member in 1761, and the authorities exempted hituself and his family for ever from the municipal taxes. The king had named him composer of his chamber music in 1745 his patent of nobility was registered, and he was on the point of receiving the order of St. Michel, when, already suffering from the infirmities of age, he took typhoid fever, and died Sept. 12, 1764. All France mourned for him Paris gave him a magnificent funeral, and in many other towns funeral services were held in his honour. Such marks of esteem are accorded only to the monarchs of art. Having spoken of Rameau as a theorist and composer, we will now say a word about him ;

;

man. If we are to believe Grimm and Diderot, he was hard, churlish, and cruel, avaricious to a degree, and the most ferocious of egotists. The evidence of these writers is, however, suspicious ; both disliked French music, and Diderot, as the friend and coUaborateiir of d'Alembert, would naturally be opposed to the man who had had the audacity to declare war It is right to say against the Encyclopedists.' that, though he drew a vigorous and scathing portrait of the composer, he did not publish it.^ As to the charge of avarice, Rameau may have been fond of money, but he supported his sister Catherine ' during an illness of many years, and assisted more than one of his brother artists as a

Kameau was asked to correct the articles on music for the Sncyctopidie, but the MSS. were not submitted to him. He publlehed 1

in consequence : JSrreurg aur la Tnuaique dans VSnoyclopfitlie (17551 Suite d€« Erreurt, etc. (17S6) ; Riponae de H. Rameau d MM. let Sdtteurs de V Encyctop6die aur leivr AvertUsement |1757) ; Lettre de M. d'Alembert d Si. Jtwneau, concernatit le corpa aonore, avee la r6ponee de M. Rameau (undated, but apparently 1759)— aU printed

in Paris. s refer to Diderot's violent satire on the morals and philoflopbic tendencies of the 18th century, entitled Le Neveu de Rameau. It is a curious fact that this brilliantly written dialogue was only Itnown in France through a re-translation of Goethe's German version. The first French edition, by Saur, appeared in Paris only

We

in 1821. 3

A good player on the harpsichord

-dihere, 1762.

;

she lived in Oijon, and died

best portraits of Rameau those of Benoist (after Restout), Caffieri, Masquelier, and Carmontelle (full length). In the fine oil-painting by Chardin in the Museum of Dijon, he is represented seated,

by side.

Amongst the

may be specified

with his fingers on the strings of his violin, the instrument he generally used in composing. The bust which stood in the/oj/er of the Opera was destroyed when the theatre was burnt down in 1781 ; that in the library of the ConservaA bronze statue toire is by Destreez (1865). by Guillaume was erected at Dijon in 1880. The fine medal of him given to the winners of the grand pHx de Home was engraved by Gatteaux.

There are many biographies of Rameau the most valuable are, among the older, Chabanon's ;

Mloge (1764) ; Maret's Eloge hislorique (1766) ; and the very curious details contained in De Croix's L'Ami des Arts (1776) ; among the more modern, the notices of Adolphe Adam, Fetis, Poisot (1864), Nisard (1867), and Pougin (1876).

Rameau had one son and two daughters, none of them musicians. He left in MS. four cantatas, three motets with chorus, and fragments of an opera Roland,' all which are now '

in the Bibliothfeque Nationale. organ pieces have survived ; and

None some

of his

cantatas,

mentioned by the earlier biographers, besides two lyric tragedies Abaris and Linus,' and a comic opera, Le Procureur dup^,' are lost but they would have added nothing to his fame. Some of his harpsichord pieces have been* published in the Tresor des Pianistes ; in the Alte Klaviermusik of Pauer (Ser. 2, pt. 5) and of Roitzsch also in Pauer's Alte Meister,' '

'

'

'

;

'

'

'

'

'

;

and in the

'

Perlcs Musicales

'

(51, 52).

A new

with a preface by Saint-Saens, appeared in Paris in 1905. g. c. RAMONDON, Lewis, presumably a Frenchman, and at first a singer in the pre-Handelian Italian operas. He appeared in 'Arsinoe,' 1705 in 'Camilla,' 1706 and 'Pyrrhus and Demetrius,' 1709. He sometimes took Leveridge's parts in these operas, but about 1711 he ceased to be a public singer, and turned his talents to composition. He brought out the series called 'The Lady's Entertainment' in 1709, 1710, 1711, and 1738. He arranged for the harpsichord the song-tunes in Camilla using, perhaps for the first time in music-notation for this instrument, a five instead of a sixline stave, and giving as the reason—' that the edition,

;

;

'

'

,

EAM)EGGEE

RAMSEY lessons being placed on five lines renders them proper for a violin and a base.' His vocal

compositions v^ere in high favour, and half a, dozen or so may be seen in Walsh's ' Merry Musician, or a Cure for the Spleen,' vol. i., 1716 ; others are on the single song sheet of the period. A tune of his, All you that must take a leap in the dark,' attained some degree of popularity by being sung by Macheath in It is probable that he the 'Beggar's Opera.' died about 1720, as his name does not appear to occur on any fresh work after that date but biographical details regarding him are '

;

F. K.

lacking.

RAMSEY,

Robert, was organist of Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1628 to 1644 in' Magister Choristarum from 1637 clusive, and but whether before or after to 1644 inclusive '

;

He those dates is not certain in either case. took the degree of Mus.B. at Cambridge in 1616, and was required to compose a 'Canticum to be performed at St. Mary's Church. A Morning and Evening Service in F by him is contained in the Tudway Collection (Harl. lis. 7340) and in the Ely Library, where, and at Peterhouse College, Cambridge, there are '

also

two anthems of his.

Add. MS. 11,608 in

the British Museum contains a setting by him of the dialogue between Saul, the witch, and Samuel In guiltie night,' which was after-

—

wards

set

'

by

Purcell.

Tudway

miscalls

him

A

madrigal by him is in the British Museum, and a commencement song a 8 was G. sold at Warren's sale in 1881. RANDALL, John, Mus.D., bom 1715, was a chorister of the Chapel Royal under Bernard Gates. He was one of the boys who shared in the representation of Handel's Esther at Gates's house, Feb. 23, 1732, he himself taking He graduated as Mus.B. the part of Esther. at Cambridge in 1744, his exercise being an anthem. In 1743 he was appointed organist of King's College, and on the death of Dr. Greene in 1755 was 'elected Professor of Music In 1756 he proceeded Mus.D. at Cambridge. He composed the music for Gray's Ode for the Installation of the Duke of Grafton as Chancellor of the University in 1768, and some church music. He was organist of Trinity Collegeinl777. He died at Cambridge, March 18, 1799. His name is preserved in England by w. H. H. his two Double Chants. RANDALL, P., a London music-seller and publisher, who had a shop at the sign of Ye Viol and Lute,' at Paul's Grave, without Temple He Bar, in 1707, and for some years later. may have been related, by marriage, to John Walsh, senior, the great music -publisher of Before 1710 he was a jiartner this period. with Walsh, and had abandoned his own place of business for Walsh's address in Katherine Street, Strand. -His name, in conjunction with Walsh's, appears on many imprints of Walsh's John.

'

'

'

'

'

publications.

D

'23

Later issues of these publica-

tions have Randall's name erased, and before 1720 his name entirely disappears from them.

Randall, William, is presumed to be a son of the preceding P. Randall. At tlie death of John Walsh, junior, Jan. 15, 1766, William Randall succeeded to the extensive business in Catherine Street, and shortly afterwards was for a couple of years or less in partnership with a person named Abell. Randall & Abell issued in large folio in 1768 what is practically the first complete edition of the Messiah,' as well as some minor issues. Randall was in '

business alone in 1771, and besides reprinting the Walsh publications, he published many interesting works. One of these was a reissue in 1771 of Morley's Plaine and Easie Introduclion. Collections of Vauxhall or other songs came forth, country dances, and the like. William Randall died about 1780, and his widow, Elizabeth, earned on the business until it was taken over, about 1783, by Messrs. Wright & Wilkinson, who made a great business almost solely by reprinting Handel's works from the original plates. F. K. RANDEGGER, Alberto, composer, conductor, and singing-master, was bom at Trieste, April 13, 1832. He began the study of music at the age of thirteen, under Lafont for the PF. and L. Ricci for composition, soon began to write, and by the year 1852 was known as the composer of several masses and smaller pieces of Church music, and of two ballets La Fidanzata di Castellamare and ' La Sposa d' Appenzello,' both produced at the Teatro grande of his native town. In the latter year he joined three other of Ricci's pupils in the composition of a buffo opera to a libretto by Gaetano Rossi, entitled II Lazzarone,' which had much success, first at the Teatro Mauroner at Trieste, and then elsewhere. In the next two years he was occupied as musical director of tlieatres at Fiume, Zara, Sinigaglia, Brescia, and Venice. In the winter of 1854 he brought out a tragic opera in four acts, called ' Bianca At Capello,' at the chief theati'e of Brescia.

—

'

'

'

was induced to come to London. gradually took a high position there, and has become widely known as a teacher of singing, conductor, and composer, and an enthusiastic lover of good music of whatever school or He has resided in England ever since, country. and is one of the most prominent musical figures In 1864 he produced at the in the metropolis. Theatre Royal, Leeds, 'The Rival Beauties,' a comic operetta in two acts, which has had much success in London and many other places. In 1868 he became Professor of Singing at the Royal Academy of Music, and has since been made an honorary member and director of that institution and a member of the Committee of Management. He is a Professor of Singing at the Royal College of Music, and is on the Board this time he

He

;

RANDHAETINGER

RANELAGH HOUSE AND GARDENS

of Professors. In the autumn of 1857 he conducted a series of Italian operas at St. James's Theatre, and in 1879-85 the Carl Rosa Company. [He conducted grand opera under Harris's

certain that Schubert's 'Schbne Miillerin' would He was called out of his never have existed.

24

management

at Drury Lane

and Covent Garden conducted the Queen's Hall Choral Society in 1896-97, but his most important position of this kind was the conductorship of the Norwich Festival, which he held with great success from 1881 to 1905 inclusive.] Mr. Kandegger's published works are numerous and important. They comprise a dramatic cantata (words by Mme. Rudersdorff), entitled ' Fridolin," composed for the Birmingham Festival, and produced there with great success, August 28, 1873; two soprano seenas 'Medea,' sung by Mme. Eudersdorff at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, in 1869, and 'Saffo,' sung by Mme. Lemmens at the British Orchestral Society, March 31, 1875 the 150th Psalm, for soprano solo, chorus, orchestra, and organ, for the Boston Festival, 1872 Funeral Anthem for the death

He

in 1887-98.

—

;

;

of the

Prince Consort, twice p'erformed in London ; a soena, 'The Prayer of Nature,' sung by Edward Lloyd at a Philharmonic concert in 1887 and a large number of songs and concerted vocal music for voice and orchestra or PF. He is also the author of the Primer of Singing in Novello's series. As a teacher of singing, Mr. Bandegger has a large number of pupils now before the English public as popular singers. (See the Musical Times for 1899, p. ;

653

G.

if.)

EANDHARTINGER,

Benedict, an Austrian musician, memorable for his connection with Schubert. He was born at Ruprechtshofen, in Lower Austria, July 27, 1802 at ten years old came to the Convict school at Vienna, and was then a pupil of Salieri's. He afterwards studied lor the law, and for ten years was Secretary to Count Szfohenyi, an official about the But he forsook this line of life for Court. music in 1832 entered the Court Chapel as a tenor singer in 1844 became Vioe-Court-Capellmeister, and in 1862, after Assmayer's death, entered on the full enjoyment of that dignity. His compositions are more than 600 in number, 20 masses comprising an opera, Konig Enzio symphonies quartets, etc. 400 60 motets Of all these, songs, 76 4 -part songs, etc. ;

;

;

'

;

'

;

;

;

124, chiefly songs, are published

and a

;

also a vol.

of Greek His acquaintance with Schubert probably began at the Convict, and at Salieri's though as he was Schubert's junior by five years, they can have been there together only for a short time ; but there are many slight traces of the existence of a close friendship between them. He was present, for example, at the first trial of the D minor String Quartet (Jan. 29, 1826), and he was one of the very few friends who of Grepk national songs,

vol.

liturgies.

visited Schubert in the terrible loneliness of his last illness.

But

for

Randhartinger

it is

almost

room while Schubert was paying him a visit, and on his return found that his friend had disappeared with a volume of W. Miiller's poems which he had accidentally looked into while waiting, and had been so much interested On his going the next day in as to carry off. to reclaim the book, Schubert presented him with some of the now well-known songs, which he had composed during the night. This was It is surely enough to entitle Randin 1823. hartinger to a perpetual memory. He had a brother Josef, of whom nothing

—

known beyond this that he was probably one of the immediate entourage of Beethoven's He, Lachner, and coffin at the funeral. Schubert are said to have gone together as torch-bearers (Kreissle von Hellbprn's ScJmbert,

is

G.

p. 266).

EANDLES,

Elizabeth, an extraordinary infant musical prodigy and performer on the pianoforte. She was born at Wrexham, August 1, 1800, and played in public before she was Her father, a blind fully two years of age. harper and organist of Wrexham, of some degree of local fame (1760-1820), placed her under John Parry the harper, and afterwards took her on tour to London, where she attracted much attention, and was made a pet of by the Royal family. A second visit to London was undertaken in 1808, and a concert for her benefit given in the Hanover Square rooms. At this Madame Catalani and other singers and instrumentalists gave their gratuitous services. Sir George Smart conducting. She settled in Liverpool as a music teacher about 1818, and died there in 1829. f. k.

RANELAGH HOUSE AND GARDENS were situated on the bank of the Thames, eastward of Chelsea Hospital. They were erected and laid out about 1690 by Richard Jones, Viscount (afterwards Earl of) Ranelagh, who resided there until his .death in 1712. In 1733 the property was sold in lots, and eventually the house and part of the gardens came into the hands of a number of persons who converted them into a place of public entertainment. In 1741 they commenced the erection of a spacious Rotunda (185 feet external, and 150 feet internal diameter), with four entrances through porticos. Surrounding it was an arcade, and over that a covered gallery, above which were the windows, sixty in number. In the centre of the interior and supporting the roof was a square erection containing the '

orchestra,

as well as fireplaces of peculiar construction for warming the building in winter. Forty-seven boxes, each to contain eight persons, were placed round the building,

and

company partook of tea and In the garden was a Chinese building, and a canal upon which the visitors were in these the

coffee.

' '

EANELAGH HOUSE AND GAEDENS

EANSFORD

rowed about in boats. Eanelagh was opened with a, public breakfast, April 5, 1742. The admission was 2s. including breakfast. On May 24 following it was opened for evening concerts ; Beard was the principal singer, Festing the leader, and the choruses were Twice a week ridottos chiefly from oratorios. were given, the tickets for which were £l:ls. Masquerades were each, including supper. shortly afterwards introduced, and the place soon became the favourite resort of the world Ranelagh was afterwards opened of fashion. about the end of February for breakfasts, and on Easter Monday for the evening entertainments. On April 10, 1746, a new organ by Bytield was opened at a public morning rehearsal of the music for the season, and Parry, the In 1749, celebrated Welsh harper, appeared. in honour of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, an A Jubilee Masquerade entertainment called in the Venetian manner, was given, of which Horace Walpole, in a letter to Sir Horace Mann, dated May 3, 1749, gives a lively

Cyclops at work in the centre of the mountain, and the lava pouring down its side, was The mountain was 80 feet high. exhibited. In 1793 the Chevalier d'fion fenced in public with a French professor, and about the same time regattas on the Thames in connection with the place were established. In 1802 the Installation Ball of the Knights of the Bath was given at Eanelagh, and also a magnificent entertainment by the Spanish Ambassador. These were the last occurrences of any importance the fortunes of the place had long been languishing, and it opened for the last time July 8, 1803. On Sept. 30, 1805, the proprietors gave directions for taking down the house and rotunda the furniture was soon after sold by auction, and the buildings removed. The organ was placed in Tetbury Church, Gloucestershire. No traces of Ranelagh remain the site now forma part of Chelsea Hospital garden. w. H. H. EANK. A rank of organ-pipes is one complete series or set, of the same quality of tone and kind of construction from the largest to the smallest, controlled by one draw-stop, acting on one slider. If the combined movement of draw-stop and slider admits air to two or more such series of pipe^, an organ-stop is said to be of two or more ranks, as the case may be. Occasionally the twelfth and fifteenth, or fifteenth and twenty-second, are thus united, forming a stop of two ranks but, as a rule, only those stops whose tones are reinforcements of some of the higher upper -partials of the gi'ound-tone are made to consist of several ranks, such as the Sesquialtera, Mixture, These stops have usually from Furniture, etc. three to five ranks each, reinforcing (according to their special disposition) the ground-tone by the addition of its 17th, 19th, 22nd, 24th, 26th, 29th,—that is, of its 3rd, 6th, and 8th [See in the third and fourth octave above.

'

'

description.

This proved so attractive that it was repeated times in that and succeeding years, until the suppression of such entertainments in In 1751 morning concerts were given 1755. twice a week, Signora Frasi and Beard being the singers. At that date it had lost none of You cannot conceive, says Mrs. its charm. Ellison, in Fielding's Amelia, 'what a sweet Paradise itself elegant delicious place it is. In 1754 an can hardly be equal to it.' entertainment of singing, recitation, etc. was Comus's Court, given under the name of which was very successful. In 1755a pastoral, the words from Shakespeare, the music by Arne, was produced Beard and Miss Young were the Handel's L' Allegro ed II Pensieroso singers was introduced on Beard's benefit night, and In 1759 Bonnell Stanley was the organist. several

'

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'

'

;

Thornton's burlesque Ode on St. Cecilia's Day In 1762 was performed with great success. In Tenducci was the principal male singer. 1764 a new orchestra was erected in one of the porticos of the Eotunda, the original one being On June found inconvenient from its height. 29, 1764, Mozart, then eight years old, performed on the harpsichord and organ several pieces of his own composition for the benefit of a charity. In 1770 Burney was the organist. Fireworks were occasionally exhibited, when the

was raised

price of admission

to 5s.

In 1777

the fashionable world played one of its strange, Walpole unreasoning freaks at Ranelagh. It is the fashion now to wrote on June 18 go to Ranelagh two hours after it is over. You may not believe this, but it is literal. The music ends at ten, the company go at twelve. This practice caused the concert to be commenced In 1790 a repreat a later hour than before. sentation of Mount Etna in eruption, with the :

—

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25

;

;

;

;

Sesquialtera and Mixture.] j. s. RANSFORD, Edwin, baritone vocalist, songwriter, and composer, born March 13, 1805, at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, died in He first appeared on London, July 11, 1876. the stage as an extra in the opera-chorus at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, and was afterwards engaged in that of Covent Garden During Charles Kemble's manageTheatre. ment of that theatre he made his first appearance as Don Caesar in The Castle of Andalusia,' on May 27, 1829, and was engaged soon afterwards by Arnold for the English OperaHouse (now the Lyceum). In the autumn of 1829, and in 1830, he was at Covent Garden. In 1831 he played leading characters under Elliston at the Surrey Theatre, and became In 1832 he was with a general favourite. Joe Grimaldi at Sadler's Wells, playing Tom The Truck, in Campbell's nautical drama Battle of Trafalgar, in which he made a great '

'

'

'

'

c

'

hit with

Neukomm's

theatre

he

song, 'The Sea.' At this sustained the part of Captain Cannonade in Bamett'a opera ' The Pet of the Petticoats.' He afterwards fulfilled important engagements at Drury Lane, the Lyceum, and Covent Garden. At Covent Garden he played the Doge of Venice in ' Othello,' March 25, 1833, when Edmund Kean last appeared on the stage, and Sir Harry in ' The School for Scandal on Charles Kemble's last appearance as Charles Surface. His final theatrical engagement was with Macready at Covent Garden in 1837-38. He wrote the words of many songs, his best being perhaps In the days when we went gipsying.' In later years his entertainments, 'Gipsy Life,' 'Tales of the Sea,' and 'Songs of Dibdin,' etc., became deservedly popular. As a genial bon camafade he was universally liked. [He was also a music-seller and publisher, and during the forties and fifties issued a great number of the popular songs of the day. His shop was in" Charles Street, Soho, but in 1850 he moved to 461 Oxford Street. In 1869 he went into partnership with his son, William Edwin, at 2 Princes Street, Cavendish Square. The son, who continued the business after his father's death, was a tenor vocalist of ability. w. H. He died Sept. 21, 1890. F. K.] RANTZAU, I. Opera in four acts, text by G. Targioni-Tazzetti and G. Menasci, music by Produced at the Pergola, Florence, Mascagni. Nov. 10, 1892, and at Covent Garden, July '

7,

EAPPOLDI

EANTZAU

26

1893.

RANZ DES VACHES gen

;

(Kuhreihen, Kuhrei; Appenzell patois GhUereiha), a strain of an

irregular description, Switzerland is sung or

which in some parts of blown on the Alpine horn

in June, to call the cattle from the valleys to Several derivations have the higher pastures. been suggested for the words ranz and reihen or reigen. Banz has been translated by the English ' rondeau,' and has been ' rant,' and the French derived from the Keltic root 'renk' or 'rank,' which may also be the derivation of reihen, in which case both words would mean the ' procesStalder (Schweizesion or march of the cows.' ' risches Idiotikon) thinks that reihen means to reach,' or ' fetch,' while other authorities say

that the word is the same as reigen (a dance accompanied by singing), and derive ram from the Swiss patois ' ranner,' to rejoice. The Eanz des Vaches are very numerous, and differ both in music and words in the different They are extremely irregular in charcantons. acter, full of

The most

Ranz des Vaches

celebrated

is

that of Appenzell, a copy of which is said to have been sent to our Queen Anne, with whom The first work in it was a great favourite. which it was printed is Georg Rhaw's Bicinia It is also to be found in (Wittenberg, 1545). a dissertation on Nostalgia in Zwinger's Fasciculvs ZHssertationum Medicarum (Basle, 1710). Rousseau printed a version in his Diciionnaire

de Musique, which Laborde arranged for four It was voices in his Ussai mr la Mtisique. used by Gretry in his Overture to Guillaume Tell,' and by Adam in his MMhod de Fiano du. It has been also arranged by Cmiservatoire.^ '

Guillaume Tell '), and ^- b. s. Eduard, born at Vienna, Feb. was placed by his father at an

Webbe, Weigl, Rossini Meyerbeer.

BAPPOLDI,

('

He 21, 1831. early age under Doleschall, and made his first appearance in his seventh year as violinist, His talent for the pianist, and composer.

pianoforte was so great as to induce the Countess Banffy to put him under Mittag, Thalberg's But the violin was the instrument of teacher.

and he succeeded in studying it under Jansa, who induced him to go to London in 1850. Here he made no recorded appearance. On his return to Vienna he was so far provided for by the liberality of the same lady, that he became a pupil of the Conservatorium under He then Hellmesberger from 1851 to 1854. put himself under Bbhm, and shortly began to travel, and to be spoken of as a promising his choice,

The

player.

first real

step in his career

was

conducting a concert of Joachim's at Rotterdam in 1866, where he had been concertmeister since 1861. At the end of that year he went to Liibeck as capellmeister, in 1867 to Stettin in the same capacity, and in 1869 to the LandesDuring this time he was theater at Prague. working hard at the violin, and also studying composition with Sechter and Hiller. From 1871 to 1877 he was a colleague of Joachim's at the Hochschule at Berlin— where he proved himself a first-rate teacher and a member of his quartet party. In 1876 he was made Eoyal

—

1

There

Is

a curious analogy between the above and the following

strain, which is sung with inftnite variations in the agricultural districts near I^ndon to frighten away the birds from the seed. In Txith passiiges the F is more nearly FS.

long cadences and abrupt changes

It is a curious fact that they are strictly in tune, more particularly when

of tempo.

seldom

played on the Alpine horn, an instrument in which, like the Bagpipe, the note represented by F is really an extra note between F and F)t. This note is very characteristic of the Ranz des Vaches passages like the following being re;

peated and varied almost ad infinitum.

2 Other examples and deseriptiona will be found In the following works :—Cappellei-'s Pilati MontU JTiatoria (I7ff7) Stolberg'a Reise ;

in DeutscMand, der Bchvieiz, etc. (a'794) Ebel'fl SchUderung der GebirgsvOtker der Schieeiz (W98) Sigmund von Wagner's AcTU Schweizer Kuhreihen (1805) the article on Viotti in the Diceule /'hUoaophUjue {An B) Caatelnau's ConaidireUiojis sur la Nostalgie (1806): Edward San&a'a MiMical Curiosities [\Sn)^ Recwnl de liwrn des Vachet et de Chansons Rationales Suisses, third edition, Berne, 1818, also Tarenne's SamTtdwnff von Schweizer Kuhreihen uvd Vot&eUedern (1818) Ruber's RecueU de ftanz des Vavhes (1830) and Tobler'a Appenielliicher Sprachschatz (1837). ;

;

j

;

;

;

JEAN PHILIPPE BAMEAU

EASELIUS

EASOUMOWSKY

and soon after received a call to a This, concertmeistership at Dresden. however, his love for Joachim and for Berlin, where he had advanced sufficiently to lead the Quartets alternately with his chief, induced him for a long time to hesitate to accept, notwithstanding the very high terms offered. At length, however, he did accept it, and became (in 1877) joint conoertmeister with Lauterbaoh at the Dresden opera, and chief teacher in the Couservatorium. He retired in 1898, after which time he only taught a few favoured pupils; he died in Dresden, May 16, 1903. Though a virtuoso of the first rank he followed in the footsteps of Joachim by sacrificing display to the tiner interpretation of the music, and succeeded in infusing a new spirit into chamber-

so that the congregation may easily sing the chorale-tune while the trained choir provide the harmonies. The chorale-tune is in the ujiper part, but the harmonies are not always mere note-for-note counterpoint as in a modern hymntune. A few specimens of these settings are given in Schbberlein's Schatz. Other published works of Raselius are Teutsche Spriiche ans den .,' Sonntaglichen Evangelia 53 German

Professor,

court

music at Dresden.

He composed

symphonies,

and songs, some of which They are distinguished for earnestness, and for great beauty of form, and a quartet was performed in Dresden in the winter of 1878 which aroused quite an unusual sensation. In 1874 Eappoldi married a lady nearly as distinguished as himself, Laura. Kahree, who was born in Vienna, Jan. 14, 1853, and whose acquaintance he made many Her talent, like his, years before at Prague. On the nominashowed itself very early. tion of the Empress Elisabeth she became a quartets,

sonatas,

have been printed.

pupil of the Conservatorium at Vienna, under Dachs and Dessoff, from 1866 to 1869. After taking the first prize, she made a toumee to the principal towns of Germany, ending at Weimar.

There she studied under Liszt, and matured that beauty of touch, precision, fire, and intelligence, which have raised her to the first rank of pianists in Germany, and which induced Herr von Biilow no lenient critic to praise her playing of Beethoven's op. 106 in the highest tei-ms. She was the worthy colleague of G. her husband in the best concerts of Dresden. RASELIUS, Andreas, was born at Hahnbach near Amberg in the Upper Palatinate some time between 1562 and 1564. He was the son of a Lutheran preacher, who had studied at Wittenberg under Melanohthon, and whose original name. Easel, Melanchthon latinised into Easelius. From 1581tol584 Andreas attended the then Lutheran University of Heidelberg, taking his degree as Magister Artium in the latter year. In the same year he was appointed

—

—

cantor and teacher at the Gymnasium of Ratisbon, then conducted under Lutheran auspices. In his capacity as cantor he published in 1589 a Musical Instruction book with the Quaestiones Musicae title Hexachordiim seu Praclicae sex capitibus comprehensae, which was In 1599 1664. still in use at Ratisbon in

appeared his 'Regenspurgischer Kirchen-Contrapunkt,' which contains simple settings a 5 of 51 of the older Lutheran Psalm-tunes and chorales.

The fuU

title describes

them

as set

27

'

.

.

Motets a 5 (Nuremberg, 1594), and 'Neue Teutsche Spriiche auf die Test und .,' 22 Motets a 5-9, described Aposteltage as composed on the 12 Modes of the Dodecachordon (Nuremberg, 1595). Besides these published works there remain in MS. several collections of Latin and German motets and .

.

.

.

.

magnificats by Raselius. He is also known as the author of a historical work, a chronicle of Ratisbon, originally written both in Latin and German, of which only the German edition survives. Raselius remained at Ratisbon till 1600, when he received a pressing invitation from the Elector Palatine Frederick IV. to return to Heidelberg as Hofcapellmeister. This higher post of honour he was not permitted to retain long, as death carried him olf on Jan. 6, 1602. monograph on Raselius by J. Auer of Amberg appeared as a Beilage to Eitner's J. K. M. Monatshefte of 1892.

A

EASOUMOWSKY,!

Andreas

Kyeillo-

VITSCH, a Russian nobleman to whom Beethoven dedicated three of his greatest works, and whose name will always survive in connection with the Rasoumowsky Quartets (op. 59). He was the son of Kyrill Rasum, a, peasant of Lemeschi, a village in the Ukraine, who, with his elder brother, was made a Count (Graf) by the Andreas was Empress Elisabeth of Russia. bom Oct. 22, 1752, served in the English and Russian navies, rose to the rank of admiral, and was Russian ambassador at Venice, Naples, In EngCopenhagen, Stockholm, and Vienna. land his name must have been familiar, or Foote would hardly have introduced it as he has in The Liar (1762). At Vienna he married, in 1788, Elisabeth Countess of Thun, one of the 'three Graces,' elder sister of the Princess Carl Lichnowsky [see vol. ii. p. 723a] and on March 25, 1792, had his audience from the Emperor of Austria as Russian ambassador, a post which he held with short intervals for more than twenty years. He was a thorough musician, an excellent player of Haydn's quartets, in which he took second violin, not improbably That, studying them under Haydn himself. with his connection with Lichnowsky, he must have known Beethoven is obvious but no direct trace of the acquaintance is found until May 26, 1806 (six weeks after the withdrawal of in his usual polyFidelio '), which Beethoven has marked on the first page of the glot '

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;

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1 Raautnoffaky and Eaaoumoffaky are forms used by Beethoven in various dedicat ons.

—

;

RASOUMOWSKY

KAUZZINI

Quartet in F of op. 59, as the date on which he began it Quartetto angefangen am 26ten

humblement dedi^es i son Excellence MonBeethoven himself mentions them in a letter to Count Brunswick, which he has dated May 11, 1806, but which

28

—

May

'

1806.'

In 1808 the Count formed his famous quartet party Schuppanzigh, first violin Weiss, viola; Lineke, violoncello and he himself second

— violin — which

;

;

for many years met in the evenand performed, among other compositions, Beethoven's pieces, 'hot from the fire,' under his own immediate instructions. In April 1809 appeared the minor and Pastoral Symphonies (Nos. 5 and 6), with a dedication (on the Parts) to Prince Lobkowitz and 'son excellence Monsieur le Comte de Rasu-

ings,

moffsky (Breitkopf & Hartel). These dedications doubtless imply that Beethoven was largely the recipient of the Count's bounty, but there '

no direct evidence of it, and there is a strange absence of reference to the Count in Beethoven's letters. His name is mentioned only once July 24, 1813 and there is a distant allusion in a letter of a much later date (Nohl, Bricfe B. 1865, No. 354). In the autumn of 1814 came the Vienna Congress (Nov. 1, 1814June 9, 1815), and as the Empress of Russia was in Vienna at the time, the Ambassador's Palace was naturally the scene of special festivities. It was not, however, there that Beethoven was presented to the Empress, but at the Archduke Eodolph's.i The Count's hospitalities were immense, and, vast as was his palace, a separate wooden annexe had to be constructed capable of dining 700 persons. On June 3, 1815, six days before the signature of the final Act of the Congress, the Count was made Prince (Fiirst), and on the Slst of the following December the dining-hall just mentioned was burnt down. The Emperor of Russia gave 400,000 silver roubles (£40,000) towards the rebuilding, but the misfortune appears to have been too much for the Prince ; he soon after sold the property, pensioned his quartet, and disappears from musical history. The quartet kept together for many years after this date, Sina playing second violin. Beethoven mentions them Apropos of the Galitzin Quartets in the letter to his nephew already referred A. w. T. to, about 1825. is

—

The three quartets to which Rasoumowsky's name is attached form op. 59, and are in F, E The first of the minor, and C respectively. as already mentioned, was begun May 1806, and the whole three were finished and had evidently been played before Feb. 27, 1807, the date of a letter in the Allg. mus. Zeilung describing their characteristics. ^ They were published in January 1808 (Vienna Bureau Pesth, Schreyvogel), and the dedides Arts cation (on the Parts) begins 'Trois Quatuors three,

26,

;

Schlndler, i. 233 (quoted by Thayer, lli. 321). 3 They are again alluded to In the number for May 6 ae more and more auccessfiil, and possibly to be soon published and then, with astonishing naXveti, follows 'Eberl's newest compositions, too, are anticipated with great pleasure

tres

sieur le Oomte,' etc.

Thayer

(iii.

11) sees reason to date 1807.

The Quartet in F is the one which Bernard Romberg is said to have thrown on the ground and trampled upon as unplayable. The slow movement is entitled in the Sketchbook Einen Trauerweiden oder Akazienbaum aufs Grab

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A weeping willow. or acacia meines Bruders' But which tree over the grave of my brother.' brother? August died in 1783, twenty-three years before, Carl not till ten years after, and Johann not till 1 848. Carl's marriage-contract had, however, been signed only on May 25, 1806. Is it possible that this inscription is a Beethoveuish joke on the occasion ? If so, he began The finale has a in fun and ended in earnest. Russian theme in D minor for its principal subject, and the second of the three has a Russian theme in E major as the Trio of its third '

movement. G. [The tunes are given in Kbhler's 'Album Russe' as Nos. 188 and 175 respectively ; and are also in 'Chants Nationaux Russes,' Nos. 13 and 45.] RATAPLAN, like Rub-a-dub, is an imitative word for the sound of the drum, as Tan-ta-ra is for that of the trumpet, and Tootle-tootle for the flute.' It is hardly necessary to mention its introduction by Donizetti in the FUle du Regiment, or by Meyerbeer in the Huguenots and every Londoner is familiar with it in Sergeant Bouncer's part in Sullivan's ' Cox and '

'

'

'

Box.' title

'Rataplan, der kleine Tambour' is the of a Singspiel by Pillwitz, which was

produced at Bremen in 1831, and had a considerable run both in North and South Germany between that year and 1836, g. RAUZZINI, Venanzio, born 1747, in Rome, where he made his d^but in 1765, captivating

by his fine voice, clever acting, and prepossessing appearance. In 1766 or 1767 he was at Munich, where Bumey heard him in 1772, and where foiu: of his operas were perhis audience

He sang at various plac.es during this In London he made his first appearance in 1774, in Corri's 'Alessandro nell' Indie.' [His appearance in a pasticcio of Armida in the same year has resulted in the attribution to him of an opera of that name dated 1778, and the error has been copied into most dictionaries from the first edition of this work.] He also distinguished himself as an excellent teacher of singing, Miss Storace, Braham, Miss Poole (afterwards Mrs. Dickons), and Incledon, being among his pupils. In 1778 and 1779 he gave subscription concerts with the violinist Lamotte, when they were assisted by such eminent artists as Miss Harrop, Signor Rovedino, formed. period.

'

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'

I

3

OtherformsarePatapataplan, Palalalalan,

Bee the Didionnaire SncyclopSdigue of Sachs

Bumherumbumbum. ft

Villatte.

;

,

EAVENSCROFT Fischer, Cervetto, Stamitz,

Decamp, and de-

He

menti.

new

KAWLINGS

also gave brilliant concerts in the Assembly Rooms (built 1771) at Bath,

where he took up his abode on leaving London. Here he invited Haydn and Dr. Burney to visit him, and the three spent several pleasant days together in 1794. On this occasion Haydn wrote a four-part canon (or more strictly a round) to an epitaph on a favourite dog buried iu Rauzzini's garden, ' Turk was a faithful dog and not a man.' (See Turk.) Rauzzini's operas performed in London were ' Piramo e 'nsbe' (March 16, 1775, and afterwards in Vienna), 'Le Ali d'Amore' (Feb. 27, 1776); 'Creusa in Delfo' (1783); 'La Regina di

Golconda' (1784); and 'La Vestale' (1787). L' Eroe Cinese,' originally given at Munich in 1771, was performed in London in 1782. (These dates are from the Public Advertiser.) He composed string-quartets, sonatas for PF., Italian arias and duets, and English songs also a Requiem produced at the little Haymarket Theatre in 1801, by Dr. Arnold and Salomon. He died, universally regretted, at Bath, April 8, His brother 1810. Matteo, bom in Rome 1754, made his iirst appearance at Munich in 1772, followed his brother to England, and settled in Dublin, where he produced an opera, II Rfe pastore, in 1784. He had written Le finte Gemelli for Munich in 1772, and 'L' opera nuova' for Venice in 1781. He employed himself in teaching singing, and died in 1791. o. F. p. RAVENSCROFT, John, one of the Tower '

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'

'

Hamlets waits, and vioUnist at Goodman's Fields Theatre, was noted for his skill in the composition of hornpipes, a collection of which he published. Two of them are printed in Hawkins's History, and another in vol. iii. of 'The Dancing Master.' A set of sonatas for two violins and violone or arch-lute, were printed at

He

Rome

in

w. H. H. RAVENSCROFT, Thomas, Mus.B., born about 1582, was a chorister of St. Paul's under Edward Pearce, and graduated at Cambridge in 1607. In 1609 he edited and published Pammelia. Musickes Miscellanie or Mixed Varietie of pleasant Roundelayes and delightful Catches 1695.

died about 1745.

'

:

—

10 Parts in one the earliest collection of rounds, catches, and canons printed in this country. A second impression appeared in 1618. Later in 1609 he put forth 'Deuteromelia or the Second Part of Musiok's Melodic, or melodius Musioke of Pleasant Roundelaies ; K. H. mirth, or Freemen's Songs and such delightfull Catches' containing the catch, Hold thy peace, thou knave,' sung in Shakespeare's 'Twelfth Night.' In 1611 he published Melismata. Musicall Fhansies, fitting the Court, Citie, and Countrey Humours, to 3, 4 and 5 Voyces.' In 1614 he published 'A Briefe Discourse of the true (but neglected) use of Charact'ring the Degrees by their Perfection, of 3, 4, 5,

'

6, 7, 8, 9,

;

;

'

'

Imperfection, and Diminution in Mensurable Musicke against the Common Practise and Custome of these Times ; Examples whereof are exprest in the Harmony of 4 Voyces Concerning the Pleasure of 5 vsuall Recreations. 1. Hunt2. Hawking. 3. Dancing. 4. Drinking. Enamouring a vain attempt to resuscitate an obsolete practice. The musical examples were composed by Edward Pearce, John Bennet, and Ravensoroft himself. [Much of the material is found in a MS. in the Brit. Mus. Add. MS.

ing. 5.

'

19,758

{Diet,

—

of Nat. Biog.).

was music -meister at

In 1618-22 he

Christ's Hospital {Mus.

Times, 1905, p. 580.)] In 1621 he published the work by which he is best known, 'The Whole Booke of Psalmes With the Hymnes Evangelicall and Spirituall. Composed into four parts by Sundry Authors with severall Tunes as have been and are usually sung in England, Scotland, Wales, Germany, Italy, France, and the Netherlands.' Another edition was published in 1633. Four anthems or motets by Ravenscroft are among the MSS. in the library of Christ Church, Oxford. [For other music by him see the Quellen-Lexilcon.^ The date of his death is not known. It is said by some to have been about 1630, and by others about 1635. w. H. H. RAVINA, Jean Henki, a pianoforte composer, was bom May 20, 1818, at Bordeaux, where his mother was a prominent musician. At the instance of Rode and Zimmermann the lad was admitted to the Conservatoire of Paris in 1831. His progress was rapid- second prize for PF. in 1832; first prize for the same in :

—

1834;

first for

harmony and accompaniment

in

1835, ajoint professorship of PF. Nov. 1835. In Feb. 1 837 he left the Conservatoire and embarked on the world as a virtuoso and teacher. He resided exclusively at Paris, with the exception of a journey to Russia in 1853, and Spain in 1871. He received the Legion of Honour in 1861. His compositions are almost all salon pieces, many of them very popular in their time, graceful and effective, but with no permanent qualities. He also published a 4 -hand arrangement of Beethoven's nine symphonies. Ravina died in Paris, Sept. 30, 1906. The above sketch is indebted to M. Pougin's supplement

—

to F^tis.

RAWLINGS,

G.

or

RAWLINS, Thomas, bom

about 1703, was a pupil of Dr. Pepusch, and a member of Handel's orchestra at both opera oratorio performances. On March 14, 1753, he was appointed organist of Chelsea Hospital. He died in 1767. His son, Robert, bom in 1742, was =t pupil of his father, and afterwards of Barsanti. At seventeen he was appointed musical page to the Duke of York, with whom he travelled on the continent until his death in 1767, when he returned to England and became a violinist in the King's band and Queen's private band. He died in 1 8 1 4, leaving

and

— 30

RAYMOND AND AGNES

KEADE

a son, Thomas A., born in 1775, who studied music under his father and Dittenhofer. He composed some instrumental music performed at the Professional Concerts, became a violinist at the Opera and the best concerts, and a teacher of the pianoforte, violin, and thorough-bass. He composed and arranged many pieces for the pianoforte, and some songs, and died about the middle of the 19th century. w. H. H. RAYMOND AND AGNES. A 'grand romantic English Opera in three acts words by E. Fitzball, music by E. J. Loder. Produced at Manchester in 1855, and at St. James's Theatre, London, June 11, 1859. g. '

;

The second note of the natural scale in and in the nomenclature of France and Italy, as TJt (or Do) is the first, Mi the third, and Fa the fourth RE.

solraisation

Ut queant laxis resonare fibris Mira, gestorum, /amuli tuorum.

By the Germans and English it is called D. RE PASTORp, IL. A dramatic cantata

G.

to Metastasio's words (with compressions), composed by Mozart at Salzburg in 1775, in honour of the Archduke Maximilian. First performed April 23, 1775. It contains an overture and fourteen numbers. The autograph is in the Royal Library at Berlin, and the work is published in Breitkopf s complete edition as Series Aminta's air, 'L'amer6,' with V. No. 10. violin obbligato, is the number by which the work is most widely known. g. REA, William, born in London, March 25, 1827 ; when about ten years old learnt the pianoforte and organ from Josiah Pittman, for whom he acted as deputy for several years. In about 1843 he was appointed organist to Christchurch, Watney Street, St. George's-in-the-East, and at the same time studied the pianoforte, composition, and instrumentation under Sterndale Bennett, appearing as a pianist at the concerts of the Society of British Musicians in 1845. On leaving Christchurch he was appointed In 1849 organist to St. Andrew Undershaft. he went to Leipzig, where his masters were Moscheles and Richter ; he subsequently studied under Dreyschock at Prague. On his return to England, Mr. Rea gave chamber concerts at the Beethoven Rooms, and became (1853) In 1856 he organist to the Harmonic Union.

founded the London Polyhymnian Choir, to the training of which he devoted much time, and with excellent results at the same time he conducted an amateur orchestral society. In 1858 he was appointed organist at St. Michael's, Stookwell, and in 1860 was chosen by competi;

tion organist to the corporation of Newcastleon-Tyne, where he also successively filled the same post at three churches in succession, and

Road Chapel. At Newcastle Mr. Rea worked hard to diffuse a taste for good music, though he met with less encouragement at the Elswick

his labours and enthusiasm deserved. Besides weekly organ and pianoforte recitals, he formed n choir of eighty voices, which iu 1862 was amalgamated with the existing Sacred

than

Harmonic Society of Newcastle.

In 1867 he

began a series of excellent orchestral concerts which were carried on every season for nine years, when he was compelled to discontinue them, owing to the pecuniary loss which they entailed. In 1876 he gave two performances of 'Antigone' at the Theatre Royal, and devoted much of his time to training his choir (200 voices), the Newcastle Amateur Vocal Society, and other Societies on the Tyne and in Sunderland, besides giving concerts at which the best His published works comartists performed. prise four songs, three organ pieces, and some anthems. At the close of 1 880 he was appointed organist of St. Hilda's, S. Shields, in 1888 he [He resigned the corporation appointment. was an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Organists, and in 1886 received the honorary degree of Mus.D. from the University of Durham. He composed a ' Jubilee Ode for the Newcastle Exhibition of 1887, and he died at Newcastle, March 8, 1903. An account of his life and His works is in Mvsical Times, April 1903. wife, Emma Mary {rde Woolhouse), was an accomplished musician, actively connected with the musical life of Newcastle. She died May 6, w! B. s. 1693. p. K.] READE, Chakles, English dramatist and novelist born June 8, 1814, died April 11, 1884 claims a notice in his capacity of «xpert connoisseur, and one of the earliest collectors of old violins. He devoted much time to the study of violin construction, and as his sons put it acquired as keen a scent for the habitat of a rare violin, as the truffle dog for fungus beneath the roots of the trees.' He gathered much of this accurate knowledge from one '

—

—

—

—

'

Henri, a player ajid a maker to boot, resident in Soho, with whom he engaged in experiments in varnish, and in the business of importing fiddles from abroad for the English dealers. Frequent visits to Paris, in the latter connection, resulted sometimes in profit, and at other times in financial catastrophe ; but they succeeded in bringing to England some of the finest specimens of Cremona instruments that are known to-day. They were in Paris, buying a stock of thirty fiddles, when the Revolution of 1848 broke out, and Henri threw aside fiddle-dealing and joined the revolutionists. He was shot before his friend's eyes at the first barricade, and Charles Reade escaped with difficulty, leaving the fiddles behind. These were found stored away in a cellar after the Revolution, and eventually reached Reade, who records that he sold one of them for more than he paid for the whole lot. At the time of the Special Loan Exhibition of Musical Instruments held at the South Kensington Museum in 1872, Reade wrote a

REBEC

EEADING series of letters upon Cremona fiddles in the JPail Mall Gazette, in whicli he propounded the

theory that the Lost Cremona Varnish was a spirit varnish laid over an oil varnish. Coming as it did from so noted a connoisseur, there were many who accepted the theoi-y as the solution of the question. These letters were privately reprinted by G. H. M. Muntz, under the title Lost Art Revived : Cremona Fiolins and Varnish (Gloucester, 1873), and again in the volume entitled Readiana (Ghatto & Windus, 1882). In later life Charles Reade abandoned fiddles and fiddle-trading, but we '

'

A

find traces of his infatuation in his writings.

The adventurous

John Frederick Lott, told by him, somewhat

career of

the violin- maker,

is

romantically, in his novel Jack of all Trades ; whilst interesting matter concerning the violin comes into Christie Johnstone, and his collection Reade (Charles L., of tales entitled Cream. and Rev. Compton), Charles Reade Coleman (John), Charles Reade ; Sutherland - Edwards, Personal Recollections ; Hart (G.), The Violin ; E. h-a. Diet, of Nat. Biog. READING, John. There were three musiThe first cians of these names, all organists. was appointed Junior Vicar Choral of Lincoln Cathedral, Oct. 10, 1667, Poor Vicar, Nov. 28, 1667, and Master of the Choristers, June 7, 1670. He succeeded Randolph Jewett as organist of Winchester Cathedral in 1675, and retained the office until 1681, when he was He appointed organist of Winchester College. He was the composer of the died in 1692. Latin Graces sung before and after meat at the annual CoUegeelection times, and the well-known all Winchester School song, ' Dulce Domum printed in Dr. Philip Hayes's ' Harmonia The second was organist of Wiccamioa.' Chichester Cathedral from 1674 to 1720.

—

;

'

;

Several songs included in collections published

between 1681 and 1688 are probably by one or The third, born other of these two Readings. 1677, was a chorister of the Chapel Royal under In 1696-98 he was organist of Dr. Blow. Dulwich College [information from Dr. W. H. Cummings]. He was appointed Junior Vicar and Poor Clerk of Lincoln Cathedral, Nov. 21, 1702, Master of the Choristers, Got. 5, 1703,

and Instructor of the

choristers in vocal music,

He appears to have resigned Sept. 28, 1704. these posts in 1707, and to have returned to London, where he became organist of St. John, Hackney (in 1708), St. Dunstan in the West, St. Mary Woolchurchhaw, Lombard Street, and He published A Book St. Mary Woolnoth. '

New

Songs (after the Italian manner) with Symphonies and a Thorough Bass fitted to the Harpsichord, etc.,' and (about 1709) 'A Book of New Anthems.' One of the Readings was also the reputed composer of the tune to Adeste of

'

fideles.'

He

died Sept. 2, 1764.

There was another person named Reading,

31

singer at Drury Lane in the latter part of the l7th century. In June 1695 he and Pate, another singer at the theatre, were removed from their places and fined 20 marks each for being engaged in a riot at the Dog Tavern, Drury Lane, but were soon after reinstated. A Rev. John Reading, D.D., Prebendary of Canterbury Cathedral, preached there a sermon in defence of church music, alnd published it in 1663. w. H. H. REAL FUGUE. See Fugue.

who was a

REAY, Samuel,

born at Hexham, March 17,

1822, was noted for his fine voice and careful singing as a chorister at Durham Cathedral and under Henshaw the organist, and Penson the precentor there, became acquainted with much music outside the regular Cathedral services. After leaving the choir he had organ lessons from Mr. Stimpson of Birmingham, and then became successively organist at St. Andrew's, Newcastle (1845) St. Peter's, Tiverton (1847);St. John's Parish Church, Hampstead (1854) Saviour's, Warwick Road (1856) St. St. Stephen's, Paddington Eadley College (1859, succeeding Dr. E. G. Monk) Bury, Lancashire (1861); and in 1864 was appointed 'Songschoolmaster and organist of the parish Church Newark, retiring from the latter post in 1901, but retaining that of Song schoolmaster on the Magnus foundation until his death, which took place at Newark, July 22, 1905. In 1871 Reay graduated at Oxford as Mus.B. In 1879 he distinguished himself by producing at the Bow and Bromley Institute, London, two comic cantatas of J. S. Bach's ('Caffee-cantate' and Bauern-cantate '), which were performed there certainly for the first time in England on Oct. 27, under his direction, to English words of his own adaptation. Mr. Reay was noted as a fine accompanist and extempore player on the organ. He published a Morning and Evening Service in F, several anthems, and two madrigals but is best known as a writer of (all Novello) part-songs, some of which ( The clouds that wrap, The dawn of day, written for the Tiverton Vocal Society) are deservedly popular. G. REBEC (Ital. Ribeca, Ribeba Span. Rabd, Rabel). The French name (said to be of Arabic origin) of that primitive stringed instrument which was in use throughout western Europe in the Middle Ages, and was the parent of the viol and violin, and is identical with the German fiddle in outline geige and the English something like the mandoline, of which it was It was shaped like the probably the parent. half of a pear, and was everywhere solid except at the two extremities, the upper of which Was formed into a peg-box identical with that still in use, and surmounted by a carved human head. The lower half was considerably cut down in level, thus leaving the upper solid part of the instrument to form a natural finger-board. The portion thus cut down was scooped out, ;

;

;

;

;

;

'

'

—

—

;

'

'

'

'

;

'

'

'

'

;

REBEC

32

REBEL

and over the cavity thus formed was glued a short pine belly, pierced with two trefoil-shaped sound-holes, and fitted with a bridge and sound-

disused,

and no specimen was known

until, at

the exhibition of Musical Instruments at Milan in 1881, six genuine specimens were shown. Representations of it in sculpture, painting, The illustramanuscripts, etc., are abundant. tion is from an Italian painting of the 13th century engraved in Vidal's Instruments a Archet. [The custom of playing songs in unison with the voice, which came into vogue in the 15th century, resulted in the classification of rebecs into definite ' sets answering in '

pitch to the Treble, Alto, Tenor, and Bass voices. Martin Agrioola, in his Musica Instrumentalis, 1528, gives woodcuts of a 'set' of rebecs which he calls Discant, Altus, Tenor, and Bassus.

E. J. p.

B. H-A.]

REBEL, Jean FtoT, born

in Paris about 1661, [the son of Jean, a singer in the service of the French court, from 1661 to his death in 1692.] After a precocious childhood he entered

The player either rested the curved end of the instrument lightly against the breast, or post. else

held

it like

the violin, between the chin

and the collar-bone, and bowed it like the violin. It had three stout gut strings, tuned like the lower strings of the violin (A, D, 6). Its tone was loud and harsh, emulating the female voice, according to a French poem of the 13th century. Quidam rebecam arcuabant, Muliebrem vocem confingentes.^

An

old Spanish poem speaks of ' el rab^ gri2 or the ' squalling rebec' This powerful tone made it useful in the mediaeval orchestra ; and Henry the Eighth employed the rebec in his state band. It was chiefly used, however, to tador,'

accompany dancing andShakespeare'smusicians in Borneo and Juliet, Hugh Rebeck, Simon Catling (Catgut), and James Soundpost, w^ere ;

undoubtedly rebec -players.

After the inven-

tion of instruments of the viol and violin type it was banished to the streets of towns and to rustic festivities, whence the epithet 'jocund' It was applied to it in Milton's L' Allegro. usually accompanied by the drum or tambourine. It was in vulgar use in France in the 18th century, as is proved by an ordinance issued by Guignon in his official capacity as 'Eoi des

Violons'in 1742, in which street-fiddlers are II leur prohibited from using anything else sera permis d'y jouer d'une espfeoe d'instrument k trois cordes seulement, et connu sous le nom de rebec, sans qu'ils puissent se servir d'un violon k quatre cordes sous quelque pr^texte que '

;

A

extant, dated 1628, ce soit.' in which it is forbidden to play the treble or bass violin 'dans les cabarets et les mauvais lieux,' but only the rebec. The rebec .was extinct in England earlier than in France. Itis now totally 1

°«

similar order

see nii Gauge's

D'Aymeric de Peyrat;

Don Ant Bod. de HIto

is

;

lee Vld»l, Ida

Glonarium^

b.t.

'ban-

In 1703 he produced the Opdra as a violinist. ' Ulysse,' opera in five acts with prologue, containing a pas seul for Francois Pr6v8t to an air The opera called 'Le Caprice,' for violin solo. failed, but the Caprice remained for years the After test-piece of the ballerine at the Opera.

composed violin solos' for various other ballets, such as ' La Boutade," 'Les Caracteres de la Danse' (1716), 'Terpsichore' (1720), 'La Fantaisie' (1727), 'Les 'Les Elements.' Plaisirs ChampStres,' and Several of these were engraved, as were his this success. Rebel

In 1713 he was accomsonatas for the violin. panist at the Opera, and in 1717 was one of the '24 violons,' and by 1720 'compositeur [This latter oflice de la chambre ' to the King. he resigned in 1727, in favour of his son Fran9ois, and later passed on to him the duties of conductor of the Opera, which he had fulfilled for many years.] He died in Paris, 1746 or 1747, and was buried on Jan. 3, 1747. [His sister,

Anne-Ren^b, born 1662, became one

of the best singers of the court, and from the age of eleven years, appeared in the ballet, etc.

She was married in 1684 to Michel Richard de Lalande (see vol. ii. p. 623), and she died in 1722.]

Jean -Fury's son Franqois, bom in Paris, June 19, 1701, at thirteen played the violin in the Opera orchestra. It seems to have been at Prague, during the festivities at the coronation of Charles VI. in 1723, that ha became

intimate with

composed

Francoeur

and

;

the two

produced

at the the following operas: — 'Pyrame et

Academic, Thisbe' (1726); 'Tarsis et Z^ie' (1728); Scanderbeg" (1735); 'Ballet de la Paix' (1738); 'Les Augustales and 'LeRetourdu Roi' (1744); 'Z^lindor,' 'Le Trophic (in honour of Fontenoy, 1745); 'IsmJine' (1750) ; ' Les Gteies tut^laires (1751) ; and ' Le Prince de Noisy (1760) most of which were composed for court f§tes or public rejoioinga. [Rebel '

'

'

'

ImtrumenU i arOut.

Franjois

conjointly,

;

'

EECITATIVE

RSBSK seems to have been the sole author of a

Pas-

torale heroique' (1730).] From 1733 to 1744 Rebel and Franoceur were joint leaders of the Aoademie orchestra, and in 1753 were appointed managers. They

soon, however, retired in disgust at the petty vexations they were called upon to endure.

word, everything combines to make it one of the safest and most valuable of instruction-books. The second part especially, dealing with 'accidental notes or, notes foreign to the constitucontains novel views, and obsertion of chords vations throwing light upon points and rules of harmony which before were obscure and con-

—

fused.

ministrative ability.

He

'

—

—

'

Laurencie.]

G. c.

KEBER, Napoleon -Henri, born

at Miilhausen, Oct. 21, 1807 pat twenty entered the Paris Conservatoire, studying counterpoint and fugue under Seuriot and Jelensperger, and comCircumstances led him position under Lesueur. to compose chamber -music, after the success His music to of which he attempted opera. Le the second act of the charming ballet Diable amoureux' (Sept. 23, 1840) excited considerable attention, and was followed at the Op^ra-Comique by ' La Nuit de Noel,' three acts (Feb. 9, 1848), 'LePfereGaillard,'threeaots(Sept. '

7, 1852), ' Les Papillotes de M. Benoit,' one act (Dec. 28, 1853), and 'Les Dames Capitaines,' In these works he three acts (June 3, 1857). strove to counteract the tendency towards noise

and bombast then so prevalent both in French and Italian opera, and to show how much may be made out of the simple natural materials of the old French opera-eomique by the judicious use of

modem

orchestration.

In 1851 he was appointed Professor of harmony at the Conservatoire, and in 1853 the well-merited success of Le Pere Gaillard procured his election to the Institut as Onslow's successor. Soon after this he renounced the He theatre, and returned to chamber-music. also began to write on music, and his TraiU d'Harmmiie (1862) went through many editions, and is without comparison the best work of its kind in France. The outline is simple and methodical, the classification of the chords easy to follow and well connected, the explanations luminously clear, the exercises practical and well calculated to develop musical taste in a '

'

—

VOL. rv

—

'

Louis XV. made them surintendants of his music, with the Order of St. Michel. In March 1757 these inseparable friends obtained the privilege of the Opera, and directed it for ten years on their own account, with gieat ad-

Rebel died in Paris, Nov. 7, 1775. He composed some cantatas, a Te Deum, and a De Profundis, performed at the Concerts Spirituels, but all his music is now forgotten, excepting a lively air in the first finale of Pyrame et Thisb^ which was adapted to a much-admired pas seul of Mile, de Camargo, thence became a popular contredanse the first instance of such adaptation and in this form is preserved in the C\k du Caveau,' under the title of 'La Camargo.' [A very interesting siccount of the family, with detailed notices of the music of G. F. Kebel, appeared in the Sammelbande of the Int. Mus. Ges. vol. vii. p. 253, by M. L. de la

33

In 1862 M.

HaUvy

Reber succeeded

as

Professor of composition at the Conservatoire ; since 1871 he was also Inspector of the succwsales or branches of the Conservatoire.

died in Paris, after a short illness, Nov. 24, 1880, and was succeeded as Professor by M.

Saiilt-Saens.

His compositions comprise four symphonies, and three quartets for strings, one PF. ditto, seven trios, duets for PF. and violin, and PF. pieces for two and four hands. Portions of his ballet Le Diable amoureux have been published for orchestra, and are performed at concerts. In 1875 he produced a cantata called 'Roland,' but 'Le Menetrier k la oour,' op^racomique, and 'Naim,' grand opera in five acts, have never been performed, though the overtures His best vocal works are his are engraved. melodies for a single voice, but he has composed choruses for three and four men's voices, and some sacred pieces. G. c. a quintet

'

RECITA

'

'performance.' a term which has come into use in England to signify a performance of solo music by one performer. It was probably first used by Liszt at his performance at the Hanover Square Rooms, June 9, 1840, though as applying to the separate pieces and not to the whole performance. The advertisement of theconcert says that *M. Liszt will give Recitals on the The name Pianoforte of the following pieces.' was afterwards adopted by Ha]l^ and others, and is in the present day often applied to concerts when two or more soloists take part. The term Opera Recital is used for a concert in which the music of an opera is sung without (Ital.),

RECITAL,

costume or action.

RECITATIVE

G. (Ital. Eecitativo

;

Germ. Me-

irom the Latin Secitare). of declamatory music, extensively used in those portions of an Opera, an Oratorio, or a Cantata, in which the action -of the drama is too rapid, or the sentiment of the poetry too citativ

A

;

Fr. EicAtatif ;

species

changeful, to adapt itself to the studied rhythm of a regularly constructed Aria. The invention of Recitative marks a crisis in the history of music, scarcely less important than that to which we owe the discovery of harmony; Whether the strange conception in which it originated was first clothed in tangible

form by Jacopo

Peri, Giulio Caccini, or

del Cavalieri, is a question decided.

Emilio

which has never been

Thus first launched upon the world, for the purpose of giving a new impetus to the progress

D

RECITATIVE

RECITATIVE

34

Haydn (1V98).

of art, this particular style of composition has

undergone less cliange, during the last 300 years, than any other. What simple or unaocompanled Recitative (Redtaiivo secco) is to-day, it was, in all essential particulars, in the time of Euridice. Then, as now, it was supported by the lightest possible accompaniment, originally a figured-bass. Then, as now, its periods were moulded with reference to nothing more than the plain rhetorical delivery of the words to which they were set melodious or rhythmic phrases being everywhere carefully avoided, as not only unnecessary, but absolutely detrimental '

'

i^

cbe carta i

;

quellat

Mozart (17SC).

I Beethoven

(1805).

and best poetry for recitative is blank verse hence it is, that the same intervals, progres;

and cadences have been used over and by composers who, in other matters, have scarcely a trait in common. We shall best illustrate this by selecting a few examples from the inexhaustible store used by some of the greatest writers of the l7th, 18th, and 19th sions,

over again

premising that, in phrases ending with two or more reiterated notes, it has been long the custom to sing the first as an appogWe have giatura, a note higher than the rest. shown this in three cases, but the rule applies centuries

to

many

;

others. Peei(1600).

(o)

Cavalieri

(o)

^-EpS^^l^^ che tra pun-geii-tl

zb;

(1600).

l

le fu meglior pen

Bplnl.

-

siero.

(I)

fe Carissimi(16^.

(o)

e^I^eISe^eE in Tic

-

to

-

ri •

a

la

-

ra

-

1=^E=

{Sung) Ib

m J. i3. il. S.

,^»

they re-joi-oed ex

-

ceeding-ly

^^ ^ „ (")

el

-

ra

-

eL

Bach (1T34). UACH (

(Sung) ceed-lDg-ly.

* (6)

,

il

ne-mi-co traacorre

Handel (1713).

A mi dunque Agi-lea ?

i.^^^=fei^g=^^^ b»

,,,

Be U eonte viene

— so

detrimental that the difficulty of adapting good recitative to poetry written in short rhymed verses is almost insuperable, the jingle of the metre tending to crystallise itself in regular form with a persistency which is rarely overcome except by Hence it is, that the the greatest masters. to the desired effect

(c)

(,,)

Mendelssohn

(1836).

— RECITATIVE

RECITATIVE

the purpose for which they were originally designed. But the staunch conservatism of Becitativo secco goes even farther than this. Its accompaniment has never changed. The latest composers who have employed it have trusted for its support to the simple Basso continuo, which neither Peri, nor Carissimi, nor Handel, nor Mozart cared to reinforce by the introduction of a fuller accompaniment. The chief modification of the original idea which has found favour in modern times was when the harpsichord and the pianofoi'te were banished from the opera orchestra, and the accompaniment of Eecitativo secco was confided to the principal violoncello and double bass the former filling in the harmonies in light arpeggios, while the latter confined itself to the simple notes of the Sasso continuo. In this way the Recitatives were performed at Her Majesty's Theatre for more than half a century by Lindley and Dragonetti, who always played at the same desk, and accompanied with a perfection attained by no other artists in the world, though Charles Jane Ashley was considered only second to Lindley in expression and judgment. The general style of their accompaniment was exceedingly simple, consisting only of plain chords, played arpeggiando but occasionally the two old friends would launch out into passages as elaborate as those sho*n in the following example ; Dragonetti playing the large notes, and Lindley the small ones.

governed by no law whatever beyond that of euphony. Its harmonies exhibit more variety now than they did two centuries ago ; but they are none the less free to wander wherever they please, passing through one key after another, until they land the hearer somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the key chosen for the next regularly constructed movement. Hence it is that recitatives of this kind are usually written without the introduction of

;

;

Don Giovanni.

preade

Stainer, at St. Paul's, in various oratorios.

Again, this simple kind of recitative is as free now as it was in the first year of the 1 7th century, from the trammels imposed by the laws of modulation. It is the only kind of music which need not begin and end on the same key. As a matter of fact it usually begins upon some chord not far removed from the tonic harmony of the aria or concerted piece which preceded it and ends in or near the key of that which is to follow but its intermediate course is ;

;

symphonies interpolated between them, or even by instrumental passages designed expressly for their support. [The elaborate orchestral

An-co-nmeglio

In no country has this peculiar style been so as in England, where the traditions of its best period are scarcely yet forgotten. [On an interesting MS. of Mendelssohn's, showing the kind of treatment he preferred while following the English practice, see Musical Times, 1902, p. 727.] A return was made to the old method by the employment of the piano, first by Mr. Otto Goldschmidt at a performance of Handel's 'L'AUegro' in 1863, and more recently by Sir

;

;

Leporello.

successfully cultivated

John

sharps or flats at the signature since it is manifestly more convenient to employ any number of accidentals that may be needed, than to place three or four sharps at the beginning of a piece which is perfectly at liberty to end in seven flats. But notwithstanding the unchangeable character of lieciiativo secco, declamatory music has not been relieved from the condition which imposes progress upon every really living branch of art. As the resources of the orchestra increased, it became evident that they might be no less profitably employed in the accompaniment of highly impassioned recitative than in that of the aria or chorus and thus arose a new style of rhetorical composition, called accompanied recitative {Mecitativo stromentato), in which the vocal phrases, themselves unchanged, received a vast accession of power, by means of

^^^3^^^^

Per IknunoesGaal-lo-z&me

35

first

Don Giovanni.

M'acca

example of

rez-za,

it

ml abbraccia

seems to be in Landi's

'

San

Alessio' (1634)], and its advantages in telling situations were so obvious that it was im-

mediately adopted by other composers, and at once recognised as a legitimate form of art not, indeed, as a substitute for simple recitative, which has always been retained for the ordinary business of the stage, but as a means of jiroduoing powerful effects, in scenes, or portions of scenes, in which the introduction of the measured aria would be out of place. It will be readily understood that the stability of simple recitative was not communicable The steadily increasing to the newer style. weight of the orchestra, accompanied by a correspondent increase of attention to orchestral effects, exercised an irresistible influence over Moreover, time has proved it to be no less it. sensitive to changes of school and style than the aria itself; whence it frequently happens that a composer may be as easily recognised by his accompanied recitatives as

by

his regularly

— '

RECITATIVE

36

constructed movements. ments exhibit a freedom

EECITING-NOTE

Scarlatti's

accompani-

of thought immeasur-

ably in advance of the age in which he lived. Sebastian Bach's recitatives, though priceless as music, are more remarkable for the beauty of their harmonies than for that spontaneity of expression which is rarely attained by composers unfamiliar with the traditions of the stage. Handel's, on the contrary, though generally based upon the simplestpossibleharmonic foundation, exhibit a rhetorical jierfection of which the most accomplished orator might well feel proud ; and we cannot doubt that it is to this high quality, combined with a never -failing truthfulness of feeling, that so many of them owe their deathless reputation to the unfair exclusion of many others, of equal worth, which still lie hidden among the unclaimed treasures of

—

his long-forgotten opersis. Scarcely less successful, in his own peculiar style, was Haydn, whose ' Creation ' and ' Seasons owe half their charm '

Mozart was so uniformly great, in his declamatory passages, that it is almost impossible to decide upon their comparative merits ; though he has certainly never exceeded the perfection of Die Weiselehre dieser Knaben,' or Non temer.' Beethoven attained his highest flights in AbscheuUoher wo eilst du hiu ? and Ah, perfido Spohr, in ; ' Faust,' and Die letzten Dinge ; Weber, in ' Der Freisohiitz.' The works of Cimarosa, Kossini, and Cherubini abound in examples of acto their pictorial recitatives.

'

'

'

'

'

!

!

'

'

'

companied recitative, which rival their airs in beauty ; and it would be difhcult to point out any really great composer who has failed to appreciate the value of the happy invention. Yet even this invention failed either to meet the needs of the dramatic composer or to exhaust his ingenuity. It was reserved for Gluck to strike out yet another form of recitative, destined to furnish a more powerful engine for the production of a certain class of effects than any that had preceded it. He it was who first conceived the idea of rendering the orchestra, and the singer to all outward appearance entirely independent of each other ; of filling the scene, so to speak, with a finished orchestral groundwork, complete in itself, and needing no vocal melody to enhance its interest, while the singer declaimed his part in tones which, however artfully combined with the instrumental harmony, appeared to have no connection with the resulting effect resembling it whatever ; that which would be produced, if, during the interpretation of a symphony, some accomplished singer were to soliloquise aloud in broken sentences, in such wise as neither to take an ostensible share in the performance nor to disturb it by the introduction of irrelevant An early instance of this may be discord. found in 'Orfeo.' After the disappearance of Euridice, the orchestra plays an excited crescendo, quite complete in itself, during the

course of which Orfeo distractedly calls his lost bride by name, in tones which harmonise with

the symphony, yet have not the least appearance In ' Iphigenie en Tauride,' of belonging to it. and all the later operas, the same device is constantly adopted ; and modern composers have also used it freely ^notably Spohr, who opens his 'Faust' with a. scene, in which a band behind the stage plays the most delightful of minuets, while Faust and Mephistopheles

—

sing an ordinary recitative, accompanied by the usual chords played by the regular orchestra in front. By a process of natural, if not inevitable development, this new style led to another, in

which the

recitative,

though

still

distinct from

the accompaniment, assumed a more measured tone, less melodious than that of the air, yet more so, by far, than that used for ordinary declamation. Gluck has used this peculiar kind of Me7,ai Sedtativo with indescribable power, in the prison scene, in ' Iphigenie en Tauride.' Spohr employs it freely, almost to the exclusion of symmetrical melody, in 'Die letzten Diiige.' Wagner makes it his cheval de bcUaille, introducing it everywhere, and using it as an ever-ready medium for the production of some of his most powerful dramatic effects. His theories on this subject have already been discussed 'so fully that it is unnecessary to revert to them here. Suffice it to say that his Melos, though generally possessing all the more prominent characteristics of pure recitative, sometimes approaches so nearly to the rhythmic symmetry of the song, that as in the case of Nun sei bedankt, mein lieber Schwan

—

! '

'

it is difficult it

belongs.

to say, positively, to

We

may,

which

class

therefore, fairly accept

this as the last link in the chain

which

fills

up

the long gap between simple ' Recitative secco and the finished aria. ['The free declamation, built on the natural inflexions of the speaking voice, which is employed for the vocal part of Debussy's ' Pelleas et M^lisande," though not styled 'recitative,' has much in common with it.]

,

w.

s.

E.

RECITING-IirOTE (Lat. Repereussio, Nota domiTians). A name sometimes given to that important note, in a Gregorian Tone, on which the greater portion of every verse of a psalm or Canticle is continuously recited ; and it is commonly used of the corresponding note in Anglican chant. As this particular note invariably corresponds with the Dominant of the Mode in which the Psalm-Tone is written, the terms. Dominant, and Reciting -Note, are frequently treated as interchangeable.

[See

Modes and Psalmody.]

The Reciting -Note makes

its appearance twice in the course of every tone ; first, as the initial member of the Intonation, and afterwards as that of the Ending ; the only exception to the general rule is to be found in the

— EECOEDER

RECORDER

37

Tonus Peregrinus (or Irregularis), in which the true Dominant of the Ninth Mode (E) is used for the first Reoiting-Note, and D for the setond. The Eeciting-Notes of Tones III, V, VII, VIII, and IX, are so high that they cannot

player.

be sung, at their true pitch, without severely

the quartet the discant, the alto, the tenor, and the bass. But the consort was not confined to the quartet ; thus Virdung, referring to recorders, writes : ' GeJierally, one makes four flutes in one case, or six ; this is called a set,

straining the voice

;

in practice, therefore, these always transposed. An

are almost attempt has been sometimes made so to arrange their respective pitches as to let one note serve for all. generally A This plan may, perhaps, be found practically convenient ; but it shows very little concern for the expression of the words, which cannot but suffer, if the jubilant phrases of one Psalm are to be recited on exactly the same note as the almost despairing accents of another. w. s. E.

tones

—

EECOEDER. a kind of

flute,

A

name given

now

in England to discarded, but once very

popular in "Western Europe. The verb to record was formerly in common use in the sense of to warble or sing as a bird, e.g., 'Hark! hark oh, sweet, sweet How the birds record '

'

!

!

(Beaumont and Fletcher). A recorder, then, is a warbler, than which a more appropritoo'

An

existing contrabass measures 8 feet below the bass stave. Instruments of different families were formerly

8 inches ; its lowest note is

D

kept apart, each family forming a consort, or The basis of the consort was band, of its own.

—

two

discant,

two

and two

tenor,

bass.'

The

circumstance that each set was kept in a separate case, enables us to say how many recorders were played together. In the time of Henry VIII. the number rose to seven, eight, and nine, as the inventory of that monarch's recorders shows. When Praetorius wrote twenty-one were required to form a full flute consort. Dr. Burney saw a set at Antwerp comprising no less than thirty or forty, the case for which, when filled, was so heavy that eight men were required to raise it from the ground. By the middle of the 18th century the number had dwindled in France to five, and in a very late set, now in the Grosvenor Museum at Chester, it is reduced

ate appellation for the instrument, looking to

sweetness and facility for trilling, it would When the word sprang up be hard to find. its

uncertain. There is resison for believing that it was in use in the 14th century ; it is indisputable that in the 15th it was known from Cornwall to Scotland ; for in a miracleplay in the Cornish language, the manuscript of which is of that date, we have recordys ha is

'

and symphony), and in the Scottish work entitled the Buke of the Howlate maid ie Holland, (c. 1450), The rote, and

symphony'

(recorders

'

the recordour, the ribup, the rist.' The recorder belonged to the fipple flute family (see Fipple Flutb), of which the flageoIt was distinguished let is a familiar example. from the other members of the family by the number and position of its finger-holes. Their eight. The highest, which was closed with one of the thumbs, was pierced at the back, the lowest, played with a little finger, The remaining six at the side, of the tube.

number was

were placed in the front of the instrument. In early recorders, which were made in one

was duplicated for the accommodation of left-handed players ; there were thus two holes for the little finger, but one of them was kept stopped with wax. The piece, the lowest hole

duplication of the hole explains a paradox. the recorder was an eight -holed instrument, it was called in France (in addition

Although

to la fliUe douce fi&te

a neuf

and la

trous, or

fiUte d' Angltsterre) la

the nine-holed

flute.

The

largest contrabass recorders were pierced with three holes below the eight. They were covered with keys, the two lowest of which were closed

some instruments by the otherwise unemployed thumb, in others by the feet, of the in

Discant

Alto.

Tenor.

The Chester

Bass.

Flutes.

The date of this set is unknown, but they are marked with the name of Bressan, a maker of whose flutes Sir John Hawkins speaks in a way which shows that they were in common use in his time (1719-89) in 1724 Mr. Bressan, by whom presumably the Chester set was made, was carrying on business at the Green Door in Somerset House Yard, in the Strand. The tone of the recorder was remarkable for two characteristics, solemnity and sweetness. to four.

;

—

'

a

:

EECORDER

38

KEOOEDER

Bacon twice alludes to ita solemnity Milton speaks of its 'solemn touches,' and under the name of 'the solemn pipe,' mentions it as one of the instruments played on a, great occasion in Heaven. Its sweetness was ineffable. Referring to the effect of recorders used at a theatre to represent a choir of angels, Pepys writes But that which did please me beyond anything in the whole world was the wind-musique when the angel comes down, which is so sweet that it ravished me, and indeed, in a word, did wrap up my soul so that it made me really sick, just as I have formerly been when in love with my wife that neither then, nor all the evening going home, and at home, I was able to think of anything, but remained all night transported, so as I could not believe that ever any musick hath that real command over the soul of a man as this did upon me and makes me resolve to practice wind-musique, and to make my wife do the like.' Some weeks afterwards he buys a recorder, 'which,' he says, 'I do intend to learn to play on, the sound of it being of all sounds in the world, most pleasing to me. The command which recorders had over the soul of a man,' and their ;

'

;

:

'

'

'

—

power to mitigate and 'swage With solemn touches troubled thouglits, and chase Anguish, and doubt, and fear, and sorrow, and pain From mortal or immortal minds

may

serve to explain why Hamlet, in the frenzied state to which he had been wrought

by the

spectacle of the murder of his father played before his guilty uncle, should bethink him of the calming influence of a consort of these instruments. Come, he cries, some music come, the recorders. If Shakespeare's design were carried out, instead of tlie two musicians we generally see furnished with little pipes not unlike penny whistles, there would come upon the stage in the recorder scene at least four recorder players carrying instruments varying in length from nearly two to nearly four feet. It is needless to say that even the discant is far too stout to be snapped like a twig, so that the act of violence sometimes seen, the breaking to pieces of the recorder borrowed of the player, would be as impracticable as it is foreign to the true spirit of the scene, and out of keeping with the nature of the gentle Hamlet. With the advance of the orchestra the consorts of wind instruments broke up and disappeared, only such members of each family being retained as were most suitable for the new combination. The member of the recorder family which survived had a compass of two octaves, from /' to /'", iingerings up to a'" being sometimes given. About the end of the 17th century the instrument ceased to be called the recorder, retaining only the appellation of flute, and descending after a time to that of the Common flute. In France it came to be styled '

;

'

'

'

the flute a bee. The change of name led to a strange chapter in the history of music chapter which should be a warning to those who attempt to reconstruct extinct instruments out of preconceived ideas of what they might, or must, have been. For more than a hundred years the recorder was enshrouded in mystery. Sir John It was asked, What was a recorder ? Hawkins put forward the notion that it was a flageolet, and persuaded himself that Lord Bacon had spoken of the recorder as having six holes, the number of those of the flageolet. Burney, writing thirteen yeara after Sir John, stated authoritatively that a recorder was a flageolet, thereby revealing the secret that he had availed himself of his rival's labours withNext came out acknowledging his obligation. Mr. William Chappell, who brought himself to the belief that he had discovered in a book of instructions for the recorder the statement that the instrument was pierced with a hole called the recorder. He fancied that the recorder took its name from the hole, and drawing further on his imagination, supposed the hole to be covered with a piece of thin skin. Finally, Carl Engel acquired a Common flute (it is now in the South Kensington Museum) in which there was a hole covered with membrane. He pronounced this flute to be a recorder of the 17th century, and explained that the hole thus covered was intended to make the sound reedy and tender ; whereas an examination of the instrument would have shown him that his recorder of the 17th century was made in New Bond Street between 1800 and 1812, and that the hole covered with membrane was so placed that it was impossible for it to affect the tone. The claim of the recorder to be considered the head of instruments of the flute kind was destined to be called in question. Its supremacy was challenged by the transverse flute, an instrument called by the French- the German flute, to distinguish it from the recorder, which they termed the English flute. In lip flutes, to which family the German flute belongs, the channel from which the jet of air issues (see Flute) is formed by the lips. The control exercised by the lips over the shape of the jet and the size of the opening of the mouth-hole of the flute enables the player to influence the intonation and the quality of the tone, advantages (not to mention greater power) more than sufficient

—

to compensate for inferiority in sweetness and dignity. In Handel's orchestra the German

and the Common flute existed side by side, a circumstance which enabled Handel to express niceties of flute timbre to which we are strangers. Thus in Judas Maccabseus he was able to avail himself of the martial strains of two German flutes for 'See the Conquering Hero comes,' but to assign the cajolery of 'Wise men flattering may deceive you to the cooing blandishments of two Common flutes. We can '

'

'

;

''

RECORDER

RECORDER always

tell

for

terms the

lie

German

which

flute

Traversiera

;

flute

he intends to be used, flute Flauto the

Common

;

Traversa, Traversa,

sometimes,

hut

Traversiire,

Flauto

rarely,

Scarcely ever does Ije leave open which flute is to be employed ; there is, however, in 'Paniasso in Festa,' a passage marked Flauto ou Trav. 1., Flauto ou Trav. II. Handel's orchestra is known to have contained four hautboys and four bassoons ; his flutes, as Traversa.

will be

shown, were

once uses

una

still

iraversieri tviti,

He

more numerous.

When

he wrote he no doubt expected not short

traversa bassa.

It of four treble transverse flutes to respond. seems certain that he had at his command as many Common flutes ; for the fourth scene of the first act of ' Giustino ' opens with a passage in less than four FlauK and a Bassa de' We are not bound to Flauti play together. suppose that Handel had in his pay ten musicians who devoted themselves exclusively to the flute ; performers on other instruments, especially the hautboy, were expected to take the flute when required. Handel could call for not only five but six fipple flutes, his ottavino being a fiauta piccolo, or octave Common flute, not a transverse instrument. This does not seem to be even suspected, Here one yet the evidence is quite conclusive. The accompaniment to proof must suffice. ' Augelletti che cantate (the air in ' Kinaldo, on the singing of which birds were let loose) is marked in the conducting waT& flauto piccolo, but in the autograph copy in Buckingham Now Palace Handel has written ' Flageolett.' Handel would never have called a transverse The usual description of piccolo a flageolet. this accompaniment, that it is scored for two flutes and a piccolo, gives to the modern reader a false impression, neither the flutes nor the piccolo being the instruments we now call by It is a trio for three fipple flutes, those names. a. flauto piccolo and two flauti ; the flauto piccolo

which not

'

playing a brilliant solo which

th.e flauti

support.

The accompaniment has been pronounced by a musician to be the

'

loveliest imaginable

'

;

the

Addison writes of it, The musick proceeded from a concert of flagelets and bird-calls which were planted behind the scenes. Handel uses tYie flauto piccolo in a Tamburino in Alcina, and in two movements of the Water Music. In the latter two piccolos which play in unison are employed. They are not in the same key as the '

scoffing

'

'

it, they were fipple Thrice the flauto piccolo furnishes a florid aceorapaniment to the soprano voice ; in Augelletti che cantate, just mentioned, in a song in ' Kiccardo,' and in ' Hush, ye pretty warbling The obbligato choir,' in =Acis and Galatea.' in the last-named work to the bass solo, ruddier than the cherry,' is marked in the score flauto, but seems to have been always

orchestral piccolo, but, like flutes.

'

'

'

assigned

to

the flauto piccolo.

As

late

as

39

the third decade of the 19th century, long after that instrument had been banished from the orchestra, the second hautboy player used to play the part on a so-called flageolet at the As the society was estabAntient Concerts. lished in 1776, only seventeen years after Handel's death, it is reasonable to suppose that the practice was handed down from 'the time of the great composer. When the orchestra was remodelled by Haydn only the transverse flute was retained, the Common flute being altogether rejected. The German flute having thus captured its rival's place, proceeded to usurp its title of Flauto, and to drop its old name, Traversa. Its superiority for orchestral purposes was already so marked as to cause Haydn's choice to fall upon it but during Haydn's career as a composer it received an improvement which gave the coup de grdee to the old favourite. The improvement consisted in boring new holes in the tube and covering them with keys kept closed by

To make clear the importance of this necessary to explain that in the onekeyed flute, which was tlien in use, there were no holes for four of the notes of the chromatic octave. When the player was in want of either of them, he muffled, and to some extent flattened, the note above the accidental needed by closing one or more holes below the hole from which the note to be flattened issued. Although tlie spurious notes thus obtained were so impure, feeble, and out of tune as to make the flute and those who played it bywords amongst musicians, the one-keyed flute held its ground for a period of not far short of a century. Remonstrances on the subject of its imperfections were put to silence by the dictum that the the flute, like the violin, was perfect player, it was asserted, not the instrument, was at fault. At length a stand was made against authority. The rebellion broke out in England, where two professional players named Tacet and Florio had the courage to adopt a flute with no Their example was quickly less than six keys. Between 1770 and 1780 the sixfollowed. keyed flute came into use in this country, and springs.

step

it is

;

in spite of opposition, the keys were introduced abroad. The advantages conferred on the transverse flute by the completion of the chromatic octave were so immense that it is inconceivable that the makers of the time should not have thought of applying the system to the Common flute. Why the idea was not carried out is unknown, but it may be conjectured that mechanical Of the ten digits difficulties stood in the way. with which the hands of man are furnished but nine are available for execution, the tenth As the being required for holding the flute. Common flute was pierced with eight holes, only one finger was free when they were all Possibly, then, the makers may have closed.

by degrees,

— 40

—

—

;

KECTE ET RETEO, PER

been unable to contrive a method of acting on the five keys required for the chromatic octave, being baffled by the want of fingers for the purpose but whatever was the cause, closed keys did not find their way to the Common flute, and so the instrument after a time fell completely ;

.

into disuse. (See Proceedings of the Musical Associaiien, 1897-98, pp. 145-224 ; 1900-1, pp.

110-120; and 1901-2, pp. 105-137.) The above is epitomised from the writer's Ledv/res on the Secorder, to be published shortly, c. w.

RECTE ET EETRO, PER crizans, Imitalio

per

(Imitatio can-

Motum

retrogradum, ImitaMo recwrrems ; Ital. Imitazione al Sovescio, o alia Siversa ; Eng. Retrograde Imitation). peculiar kind of Imitation, so constructed that the melody may be sung backwards as well as forwards ; as shown in the following two-part canon, which must be sung, by the first voice, from left to right, and by the second, from right to left, both beginning together, but at opposite ends of the music.

A

S^Egf^E^E^E

The earliest known instances of Retrograde Imitation are to be found among the works of the Flemish composers of the 15th century, who delighted in exercising their ingenuity, not only upon the device itself, but also upon the Inscriptions prefixed to the canons in which it was employed. The Netherlanders were not, however, the only musicians who indulged successfully in this learned species of recreation. Probably the most astonishing example of it on record is the motet, ' 'Diliges Dominum,' written by William Byrd for four voices and transmuted Treble, Alto, Tenor, and Bass into an eight-part composition, by adding a second Treble, Alto, Tenor, and Bass, formed by singing the four first parts backwards. It is scarcely possible to study this complication attentively, without feeling one's brain turn giddy ; yet, strange to say, the effect produced is less curious than beautiful.

—

'

RECTE, ET RETRO, PEE or the cry of the Evil Spirits In girum imus noctu ecce at consumimur igni.

The canons were frequently constructed in exact accordance with the method observed in these curious lines ; and innumerable quaint conceits were invented, for the purpose of giving the singers some intimation of the manner in which they were to be read. 'Canit more Hebraeorum Misericordia et was a very common motto. indicated that the Veritas obviaverunt sibi singers were to begin at opposite ends, and meet In the second Agnus Dei of in the middle. his 'Missa Graecorum,' Hobrecht wrote, 'Aries Aries being the first sign vertatur in Pisces In another of the Zodiac, and Pisces the last. part of the same Mass he has given a far more '

'

'

'

'

—

mysterious direction

Tu tenor

cancriza et per antifrasin canta,

Gum furcis in capite antifrasizando repete. This introduces us to a new complication ; the secret of the motto being, that the tenor is not only to sing backwards, but to invert the intervals (' per antifrasin canta '), until he reaches the Horns that is to say, the two cusps of the semicircular Time-Signature after which he is to sing from left to right, though still continuing to invert the intervals. This new device, in which the intervals themselves are reversed, as well as the sequence of the notes, is called Retrograde Inverse Imitation (Lat. ImitaMo cancrizans motu contrario ; Ital. Imitazione al conLrario riverso). It might have been thought that this would have contented even Flemish ingenuity. But it did not. The part-books had not yet been turned upside down In the subjoined example we have endeavoured to show, in an humble way, the manner in which this most desirable feat may also be accomplished. The two singers, standing face to face, hold the book between them one looking at it from the ordinary point of view, the other, upside down, and both reading from left to right that is to say, beginning at opposite ends. The result, if not strikingly beautiful, is, at least, not inconsistent with the laws of counterpoint. ( For other examples see Inscription.) '

^=

—

'

—

—

'

'

!

;

—

•nRia-Tm-o» mouthpiece by a metaufBrta™:"^' Double R6ed»:-2.BM«ooii reed. 3. Baeeoon reed, »ho» the opeulns between the two blades. 4. Oboetoeehortened reei.

to

The single reed is used also on the saxophone, and the double reed for the ohaunter of the Highland bagpipe, but the drones of the bag-

—

—

—

REED

REED

pipe are sounded by single reeds of a most rudimentary character. It is possible to replace the double reed of the oboe and bassoon by a single reed of the clarinet type fitted to a small

ducting the music at the Olympic under Mr. Wigan's management, and making prolonged

mouthpiece. The old dolcino or alto-fagotto was so played in the band of the Coldstream Guards by the late Mr. Henry Lazarus when a The idea has been revived of late years boy. as a novelty, but neither the oboe nor the bassoon is capable of improvement in this way, although the saxophone, also a conical tube, is well adapted to the single reed, being an instrument of wider calibre.] w. H. s. with addi;

tions

by

D. J. B.

Musical Director of the Haymarket Theatre, In 1838 a post which he retained tiU 1851. he also succeeded Mr. Tom Cooke as Chapelmaster at the Royal Bavarian Chapel, where the music to the Mass was for long noted both Beethoven's Mass for quality and execution. in C was produced there for the first time in England, and the principal Italian singers habitually took part in the Sunday services. At the Haymarket, for the Shakespearean performances of Macready, the Keans, the Cushnians, etc., he made many excellent entr'actes,

by introducing,

good

pieces,

as overtures

original or scored

and

by

himself, instead of the rubbish usually played During the temporary closing at that date.

of the theatre. Reed did the work of producing Pacini's opera of 'Sappho' at Drury Lane Clara Novello, Sims Reeves, (April 1, 1843

—

1844 he married Miss Priscilla Horton, and for the next few years pursued the same busy, useful, miscellaneous life as etc.).

In

directing the production of English opera at the Surrey, managing Sadler's Wells during a season of English opera, with his wife. Miss Louisa Pyne, Harrison, etc., conbefore,

provincial tours. In 1855 he started a

new class of performance which, under the name of 'Mr. and Mrs. German Reed's Entertainment,' made his name widely and favourably known in England. Its object was to provide good dramatic amusement for a large class of society who, on various grounds, objected to the theatres. It was opened at St. Martin's Hall, April 2, 1855, as 'Miss P. Horton 's Illustrative Gatherings,' with two pieces called Holly Lodge and The Enraged Musician ' (after Hogarth), written by W. Brough, and presented by Mrs. Reed, with the aid of her husband only, as accompanist and occasional actor. In Feb. 1856 they removed to the Gallery of IllustraA tion, Regent Street, and there produced Month from Home,' and 'My Unfinished Opera' '

'

'

REED, Thomas Gbkman, born at Bristol, June 27, 1817. His father was a musician, and the son first appeared, at the age of ten, at the Bath Concerts as a PF. player with John Loder and Lindley, and also sang at the Concerts and at the Bath Theatre. Shortly after, he appeared at the Haymarket Theatre, London, where his father was conductor, as PF. player, singer, and actor of juvenile parts. Ifi 1832 the family moved to London, and the father became leader of the band at the Garriok Theatre. His son was his deputy, and also organist to the Catholic Chapel, German Reed now entered Sloane Stieet. eagerly into the musical life of London, was an early member of the Society of British Musicians, studied hard at harmony, counterpoint, and PF. playing, composed much, gave many lessons, and took part in all the good His work at the theatre music he met with. consisted in great measure of scoring and adapting, and getting up new operas, such as In 1838 he became 'Fra Diavolo' in 1837.

innovations,

43

'

(April 27, 1857); 'The Home Circuit' and 'Seaside Studies' (June 20, 1859)— all by W. Brough; 'After the Ball,' by Edmund Yates ; ' Our Card Basket,' by Shirley Brooks ; ' An Illustration on Discord ' (' 'The Rival Composers '), by Brough (April 3, 1861) ; and '

The Family Legend, by Tom Taylor (March They then engaged Mr. John 1862). '

31,

and produced the following

Parry,

series

of

company of three, and including some of Mr. Parry's most popular and admirable songs in the characters pieces specially written

for this

of Paterfamilias at the Pantomime, Mrs. Roseleaf, etc. etc. '

:

The Cliarming Cottage.' April

A

'

Dream

in Venice.'

March

Robertson.

6,1863.

T.

W.

18, 1867.

Our Quiet Ch&teau.' B. Beece. 'The Pyramid.' Shirley Bitwka. Dec. 26. 1867. Feb. T, 1664. Inquire w-itbin.' jr. C. Bur"The Bard and his Birthday.' nand. July 22, 1868. W. Brough. April 20, 1864. Idst of the Faladina.' B. Beece. 'The Peculiar Family.' Do. '

'

'

March

Dec. 23, 1868.

19, 1S6S.

'The Yachting Cruise.' Burnand. April 2, 1866.

F. C.

company was further inby the addition of Miss Fanny Holland and Mr. Arthur Cecil, and soon after by Mr. The Corney Grain and Mr. Alfred Reed. following was the repertory during this last

At

this period the

creased

period

:

Arthur Near Belations.' 'LiscbenandFritschen.' OffenSketchley. August 14, 1871. Feb. 8, 1869. ' No Cards,' W. S. GUhert, and King Christmas.' Planch^. ' Cox and Box,' Bui*nand and SulDec. 26, 1871. Charity begins at Home.' B. Uvan. March 29. 1869. (A CecU'a bach.

'

Eowe and Cellier. Feb. 7, 1872. appearance.) My Aunt's Secret.' Burnand 'Ages Ago.' W. 8. Gilbert and and Molloy. March 3, 1872. P. Clay. Kov. 22, 1869. Happy Arcadia.' W. S. GilNeighbour.' C, F. Beggarmy bert and F. Clay. Oct. 28, 18:12. Burnand. March 28, 1^0. 'Very Catching,' Burnandand Our Island Home.' W. S. GilMolloy. Nov. 18, 1872. bert. June 20, 1870. Burnand Mildred's Well.' •The Bold Eecruit.' F. Clay. and German Seed. May 5, 1873. July 19, 1S70. 'A Sensation Novel.' Do. Jan. first

'

'

'

'

30. 1871.

During this period a diversion was made by the introduction characters. 'Jessy Lea. larren.

of 'Opere di Camera,' These comprised

for

four

:

Oxeuford and Mac-

'Widows bewitched.' Virginia Gabriel.

A Fair Exchange ; A Happy •Too Many Cooks.' Oifettbacb. 'The Sleeping Beauty.' Balfe. Eesult'; 'ChingChowHi.' AU 'The Soldiei-'s Legacy.' Oxen- three by OiTenbach. told and Mactarren. '

'

'

—

—

'

EEED

44

REED-STOP

"While the entertainment still remained at the Gallery of Illustration, Reed became lessee of St. George's Hall for the production of Comic Opera. He engaged an orchestra of forty and a strong chorus, and *The Contrabandista

(Burnand

and

Sullivan),

'

L'Ambasaadrice

(Auber), and the 'Beggar's Opera' were produced, but without the necessary success. Mr.

Reed then gave

his sole attention to the Gallery

of Illustration,

in which he was uniformly owing to the fact that he carried' out his entertainments, not only with perfect

successful,

but always with great talent,

respectability,

much

tact

and judgment, and constant

variety.

When

the lease of the Gallery of Illustration expired, the entertainment was transferred to St. George's Hall, and there the following entertainments were produced :

He's Coming.' F. C. Burnand and Gerinan Beed. Too Many by One.' F. C. Burnand and F. Cowan. The Tbiee Tenants ; 'Ancient Britons.' Oilbert A'Beckefct and

Gilbert A'Beckett and German Keed. 'Matched and Match.' F. C. Burnand and German Beed. Puff of Smoke.' C. J. Bowe and Mme. Goetz. * Oar Dolls' German B«ed. House.' C. J. Bowe •A Tale of Old China.' F. 0. and Cobaford Dick. Burnand and Molloy. *A Wight's Surprise.' West Eyes and no Byes.' W. S. Gil- Cromer and German Beed. bert and German Beed. •Poster Brothers.' F. C. Bur'

'

'

'

'

A

'

*

A Spanish Bond

; An Indian nand and King Hall. 'The Wicked Duke.' Happy Bungalow.'

~

'

'

'

A.

Law.

The following were produced under the management of Mr, Oorney Grain and Mr. Alfred Reed

:

F. C. Burnand and 'A Water Cure.' A. Law, ArBeed. nold Felix, and George Gear. Once in a Century.' A Moss Bose Bent.' A. Iiaw G. A'Beckett and Vivian Bligh. and A. J. Caldlcott. Double Event," A. Law, 'Our New Dolls' House,' W. Yardley and Cotsford Dick. Alfred Beed, and Corney Grain. * Fairly Puzzled.' Answer Paid.' F. C. Burnand Oliver Brand and Hamilton Clarke. and W. Austin. •Doubleday's Will.' Burnand A Terrible Fright.' a. Law and Corney Grain. and King Hall. 'Artful Automaton.' Arthur Old Knockles.' A. Law and A. J. Caldlcott. Law and King Hall. A Peculiar Case." A. Law and 'A Tremendous Mystery.' F. G. Grosamitb. G, Burnand and King Hall. Hobbies.' Stephens, Yardley, Enchantment.' A. X^aw and aud G. Gear. German Beed. A Pretty Bequest.' M. WatGrange.' Orimstone G. son and Hamilton Clarke. A'Beckett and King Hall. ' '£100 Beward.' A. Law and A Night In Wales.' H. Gardner and Corney Grain. Corney Grain. 'In Cupid's Court.' M. WatBack from India.' Pottinger sou and A. J. Caldlcott. Stevens and Cotsford Dick. ' The A United Pair.' Comyns CanHome.' G. Pirate's ard A. J. Caldlcott. A'Beckett and Vivian Bligh. The Friar.' Do. 'A Christmas Stocking.' O.

'No.

204.'

German '

'

A

'

'

'

'

'

A'Beckett and King Hall. A. 'Casfcle Botherem.'

The Naturalist.' ComynaCarr

Law and King HaU.

and Hamilton Clarke.

'TheThreeHafca.' A.A'Beckett A.

and Edouard Marlols. 'A Flying Visit.' A. Law and Oorney Grain. ' The Turquoise Bing." G. W. Godfrey and Lionel Benson. 'A Merry Christmas.' A. Law and King HaU. 'Bandford and Merton.' Burnand and A. B. Gatty. 'All at Sea.' A. Law and Corney Grain.

M. Watson and

•TaUy-Hol' J. Caldlcott.

Wanted an Heir.' Do. W. The Bo'aun's Mate." Browne and A. J. Caldlcott. ' *

•Brittany Folk.' Walter^Prith

and A.

J. Caldlcott.

•Tuppins and Co.'

Malcolm

Watson and Edward Solomon. 'The Verger,' aud King Hall.

Walter Frith

'Carnival Time.'

M. Watson

and Corney Grain. Walter Browne 'Possflssion.' Many Happy Betums.' G. and A. J. Caldlcott. A'Beckett and Libnel Benson. A Bright Idea.' A. Law and 'Killlecrumper.' M. Watson and E. Solomon. Arthur Cecil. The Old Bureau,' H. M. Paull 'Cherry Tree Farm.' A. Law and A. J. Caldlcott. and Hamilton Clarke, ' Walter 'The Barley Mow.' Law Head the Poll.' A. The of Frith and 0. Grain. and Eaton Faning. • Nobot^'s Fault.' Dan'l's Delight.' Archie ArmA, Law and '

*

'

Hamilton Clarke.

strong and J.

W.

EUiott.

A Strange Host.' A, Law and 'An Odd Pair.' M. Watson and A. J. Caldlcott. King Hall. P^gy's Plot.' Somerville GibO. That Dreadful Boy.' ney and Wtdter Slaughter. A'Beckett and Corney Grain. 'A Big Bandit,' H. Watson *A Mountain Heiress.' G. aud W. Slaughter. A'Beckett and Lionel Benson. 'Melodramaula,' Do. Tieaaure Trove.' A. Law and '

'

'

'

A. J. Caldlcott.

A.O.

to these pieces were played For many on a pianoforte and harmonium. years the 'Musical Sketches' of Mr. Oorney Grain were a principal attraction of the entertainment. German Reed died at Upper East Sheen, Surrey, March 21, 1888, and in 1895 the entertainments came to an end, with the

The accompaniments

deaths of Alfred German Reed, March 10, and An attempt was Corney Grain, March 16. made to revive the enterprise, but without effect. Mrs. Geuman Reed, n^ Priscilla Horton, From was born at Birmingham, Jan. 1, 1818, a very early age she showed unmistakable qualifications for a theatrical career, in a fine strong voice, great musical ability, and extraordinary power of mimicry. She made her first appearance at the age of ten, at the Surrey Theatre, under Elliston's management, as the Gipsy Girl in *Guy Mannering.' After this'she was constantly engaged at the principal metropolitan Her theatres in a very wide range of parts. rare combination of grea,t ability as a singer, with conspicuous gifts as an actress, and most attractive appearance, led to a very satisfactory step in her career. On August 16, 1837, she signed an agreement with Macready for his famous performances at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, in which she acted Ariel, Ophelia, the Fool 1 in 'Lear,* the Attendant Spirit in 'Oomus,' Philidel in 'King Arthur,' and Acis in 'Acis and Galatea,' After the conclusion of this memorable engagement, Miss Horton became the leading spirit in Planch^'s graceful

burlesques at the Haymarket Theatre. On Jan. 20, 1844, she married Mr. German Reed, and the rest of her career has been related under She died at Bexley Heath, March his name. 18, 1895, a few days after her son and Corney Grain. g,

REED-STOP. controlled

"When the pipes of an organ,

by a draw-stop, produce

their tone of a vibrating tongue striking the face of a reed, the stop is called a Reed-stop ; when the pipes contain no such reeds, but their

by means

produced merely by the impinging of sharp edge, the stop is called a Flue-stop. Any single pipe of the former kind is called a Reed-pipe, any single pipe of the latter kind, a Flue-pipe. Pipes containing Free reeds are seldom used in English organs, but are occasionally found in foreign instruments under the name of Physharmonika, etc. [See Harmonium, Reed.] The reed-stops consisting tone

is

air against a

of ' striking-reeds ' are voiced in various ways to imitate the sounds of the Oboe, Cor Anglais, Clarinet, Bassoon, Horn, Cornopean, Trumpet,

etc, all of which are of 8-ft. pitch (that is, in unison with the diapason). The Clarion 4-ft. is an octave reed-stop. The Double Trumpet 16-ft. is a reed-stop one octave lower in pitch than the diapason ; it is also called a Contraposaune, or sometimes a Trombone. Reed-stops I

See ifacreadj/'t Jteminiicences, hy Sir P. Pollock,

ii,

97.

—

:

EEEVE

KEEL of the trumpet class are often placed on a veryhigh pressure of wind under such names as

Tuba

Tromba major,

such highpressure reed-stops are generally found on the Solo-manual the reed-stops of the Great organ being of moderate loudness those on the Choir organ altogether of a softer character. A very much larger proportion of reed-stops is usually assigned to the Swell organ than to any other manual, owing to the brilliant crescendo which they produce as the shutters of the swell-box open. Reed-stops are said to be 'harmonic' when the tubes of the pipes are twice their normal length and perforated half-way with a small hole. Their tone is remarkably pure and brilliant. The best modern organ-builders have made great Improvements in the voicing of reedstops, which are now' produced in almost infinite variety both as to quality and strength of mirabilis,

etc.

;

;

;

tone.

J. s.

REEL (Anglo-Saxon hreol, connected with the Suio-GothiontWa,' to whirl'). Anancientdance, the origin of which is enveloped in much obscurity. The fact of its resemblance to the Norwegian Hallv/ng, as well as its popularity and its occurrence in Denmark, the north of England, and Ireland, has led most in Scotland,

writers to attribute to it a Scandinavian origin,

although its rapid movements and lively character are opposed to the oldest Scandinavian dance-rhythms. The probability is that the reel is of Keltic origin, perhaps indigenous to

and from there introduced into ScandiIn Scotland the reel is usually danced by two couples in England where it is now almost only found in connection with the Sword Dance, as performed in the North Riding of Yorkshire it is danced by three couples. The figures of the reel diifer slightly according to the locality their chief feature is their circular character, the dancers standing face to face and The describing a series of figures of eight. music consists of 8 -bar phrases, generally in common time, but occasionally in 6-4. The Irish reel is played much faster than the Scotch in Yorkshire an ordinary hornpipe-tune is used. The following example, 'Lady Nelson's Reel,' is from a MS. collection of dances in the possession of the present writer Britain,

navia.

—

;

—

;

;

:

^^^

45

Duncan did go before them playing a The Irish dance upon a small trump. reel, which is apparently alluded to here, is in 2 -4, or common time, and is always danced singly the first eight bars, danced in steps, are followed by a round for the next eight bars, wlien the that

'

Giles

reill or

'

originalstepsareresumed,butreversed. w.h.g.i'.] An example of the Danish reel will be found

National Music (London, 1866). most characteristic Scotch reels the Reel of TuUooh (Thulichan) :— inEngel's

One

'

'

of the

^^^^^m M

Others, equally good, are 'Colonel 'Bean's Reel,' Ye're welcome, Charlie Stuart,' The Cameronian Rant,' 'Johnnie's friends are ne'er pleased,' and Flora Macdonald.' For the slow Reel see Strathspey, w. b. s. REEVE, William, bom 1757 ; after quitting school, was placed with a law stationer in Chancery Lane, where his fellow-writer was Joseph Munden, afterwards the celebrated comedian. '

'

'

Determined, however, upon making music his he became a pupil of Richardson, organist of St. James's, Westminster. In 1781 he was appointed organist of Totnes,Devonshire, where he remained till about 1783, when he was engaged as composer at Astley's. He was next for some time an actor at the regular theatres. In 1791, being then a chorus singer at Covent Garden, he was applied to to complete the composition of the music for the ballet-pantomime f Oscar and Malvina, left unfinished by Shield, who, upon some differences with the manager, had resigned his appointment. Reeve thereupon produced an overture and some vocal music, which were much admired, and led to his being In 1792 appointed composer to the theatre. he was elected organist of St. Martin, Ludgate. In 1802 he became part proprietor of Sadler's His principal dramatic compoWells Theatre. sitions were 'Oscar and Malvina,' and 'Tippoo 'Orpheus and Eurydice,' partly Saib,' 1791 The Apparition,' adapted from Gluck, 1792 'British Fortitude,' 'Hercules and Omphale,' profession,

'

'

;

'

;

and 'The

Purse,'

1794;

'Merry Sherwood'

(containing Reeve's best-known song, ' I am a 'Harlequin and Friar of orders grey '), 1795 Bantry Bay,' 'The Round Oberon,' 1796, Tower,' and Harlequin Quixote,' 1797 ; ' Joan of Arc,' and Ramah Droog' (with Mazzinghi), 1798 ; ' The Turnpike Gate (with Mazzinghi), 'The Embarkation,' and 'Thomas and Susan,' 'Paul and Virginia' (with Mazzinghi), 1799 and 'Jamie and Anna,' 1800; 'Harlequin's Almanack,' 'The Blind Girl (with Mazzinghi), 1801; 'The Cabinet' (with Braham, Davy, and Moorehead), and 'Family Quarrels' (with Braham and Moorehead), 1802 'The Caravan,' ;

'

'

'

'

;

'

[In

News from

Scotland (1591)

it is

stated

is

;

— '

''

REEVES

46

BEEVES

1803; 'The Dash,' and 'Thirty Thousand' fwith Davy and Braham), 1804 Out of Place' (with Braham), and The Corsair,' 1805 The '

;

'

'

;

White Plume, Rokeby Castle, and An Bratach, 1806; 'Kais' (with Braham), 1808; 'Tricks upon Travellers (part), 1810; and 'The Outside Passenger (with Whitaker and D. Corri), 1811. Rewrote music for some pantomimes at Sadler's Wells; amongst them 'Bang up,' by 0. Dibdin, jun., containing the favourite '

'

'

'

'

'

Clown's song,

Tippity witchet, for Grimaldi. The Juvenile Preceptor, or Entertaining Instructor, etc. He died June

He was

'

'

also author of

22,1815.

w. H. H.

BEEVES, John

Sims, son of a musician in

the Royal Artillery, was born at Woolwich, Sept. 26,1 1818 {Memoirs of the Eoyal Artillery Band, by H. G. Farmer (1904), p. 74 ff.).

He

received his early musical instruction from and at fourteen obtained the post of organist at North Cray Church, Kent. Upon his father,

gaining his mature voice he determined on becoming a singer, and [after a year spent in studying for the medical profession] in 1839 made his first appearance at the Newcastleupon-Tyne Theatre, as the Gipsy Boy in Guy Mannering,' and subsequently performed Dandini in 'La Cenerentola,' and other baritone parts. The true quality of his voice, however, having asserted itself, he placed himself under J. W. Hobbs and T. Cooke, and in the seasons '

of

1841-42 and 1842-43 was

«,

member

of

Macready's company at Drury Lane, as one of the second tenors, performing such parts as the First Warrior in Purcell's King Arthur,' '

He Ottocar in ' Der Freischiitz,' and the like. then went, to prosecute his studies, first to Paris under Bordogni, and subsequently to Milan under Mazzuoato ; he appeared at the Scala as Edgardo in Donizetti's ' Lucia di Lammermoor with marked success. Returning to England he [appeared at various con'

and] was engaged by Jullien for Drury Lkne, where he made his first appearance on Monday, Dec. 6, 1847, as Edgar in ' The Bride of Lammermoor,' and at once took position as ' His an actor and singer of the first rank. voice had become a pure high tenor of delicious quality, the tones vibrating and equal throughout, very skilfully managed, and displaying certs,

remarkably good taste. His deportment as an actor was natural and easy, his action manly and to the purpose, and exhibiting both passion and power, without the least exaggeration.' A fortnight later he performed his first original part, Lyonnel in Balfe's 'Maid of Honour.' [Berlioz, who conducted the performance, engaged him for the performance of two parts of La Damnation de Faust at Drury Lane, Feb. 7, In 1848 he was engaged at Her 1848.] Majesty's Theatre, and came out as Carlo in 1 Or possibly Oct 21 (he entered hie as born on that day).

name

in a

birthday book

Donizetti's 'Linda di Chamounix,' appearing [His operatic also as Florestan in 'Fidelio.' career was more or less overshadowed by the great plac» he made for himself in oratorio ; he

sang the part of Faust when Gounod's opera was given for the first time in English, at Her Majesty's Theatre, and for a few performances he sang Braham's old part of Sir Huon in Oberon. Captain Macheath, in The Beggar's Opera,' was one of the last operatic In the autumn parts in which he appeared.] of 1848 he was engaged at the Norwich Musical Festival, where he showed his ability as an oratorio singer by an extraordinarily fine '

'

'

' The enemy said in ' Israel in Egypt.' On Nov. 24 following he made his first appearance at the Sacred Harmonic Society in Handel's ' Messiah.' The rapid strides which he

delivery of

'

was then making towards perfection in oratorio were shown to take a few instances only by his performances in Judas Maccabaeus and 'Samson,' 'Elijah,' 'St. Paul,' and 'Lobgesang,' and Eli and Naaman (both composed expressly for him). [He sang in Bach's St. Matthew Passion,' under Sterndale Bennett, when the work was given for the first time in England in 1854.] But his greatest triumph was achieved at the Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace in 1857, when, after singing in Messiah and ' Judas Maccabseus with increased reputation, he gave The enemy said in Israel in Egypt with such remarkable power, fire, and volume of voice, breadth of style, and evenness of vocalisation, as com-

—

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

pletely electrified

He

his hearers.

repeated

this wonderful performance at several succeed-

ing festivals, and in the Handelian repertory nothing was more striking than his delivery of 'Total Eclipse' from 'Samson.' [He was the first representative of various tenor parts in oratorios and cantatas that are for the most part forgotten in the present day, such as Benedict's 'St. Peter,' Bennett's 'May Queen,' Sullivan's Prodigal Son and Light of the World.' His singing of Tom Bowling and Come into the garden, Maud remained unapproachable until the end of his life. It was unfortunate that he was compelled by adverse circumstances to go on singing after his voice had begun to decay. His farewell concert took place at the Albert Hall on May 11, 1891, but he sang afterwards at Covent Garden, and at music halls. Some critics, who only heard him in his last days, were inclined to question whether he had ever been great, but their doubts were without foundation. In the quarter of a century during which hi^s voice was at its best, he sang on the orchestra with Jenny Lind, Clara Novello, Tietjens, Adelina Patti, and Christine Nilsson, and held his own with them all. Asisuredly none but a great artist could have done that. Even in his vocal decay there was nothing harsh or ugly. He never sang off the key, and even when he was '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

EEGAL

REFORMATION SYMPHONY, THE nearly seventy his legato singing was a model ot steadiness and breath management. The expression ' voice colouring was not much used in Sims Reeves's day, but of the art implied in the words he was a past master. No one could with greater certainty find the exact tone to fit the most varied emotions. It was a comprehensive talent indeed that could range at will from the levity of Captain Macheath's songs to the poignant pathos of Handel's ' Deeper and deeper still,' the emotional wairath of Beethoven's 'Adelaide,' or the cycle 'An die feme Geliebte.' He died at Worthing, Oct. 25, 1900.] Sims Reeves married, Nov. 2, 1850, Miss Emma Lucombe, soprano singer, who had been a pupil of Mrs. Blane Hunt, and appeared at the Sacred Harmonic Society's concert of June 19, 1839, and sang there and at other concerts until 1845, when she went to Italy. She returned in 1848, and appeared in opera as well as at concerts. She retired from public life and occupied herself as a teacher of singing, for which she had a deservedly high reputation. [She died at Upper Norwood, June 10, 1895 ; and in the same year her husband married his pupil. Miss Maud Rene, with whom he went on a successful conHis son cert tour in South Africa in 1896.] Herbert, after a careful education under his father and at Milan, made his successful debut at one of Mr. Ganz's concerts (June 12, 1880), and met with considerable favour from the w. H. H. ; additions from the Diet, of public, Nat. Biog., S. H. Pardon, Esq., etc. '

SYMPHONY,

REFORMATION

THE.

Mendelssohn's own name for his Symphony in D minor, written with a view to performance at the Tercentenary Festival of the Augsburg Protestant Confession, which was intended to be celebrated throughout Germany on June 25, The first mention of it appears to be in 1830. a letter of "his own from North Wales, Sept. 2, 1829. On May 25, 1830, he writes from Weimar that it is finished, and when copied It was not, however, will be sent to Leipzig. then performed the political troubles of that year prevented any festive demonstrations. In January and March, 1832, it was in rehearsal in Paris, but it did not come to actual performance till November 1832, when it was It played under his own direction at Berlin. was not repeated during his life, but was revived at the Crystal Palace, Nov. 30, 1867. It was afterwards played at the Gewandhans, Leipzig, Oct. 29, 1868, and was published in score and parts by Novello & Co., and by Simrock as Symphony No. 5 op. 107, No. 36 of the posthumous works. The first Allegro is said to represent the conflict between the old and new religions, and the Finale is founded on Luther's Hymn, Ein' feste Burg ist unser One of the most prominent themes of Gott.' the work is the beautiful ascending phrase ;

'

'

'

—

47

Dresden Amen, which has as the been used with marvellous effect in Wagner's

known '

'

'

Parsifal.

G.

REFRAIN

(Fr. Se/rain

Germ. Beimkehr).

;

This word is used in music to denote what in poetry is called a 'burden,' i.e. a short sentence or phrase which recurs in every verse or stanza. It was probably first employedin music in order to give roundness and unity to the melody, and was then transferred to the poetry which was written especially for music. Such collections as the Eclios du temps passe give an abundance of examples in French music, where songs with refrains are most frequently to be found. Lilliburlero may be cited as one English instance [See vol. ii. p. 731.] out of many. Schubert's four Refrain - Lieder were published as op. '

'

'

'

95.

M.

REGAL

(Fr.

E^ale

;

It.

Eigale or

mnfak).

may be derived from 'regulus,' the idea of gi'adation being inherent in a keyboard. [The word

The wooden harmonicon, when played with

a

keyboard, was at one time called 'r%ale en This name describes a variety of organ, bois. '] which is especially interesting as being in some ways the prototype of the modern harmonium. It consists of a single row of beating reeds, the pipes of which are in some instances so small as hardly to cover the reeds. A fine specimen is in the possession of the Brussels Conservatoire, and was lent to the Inventions Exhibition in 1885. The name 'bible regal' is the title of another variety, the peculiarity of which consists in its being arranged to fold in two, on a similar principle to that on which leather backgammon boards are made. The bellows are covered with leather, so that when the instrument is folded it presents the appearance of a large book. '

'

Praetorius in his Syntagma, vol.

iii.

pi.

iv.,

^

gives a view of one, which its extended condition, bellows and all, appears to be about

He ascribes (ii. p. 73) 3 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. the invention to a nameless monk others give it to Voll, an organ-builder at Nuremberg in 1575. The specimen preserved in the Muste of the Conservatoire at Paris is said to date from the end of the 16th century, and has a compass of four octaves. The instrument has been long since extinct, but the name regal is still applied in Germany to certain reed["The word is used by Fetis, Rimbault, stops. and Engel to denote the portable organ of the 12th and 13th centuries. Mr. Hipkins possessed a remarkably fine specimen, believed to be unique as far as Great Britain is concerned. It is smaller than the Brussels one, being 2 ft. 5 in. wide, and (with the bellows) 3 ft. 8 in. ;

'

long.

The compass

is

from

E

to

c"'.

The

sharps are of boxwood stained black, the naturals of bird's-eye maple. The keys are not balanced, but hinged. The instrument is of oak, and is dated 1629, with no maker's name.] In the inventory of Henry VIII. 's musical

"

KEGAN

48

instruments [Harleian MS., 1419,

REGER A

fol.

200],

we find thirteen pairs of single regalls (the 'pair* meant only one instrument) and five pairs of double regalls (that is with two pipes to each note). The name continued in use at the English Court down to 1773, the date of the death of Bernard Gates, who was tuner of the Regals in the King's household.' For further particulars the reader ia referred to Mr. A. J. Hipkins's Musical iThstruments (A. & C. Black, 1887), where instruments are figured; also to the same writer's History of the Pianoforte^ 1898. G.; with additions from MS. notes left by Mr. Hipkins. REGAN, Anna, soprano singer. [See '

SCHIMON.]

REGER, Max, was born March 19, 1873, at Brand, a village near Kemnath in Bavaria, and left his native place when but a year old for "Weiden, whither his father, who was a teacher, was transferred in 1874. There he received his first musical training through his father and the organist, whose name was Lindner. In 1890 he went to study with Riemann at Sondershausen, whom he followed to Wiesbaden on the latter's appointment to the Conservatorium, and became himself a teacher there in 1895, till in 1896 he was called to the service of his country. After recovering from a severe illness he returned to his own home in 1898, removed again in 1901, this time to Munich, where he

.

1.

Sonata for violin and piano, in

2.

Trio for piano, violin

D minor.

and viola.

Sonata for violin and piano, in £>. Six SongB. 6. Sonata for violoncello and piano, In F minor, g / Two Sacred Songs with oiguti. iBongB for 4 voices with piano. 7. Tlu'ee Organ pieces. 8. Five SongB. , ^ Walzer Kapricen (piano pieceB for 4 handflj. 9. 10. Deutsclie TSnze (piano pieces for 4 hands). 11. Waltzes for FF.. solo. 12. Five Songs. 13. Lose Bl&fcter,' FF. solo, 14. Duets foi- soprano and alto, with piano. 3.

4.

'

'

'

'

'

'

15.

Ten Songs.

16. VJ. IS. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. SO. 31. 82. 33. 34. 85. 36. 37.

Suite in E minor, for organ. AuB der Jugendzeit,' twenty pieces for PF. solo, Improvisation,' FF. solo. Two Sacred Songs, with organ. Five Humoresken for PF. solo. Hymn An der Gesang (male chorus, with orchestra). Six Waltzes, for piano (4 hands). Four Songs. Six Pieces for FF. solo. Aquarellen for FF. solo, Seven FantasiestUcke for FF. solo. Fantasie for organ on 'Bin' feste Burg-' • '

*

'

Sonata for piano and violoncello, in 6 minor. Fantasie and Fugue, C minor, for org&n. Fantasie for organ on 'Freu' dich sehr, o meine Seele. Six Songs.

Seven Chai-acteristlc Pieces for PP. solo. Sonata for Organ, Fit minor. Pieces Plttoieaques for piano (4 hands). '

Six Songs.

Bunte Bl&tter, nine small pieces for PF.

solo.

Five Songs. , ^ ^, ("Two volumes of Folk-songs for male chorus (a o-9J. jjo J Two volumes of Folk-songs for mixed chorus (a ft^). '"'1 Sacred Oerman Folk-songs (a 7 to E in Ex. 5a (where the root C does not appear) is sufficient to constitute resolution. That such a form of resolution is very common is obvious from theorists having noticed it, but it ought to be understood that the mere change of position of the notes of a discord is not sufficient to constitute resolution unless a real change of harmony is implied by the elimination of the discordant note or unless the change of position leads to fresh harmony, and thereby satisfies the conditions of intelligible connection with the discord. A much more unusual and remarkable resolution is such as appears at the end of the first movement of Beethoven's F minor Quartet as

—

Bb

:

"

*^

8.

— ^

—

which might be interpreted Ex.

as follows

^^^

9.

;

:

Another device which came early into use, and was in great favour with Bach and his sons and their contemporaries, and is yet an ever-fruitful source of variety, is that of interpolating notes in the part which has what is called the discor-

follows Ex.

69

6.

dant note, between its sounding and its final and either passing direct to the note which relieves the dissonance from the digi-ession,

resolution,

where the chord of the Dominant seventh contracts into the mere single note which it represents, and that proceeds to the note only of the Tonic so that no actual haiinony is heard in the movementafter the seventh has been sounded. An example of treatment of an inversion of the major ninth of the Dominant, which is as unusual, is the following from Beethoven's last Quartet, in F, op. 135 ;

:

Ex.

7.

or touching the dissonant note slightly again at the end of it. The simplest form of this device was the leap from a suspended note to another note belonging to the same harmony, and then back to the note which supplies the resolution, as in Ex. 10 ; and this form was extremely common iu quite the early times of polyphonic music.

m m Ex.

10.

&i=

p

^^^^

But much more elaborate forms of a similar made use of later. An example from J. S. Bach will be found in vol. i. p. 3146 nature were

Ar_ Ar

mmm-

J.r

J'"'

There remain to be noted a few typical devices by which resolutions are either varied or elaEx.

11.

of this Dictionary

a Fantasia same point also as

;

the following example, from

by Emanuel Bach, illustrates the somewhat remarkably, and serves

an instance of enharmonic resolution

:

—

'

EESOLUTION

BBSPONSE

The minor seventh on C in this case ia ultimately resolved as if it had been an augmented sixth composed of the same identical notes according to our system of temperament, but derived from a different source and having consequently a different context. This manner of using the same group of notes in different senses is one of the most familiar devices in modern music for varying the course of resolutions and obtaining fresh aspects of harmonic combinations. [For further examples see Modulation,

incredible to people who do not believe in what they are not accustomed to, is felt to be obvious to all when it becomes familiar ; and hence the peculiarities which are reserved for special

70

Change, Enharmonic]

An inference which follows from the use of some forms of Enharmonic resolution is that the discordant note need not inevitably move to but may be brought into consonant relations by the motion of other parts, which relieve it. of its characteristic dissonant effect ; this is illustrated most familiarly by the freedom which is recognised in the resolution of the chord of the sixth, fifth, and third on the subdominant, called sometimes the added sixth, sometimes an inversion of the supertonic seventh, and sometimes an inversion of the eleventh of the Dominant, or even a double-rooted chord derived resolution,

from Tonic and Dominant together. It is necessary to note shortly the use of vicarious resolutions that is, of resolutions in

—

which one part supplies the discordant note and another the note to which under ordinary circumstances it ought to pass. This has been alluded to above as

common

in respect of the

so-called fundamental discords, but there are

instances of its occurring with less independent combinations. The Gigue of Bach's Partita in minor is full of remarkable experiments in resolution ; the following is an example which illustrates especially the point under considera-

E

tion

:

^^m Ex.12.

occasions at first must often in their turn yield the palm of special interest to more complex Such ia the history instinctive generalisations. of the development of muaical resources in the The past, and such it must be in the future.

laws of art require to be based upon the broadest and most universal generalisations and in the detail under consideration it appears at present that the ultimate test is thorough intelligibility in the melodic progressions of the parts which ;

constitute the chords, or in a few cases the response of the harmony representing one root to that representing another, between which, as in Examples 3 and 4, there is a recognised connection sufficient for the mind to follow without the express connection of the flow of the parts. Attempts to catalogue the various discords and their various resolutions must be futile as long as the injunction is added that such formulas only are admissible, for this is to insist upon the repetition of what haa been aaid before ; but they are of value when they are conaidered with aufficient generality to help us to arrive at the ultimate principles which underlie the largest circle of their multifarioua varieties. The imagination can live and move freely within the bounds of comprehensive laws, but it is only choked by the accumulation of precedents. c. h. h. p. RESPOND (Lat. Hespmsorimn) a form of ecclesiastical chant which gi-ew out of the elaboration of the primitive Eesponsobial Psalmody. Some of the Besponds have- been frequently treated in the Polyphonic Style, with very great effect, not only by the Great Masters of the 16th century, but even as late as the time of Colonna, whose Eesponsoria of the Office for the Dead, for eight voices, are written with intense appreciation of the solemn import of the text. A large collection of very fine examples, including an exquisitely beautiful set for Holy

Week, by

inference to be drawn from the above examples is that the possible resolutions of discords,

The

which have an individual but that it takes time to discover them, as there can hardly be a severer test of a true musical instinct in relation to harmony than to make sure of such a matter. As a rule, the old easily recognisable resolutions, by motion of a single degree, or at least by Interchange of parts of the chord in supplying the subsequent consonant harmony, must preespecially of those

status, are Varied,

ponderate, and the more peculiar resolutions will be reserved for occasions when greater force and intensity are required. But as the paradoxes

of one generation are often the truisms of the next, so treatment of discords such as is utterly

Vittoria, will be found in vol. iv. of Musica Divina. \v. s. R. RESPONSE, in English church music, is, in its widest sense, any musical sentence sung by the choir at the close of something read or chanted by the minister. The term thus includes the Amen after prayers, the Kyrie

Proske's

'

'

'

'

after each

commandment

in the

''

Communion

Sermce, the 'Doxology' to the Gospel, and every reply to a Versicle, or to a Petition, or Suffrage. In its more limited sense the first three of the above divisions would be excluded from the term, and the last-named would fall naturally into the following important groups :

(1) those which immediately precede the Psalms, called also the Preees ; (2) those following the Apostles' Creed

and the Lord's Prayer

;

(3) those

—

—

'

—— RESPONSE

RESPONSE following the Lord's Prayer in the Litany (4) and the Responses of the first portion of the Litany, which, however, are of a special musical form which will be fully explained hereafter. Versioles and Responses are either an ancient formula of prayer or praise, as, Lord, have mercy upon us,' etc., 'Glory be to the Father,' etc., or a quotation from Holy Scripture, as, ;

B;

open Thou our

lips.

And our mouth shall shew forth Thy

which is verse 15 of Psalm from a church hymn, as,

O

/^

^

Lord, save

And

Thy

li.

praise.

or a quotation

;

'

—

^—

This

^^^~~J

one of the most characteristic progres-

sions in plain-song

versicles,

responses,

con-

must have already struck the reader that this is nothing more or less than the note of the cuckoo. This fact was probably in Shakespeare's mind when he wrote, fessions, etc.

'

people.

It

'

This medial accent

bless Thine inheritance.

is

lark,

only used in Versicles last word is a poly-

and Responses when the

or an adaptation of ; a prayer to the special purpose, as, I^

is

The finch, the sparrow, and the The ptai/n-song cuckoo gray.

which is from the Te Dev/m

^

71

Creed and the Lord's Prayer. And here we at once meet the final fall of a minor third,' which — is an ancient form of inflec- —ft °~~ tion known as the Accentus

'

^ O Loid,

.

syllable

:

Medial Atxent.

thus

$^SE

Favourably with mercy hear our prayers. O Son of David, have mercy upon us.

And

The musical treatment

of such Versicles and Responses offers a wide and interesting field of study. (There can be little doubt that all the inflections or cadences to which they are set

have been the gradual development of an original monotonal treatment, which in time was foimd to be uninteresting and tedious (whence our term of contempt monotonous '), or was designedly varied for use on special occasions and duiing holy seasons. [See Inflexion.] The word ' Alleluia is found as a Response in the Prayer-Book of 1549, for use between Easter and Trinity, immediately before the Psalms during the remainder of the year the

When

the last word

accented on its last syllable, there is an ad-

ditional

grant us

Thy

salya-tion.

a monosyllable or

is

is

Moderate Accent, :

note,

^ As we do put OUT trust in Thee.

thus This may be said to be the only law of the Accentus Ikdetiastieiis which the tradition of our

'

'

;

word was Here is Marbeck's mUSioforit (1550) translation of the

«

used.

*

When

^

^

.

n

Praye 7° the

'

f-

Reformed Church enforces. It is strictly observed in most of our cathedrals, and considering its remarkable simplicity, should never be broken. The word 'prayers' was formerly pronounced as a dissyllable it therefore took the _ •^ Favourably .... OUT pi-ay-era. medial accent thus but as a monosyllable it should of course be treated thus -9 Jz ;

—

Lotde.

was in later editions converted into a Versicle and Response, as in our present Prayer-Book, the music was, according to some uses, divided between the Versicle and Response, this

thus

Favourably

'

PiBise ye the Lord.

1% The Lord's name be praised.

But as a matter of fact these ' Preces' in our Prayer-Book which precede the daily Psalms have never been strictly bound by the laws of 'ecclesiastical chant,' hence, not only are great

met with, other uses, but also actual settings in service-form (that is, like a motet), containing contrapuntal devices Nearly all the best in four or more parts. cathedral libraries contain old examples of this elaborate treatment of the Preces, and several have been printed by Dr. Jebb in his ' Choral varieties of plain-song settings to be

gathered

from

Roman and

Responses.

As then the Preces are somewhat exceptional, we will pass to the more regular Versicles and Responses, such as those after the Apostles'

prayers.

'

'

*

.... our

In comparing our Versicles and Responses with the Latin from which they were translated, it is important to bear this rule as to the final word in mind. Because the Latin and English of the same Versicle or Response will frequently take difiiBrent accents in the two languages. For example, the following Versicle takes in the Latin the medial accent but in the translation will require the moderate accent. '

;

Latin farm.

Ab inimtcis nostrls defends nos Chris

-

te.

Englisti form.

From our enemies defend

us,

Christ.

It has been just stated that the early part of

the Litany does not come under the above laws of ' accent.' The pi^incipal melodic progression however, closely allied to the above, it is, having merely an additional note, thus

——

—

It

is the old and comResponse

and

to this are adapted the Responses,

-

ra

by church-musicians, but

pro no-bis. '

'

'

'

'We

'

'

Christ, hear us

'

;

(the first note being omitted

'

;

sionally to be heard in our northern cathedrals. The plain-song was not always entirely ignored

::f:

good Lord ; Good Lord, deliver us ; beseech Thee to hear _ us, good Lord'; Grant us Thy peace ; Have mercy upon us

us,

——

EESPONSE

men

This

'

—

KESPONSE

72

'

——

;

it

was sometimes

'

and ' Lord, have mercy upon us At this point, Christ, have mercy upon us.'

as redundant)

;

the entry of the Lord's Prayer brings in the old law of medial and moderate accents the above simple melody, therefore, is the true Response for the whole of the first (and principal) portion of the Litany. It is necessary, however, to return now to the preliminary sentences of the Litany, or the Invocations,' as they have Here we find each divided by a been called. colon, and, in consequence, the simple melody last given is lengthened by one note, thus ;

in-

cluded in the tenor part in such a mutilated It is genestate as to be hardly recognisable. rally admitted that the form in which Tallis's responses have come down to us is very impure, To such an extent is this the if not incorrect. case that in an edition of the people's part of Tallis, published not many years since, the editor (a cathedral organist) fairly gave up the task of finding the plain-song of the response, 'We beseech Thee to hear us, good Lord,' and ordered the people to sing the tuneful super'

structure

'

We

seech Thee

be

-to

hear

us,

good Lord.

combine

It certainly does appear impossible to this

with

*=

M-J-IL

i

used without variation for all the InvoThe asterisk shows the added note, cations. which is set to the syllable immediately preIt happens that each of the ceding the colon. sentences of Invocation contains in our English but it version a monosyllable before the colon is not the case in the Latin, therefore both Versicle and Response differ from our use, thus This

us,

is

;

But this

it

ancient

h De

•

harmonies

us.

tion, for instead of 1

1

-fj we have fer^

i-

with

The whole sentence of music thus

—

;

Tallis, will

ex

-

au

-

di

uqs.

combine with his

thus

r

be

-

T^r

r -^

r

seech Thee to hear

us,

good Lord.

(FlaiD-song in Tenor.)

In the petitions of the Litany, the note marked with an asterisk is approached by another addi-

a

—

J

'^XSLT-la-MesUmers.

etc.

Pater de coelis

form

good Lord.

—m-

-

OhriS'te

by

This, if used

r

{

that

existed

We

{jasro;}"—

appears

UB

for ever.

therefore stands

Having now described the Preces, Versicles and Responses, and Litany, it only remains to say a few words on (1) Amens, (2) Doxology to Gospel, (3) Responses to the Commandments, all of which we have mentioned as being responses of a less important kind. (1) Since the Reformation two forms of Amen have been chiefly used in our church, the monotone, and the approach by a semitone, generally harmonised thus

i (Petition chanted Priest.)

by

(Response by Choir and People.)

We

have now shortly traced the gradual growth of the plain-song of the whole of our Litany, and it is impossible not to admire the simplicity and beauty of its construction.

But the early English church-musicians frequently composed original musical settings of the whole Litany, a considerable number of nearly which were printed by Dr. Jebb all, however, are now obsolete except that by Thomas Wanless (organist of York Minster at

The former of these Amens in early times was used when the choir resporided to the priest the latter, when both priest and choir sang '

'

;

together (as after the Confession, Lord's Prayer, Creed, etc.). Tallis, however, always uses the monotonic form, varying the harmonies thrice.

the close of the a7th century), which

In more modern uses, however, the ancient system has been actually reversed, and (as at St. Paul's Cathedral) the former is only used

is

occa-

—

—

EESPONSOEIAL PSALMODY when

priest and choir join ; the latter when the choir responds. In many cathedrals no guiding principle is adopted ; this is undesirable. (2) The Doxology to the Gospel is always monotone, the monotone being in the Tenor, thus

EESPONSOEIAL PSALMODY

73

Such a response was known among the Greeks as an acrostic (dxpoffT/x'oc or aKporeKeiriov), and the technical word in Latin for this performance by the congregation was Respondere hence this form of psalmody was called Eesponsorial Psalmody.' The refrain was originally very brief, an Amen or an Alleluia, a short text like the For his mercy endureth for ever of Psalm cxxxvi. or some pregnant sentence drawn from the Psalm which was being sung. In the earliest days the soloist's text was very little removed from monotone, but already by the time of St. Augustine it had become more elaborate, and the ancient simplicity was looked upon as an archaism. The result was a performance someat the close of each verse.

;

'

—

'

'

^ There

are,

{nSsji^ toTi".*) !->"»• =l=£

however, almost innumerable original words used throughout the

settings of these

countiy. (3) The Responses to the Commandments are an expansion of the ancient Christe eleison,

Kyrie eleison,

made

to serve as ten responses instead of being used as one responsive prayer. The ancient form actually appears in Marbeck (1550), and the so-called Marbeck's Kyrie now used is an editorial manipulation. Being thrown on their own resources for the music to these ten responses, our composers of the reformed church always composed original settings, sometimes containing complete contrapuntal devices. At one period of vicious taste arrangemerUs of various sentences of music, sacred or secular, were pressed into the service. The Jommelli Kyrie' is a good or rather, a bad example. It is said to have been adapted by Attwood from a chaconne by Jommelli, which had already been much used on the stage as a soft and slow accompaniment of weird and ghostly scenes. The adaptation of ' Open the heavens from Elijah is still very popular, and may be considered a favourable specimen of an unfavourable class. [Both these have happily passed out of general use at present, 1907.] '

'

'

—

—

'

'

'

The re-introduction of choral celebrations of Holy Communion has necessitated the use of various inflexions, versioles, and responses, of which the music or method of chanting has, almost without exception, been obtained from pre-Keformation sources. j. s. EESPONSOEIAL PSALMODY is the earliest form in which psalms have been sung in the Christian Church. It is a development from inflected monotone (see Inflexion). In the earliest Christian days the recitation of the psalms was carried out by a single soloist, who monotoned the greater part of the psalm, but inserted various cadences or inflexions at certain points of distinction in the verse. This was very probably but the carrying on of what had long been current in the Synagogue. (See Plain-song, Synagogue Music. ) It was very advisable not to leave the whole of the performanceof the psalm and it became customary for the to the soloist congregation to interject some small response ;

what resembling the

familiar

Litany.

psalmody remained such a short time in

Kyrie eleison,

The this

comparatively simple Stage that very few actual monuments of it have survived. The Eesponsorial Psalmody that exists is of the elaborate sort. Partly as a result of the growing artistic feeling, partly also in consequence of the existence of trained singer's in the great Song School at Eome, the music, alike of the soloist who sang the verses of the psalm and of the "choir who responded, was elaborated to a very high pitch. Then, since it was impossible to sing the whole psalin. to a highly ornate chant habitually, certain verses were Selected from the psalm for this elaborate treatment ; and there grew up, therefore, the musical form called the Respond, which consisted in its simplest shape of a choral melody (called the Respond proper), alternating with one or more Verses sung by the soloist. This form is found both in the music of the Mass and in that of Divine Service, and mainly as an interlude between the reading of lessons. In the former it is called for distinction's sake Responsorium GraduaU or the Gradual. In the latter case it is simply called EesponsoHuTn ; for the lesser Oflices, which were sung without musical elaboration, there came to be a few simple forms of Eesponsorial music, modelled on the elaborate responds of Mattins but differing from them in being simpler in This brief form was then called Retexture. sponsorium breve as distinct from the Besponsorium prolixum. The highest development of elaboration was reached in the Gradual but even there, in spite of all the embroidery, the primitive monotone around which everything else centres '

;

is

still

traceable

show that with

;

and

careful

analysis

will

the chant is This statement can still an inflected monotone. most easily be proved by the study of a single group of Graduals which are ordinarily ascribed to the second mode, and are decorated with similar melodic themes. The music falls into eight divisions, each of which consists of (a) an intonation, (6) the recitation in inflected monotone, (c) the cadence or all its elaboration

/

.

EESPONSOEIAL PSALMODY

RESPONSORIAL PSALMODY

74

pneuma

or melisma.

There are in all fifteen scheme of music the Justus lit palTna is given here as being the best representative of the group but in two of the divisions another text is given as well, in order diflerent texts set to this

;

;

to reveal the structure the more clearly. I.

h- ^

.

i^ Jus

tus

-^7^

—

;

—

,

i

ut pal

;

universal.

. •

Gloria patri as well, in the early shape in which consisted of one phrase, not two. Further, it became customary in France to repeat after the Verse not the whole of the respond but only a and this custom spread till it was part of it it

.

-^aV^ri^ bit

ina floT

i^^£s=m.-=!s^^^=^^

^t^^l;

Sicut ce

Ti^ri^^^i^^z; 3.,]Mi4,

III.

Mul

bi

tar

-

ii^=^=a^-p^^^^^'^'^^

IV.

In

do(Pro-ce

dens d« tha

I»

-

mo mo

su

o

-

Do-mi

-ni)

^\^^^^^MT7;:^

-tf^''>«

^ Ad (BL

an -nun lue

. «8 »

..

-

tl

•

an

diim

-

^

i

noD luerint do-ml

- i

»fl«

:K^TCTtm ^>\

VI. «e

-

li

-

cor

-

di

•

^

VII.

.

>m

^^r^S^l^i^^JMsf^(Cp. III.)

VIII.

>.i8 Ptr

(Op. IV.)

'*'

IV' noc

. .

The same plan holds good with the responds of the Office which are found for the most part It is visible more in the service of Mattins. plainly in the verses of the responds than in Those of the Office the responds themselves. use a set of invariable psalm -melodies, one

belonging to each mode in these the monotone is very clear, and yet there is much elaboration in the cadences, and the forms are so plastic that they can by certain well-defined rules be readily adapted to the various texts of the (See Psalmody.) The Graduals in the verses.

31

gV 's*^

tela

The following respond, then, which belongs to Mattins of the First Sunday in Advent and stands at the head of the series, may be taken as representing this form of composition in an unusually full shape.

Three boys sing the Eespond -_!

;

utilise these

mass do not their

Verses

;

each

Verse

common is

In neither case

is it

Ion

ge

•

ec

-

ce

Ti-de

V^ po-teu-ti

1

-

am

Te-iii-en

--Mi^1^;^aSIf^-J>^-^^-if

_

-

tern, et

ne-bu

lam

—

M»t«s:-^

tem.

IfO

•

tam

ter-raiu te

gV-^^-j^-a^,-

^

te

X

ob

vi

common now

more than one Verse, but the respond in the Office is often accompanied by the to find

a

eoa

peculiar to the

;

identical.

-

foi-ms for

but even so there is much similarity observable amongst them both in general strucIn exceptional cases even ture and in detail. the responds of the Oflice have their Verses set to a special melody and not to the common one. As regards liturgical (as distinct from musical) structure the respond of the Office is like the gradual -respond of the Mass, but not

Gradual

As'pi - ul

^-gfrJi^V^AT^

ni

^

'*M \ i,

et

di

•

ci

•

te

t Nun-cl -a

•

—

——

'

EESPONSORIUMJ

REST

^^-H-='-'-ft^>V4;: no

bia si

tu es ip

-

(Hawkins, Hist, of Mvmc, chap. 63.) Accordingly we find rests corresponding in value to each of the notes then in use, as shown in the following table.

^

i

Qui

;

LoQga.

i~-^-f, ^if±Sti=M=S=i=f^ reg-na-tn

-

tub I

Maxima. Longa perfecta.

ra

-

•

Brevia. Semibrevia.

In po - pu - lo

E^^S^tt^ Is

75

Minima.

LoDga imperfecta.

Semimiuima.

Paiua. Seniipaus;i.

Fusa.

SemlfuHa.

el.

A

boy sings the first Verse to the psalm melody of the Seventh mode (see Psalmody)

—

Quique terrigeoae et fllii hominum, simul in unum dives et pauper (Pa. xlix. 2).

The

choir repeats the Respond from Ite onwards. second boy sings a second Verse as before Qui regis Israel intende, qui deducis velut ovem Joseph

A

(Ps. Ixxx.

1).

The

choir repeats the Respond from Nwnda. third boy sings a third Verse Excita domine potentiam tuam, et veni ut salvos facias

A

nos.

The R7

repeated from Qui regmatwrus. The three boys sing the Gloria pain (down to Sancto only) to the same psalm melody, and the choir repeats the closing section of the Respond In

populo

is

w. h.

Israel.

RESPONSORIUM.

f.

See Respond, and Rb-

SPONSOBIAL Psalmody. REST (Fr. Silence, Pause

;

Ger. Pause

;

Ital.

Pausa). The sign of silence in music, the duration of the silence depending upon the form of the character employed to denote it. The employment of the rest dates from the invention of 'measured music,' that is, music composed of notes of definite and proportionate values.

[See

MusiCA Mensitrata

;

Notation.]

In earlier times the cantus was sung without pauses, or with only such slight breaks as were necessary for the due separation of the sentences of the text, but so soon as the relative duration of the notes was established, the employment of rests of like proportionate values became a necessity. Franchinus Gafurius, in his Practica Musicae (1496), says that the Rest 'was invented to give a necessary relief to the voice, and a sweetness to the melody for as a preacher of the divine word, or an orator in his discourse, ;

necessary oftentimes to relieve his auditors by the recital of some pleasantry, thereby to make them more favourable and attentive, so a singer, intermixing certain pauses with his notes, engages the attention of his hearers to the remaining' parts of his song.' finds

it

W

la)

Minim

reat. Crotchet rest. Quaver rest. SemiquaTor rest.

(b)

(/)

Demisemiq'uavBr

(j)

Semidemiaeiiiiquaver rest.

{/) Deml-quart-de-flonpir. (^) Seizidme-de-BOupir.

,

Id)

Fnu9c, Deini-pauHe. Souplr. Denil-Boupir.

|«)

Quart-dfl'BOupir.

(c)

rest.

Pausa Semifu£».

of unchanged value, as the semibreve and minim rests. Two of the longer rests are also occasionally used in modern music, the pausa, or breve rest, to express a silence of two bars' duration, and

the longa imperfecta a silence of four. These rests are called in French bdtons, and are spoken of as baton k deux mesures, k quatre mesures. The rests employed in modern music, with their names and values in corresponding notes, are shown in the table below. By a license the semibreve rest is used to express a silence of a full bar in any rhythm (hence the German name Taktpause) its value is therefore not invariable, as is the case with all the other rests, for it may be shorter than its corresponding note, as when used to express a bar of 2-4 or 6-8 time, or longer, as when it occurs in 3-2 time. To express a rest of longer duration than one bar, either the bdtons of two '

'

'

;

or four bars are employed (Ex. a), or, more commonly, a thick horizontal line is drawn in

the stave, and the number of bars which have to be counted in silence is written above it (Ex. 6).

W

(6)

10

Like the notes, the value of a rest can be by the addition of a dot, and to the same extent, thus -- is equal to -^r, T to r n, increased

•

and

•

so on.

In the earlier forms of the ancient measured music rests were used as a part of the timesignature, and placed immediately after the clef. In this position they did not denote silence, but merely indicjited the description of Mood to be counted. [See Notation, Mood, Time, SlONATUEB.] '

'

(/)

(6)

Gebuah,

French.

EvOLtBH. Bemlbrove rest.

I&)

M

Fusts.

(3)

^

(a)

id)

Pausa

these rests, two, the semipav^a and suspirium, have remained in use until the present day, and appear, slightly increased in size but

T ic)

Semisuspirium.

Of

W

W

(Pi

Susplrium.

(a)

Taktpause.

(A)

Halbe Fauae.

Viertelpause. AchtelpauBe. Sechszebntelpause. ZweiunddreJasigBtheilpauae. (/) Ig) YierundaacbBzlgstheUpauae. (c)

\d)

ie)

Italian.

Pausa della Semibrere. Pauaa della AHaima. Pausa della Semimininia, or Quarto. id) Puusa delta Croroa, or Mezzo Quarto. Pausa della Semicroma, or Bespiro. Ie) /) Pauaa della Biscroma. a) Paiisa della Semibiscroma. F. T.

la)

—

—

RESULTANT TONES

76

EESULTANT TONES

(Fr.

Som

RESULTANT TONES rimltans

;

Ger. Combinationatone) are produced when any two loud and sustained musical sounds are heard at the same time. There are two kinds of resultant tones, the Differential and the Sum-

mational. The Differential tone is so called because its number of vibrations is equal to the di fferenoe between those of thegeneratingsounds. The Summational tone is so called because its number of vibrations is equal to the sum of those of the generating sounds. The following diagram shows the pitches of the differential tones of the principal consonant intervals when in perfect tune.

differential differential.

or from the combination of a with a partial, or with another Thus the major Third C-E may ;

have the following differential tones

:

'

'

'

other sound

'.

Generators.

All these tones are heard simultaneously but convenience the differentials of the first, second, third, and fourth orders are written We see, then, in notes of different length. that the number of possible resultant tones is ;

for

very great but only those which arise from the primes of musical sounds are sufficiently strong to be of practical importance. In enabling the ear to distinguish between consonant and dissonant intervals, the differential tones are only less important than the upper partials. Thus if the chord G-E-0 be accurately tuned as 3 5 8, the differential of G-G coincides with E, and that of E-G with G. But if the intervals be tempered the differentials are thrown out of tune, and give rise to beats. These beats are very loud and harsh on the ordinary harmonium, tuned in equal temperament. Again, in the close triad C-E-G the ;

Differentials,

If the interval

be wider than an octave, as in the last two examples, the differential is intermediate between the sounds which produce it. These tones can be easily heard on the ordinary harmonium, and also on the' Organ. They are not so distinct on the piano, because the sounds of this instrument are not sustained. By practice, however, the resultant tones can be distinguished on the piano also. Dissonant as well as consonant intervals produce resultant tones. Takingthe minor Seventh in its three possible forms the differentials are as follows

:

:

differentials of

give no beats

ential of

first form of minor Seventh is obtained by tuning two Fifths upwards (C-G-D) and then a major Third downwards(D | Bl>) its differential tone is /A|>, an exact major Third below C. The second form is got by two exact Fourths upwards (C-F-B|>) : the differential is then \Ab, which is flatter than the previous IA\) by the interval 35:36. The third form is the so-called Harmonic Seventh on G, whose differential is G, an exact Fourth below C. The marks \, /, here used to distinguish notes which are confused in the ordinary notation, will be found fully We may explained under Temperament. briefly remark that the acute sign # refers to notes in an ascending series of Fifths, the grave sign I to those in a descending series of Fifths. Hitherto we have spoken only of the differential tones which are produced by the fundamentals or prime partial tones of musical sounds. But a differential may [See Partial Tones.] also arise from the combination of any upper partial of one sound with any partial of the

of

E-G

coincide

and

the intervals be in perfect tune. On a tempered instrument the result is very different. If we take C to have 264 vibrations, the tempered E has about 332^, and the

tempered

The

C-E and

:

G

if

about 396^ vibrations. The differis then 68j, and that of E-G 63.

C-E

These two tones beat 5J times each second, and thus render the chord to some extent dissonant. In the minor triad, even when in just intonation, several of the resultant tones do not fit in with the no^es of the chord, although they may

;

be too

far apart to beat. In the major triad, on the contrary, the resultant tones form octaves with the notes of the chord. To this difference

Helmholtz attributes the less perfect consonance of the minor triad, and its obscured though not inharmonious effect.

The origin of the differential tones has been the subject of much discussion. Thomas Young held that when beats became too rapid to be distinguished by the ear, they passed into the resultant tone. This view prevailed until the publication in 1856 of Helmholtz's investigations, in which many objections to Young's theory were brought forward. To explain what these objections are, it would be necessary

.

EESZKE

RESULTANT TONES some length of the nature of beats, and the reader is therefore referred to the article Beats, for this side of the question. The later mathematical theory given by Helmholtz is too to treat at

abstruse to admit of popular exposition. It was also part of Young's theory that the differential tone was produced in the ear alone, and not in the external ail-. But Helmholtz found that stretched membranes and resonators

produced by the siren or the harmonium. This he considers to prove the existence of vibrations in the external air corresponding to the differential But when the two generating tones were tones. produced by separate iustniments, the differential, though powerfully audible, hardly set

responded very clearly to

the

resonator

in

differentials,

vibration

at

all.

Hence

Helmholtz concludes that the differential tone is for the most part generated in the ear itself.

He

further points out that certain features in the construction of the ear easily permit the The action of the law which he has stated. unsymmetrical form of the drum-skin of the ear, loose attachment of the ossicles are, he thinks, peculiarly favourable to the production [A practical use of reof resultant tones. sultant tones is shown in the article Okgan,

and the

vol.

iii.

p.

552a.]

of his theory, Helmholtz deduced a different series of resultant tones, which he calls summaiional tones, because their

As a consequence

of vibrations is the sum of those of the The existence of the summational tones which Helmholtz believed he verified experimentally, has recently been called in

number

generators.

He

question by Dr. JVeyer. in

some

points out that

intervals, as, for instance,

1:2, 1:3,

1 : 5, there will be a partial tone present of the same pitch as the presumed summational tone, and these cases therefore prove nothing. Again, if we take 2 3, the note 5 is not necessarily a summational tone, but may be the differential of 4 and 9, which are the 2nd partial Dr. Preyer. of 2 and the 3rd of 3 respectively. was unable to find any trace of the summational tones when care had been taken to exclude the But to do this he could only upper partials. :

use sounds of tuning-forks gently bowed, which were far too weak to produce any resultant tones The question, however, is one of in the air. theoretic interest merely.

Not only the origin, but also the discovery The of differential tones has been disputed. earliest publication of the discovery was made by a German organist named Sorge in 1745. Then came Romieu, a French savant, in 1751. Lastly, the great Italian violinist, Tartini, made the phenomenon the basis of his treatise on Harmony in 1754. But Tartini explicitly claims 'In the year 1714, priority in these words when about twenty- two years of age, he discovered this phenomenon by chance on, the, :

violin at Ancona, -sphere

—

many

witnesses

wha

remember the municated

it

77

fact are still living.

He

com-

at once, without reserve, to pro-

He made

fessors of the violin.

the funda-

it

mental rule of perfect tuning for the pupils in his school at Padua, which was commenced in 1728 and which still exists and thus the phenomenon became known throughout Europe.'" Tartini in some cases mistook the pitch of the differential tone but there does not appear to be any reason for taking from him the credit of the discovery which has so long been associated with his name. j. L. RESZKE, DE, Edotjakd, born at Warsaw, Dec. 23, 1855, was taught singing by his brother Jean, Ciaffei, Steller, and Coletti, and made his d^but April 22, 1876, as the King in Aida,' on its production at the Italiens, Paris. He sang there with success for two seasons, and ;

;

'

afterwards went to Italy, where, in ISSQ, at Turin, he made a success in two new parts ^^the King in Catalani's Elda,' Jan. 31, and Charles V. in Marchetti's 'Don Giovanni d'Austria,' March 11, and appeared at Milan on the production of Ponchielli's 'Figliuol Prodigo,' Dec. 26; From 1880 to 1884, he was engaged with the Royal Italian Opera, until its collapse. He made his d^but on April 13, 1880, as Indra (' Roi de Lahore '), but his success as a foremost lyric artist was established by his admirable perfonnances of St. Bris, the Count in Sonnambula,' Basilio, and later as Walter (' Tell'), Peter the Great, Prince Gudal ( Demonio '), June 21, 1881 ; Senon (Lenepveu's 'Velleda'), July 4,

—

'

'

'

1882 Almaviva Mephistopheles Alvise, on production of La Gioconda,' May 31, 1883 ; Hageu, on production of Reyer's Sigurd,' July In 1883-84 he reappeared in 15, 1884, etc. Paris at the Italian Opera (Theatre des Nations), ;

;

;

'

'

with great

success, in

'

Simone Boccanegi'a'

;

in

Massenet's Herodiade,' on its production in Paris ; in Dubois' ' Aben Hamet,' Dec. 16, 1884, and in other operas. He was engaged at the French Opera, where he first appeared April 13, 1885, as Mephistopheles, a part he sang subsequently in the 500th performance of Faust.' He appeared as Leporello in the centenary performance of ' Don Juan,' Nov. 4, 1887, and has sung in Le Gid and ' Patrie.' He played at the Italian Opera at Drary Lane in 1887 the part of Ramfis in Aida, and sang during the season as Basilio, St. Bris, Mephistopheles, and Henry the Fowler (' Lohengrin '). From 1888 to 1900 he sang every season (except 1899), and added to his repertory the parts of Almaviva, Marcel, the Mefistofele of Boito, and the Wagnerian parts of Hans Sachs, King Mark, Hunding, and Hagen. From 1890, for many seasons, he sang in America with his brother, with the He sang at the Mozart (congreatest success. cert) Festival at. the Nouveau TheS,tre in Paris in the spring of 1906, under the direction pf M. Reynaldo Hahn. In.Feb. 1907 he advertised '

'

'

'

'

1

'

De Princi^i delV Armania^

Pa(Joyaj 1767. P- 36.

'

EEUTTEE

EESZKE

78

without losing sight of vocal

his intention of opening a school of singing in London, and appeared there on June 13.

dramatic

His brother, Jean (more correctly Jan MecZISLAW) born at Warsaw, Jan. 14, 1850,1 ^^s the eldest son of the controller of the government railways, was taught singing by his mother, a distinguished amateur, and at the age of twelve sang solos in the Cathedral there. He was taught later by Ciaffel, Cotogni, and Sbriglia. Under the name De Reschl he made his debut

with his brother, and at Warsaw and St. Petersburg. OnDec. 11, 1890, he assisted gratuitously in the performance of Carmen at the Op&aComique in Paris, where Mme. Galli-Mari^ reappeared in her original part, and Melba and Lassalle were in the cast. He reappeared at in..

'

'

'

'

to teaching.

Their sister, Josephine, educated at the Conservatorium of St. Petersburg, attracted the notice of M. Halanzier at Venice, and was engaged by him at the Academic, where she made her d^but She sang there with as Ophelia, June 21, 1875. success for some time, where she was the original Later Sita (' Roi de Lahore '), April 27, 1877. she was very successful at Madrid, Lisbon, etc. ; sang at Covent Garden as Aida, April 18, 1881, and again in Paris at the Th. des Nations as She Salome (' H^rodiade '), March 13, 1884. retired from public on her marriage with M. Leopold de Kronenburg of Warsaw ; she died a. c. there Feb. 22, 1891. RETARDATION is a word used by some theorists to distinguish a small group of discords which are similar in nature to suspensions, but resolve upwards, as in Ex. 1.

;

'

'

Ex.

1.

Ex.

2.

'

'

due to his own hard work and exertions. On June 4, 1888, as Vasco de Gama, he made his first appearance at Covent Garden, and from that season dates the revival of opera as a fashionable

amusement in London. Till 1900 inclusive, he sang nearly every year here, his parts including John of Leyden, the Duke in Un Ballo,' Don Jos^, Phoebus in Goring Thomas's 'Esmeralda,' Elaine,' Werther (in Lancelot in Bemberg's Massenet's opera). In the great parts of Wagner, such as Walther, Tristan, and Siegfried, he was unrivalled, throwing new light upon the music by his wonderful power of interpreting the '

'

See Trua, July 15, llBf!. Hr. Hiehael Wllllsmii In Mmieal World, Jan. 3 Athmaum, April 18, and Ju]y 28. 1874. I

2 Letter o
to priority of -i,!!P'T Komantic opera, are discumed in OpEUi, vol. iil. inventioi of th(? p. 456. oto.

>

ROMANTIC

ROMANTIC

lis from another world.' Many glorious passages might be pointed out in this Symphony, the romanticism of which it would be difficult to surpass ; for instance, the second subject in the first movement, the beginning of the working out in the Finale, etc. etc. In Song Schubert stands alone. Even from boyhood he had steeped >, the Adieu i VaMsovie indeed all his Rondos show this '

'

•

'

—

—

construction.

RONZI.

F. c.

[See Begnis, de, vol.

278.] son of John Rourke, or O'Rourke, a Dublin tradesman, was born in South Great George's Street, Dublin, Sept. 29, 1794. His bent for music, which i.

p.

ROOKE, William Michael,

^^^^

In the Rondo of the Sonata in

we

El> (op. 7) again,

main subject cut short on its second appearance, while on its final repetition all find the

sorts of liberties are taken

an octave higher than variation is made on

by

its it,

with it ; it is played normal place, a free

and at

last

we

are

many

being thrust into a distant key This last effect has been adopted by a composer since Chopin in the Eondo

of his

E minor Pianoforte

startled

—

Et|.

its

—

Concerto, for instance.

examples Beethoven shows in each successive work how this apparently stiff and rigid form can be invested with infinite he always contradicted variety and interest the idea (in which too few have followed him) that a Rondo was bound in duty to be an eightbar subject in 2-4 time, of one unvarying, jaunty, and exasperatingly jocose character. The Rondo of the Eb Sonata is most touohingly melancholy, so is that to the Sonata in E minor (op. 90), not to mention many others. There wiU always remain a certain stiffness in this form, owing to the usual separation of the subject When from its surroundings by a full close. It is needless to multiply

:

;

this is dispensed with, the piece

is

said to be

displayed itself at an early age, was sternly discouraged by his father, who wished him to follow his own avocation, but before he was sixteen, he was, by his father's death, left free to follow his own inclination. He studied, almost unaided, so assiduously, that in 1813 he took to music as a profession (having altered the form of his name), learned counterpoint under Dr. Cogan, a Dublin professor, and became a teacher of the violin and pianoforte. Among his pupils on the former instrument was Balfe, then a boy. In 1817 he was appointed chorus-master and deputy leader at the theatre in Crow Street, Dublin, and soon afterwards composed a polaoca, 'Oh Glory, in thy brightest hour,' which was sung by Braham, and met with great approbation. [In 1818 he

composed his first opera, Amilie (see below), and in 1822 he removed to England, where he became chorus-master at Drury Lane Theatre, under Tom Cooke, and, in 1830-33, leader at Vauxhall, under Sir Henry Bishop, w. h. g. f.] A few years later he removed to England. In 1826 he was leading oratorios at Birmingham, and in the same year came to London, and sought the appointment of chorus-master at Drury Lane, and established himself as a teacher of singing. His opera, Amilie, or The Love Test,' after he had waited many years for an '

'

'

opportunity of producing it, was brought out at Covent Garden, Dee. 2, 1837, with decided success, and at once established his reputation as a composer of marked ability. He imme-

commenced the composition of a second and on May 2, 1839, produced at Covent Garden 'Henrique, or. The Love Pilgrim, which, although most favourably received, was withdrawn after five performances on account of a diately opera,

'

misunderstanding with the manager. He composed two more entitled 'Cagliostro,' and The Valkyrie,' which have never been performed. '

'

ROOT

ROOT

He

died Oct. 14, 1847, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery. w. h. h. ROOT. The classification of the chords which form the structural material of modern harmonic music is attained l^y referring them to what are called their roots

;

and

it is

mainly by their

use that these harmonic elements are brought into intelligible order.

As long

as the purely polyphonic system

was

in full force,

the chordal combinations were merely classified according to recognised degrees of consonance and dissonance, without any clear idea of relationship : but as that system merged by degrees into the harmonic system, it was found that fresh principles of classification were indispensable ; and that many combinations which at first might appear to have quite a distinct character must somehow be recognised as having a common centre. This centre was found in an ultimate bass note, namely, the bass note of the complete chord in what would be considered its natural or first position ; and this was called the Root, and served as the common indicator of all the various portions of the complete chord which could be detached, and their test of closest possible relationship. Further, these roots were themselves classified according to their status in any given key and by this means a group of chords which were related to one another most closely by having the same root, might be shown to be related severally and collectively to the group which belonged to another root ; and the degree of relationship could be easily and clearly ascertained according to the known nearness or remoteness of the roots in question. By this means the whole harmonic basis of a piece of music can be tested ; and it must be further noted that it is only by such means that the structural principles of that kind of music which has been called absohite because of its dissociation from words, is rendered abstractedly ;

'

'

intelligible.

The priucipleuponwhichmodern Instrumental Music has been developed is that a succession of distinct tunes or recognisable sections of figures can be associated by the orderly distribution of harmonies and keys in such a manner that the mind can realise the concatenation as a complete and distinct work of art. It is obvious that fine melodic material but it is not so obvious that is a vital point where the dimensions of the work are such that a continuous flow of melody of a uniform character is impossible, the orderly arrangement of the materials in successions of keys and harmonies The harmonic structure requires is no less vital. to be clearly ascertainable in works of art which are felt to be masterpieces o£ form, and to be perfectly understood and felt by those who attempt to follow such models hence, in discussing the structure of works of this kind, the frequent use of such terips as Tonic, or Domi-

melody or

;

:

137

nant or Subdominant harmony, which

is

only

a short way of describing harmony of which these respective notes are the roots.

The simplest and most stable of complete combinations in music are the chords consisting of a bass note with its third and perfect fifth and of these the bass note is considered the root. In most cases such a root is held to be the fundamental sound of the series of harmonics which an essential chord may be taken to represent. For instance, the chord of the major third and perfect fifth on any note is supposed to represent the ground tone or generator with two of its most distinct and characteristic lower harmonics and whatever be the positions of the individual notes in respect of one another, they are still referred to this ground-tone as a root. Thus the chord GBD ;

;

il'h-t.7

W

(«)

^4i lifeiA^

(/)

"=s:"

would be taken to be the representative of the ground-tone G with its second and fourth harmonics (b) and every transposition or ' inversion of the same notes, such as BDG, or DGB in close or open order (as in c), or even lesser portions to which the implication of a context would afford a clue, would be referred alike to this same root. If F be added (d) to the above chord it may be taken to represent the sixth harmonic (6), and similar ' inversions of the component portions of the chord will similarly be referred to the note G. If A be added further above the F of the preceding chord, producing GBDFA (as in «), that is commonly taken as a yet more complete representation of the group of harmonics generated by the sounding of G, of which it is the eighth ; and, as before, all the different portions which could be intelligibly isolated, and all the transpositions of its component notes, would be still referable to the one root G. If A|> had been taken instead of Aft, the same general explanation would hold good, though the special question might remain open whether it was a representative of the 16th harmonic, which is four octaves from the fundamental sound, or an artificial softening of the clear and strong major ninth. Aft. Some theorists carry the same principles yet further, and include the C above A, and even the E and E|> above that in the group which represents the harmonic series of G, calling them respectively the (a)

;

'

k

ROOT

ROOT

eleventh and major and minor thirteenths of that note.

Notwithstanding the importance which attaches to a clear understanding of the classification of chords according to their roots, there are some combinations upon whose derivation

138

The discords contained in the above series are frequently styled fundamental from this supposed representation of the group of harmonics generated by their fundamental or root note they are characterised among discords by the peculiar freedom of the notes of which they are composed, on both sides. It will be observed that they are all members of the Diatonic series of the key of C, major or minor and as G, ;

;

their root note, is the Dominant of that key, they represent the scope of what is called the Dominant harmony of C, which of course has its counterpart in every other key. No other

•

note than the Dominant serves to this extent as the root of chords of this class which are Diatonic. The Tonic, for instance, can only supply the third and fifth, and even the minor seventh is a chromatic note. Nevertheless this chromatic chord and the ninths which are built upon it are commonly used as if they belonged to the key of and the same remark applies ; to the similar discords founded on the Supertonic root (as in the key of C) ; and these are most readily intelligible through their close connection as Dominant harmony to the Dominant of C. The roots of the various combinations which are arrived at by modifying the intervals of such distinct and essential harmonies as the above, are of course the same as those of the unmodified harmonies. Thus the roots of suspensions are the same as those of the har-

D

monies upon which they are said to resolve, because they are modifications of that which follows in its complete state, and not of that which precedes ; and the same applies to the combinations produced by adventitious notes, such as appoggiaturas and the like. The combinations which arise from the simultaneous occurrence of ordinary passing notes find their root in the chord which precedes, as that has possession of the field till new

must

harmony presents itself. From these considerations

it will be obvious that a very considerable variety of apparently different combinations are referable to a single In fact a great portion of music is built root. upon very few roots ; many examples of good popular music especially do not exceed the limits of Tonic and Dominant harmony with an occasional move as far as the Subdorainant, and next to no modulation. Even in worts which belong to the domain sometimes distinguished as high art, a great deal is often done For instance, the within very narrow limits. wholeof the first sectionof a violin and pianoforte sonata of Mozart's in A is based on six successive

alternations of Tonic and Dominant harmony, and modulation to the new key for the second is effected merely by the Dominant and Tonic harmony of that key.

section

and it must be confessed that ; the theory of music is yet far from that complete and settled stage which would admit any hope of a decisive verdict in the matter at present. In such circumstances variety of opinion is not only inevitable but desirable ; and though the multitude of counsellors is a little bewildering doctors disagree

there are consolations ; for it happens fortunately that these differences of opinion are not vital. Such chords, for instance, as augmented sixths have so marked and immediate a connection with the most prominent harmonies in the key, that the ascertainment of their roots

becomes of secondary importance with the chord which stands as

;

and even

°1 ^in in the key V J-

fJ of

C

for instance (/), it is

to decide whether

whether indeed because,

G

it is

or

F

not so indispensable or D is the root, or

even a double-rooted chord,

among other reasons,

the very attention

which has been called to it and the very characteristics which have made it difiScnlt to classify have given it a prominence and a unique individuality which relieves it of the need of being assigned to any category ; and even when it is an important factor in the harmonic structure, the process of analysis need not be rendered doubtful, because its actual position in the key so thoroughly realised. Other disputed points there are having reference to roots, which are even of less importance. For instance, whether

is

what is called an augmented fifth is really an augmented fifth or a minor thirteenth or whether the augmented octave which Mozart uses with such marked emphasis in the third bar of the Allegro in the overture to 'Don Giovanni is properly a minor ninth, as some maintain since happily the roots would be the same in both cases. c. H. H. p. ROOT, Gboegk Feedbriok, an American ;

'

—

popular composer, bom at Sheffield, Mass., U.S.A., August 30, 1820. He studied under Webb of Boston, and afterwards in Paris in 1850. He was a music-publisher in Chicago in 1859-71. He was associated with Lowell Mason in popularising music in American schools, etc., and had a musical doctor's degree conferred on him at the Chicago University. He died at Barley's Island, August 6, 1895. He wrote various cantatas, such as 'The Flower Queen,' 'Daniel,' and others, but is best known as composer of certain songs much sung during the American Civil War, as, 'The Battle-Cry of Freedom,' 'Just before the Battle, Mother,' but his composition of the spirited 'Tramp, tramp, tramp, the boys are marching.'nowalmost better

known

as

'God save

Ireland,' should

—

—

'

EOPAETZ

EOSA

139

entitle him to rank among the makers of living national music. His son, Fkedekiok Woodman Root, bom at Boston, June 13, 1846, has done useful work as a teacher of singing, both individually and in large classes. F. K.

and soon afterwards visited the court of Margaret of Austria, Governess of the Netherlands, whose husband, Duke Ottavio Tarnese, engaged him as his maestro di cappella at Parma.] On the death of Willaert he was

EOPARTZ, J. Guy, born at Quingamp (C&tes du Nord), June 15, 1864, was a pupil of Dubois and Massenet in the Paris Conservatoire, and afterwards studied with C^sar

appointed his successor, Oct. 18, 1563. He resigned this position almost immediately, and returned to the court of Parma in July 1564, where he died, in the autumn of 1565, at the age of forty-nine. He was buried in the cathedral of that city, and the following epitaph gives an authentic sketch of his life

Franok. Though his life has been chiefly devoted to composition he has, since 1894, dii'ected the Conservatoire of Nancy with great success, and has given a strong impulse to the symphony concerts in that town. His dramatic works include two pieces in one sict, 'Le Diable he has couturier and ' Marguerite d'Ecosse vn-itten incidental music for 'PScheur d'Islande (Loti and Tiercelin), played in Paris, 1893 Paysages de Bretagne (written for a theatre Marie d'ombres chinoises '), Les Landes,' endormie, and five short pieces, a Marche de fete,' three 'Airs de ballet,' a suite in four movements called 'Dimanohe breton, a symphony on a Breton chorale, a 'Serenade,' etc., and among his smaller published works which have been brought to a hearing are a string quartet and a ' fantaisie for strings, some church music (Psalm xxxvi. for choir, organ, and orchestra), G. F. songs, and pieces for organ and for piano. ROKE, CiPKi ANODE, composerof the Venetian school, born at Mechlin (or possibly Antwerp) about 1516. Hestudied under Willaert, ' chapelmaster of St. Mark's, Venice, and was probably In 1542 in early life a singer in that cathedral. he brought out his first book of madrigals a 5, and in 1550 his first book a 4 appeared, a work long held in favour, ^ and for the next seven or eight years published continually.' About 1550'' he appears to have left Venice for the court of Hercules II., Duke of Ferrara, and for some years we hear nothing of him.* [In 1558 he was given leave of absence to visit his parents '

'

at Antwerp,

:

Cypriano RorOj FlaDdro Artis Musicae Tiro omnium peritissimo, Cujus uotnen famaque

Nee vetustate obrui

;

Nee

;

'

'

'

'

'

' Bee title-page Fanteaie e Recei-chari. etc., compoati da to Eccell. A. Vulgliart e Cipriano suo Diacepolo, etc. Venetiia, 1549 (Brit. Mus. A. 287). 2 The Fdtis library at Brussels contaiiia imperfect copies of three editions, 1552. 1569. and 1582. The edition in the British Museum is '

,

3 The followiug list of books of motets and madrigalsis taken from F^tis's Biographie, Eitner's Bibliographie, the quellen-Lesikim, and catalogues of the British Museum and Fdtis libraries. Some contain work by other composera, but in all oases they bear

tlie

Cipriano's name, and he is the chief contributor. The date given is that of the supposed first edition MateU. Bk.i.a5,Venice, 1544 (Brit. Mus.): bk.ii.a4and5, Venice, 1547 (F^tls, BioffT.) bk. iii. a 5, Venice, 1549 (Eitner). JfadrigtUi. Bk. i. a 5, Venice, 1542 bk. ii. a 5, Venice.l 544 (Brit. Mus., the QueUeji-Lexikon gives 1552 as the first edition); bk. iii. a 5, Venice, 1544. The 1562 edition in Brit Mus. ; bks. iv. and v. (1557 and 1566). (The fifth book contains an ode to the Duke of Parma, and from the events of the composer's life we may assume this volume to be one of ills latest publications.) For the first book of madrigals a 4, see above ; the second was printed in 1557. and in 1565cameoutaseleotioQof the four, and five-part madrigala, as Le Vive flamme.' etc. A large number of the four-part madrigals were brought out in score in 1577. ... ,,^ Chromatic madrigala. Bk. i. a 5, 1644 (Brit. Mus.; the word nstampato on title-page shows that this is not the first edition). The Bumey has first book was reprinted as late as 1593 (Fdtis library). inserted one number in his ffittory. * In this yeara reprint of his first book of madrigals was brought out at Ferrara. .. ,,, ^ ,„_., 3 Except the publication of two Passions (Pans 1557J with the following curious titles: Pasaio D. K. J. Christi in qua solus Paaaio vocibus and cum quatuor introducitnr Johannes canens :

:

;

'

'

.

'

'

.

.

inqualntroduuuntur Jeans etJudaelcanentes. cum duabuset

sex vocibus.'

Moestissimi posuerunt. Oblit anuo mdlxv. aetatls vero suae XLix.

The

which Rore attained at St. rank as a musician which contemporary writers assigned him, point to his having been something of an innovator, and a, really original composer. His sacred and secular compositions were frequently reprinted, and were included in many collections of the time.^ (See the Quellen-Leaikcm for these and for MS. copies.) We know that they were held in high esteem in the court chapel at Munich, and were constantly performed there under Lassus's direction.^ Duke Albert of Bavaria caused a superb copy of Rore's motets to be made for his library, where it remains to this day, with a portrait of the composer on the last page, by the court position to

Mark's, and

flie

painter Mielich.

j.

K. s.-B.

ROSA (ROSE), Cakl August Nicolas,

born

at Hamburg, March 22, 1842, was educated as a violin-player and made such progress as to be sent to the Leipzig Conservatorium, which he entered in 1859. [He afterwards studied at the

'

1575.

.

Duels II Chori Praefecto. Ludovlcus frater, flL et haeredes

'

'

II.

Postremo Octavi Farnesl Farmae et Flacentiae

'

'

oblivione deleri poterit,

Hercules Ferrariens. Duels Delude Venetorum,

Paris Conservatoire, and obtained the post of concertmeister at Hamburg in 1863.] In 1866

he came to England and appeared as a solo player at the Crystal Palace on March 10. After a short stay in London he joined Mr. Bateman in a concert-tour in the United States, and there met Madame Parepa, whom he married at New York, in Feb. 1867. His wife's success on the stage led to the formation of a company under the management and conductorship of Mr. Rose, which, during its early campaigns could boast such names as Parepa, Wachtel, Santley, Ronconi, and Formes among its artists. Early in 1871 Mr. Rose who by this time had changed his name to Rosa to avoid mistakes

—

8 Fetis mentions a book of Cipriano's masses, a 4, 5, 6 (Venice, 1566) on the authority of Draudius'a Bibliotheca Classica. Tbia is probably Li ber Misaarum a 4. 5, 6 (Venice, 1566) to which Cipriano only contributes the first mass Doulce memoyre.' 7 Discorai delli triomphl, etc. nelle nozze dell' llluatr. duca Ougl. etc. da Massimo Trojano (Monaco, Berg. 1508). '

'

'

' ; ;

ROSA

140 in pronunciation his wife,

ROSA

—

returned to England with and then made a lengthened visit to

Egypt for health. After this they again returned to London, but only for the lamented death oF Madame Parepa-Rosa, which took place Jan. 21, 1874. Mr. Roaa, however, was resolved, notwithstanding this serious blow, to test the fortunes of English opera in London, and on Sept. 11, 1875, he opened the Princess's Theatre with a company including Miss Rose Hersee as prima donna, Mr. Santley, and other good singers. He closed on Oct. 30, having produced Figaro, Faust, * The Porter of Havre (Cagnoni), 'Fra Diavolo,' 'Bohemian Girl,' '

'

'

'

Trovatore,' *'

'

'

'

The Water-Carrier' (Cherubini),

and 'Siege of Roohelle.' The season of 1876 was undertaken at the Lyceum (Sept. 11-Dec. 2). It included The Water-Carrier The Lily of Killarney (with '

'

'

'

;

additions; 'Sonnambula'; 'Faust' ; *'Giralda" (Adam) ; Bohemian Girl ; *' Flying Dutchman ' ; ' Zampa ; ' Trovatore ' ; ' Montana *'Joconde'(Nicol6); 'Fidelio'; Fra Diavolo *' Pauline '(Cowen): ' Porter of Havre. The next season was at the Adelphi Theatre (Feb. 11-April 6, 1878). It included *' The Golden '

'

'

'

'

'

'

by Briill 'The Merry Wives'; 'The Flying Dutchman'; 'The Lily of Killarney,' and others of those already named. For the fourth season Mr. Rosa took Her Majesty's Theatre, Jan. 27 -March 22, 1879), brought out *'Riend,' *'Piccolino' (by Guiraud), and *' Carmen,' and played 'The Golden Cross,' Cross,'

;

Huguenots,'

' Lily of Killarney,' etc. etc. His season was at the same theatre (Jan. 10March 6, 1880) ; *' Mignon (Thomas), '

fifth

'

and *'Aida' were all produced for the first time in English and The Taming of the Shrew (Goetz), Carmen,' Rienzi,' etc., were performed. In 1882 a season was given at Her Majesty's Theatre, from Jan. 14 to March 11. Tannhauser and Balfe's * Painter of Antwerp (' Moro ') were produced, and Mme. *' Lohengrin,'

'

;

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

For the season 21) the company

Valleria joined the company.

of 1883 (March 26-April

Drury Lane, which was its London Thomas's *'Esmeralda and Mackenzie's *'Coloraba' were produced, and Mme. Marie Roze appeared as 'Carmen,' etc. In 1884 (April 14-May 10) SUnford's 'Canterbury Pilgrims' was the only new work proIn 1885 (April 6-May 30) Thomas's duced. *' Nadeshda and Massenet's Manori were given. In 1886 (May 23-June 26) Mackenzie's 'Troubadour,' and in 1887 (April 7-June 11)

moved

;

to

centre until 1887.

'

'

'

'

Corder's *' Nordisa 1888 'Robert the

'

'

were the novelties. Devil,'

'The

In

Puritan's

Daughter,' 'The Star of the North,' and 'The Jewess' were produced ; and on Jan. 12, 1889, at the Prince of Planquette's ' Paul Jones G. Wales's Theatre, London. '

I The aateriak prefixed to these names signifies that the works had not been before produced in England, at least in English,

After the death of Carl Rosa, which took place in Paris, April 30, 1889, the company began to lose a little of the prestige it had

An amalgamation with enjoyed. Harris, which had just been entered into at the time of Rosa's death, had no very artistic results, although a few works of importance It must of were given from time to time. formerly

course be remembered that the chief iniluenoe of such a company is in the provinces rather than in London, and as a rule, from this time, the first performances of the Carl Rosa produc-

Cowen's tions took place away from London. *' Thorgrira was the main attraction of a Drury '

Lane season in 1890 and the production of MacCunn's *'Jeanie Deans' in Edinburgh took place in November 1894. InDecember 1894, the company again laid London musicians under a great obligation, by producing *' Hansel and ;

Gretel' with Mozart's early *'Bastien et BasIn 1896 the same tienne' at Daly's Theatre. theatre was occupied for a short series of miscel1897 was an eventful laneous performances.

year in the life of the company, and in its course permission was granted to prefix the word Royal to the name. In January Die Meistersinger' was given at the Gari'ick Theatre in AprU, Puccini's *' La Boheme was introduced to England at Manchester, and in October they gave a season at Covent Garden (opening with the work just named), in the course of which MacCunn's *' Diarmid was produced. After *' Siegfried' (1898) the energy of the company failed for some time. A series of performances of 'popular' operas at the Lyceum in 1899 was attended by no remarkable success but in November 1 900, at the Coronet Theatre, Netting Hill, they introduced Gounod's *' Cinq Mars,' and in the following week, at the Brixton Theatre, gave Goldmark's *' Heimchen am Herd to the English public. In the following October they gave 'Siegfried,' and in April 1902, Giordano's *' Andre Chenier' was given for the first time in England. Tlie company's record is an honourable one, and its influence on English music cannot be denied with rather higher aims, its prestige might have been kept up at the same level that was attained during the founder's lifetime, but the usual temptation to beat successful rivals on their own ground, and to present the popular operas in ultra- ' popular style, was too strong to be quite resisted, and the result has been that the most artistic productions have perhaps been suspected by the cultivated amateurs who were the company's best patrons in former times. m. ROSA, Salvator, was born at Arenella, near Naples, July 21, 1616. His father Vito Antonio de Rosa sent him to be educated at the college of the padri Somaschi. He soon began to study music, and became an expert player of the lute, improvising accompaniments and interludes to his own verses. His ambition to go to Rome '

'

'

'

'

;

'

;

'

'

'

'

EOSA

ROSALIA

and devote himself seriously to painting seemed on the point of being fulfilled in 1635, when he visited Rome for the first time. But becoming ill, he returned to Naples at the end of six months, and there became a pupil of the painter, AnieUo Falcone, until 1637. Then again he went to Rome, and accompanied a friend,

where he worked at his painting, finding relaxation in writing songs to which either he or his friend Gavalli, then in Rome, composed the

Merourio, in the service of the Cardinal Brancaccio, to Viterbo, where he received a commission to paint an altar-piece. After a visit to Naples, he was again in Rome in 1638 until September 1640, when he went to Florence to take an appointment as painter to the court of the Medici, a, post he held for nearly nine years. During this time he met Filippo Lippi, poet and painter, and Cesti, the musician, and wrote La Strega, to which Cesti composed the music, and Zainento, later on set to music by Bandini. It was probably towards the end of 1640 that he wrote the satire La musica, a violent attack on the depraved taste shown in Italian church music. It" was not published till some years after Rosa's death, and evidently caused much agitation. It was answered with a bitterness almost equal to its own by Mattheson in his MUhridat vrider

di Diocleziano.

H

den Gift einer welschem, Saiyre, genannt la in which a German translation of the satire is given, with pages of

MvMca, Hamburg, 1749

;

The

comments and annotations.

six satires.

Musica, La Poesia, La Pittura, La Guerra, La Bahilonia, and Invidia, written by Rosa between 1640 and 1669, were probably the title-page, first published in Rome in 1695 without date, and with Amsterdam falsely indicated as the printing place, is as follows In Satire di Salvator Rosa dedicate a settano.

La

V

;

:

Amsterdam

presso Severo Prothomaslix, 12mo, 161. It was followed by numberless unauthorised editions. The first dated edition of 186 pages was printed in Amsterdam by J. F. Bernard in 1719, the second edition is dated 1781, and the third 1790. In 1770 there was an edition Con note di A.M. Salvini, printed at Florence, but with Amsterdam on the titlep.

page ; this was reprinted in 1781, 1784, and 1787.

141

airs.

Rosa died in Rome on March 15, 1673, at the age of fifty-eight, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria degli Angioli alle Terme Little of Rosa's music is known, with the exception of the songs published in the ' Gemme d'antichit^' and other modem collections. His position, however, was one of some musical interest. personal friend of some of the leading composers of the time Cavalli, Cesti, Bandini and others he was so far in touch with the new ideas just germinating, as to adopt the method of writing for a single voice with basso

A

—

—

continuo accompaniment. In 1770 Dr. Bumey acquired from a greatgrand-daughter of Rosa, occupying the same house on the Monte Santa Trinita in Rome in which he had lived and died, a musical manuscript in Rosa's handwriting, containing, besides airs and cantatas by Cesti, Rossi, etc., eight cantatas

written and composed

by Rosa

himself.

The

melodious and vivacious, and have a good deal of charm. Burney (Hist, of Music, iv. pp. 165-8) gives the music of a certain number of them they were also included by N. d' Arienzo in his paper on Rosa in the Rivista Mus. Hal. 1894, i. 389. The better-known airs are Vado ben spesso,' printed by Dr. Crotch in Specimens of Various Edited by H. Bishop in Gemme Styles, 1808. airs are

;

'

'

No. 26, and

La

scuola antica, No. 24, also in Marx's Gluck und die Oper, 1863. 'Star vieino,' edited Beilage, No. 2. by W. H. pallcott, Gemme,' No. 27. And d'antichitk,'

in

'

Selve voi che,' edited by J. Pittmann, London, 1878. A manuscript copy of the latter is in the Vienna Imperial Library, No. 19,242 in '

c. s. Mantuani's catalogue. ROSALIA (Germ. Vetter Michel, SchusterA form of melody, vocal or instrumental, Jleck). in which a figure is repeated several times in succession, transposed a note higher at each

reiteration.

Rosa on leaving Florence was in Volterra for a time, and then returned to Rome in February 1649. The year 1647 was certainly passed

The name is derived from an old Italian Canto popolare, Rosalia, mia cara,' the Melody of which is constructed upon this principle.

peaceably in Tuscany, in spite of the legend it that Rosa was at Naples during the insurrection in July 1647, and wsis one of the ' compagnia della morte ' under the leadership of the painter Falcone. To begin with, no

The well-known German Volkslied, 'Gestem Abend war Vetter Michel da,' begins with a

'

which has

such company existed, and secondly, there are

by Rosa to his friend on Jan. 9, 1647, and

letters preserved, written

Maffei, one from Pisa, another from Florence, on Sept. 26, 1647, in which the tumults at Naples are not even alluded to (Cesareo, Poesie e lettere, 1892, In 1650 Rosa again visited Florence, p. 55). Pisa, and Siena, returning to Rome in December,

repetition, and hence the figure is frequently called in Germany, ' Vetter Michel.' These titles, as well as that of ' Schusterfleck a cobble are of course given to it in derision for writers on composition regard its frequent introduction as indicati ve of poverty of inventive

similar

—

—

—

Nevertheless, it is frequently employed power. by the great masters, witli charming effect, as

— ROSALIA

EOSAMUNDE

be seen in the Minuet in Handel's 'Ariadne,' in which it will be observed that the figure is suffered to appear three' times only in succession. Almost all great writers have imposed this limit upon its employment, experience having proved that a fourfold repetition generally tends to render the passage wearisome. Strikingly effective instances of threefold repetition will be found, in Mozart's

to serve as an excuse for its unqualified condemnation, as a vicious monotony-producing on related of musical phrases repetition degrees, which the student of composition

Requiem, at the words Ingemisoo tamquam reus'; in Spohr's 'Last Judgment,' at .'The grave gives up its dead ; and in a remarkably forcible passage in the ' Eigaudon ' from Eameau's ' Dardanus. Still, this restriction is frequently disregarded. Vallerano has left a Canon, 2 which ascends a Tone higher at each repetition, ad infinitwm ; and the resulting effect is far from inharmonious, though the work must be regarded rather as a musical curiosity than a serious composition. Closely allied to this figure is another, in which the leading phrase is transposed one or more notes lower at each repetition ; as in 'Habbiam vinto' from Handel's 'Soipio,' in which the transposition proceeds by thirds.

own nature,

142

may

'

'

'

'

loves to introduce in his first exercises,' we naturally revolt from a conclusion so illogical. That a form which neither Handel, nor Mozart, nor Beethoven, nor any other great writer has disdained to employ, can possibly be, in its '

vicious,'

we cannot

With

believe.

equal reason might we condemn the ' monotonyIt is, producing' effect of a regular figure. indeed, quite possible to make such a figure monotonous to the last degree ; yet nearly the whole of Beethoven's Andante in F (op. 34), is founded on the rhythmic form of the first The truth four notes of the opening subject. is, that, in the hands of a great master, all such devices are made productive of pure and '

beautiful effects

;

'

while

all are

vicious

'

viciously misused.

'vr.

'

s.

when E.

ROSAMOND. An opera by Joseph Addison, music by Thomas Clayton produced at Driiry Lane Theatre on March 4, 1707, but only ran ;

three nights.

Thomas Augustine Arne, many years later, took the libretto for one of his early musical efforts and produced a work that bore considerable promise of his future excellence. His setting of the opera was given at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket, on March 7, F K 1733 ;

«r.

tr.

Here, again, the figure breaks off after a threefold reiteration ; and, in two cases in which Mozart has employed the same device, in his Eequiem at the words 'Qui Mariam it is absolvisti,' and 'Oro supplex et acclinis' [For relinquished after the second enunciation. a fivefold repetition see the Branle given under Form, vol. ii. p. 75a.] This kind of imitation is, indeed, subject to exactly the same form of treatment as the true Eosalia ; though it would be inexact to call it by that name, and equally so to apply the term to the regular ascents or as constantly exhibited descents of a sequence in the fugues of Seb. Bach ; or to those of vocal

—

—

EOSAMUNDE FUESTIN VON CYPEEN A romantic

(Rosamond, Princess of Cyprus). play in

—as

'Every Valley," or Eossini's Tannor to the scene, in Dir tone hiiuser,' in which the stanzas of Lob are sung a note higher at each repetition. Schumann was accused of writing Eosalie He does employ them usque ad nauseam. very frequently but often as in the opening with an effect of his 'Arabeske' (op. 18) which true genius alone could have dictated. This is not the place for a detailed criticism of but Schumann's principles of composition when as in a bitter article, by Joseph Rubinhis stein, which appeared in Bayretdher Blatter '

Quis est

'

written

by Wilhelmine and incidental Produced 26).

:

'

;

;

Overture (D minor). t 2. Entr'acte between Acts 1 and 2 (B minor). t 3. Ballo (B minor), and Andante un poco assai (G). 4. Entr'acte between Acts 2 and 3 (D). • 5. Romance for soprano, *Der VoUmond strahlt' (P minor). Chorus of Spirits. Entr'acte between Acts 3 and 4 (Bfr). Shepherds' Melody. * 9. Shepherds' Chorus. *10. Huntsmen's Chorus. tu. Air de Ballet (G). *

in

homo

acts

music by Franz Schubert (op. at the Theatre an-der-Wien, Vienna, Dec. 20, 1823, and only performed twice. The music as then played is as follows

—

divisions

four

Christine von Chezy, the overture

1.

'

'

—

:

—

;

—

—

masterly use of this particular device

is

made

Sometf meji caUed Les trois R^v^renc«8.' 9 Reprinted In vol. i. of dementi's Practical Harmony, 1

'

The

overture played at published in 1827, for Schubert himself, as op. Alfonso und Estrella overture (in C), known '

'

the performances was PF. fcmr hands, by 52, under the title of

(now

op.

69).

The

as the

'Overture to 26) was composed for the

Rosamunde' (op. melodrama of the Zauberharfe, or Magic Harp (produced August 19, 1820), and was published by Schubert with its present name and opusnumber for PF. four hands, in 1828. The pieces marked have been published those marked with * by Schubert himself, as op, 29 those marked with + more recently. For parti'

'

—

;

*

'

ROSEINGRAVE

EOSE oulars'see

Nottebohin's Thematic

Catalogue,

pp. 46, 84. The Entr'acte in B minor is one of the finest of all Schubert's works ; the Romance, the Entr'acte No. 7, the Shepherds' Melody, and the Air de Ballet (in G), are all admirable,

the Shepherds' Melody for two clarinets especially characteristic. The second Trio to the Entr'acte No. 7 was previously composed, in May 1819, as a song, Der Leidende.' G.' ROSE or KNOT (Fr. Rosace Fr. and Germ. Ital. Rosa). The ornamental device or Bosette scutcheon inserted in the sound-hole of the belly of stringed instruments, such as the lute, guitar, mandoline, dulcimer, or harpsichord, serving not only a decorative purpose, but in the Netherlands especially as the maker's trade mark.' In the harpsichord and spinet there was but usually but one sound-hole with its rose owing to the origin of these keyboard instruments from the psaltery, their analogy with the lute, and the fact of the Roman lutes having three, several sound-holes were sometimes perforated. In fact, a harpsichord dated 1531 was seen in Italy by the eminent art critic, Mr. T. J. GuUick, which possessed no less than five, each with a From the analogy above referred rose inserted. to, the old Italian harpsichord makers named the bottom of the instrument cassa ai-monica if its office were like that of (sound-chest) the back of the lute or viol, while the belly was the piano armonioo (sound-flat). ^ The Flemings, retaining the sound-hole, doubtless adhered more or less to this erroneous notion of a soundThe Hitchcocks in England (1620 and chest later) appear to have been the first to abandon it no roses are seen in their instruments. Kirkman in the next century still adhered to the rose and trade souteheon, but Shudi did In the Gioraale de' lAtterati d' Italia not. (Venice, 1711, tom. v.), Scipione MafTei, referring to Cristofori, who had recently invented the pianoforte, approves of his retention of the principle of the rose in his ordinary harpsichords, although contemporary makers for the most '

;

\

—

—

'

;

'

;

M

'

'

;

But Cristofori, instead part had abandoned it. of a large rose, to further, as he thought, the resonance, used two small apertures in the front. Under the head Ruckers will be found Olustrations of the rose or rosace, as used by those great A. j. H. makers. ROSE OF CASTILE. An opera in three acts ; compiled by Messrs. Harris & Falconer (from 'Le Muletier de ToMe'), music by M. W. Produced at the Lyceum Theatre (Pyne Balfe. G. and Harrison), London, Oct. 29, 1857. ROSE OF PERSIA, THE. Comic opera in

two acts, libretto by Basil Hood, music by Arthur Sullivan, produced at Savoy Theatre, Nov. 29, 1899. [Sir

George Orove, with

cfaaracteriatic

modesty, here omits

all

reference to the bet that he faimseM discovered the missingportions of the miulc So© vol. it p. 24W. and infra, p. 301a.] " In modem Italian we more frequently meet with tompagnn,' tavola armonica,' and • fondo,' meaning belly,' or sound-board,' '

•

'

'

ROSEINGRAVE

or

143

ROSINGRAVE,

Daniel, Church musician and

organist.

The

He exact date of his birth is not known. received his early musical education as one of the children of the Chapel Royal ; though whether before 1660, under Captain Cook, or after that date, under Pelham Humfrey, is uncertain. He is stated subsequently to have studied under Dr. John Blow and Henry Purcell. He was organist of Gloucester Cathedral from 1679 to 1681, of Winchester Cathedral from 168^ to 1692, of Salisbury Cathedral from 1692 to 1698, was appointed organist and Vicar-choral of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, in the year 1698, and organist and stipendiary of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, in the same year. He retired from the organistship of St. Patrick's in 1719 in favour of his son Ralph, but remained organist of Christ Church until his death in 1 7 2 7. He married Ann, daughter of the Rev. Thomas Washbourne, D.D., who survived him, and by whom he had several children, including his sons Thomas and Ralph, who were also distinThere appear to have been guished musicians. Roseingraves. in Ireland before Daniel Roseingrave's time, as mention is made in the Chapter Acts of Christ Church of a lease from the Dean and Chapter to one Ralph Roseingrave in 1661. Daniel Roseingrave succeeded Robert Hodge as organist of St, Patrick's. Hodge, who resigned the post of organist, was thereupon appointed ' Master of the song to the Quire,' apparently as a solatium for losing the post of organist. The arrangement does not appear to have been a happy one, for in 1699 we find a Chapter Act in the following words : ' The said Dean and Chapter having received information that Mr. Hodge and Mr. Rosingrave, two of the Vicars-choral, gave each other very scurrilous language in Christ Church, Dublin, and after went together to the taverne and there fought, upon which the said Hodge and Roseingrave were ordered to appear before the said Dean and Chapter to answer in their places touching such their misdemeanours. And upon hearing what they could severally say for themselves touching the matter. And it thereupon appearing to the said Dean and Chapter that Mr. Roseingrave was ye first and chief aggressor, and that also the said Mr. Hodge was to blame. It was thereupon ordered by the aforesaid Dean and Chapter that the said Mr. Daniell Roseingrave should forthwith pay into the hands of ye steward of the said Vicars ehoralls the sume of three pounds and the said Mr. Hodge the sume of 20s. sterling for a penall mulct for such their ofi'ences, the same to be disposed of as the said Dean shall think fitt, and that the said Mr. Roseingrave should then and there beg publick pardon of the said Mr. Hodge for the scurillous language hee gave him as aforesaid, which was accordingly done in the presence of the said Dean and

—

'

KOSEINGRAVE

144 Chapter.

had

'

Robert Hodge,

it

may

EOSEINGKAVE be mentioned,

when

organist of Wells Cathedral (1688), been corrected and admonished for previously,

breaking windows.

At Christ Church Cathedral Roseingrave appears to have been equally combative. By a Chapter Act in 1700 the Dean and Chapter, on hearing the Petition of Daniel Roseingrave complaining of assault by Mr. Thomas Finell, 'ordered on hearing the Petition of Daniel Roseingrave and examination of several witnesses that the said Daniel Roseingrave and Thomas Finell be and are hereby suspended ab officio et beneficio ; and further ordered that from henceforth no Vicar or Stipendiary of this Church do wear a sword under the penalty of expulsion.' This suspension was subsequently removed on payment of 'mulcts' by the offending parties. By his will, dated Oct. 21, 1724, Daniel Roseingrave left the house iu Peter Street, Dublin, in which he then dwelt, to his ' second son Ralph,' ' to whom he also left the residue of his property, subject to his providing an annuity of £20 for his (Daniel's) wife, the said Ann Roseingrave. To his eldest sou Thomas he only left five shillings. Daniel Roseingrave died in 1727, at Golden Lane (the same street where, fifty-five years later, John Field was born), and was buried in the churchyard of St. Bride's Church. His widow died in 1732-3, and was buried in the old churchyard in St. Patrick's '

'

'

Cathedral.

Although Daniel Roseingrave seems to have written a great deal of church music, and is highly spoken of as a composer by Burney and Hawkins, very little of his music is now extant. One of his anthems, ' Lord, Thou art become gracious,' is preserved in manuscript in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, and another, ' Lord,' in the Bodleian library. Haste Thee," Mr. J. S. Bumpus has autograph scores of four other anthems of his. By a Chapter Act of Christ Church, Dublin, dated Dee. 15, 1699, it is ordered 'that the Proctor do pay unto Mr. Daniel Roseingrave three pounds as a gratuity for his writing three services and two Creeds for the use of the Church. Unfortunately all traces of these compositions have L. u'c. L. D. long since disappeared.

ROSEINGRAVE, Thomas (1690 to 1766), the second son of Daniel Roseingrave, was bom At the age of seven at Winchester in 1690. he came with his father to Dublin, and from him received his early education in music. Thomas Roseingrave entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1707, and his then age is given in 1 Although in his wUl Daniel describes Balph as his second son/ his eldest son was Dattibl BosBrKORAVE, JUHlOB, who was born at Winchesterin 1685, entered Trinity College. Dublin, in 1702, obtained a scholarship in 1705, and took out his B.A. degree in 1707. He was, doubtless, the young Koseingrave who appears by the College Register to have been appointed organist of Trinity College Chapel in 1705, as in that year Thomas was only fourteen, and Batph still younger. In 1707 he waa given leave of absence for one year, In order to improve himself in music' He had probably died some years before 1721, the date of his lather's wllL '

'

He did not, the College Register as sixteen. however, proceed to his degree in Arts. In a Chapter Act of St. Patrick's Cathedral, dated 14th December 1709, it is ordered by the Dean and Chapter 'that whenever Thomas Rosseingrave sonn of Daniell Roseingrave, the present organist of the said Cathedrall, being minded

to

beyond

travell

seas

to

improve

himself in the art of music, and that hereafter he may be useful and serviceable to the said Cathedrall, yt tenne guineas be by the Proctor of the said Canonry given him as a guift from the said Canonry towards bearing his charges.' He went to Italy in 1710, and at Venice made the acquaintance of the Scarlattis, Alessandro and Domenico. For the latter he appears to Burney have formed a great admiration. (History of Music, iv. p. 263) says, that he ' followed him to Rome and Naples, and hardly ever quitted him while he remained in Italy, which was not till after the Peace of Utrecht, [1713], as appears by an anthem which he composed at Venice in 1713, "Arise, shine, for The manuscript of this thy light is come." anthem, which he wrote with orchestral accom'

paniment, (Harl. is

is

preserved in the

MS. 7342).

much

fire

Tudway collection

Burney says of

it,

'

There

introductory symphony,

in the

How long is of a very modem cast.' he continued abroad is not exactly known, but in 1720 we find him in London, where he produced, at the Haymarket Theatre, Domenico Scarlatti's opera, 'Nareiso,' with two additional songs and two duets of Roseingrave's own which

composition. As a composer and organist he appears to have been held in high estimation, his powers of reading at sight and of improvising being especially dwelt on by his contemporaries. Burney says : ' In his younger days, when he enjoyed the inens sana in corpore sano, he was regarded as having a power of seizing the parts and spirit of a score, and executing the most difficult music at sight, beyond any musician in Europe.'

In 1725 he was appointed the first organist of St. George's, Hanover Square. There were seven other competitors, all of whom had to give a performance on the organ before Dr. Greene, Dr. Pepusch, and Mr. Galliard, who acted as judges. Burney says that Roseingrave's performance of the set pieces was by no means good, but that when he was asked to improvise on given themes, he treated the subjects with such science and dexterity, inverting the order of notes, augmenting and diminishing their value, introducing counter subjects, and treating the themes to so many ingenious purposes, that the judges were unanimous in declaring him the '

victorious candidate.'

'

'

Archdeacon Coxe, in his Anecdotes of George Frederick Handel and John Christopher Smith, speaking of Roseingrave at this time, says :

•

'

;

'

KOSEINGRAVE

EOSELLEN

His reputation was at this period so high that on commencing teaching he might have gained one thousand pounds a year, but an unfortunate event reduced him to extreme distress. Among Roseingrave's scholars was a young lady to whom he was greatly attached, and whose affections he had gained, but her father, who

He died on June 26, 1766, and is buried in the churchyard of St. Patrick's Cathedral, in The the same grave with his brother Ralph. inscription on the tombstone adds that he died in the 78th year of his age, ' a most celebrated musician and accomplished man.' Although an inscription added to this tombstone at a later date (1802) states that his wife, Mrs. Jane Roseingrave, is also buried there, this is incor. rect, as the Jane Roseingrave in question was the wife of the before -mentioned William Roseingrave, who died in 1780, and is buried in an adjoining grave. Thomas Roseingrave does not appear to have been married. The most important of his published compositions are : Fifteen Voluntaries and Fugues for the organ or harpsichord ; six double Fugues for the organ or harpsichord ; the Opera ' Phaedra and Hippolytus ; eight suits of lessons for the harpsichord or spinet ; six cantatas (Italian words) ; the additional songs and duets sung with Scarlatti's Opera 'Narciso' and twelve solos for the German flute with thoroughbass for the harpsichord. He edited the ' Forty-Two Suits of Lessons for the Harpsi-

'

intended to give her a large fortune, did not approve of her marrying a musician, and forbade Boseingrave his house. This disappointment affected his brain, and he never entirely recovered the shock. He neglected his scholai-s

and lost his business. He lived upon fifty pounds per annum, which his place produced, and was often in indigence. He was perfectly rational upon every subject but the one nearest his heart ; whenever that was mentioned he was quite insane.' About the year 1737 he was compelled to give up the organistship, and lived for some time at Hampstead. Thence in about the beginning of 1753 he removed to Dublin, .

where he probably lived with his nephew, William Roseingrave, a son of Ralph's, who wsis bom in 1725 and at this time (1753) held the OflSce of Chief Chamberlain of the Exchequer Court.

Mrs. Delany, in her memoirs, under date Jan. 12, 1753, writes : 'Mr. Roseingrave, who was sent away from St. George's Church on account of his mad fits, is now in Ireland, and at times can play very well on the harpsichord Faulkner's Dublin {Oorrespondefnce, iii. 194). Journal of Feb. 3, 1753, contains an announcement that 'the celebrated Opera of "Phaedra and Hippolitus," composed by Mr. Roseingrave lately arrived from London, will be performed at the Great Music Hall in Fishamble Street, and conducted by himself on Tuesday the 6th of March. Between the acts Mr. Roseingrave will perform Scarlatti's "Lessons on the Harpsichord," with his ownadditions, and will conclude " with his celebrated ' Almand. ' And in the same ' Yesterday Journal of Feb. 27, we read : there was a public rehearsal of Mr. Roseingrave's Opera of " Phaedra and Hippolytus" at the great

—

'

—

Music Hall in Fishamble Street, to % numerous audience, which met the highest applause, the connoisseurs allowing it to exceed any musical performance ever exhibited here, in variety, One wonders taste, and number of good songs.' if the writer of this notice had been at the production of the ' Messiah ' in the same hall eleven years earlier. Two anthems of Thomas Roseingrave (' Great the Lord ' and ' One Generation ') are is in the manuscript collection of in the Library of the Royal College He was an enthusiastic admirer of Music. of Palestrina, and is said to have adorned

included

Anthems

the walls of his bedroom with scraps of paper containing extracts from the works of that master.

VOL. IV

145

—

'

chord by Domenico Scarlatti,' prefixing an introductory movement in G minor. L. M'c. L. D. ROSEINGRAVE, Ralph (about 1695 to 1747), the youngest son of Daniel Roseingrave, was bom at Salisbury, and received his musical In 1718-19 Daniel education from his father. Roseingrave petitioned the Dean and Chapter of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, to allow him to resign the post of organist in favour of his son Ralph, who appears to have been forthwith appointed Vicar-Choral, but did not formally succeed his father as organist until 1726. On his father's death in 1727 he also succeeded him as organist of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, at a salary of fifty pounds per annum. He appears to have written a good deal of church music. Eight of his Anthems and two Services in C and F are preserved at Christ Church, and some of

them

are

still

God

sung

there.

Another anthem of

published in HuUah's Part Music, and an old organ book in the possession of Mr. J. S. Bumpus contains a Service of his in F with a setting of the Benedicite. He died in 1747, and is buried in the churchyard of St. Patrick's Cathedral. The headstone mentions that his wife Sarah, who died in 1746, and four of their children, are buried with him, as are also his mother Ann Roseingrave, and his brother Thomas. Ralph Roseingrave is sometimes mentioned as having taken part as a soloist in the production of the 'Messiah' on April 13, 1742, but Dr. J. C. Culwick, in his pamphlet on the original Word Book of Handel's ' Messiah' {\?>91), points out the improbability of his having done so. l. M 'c. L. D. ROSELLEN, Hbnki, son of a PF. maker, born in Paris, Oct. 13, 1811 ; took second PF. prize at the Conservatoire, 1827, and first

his,

'

of Truth,'

is

L

;;

EOSENHAIN

ROSENMULLER

do. 1828. Was a pupil and imitaixir of Herz. He published nearly 200 works for PF., including a 'Methode de Piano' (Heugel), a

in 1640 his name appears inscribed in the Matriculation-book of the University of Leipzig. In 1642 he became Collaborator or AssistantMaster at the Thomasschnie. In musical matters he would appear to have been mainly a pupil of Tobias Michael, who then held the important In 1645 Rosenoffice of Cantor at the school.

146 harmony

collection

progressive

of

exercises

entitled'

Manuel des Pianistes (Ibid.), a trio for piano and strings, and many separate pieces of drawing-room character, one of which, a Reverie '

'

(op. 32, No. 1), enjoyed an extraordinary popularity for many years over the whole of Europe.

He

died in Paris, March 18, 1876.

g.

EOSENHAIN, Jacob, eldest son of a banker, was bom at Mannheim, Deo. 2, 1813. His teachers were Jacob Schmitt, Kalliwoda, and

Schnyder von Wartensee.

His

first

appearance

as a pianoforte- player was in 1823 at Frankfort, where his success induced him to take up his residence. one-act piece of his, ' Der Besuch

A

im

Irrenhause,' was produced at Frankfort, Deo. 23, 1834, with great success ; his second, ' Liswenua,'. three acts, was never performed in its original form. In 1837 he came to Loudon,

played at the Philharmonic, April 17, and was much heard in the concerts of the day. After this he took up his abode in Paris, where he became very prominent, giving chamber concerts in combination with Alard, Ernst, and other eminent players, and carrying on a school of pianoforte-playing in conjunction with J. B. Cramer. His early opera, Liswenna,' was provided with a new libretto (by Bayard and Arago), and brought out at the Grand Op^ra as Le Demon de la Nuit,' March 17, 1851. It had, however, but a moderate success, and was with'

'

drawn

after four representations,

though

it

was

afterwards occasionally played in Germany. Another one-act piece, 'Volage et Jaloux,' produced at Baden-Baden, August 3, 1863, completes the list of his works for the stage. " In instrumental music he was much more prolifio. He composed three symphonies in G minor (op. 42), played at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, under Mendelssohn's direction, Jan. 31, 1846 ; in F minor (op. 43), played a,t Brussels, and at the Philharmonic, London, April 24, 1854 ' Im Friihling,' in F major (op. 61), rehearsed at the Conservatoire, and played at a Concert Populaire. Four trios for PF. and strings ; one PF. concerto ; three string quartets ; two violoncello sonatas ; twelve characteristic studies (op. 17) and twenty-four ^^tudes m^lodiques (op. 20), both for PF. solo ; a PF. concerto, op. 73 ; Sonata, op. 74 do. PF. and violoncello, op. 98 Abend for quartet, op. 99. Also various

—

;

'

Am

'

pieces for piano entitled, 'Poemes,' 'Reveries,' etc. ; a biblical cantata, and various songs, etc.

[He died at Baden-Baden, March

Schumann

21, 1894.] criticised several of his pieces with

kindness and liberality.

G.

ROSENMULLER, Johann, was born of poor parents about 1619 at Pelsnitz in the In spite of the poverty Vogtland of Saxony. of his parents .the arrangements of the time enabled him to obtain a good general education.

and

published his first work, a work for instruments entitled, ' Paduanen, Alemanden, Couranten, Balletten, Sarabanden mit SStimmen und ihrem Basso pro Organo.' A more important work was his Kernspriiche,' published in two parts, 1648 and 1652-53, each part consisting of twenty Latin and German Motets on Scripture and other Church Texts for three to seven voices, mostly with accompaniment of miiller

'

two violins, and also occasionally trombones and other instruments with Basso Continuo. When Tobias Michael became too infirm to discharge adequately his duties as Cantor, Rosenmiiller acted as his deputy, and in this position gave such satisfaction to the city council as to obtain the promise of succession to the Cantorship.

In 1651 he also held the

But in post of organist at the Nikolaikirche. May 1655 his prospects of further promotion were blighted by an accusation made against him of some grave moral offence, for which he was temporarily imprisoned. He succeeded in effecting his escape, and betook himself for a time to Hamburg. From Hamburg he is said to have addressed a ' Supplication to the Elector of Saxony, Johann Georg I., along with a setting of the Hymn of Albinus, Straf mich nicht in deinem Zom.' This would almost seem to be an admission of his guilt, although Winterfeld in his Mvamgelischer Kirchengesang endeavours to prove him innocent of the charge made against him. However the case may be, Rosenmiiller did not feel himself safe in Hamburg, but fled to Italy, and settled in Venice as a teacher of music for a considerable number of years. Of his stay in Venice little would have been known if Johann Philipp Krieger, who was afterwards Capellmeister at Weissenfels, had not sought him out and become his pupil in composition. A large number of works existmg only in MSS., consisting of Latin Motets, Vesper Psalms, Lamentations, and various parts of the Mass, must be referred to this Venetian stay. The only work published in Venice was one for instruments, entitled 'Senate da Camera oioe Sinfonie, Alemande, '

'

Correnti,

Balletti,

Sarabande da suonare con 1670. This

5 Strom, da aroo et altri' work was dedicated to Duke

.

.

.

Johann Friedrioh

who became acquainted with the composer on the occasion of one of his visits to It has recently been republished as Venice. Bd. xviii. of the Denkmaler deutscher Tonkwnst, Erste Folge, where also in his introduction the editor Karl Nef traces the influence of the Venetian opera-symphonies upon Rosenmiiller's of Brunswick,

ROSENTHAL

ROSIN

style of instrumental composition. The acquaintance with Duke Johann Friedrich had important consequences for RosenmiUler. It

the urgent advice of Rafael Joseffy that the parents consented to Rosenthal's adoption of a «areer as pianist. When, in 1875, the family moved to Vienna, Rosenthal became a pupil of Joseffy, who set to work systematically to gi-ound the boy on Tausig's method. The results were astonishing enough, since in 1876 Rosenthal played at his first public recital Beethoven's thirty-two Variations, Chopin's Fminorconcerto, and some Liszt and Mendelssohn. Promptly a tour followed through Roumania, where at Bucharest the king created the fourteen-yearr old lad court-pianist. In the next year Liszt came into Rosenthal's life, and henceforth played a great part therein, and in lS78 and subsequently they were together in Weimar and Rome. As. Liszt's pupil Rosenthal then appeared in Paris, St. Petersburg, and elsewhere. Meanwhile the philosophical studies were by

led to his recall to Germany. Duke Johann Friedrich recommended him to his brother the reigning Duke Anton TJlrioh, who was an enlightened patron of literature and music, and himself a hymn -writer of some reputation.

In 1674 Duke Anton XJlrich appointed EosenCapellmeister at Wolfenbiittel, where he remained for the rest of his life, dying there on 10th or 11th of September 1684. Only one other work was published in this later period of his life, Sonate a 2, 3, 4, e 5 Stromenti da Arcoetaltri Nuremberg, 1682,' dedicated to his patron Duke Anton Ulrioh. A large number of German Motets and Cantatas belonging to this time remained unpublished. None of Rosenmiiller's vocal works have yet been republished in modern editions, with the excepmiiller

'

.

.

.

—

tion of two Chorale-tunes and settings ' Straf mich nieht in deinem Zorn and ' Welt ade, ich '

bin dein miide.' The former of these tunes indeed seems far less suitable to its original German words than to those of the Easter hymns to which it has been so successfully adapted in our English hymn-books, Christ the Lord is risen again.' Of Rosenmiiller's 6-voice setting of Welt ade it would appear that Sebastian Bach thought so highly that he took it over bodily from Vopelius' Leipziger Gesangbuch,' 1682, to incorporate it into his own church-cantata of 1731, 'Werweiss, wie nahe mir mein Ende.' This led to both tune and setting being afterwards ascribed to Bach in earlier editions of his 'Choral-gesange.' j. E. M. ROSENTHAL, MoRiz, born Dec. 18, 1862, at Lemberg, where his father was a professor in From him Rosenthal obthe chief Academy. tained the solid foundation of the philosophical turn of mind which early in his career became very fully developed. At eight years of age the boy began the study of the pianoforte under a certain Galoth, whose method was curious in that he permitted his pupil absolute freedom in sight-reading, transposing, and modulating, without paying over -much attention to the All systematic development of his technique. who have heard the pianist in later life will agree that this system did no harm, for it is probable that there has never lived a player possessing a more perfect technique. Beethoven, Weber, and others were one and all boldly attacked by the youth, who as yet knew not a syllable of the conventional methods of In 1872 Carl lingering either chords or scales. Mikuli, the editor of Chopin, who was then director of the Lemberg Conservatorium, took charge of Rosenthal's education, and within the same year played in public with him Chopin's Rondo in C for two pianos. All this time, however, nothing had been determined as to Rosenthal's ultimate career, and it was only on '

'

'

'

147

no means neglected, for in 1880 Rosenthal qualified at the Staatsgymnasium in Vienna to take the phUosophieal course at the University,

where he studied with Zimmermann, Brentano, and Hanslick (musical aesthetics). Six years elapsed before he resumed public pianoforte-

Then

playing. sion,

after a

Leipzig,

a

there followed in quick succes-

triumph in the Liszt Verein at

long

series

of

concert -tours,

in

America and elsewhere, which brought him ultimately to England in 1895 and to America again later, where in the spring of the present year (1907) he was making a remarkably successful tour. As a master of technique Rosenthal is not surpassed by any pianist of his time, while as an interpreter, especially of music of the modern composers and of Schubert, he has earned a prodigious reputation. To his great technical accomplishment he adds a beautiful touch, and to those who know him personally

he

is

tion.

a musician

of unquestionable

distinc-

E. H. L.

ROSES, Jose, priest and musician, bom at Barcelona, Feb. 9, 1791, learned music from Sampere, chapelmaster at Barcelona ; was first organist of the monastery of San Pablo and then succeeded his master at Santa Maria del Pino, a post which he held for thirty years. During this time he composed a large quantity of music masses, requiems, motets, gradnals, etc. , which are preserved in MS. in the church. Among his pupils may be mentioned Calvo, Puig, Rius, Casanovas, etc. He died at his native city, Jan. 2, 1856. G. ROSIN, RESIN (Fr. Colophane), a preparation applied to the hair of the violin bow to give Withit the necessary 'bite' upon the strings. out some such agent, the horsehair would slip noiselessly over the catgut. Rosin is the residuary gum of turpentine after distillation. The ordinary rosin of commerce is a coarse, hard substance, quite useless to the fiddler, for whom the rough material undergoes a process of refinement. The ancient English recipe was to boil

—

'

ROSINA

148

ROSSI

rough rosin down in vinegar, a process no longer in vogue, as excellent French rosin is now to be had at a very trifling cost. It is prepared by dissolving the rough article in a glazed earthen vessel over a slow charcoal

As

fire.

it

strained through coarse canvas into a second vessel also kept at a moderate heat, melts,

it is

from which it is poured into pasteboard or metal moulds. The process requires some delicacy of eye and hand, and the greatest care in handling so inflammable a material, and is usually en-

"

trusted to women. Some players aflisct to prefer the rosin of Gand, others that of Vuillaume, but both are made of the same material and at the same factory. Eosin should be transparent, of a darkish yellow colour in the mass, and quite white when pulverised : it ought to fall from the bow, when first applied to the strings, in a very fine white dust : when crushed between the fingers it ought not to feel sticky. The best rosin is made from Venetian turpentine. The same sort of rosin serves for the violin, viola, and violoncello. The double-bass bow requires a stifler preparation than pure rosin, and accordingly double-bass rosin is made of ordinary rosin and white pitch in equal proportions. Emery powder and other matters are sometimes added in the composition of rosin, but are quite unnecessary, and even injurious to the tone. A liquid rosin, applied to the bow with a camel'shair brush, has its advocates. [See CoLorHANE, vol. i. p. 565.] E. J. p. EOSINA. An English ballad opera, of the 18th century, which attained an extraordinary degree of popularity, holding the boards, as The a stock piece, for nearly half a century. libretto, written by Mrs. Brooke, is founded on the Scriptural story of Ruth and Boaz or of Palemon and Lavinia, in Thomson's 'Seasons,' a subject which has inspired numbers of ;

theatrical pieces.

Oct. 12, 1763,

was placed in his eleventh year

under Hawdon, organist of St. Nicholas Church, a disciple of Charles Avison, with whom he In 1783 he was studied for seven years. appointed organist of St. Paul's Chapel, Aberdeen, where he remained until hia death, July He composed 'An Ode to Charity,' 28, 1837. pianoforte concertos and sonatas, songs, canw. H. H. ; addizonets, hymns, waltzes, etc. tions from Brit. Mus. Biog.

EOSSETEK, Philip, a lutenist, bom about 1575, in 1601 issued 'A Booke of Ayres, set foorth to be song to the Lute, Orpherian, and Base VioU,' containing forty- two songs, the poetry and music of the first twenty-one by Campion, and the rest by Eosseter himself. [A selection of eight of the forty-two songs was reprinted in 1907, as vol. iv. of the Oriana Madrigal Society's publication, 'Euterpe' (Breitkopf & Hiirtel)]. In 1609 he published Lessons for Consort Made by sundry excellent Authors, and set to sixe severall instruments Namely, the Treble Lute, Treble VioU, Base VioU, Bandora, Citterne, and the Flute.' On Jan. 4, 1610, a patent was granted to him and others appointing them Masters of the Children of the Queen's Eevela, under which they carried on dramatic performances at the theatre in Whitefriars. In March 1612, Rosseter's company was joined by 'The Lady Elizabeth's Servants,' but the union lasted for a year only. In May 1615 a privy seal for a patent for the erection of a theatre in Blackfriars was granted to Rosseter, Philip Kingman, Robert Jones, and Ralph Reeve, but the Lord Mayor and Aldermen compelled them to surrender it, when the building was nearly finished. [See Jones, Robert, vol. ii. p. 544, where the date of the patent is to be corrected.] Rosseter died on May 5, 1623. (Corrections, etc. from Diet, of Nat. Biog.) w. H. H. '

:

;

The opera was first produced at Covent Garden

ROSSl. Nofewerthantwenty-eightmusicians

music was written, selected, and arranged by William Shield. Miss Harper Mrs. Martyr, Phoebe, and took the title-r61e

of this name are enumerated in the QuellenLexikon, and as there are motets and other works in various libraries attributed to ' Rossi

in 1783,

and

its

;

Kennedy the

hero, William, while the of the male characters were taken by Messrs. Banister, Brett, and Davies.

Mrs. rest

A passage in the overture has long been a bone of contention. It is arranged for the oboe, with a bass for ' bassoons, etc. to imitate the bagpipe.' This fragment of melody is exceedingly like that of ' Auld Lang Syne,' and it has, therefore, been contended that Shield was -the author of the air for the celebrated Scotch This is, however, scarcely proven, for song.

there exist in prior publications other strath'The Miller's Daughter,' and 'The Miller's Wedding,' which also resemble the wellknown air, and these, together with a song, are also prototypes of the Scotch national

speys, as

melody.

ROSS, John, born

F. K.

at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

without further identification, there is still a large field open for careful research before the facts can be absolutely ascertained. Of these older bearers of the name there are seven who may be distinguished as important (1) Salomone, a Jewish musician, was at the court of Mantua from 1587 to 1628, when he appears to have died. He enjoyed such high favour with two successive dukes that he was privileged to dispense with the yellow badge that all Jews were ordered to wear. He issued madrigals and canzonets in 1589, 1600, 1602, 1603, 1610, 1614, and 1628, but his most important works were instrumental, being con"

:

tained in four books, called 'Sinfonie e Gagliarde' and 'Senate' (1607, 1608, 1623, and 1636). He wrote twenty-eight compositions (a 4-8) to Hebrew psalms, published in two editions, in

-

ROSSI Hebrew and

Italian, in 1623.

KOSSI The authority

Birnbaum's JUdisehe Musiker am A selection from his vocal JBofe zu Mantua. music was published in 1877 by S. Naumburg and Vincent d'Indy, and examples of his instrumental music are included in Eiemann's 'Alte Kammermusik.' (2) Giovanni Battista, a monk, born at Genoa, who published in 1618 at Venice a book on mensural notation, Organo de cantori per intendere da se stesso ognipasso difficile, etc., containing cantilene u, 2-5, and a book of four-part masses in the same for his life is

year.

Si.

Michael Angelo, a Roman musician

(3)

of the earlier part of the 17th century, was a pupil of Frescobaldi for organ-playing. He is known as the composer of an opera entitled 'Erminia sul Giordano,' which in 1635 or 1637 (Fetis and Clement, Dictionnaire Lyrique, erroneously give the date 1625) was performed with all stage accessories in the Palace of Taddeo Barberini, Prefect of Rome and Prince of Palestrina. It was published in 1637, and dedicated to the Signora Anna Colonna Barberina, the full account of the Princess of Palestrina. opera, the libretto of which is based on an episode in Tasso's GerusaZemme Liberata, is given in H. Goldschmidt's Studien zur Geschichte der ItalieniscJien Oper, with some specimens of Like most of the Roman Operas of the music. the period, the music would appear to be utterly wanting in any dramatic power ; the form of the drama is merely an excuse for scenic decorations, and occasional graceful pastoral Rossi is better known as a composer music. He published a collection of for clavier. Toccate e Correnti for organ or cembalo (second edition, Rome, 1657, first edition without date). These are now generally accessible in Torchi's They are L'Arte Musicale in.Italia,' vol. iii. modelled on the style of the pieces of the same

A

'

name by Frescobaldi, but show no advance either in technique or treatment, though the Correnti Previous to this reare melodious enough. publication by Torchi, there used to appear in various modern collections of older music, such as L. Kohler's 'Maitres du Clave9in,' Pauer's

'Alte Meister,' and others, an Andantino and Allegro ascribed to Rossi, which have now been proved to be spurious, their whole style showing them to belong to the following century. Ernst von Werra was the first to prove by examination of the genuine works of Rossi previously unknown, the anachronism of this attribution (Monatsheftefur Mnsikgeschic/Ue, xxviii. pp. 123

would be interesting to know how these two pieces came to be ascribed to M. A. S.).

It

J. K.

Rossi.

M.

(4) LuiGl, born about the end of the 16th century in Naples, was about 1620 in the service of Cardinal Barberini in Rome as a singer.

Through Mazarin's influence he was March 2, 1647, his

invited to Paris, where on

149

'Le Mariage d'Orphfe et Euridice,' was given, being the first Italian opera performed in Paris. Five years before he had composed adramatic work, 'II palagio d'Atlante,' to opera,

words by G. Ruspiglosi (a copy in the Royal College of Music has the title II Pallazzo incantato '). Gevaert edited a selection of thirteen cantatas by him. (5) Francesco, an Abbate, a native of Apulia (Fetis gives Bari as his birthplace), who brought out several operas in Venice between 1686 and 1689, viz. II Sejano moderno' (1686), 'La Clorilda' and 'La pena degl' occhi' in 1688, and 'Mitrane' in 1689. '

'

The

last

work contains the beautiful air, Ah core,' by which alone Rossi's name '

!

rendimi quel is

known

An

in the present day.

oratorio,

'La Caduta dei Giganti,' is in MS. (6) Giuseppe, was successively maestro di cappella at the Castle of St. Angelo, Rome, Pistoia, and San Loreto, Rome. He died in Rome about 1719. A mass in twelve parts, divided into three choirs, and two settings of Dixit Dominus for twelve and sixteen voices respectively, are preserved at Bologna, where the latter are ascribed to the later Giuseppe Rossi. (7) Another Giuseppe was maestro in the cathedral of Temi, and was the composer of an opera, 'La sposa in Livorno,' given in Rome in 1807. He published a treatise, AUi intendenti di conirappunto, in 1809, and several of his motets are at Bologna. M. There are, furthermore, three modem operacomposers of the name : (8) Lauro, born at Macerata, Feb. 19, 1810, was a pupil of Crescentini, Fumo, and Zingarelli at Naples. He tegan to write at once, and at eighteen had his first two operas 'Le Contesse Villane' and ' La Villana Contessa performed at the Fenice and Nuovo Theatres of Naples respectively. Other pieces followed : one of them, 'Costanza ed Oringaldo,' being written expressly for the San Carlo at the request of Barbaja. On the recommendation of Donizetti, Rossi was engaged for the Teatro Valle at Rome, and there he remained for 1832 and 1833, and composed four operas and an oratorio. In 1834 he moved to Milan, and brought out 'La Casa disabitata' (or I falsi Monetari '), which, though but moderately successful at the Seala, was afterwards considered his cJief-d'oeuvre, and spoken of as 'Rossi's Barbiere di Siviglia.' It pleased Malibran so much that she induced Barbaja to bespeak another opera from Rossi for the San Carlo, in which she should appear. The opera

—

'

—

'

was composed, and was named Amelia (produced at Naples, Dec. 4, 1834) but owing to She insisted on her caprice was a failure. having a pas de deux inserted for her and The theatre was crowded to the Mathis. ceiling to see the great singer dance but her dancing did not please the public, and the piece This disappointment, though was damned. '

'

;

;

somewhat

alleviated

by the

success

of

his

;

ROSSI

ROSSINI

'Leoeadia' (1834) seems to have disgusted Eossi with Italy ; he accepted an engagement from Mexico, left Europe, Oct. 15, 1836, and aiTived at Vera Cruz the 6th of the following January. From Mexico he went to the

with much favour at Prague in 1903 (EieM. mann's Lexikon, etc.) EOSSINI, GioACCHiNO Antonio, was born Feb. 29, 1792, at Pesaro, and was the only child of Giuseppe Eossini of Lugo. The position his father of his parents was of the humblest was town-trumpeter (trombadore) and inspector of slaughter-houses, and his mother a baker's daughter, but their life was a happy one, and the irrepressible good -humour of the towntrumpeter was celebrated among his friends. In the political struggles of 1796 the elder Eossini declared himself for the French, and for republican government, and was naturally His wife, thus deprived of her sent to gaol. means of subsistence, was driven to turn her She went with her little voice to account. Gioacchino to Bologna, and there made her debut as prima donna buffa with such success as to procure her engagements in various theatres Meanof the Eomagna during the Carnival. time the trombadore had regained his liberty and was engaged as horn-player in the bands of the theatres in which his wife sang ; the child remaining at Bologna, in the charge of an honest pork butcher. In such surroundings it is not wonderful that Gioaochino's learning

150

New Orleans, and Madras

Havannah,

;

mari'ied

in 1841, and returned to Europe, landing at Cadiz, Feb. 3, 1843. He began again at once to compose 'Cellini «, Parigi' (Turin, 1845),

—

but with very varying success. In 1846 he reappeared at the Soala at Milan with ' Azema di Granata,' 'II Borgomastro di Schiedam,' and etc.,

three or four other operas in following years. His great success, however, appears to have been

made with

II Domino nero,' at the Teatro Canobbiana, Sept. 1849. In 1850 he was called to be director of the Conservatorio at Milan. For this institution he published a '

Guida di armonia pratica orale (Riooidi, 1858), and between 1850 and 1859 composed a great many operas, and detached pieces for voices and for instruments. After the death of Meroadante in 1870, Bossi succeeded him as head of the Conservatorio at Naples. This office he resigned in 1878, and he went to Cremona in 1880, dying

there on May 5, 1885. Lists of his works are given by Florimo (Genni Storid, pp. 948-962), Eiemann (Lacikon), and Pougin. They comprise twenty -nine operas, a grand mass, and a dozen miscellaneous compositions, including six

fugues for strings, two sets of vocal exercises, and the Guide to Harmony already mentioned. His best works are 'Cellini a Parigi,' ' I falsi Monetari,' 'La Contessa di Mons,' and 'II

Domino

One

of his operas, 'La Figlia have been produced at the Kamthnerthor Theatre, Vienna, April 17, 1846 and another, Biorn,' was announced for performance at the Queen's Theatre, London, Jan. ^English libretto by Frank Marshall 17, 1877 but no notice of either performance can be [An oratorio, 'Saul,' elegies on Bellini found. and Meroadante, a mass, and other works, are G. mentioned by Eiemann.] (9) Giovanni Gaetano, bom at Borgo San Donnino, Parma, August 5, 1828, studied at the Milan Conservatorio, was leader of the orchestra in the theatre at Parma, and organist of the court chapel there, from 1852 to 1873, and director of the Parma Conservatorio in 1864In 1873 he became conductor at the 1873. Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa, until 1879 ; he His operas died at Parma, March 30, 1886. were: 'Elena di Taranto' (Parma, 1852), Giovanni Gisoala (Parma, 1855), Nicol6 de' nero.'

di Figaro,'

is said to

;

'

—

'

'

'

Lapi' (Ancona, 1865), 'La contessa d'Altemberg' (Borgo San Donnino, 1872), and 'Maria Sanz' (Bergamo, 1895). A symphony, Saul,' won a prize in Paris in 1878, and Eossi wrote besides three masses, an oratorio, and a requiem. (10) Cesaee, born at Mantua in 1864, has won success as a composer in tnany branches of '

art,

his opera 'Nadeja'

having been received

;

'

'

was confined to reading, writing, and arithmetic. Music he acquired from a certain Prinetti of Novara, who gave him harpsichord lessons for three years ; but the lessons must have been peculiar, for Prinetti was accustomed to play the scale with two fingers only, combined his music-teaching with the sale of liquors, and had the convenient habit of sleeping as he stood. Such a character was a ready butt for the son of a joker like Giuseppe Eossini ; and so incorrigible was Gioaochino's love of mimicking his master that at length he was taken from Prinetti, and apprenticed to a smith. Ashamed of this result he resolved to amend and apply. In Angelo Tesei he fortunately found a clever master, able to make singing and

harmony interesting to his pupil ; in a fewmonths helearned to read, to accompany, and to sing well enough to take solos in church at the modest price of three pauls'per service. He was thus able, at the age of ten, to assist his parents, who, owing to a sudden change in his practical

mother's voice, were again in misfortune. In his desire to help them he seized every opportunity of singing in public, and eagerly accepted an offer to appear at the theatre of the Commune as Adolfo in Paer's 'Camilla.' This was his first and only step in the career of a dramatic singer, but it must have been often difficult to resist taking it up again, when he saw singers receiving a thousand ducats for appearing in operas which he both composed and conducted for fifty.

Thus at the age of thirteen Eossini was a good singer to be well received at the he also played the horn by his father's

sufficiently

theatre

;

GIOACCHIXO AXTOXIO K06SIXI

; '

EOSSINI

ROSSINI

and had a fair reputation as accompanist. he acquired a valuable friend in the Cheyalier Ginsti, commanding engineer at side,

Bologna.

At

W£is ihore

this time

Bologna, who took a great affection for the lad, read and explained the Italian poets to him, and

opened his fresh and intelligent mind to the comprehension of the ideal ; and it was to the efforts of this distinguished man that he owed thestartof his genius, andsuohgeneral knowledge as he afterwards possessed. After three years with Tesei he put himself under a veteran tenor named Babbini to improve his singing. Shortly after this his voice broke, at the end of the autumn of 1806, during a toumee in which he accompanied his father as chorus-master and maestro al cembalo, an engagement in which the daUy income of the two amounted to 11 pauls, about equal to 4 shillings. The loss of his voice cost him his engagements in chiu:ch ; but it gave him the opportunity of entering the Conservatorio, or Liceo communale, of Bologna. On March 20, 1807, he was admitted to the counterpoint class of Padre Mattel, and soon after to that of Cavedagni for the violoncello. He little anticipated when he took his first lesson that his name would one day be inscribed over the entrance to the liceo. His progress was rapid, and he was soon able to take his part in Haydn's quartets ; but his counterpoint lessons were a trouble to him from the first. Before he entered Mattel's class he had composed a variety of things little pieces for two horns, songs for Zambini, and even an opera, called ' Demetrio,' for his friends the Mombellis. Unfortunately Mattel was a pedant, who could see no reason for modifying his usual slow mechanical system to suit the convenience of a His one scholar, however able or advanced. answer to his pupil's inquiry as to the reason of a change or a progression was, ' It is the The result was that after a few months rule.' of discouraging labour Gioacchino began to look to instinct and practice for the philosophy, or

—

The actual at least the rhetoric of this art. is the subject of an anecdote which is

parting

not improbably true. Mattel was explaining that the amount of counterpoint which his pupil had already acquired was sufiBcient for a composer in the free style ; but that for churchmusic much severer studies were required. 'What,' cried the boy, 'do you mean that I Certainly, was know enough to write operas ? Then I want nothing more, for the reply. operas are all that I desire to write.' There was in this something of the practical wisdom '

'

'

'

'

'

which distinguished the Kossini of later life. Meantime it was necessary that he and his parents should live, and he therefore dropped counterpoint and returned to his old trade of accompanist, gave lessons, and conducted perHe was even formances of chamber- music. bold enough to lead an orchestra, and took the direction of the Accademia dei Ooncordi of '

'

'

There

is

151

no reason to doubt that

it

by scoring the quartets and symphonies of Haydn and Mozart than by any lessons of Padre Mattel's that Rossini learned the secrets and the magic of the orchestra. His fame at the Liceo increased day by day, and at the end of his first year his cantata II Pianto d'armonia per la morte d'Orfeo' was not only i^arded with the prize, but was performed in public, August 8, 1808. He was then in his seventeenth '

The

year.

symphony,

cantata was

by a but by an

followed, not

as is sometimes said,

overture in the fugued style, in imitation of that to ' Die Zauberflote,' but so weak, that after

played he lost no time in destroying fate probably attended some pieces for double bass and strings, and a mass, both written at the instance of an amateur of the double bass. Rossini had hitherto been known at Bologna as '11 Tedeschino' 'the little German ' for his devotion to Mozart but such serious efforts as composing a mass, and conducting a work like Haydn's Seasons were probably intended as hints that he wished to be looked upon no longer as a scholar, but as a master waiting his opportunity for the hearing it.

it

The same

—

—

'

It may be easier to enter on a career in Italy than elsewhere, but even there it is not without

Rossini by his wit and gaiety had, in one of his tours, made a friend of the Marquis CavaUi, who had promised him his The interest whenever it should be wanted. time was now come to claim the fulfilment of the promise, and Rossini's delight may be imagined when he received an invitation to compose an opera, from the manager of the San Mask theatre at Venice. He hastened to prepare the piece, and ' La Cambiale di Matrimonio ' or the ' Matrimonial Market was produced there in the autumn of 1810. The piece was an opera buffa in one act ; it was supported by Morandi, Ricci, De Grecis, and Raffanelli, and had a most encouraging reception. After this feat he returned to Bologna, and there composed for Esther MombelU's benefit a cantata called ' Didone abbanIn 1811 he wrote for the Teatro del donata.' Corso of Bologna an opera buffa in two acts, 'L' Equivoeo stravagante, which closed the season with success, and in which both he and Marcolini the contralto were highly applauded. ' Demetrio e Polibio was brought out at the Teatro Valle, by his old friends the Mombellis, in 1 8 1 1 . Early in 1 8 1 2 he produced, at the San Mos^ theatre, Venice, two buffa operas ' L' Inganno felice,' and ' L' Occasione fa il Ladro, its difficulties.

'

'

'

—

ossia

il

Cambio della

a Farsa, a

trifle

valigia. '

The

first

of these,

in one act, was well sung and

much

applauded, especially an air of

'Una

voce,' a duet for the

Galli's,

and a and original melody. After the Carnival he went to Ferrara, and there composed an oratorio, 'Giro in Babilonia,' which trio full of force

two

basses,

— ;

'

EOSSINI

ROSSINI

was brought out during Lent, and proved a fiasco. [It was performed as Cyrus in Babylon at Drury Lane Theatre (Lent Oratorios), Jan. 30, 1823, under Sir George Smart.] Another failure was La Seala di Seta,' an opera bufFa in

appeared after the first night, and the remembrance of it was very shortly wiped out by the appearance of Tancredi at the Fenice during The characters were taken by the Carnival. Manfredini, Malanotte, Todran, and Bianohi. A work so important and so full of spirit, effect, and melody, was naturally received with enthusiasm, and nobody had time to notice It various plagiarisms from Paisiello and Paer. was in fact the first step in the revolution which

152

'

'

'

one

produced at Venice in the course of the While the Mombellis were engaged on his serious opera, he flew off to Milan to fulfil an engagement which Marcolini had procured for him, by writing, for her, Galli, Bonoldi, and Farlamagni, a comic piece in two acts called 'La Pietra del Paragone,' which was produced at the Soala during the autumn of 1812, with immense success. It was his first appearance at this renowned house, and the piece is underlined in the list as musica nuoya di Gioacchino act,

spring.

'

Rossitai,

di Fesaro,'

The numbers most

ap-

plauded were a oavatina, 'Ecco pietosa,' a quartet in the second act, the duel -trio, and a finale

in

which the word

'

Sigillara

'

recurs

continually with very comic effect. This finale is memorable as the first occasion of his employing the crescendo, which he was ultimately to use and abuse so copiously. Mosca has accused Eossini of having borrowed this famous effect ' from his Pretendenti delusi,' produced at the Scala the preceding autumn, forgetting that Mosea himself had learned it from General! and other composers. Such accusations, however, were of little or no importance to Rossini, who had already made up his mind to adopt whatever pleased him, wheresoever he might find it. In the meantime he took advantage of his success to pass a few days at Bologna with his parents, en route for Venice ; and thus ended

the year 1812, in which he had produced no than six pieces for the theatre. Kor was 1813 less prolific. It began with a He had accepted a comterrible mystification. mission of 500 franca for a serious opera for the Grand Theatre at Venice, but the manager of San Mos6, furious at his desertion, in pursuance of some former agreement, forced on him a I due Bruschini, o il libretto for that theatre, figlio per azzardo,' which, if treated as intended, would inevitably have been the death of the music. From this dilemma Rossini ingeniously extricated himself by reversing the situations, The and introducing all kinds of tricks. second violins mark each bar in the overture by a stroke of the bow on the lamp shade the bass sings at the top of his register and the soprano at the bottom of hers ; a funeral march intrudes itself into one of the most comical scenes and in the finale the words son pentito' are so arranged that nothing is heard but tito, Those of the audience who had been tito, tito.' taken into the secret were in roars of laughter, but the strangers who had paid for their places in good faith, were naturally annoyed, and But no complaints were of any hi8se4 loudly. avail with Rossini, he only laughed at the disI due Bruschini success of his joke. less

'

;

'

;

'

'

'

'

Rossini was destined to effect in Italian opera. All Venice, and very soon all Italy, was singing Hardly or humming ' Mi rivedrai, ti rivedr6.' any one now remembers that it is only to the

happy accident that Malanotte was dissatisfied with her air, and insisted on its being rewritten, that we owe the 'Di tanti palpiti,' which was nicknamed the 'aria de' rizzi,' because it was said to have been dashed off while waiting for

One must read the accounts of a dish of rice. the day to understand the madness for it was nothing else which Tancredi excited among 'I fancied,' said Rossini, with the Ve'netians. that after hearing my opera his usual gaiety, they would put me into a mad-house on the contrary, they were madder than I.'

—

—

'

'

'

—

Henceforward he was as much fSted for his But he did not His give way to such dissipations for long. next work was L' Italiana in Algeri,' an opera buffa produced at the San Benedetto theatre, social qualities as for his music.

'

Its greatest Venice, in the summer of 1813. novelty was the famous trio 'Papataci,' a charming union of melody and genuine comedy while the patriotic air, ' Pensa alia Patria," which closes the work, spoke not less powerfully to the hearts of his countrymen, ' Aureliano in Palmira ' and ' II Turco in Italia were both brought out at the Scala, Milan, the first in Dec. 1813, the second in August 1814, before an audience somewhat more critical than that at Venice. 'Aureliano,' though it contains some fine things, which were afterwards utilised in ' Elisabetta ' and the ' Barbiere,' was a fiasco. The ' Turco,' too, was not received with the applause which it afterwards commanded. Rossini, however, was greatly feted during his stay in Milan, and among his ' amiable protectresses ' to use the expression of Stendhal was the Princess Belgiojoso, for whom he composed a cantata entitled ' Egle ed Irene.' His next opera, ' Sigismondo,' written for the Fenice at Venice, in the Carnival of 1815, was unsuccessful, and the failure so far affected him as to make him give up work for a time, and retire to his home at Bologna. There he encountered Barbaja, who from being a waiter at a coffee'

—

house had become the farmer of the public gaming-tables and impresario of the Naples theatre. Barbaja, though rich, was still bent on making money ; he had heard of the success of the young composer, and of his brilliant talents, and was resolved to get hold of him ;

,

'

EOSSINI

ROSSINI

Rossini, with the support of his parents on his hands, was ready enough to listen to any good proposal. He accordingly engaged with

the verdict of a theatre crammed with partisans is seldom just. It is also as changeable as the winds, or as Fortune herself. Though hissed on the first night, Almaviva was listened to with patience on the second, advanced in favour night by night, and ended by becoming, under the title of II Barbiere di Siviglia,' one of the most popular comic operas ever composed, and actually eclipsing in spirit and wit the comedy on which it is founded. It was acted by GiorgiRighetti (Rosina), Rossi (Berta), Zamboni (Figaro), Garcia (Almaviva), Botticelli (Bartolo)

and

Barbaja to take the musical direction of the

San Carlo and Del Fondo theatres at Naples, and to compose annually an opera for each. For this he was to receive 200 ducats (about £35) per month, with a small share in the gaming-tables, amounting in addition to some 1000 ducats per annum, for which, however, he obtained no compensation after the tables were abolished in 1820. During Murat's visit to Bologna in April 1816 Rossini composed a cantata in favour of Italian independence ; but politics were not his line, and he arrived in Naples fully conscious of this, and resolved that nothing should induce him to repeat the experiment. The arrival of a young composer with so great a reputation for originality was not altogether pleasing to Zingarelli, the chief of the Conservatorio, or to the aged Faisiello. But no intrigues could prevent the brilliant success of Elisabetta, regina d' Inghilterra, which was produced before the Court for the opening of the autumn season, 1815, and in which Mile. Colbran, Dardanelli, Manuel Garcia, and Nozzari took the principal parts. The libretto of this opera was by a certain Schmidt, and it is a curious fact that '

'

some of

its

incidents anticipate those of

'

Eenil-

worth,' which was not published till January 1821. Two historical facts should be noted in regard to ' Elisabetta.' It is the first opera in which Rossini so far distrusted his singers as to write in the ornaments of the airs ; and it is also the first in which he replaced the redtativo secco by a recitative accompanied by the string quartet. The overture and the finale to the first

act of

'

Elisabetta

'

are taken from

'

Aure-

Uano.' Shortly before Christmas Rossini left Naples for Rome to write and bring out two works for which he was under engagement. The first of these, 'Torvaldo e Dorliska,' produced at the

was coldly received, but the second, ' Almaviva, ossia 1' inutile precauzione,' founded on Beaumarchais' ' Barbier de Seville,' by Sterbini, which made its first appearance at the Argentina, Feb. 6, 1816, was unmistakably damned. The cause of this was Tea'troValle, Dec. 26, 1815,

the predilection of the Romans for Paisiello, and their determination to make an example of an innovator who had dared to reset a libretto Rossini already treated by their old favourite. with excellent taste and feeling, had inquired of

adopting the subject, whether doing so would annoy the veteran, whose ' Barbiere hjid been for a quarter of a century the favourite of Europe, and not unnaturally believed that after this step he was secure from the illPaisiello, before

'

But will of Paisiello's friends and admirers.' We have RoMinl'fl ovn authority for th]B. and for tbe opera 1

having been written in thirteen days, in hie letter to H. See JJuticaZ World, Nov. 6, 1676, p. 751.

Scltivaiut.

'

;

153

'

'

and was

Vitarelli (Basilic). lost,

The

original overture

and the present one belongs to

'Elisa-

betta ; the opening of the cavatina ' Ecco ridente is borrowed from the opening of the first chorus in ' Aureliano.' The air of Berta, ' II vecchietto cerca moglie,' was suggested by a Russian tune, and the eight opening bars of the trio ' Zitti, zitti are notoriously taken note for note from Simon's air in Haydn's ' Seasons. Indeed it is astonishing that, with his extraordinary memory, his carelessness, and his habitual hurry, Rossini should not have borrowed oftener than he did. He received 400 scudi (£80) for the ' Barbiere,' and it was composed and mounted in a month. When some one told Donizetti that it had been written in thirteen days, 'Very possible,' was his answer, 'he is so '

'

'

lazy.'

Lazy as he was, Rossini was destined to write twenty operas in eight years, 1815-23. On his return to Naples after the Carnival of 1816, and the gradual success of the Barbiere, he found the San Carlo theatre in ashes. Barbaja undertook to rebuild it more magnificently than before in nine months. He kept his word, and '

'

thus acquired not only the protection but the favour of the king. Rossini obtained the same boon by composing a giand cantata entitled 'Teti e Peleo for the marriage of the Duchesse de Berry. No sooner had he completed this than he dashed off a two-act comic opera entitled La Gazzetta' to a libretto by Tottola, which was produced at the Teatro dei Fiorentini, Naples, and which, although in the hands of a clever '

'

and charming actress like Chambrand, and of two such public favourites as Pellegrini and Casaccia, was but moderately successful. Rossini completed his reform of serious opera by his Otello,' which was brought out at the Teatro '

del Fondo, Naples, Dec. 4, 1816, with Isabella Colbran, Nozzari, Davide, Cicimarra, and Bene-

Some of the most detti as its interpreters. remarkable features of this work, such as the duet

Non

m'inganno,' were not at thetouchingairofDesdemona, first appreciated Se il padre, and the romance of the Willow, with harp accompaniment, were better received but the tragic termination of the whole was very distasteful to the public, and when the opera was taken to Rome, it was found necessary finale of the first act, the

and the passionate

'

trio of defiance,

:

'

'

I

—

'

'

ROSSINI

BOSSINI

to invent a happy conclusion, a fact which throws a curious light on the dramatic taste of the period.

Eossinihad borrowed Generentola from the Poco adagio of Mozart's Symphony in C (Kbohel, p. 425) by maintaining a sustained accompaniment in the wind while the strings and the voices carry on the ideas and

154

The machinery, and power of rapidly changing the scenes, were at that time so very imperfect in smaller Italian theatres, that Eossini would only accept the subject of Cinderella when proposed to him by the manager of the Teatro Valle at Rome, on condition that the supernatural element was entirely omitted. A new comic piece was therefore written by Ferretti under the title of Generentola, ossia la bontJi in trionfo ; Eossini undertook it, and it was produced at the Carnival of 1817. Its success was unmistakable, though the cast was by no '

'

means extraordinary-

—

Giorgi, Catarina, Eossi, Begnis, Vemi, and Vitarelli. In the profusion and charm of its ideas this delicious work is probably equal to the ' Barbiere,' but it is inferior in unity of style. No doubt this is partly owing to the fact that many of the pieces were originally composed to other words than those to which they are now sung. The duet ' Un soave non s6 ohe,' the drinking-chorus, and the mock proclamation of the Baron, are all borrowed from 'La Pietra del Paragone ' ; the air ' Miei rampoUi ' is from 'La Gazzetta,' where it was inspired by the words ' Una prima ballerina ' ; the air of Eamiro recalls that to ' Ah vieni ' in the trio in ' Otello the (ielightful stretto of the finale, ; the duet ' Zitto, zitto, the sestet ' Quest' h un nodo avvilupato,' and various other incidental passages originally belonged to the 'Turco in Italia ' ; and the humorous duet ' Un segreto is evidently modelled on that in Cimarosa's ' Matrimonio. Such repetitions answered their purpose at the moment, but while thus extemporising his operas Eossini forgot that a

Guglielmi,

De

!

'

'

'

day would arrive when they would all be published, and when such discoveries as those we have mentioned, and as the existence of the principal motif of the duet of the letter in ' Otello in the agitato of an air from Torvaldo As he e Dorliska,' would inevitably be made. '

'

himself confessed in a letter about this time, he thought he had a perfect right to rescue any of his earlier airs from operas which had either failed at the time or become forgotten since. Whatever force there may be in this defence, the fact remains that ' Generentola ' and the Barbiere share between them the glory of being Eossini's chefs d'osuvre in comic opera. From Eome he went to Milan, to enjoy the libretto by triumph of the 'Gazza ladra' Gherardini, which was brought out on May 31, The Milanese found no 1817, at the Scala. difference between the really fine parts of the opera and those which are mere padding of Nor which the ' Gazza ladra has several. would any one have noticed, even had they had the necessary knowledge, that in the first duet and the finale as was the case also in the '

'

—

—

—

'

—

finale to the

an

'

'

—

effect

the ornaments.

From Milan he returned to Naples, and produced Armida during the autumn season, a grand opera in three acts, with ballet, which was mounted with great splendour, and enjoyed The duet the advantage of very good singers. which was soon to Amor, possente Nume be sung through the length and breadth of Italy, '

'

!

'

the air

'Non

soiEro

1'

'

—

offensa,'

the incantation

demons, and the airs de ballet, would alone have been sufficient to excite the Neapolitans ; but these were not the only pieces applauded, and the remarkable trio In scene, the chorus of

'

quale aspetto imbelle,' written for three tenors with extraordinary ease, a pretty chorus of women ' Qui tutto fe calma,' and a scena with afterwards chorus 'Germane a te riehiede' all employed in the French version of ' Moise deserve mention. This fine work had hardly made its appearance before Eossini bad to dash off two more Adelaide di Borgogna,' sometimes known as

—

'

—

'

'Ottone E4 d'

Italia,'

in Egitto. '

Adelaide

'

—

and an oratorio 'Mose was produced at the '

Argentina at Eome, in the Carnival of 1818, was well sung and warmly received. Mosfe '

was written for the San Carlo at Naples, and brought out there in Lent with an excellent Isabella Colbran, Benedetti, Porto, and oast Nozzari. Here for the first time Eossini was

—

so

much

in

assistance,

pressed as to be compelled to call and employed his old and tried friend Carafa in the recitatives and in Pharaoh's air 'Aspettar mi.'i The scene of the darkness was another step onwards, and the whole work was much applauded, with the exception of the passage of the Eed Sea, the representation of which was always laughed at, owing to the imperfection of the theatrical appliances already spoken of. At the resumption of the piece, therefore, in the following Lent, Rossini added a chorus to divert attention from the wretched attempt to represent the dividing waves, and it is to the sins of the Neapolitan stage machinists that we owe the popular prayer 'Dal tuo stellato soglio.' As some relaxation after this serious effort he undertook, in the summer of 1818, a oneact piece ' Adina, o il Galiffo di Bagdad," for the San Carlos Theatre, Lisbon ; and immediately ' Eicciardo e Zoraide for San Carlo, Naples, which was sung to perfection at the autumn season there by Isabella Colbran, Pisaroni (whose excessive plainness was no bar to her splendid singing), Nozzari, Davide, and Cicimarra. ' Eicciardo extraordinarily full of orna' was

after,

'

1

Omitted la the Italian score published in Fiuis.

ROSSINI

KOSSINI

ment, but 'Ennione,' which was produced at

Naples before the revolt of July 20, 1820, of the Carbonari, under Pepe, which obliged the King to abandon his capital, ruined Barbaja by depriving him at once of a powerful patron

San Carlo in the Lent of 1819, went quite in the opposite direction, and affected an unusual plainness and severity. Though splendidly sung, Ermione did not please, and the single number applauded was the one air in which there was any ornamentation. So much for the taste of Naples in 1819 An equally poor reception was given to a cantata written for the re-establishment of the health of the King of Naples, and sung at the San Carlo, Feb. 20, '

'

!

1819. It consisted of a cavatina for Isabella Colbran, and an air with variations, which was afterwards utilised in the ballet of the ' Viaggio a Reims. ' The piece was hastily thrown off, and was probably of no more value in the eyes of its author than was an opera called Edoardo e Cristina ' which was brought out at the San Benedetto, Venice, this same spring, and was in reality a mere pasticcio of pieces from 'Ermione,' 'Ricciardo,' and other operas, hitherto unheard in Venice, attached to a libretto imitated from Scribe. Fortunately the opera pleased the audience, and sent Rossini back to Naples in good spirits, ready to compose a new cantata for the visit of the Emperor of Austria. The new work was performed on May 9, 1819, at the San Carlo, and was sung by Colbran, Davide, and Eubini, to the accomThis Rossini paniment of a military band. probably accepted as a useful experience for. his next new opera, the 'Donna del Lago,' in the march of which we hear the results of his Even experiments in writing for a wind band. at the present day the first act of the opera is well worthy of admiration, and yet the evening '

of Oct. 4, 1819, when it was first given, with the magnificent cast of Colbran, Pisaroni, Nozzari, Davide, and Benedetti, was simply one long torture of disappointment to the composer, who was possibly not aware that the stoi-m of

disapprobation was directed not against him much as against Barbaja the manager, and

so

Colbran his favourite. On the following evening the hisses became bravos, but of this Rossini knew nothing, as by The that time he was on his road to Milan. Scala opened on Dec. 26, 1819, for the Carnival season with 'Bianca e Faliero,' libretto by Romani, which was admirably sung by CamNo trace of it, however, porese and others.

now remains except a duet and quartet, which were afterwards introduced in the Donna del Lago,' and became very popular at concerts. His engagement at Milan over, he hurried back to Naples, to produce the opera of '

Maometto secondo, before the close of the It had been composed in great haste, but was admirably interpreted by Colbran, Chaumel (afterwards Madame Rubini), Nozzari, Cicimarra, Benedetti, and F. Galli, whose Maometto was a splendid success. It was the last opera that Rossini was destined to give at '

Carnival.

'

155

and of the monopoly of the gambling-houses, and drove Rossini to make important changes in his life. Having for the moment no engage-

ment

for the Scala, he undertook to write Matilda di Ciabrano (' Mathilde di Shabran ') for Rome. Torlonia the banker had bought the Teatro Tordinone, and was converting it into the Apollo ; and it was for the inauguration of this splendid new house that Rossini's opera was intended. The opening took place on the first night of the Carnival of 1821. The company, though large, contained no first-rate '

'

artists,

and Rossini was

careful of the

eri^eiiible

therefore

pieces.

The

especially first

night

was stormy, but Rossini's friends were in the ascendancy, Paganini conducted in splendid style, and the result was a distinct success.

On

his

return to Naples,

Rossini learned

from Barbaja his intention of visiting Austria,

and taking

his

company of

Rossini's next opera,

singers to Vienna. 'Zelmira,' was therefore

more critical audience than those of Italy, and with this in view he applied himself to make the recitatives interesting, the harmonies full and varied, and the accompaniments expressive and full of colour, and to throw as much variety as possible into the form of the movements. He produced the opera at the San Carlo before leaving, in the middle of December 1821. It was sung by Colbran, Cecconi, Davide, Nozzari, Ambrosi, and Benedetti, and was enthusiastically received. On the 27th of the same month, he took his benefit, for which he had composed a special cantata entitled ' La Riconoscenza ' ; and the day aftej left for the North. He was accompanied by Isabella Colbran, with whom he had been in love for years, whose influence over him had been so great as to make him forsake comedy for tragedy, and to whom he was married on his arrival at Bologna. The wedding took place in the chapel of the Archbishop's palace, and was celebrated by Cardinal Opizzoni. Rossini has been accused of marrying for money, and it is certain that Colbran had a villa and £500 a year of her own, that she was seven years older than her husband, and that her reputation as a, singer • was on the decline. After a, month's holiday, the couple started for Vienna, where they arrived about the end He seems to have made of February 1822. his debut before the Vienna public on March 30, as the conductor of his 'Cenerentola,' in the German version, as ' Asohenbrodel,' and his tempi were found somewhat too fast for the 'Zelmira was given ' heavy German language. ' at the Kamthnerthor opera-house on April 1 3, with a success equal to that which it obtained Rossini was not without violent at Naples. to be submitted to a

'

'

ROSSINI

ROSSINI

opponents in Vienna, but they gave him no anxiety, friends and enemies alike were received with a smile, and his only retort was a goodhumoured joke. He is said to have visited Beethoven, and to have been much distressed by the condition in which he found the great master. The impression which he made on the "Viennese may be gathered from a paragraph in the Leipzig AUgemeine rmisik, Zeiiung^ of the day, in which he is described as ' highly accomplished, of agreeable manners and pleasant appearance, full of wit and fun, cheerful, obliging, courteous, and most accessible. He is

but the author of the ' Barbiere ' could to laugh at such satire, and his respectful behaviour to Cherubini, Lesueur, and Reicha, as the heads of the Conservatoire, his graceful reception of the leaders of the French School,

156

niini'

his imperturbable good temper and good spirits, serenade, a public soon conciliated every one. banquet, triumphant receptions at the opera-

A

house, a special vaudeville le

The best known

'

'

;

others are

'

L'

of these

Augurio

is

'

II

felice,'

La sacra AUeanza, and II Bardo. The Congress at an end, he began Semiramide,

'

to work at which was brought out at the

Fenice, Venice, Feb.

1823, with

3,

two Marianis,

Rossini, the

Madame

and Sinclair there were two

Galli,

the English tenor, for whom airs. The opera was probably written with more care than any of those which had preceded it and possibly for this very reason was some;

what coldly received. The subject no doubt would seem sombre to the gay Venetians, and they even omitted to applaud the fine quartet (which Verdi must surely have had in his mind

when

writing the Miserere in the ' Trovatore '), and the appearance of Ninns, the final trio, at once so short and so dramatic, the cavatina with chorus, and all the other new, bold, bright passages of that remarkable work. Rossini was not unnaturally much disappointed at the result of his labour and genius, and resolved to write no more for the theatres of his The resolution was hardly native country. formed when he received a visit from the manager of the King's Theatre, London (Sigr. Benelli), and a proposal to write an opera for

the

finale,

'

'

'

reporting the early part at Uarcta.

ou

'

which was so successful as to be

He

appeared at the

so-

'

'

;

always spoke of him as 'M. Crescendo,' and he was caricatured on the stage as M. Vaoar8, 1822,

Paris,

,

—

May

h.

in short that

Cambridge Festival again with Catalani, in July 1824. The opera manager was unable to finish the season, and became bankrupt before discharging his engagements with Rossini. Nor was this all. Not only did he not produce the ' Figlia deir aria,' but the music of the first act unaccountably vanished, and has never since been found. It was in vain for Rossini to sue the manager he failed to obtain either his MS. or a single penny of the advantages guaranteed to him by the contract. True, he enjoyed a considerable set-off to the loss just mentioned in the profits of the countless soirees at which he acted as accompanist at a fee of £50. At called

'

1

Matrimonio

encored three times.

that house, to be called La Figlia dell' aria,' £40 more than he had for the sum of £240 received for Semiramide, a sum at the time The offer was promptly oonsideted enormous. accepted, and the Rossinis started for England without delay, naturally taking Paris in their Paris, like road, and reaching it Nov. 9, 1823. Vienna, was then divided into two hostile camps Berton on the subject of the great composer. '

Rossini

over the keys to see if they were not smoking. Paris, however, was not at present his ultimate goal, and on Dec. 13, 1823, Rossini and his wife arrived in London. 'They were visited immediately by the Russian ambassador, M. de Lieven, who gave the composer barely time to recover from the fatigues of the journey before he carried him off to Brighton and presented him to the King. George IV. believed himself to be fond of music, and received the author of the ' Barbiere ' in the most flattering manner. ' Zelmira ' wais brought out at the Opera on Jan. 24, 1824 ; and the royal favour naturally brought with it that of the aristocracy, and a solid result in the shape of two grand concerts at Almack's, at two guineas admission. The singers on these occasions were Mme. Rossini, Mme. Catalani, Mme. Pasta, and other first-rate artists, but the novelty, the attraction, was to hear Rossini himself sing the solos ' in a cantata (or ' ottavino ') which he had composed for the occasion, under the title of 'II Pianto delle Muse in Morte di Lord Byron.' He also took part with Catalani in a duet from Cimarosa's

'

'

('

— everything —

'

'

Grand Diner')

could soothe the pride of a stranger was lavished upon him from the first. He in his turn was always kindand amiable, consenting, for instance, an old colleague at at the request of Panseron Rome—to act as accompanist at a concert with the object of saving Panseron's brother from Under the hands of Rossini the conscription. the piano became' as effective as an orchestra ; and it is on record that the first time that Auber heard him accompany himself in a song he walked up to the instrument and bent down

uMich in society, and charms every one by his simple, unassuming style. After the close of the Vienna season, the Rossinis returned to Bologna, where his parents had resided since 1798. There, at the end of September, he received a flattering invitation from Prince Metternich, entreating him to come to Verona, and he accordingly arrived at the Congress in time for its opening, Oct. 20, 1822. Rossini's contribution to the Congress was a series of cantatas, which he poured forth without stint or difficulty. vero Omaggio

;

aflford

I

2 ThiB rooallB the rtsit of a great composer in 1?46. when Gluclt gave a eoneert at the King's Theatre, at which the great attraction was his solo on the musical glasses [See vol. ii. p. 1836 ] !

—

ROSSINI

ROSSINI

five months he found himself in possession of £7000 ; and just before his departure was honoured by receiving the marked compliments of the king at a concert at the Duke of Wellington's, for which His Majesty had expressly come up from Brighton. [See

as director of the Th^toe Italien, it was a happy idea of the Intendant of the Civil List to confer upon him the sinecure posts of Premier Compositeur du Roi and Inspecteur G&eral du Chant en France,' with an annual income of

Musical Times, 1900, pp. 18 ff.] In leaving England on July 26, after so hearty and profitable a reception, Rossini was not taking a leap in the dark ; for through the Prince de Polignac, French ambassador in England, he had already concluded an agreement for the musical direction of the Theatre Italien, Paris, for eighteen months at a salary of £800 per annum. In order to be near his work he took a lodging at No. 28 Rue Taitbout, and at once set about getting younger singers for his company. Knowing that Paer was his enemy, and would take any opportunity of injuring him, he was careful to retain him in his old post of maestro al cembalo but at the same time he engaged Harold (then a

might

the end of

;

young man of twenty-five) as chorus-master, and as a check on the pretensions of Madame Pasta he brought to Paris Esther MombelU, Schiassetti, Donzelli, and Rubini, successively. To those who sneered at his music he replied by playing it as it was written, and by bringing out some of his operas which had not yet made their appearance in Paris, such as La Donna del Lago (Sept. 7, 1824), 'Semiramide' (Dec. 8, And 1825), and Zelmira (March 14, 1826). he gave much eclat to his direction by introduc' ing Meyerbeer's Crociato the first work of Meyerbeer's heard in Paris and by composing a new opera, II Viaggio a Reims, ossia 1' Albergo del giglio d' oro,' which he produced on June 19, '

'

'

'

— — '

'

1825, during the fetes at the coronation of Charles X. The new work is in one act, and three parts ; it is written for, fourteen voices, which are treated with marvellous art. It was sung by Mmes. Pasta, Schiassetti, Mombelli, Cinti, Amigo, Dotti, and Rossi ; and by MM. Levasseur, Zucchelli, Pellegrini, Graziani, Aula truly etta, Donzelli, Bordogni, and Scudo In the ballet he magnificent assemblage.

—

an air with variations for two borrowed from his Naples cantata of 1819, and played by Gambaro (a passionate In the huntadmirer of his) and by F. Berr. ing scene he brought in a delicious fanfare of horns, and the piece winds up with 'God save the King,' 'Vive Henri Quatre,' and other national airs, all newly harmonised and accomAfter the Revolution of 1848 the panied. words were suitably modified by H. Dupin, and the piece appeared in two acts at the Theatre Italien as Andremo noi a Parigi,' on introduced clarinets,

157

'

'

'

20,000 francs, possibly in the hope that he settle permanently at Paris, and in time write operas expressly for the French stage. This was also an act of justice, since in the then absence of any law of international ^ copyright his pieces were public property, and at the disposal not only of a translator like CastilBlaze, but of any manager or publisher iu the length and breadth of France who chose to avail himself of them. Fortunately the step

was justified by the event. The opera of Maometto originally written by the Duke of Ventagnano, and produced at Naples in 1820 had never been heard in France. Rossini employed MM. Soumet and Balocohi to give the libretto a French dress ; he revised the music, and considerably extended it ; and on Oct. 9, 1826, the opera was produced at the Academic as Le Siege de Corinthe,' with a cast which included Nourrit and Mile. Cinti, and with great success. For the new opera Rossini received 6000 francs from Troupenas. '

'

—

—

'

After this feat Rossini turned to another of his earlier works, as not only sure of success but eminently suited to the vast space and splendid m,ise en seine of the Grand Op&a. This was ' Mose. ' He put the revision of the libretto into the hands of Etienne Jouy and Balocchi, and arranged for Cinti, Nourrit, and Levasseur to be in the cast. 'Moise ' was produced March 25, 1827, and created a profound impression. True, it had been heard in its original form at the Italiens five years before, but the recollection of this only served to bring out more strongly the many improvements and additions in the new version such as the Introduction to the first act ; the quartet and chorus ; the chorus La douce Aurore ; the march and chorus, etc.

—

'

'

The airs de ballet were largely borrowed from Armida '(1817) and' Ciro in Babilonia '(1812). This magnificent work gave Rossini a sort of imperial position in Paris. But it was necessary to justify this, and he therefore resolved to try a work of a diflerent character, and according to the axiom of Boileau, to pass '

From grave to

gay, from lively to severe

Oct. 26 of that After the expiration of Rossini's agreement

not in the direction of comic but of lyric opera. With this view he employed Scribe and Poiison to develop a vaudeville which they had written in 1816 to the old legend of 'Le Comte Cry,' adapting to that lively piece some of his favourite music in the 'Viaggio a Reims,' the introduction and finale of the first act, the duet of the Count and Countess, and the famous narrative of Raimbaut when he brings up the

I The score of Andremo noi a Parigi is in the Library of the ConservatoiTe, but the finale of the Viaggio,' which we have mentioned as containing national ail's, is not there, and all trace of this curious feat seems to have vanished.

3 The custom in Italy in those days was to sell an oiiera to a manager for two years, with exclusive right of representation ; after that it became public property. The only person who derived no profit from this arrangement was the unfortunate composer.

'

year. 1

'

'

'

—

—

—

;' ;

EOSSINI

158

ROSSINI

wine from the cellar, which it is difScult to helieve was in its first form applied to the taking of the Trooad^ro Adolphe Nourrit, who was not only a great artist, but a poet of very considerable dramatic power, was privately of much assistance to Kossini in the adaptation !

of his old music to the new words, and in the actual mounting of the piece in which he was ' Le to take so important a share. Comte Ory was produced at the Academic, August 20, 1828, and the principal characters were taken by Mme.

Damoreau-Cinti, Miles. Jawurek and Mori, Adolphe Nourrit, Levasseur, and Dabadie. The Introduction is based on the old song which gives its name to the piece. The best thing in the second act is boiTowed from the Allegretto scherzando of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony. Rossini was at that time actually engaged with Habeneck, the founder of the Conoerte of the Conservatoire, and his intimate friend, in studying the Symphonies of Beethoven ; and it is easy to understand how impossible it must have been to forget the fresh and graceful

movement referred to. The study of Beethoven was

'

;

at any rate not a bad preparation for the very serious piece of work which was next to engage him," and for a great portion of which he retired to the chateau of his friend Aguado the banker at Petit-Bourg. Schiller had recently been brought into notice in France by the translation of M. de Barante and Rossini, partly attracted by the grandeur of the subject, partly Inspired by the liberal ideas at that moment floating through Europe, was induced to choose the Liberator of the Swiss Cantons as his next subject. He accepted a libretto offered him by Etienne Jouy, Spontini's old librettist, who in this case was associated Their words, however, with Hippolyte Bis. were so unmusical and unrhythmical, that Rossini had recourse to Armand Marrast, at that time Aguado's secretary, and the whole one scene of the meeting of the conspirators of the best in operatic literature, and the only thoroughly satisfactory part of the book of was rewritten by him, a fact Guillaurae Tell which we are glad to make public in these ;

—

'

'

—

pages.

grand opera, undoubtedly Rossini's was produced at the Academic on August 3, 1829, with the following cast: Walter Fiirst, Levasseur Arnold, Nourrit Ruodi, A. Dupont ; Rodolphe, Tell, Dabadie Leutold, PrevOt Massol Gessler, Provost Jemmy, Dabadie Mathilde, Damoreau-Cinti Hedwige, Mori. 'Teir has now become a study for the musician, from the first bar of the overture to the storm scene and the final hymn of freedom. The overture is no longer, like Rossini's former ones, a piece of work on a familiar, well-worn pattern, but a true instrumental prelude, which would be simply perfect if the opening and the This

masterpiece,

;

;

;

;

;

;

were only as appropriate to the subject as they are tempting to the executant. find no absurdities like those in ' Moise fiery peroration

We

'

no song of thanksgiving accompanied by a brilliant polonaise, no more oabalettas, no more commonplace phrases or worn-out modulations True, in short, no more padding of any kind. it would not be difficult to criticise the length of the duet in the second act, which recalls the duet in 'Semiramide,' and breathes rather the

—

concert-room than the stage or the style of the finale of the third act, which is not appropriate to the situation. The spectacle of a great master at the zenith of his glory and in the very prime of life- thus breaking with all the traditions of his genius and appearing as in a second avatar is Indeed a The sacrifice of all the rare and noble one. means of effect by which his early popularity had been obtained, is one which Rossini shares with Gluck and Weber, but for which our former experience of his character would hardly have prepared us. He seems at length to have discovered how antagonistic such effects were to the simplicity which was really at the base of the great musical revolution effected by him but to discover, and to act on a discovery, are

and he ought to have full and sincerity with which, at his age, he forsook the flowery plains in which his genius had formerly revelled, for loftier and two

different things,

credit for the courage

less accessible heights.

But the

career thus splendidly inaugurated

was not destined to be pursued ; circumstances, political and domestic, stopped him on the threshold. He was anxious to visit once more the city in which his beloved mother died in 1827, and where his father, who had soon tired of Paris, was awaiting him. With this view he resigned his office as inspector of singing in France, and made an arrangement with the Government of Charles X., dating from the beginning of 1829, by which he bound himself for ten years to compose for no other stage but that of France, and to write and bring out an opera every two years, receiving for each such opera the sum of 15,000 francs. In the event of the Government failing to carry out the arrangement he was to receive a retiring pension ' of 6000 francs. Guillaume Tell was thus to be the first of a series of five operas. After a serenade from the opera orchestra, '

Rossini, therefore, left Paris for Bologna. Here he was engaged in considering the subject of Faust,! with a view to his next work, when he received the sudden news of the abdication of Charles X., and the revolution of July 1830. The blow shattered his plans and dissipated his '

fondest hopes. He flattered himself that he had regenerated the art of singing in France. What would beeome of it again under a king who could tolerate no operas but those of Grttry ? Anxious to

know

if his friend

Lubbert was

still

at the

'

' '

ROSSINI

ROSSINI

head of the Aoademie de Musique, and if the new Intendant of the Civil List would acknowledge the engagements of his predecessor, he returned to Paris in Nov. 1830 and intending only to make a short stay, took up his quarters in the upper storey of the Th^sltre des Italiens, of which his friend Severini was then director. Here, however, he was destined to remain till Nov. 1836. The new Government repudiated the agreement of its predecessor, and Rossini had to carry his claim into the law-courts. Had his law-suit alone occupied him, it would not have been necessary to stay quite so long, for it was decided in his favour in Deo. 1835. But there was another reason for his remaining in Paris, and that was his desire to hear The Huguenots and ascertain how far Meyerbeer's star was likely to eclipse his own. It is impossible to believe that a mere money question could have detained him so long at a time when almost every day must have brought fresh annoyances. After reducing 'Guillaume Tell' from ;

'

'

to three, they carried their love of compression so far as to give only one act at a time, as a lever de rideau, or accompaniment to. the ballet. This was indeed adding insult to injury. 'I hope you won't be annoyed,' said the Director of the Opera to him one day on the boulevard, but to-night we play the second " ' The whole of it ? act of " Tell. was the reply. How much bitter disappointment must have been hidden imder that reply During the whole of this unhappy interval he only once resumed his pen, namely in 1832 for the Stabat Mater,' at the request of his friend Aguado, who was anxious to serve the Spanish minister Seadr Valera. He composed at that time only the first six numbers, and the other four were supplied by Tsidolini. The work was dedicated to Valera, with an express stipulation that it should never leave his hands. Inl834he allowed Troupensis to publish the Soirees musicales,' twelve lovely vocal pieces of very original form and harmony, several of which have still retained their charm. five acts

'

'

'

1

'

'

The rehearsals of The Huguenots lingered and it was not till Feb. 29, 1836, that Rossini could hear the work of his new rival. '

'

on,

He returned to Bologna shortly after, taking Frankfort in his way, and meeting Mendelssohn. He had not been long in Bologna before he heard of the prodigious success of Duprez in the revival of ' Guillaume Tell ' (April 17). Such a ti'iumph might well have nerved him to fresh exertions. But it came a year too late he had already taken an unfortunate and irrevocable resolution It would be very never again to break silence. wrong to conclude from this that he had lost The care which he behis interest in music. stowed on the Liceo of Bologna, of which he was honorary director, shows that the art still He was especiexercised all its claims on him. ally anxious to improve the singing of the pupils, ;

i

Bee HlUer'Q MendelsKhn, and M.'s

own letter, July

14, 1S3Q.

159

and among those who

are indebted to his care. Marietta Alboni held the first rank. Rossini's father died April 29, 1839, and he soon afterwards, learned to his disgust that the MS. of the ' Stabat had been sold by the heirs of Senor Valera, and acquired by a Paris publisher for 2000 francs. He at once gave Troupenas full power to stop both publication and performance, and at the same time completed the work by composing the last four movements, which, as we have already said, were originally added by Tadolini. The first '

movements were produced

six

at the Salle Herz,

Paris, Oct. 31, 1841,

amidst very great applause. Troupenas 2 bought the entire score for 6000 francs. He sold the right of performance in Paris during three months to the Escudiers for 8000, which they again disposed of to the director of the Theatre Italien for 20,000. Thus three persons were enriched by this single work. It was performed complete for the first time at the Salle Ventadour, Jan. 7, 1842, by Grisi, Albertazzi, Mario, and Tamburini. Notwithstanding its brilliant success, some critics were found to accuse the composer of importing the strains of the theatre into the church ; but it must not be forgotten that religion in the South is a very different thing from what it is in the North. Mysticism could have no place in the mind of such a man as Rossini, who would naturally utter his prayers aloud, in the sunshine of noon, rather than breathe them to himself in the gloom and mystery of night. The prayer and the scene of the darkness in

'

Moise,' as well as the

first

movement and the unaccompanied quartet

in

the 'Stabat,' will always hold their place as religious music ; and are of themselves sufiicient to show that Hossini, sceptic as he was, was not without religious feeling. But at the very moment that the ' Stabat was making its triumphant progress round the world, Rossini began to suffer tortures from the stone, which increased to such an extent as to force him, in May 1843, to Paris, where he underwent an operation which proved perfectly satisfactory. We next find him writing a chorus to words byMarchetti for the anniversary festival of Tasso at Turin, on March 13, 1844. On'the 2nd of the following September ' Othello was produced in French at the Academic with Duprez, Barroilhet, Levasseur, and Mme. Stoltz. Rossini, however, had uothing to do with this adaptation, and the divertissement was ananged entirely by Benoist from airs in MathUde de Sabran' and 'Armida.' While 'Othello' was thus on the boards of the opera, Troupenas brought out La Foi, I'Esperance et la Charity (Faith, Hope, and Charity), three choruses for women's voices, the first two composed many years previously for an opera on the subject of '

'

'

2

We have

Corinthe.'

the

'

mentioned that he paid 6000 franca for the • Si^ge de For Mo!ae he gave only 2400 hut, on the other hand, coat him 1^000, and 'Guillaume TeU' 24,000.

Comte Ory

'

'

'

;

'

ROSSINI

leo

ROSSINI

These choruses are hardly worthy of justify Berlioz's sarcasm his Hope has deoeive for orcheatra,

in

movemeuta.

Without opua numliera appeared the following Symphonic poem, 'BusaiJ,' Moscow, 1882.

;

I^ntaaia eroica for orcheatra. Ouverture aoienneUe, for orchestra, with organ and chorua Tliree l>arcarolles (A minor, &, and C minor). Pianoforte pieces Valse caprice,' E flat, and Ungarische Fhantasie,' Bussische Serenade,' Phantaaie.' 3 Morceaux caract^rlatiques,' 6 preludes, cadenzas to Beethoven's pianoforte concertoa, and to Mozart'a concerto in D minor, arrangement of the march in Beethoveu'a Buina of Athena,' (posth.),

:

—

'

'

'

Rubinstein's appearance was remarkable. His 'head was of a very Russian type, without beard or moustache, but with a thick shock of dark-

We

hair.

hsbve said that Rubinstein's first visit to

He was then (jnlyjust in 1842. Mendelssohn and Thalberg were both here, and the Philharmonic was thus naturally Mention of him is to be already occupied. found in Moscheles's Diary for 1842 (Leben, ii. 90), where he is spoken of by that genial master as 'a rival to Thalberg ... a Russian boy whose fingers are as light as feathers, and yet In the Musical and as strong as a man's.' Dramatic Review of May 28, 1842, he is men-

'

;

'

'

brown

Rubinstein made sundry attempts as a writer 'The 'Autobiography' on musical subjects. ^oken of above appeared in German to celebrate his artistic jubilee in 1889, and was translated (See into English by Aline Delano in 1890. 'Die Kunst Mudcal Times, 1891, p. 105.) und ihre Meister' appeared in 1892, as well as Erinnerungen aus 5 Jahren. (German transl A posthumous supplement to 'Die in 1895.) Kunst,' etc., called 'Gedankeukorb,' was pubAmong various lished posthumously in 1897. biogi-aphies of Rubinstein may be mentioned those of "W. Baskin (1886), N. Lissowski (1889), A. MacArthur (1889), and Sandra Droucker (1904). Nicholas, his younger brother, bom at Moscow, June 2, 1835, was also a fine pianist and no mean composer, though overshadowed by the fame of his great brother. He studied under KuUak and Dehn in Berlin during 1844-46. In 1859 he founded at Moscow the Russian Musical Society, which gives twenty and in 1864 the Conservaconcerts each year toriiim, and was head of both till his death.. In 1861 he visited England, and played twice at In 1878 he the Musical Union (June 4, 18). gave four orchestral concerts of Russian music in the Trocadero at Paris with great success. He died of consumption in Paris, Mar. 23, 1881, on his way to Nice for his health, widely His latest published and deeply lamented.

.

—

Sctee du Bal, Polonaise.'

London was

work

twelve.

His best-known piipils are Taneiev, Siloti, and The Musical Society gives annual Sauer. concerts in his memory, on the anniversaries of his birth and death. RUBINSTEIN, Joseph— no relation to the foregoing was born at Staro Konstantinov, in Russia, Feb. 8, 1847, and acquired some fame as a pianist and composer of drawing-room music. He also obtained an unenviable notoriety through certain newspaper articles in the Sayreuther Blatter signed with his name, and attacking Schumann and Brahms in a most offensive and vindictive manner. He made some good pianoforte transcriptions of the works of Wagner, of whom he was an ardent if not very judicious propagandist. He committed

He

did not return to this country till at the Philharmonic on May 18, playing his own Concerto in G. He came back in the following year, played again at the Philharmonic on June 7, and at the Musical Union, May 11. In 1869 he came a fourth time, and played at the Musical Union In 1876 he made his only (May 18, June 1). fifth visit, played at the Philharmonic, May 1, and gave four Recitals in St. James's Hall. In 1877 he again gave recitals, and conducted his ' Ocean Symphony (six movements) at the he conducted his Crystal Palace, April 21 ' Dramatic symphony, and played Beethoven's Concerto in G, at the Crystal Palace on June 4, In 1881 he gave another series of Recitals at The Demon was St. James's Hall, his opera toought out in Italian at Covent Garden on June 21, and his Tower of Babel,' with other In musiOj at the Crystal Palace on June 11. May and June 1887, he gave a final set of seven historical recitals in St, James's Hall, tioned. 185,7,

when he appeared

'

;

'

'

'

'

is

op.

17

'

—

suicide at Lucerne, Sept. 15, 1884.

RUCKERS,

F. o.

harpsichord makers of Antwerp, who were working as masters between 1579 and 1667 or later, the first of whom, Hans Ruckers, is always credited with great improvements In keyboard instruments. It is certain that the tone of the Ruckers harpsichords has never been surpassed for purity and beauty of tone-colour, and from this quality they remained in use in England, as well as in France and the Netherlands, until harpsichords and spinets were superseded, at the end of the 18th century, by the pianoforte. The art of harpsichord making, as exemplified in London by Kirkman and Shudi, was directly derived from Antwerp and the

—

:'

'

RUCKERS

RUCKERS

Ruckers. Time seemed to have no effect with the Ruckers instruments. They were decorated with costly paintings in this country and France, when a hundred years old and more, New keys and new jacks replaced the old ones ; so long as the sound -board stood lasted the silvery sweet tone. It has done so in some instances until now, but modern conditions of life seem to be inimical to the old wood ; it will be difficult, if not impossible, to preserve any of these old instruments much longer. As a work of piety we have catalogued all that we have seen or can hear of, appending the list to this notice. In John Broadwood's books, 1772-73, are several entries concerning the hiring of Ruker, Rooker, and Rouker harpsichords to his customers ; to the Duchess of Richmond, Lady Pembroke, Lady Catherine Murray, etc. etc. In 1 790 Lord Camden bought a, 'double Ruker in 1792 Mr. Williams bought another, the price charged for each being twenty-five guineas. These entries corroborate the statement of James Broadwood(it when the bass clef is employed the notes are written as sounded. The harmonic scale obtained from the unaltered length of the instrument is supplemented when three valves are used singly and in combination, by six other similar scales, and by this means a complete chromatic scale can be produced. It will be observed, on comparing the notes on the first and last groups of the scheme, that there is a gap between the open pedal C (No. 1) and the G^ above it, produced by the combined use of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd valves, but this is of no practical consequence on the alto, tenor, and baritone instruments, as the quality of the With the basses extreme low notes is poor. (euphoniums and tubas), however, the case is .

'

—

—

SAXHORN

SAXHOEN

233

Scheme of Fingering for the Saxhorn Valvb Notes. OPBK Notes.

VAZ.VE yoiES

Sod and 3rd

Ist,

different, as the notes of the pedal octave are required, and to obtain them, a fourth valve,

altering the pitch two

employed.

amtinued.

Talves.

and half

tones, is usually

(For explanation of certain inac-

The saxhorns

chiefly

2nd, and 3Td ralTea.

used are the follow-

ing:— El>

Soprano

Fliigel

Horn.

Bb Alto Fliigel Horn. Eb Tenor or Althorn. Bl> Baritone or 6|>

Eb

Althom.

Bass or Euphonium. Bass Tuba or Bombardon.

B|> Ck>ntrabass.

but the instruments are sometimes pitched in F instead of Et> and in C instead of B|> when

As stated required for use in the orchestra. above, the second note in the harmonic series is written as middle C when the treble clef is used, the actual pitch of the note for each of the instruments named being as here shown : As sounded.

however, the note written as as the low C of the instrument, the octave below is the 'pedal C,' and the octave above, or No. 4 in the harmonic

In every middle C

curacies due to the use of valves in combination see

Valvb.)

The range is

fully

five

of compass of the Saxhorn family octaves, the upper limit being

approximately that of the soprano voice, and the lower descending an octave lower than the bass voice. Sir Edward Elgar in his Cockaigne Overture has a descending passage for the tuba Although the basses can take going to D,l>. three octaves without difficulty, the average east/ compass of the other instruments is about two octaves or a little less. '

is

known

'

C

'

known as middle Top C or No. 8 iu the harmonic series is rarely passed.] There can be no doubt that the inventor of the Saxhorn added greatly to the compass, richness, and flexibility of the military brass and reed bands. But it is a question whether series, is

The Bb Baritone Saxhorn or Althom.

case,

'

'

'

the tone of these powerful auxiliaries blends so well with the stringed instruments as that of the trumpet, French horn, and trombone and

—

hence their comparative neglect. [It is to open-air music that we must look to understand the change that has been brought about by the introduction of the saxhorns. Granting that with the exception of the bass

'

SCALA, LA

saxophon:^

234

tubas, nothing distinctive has been added to the orchestra by them, it yet remains that

popular

music

has been

revolutionised,

for

military bands have been reorganised, and the brass bands which are so largely instrumental in introducing good music 'to the masses, have

become

possible.]

w. H.

square brackets, by D.

s.

;

with additions in

j. B.

SAXOPHONE. [An instrument invented by Adolphe Sax about 1840, introduced officially into the French army bauds, July 31,

The saxophone, though

inferior in compass,

quality, and power of articulation to the clarinet, and basset-horn, and especially to the bassoon, It has great value in military combinations.

reproduces on a magnified scale something of the violoncello quality, and gives great sustaining power to the full chorus of brass instruments, by introducing a mass of harmonic overtones wanting in Sax's other contrivance. [The tone of the soprano saxophone is somewhat strident, but the general quality of all combines the vocal and the string characteristics, and undoubtedly bridges over the gap between the older estahlished reed instruments and the brass.' In the orchestra the saxophone has not as yet been much employed. It was first introduced, in 1844, by M. Kastner in 'Le dernier Koi de Juda, and subsequently by Meyerbeer, Ambroise Thomas, and others. Among recent examples Thorif its use may be mentioned Cowen's 'Domestic Symphony,' Strauss's grim,' and a quartet for saxophonesinj'Les Hornby Mr. Joseph Holbrooke.] '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

1845, and registered by Sax, June 22, 1846.] It consists essentially of a conical brass tube furnished with about twenty lateral orifices covered by keys, and with six studs or finger-plates for the first three fingers of either hand, and is played by means of a mouthpiece and single reed of the clarinet kind. [In addition to lateral holes giving the scale, two small holes opened by keys, and knoivn as pipes or speakers, are also provided, and are used for the production of the octaves. The saxophones generally in use are the soprano in 6i>, the alto in et>, the tenor in Bl?, the baritone in El>, and the bass in B^b;. A sopranino in e'l> is sometimes made, and c and / are occasionally used for the pitch notes instead of bit and ei> respectively.] Those most used are the alto and tenor varieties. In French military bands, however, five or more are in use having to a gi'eat degi'ee superseded the more difficult but more flexible clarinet, and having quite replaced the bassoon. [The compass of the saxophone as generally recognised is from b to/'", but all the members of the family are frequently made with an extension of the bell for b\^, which note is obtained by the closing of an extra open-standing key. The two highest keys, giving e'" and /'", are, however, seldom fitted to any but the alto and The key -system for the tenor instruments. right hand is similar to that of the Boehm flute, but for the left hand approaches more nearly to The fundamental that of the ordinary oboe. sounds from bb or ifl to c'j are obtained by the successive opening of the lateral holes, and by means of the two octave or pipe keys the compass is carried up from d' to c"'8. The four highest notes, d'", e"'b, e'", and /'", are produced by four keys on the upper part of the instrument, used exclusively for these notes. '

;

'

Since its introduction, many improved or alternative fingerings have been designed for and adopted on the saxophone, but a description of these

would unduly extend

w. H.

s.

;

additions by D.

J. B.

'

'

'

'

this article.]

SCALA, LA. The

proprietors

'mm

the Ducal Theatre of Milan, which was burnt in 177 6, obtained, by a decree of The Bb Alto Saxophone. July 15, 1776, from the Empress MariaTheresa of Austria, leave to build a new opera-house on the site of the church of S. Maria della Soala. The celebrated architect, Piermarini of Foligno, made the designs, and it was inaugurated August 3, 1778. The building was not only the grandest theatre then existing in Europe, but the most artistically beautiful and complete. Levati and Reina painted the ceiling, the boxes, and the great hall, or ridotto and the curtain, representing Parnassus, was the work of Riccardi. The cost of the whole amounted to one million lire (£40,000), an enormous sum for that time. Until 1857 the principal entrance of La Scala was from a by -street, but since that date it opens on to a large and beautiful piazza. The interior of the house is in the horseshoe form, with five tiers of boxes and a gallery above them, all in white, relieved by gilded of

;

—

;

SCALCHI

SCALE

The lowest three tiers have each thirty -six boxes, and a royal box above the entrance to the stalls. The fom-th and fifth tiers have each thirty-nine boxes, and there are four on each side of the proscenium, making a total of 194 boxes, besides the large royal box

Un Caprajo ( Dinorah '), She sang there every year till 1890 inclusive. Her voice was of fine quality in compass, two octaves and a half from low F to B in alt, enabling her to take both the mezzosoprano and contralto parts in a great munber of operas. In Sept. 1875 she married Signer LoUi, a gentleman of Ferrara. Among her repertoire may be named Leonora ('Favorita '), which she played July 19, 1871, at Mario's farewell appearance Estelle in Campana's Esmeralda,' June 14, 1870 Leonora in Cimarosa's 'Le Astuzie femminili,' July 15, 1871 Meala in Masse's 'Paul et Virginie,' June 1, 1878 Mrs. Page, July 14, 1877, and Fides, June 24, 1878, on the respective revivals of

ornaments.

and the room at

gallery, its

back

each box having a private for the convenience of its

occupants. The length of the whole building is 330 ft., and its width 122 ft. The height from the floor to the ceiling Is 65 ft. The stage, with the proscenium, is 145 ft. long and 54 wide between the columns of the proscenium, but is 98 ft. wide farther behind. The ridotto, a large hall for promenading between the acts, is 82 ft. long and 30 ft. wide. The total capapity of the house is 3600. This immense institution permanently employs 922 persons on its staff, distributed in the following way Artist-singers, 20 ; orchestra, 100 ; band, 28 ; :

choristers,

110

'com parse,' 120;

;

dressmakers and

tailors,

140;

ballet,

150; doctors, 6

;

ser-

vants, 36, etc.

The gentlemen who provided the funds for the building of La Scala enjoy the use of its boxes at a nominal rental whenever the theatre In all is open, each box having its owner. other respects the theatre has been the property of the town of Milan since 1872. The mimicipality gi-ants to its lessee an annual sum of £9800, and the owners of the boxes pay £2920 and thus La Scala enjoys an endowment of £12,720 a year. The theatre is controlled by a Commission elected by the Common Council of Milan and the owners of its boxes. Annexed to the theatre is a celebrated dancing school, with sixty pupils, where the most famous ballet-dancers have been trained, and a singing school for about fifty choristers. Two charitable institutions / Filarmonici, founded by Marchesi in 1783, and the Teairale, by Modrone" ;

—

—

1829 are also dependent for their income upon the greatest theati-e of Italy. in

The latest restoration of the theatre took place Its archives have been most carefully preserved. Further information may be obtained from the Teatro cdla Scala 1778-186S, by Luigi Eomani (Milan, 1862) the Eeali Teairi

in 1878.

;

dl Milano, by Cambiasi (Eicordi, Milan, 1881); and La Scala de Milan, by Henri de Curzon (ie Guide Musical, 1906, pp. 538-40). L. R. SCALCHI, Sofia, was bom Nov. 29, 1850, at Turin ; received instruction in singing from Augusta Boceabadati, and made her d^but at Mantua in 1866 as Ulrica in 'Un Ballo in Maschera.' She afterwards sang at Verona, Bologna, Faenza, Nice, etc., and in England for the first time Sept. 16, 1868, at the Promenade Concerts, Agricultural Hall, with very gi'eat success. At the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden, she first appeared Nov. 6, of the same year, as Azucena, and after that as Pier-

235

rotto (' Linda '), Urbano,

'

etc.

;

'

;

;

;

Nicolai's 'LustigeWeiber,'

and of 'LeProphfete'

Amneris, Mafieo Orsini, Siebel, etc. One of her most successful impersonations was Wania in Glinka's Vie pour le Czar. She has had frequent engagements in Italy, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vienna, North and South America, etc. a. c. SCALE (from the Latin Scala, a staircase or ladder Fr. Gammc; Ger. Tonleiter, i.e. soundladder Ital. Scala), a term denoting the series of sounds used in musical compositions. The number of musical sounds producible, all also

Arsace,

'

'

;

;

differing in pitch, is theoretically infinite, is

practically very large

octave a sensitive ear

and

so that in a single

;

may

distinguish 60 to to take a number of these at random, or if we were to slide by a continuous transition from one soimd to another considerably distant from it, we

100 different notes.

should not to do this

But

if

we were

make what we call music. In order we must use only a certain small

number of sounds, forming a determinate series, and differing from each other by well-defined steps or degi'ees. Such a series or succession of sounds

is called a scale, from its analogy with the steps of a ladder. It is unnecessary here to enter into the sesthetical reason for this ' it must suffice to state that all nations, at all times, who have made music, have agreed in adopting such a selection, although they have not always selected the same series of sounds. As a first step towards the selection all musical peoples appear to have appreciated the intimate natural relation between sounds which lie at that distance apart called an octave ; and hence replicates 6f notes in octaves are found to form parts of all musical scales. The differences lie in the intermediate steps, or the various ways in which the main interval of the octave has been substituted. For modern European music, in ascending from any note to its octave above, we employ, normally, a series of seven steps of unequal height, called the diatonic scale, with the power of interposing, accidentally, certain intermediate ;

I More complete Infoi-mation on the subject generaUy Jnar be found in Helniholtz's Tonempfindvmgen, or in The PhUosophy of

Music, by

W.

Pole (London, isr9).

.

—

— SCALE

SCALE

236

chromatic steps in addition.

The

diatonic scale

Greek origin, having been introduced about the middle of the 6th century B.C. The main divisions of the octave were at the intervals called the fifth and the fourth, and the subdivisions were formed by means of two smaller divisions called a tone and a heinitone respectively. The tone was equal to the distance between the fourth and the fifth, and the hemitone was equal to a fourth minios two tones. The octave was made up of five tones and two hemitones, and the entire Greek diatonic scale of two

is of

'

—

'

as settled by Pythagoras, may be accurately represented in modern notation as follows octaves,

common use. And we may substitute for the Greek word hemitone the modem term semitone,' which means the same thing. '

Inttrvals of the Diatonic Scale/or the

Major Mode.

Intervals of the Diatonic Scale for the

Minor Mode.

^i

Ker '

Key. note. 9

:

The Greek Diatonic

'

'

note.

I

i

Scale.

Although these

differ materially

from each

other, it will be seen that the original Greek diatonic form of the series is in each perfectly

preserved.

minor -

-

„

s

_

S S S S S S S S S i s s

under particular circum-

but these are of a chromatic nature

essence of the diatonic scale was that consisted of tones, in groups of two and

three alternately, each group being separated by a hemitone from the adjoining one ; and, combining consecutive inter;^ls, any two tones with a hemitone would form s, fourth, any three tones with a hemitone would form a, fifth, and any complete cycle of five tones with two hemitones, would form a perfect octave. Now it is obvious that in this series of notes, proved to be in use above two thousand years ago, we have essentially our diatonic scale ; the series corresponding in fact with the natural or white keys of our modern organ or pianoforte. And as this series formed the basis of the melodies of the Greeks, so it forms the basis of the tunes of the present day. Although, however, the general aspect of the diatonic series of musical sounds remains unaltered, it has been considerably affected in its mode of application by two modern elements namely. Tonality and Harmony. First, a glance at the Greek scale will show that there are seven different diatonic ways in which an octave may be divided thus, from A to the A above will exhibit one way, from B to B another, from to C a third, and so on keeping to the white keys alone in each case ; and all these various ' forms of the octave ' as they werS called, were understood and used in the Greek music, and formed different ' modes. one In modern times we adopt only two corresponding with C to C, which we call the Major mode, the other corresponding with A And in to A, which we call the Minor mode. each case we attach great importance to the notes forming the extremities of the octave series, either of which we call the Tonic or We have, therefore, in modern music, Keynote. the two following ' forms of the octave in

—

.

must be explained that the

stances, certain accidental variations [see belOw],

„

Thus the it

It

scale is given,

;

—

;

the normal

The as here shown. choice of particular forms of the octave, and the more prominent character given to their limiting notes, constitute the important feature minor diatonic form

is

of

modern music

it

to be a little flatter.

called Tonality. Secondly, a certain influence has been exercised on the diatonic scale by modem Harmony. When it became the practice to sound several notes of the scale simultaneously, it was found that some of the intervals of the Greek series did not adapt themselves well to the combination. This was particularly the case with the interval of the major third, C to E : according to the Greek system this consisted of two tones, but the perfect harmonious relation required effected in a very simple

The correction was manner by making a

slight variation in the value of one of the tones, which necessitated also a slight alteration in

Other small errors the value of the semitone. have been corrected in a similar way, so as to make the whole conform to the priuciple, that every note of the scale must have, as far as possible, concordani harmonious relations to other notes; and in determining these, the relations to the tonic or keynote are the more important. The diatonic series, as thus corrected, is as follows

:

Major Diatonic Scale as corrected for Modern Harmony.

—

'

Ilia The

several intervals, reckoned

upwards from

the lower keynote, are C to D, Major tone, ,,

E, Major third,

,,

F,

Perfect Foiu^th,

——

— SCALE C

SCALE

each equal to a twelfth part of an octave ; two of these are taken for the tone of the diatonic scale, being a very little less in value than the original major tone of the

to G, Perfect Fifth, ,

,

tones,

A, Major sixth,

,,

B, Major seventh,

,,

C,

Octave.

In has been stated, however, that for modem European music we have the power of adding, to the seven sounds of the diatonic scale, certain

other

intermediate

chromatic

notes.

Thus between C and D we may add two notes called Cjt and D|>. Between G and A we may add Gjt and Al>, and so on. In order to determine what the exact pitch of these notes should be, it is necessary to consider that they may be used for two quite distinct purposes, i.e. either to embellish melody without change of key, or to introduce new diatonic scales by modulation. In the former case the pitch of the chromatic notes is indeterminate, and

depends on the taste of the performer

237

but for obvious that the new note correct hannonic position ;

the second use it is must be given its according to the scale it belongs to in fact it loses its chromatic character, and becomes strictly diatonic. For example, if an Fi[ be introduced, determining the new diatonic scale of G, it must be a true major third above D, in the same way that in the scale of C, B is a major third above G. In this manner any other chromatic notes may be located, always adhering to the same general principle that they must bear concordant harmonic relations to other notes in the diatonic scale of which they form part. Proceeding in this way we should obtain a number of chromatic notes forming a considerable addition to the diatonic scale. For example, in order to provide for eleven keys, all in common use, we should get ten chromatic notes in addition to the seven diatonic ones, making seventeen in all, within the compass of a single octave. This multiplication of notes would produce such a troublesome complication in practical music, that in order to get rid of it there has been adopted an ingenious process of compromising, which simplifies enormously the construction of the scale, particularly in its chromatic parts. In the first place it is found that the distance between the diatonic notes E and F, and between B and C is nearly half that between C and D, or G and A and secondly, it is known that the adjacent chromatic notes Cit and Dl>, Gj[ and A[>, etc., are not very different from each other. Putting all these things together, it follows that if the octave be divided into twelve egual parts, a set of notes will be produced not much differing in pitch from the true ones, and with the property of being applicable to all keys alike. Hence has arisen the modem chromatic scale, according to what is called equal temperament, and as represented on the key -board of the ordinary pianoforte. According to this, the musical scale consists of twelve semi:

;

Greek divisions. This duodecimal division of the octave was known to the Greeks, but its modern revival, which dates about the 16th century, has been one of the happiest and most ingenious simplifications ever

known

in the history of music,

and has had the effect of advancing the art to an incalculable extent. Its defect is that certain harmonic combinations produced by its notes are slightly imperfect, and lose the satisfactory effect produced by harmonies perfectly in tune. The nature and extent of this defect, and the means adopted to remedy it, will be more properly explained under the article Tempekament, which see. Minor Scale. It is a peculiarity of the minor scale adopted in modern music, that its form is frequently varied by accidental chromatic alterations, to satisfy what are assumed to be the requirements of the ear and as these alterations most commonly take place in ascend-

—

;

ing passages,

it is usual,

in elementary works,

to give different forms of the

minor

scale, for

ascending and descending. For example, the normal form of the scale of

A

minor

and

is

in descending, as here shown, the progres-

seem natural and proper. But if the motion take place

sions

direction, thus

m the

reverse

:

'

No.

1.

that the succession of the upper notes in approaching the key note A, do not give the idea which ought to correspond to our modern It is argued that the penultimate tonality. note, or seventh, being the leading or sensible note of the key, ought to be only a semitone distant from it, as is customary in all welldefined keys ; and that, in fact, unless this is done, the tonality is not properly determined. This reason has led to the accidental sharpening of the seventh in ascending, thus : it is said

No.

2.

But here there is another thing objected to ; namely, the wide interval of three semitones (an augmented second) between the sixth and the seventh, Fl) and Git, which it is said is abrupt and unnatural, and this has led to the sharpening of the sixth also, thus

—

;

SCANDELLO

238

SCANDELLO

^^

$ make

schichte, iv. 1866).

progression more smooth and This is the succession of notes usually regular. given as the ascending minor scale, which with the descending scale without accidentals is usually called the melodic form of the minor to

the

scale.

—

no doubt an ascending passage, thus

•would give rather the impression of the key of C or of F than that of A. But the necessity for sharpening the sixth is by no means so obvious ; it may no doubt be smoother, but the interval of the augmented second is one so familiar in modern music, as to form no imperative reason for the change. Hence the form marked No. 2 is very commonly used, both for ascending and descending. It harm/mie form of the minor is called the scale. w. p.

SCANDELLO, SCANDELLIUS,

or SCANBrescia in already resident in

DELLI, Antonio, was born

at

In 1553 he was 1517. Dresden and a member of the Hofcapelle, but he often returned to visit his native place in 1567, on account of the plague, he and his family left Dresden and spent four months In 1555 six Italians are mentioned there. as being members of the Dresden Hofcapelle :

'welsche

Instrumentisten

der Musica,' among them Anthonius Scaudellus, his brother Angelus Scandellus, and Benedict Tola, the painter, whose daughter Agnes became Scandello's second wife in June 1568 (Monatshefte, The Italians, receiving higher 1877, p. 255). pay than the Germans, were even then arousing feelings of jealousy, which later, as their in

numbers increased, and German music was pushed more and more into the background, resulted in open quarrels and opposition. Their influence was to prove powerful enough to oust a German capellmeister from his post, although as

is pathetically stated of Mathias the organist in question, he had learnt Italian ' mit Fleiss,' and was at first on a friendly footing with the foreign musicians

Weckmann,

(Fiirstenau,

Znr

Geschichte,

i.

26).

In 1555

Scandello, with 250 fl. 16 grs. 9 pf. a year, was receiving a larger salary than the capellmeister, Matthias Le Maistre, who had only 204 fi. 7 grs. 9 pf. It is also curious to note that the Italian players were paid on a higher scale than singers from the Netherlands, the highest salary to the latter only amounting to

120

fl.

(Fiirstenau,

zinke or cornetto player, besides being already a composer of some repute. In 1566 Scandello became assistant capellmeister to the ageing Le Maistre, and on his retirement was appointed capellmeister, Feb. 12, 1568,

Archiv

fiir die sacks.

Ge-

when

his salary altogether

amounted

a year, a large sum for those days. A letter addressed to the capellmeister on Jan. 1 3, 1579, gives leave to his brother Angelo to go to Venice for three months, to collect some debts. He retained his post until his death in Dresden on Jan. 18, 1680, at the age One of his sons, August, was of sixty-three. also a member of the Dresden Hofcapelle. Three motets for six voices, dated 1551, in a manuscript in the Dresden Library, are probNext ably Soandello's earliest compositions. comes the mass for six voices, in commemoration of the death of the Elector Moritz of Saxony, July 9, 1553, at the battle of Sievershausen. In the Inventarium of the capelle music drawn up by the Dresden capellmeister, Johann Walther, Oct. 16, 1554, for the use of his successor, Matthias Le Maistre, this mass is mentioned as being in six little printed partbooks VI kleine gedruckt Partes in pergament,' darinnen das Epitaphiura Electoris Mauricii AntoniiScandeUi'(W. Schafer, Sachsen-Ohronik, At the present time only a 1853, p. 320). manuscript copy of it is known, made in Torgau, in 1562, by one Moritz Bauerbaoh of Pima, tenorist in the Dresden capelle very possibly it was owing to the suggestion of Johann Walther, then living in retirement at Torgau, that Bauerbach wrote it. The manuscript was formerly in the Pima Stadt-Bibliothek, but is now in the Dresden Royal Library. A large part of the mass was scored by Otto Kade and published in Ambros's Geschichte der Mtisik, 1889, vol. V. Especial mention must be made of the Passionmusic and the story of the Resurrection, which were in all probability composed before 1561 (see 0. Kade, Die dltere Passionskomposition, 1893, p. 191, a reprint of the Passion-music, pp. Scandello some years later refers to 306-44). them in a documen.t dated July 15, 1573, they were therefore in existence some fifty years before Heinrich Sohiitz's great works were published, his Auferstehung in 1623, and his 'Passionen naeh Johannis* not until 1664. A manuscript copy of Scandello's work, dated 1593, formerly at Grimma, now in the Dresden Royal' Library, is entitled, ' Passio et Resurrectio Domini nostri Jesu Christi ab Antonio Scandello compositae,' the scribe was Johann Gengenbach of Colditz. It only gives the tenor part of the choruses the music is otherwise complete. The manuscript of the tenor part-book now in the same library, but formerly to

The first alteration namely, the sharpening of the leading note is no doubt required if the perfect modern tonality is to be preserved, for

—

It is true that the player

was expected to showi fecility on a large variety of instruments ; Scandello himself was a noted

400

fl.

'

:

'

'

;

'

'

;

—

;

SCANDELLO

SCANDELLO at Lbbau, contains the

Johannispassion and the Auferstehungsgeschichte/ without mention of the composer's name. Another Lobau manuscript contains a complete copy of the Auferstehung this part of the composition was the first to appear in print. It was published by Samuel Besler at Breslau, 1612, with the title, 'Gaudii paschalis Jesu Christi redivivi in Gloriosissimae Resurrectionis ejus lactam celebrationem. Relatio historia k quatuor Evangelistis consignata, etc., durch Samuelem Beslerum, etc' Besler alludes in the preface to the composer, Antonlus Scandellus, *der berhiimbte musicus.' It was again published in an adapted form by 0. S. Harnisch in 1621. In the same year Besler published the Passion-music Ant. '

*

'

'

'

;

;

'

Scandelli . . . Passio, Das Leyden unsers Herm Jesu Christi nach dem H. Evangelisten Johanne. Durch S. B. mifc der Chorstimme vermehrt,' Breslau, 1621. It is from this edition that the chorus parts, missing in the manuscripts, have been filled in. The Passion opens with the words in four-part writing, * Das Leyden unsei-s Herrn Jesu Christi wie das der heilige Evangelist Johannes beschreibet. ' Throughout, each individual character is represented by a duo, trio, or quartet, with the exception of the Evangelist, who isgiventhetraditionalrecitative. The words of Christ are invariably set as a solo quartet, those of Peter as a trio, and so on. The concluding chorus and the short, quick outcries of the people are all in five-part writing possibly the opening chorus should be the same. There is no accompaniment. Schiitz also followed this method of dividing the voices, with the addition of a four-part string accompaniment to the recitative, but here all similarity between the two works ceases, for whereas Schiitz's

music shows an emotional impulse which eventually affected profoundly the devotional rendering of church music, Scandello's retains the clear, fresh simplicity of the olden time with an added wealth of sound which marks a great distinction between it and Joh. Walther's Passion-music ; it should be studied as a link in the chain of historical development of the Passion-music. An interesting comparison of the Schiitz and Scandello works will be found in MoTuUshefte fiir Micsikgeschichtef 1882, p. 37, where also the identity of the anonymous ' Auferstehung published by Vopelius in the iVeM Leipziger Qesangbuck^ 1682, pp. 311-65 (reprinted by Riegel and Schoberlein, Kirchliehe Ckorgesdnge, 1868, ii. pp. 619-47) with that Scandello was of Scandello's is pointed out. the first composer to set the story of the Resurrection to music, and he followed very closely the lines laid down in his Passion-music. As to his other compositions, it may be noted that although his Italian madrigals, published 1566 and 1577, are purely vocal works with no accompaniment, the German Lieder, both sacred and secular, published 1568, 1570, and '

''

239

1575, maybe sung to an instrumental accompaniment. Examples are given in Ambroses Ge*^ schichte d&r Musik. v., Bonzorno, madonna,' for four voices Der Wein der schmeckt mir for six voices ; and Nu komra der Heiden Heiland for five voices. List of published works '

*

;

*

'

:

Missa sex vacum saper ^pitaphiam Hauricli Duels et Electoris Saxoniae ab Anthonio Scandello. Italo, compoaita. 1553. Waltber (1732) states that it was published at Nuremberg, by Georg Pabriciua, in 1558.

El primo libro de le canzoni napoletane a IIII voci, coinpOBti per Me&ser Antonio Scandello musico del illus. et eccel. aig. Duca. AuguBto Blettor di Sassonia. Novamente datti iu luce. Noribergae excudebant Ulricus Neuberus et Th. Gerlatzen, 1566, obi. 4tn. Four part-books. The dedication to the Elector August is dated from Augsburg. Contains twenty-four canzoni. Later editions were iesued at Nuremberg in 1572 and 1583. Melodia Epithalami in honorem . . . Martini Henrici et filiae Barbarae viri Joh. ScbUdbergU . Witebergae, 1668. . sex vocum. Epithalamla, inhonorem . Nlcolai Leopardi, sympboniacorum pnerorum illustrlssimi ac serenis. principia Oeorgii Friderici, marcbionia Brandeburgensla . . . praeceptoris, et pudicirtsiiuae Tirginisacaponsae^unlgundae . . compositaperAnt. Scaudellum, Matthaeum Le Maistre, etc. Norlbergae apud Th. Gerlatzenum, 1568. Text Beati omnes qui timent ; in two movements, for bIx .

.

.

.

;

voices.

Newe Teutsche Lledlein mit vier und fUnff Btimmen, welcbe gantz lieblic-h zu slngen, und auff allerley Inatrumeuten sugebrauchen, Durch Authonium Scandellum, Churf llrstUcher G. zu Sacbsen Cappelmeister verfertlgt. Oedruckt zu NUmberg, durch Dietrich Cterlatz, inn Johann von Bergs seligen Druckerey, 1568, obi. 4to. Four part-books, containing twelve sacred sougs. Includes the well-known chorale • Lobet den Herm,* which took a permanent place in churcb-aong, and was reprinted in Joachim Magdeburg's 'Christlicheu.trostlicheTlscbgesange,' Erfurt, 1571 the Dresdener Gesangbuch, 1593 J. C. Ktibnau's Vieratimmige alte u. neue Choralgesange,' 1790, il. p. 140 LUtzel's Kircblicbe Chorgesange, 1861, No. II; and with the song AUein zu dir' for six voices, in Winterfeld's SvangelUcJie Kirchengetang, 1843, Nos. 38 and 39. ;

'

;

;

'

Nawe und lustige weltliche Deudsche Liedlein, niit vler, filnff, sechs Stimraen, auf allerley Instrumenten zugebrauchen, und lieblich zu singen. Durch Ant^ S minor Concerto at the Philharmonic, Feb. 19, and the Beethoven Eb Concerto on June 9. In 1881 he made a third visit, and played his second Concerto (in C minor, op. 56) which he had produced at the Gesellschaftsooncert at Vienna, Feb. 24 ; but his stay was shortened by his recall to Germany for his military duties, though he found time to appear several times, and deepened the favourable impression he had previously made. In 1899 he made another visit to England and played his Third Concerto (Cs minor, op. 80). On Oct. 1, 1881, Scharwenka opened his own Conservatorium in Berlin (staff including his brother Philipp's wife, nie Marianne Stre.sow, Albert Becker, Philipp Riifer, J. Kotek, O. Lessmann, W. Langhans, M. Rbder, W. Jahns, A. Hennes, and Philipp Scharwenka), which became amalgamated with that of Klindworth in 1893, is now known as the KlindworthScharwenka Conservatorium (and School for Opera and Drama), and run under the artistic direction of the brothers Scharwenka and Capellmeister Robitschek and the administra-

tion of the latter, of

249

which Xaver Scharwenka

the principal. On Dec. 18 and 19, 1906, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the foundation of the Conservais

torium was celebrated. In 1891, answering a call to found and direct a branch of his Conservatorium in New York, Xaver Scharwenka, his wife and family, with all their belongings, emigrated to the States, where they remained seven years he, however, crossing to Europe and back no less than seven times during that period. In the Kew World he made numerous tours, and to his astonishment discovered that in the West he had already earned a, reputation as a pianist through a former pupil of his brother's who had adopted his name and given concerts for two years without his identity being discovered. At ;

present the Scharwenka family live in Berlin, where the Professor is busy morning, noon, and

night as composer and teacher. As a pianist Xaver Scharwenka is renowned above all his other qualifications for the beautiful quality of his tone, which is rich, round, soft, yet great, and singing, for which it would be difficult to name another living pianist as his equal. His power is enormous, yet he never bangs, and has no mannerisms, his arms and body at the piano appearing to be almost entirely without movement. If he is a specialist as interpreter of one composer rather than another it is of Chopin, whose nationality he partly shares, but of the other great masters his readings are always grand and musicianly, while to hear him play a waltz of Strauss is as dance-inspiring as the magic bells of Papageno.

His compositions, which possess energy, harmonic interest, strong rhythm, many beautiful melodies, and much Polish national character, include a symphony in C minor (op. 60) three PF. concertos in B|> minor, C minor, and CJ! minor (opp. 32, 56, and 80) two PF. trios in Fs minor and A minor (opp. 1 and 42) two v'cello sonatas in D minor and E minor (opp. 2 and 46) a PF. quartet in F (op. 37) two PF. sonatas in Cj minor and El> (opp. 6 and 36) ;

;

;

;

;

;

very many piano pieces, mostly Polish dances, but also a scherzo in G, a ballade (op. 8), a concert menuet in B (op. 18), h theme and variations, studies

and some songs, besides some

books of technical exercises of great value to A grand opera, without the modern pianist. opus number, in four acts, to a libretto by Dr. Ernst Koppel, Mataswintha (from the novel of Felix Dahn, Ein Kampf uni Rom), was produced at Weimar, Oct. 4, 1896, and at the Metropolitan Opera-House, New York, April 1, 1897. In New York Scharwenka himself conducted at Weimar, Stavenhagen. Xaver Scharwenka is Royal Professor, Imperial and Royal 'Kammervirtuos,' Ordinary '

'

;

Member and Senator of the Royal Prussian Academy of Arts, President of the 'Musik

— 250

—

SCHAUSPIELDIEECTOR, DER

padagogische Association, Doctor of Music (America), and bears the title of Kitter hoher Orden. H. v. h.

SCHEIBE SCHECHNEE-WAAGEN,

'

SCHAUSPIELDIEECTOR, DER, 'Oomodie mit Musik in 1 Act (The Manager, a Comedy with Music in one Act) containing an overture and four numbers words by Stephanie, jun., music by Mozart. Produced at a Court festival at Schbnbrunn, Feb. 7, 1786. Over the terzet (No. 3) is the date, Jan. 18, 1786. It was adapted to a French libretto under the name of L' Impresario,' and produced in Paris in 1856. '

;

;

'

[See vol.

ii.

p.

462.]

A

careful version of the

from the German original, by W. Grist, was brought out at the Crystal Palace, London, on Sept. 14, 1877, as 'The Manager,' entire piece

and repeated

several times there

and elsewhere.

An

interesting little work, full of details on and Mozart in general, is Mozart's Schmospieldirector by Dr. R. Hirsch (Leipzig,

this opera

1859).

G.

SCHEBEK, Edmund,

a distinguished and influential Austrian amateur,- Doctor of Law,

Imperial

Chamber

and secretary to the Commerce at Prague, was born

councillor,

of

Oct. 22, 1819, at Petersdorf in Moravia. He began his musical career as head of a Society fit Olmiitz, and continued it at Prague, where

in conjunction with Weiss, the superior of the Capuchins, and Krejoi, he revived much of the

best old Italian church music. He devoted his attention specially to the construction of the violin, in relation to which he published very interesting treatises On the Orchestral Instruments in the Paris Exhibition of 1855 ' ; On the Ore'monese instruments, Apropos of the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, and The Italian Violin manufacture and its German origin.^ He also published a valuable little pamphlet on Froberger (1874). Dr. Schebek possessed a fine collection of ancient stringed instruments, a. Beethoven autographs, etc. SCHEBEST, Agnes, born at Vienna, Feb. 15, 1813, became attached at a very early age to the Court Theatre at Dresden, first in the chorus, and then as singer of small solo parts. Here she had the inestimable advantage of fre-

quently hearing and seeing the great SchroederDevrient. In 1833 she left Dresden for Pesth, and from 1836 to 1841 starred throughout Germany with very great applause. Her voice was a fine mezzo-soprano, her style and method were good, her best parts heroic, with much energy and passion. In 1841 she married the great theologian Dr. David Strauss (himself a keen amateur, and author of an interesting paper on the Ninth Symphony), and died Deo. She left an account of 22, 1869, at Stuttgart. her career. Aus dem Leben einer Kilnstlerin g. (1857), and Sede und GehWrde (1862). 1 Die OrcheBtBr-ftutrumente auf der Partaer WeltavwteJlwng tm Jahre 1855 (Vienna, Staatudrllckerei, 1858).

3

DerQeigenbau in Italian wad

18ra«ndl8f4).

tein deutacher ETrsnruna (Vienna,

Nanette,

dra-

She matic singer, born at Munich in 1806. was employed in the chorus-scenes of the opera, and, on the occasion of Madame Grassini's visit, was chosen to second her in some selections from Cimarosa's Gli Orazii e Curiazii.' Scheoh'

made

ner's beautiful voice

a great impression,

her a patroness in the Queen of After some study in singing and in Bavaria. Italian, she appeared in Italian opera in Munich, until 1827, after which she devoted herself to German opera. In 1826 she was in Vienna, if a curious story, related by Schindler, of a scene in the theatre there, Apropos of an air written [See for her by Schubert, may be believed.

and won

for

ScHUBEKT.]

It is related

by

F6tis that,

when

appeared in Berlin in Weigl's Schweizerfamilie,' the first act was played to an almost empty house but such enthusiasm did her Emmeline arouse in the few listeners, that the report of it spi'ead to the neighbouring cafes during the entr'acte, a large audience was drawn to the theatre for the rest of the performance, and the singer's success was complete. Her Donna Anna, Euryanthe, Fidelio, Reiza, Vestalin and Iphigenie in Tauris excited great In 1832 admiration in Berlin and Munich. she married Waagen, a lithographer and painter. Her voice was powerful, even massive in its tones, and her acting earnest and natural. She took a place in the first rank of German singers, but her brilliant career lasted no longer than ten years. A severe illness injured her voice she retired from the stage in 1835, and died April 30, 1860. Mendelssohn heard her at Munich in 1830, and while he found her voice much gone off and her intonation false, says that her expression was still so touching as to make him weep.^ L. M. M. SCHEIBE, JoHANN Adolph, born at Leipzig in May 1708, the son of an organ-buUder, was educated for the law at the Nicolaischule, and at the University, where Gottsched was at the time professor. In 1735 he set out to try his fortunes as a musician, visiting Prague, Gotha, Sondershausen, and settling in 1736 at she

'

first

;

;

teacher. He composed incidental masic to various plays, and wrote a grand opera which only reached the stage of being twice rehearsed. In 1737 he began the publication by which he is famous in the history

Hamburg as a

of

German

opera.

Der

Oritische

Mimkus,

as

was called, came out as a weekly periodical, and carried further the war against Italian operatic conventions which Gottsched had deit

clared in his

Vemiinftigen Tadlerinmen.

In

1740 he was appointed Oapellmeister to the Margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach, and also visited Copenhagen, where he settled two years later, and in 1742 became director of the court opera, retaining this post till 1749, when he 3

Letter.

Jnne

6, 1838,

'

SCHEIDEMANN

SCHEIBLEE He next Italian Sarti. devoted himself to literature and composition, becoming for a time head of a music-school at Sonderburg in Holstein. In 1745 he published a second edition of the Criiische Mitsihis, (see below), and in 1754 wrote an Ahhamdlung vom Ursprung und Alter der Musik. He contributed a treatise on Eeoitative, in the composition of which he was a proficient, to the Bibliothek der schbnen Wisseasehq/ten undfreien Kunste (vols. xi. and xii.), 1764-65. In 1773 appeared the first of four projected volumes on

was succeeded by the

composition, Ueber die musikalische Composition, but no more was finished, as the author died Apart from at Copenhagen, April 22, 1776. his championship of German opera, he obtained an unenviable notoriety by an attack on Sebastian Bach, published in the sixth number of He his periodical, under date May 14, 1737. had competed for the post of organist to the Nikolaikirohe in 1729 ; and Bach, one of the judges, had not approved his playing ; furthermore, it seems probable that Bach, in his cantata ' Der Streit zwischen Phobus und Pan, had intended the character of Midas as a referIt is only fair to say that ence to Soheibe. Scheibe recanted his errors ia the second edition of the Critischer Musikus, issued in 1745. Scheibe wrote an opera, 'Thusnelda,' which was published (with an introductory article on vocal music) at Copenhagen in 1749 ; oratorios, Die Auferstehung and Der masses, wundervolle Tod des Welterlosers secular cantatas, church compositions to the number of 200; 150 flute concertos; 70 quartets or symphonies, trios, sonatas, existed, for the most part in MS. (fiuellen-Lexikon Biemann's Lexikon Sammelbdnde of the lid. Mus. Ges.

two

'

'

'

'

;

;

;

ii.

654

ii.

645-47,

ff.

;

Spitta, J. S. iii.

Bach (Engl,

transl.)

M.

252-55.)

SCHEIBLER, Johann Heinkich,

born at Montjoie, near Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 11, 1777, died Nov. 20, 1838, silk manufacturer, after many travels settled down at Crefeld, where he was first-assistant-Biirgermeister. In 18121813, after some interesting experiments with Jew's-harps, he turned his attention to the imperfections of existing

means of tuning.

He

a monochord, but finding that he could not always get the same note from the same division of his monochord, he endeavoured to help himself by beats, and discovered that each beat corresponded to a difference of two simple vibrations or one double vibration in a His plan was to fix the monochord by second. finding the stopped length which would give a note beating four times in a second with his own fork. Then, after endless trials and calfirst tried

he found similar places for all the divisions of the scale, and finally from the monochord made forks for each note of the By repeated perfectly equally tempered scale. comparisons with his forks he found that it was culations,

make

251

mathematically accurate from the eliects of temperature. He then hit upon the plan of inserting forks between the forks of his scale, from the lowest A of the violin to the open A, and counting the beats between them. It was this counting that w^s the trouble, but by highly ingenious mechanical contrivances he was enabled to complete the count of his fiftytwo forks within from '0067 to -00083 beats or double vibrations in a second, and hence to tune a set of twelve forks so as to form a perfectly equal scale for any given pitch of A. The impossible to

monochord, or

a,

to protect it

and the mode of counting them are contained in his little pamphlet particulars of his forks

Der

und

physikalische

m/usikalisehe Toninesser,

834, p. 80, with lithogiaphic plates),' from which the preceding history has 'been gathered. During his lifetime he issued four smaller tracts, showing how to tune organs (Essen, Biideker,

1

by beats, which were H.

collected after his death as

Scheibler's Schriften, etc. (Crefeld, Schmiiller,

This is quite out of print, but copies of 1838). the former book are still to be bought. [These pamphlets form part of the interesting bequest left to the late A. J. Hipkins, by Dr. A. J. Ellis, and will, it is hoped, completis Mr. Hipkins's gift to the Royal Institution in memory of his friend Dr. Ellis.] His wonderful tonometer of fifty-two forks has completely disappeared. But another one, of fifty-six instead of fifty-two forks, which belonged to Scheibler, still exists, and was inherited by his daughter and grandson, who lent ,it to Herr Amels,

who

formerly of Crefeld,

again lent

it

to the

Alexander J. Ellis, who counted it, and having checked his results by means of M'Leod's and Mayer's machines for measuring pitch, gave the value of each fork in the Journal of the Society of Arts for March 5, 1880, p. 300, correct to less than one-tenth of a double vibration. The two extreme forks of this fifty-six fork tonometer agree in pitch precisely with those of the fifty-two fork tonometer, but no other forks are alike, nor could the forks of the fifty-two fork tonometer have been easily converted into those of the other one. In 1834,

late Dr.

at a congress of physicists at Stuttgart, Scheibler proposed with approval the pitch A 440 at 69° 440.2 at 59° F.) for general purposes, F.

(=A

and

this,

has been consequently called the Stutt-

gart pitch. 2

A. J. H.

SCHEIDEMANN. of organists in centuries.

The name

Hamburg

Gerber,

of a family

in the 16th

in his

and 17th

Lexicon, mentions

Heinrich Scheidemann, born about 1600, died 1654, but appears to confuse him with an older 1 The physical tuiA mutieal Tonnmeter, uAJch prooea visibly by rrusanB of the pendulum, the absolute numbers of vibrations of musical tones, the principal kinds of combinational tones, and the

most rigid exactness of equally tempered and Tnathematical just chords. 3

He selected

It ae

the

mean of the Tariatlon

of pitch in pianos a3

then tuned at Vienna, and not from thefact that it enables the scale of C major, in just intonation, to be expreaaed in vhole numben, as haa been sometimes stated.

;

SCHEIDEMANN

252

SCHEIDEMANTEL

and more important member of the family, David Scheidemann, probably an uncle of Heinrich. The date of David Sohoidemann's birth is not ascertained, but in 1585 he was organist of St. Michael's Church, Hamburg. He is chiefly noteworthy as associated with three other Hamburg organists of repute, ^acob and Hieronymus Praetorius, and Joachim Decker, in the compila-

specimens of Scheidemann in Winterfeld, Part Nos. 70, 71.

I.

Hbinbich Scheidemann, mentioned above, was the son of Hans Scheidemann, organist of In 1616 he St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg. and Jacob Praetorius, the younger, were sent at the public expense to Amsterdam, to be

tion of

initiated into a higher style of organ-playing, under the tuition of the then most famous

a book of the usual hymn-tunes or chorales of the Lutheran Church, simply harmonised in four parts for congregational singing. This book appeared in 1604. Its origin^ title is 'Melodeyen-Gesangbuoh, darein Dr. Luthers und auder Christen gebriiuchlichate Gesiinge, Ihren gewohnlichen Melodien naoh ... in

In organ-player of Europe, Peter Sweelinck. 1625 Heinrich succeeded his father as organist of St. Catherine's. Mattheson says of Scheidemann that his organ-playing and compositions were like himself, popular and agreeable, easy and cheerful, with no pretence or desire for mere show. Some of his organ pieces have been discovered in MS. tablature at Liineburg,

what we should now call a Choralbuoh, though this name was not in general use then,'

vier

stimmen

The example

ubergesetzt. '

first

by Lucas Osiander

in 1586, of uniformly giving the melody to the soprano part, and not to the tenor, as the older practice was, is here set

followed,

and in the preface attention

is

called

to the greater convenience of this for congi-ega-

Of the eighty -eight tunes in the book, David Scheidemann harmonised thirteen or fourteen ; among them there appears 'Wie schou for the first time harmonised leuchtet der Morgenstern. Gerber, confusing David with Heinrich, attributes both the melody and the setting of this Chorale to Heinrich. But Winterfeld shows (Ev. Kirch, i. p. 90) that the melody belongs to neither, but seems to be taken from an old secular song, beginning with similar words ('Wie sohon leuchten die Aeugelein '), to the metre of which Philip Nioolai in 1599 wrote the words of his hymn, ' Wie schon leuchtet der Morgenstern. ' It should be mentioned, however, that Waekernagel (^Das Deutsche Kirchenlied, Bd. I. pp. 618-19), after giving the words of the secular song in ftfll, adduces reasons for believing that in this case the secular song is a later parody of Nicolai's Winterfeld praises hymn, not vice versa. Scheidemann's settings of the chorales for their fresh animated character, and for the happy way in which the rhythmical peculiarities of the old melodies are brought out. Chorales were not then sung as now, all in slow uniform rhythm, but many of the older melodies had curious changes of rhythm, as from common to triple time, in successive lines. See the tional singing.

'

for an estimate of which see Seiffert's Geschichte der KlaviermusHe, vol. i. i)p. 117-19. Heinrich Scheidemann was again associated with Jacob Praetorius in contributing melodies to Kist's ' Himmlisohe Lieder, which were published in 1641-42. Praetorius composed ten to the 4th part of Rist's Book, Scheidemann ten to .the '

One of 5th part, entitled 'Hbllenlieder.' Scheidemann's melodies in this collection, 'Friseh auf und lasst uns singen,' continued for a whUe in church use, as it appears again in Vopelius's

'

Leipziger Gesangbuch

of 1682.

'

Among

Scheidemann's pupils were Werner Fabricius, Matthias Weckmann, and Joh. Adam Reinken, the last of whom became his successor as organist of St.

Catherine's,

Hamburg,

in

Max Seiffert, in the Sammelbdnde of 1654. the Int. Mils. Ges. ii. p. 117, gives the date of Scheidemann's death as 1663, but Eitner, in the Quellen-Lexikon, gives reasons for adhering to the previously accepted date, 1654, as there is no doubt that Reinken succeeded him in that year. j. K. M.

SCHEIDEMANTEL,

Carl, born Jan. 21,

1859, at Weimar, was taught singing by Bodo Borchers, and on Sept. 15, 1878, made his

debut there as Wolfram. He remained there until 1886, having in the meantime received further instruction from Stockhausen at Frankfort. In 1884, on leave from Weimar, he sang in German at Covent Garden, June 4, as Kothner, as the Minister (' Fidelio '), Herald ('Lohengrin'), Kurwenal, Wolfram, and, July 9, Rucellb, on the production of Stanford's Savonarola.' He made a very favourable impression, both on account of his fine baritone voice and his excellent singing and acting. In 1886 he sang at Bayreuth as Klingsor, Amfortas, a remarkable performance, and Kurwenal after which he mjtde his debuts at Dresden as '

1 It is worth while noting that the word Choral (in English usually HpeltChorale), as now restricted to the melodies of German metrical hymns, reaUy originated in a misunderstanding of what Walther meant when he spolce of Luther as having called the ' deutecher Choralgesang' into life. What hoth Luther and Walther meant hy 'Choralgesang' was the old Cantus Choralis or Plain-song of the lAtin Church, which Luther himself wished to retain ; and his merit consisted in the adaptation of the chief parts of the Latin Choral to German words, his work in this respect corresponding to Marbeck'a 'Book of Common Prayer Noted' with us in Kngland. All the older Lutheran Church -musicians, such as Lucas Lossius and Michael Praetorius, used the words Choral and Choralgesknge in this sense of the old Plain-song melodies to the graduals, sequences, and antiphons, whether sung to lAtin or adapted to German words. It was only when Oerman metrical hymns gradually superseded in common use the other choral parts of the service, that the name Choral in course of time hecame restricted to the melodies of these hymoB. See Winterfeld, Ev. Kirdh. i. pp.

151, 162.

the Dutchman, and the Templar and Hans Heiling of Marschner, as a permanent member of the company there, as successor to Degele, the result of a successful gaatspiel the preHere he has remained ever since vious year. (1907), and has gained great popularity in a '

'

— SCHEIDT large

number

of parts.

On

'

SCHEIDT

sake of the organ in the St. Moritzkirche at Halle. He died at the age of sixty-seven on March 24, 1654. Scheldt's first published work appeared at Hamburg in 1620 ('Cantiones Sacrae octo vocum '), and consists of thirty -nine vocal compositions, fifteen of which are settings of

Dec. 12, 1896,

sang with great success as tlie hero in Bungert's 'Odysseus' Heimkehr,'on Jan. 29, 1898, in 'Kirke,' and on March 21, 1901, in 'Nansikaa' (the second and third parts respectively of the Homeric tetralogy), on May 21, 1901, in Paderewski's 'Manru,' on lie

the production of that opera. On leave of absence, in 1888, he sang as Hans Sachs at Bayreuth ; in 1893, at the Gotha Opera Festival, as Kodolph in the revival of Boieldieu's ' Petit Chaperon Eouge.' On May 27, 1899, he sang again at Covent Garden, as Hans Sachs, a performance remarkable both on account of his fine acting and for the refinement of his singing and declamation. In addition he has sung in the principal cities of Germany and Austria, both in opera and concerts. In 1906 he took the part of Scherasmin in a successful revival of ' Oberon at Dresden. A. c. SCHEIDT, Samuel, one of the celebrated three S's (the other two being Heinrieh Schiitz and Hermann Schein, his contemporaries), the best German organist of his time, was bom at Halle in 1587. His father, Conrad Scheidt, was master or overseer of salt-works at Halle. The family must have been musical, as some works are stUl preserved of Gottfried, Samuel's brother, which A. 6. Eitter (Geschichie der Orgelmusik) says show considerable musical ability. Samuel owed his training as an organist to the then famous ' Organisten-macher ' Peter Sweelinck of Amsterdam. About 1605 he betook himself to Amsterdam, and became a pupil of Sweelinck. In 1608 or 1609 he became organist in the Moritzkirche in HaUe, and in 1620 at least, if not earlier, he had received the appointment of organist and capellmeister to Christian Wilhelm, Markgraf of Brandenburg, and then Protestant Administrator of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. In this capacity Scheidt ofBciated not at Magdeburg, but in the Hofkirche at Halle. The troubles of the Thirty Years' War and the misfortunes of his patron, the siege and sack of Magdeburg in 1631, and the abdication of Christian Wilhelm in 1638, seem to have made no difference to Scheldt's oflicial position at Halle, though his income and means of living must have suffered ; the service in the Hofkirche ceased after 1625, and the Moritzkirche was destroyed by fire in 1637. have no record as to his personal relations with Christian's successors in the administration of the Magdeburg archbishopric, but Chrysander in the Jdhrhncher filr musikalische Wissenschaft, i. p. 158, prints a letter from Scheidt to Duke Augustus of Brunswick in 1642, which seems to imply that he was then looking for some patronage or assistance from that art-loving prince. Scheldt never left HaUe, however, and his circumstances may have improved, as in his will he bequeathed some money for the

2&3

Lutheran chorales.

In 1621-22 appeared the part of his sacred concertos, in 2-12 vocal parts with instrumental accompaniment. This was followed by successive books of similar pieces, published in 1631, 1634, 1635, and 1640. His fame, however, rests not on his vocal compositions, but on his works for the organ. His next work, also published at first

Hamburg

in 1624,

is

considered epoch-making

in the history of organ music. It consists of three parts, but the whole work beare the

general title Tabulatura Nova ' ; the same title, indeed, as many earlier works of the same kind in Germany {e.g. Ammerbach, 1571 ; B. Schmid, 1577 ; Paix, 1583 ; Woltz, 1617), from all of which, however, it differs widely both in aim and style, and indeed marks the beginning of a new and better treatment of the organ both with regard to playing and to composition. From 1570 to about 1620, organ playing in Germany almost entirely consisted '

'

what was known as the art of 'coloriren,' the art of colouring melodies sacred or secular by the inserting of meaningless passages, all framed on one and the same pattern, between each note or chord of the melody. These earlier Tablature-books were all compiled simply to teach this purely mechanical art of colouring melodies for the organ. The music was written in the so-called German Tablature, i.e. with letters instead of notes. ^ (For a full account of these German Coloristen ^ of the 16th and 17th centuries, see A. G. Ritter's Geschichte der Orgelmusik, pp. 111-39.) Scheldt's 'Tabulatura Nova put an end to this miserable style of playing and composing for the organ, as well as to the old German Tablature. The music in his book is noted in score of four staves, with five lines to the stave, so far differing from the notation both of Frescobaldi and Sweelinck, the former using two staves of six and eight lines respectively, the latter two staves both of six lines. To give an idea of the contents of Scheldt's work, we transcribe in full the separate titles of the three parts in

'

'

'

'

'

'

We

:

Tabulatura Nova, continens variationes aliquot Psalmorum, Fantasiarum, Cantilenarum, Fassaiuezo et Canones aliquot, in gratiam Organistarum adornata a Sanmele Scheidt Hallense, Reverendiss. Illustrissimique Principis ac Domini, Christiani Guilielmi Arcliiepiscopi Magdeburgenais, Primatis Germaniae Organists et Capellae Magistro. Hamburgi mdcxxiv. IT. Pars Secunila continens Fugarum, Psalmorum, CantiODUra et Echus Tocatae variatinnes varias et omnimodas. Pro quommvis Organistarum captu et modulo, . . I.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

For an example of German Organ Tablature, see Schlecht, Geschichte der KirchenmufPcp, S77 ff. 2 Geschmackloae Barbareu' (tasteleaa barbarians), as Ambros 1

'

I

calls

them.

'

SCHEIDT

254

SCHEIDT

Tertiaet ultima pars, continens Kyrie Dominicale,

III.

in unnm Deum, Fsalmuin de Coena Domini sub Communione, Hymnos praeoipuorum Pestorum totius anni, Magniflcat 1-9 toni, modum ludendi pleno Organo et Benedicamus ... In gratiam Organistarum, praedpue eorum qui mnsice pure et absque celerrimis coloraturia Organo ludere gaudent

Credo

.

The

.

.

words mark an important difference between the third part and the two preceding. In the first two parts the composer appears to wish to show how he could beat the Colourists on their own ground, his figures and passages, however, not being like theirs, absolutely meaningless and void of invention, but new and varied, and having an organic connection with the whole composition to which they belong. He shows himself still as virtuoso, desirous to extend the technique of organ-playing, while at the same time displaying his contrapuntal mastery. So far as technique is concerned, there is to be noticed in Scheldt the extended use of the pedal, so different from Freacobaldi's last

'

occasional use of it for single notes merely, also the imitation of orchestral effects, such as what

he himself terms

'

imitatio violistioa,' the imita-

ways of bowing on the violin, and the imitation of an organ tremulant itself by the rapid interchange of the fingers of the two hands on one and the same key('Bicinium imitatione tremula organi duobus digitis in una tantum clave manu turn dextra, tum sinistra'). The first two parts contain a mixture of sacred and secular pieces, the secular tion of the effects of the different

being marked off as for domestic rather than for church use by the absence of a pedal part. The sacred pieces consist of ten fantasias or sets of variations on chorale melodies, with a few fugues or fantasias on another motive, among which is a fantasia fuga quadruplici, on a madrigal of Palestrina's, which Ritter describes as a masterpiece of contrapuntal art. four subjects from the madrigal being treated first singly and then together, and with contrary motion and other devices. The secular pieces consist chiefly of variations on secular melodies, among which appears one entitled an de fortuna {i.e. the famous English song The third part of the Fortune, my foe '). ' Tabulatura Nova stands, however, on a higher level than the first two. The composer expressly renounces the virtuoso ; he writes, as the title-page says, for those who delight to play the organ purely musically, and without mere ornamental and passage work. In this third part he givtes very full directions with regard pieces, however,

'

'

'

'

'

'

to registering both for

manuals and pedal. It is intended entirely for church use, and both by the choice of pieces, and the manner in which they are arranged, it gives us an insight into the way in which the organ was very frequently employed in the church services of those days. It was not then generally used to accompany or sustain the voices of the choir or congregaThus, tion, but rather to alternate with them.

between each verse of the Magsung by the choir without accompaniment, the organ would come in independently with some variation or changing harmonies on A further use of the the plain-song melody. organ was even to take the place of the choir '

for instance,

nificat'

making the responses to the ecclesiastical intonations of the officiating clergy when tliere Frescobaldi's was no' proper choir to do this. works (especially Fieri Musicali,' 1635) furnish in

'

instances of this use of the organ in the

Roman

Thus when the priest had intoned Church. the Kyrie of the Mass, in the absence of a proper choir, the organist would answer, as Ambros expresses it, when speaking of Frescobaldi's works of the kind, with a kind of artisticallyennobling and enriching echo ( mit einer Art von kiinstlerisch-veredelnden und bereiohernden Echo '), that is to say, the organist, taking up the plain-song theme, would not just harmonise it note by note, but treat it in the form of a short polyphonic composition for the organ. (See the quotations from Frescobaldi in Ambros's The Geschichte der Musik, iv. pp. 444-50.) third part of Scheldt's Tabulatura shows that this usage was not confined to the Roman Church, but was also retained for a considerable It opens with twelve time in the Lutheran. short movements based on the plain-song of the different sections of the Kyrie and Gloria of the Mass, and the remark, or rubric, as we might call it, 'Gloria canit Pastor,' shows that they were expressly intended as responses made by the organ to the intonation of officiating clergy. The Magnificat follows, in all the church tones, one verse sung by the ecclesiastic and every alternate verse arranged to be played by the organ in lieu of a choir. This way of treating the Magnificat prevailed in Lutheran Churches, even up to Pachelbel's time (1706), though the plain-song was more and more put into the background, and the practice became simply an excuse for interludes on any motive. After the Magnificat came a series of hymns common to both Roman and Lutheran churches, with their plain - song melodies treated in '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The book further contains Luther's version of the Creed ('Wir glauben AH' an einen Gott') with its Doric melody, John Huas's Communion Hymn, arranged to be played instead of being sung during Coma similar fashion.

The two last pieces in the book are movements for the full organ, meant to

munion. 6-part

be played at the end of Vespers. Interwoven with the last is the liturgical melody of the Benedicamus. In all these compositions Scheldt has faithfully adhered to the original plain-song melodies when they appear as Cantus Firmus, but in the further working out has not been content simply to harmonise them according to the laws of the Church modes, but has so far altered them in accordance with the new ideas of harmony then beginning to make way. But

—

'

SCHEIDT

SCHEIN

there is still wanting in him a consistent system of modulation. The chromatic semitones are still employed by him rather in a haphazard sort of way. Twenty-six years later, viz. in 1650, Scheldt published another work for the organ, his second and last, which shows a different conception as to the use of the organ in the services of the Church, and probably marks a change which was then going ongraduaUy in the practice of the Lutheran Church. The congregational singing of metrical hymns was gradually superseding the older liturgical music, and the organ had more and more to surrender its independence to accommodate itself to the simple accompaniment in 4-part harmony of* the melodies of these

If it is his organ works that now entitle Scheldt to honourable remembrance, and give him a distinct position of his own amongst composers, it was not his organ works, but his vocal compositions, that procured him the esteem of his contemporaries, and caused him to be ranked as one of the celebrated three S's. Of his vocal works, besides the ' Sacrae Cantiones' of 1620, mentioned above, there are mentioned 'Liebliche Krafft-Bliimlein conzertweise mit 2 Stimmen sampt deni General-Basse, Halle, 1625. Another work should also be recorded, consisting of 'Paduana, GaUiarda,' etc. for four and five voices, 1621, the second part of which was called ' Ludorum musicoruni prima et secunda pars,' and published in 1622. It is natural to draw comparisons, as Ritter does in his history above quoted, between Scheldt and Frescobaldi, whoso lives covered nearly the same period of time, and who may both be regarded as the true founders of modern organ mu6ic, or rather, the Italian of clavier music generally, the German of specifically organ music. Of the two, Frescobaldi is the greater genius, showing greater force of imagination in the invention of new forms and the solution of difficult problems ; Scheldt is more laborious and painstaking, showing greater study of the capabilities of his instrument, as, for instance, in the use of the pedal, and in registering generally, with neither of which did Frescobaldi concern himself. As Ritter points out, while Scheidt has thus gi-eatey command of all the resources of expression, Frescobaldi has more of real poetic expression in

hymns, which now began to assume exclusively the name of Choral-musik. This, which was at first a loss, became in time a gain, as it deepened the sense of the value of harmony for its own sake ; and besides, out of this originated the new art-form of the Choral- Vorspiel of later days. Scheldt's last organ work was intended to meet the new requirements. Its title sufficiently explains its object ' Tabnlatur-buch 100 geistKcher Lieder u. Psalmen D. Martini Lutheri und anderer gottseliger Manner fiir die Herren Organisten mit der Christlichen Kirchen u. Gemeine auf derOrgel, desgleichenauch zu Hause zu spielen u. zu siugen, auf alle Fest-u. Sonn- tage durchs ganze Jahr mit 4 Stimmen componirt . . . Gedruckt zu Gorlitz . im 1650 Jahr.' This work is dedicated to the Magistrates and Town Council of Gorlitz, and the composer seems to imply that it had been undertaken at their special desire. In this, as in his previous work, there is noticeable, as Ritter points out, the same imdecided struggle in the composer's mind between attachment to the old and inclination to the new. Thus, while he strictly adheres to the original rhythms of the old melodies, he harmonises according to the rules of modem musical accent, and thus the rhythm of the melody is not in agreement with the rhythm implied by the harmony. See for illustration his setting of 'Ein' feste Burg' in Ritter, GeschicAte der Orgel-Musik, p. 19, the iirst two bars of which may here be given :

.

.

:

One

chorale appears in this book for the iirst '0 Jesulein siiss, Jesulein mild,' which has been adapted in later chorale books

time, viz. to

the words

'

heiliger

Geist,

As harmonised by Scheldt

heiliger

given Winterfeld Ev. K. G. ii. No. 218, and Schbberlein, SchcUz des Chorgesangs, ii. No. 457. Gott.'

in

it is

his music

itself.

255

For more detailed comparison

of the two masters it will be sufficient to refer to Ritter's work. [See Max Seiffert's preface to the first vol. of the DenJcmSZer deu,tscher Tonkunst, containing Scheldt's Tabulatura Nova ' ; the Vierteljahrsschrift fiir Musikwiss. vii. p. 188 ff'. ; and the Sammelbande of the Int. Mils. Ges. i. p. 401, where a detailed study of Samuel and Gottfried Scheidt is to be found, the work of Arno Werner. Also titles of works in the Quellen-Lexikon.^ j. p.. m. SCHEIN, JoHANx Herman, was born Jan. 20, 1586, at Grunhain in Saxony, where his father was the Lutheran pastor. Having lost his father at an early age, he was taken to Dresden and became a chorister in the Court Chapel there in 1599. His further education was received at the Gymnasium of Schnlpforta in 1603 and the University of Leipzig (1607). Of his musical training further than what he received in the Court Chapel at Dresden we '

have no

In 1615 he was invited to Weimar, but held this post for only two years. On the death of Seth Calvisius in November 1615 he obtained the appointment of Cantor to the Thomasschule in Leipzig, which post he held till his death Nov. 19, 1630. be

details.

capellmeister

at

6

SCHELBLE

SCHEIN

256 Sohein

chiefly

is

known

by

to later times

his 'Cantional,' first published in 1627.

Its

is 'Cantional oder Gesangbuch Augspurgischer Confession, in welohem des Herrn D. Martini Lutheri vnd anderer frommen Christen, auch des Autoris eigne Lieder vnd Psalmen. So im Chur- vnd Fiirstenthiimern Sachsen, insonderheit aber in beiden Kirohen und Gemeinen allhier zu Leipzig gebriiuchlioh, verfertiget und mit 4, 5, 6 Stimmen componirt.' A second (enlarged) edition appeared in

original title

.

1645

.

.

As the

after Schein's death.

title

shows,

both old and new, harmonised for ordinary church use, mostly note against note. Schein himself appears in this book in three capacities, viz. consists of Choral-melodies,

it

and harmonist. Of the 200 and odd Choral-melodies in the book about 80 are Schein's own, a few of which have still held their ground in modern chorale books, though some appear to be attributed to him by mistake. Schein's book differs from Criiger's similar book as poet, melodist,

of later date (1 6 48) in retaining the old irregular rhythm of Choral-melodies, while Crilger has transformed their rhythms according to more modern ideas. But if Schein still retains the

rhythm

in the melodies, in his harmonies he has almost entirely lost, as Winterfeld points out, the feeling for the peculiarities of the old church modes in which those melodies are written, though otherwise his harmonies are old

and dignified. With Michael Praetorius and Heinrich Schiitz, and probably through their influence, Schein was one of the pioneers serious

Germany of the new movement in music proceeding from Italy at the beginning of the Naturally his other works 17th century. show this more plainly than the Cantional,' as many of them are avowedly written in imitation These other works are as of Italian models. in

'

follows

:

—

Venus-Kiiinzlein mittallerley lieblichen und acbonen Blumen gezieret und gewunden, Oder Neue Weltliche Lieder mit 5 Stimmen, neben etlichen Intraden, Oagliarden, und Canzonen . . . Leipzig, Thia worlc constats of sixteen secular stropliic aouga a 6 1609. and one a 8, in tlie aimpleat Italian canzonetta atyle, homoplionlc ttarouglioat, besides eigbt instrumental pieces a 5 and 6. 2. Gymbalum Sionium siye Cautiones Sacrae 5, 6, 8, 10 et 12 Tocum. Leipzig, 1615. This work contains thirty sacred motets, some to Latin texts, some to German, besides an instrumental canzone a 5 as Corollarium. 3. BanchettoMusicale,neueranmutbigerPadouanen, Gagliaiden, Courenten und Allemanden a fi auf allerley Instrumenten, beporans auf Violen nicht ohne sonderbare gratia lieblicb und lustig zu This woT^L was dedicated to Dulre . Leipzig, 1617. gebrauchen . Jobann Ernst of Weimar, and contains twenty instrumental suites consisting of Paduanas, Oagliardas, Courentes a S and Allemande with two seP'irate pieces at the end, and Tripia a 4, 4. Opella Nova, erster Theil Geistlicber Concerten mit 3, 4 und 5 Stimmen zusampt dem Oeneral-Bass auf jetzo gebr^uchllche Italienische Invention ,componlrt, Leipzig, 1618. This work contains thirty sacred compositions on German texts in the new Italian style, with Instrumental basso coutlnuo, which, however, seems to be purely ad libitum. 5. Musica Boscareccia, Waldliederlein auf Italian-Vlllanellische Invention, Beides fUr slch alleln mit lebendiger Stiih, Oder in ein Clavicembel, Spinet, Tlorba, Lauten, etc. This work appeared in three parts published In 1621, 1626. 1628 respectively, and contains altogether fifty secular compositions a 3 on poems by Schein himself written in the artificial pastoral style of the time. These pieces are more polyphonic in their character than those of the 'VenusKrttnzlein,' and, as the title indicates, they may be sung by voices alone or with the substitution of instruments for one or other of new the vocal parts or instrumental accompaniment generally. edition of the work appeared in 1644, with the substitution of sacred texts for the original secular. 6. 5'ontana d' Israel, Israels Brilnlein auserlesener Kraft-sprilch1.

.

A

leln altes

und neuen Testaments von

5

und

6

Stimmen sambt dem

General Basa auf eine sonderbare anmutlge Italian-Madrigalische Manier sowol filr sich alleln mit lebendiger Stim und Instrumenten Leipals auch in die Orgel Clavicembel bequemlich zugehniuchen. This work consists of twenty-six sacred pieces a 6 and 6, zig 162S on 'German texts, composed in the later freer Madrigal atyle of Monteverde and others, allowing greater boldness of harmonic 7

Dlletti

dem

Hirten Lust von 5 Stim. zusampt

pastorali,

General-Bass auf Madrigal Manier,

Leipzig, 1624.

IB Nos.

Studenten-SchmauB a 5. Leipzig, 1626. 5 Nos. , Leipzig, 9 Opella Nova, Ander Theil Geistlicber Concerten. German 1626. Contains thirty-two sacred pieces, twenty-seven with Latin. with five texts, 8.

.

,

Besides these works, and the Cantional of 1627, the Quellen-Lexikon enumerates a large number of occasional compositions for weddings and funerals, many of which, however, Schein himself incorporated into the publications above specified.

In 1895 Herr Arthur Priifer published a. monograph on Schein'S Life and Works, by of preparation for a complete edition of two volumes of which have since appeared, containing the ' Venus -Kranzlein,'

way

his works,

'Banchetto Musicale,'

and

'Musica

BoscaM.

J. R.

reccia.'

SCHELBLE, JohannNbpomuk, a thoroughly excellent and representative German musician, born May 16, 1789, at Hiifingen, in the Black Forest, where his father was superintendent of

His strict musical the House of Correction. education was begun in a Monastery of Marchthai 1 800-3 ; and continued at Bonaueschingen, under Weisse. He then spent some time, first with Vogler at Darmstadt, and then with Krebs, a distinguished singer at Stuttgart, and there, in 1812, he filled the post of elementary teacher in the Eoyal Musical Institution, a very famous and complete school of those times.' In 1813 he went to Vienna, lived in intimate acquaintance with Beethoven, Moscheles, Weigl, Spohr, etc., composed an opera and many smaller works, and went on the stage, where, however, his singing, though remarkable, was neutralised by his want of power to act. From Austria in 1 8 1 he went to Frankfort, which became his home. Here the beauty of his voice, the excellence of his method, and the justness of his expression, were at once recognised. He became the favourite teacher, and in 1817 was made director of the Musical Academy. This, however, proved too desultory for his views, and on July 24, 1818, he formed a Society of his own, which developed into the famous Caecilian Society of Frankfort, and at the head of which he remained till his death. The first work chosen by the infant institution was the ' Zauberflote ; then Mozart's Keqiiiera ; then one of his Masses ; and then works by Handel, Cherubini, Bach, etc. In 1821 the Society assumed the name of the ' Cacilienverein the repertoire was increased ; by works of Palestrina, Scarlatti, and other Italian masters, and at length, on March 10, 1828, Mozart's 'Davidde penitente' and the Credo of Bach's Mass in B minor were given then. May 2, 1829 (stimulated by the example of Mendelssohn in Berlin), the Matthew Pas'

'

'

'

;

1

See the A.M.Z. 1812,

p. 334.

—

:

SCHBNK

SCHELLER and

we hear of Samson and Handel, Bach's motets, and choruses of Mendelssohn, whose genius Sehelble was one of the first to recognise, and whose St. Paul was suggested to him by the Caecilian Association, doubtless on the motion sion

;

other

after that

oratorios

'

of

its

'

'

of

'

Whether the Society ever

conductor.

at-

tempted Beethoven's mass does not appear, but Sehelble was one of the two private individuals who answered Beethoven's invitation to subscribe [See vol. i. p. 255, note 6 ; 131o.] His health gradually declined, and at length, in the winter of 1835, it was found necessary to make some new arrangement for the direction of the Society. Mendelssoh n was asked (^Letters, Feb. 18, 1836), and undertook it for six weeks during the summer of 1836. Mendelssohn's fondness and esteem for the man whose place he was thus temporarily filling is evident in every sentence referring to him in his letters of this date. Sehelble died August 7, 1837. His great qualities as a practical musician, a, conductor, and a man, are well summed up by Hiller ' in his book on Mendelssohn, to which we refer the reader. His compositions have not survived him. His biography was published shortly after his death J. iV. Schelhle, von Weissmanu (Frankfort, 1838). G. SCHELLEK, Jakob, born at Schettal, Kakonitz, Bohemia, May 16, 1759, a very clever for its publication. vol.

iii.

p.

He was thrown on his own resources from a very early age, and we hear of him at Prague, Vienna, and Mannheim, where he remained for two years playing in the court band, and learning composition from Togler. After more wandering he made a stay of three yeai-s in Paris, studying the school of Viotti. He then, in 1785, took a position as Ooncertmeister, or leading violin, in the Duke of Wiirtemberg's band at Stuttgart, which he retained until the establishment was broken up by the arrival of the French in 1 792. This forced him to resume his wandering life, and that again drove him to violinist.

intemperance, till after seven or eight years more he ended miserably, being even obliged to borrow a fiddle at each town he came to. ^ He was more celebrated for his tricks and tours de force than for his legitimate playing. Spohr {SelbstMog.i. 280) speaks of his flageolet- tones, of variations on one string, of pizzicato with the nails of the left hand, of imitations of a bassoon, an old woman, etc. ; and Fftis mentions a trick in which by loosening the bow he played on all four strings at once. By these, and probably also by really fine playing, he excited so much enthusiasm, that it used to be said of him one God ; one ScheUer.' G. SCHEMELLI, Georg Christian, born at Herzberg about 1678, was a pupil of theThomasschule at Leipzig from 1695, and was cantor of '

1

UendeluoTm, translated by Miss M. E. von Olehn, 2 Bochlitz,

F&r FreuTide der

Tvnkunst,

il.

p. 6.

257

the castle at Zeitz. In 1736 he published a Musicalisches Gesang-Buch, Darinnen 954 geistreiohe, sowohl alte als neue Lieder und Arien, mit wohlgesetzten Melodien, in Discant In the und Bass, befindlich sind preface the compiler states that the tunes in his book were partly newly composed, partly improved, by J. 8. Bach. Various authorities on the life of Bach have spent much labour in investigating which were the tunes newly composed by him, and which were merely revised and corrected by him. "While Spitta attributes twenty-nine out of the sixty-nine tunes to Bach, Herr F. Wiillner, the editor of the volume of the Bach-Gesellschaft (xxxix.) in which the hymns appear, considers that only twenty- four are Bach's while Eitner, in the Qtiellen-Lexikon, assigns only twenty -two to the master. His name, curiously enough, is appended to only one of the sacred songs of which the collection mainly consists (the beautiful Vergiss mein nieht,' above which is written, 'di J. S. Bach, D. M. Lips." See S. Spitta, J. S. Bach, Eng. trans, i. 367-70 ; iii. 109-114.) M. SCHENK, JoHANN, (I) was a viol-da-gamba player in the service of the Elector Palatine at Diisseldorf in the latter part of the 1 7th century. He was afterwards at Amsterdam, where he published numerous works for his instrument, and other compositions. The following are known to have existed, but only a few of them are still extant, according to the QuellenLexikon '

..."

;

'

—

Op. 1. 2. 3.

Airs from an opera, Ceres en Bachna.' KonstoefTeningen (sonatas or suites). n giardino annonlco, sonate da camera '

a

4 [two ylns., gamba,

and continQo). 4.

6. 7. 8.

9.

10.

Koninklyke Harpllederen, 150 aits for one or two ptelnde and postlude. Scherzi muBicali, for viol da gamba and bass. Eighteen sonatas for violin and baas.

voices,

with a

La ninfa del Beno, twelve sonatas or suites. L'dcho du Danube, sonatas. Lea F^ntaisies biaarres de la goutte, twelve sonatas for viol da

gamba.

Riemann's Lexikon.) m. (II) is mainly interesting from his connection with Beethoven he was born of poor parents, Nov. 30, 1753,^ at Wiener Neustadt in Lower Austria, and at an early age was admitted into the Archbishop's choir [In 1774 he was a pupil of at Vienna. WagenseU.] In 1778 he produced his first mass, which he followed by other sacred pieces, and by many Singspiele and Operas [beginning with Die Weinlese,' 1785, and Die Weihnacht auf dem Lande,' 1786, and ending with 'Der Fassbinder,' 1802], which gained him a considerable name, and rank with those of Dittersdorf In addition he wrote and Wenzel Miiller. symphonies, concertos, quartets, lieder, etc. The '^Lexikon

;

SCHENK, JoHANN,

;

'

'

autographs of many of these are in the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde at Vienna, with that of a theoretical work, Grundsdtze des General[In 1794 he was appointed musiclasses. 3

SolnBiemann'sZ«ri^:on; Eitner (Quellen-Zexifein) gives the date

as 1761.

; ''

'

SCHENK

258

SCHERZO

to Prince Carl von Auersperg in 1795 his Aohmet und Almauzine was brought out at Vienna, and finally Der Dorfbarbier' was produced at the Karuthnerthor Theatre, Nov. 7, 1796, a work that was always popular, and kept its position in the repertory for many years. Between this, his masterpiece, and the Fassbinder,' already mentioned, came Der Bettelstudent (1796) and 'Die Jagd' (1797).] The anecdote of his kissing Mozart's hand during the overture on the first night of the Zauberflbte has been already related. [See Mozaet, vol. iii. p. 30 Oa, note 1 .] His first meeting with Beethoven director

;

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

is told

in Bauernfeld's biographical sketch of Schenk in the Wiener Zeitachrift fiir Kunst for 1837 (Nos. 5, 6, and 7). Gelinek mentioned to

Schenk that he had found a young man whose playing excelled anything ever heard before, excepting Mozart's, and who had been studying counterpoint for six months with Haydn, but to so little purpose that it would be a great kindness if Schenk would give him some help. A meeting was arranged at Gelinek's house, when Beethoven improvised for over half an hour in so remarkable and unusual a manner that forty years afterwards Schenk could not speak of it without emotion. Schenk next went to see the young artist. Himself a model of neatness, he was rather taken aback by the disorderliness of the room, but Beethoven's reception was cordial and animated. On the desk lay some short exercises in counterpoint, in whidi on the first glance Schenk detected a few errors. Beethoven's troubles soon came out. He had come to Vienna aware of his own had at once put ability, but anxious to learn himself in the hands of the first master to be Schenk got, and yet was making no progress. at once agreed to help him, and took him through Fux's 'Gradus ad Parnassum,' with which indeed Haydn was familiar enough. As it was essential that Haydn should not be entirely thrown over, Beethoven copied exercises partly corrected by Schenk,* and Haydn was then able to congratulate himself on the progress of his hot-headed pupil. The affair was of course '

;

kept strictly secret, but Beethoven having fallen out with Gelinek the latter gossiped, and Schenk was deeply annoyed. Beethoven, however, when on the point of following Haydn to Eisenstadt, wrote very gratefully to Sohenk,^ and the two remained on pleasant terms. It is interesting to know that besides Mozart and Beethoven, Schenk was acquainted with Schubert. Bauernfeld introduced them, and so congenial were they that after an hour's talk they parted like old friends.

Very unassuming in his ways, Schenk was 1 This surely Bays a great deal for Beethoven's patience, and for his desire not to offend Haydn. 2 1 wish I were not starting to-day for Eisenstadt. I should like to liave had more talk with you. In the meantime you may gratitude for the kindness you have shown me. I count upon power to return It. I hope to see you and enjoy shaU do aU in your society again soon. Farewell, and do not forget your Bbbt-

my my

HOVBM."

as a thorough though somewhat pedantic teacher of the piano and composition. His portrait, in the Museum of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna, shows a pleasing [Two cantatas, Die Huldigung countenance. and 'Die Mai,' his last complete compositions, date from 1819] and at an advanced age he set about remodelling his ' Jagd,' for which he got He Bauernfeld to write him a new libretto. had finished the first act when he died, Dec.

respected

'

29 1836

c

SCHEEZANDO,

SCHERZOSO,

F P playful,

a direction of frequent occurrence, in; dicating a passage of a light and cheerful character. It is occasionally used, inx;ombination with some other direction, to indicate the style of a whole movement, as Allegro schereando, Allegretto scherzando (Beethoven, Symphony No. 8), etc., but its more usual and characteristic application is to a phrase which is to be played in a lively manner, in contrast to the rest of the movement or to some other phrase. In such passages, as a rule, the time is intended to be taken more freely than usual, while any marks of phrasing which occur should be strictly adhered to. In fact the phrasing of a scherzando passage is of paramount importance, for by it alone can the proper character be given. The word is found, where one would little expect it, in the old editions of Beethoven's Mass in D, near the beginning of the ' Et vitam venturi ' but on reference to Breitkopf & Hartel's complete edition it turns out to have been read in error lively

—

for sforzccndo

m.

!

SCHEBZO. An Italian word signifying or

'

and

joke. '

— —

Its application in

as is the case with

music

many

is

'

j est

extensive,

other musical

Most of the movements, from the time of Mendelssohn onwards, would be better designated as Caprices or Capriccios. Obviously the word signifies that the piece to which it applies is not merely of a light and gay character, but is of the nature of titles

often incorrect.

'

'

'

'

a joke, in that it possesses that rare quality in music, humour. But, exclusive of Haydn and Beethoven, what musician shows humour, real unaffected drollery, in his music ?

The term seems

to have been first employed

(Scherzando) merely as a direction for performance, but there are early instances of its use as a distinctive title. The light Italian oanzonete popular in Germany in the 17 th century were called Scherzi musicali. Late in the 17th century Johann Schenk published some ' Scherzi musicali per la viola di gamba.' Later, when each movement of an instrumental composition had to receive a distinctive character, the directions Allegretto scherzando and Presto scherzamdo became common, several examples occurring in the Sonatas of Ph. Em. Bach. But even in the 'Partitas' of his great father, we find a. Scherzo preceded by a Burlesca and a Fantaisie,

though some

modem

ears can discover little of

SCHERZO

SCHERZO humour

or fancy in either of these. of the Gigues are far more frolicsome

Many than

these.

to the period of the Symphony it as well to remind the reader of a fact which will be more enlarged upon under that heading, namely, that the presence of the

Coming

may be

Minuet or Scherzo in works of the symphonic a matter of natural selection, or survival In the old Suites the Minuet, being of rather shorter rhythm than the other dances, was seized upon, perhaps unconsciously, by the great masters who tied themselves down to the old form, and was exaggerated out of all The actual recognition for the sake of contrast. Minuet, as danced from the 16th century up to the present day (if any one still learns it), is in the time of that famous specimen in

class, is

of the

fittest.

80. Yet Mozart's ' Don Juan,' or say M.M. even in the Suites of Bach one finds quick and slow Minuets, neither having any regard to the [The slow tempo requirements of the dance. was obligatory only where dancing was concerned ; quicker Minuets were recognised in quite early days.] When we come to Haydn the term Minuet ceases to have any meaning ; the stateliness and character of the dance are quite gone, and what we should call a Waltz appears. But with the true instinct of an artist, Haydn felt that in a work containing such heavy subtleties (for even Haydn was deemed heavy and subtle once) as the ordinary first movement and slow movement, a piece of far lighter character was imperatively demanded. So lighter and quicker and more sportive grew the Minuets, till Beethoven crowned the incongruous fashion with the ' Minuet ' of this First Symphony. It should be mentioned, however, that Mozart never departed nearly so far from the true Minuet as Haydn, whose gaiety of musical thought drove him into really inventing the Scherzo, though he did not use the name. The Minuets of many of the String Quartets of Haydn exhibit indeed those quaint and fanciful devices of unexpected reiteration, surprises of rhythm, and abrupt terminations, which are the leading characteristics of the Scherzo, and are completely opposed to the spirit of the true Minuet. One which begins and ends each part with these bars

J=

a strong instance in point. Beethoven quickly gave the Scherzo the permanent position in the Symphony which it now is

occupies. It is a

He also settled its form and character.

good answer to those who consider the forms worn out and irksome to the

classical

flow of inspiration to point out that in the Scherzo, where full rein is given to the individual

259

caprice of the musician, there is as

much

atten-

In tion given to construction as anywhere. fact, either the bold and masculine First-movement form, or its sister, the weaker and more feminine Rondo form, must be the backbone of every piece of music with any pretensions to the name. But, lest the light and airy character of the Scherzo should be spoilt by the obtrusion of the machinery, the greater composers have sought to obscure the form artistically by several devices, the most frequent and obvious being the humorous persistent dwelling on some one phrase generally the leading feature of the first subject and introducing it in and out of sea.son, mixed up with any or all of the other subjects. Witness the Scherzo of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, where the opening phrase for the drums is used as an accompaniment to the second subject indeed as a persistent motto throughout. Apart from this there is not the slightest departure from

— —

—

'

rigid

'

First-movement form in this great move-

ment.

The Trio, which is a relic of the Mintiet and takes the position of third subject or middle section in a Rondo, survives because of the naturally felt want of a contrast to the rapid rhythm of the Scherzo. Many modern composers affect to dispense with it, but there is usually a central section answering to it, even though it be not divided off from the rest by a double bar. Mendelssohn has been the most successful in writing Scherzos without Trios. The main idea was to have a movement in extremely short and marked rhythm, for which purpose triple time is of course the best. In the Pianoforte Sonatas the Scherzo to that in Eb (op. 31, Ko. 3) is the only instance where Beethoven has employed 2-4. The Trios to the Scherzos of the Pastoral and Choral Symphonies are 2-4 and effect

and

contrast.

C It

for special reasons of

may be worth

noticing

Beethoven invariably writes 3-4 even where 6-8 or 3-8 could equally well have been employed. This is no doubt in order that the that

written notes should appeal to the eye as much as the sounded notes to the ear. In fact three crotchets, with their separate stems, impress far more vividly on the mind of the player the composer's idea of tripping lightness and quick rhythm than three quavers with united tails. Having once ousted the Minuet, Beethoven seldom re-introduced it, the instances in which he has done so being all very striking, and showing that a particularly fine idea drove him to use a .worn-out means of expression. In several cases (PF. Sonatas in E|>, op. 7 ; in F, op. 10, etc.) where there is no element of humour, he has abstained from the idle mockery of

calling the movement a Minuet, because it is not a Scherzo, as others have done yet, on the other hand, the third movements of both the First Fourth, and Eighth Symphonies are ;

'

f260

SCHEEZO

SCHERZO

Minuets while having little or nothing in common with even the Symphony Minuets of Haydn and Mozart. Amongst Beethoven's endless devices for novelty should be noticed the famous treatment of the Scherzo in the G minor Symphony ; its conversion into a weird and mysterious terror, and its sudden reappearance, all alive and well again, in the midst of the tremendous jubilation of the Finale. Symphony No. 8, too, presents some singular features. The second movement is positively a cross between a slow movement and a Scherzo, partaking equally of the sentimental and the humorous. But the Finale is nothing else than a rollicking Scherzo, teeming with eccentricities and practical jokes from beginning to end, the opening jest (and secret of the movement) being the sudden unexpected entry of the basses with a tremendous sharp, afterwards turned into D flat, and the final one, the repetition of the chord of F at great length as if for a conclusion, and then, when the hearer naturally thinks that the end is reached, a start off in tnother direction with a new coda and

^called

wind-up. As a specimen of true Scherzo that is, a movement in strict form and with quaint and whimsical humorous devices springing up unthe expectedly, but naturally, throughout, Scherzo of the Ninth Symphony must ever stand without a rival. The tiny phrase which is the nucleus of the whole is feooentrioally introduced, and prepares us at the outset for aU

—

—

The idea of of starts and surprises. using the drums for this phrase seems to have tickled Beethoven's fancy, as he repeats it again manner

and again.

Humour is more unexpected in Schubert than in Beethoven, and perhaps because of its unexpectedness we appreciate it the more. The major Symphony is full of Scherzo of the happy thoughts and surprises, as fine as any of Beethoven's, and yet distinct from them. The varied changes of rhythm in two, three, and four bars, the piquant use of the wood wind, and above all the sudden and lovely gleam of sunshine Fhite.

is

truly comical. It is much to be

more

regretted that the

composers have lost sight of the true Mendelsbearing of the Scherzo so completely. sohn indeed has given it an elfish fairy character, but though this is admirable in the 'Midsummer Night's Dream,' it is perhaps a Lightness and little out of place elsewhere.

modem

airy grace his Scherzos possess to admiration, in common withhisCapricoios, which they closely

but the musical humour which vents unexpected rhythms and impudent upstartings of themes in strange places, neither he nor any later composer seems to have had an idea of. Mendelssohn has not used the title 'Scherzo' to either of his five symphonies, though the 'Vivace non troppo' of the Scotch, the resemble

;

itself in

Allegretto of the Ldbgesang, and the Allegro Vivace' of the Meformation are usually called It is sufficient to name the String Scherzos.' Octet, the two PF. Trios and the two Quintets for Strings, as a few of his works which contain As the most striking specimens in this line. before mentioned, his Capriccios for Piano are pieces of the same order, and No. 4 of the Sieben Charakter-stucke' (op. 7) may be classed with them. With Schumann we find ourselves again in a new field. Humour, his music seldom, if ever, presents, and he is really often far less gay in He introduced his Scherzos than elsewhere. the innovation of two Trios in his Bb and Symphonies, PF. Quintet, and other works, but although this practice allows more scope to the fancy of the composer in setting forth '

'

'

'

'

strongly

contrasted

movements

related

in

rhythm, it is to be deprecated as tending to give undue length and consequent heaviness to what should be the lightest and most epigrammatic of music. Beethoven has repeated the Trios of his Fourth and Seventh Symphonies, Still, though but that is quite another thing. Schumann's Scherzos are wanting in lightness, their originality is more than compensation. The Scherzos of his orchestral works suffer also from heavy and sometimes unskilful instrumentation, but in idea and treatment are fuU Several of his Kreisleriana and other of charm. small PF. pieces are to all intents and purposes Scherzos.

Though the modern composers have not duced

combine to place this movement among the things imperishable. The Scherzos of the Octet, the Quintet in C, and above all, the PF. Duet in C, which Joachim has restored to its rightful dignity of Symphony, are all worthy of honour. The last named, with its imitations by inversion of the leading phrase, and its grotesque bass

many

pro-

remarkable Scherzos, it is not for want of trying. Bubinstein has a very pretty idea in 6-4 time in his Pianoforte Octet, and a very odd one in his A major Trio. The Ocean Symphony has two Scherzos, in excellent contrast, the first being in 2-4 time, and slightly Schumannish, and the second in 3-4 time, with The first of these is quite a Beethoven flavour. not, however, entitled.Scherzo by the composer '

— SCHETKY

SCHIEDMAYER

any more than is the second movement of his ' Dramatic Symphony. Unlike Schubert and Beethoven, Brahms

at the latter's request set to music his song,

'

seldom wrote a really bright Scherzo, but he published one for PF. solo (op. 4) which is very odd and striking. [It was the work which undoubtedly persuaded Liszt to include Brahms among the partisans of the 'advanced school,' a mistake which had many curious consequences. The PF. sonata (op. 5) has a Scherzo of wonderful vigour.] The Second Symphony has a movement which is a combination of Minuet and Scherzo, and certainly one of his most charming ideas. On somewhat the same principle is the Scherzo of the second String Sextet

36) which begins in 2-4 as a kind of Gavotte, while the Trio is 3-4 Presto, thus reversing the ordinary practice of making the Trio broader and slower than the rest of the (op.

piece.

Quite on a pedestal of their own stand the four Scherzos for piano by Chopin. They are

indeed no joke in any sense

; the first has been Banquet infernal,' and all four are characterised by a wild power and grandeur to which their composer seldom attained.

entitled 'Le

Among other productions may be noticed the Scherzo for orchestra by Goldmark,.the so-called Intermezzo of Goetz's Symphony, the Scherzos in Dvorak's Sextet, and other chamber works. We have omitted mention of the strangely instrumented ' Queen Mab ' Scherzo of Berlioz more of a joke in orchestration than anything. The position of the Scherzo in the Symphony whether second or third of the four movements is clearly a matter of individual taste, the sole object being contrast. Beethoven, in the large majority of cases, places it third, as affording relief from his mighty slow movements, whereas most modern composers incline to place it as a contrast between the first and slow movements. The matter is purely arbitrary. F. SSCHETKY, JoHANN Geokg Cheistofp, a composer, and an excellent performer on the violoncello. He was born at Hesse-Darmstadt in 1740, and was the son of Louis Schetky, secretary and musiojan to the Landgrave there. J. 6. C. Schetky was intended for the law, but developed musical abilities and became locally famous. He travelled to Italy and France, and obtained recognition and patronage at various courts. He returned to Hesse-Darmsfaidt, but after the death of the Landgrave set out for London. Robert Bremner, the music-publisher, having been commissioned by the gentlemen

—

—

directors of St. Cecilia's Hall, Edinburgh, to

engage a first violoncellist for the concerts held there, met Schetky at Lille, and brought him to Edinburgh, where he arrived in Feb. 1772, and there spent the remainder of a long life. He played at the Edinburgh concerts, and became associated with the musical life there. He was a friend of Robert Bums, and

261

'Clariuda, mistress of my soul,' printed with the music in the second volume of Johnson's Scots Museum, 1788. In 1774 Schetky married the daughter of Joseph Reinagle, senior, the Austrian musician, who was then settled in Edinburgh. He had several children by this marriage, one of whom, John Christian Schetky,

was marine painter to George IV. and to Queen Victoria.

Schetky, the musician, died in Edin-

burgh on Nov. 29, 1824, aged eighty-four, and was buried in the Canongate burial-ground. His published works consist of concertos, duets, trios, etc., for strings, and some harpsichord

They were principally, published by Robert Bremner. sonatas. torio,

'

if

A

not

MS.

all,

ora-

Die versohmachtende Verspottung des

zum Tode

verurtheilten Heylandes,' is at

Darm-

For some details of his life see Life of John C. Schetky, late Marine Fainter, by his daughter, and St. Cecilia's Hall, by David F. K. Eraser Harris, Edinbuigh, 1899. SCHICHT, JoHANN Gottfried, born at stadt.

Reichenau, Zittau, Sept. 29, 1753, owed his education to an uncle ; went to Leipzig University in 1776, intending to study law, but gradually adopted music, and was soon chosen by Adam Hiller as solo clavier player at his concerts. On Hiller's retirement he succeeded him in 1785, and at length in 1810 rose to the head of his profession as Cantor of the Thomasschule. He died Feb. 16, 1823, leaving many large works (three oratorios, much chmch and chamber music), as well as a translation of the PF. Schools of Pleyel and Clementi, and of Pellegrini-Celoni's Singing

Method,

etc.

one which will live, his edition of J. motets (Breitkopf & Hartel, 1802-3).

SCHICKHARD,

or

,

but only Bach's

S.

G.

SCHICKARD, Johann

Christian, a composer resident at Hamburg about 1730. His works were chiefly published at Amsterdam, but were republished by tlie They compi'ise elder John Walsh in England. instrumental pieces, including solos for a flute and bass, op. 17 concertos for flutes, op. 19 solos for German flute, hautboy, or violin, op. 20 sonatas for two violins and a bass, op. 5 sonatas for two German flutes and a bass, op. 10 and some others. These were all published by Walsh, and reissued by Randall. F. K. SCHICKSALSLIED (' Song of Destiny '), a short cantata or ode for chorus and orchestra, :

;

;

;

;

;

words by Friedrioh Holderlin, music by Brahms, op. 54. It was first performed from manuscript by the Carlsruhe Philharmonic Society, under the composer's direction, Oct. 18, 1871. It was published by Simrock in the following December, and was performed early in 1872 at Leipzig, Bremen, Breslau, Frankfort, and Vienna. First performed in England by the Cambridge University Musical Society, March M. 8, 1877.

•

SCHIEDMAYER.

There are now two firms

'

SCHIEVEE

SCHIKANEDEE

of this name in Stuttgart, both enjoying wide reputation aa pianoforte-makers, viz. ' Sohiedmayer & Sons,' and Scliiedniayer Pianofortefabrik ; vormals, J. & P. Schiedmayer.' The heads of these firms are the gi-andsons and great-gi-andsons of Johann David Schiedmayer, who towards the close of the 1 8th century was a musical instruihent maker at Erlangen, and afterwards at Nuremberg, where he died in 1806. His son Johann Lorenz (born 1786) went after this for two years to Vienna as a workman, and in 1809 established a business at Stuttgart in partnership with C. F. Dieudonne (who died in 1825). Before that time pianoforte-making was virtually unknown in Stuttgart, those who required satisfactory instruments obtaining them from Vienna. Lorenz Schiedmayer's intelligence and aptness for business gained a position for his firm, and it soon became one of the first in Germany. In 1845 Lorenz united his two eldest sons, Adolf and

chamber music remains constant, the Schiever Quartet,' in which he is associated with A. Ross (second violin), Carl Courvoisier (viola), and Walter Hatton (violoncello), being an institution favourably known in the north of Engw. w. c. land,

262

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to himself, and Schiedmayer & Sons' soon became as well known in foreign countries as in Wilrtemberg. Lorenz died in 1860 and his son Hermann in 1861. The sons of the brothers Adolf (1820-1890) and Hermann, bearing the same Christian names, have been for many years the directors of this firm, which has made both concert and ordinary instruments, and has competed with success in

Hermann,

'

London and Paris and other exhibitions. The two younger sons, Julius (1822-78) and Paul (died June 18, 1890) at first devoted themselves to harmonium-making, then of recent introduction, a practical knowledge of which had been gained by Paul in Paris. They started together in 1854, but after the death of the father, in

1860, turned to pianoforte-making in competiand the younger firm is now known as 'Schiedmayer, Pianoforte-fabrik.' Special mention must be made of Julius Sohiedmayer's prominence as an expert in the Juries of the great Exhibitions of London, 1862; and Philadelphia, Paris, 1867 ; Vienna, 1873 A. or. H. 1876. tion with the elder firm,

;

SCHIEVER, Ernst, violinist, was born at Hanover on March 23, 1844. Studied under Joachim, 1860-64. In 1868 joined the Miiller Quartet, with which he travelled as leader until its dissolution in 1869, and became in the same year a teacher at the Hochsohule and Remained a member of the Joachim Quartet. in Berlin two years, organising with Hermann Franke (second violin), Leonhard Wolff (viola), and Robert Hausmann (violoncello) another quartet party, which was engaged subsequently by Count Hochberg, and became known as the Graflioh Hochberg Quartet of Schloss Rohnstook near Striegau in Silesia. Came to England in 1878, making Liverpool his headquarters, and undertaking the leadership of the Richter orchestra, with which he has been connected His sympathy with for nearly thirty years. '

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SCHIKANEDER,

Emmanuel,

theatrical

manager, playwright, actor, and singer, born 1751 at Ratisbon, began life as a poor wandering musician, joined some strolling players at Augsburg in 1773, married the adopted daughter of the manager, and at length undertook the In- 1780 his wanderings direction himself. brought him to Salzburg, where he fell in with the Mozarts, and at once began to make a In 1784 we profit out of Wolfgang's talents. find him in Vienna, giving with Kumpf a series of excellent performances of German opera, comedy, etc., at the Kamthnerthor theatre. He appeared on the boards both here and at 'the Burgtheater, where, however, he did not He next took the management of the succeed. theatre at Ratisbon, but was recalled to Vienna by his wife, who had undertaken the little theatre lately built in the grounds of Prince Starheraberg's house in the suburb of Wieden, for which Schikaneder received a, privilegium, or jje had no scruples as to the means licence.! to be adopted to make a hit, but in spite of

On large receipts was continually in difficulty. one such occasion (March 1791) he had recourse to Mozart, whom he implored to set to music a libretto adapted by himself from a piece by Mozart, Gieseoke, a member of his company. always good-natured, especially to a brothermason, consented, and from that moment till its completion Schikaneder stuck closely to him, and did all he could to keep him amused over his work. The history of the Zauberflote Schikaneder made various sugis well known gestions in the composition, took the part of Papageno, and found himself saved from ruin by the success of the opera but he showed little gratitude to Mozart, and after his death, instead of helping the widow of the man by whom he had benefited so materially, contented In himself with loud and vain lamentations. 1800 he entered into partnership with a merchant named Zitterbarth, who at a short distance from the small theatre just mentioned, built the present Theater an - der - Wien,' opened June 13, 1801. Zitterbarth then bought the privilegium from Schikaneder, who managed it for him till 1806. His next project was to build, with the assistance of some wealthy friends, a new theatre in the Josephstadt suburb, On his way to but this he did not carry out. Pesth, whither he had been invited to undertake a theatre, he went mad, was brought back to Vienna, and died in great misery Sept. 21, 1812. Schikaneder wrote the librettos for many '

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1

It was popularly called Schikaueder's theatre.

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SCHILLING

SCHINDELMEISSER

popular operas, Singspiele, and fairy-pieces, the list of which, with year of performance, is here published for the iirat time

performed at Sohwerin and 'Moloch' (Dresden, 1906) are at present in MS. T>. H. SCHIMON, Adolf, son of an Austrian

'Der

:

;

'

well known for his portraits of Beethoven, etc., was born on Feb. 29, 1820, at Vienna. At sixteen he went to Paris and entered the Conservatoire as a pupil of Berton and Halevy. In 1 844 he brought out an opera called ' Stradella,' at the Pergola in Florence. In 1850 he was in London, and took a provincial tour with Balfe, Keeves, and Clara Novello. From 1854 to 1859 he was attached to the Italian opera in Paris, and in 1858 produced a comic opera 'List um List,' which was artist,

Weber, Spohr,

Schellenkappe'(SchaGh.,Gerl,aDd others), 1792; 'DieElsenkonigln,' 'Die WaldmSnner.' and 'Der Zauberpfell' (LlcklJ, 1793; 'Der Spiegel von Arkadien' (SOssniayer). and 'Die Hirten am Bheln,' Der Scheerenschleifer (Henneberg), Der Kiinigssohn aus 1794 Ithaka' (A. F. Hotfmeister). and 'Der HOUenberg' (WOlfl), 1795; 'Der Tyroler Waatel'' (Halbel), and a secoud part Oesterreich'a treue BrUder,' 1796 ; Das mediziniBche Consilium (Haibel), ' Der LSwenbrnnnen (Seyfried), and 'Babylon* Pyramiden' (Act i. Das Labyrinth.' or * Kampf Gallua, Act ii. Peter Winter), 1797 mit den Elementen (second part; of ZauberflOte,' Winter), 1798 ConDie Ostindier voin Spittelberg (Seyfried, St^rmayer, etc.). rad Lanebarth.' or 'Der Bnrggelst' (Henneberg), 'Minna und Peru,' or 'KOnigspflicht' (Act i. Henneberg, Act ii. Seylried). and 'Der Schiffchen Amors Wundermann am Wasserlall (Seyfried). 1799 (Seyfried), 1800. At the Theater an-der-Wien—opening night— 'Alexander* (Teyber), 'Thespis Tiaum,' and Prote\ifl und Ara'Tsehingl Tschiiigl' (Haibel), biens Sohne' (Stegmayer), 1801 Die Entlarvten,' a continuation of the WaldmSnner (An1802 ton Fischer), and F^ndong und FersonalarrBst (Teyber). 1803 Der Stein der Weisen (Sehack and others), 1804 ' Swetards ZauDie EisenkOnigln (Henneberg), and Die berthal (Fischer), 1805 Knrgfiste am Sanerbronnen (Anton DiabeUi), Schlkaneder'a last piece, given for his benefit, 18()6. q, y. P. ;

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SCHILLING, Dr. Gustav, author of a book inuch esteemed in Germany, though little known in England Encyclopadie der gesammtcn musikalischen Wissenschaften oder Universal Lexikon der Tonkumt (7 vols. 8vo, Stuttgart, He was horn Nov. 3, 1803, at 1835-40).

Schwiegershausen, Hanover, where his father was clergyman. He wag brought up at Gbttingen and Halle, and in 1830 settled in Stuttgart as director of Stbpel's Music School. In 1857 he went to America, and died at Nebraska in March 1881. He published several other works bearing on music, but none of the G. importance of that already mentioned. SCHILLINGS, Max, was born at Diiren in He studied Eheinland, on April 19, 1868. under K. Joseph Brambach and 0. F. von From the former he Kbnigslow, at Bonn. derived the traditions of both Himimel and Beethoven, as shown through the medium of the teaching of Hiller, whose pupil' Brambach was while from the latter he inherited, musically, the methods of David the violinist, and Moritz Hauptmann the distinguished theorist. On leaving Bonn, Schillings continued his studies at Munich, where, after three years spent in perfecting himself in all branches of his art, he decided to settle. He was appointed chorusmaster at Bayreuth in 1902, having acted as one of the assistant stage conductors there in 1892. His compositions, fairly numerous, show but the composer is a high order of talent decidedly dominated by the influence of Wagner. Among his published works may be mentioned ;

;

two Symphonic Fantasias, 'Meergniss' and 'SeeZwiegesprach for small orchestra, morgen Abendsolo violin, and solo violoncello dammerung for baritone, violin, and piano Improvisation for violin and piano the oraccompaniments to Wildenbruch's chestral and music to Oedipus Rex Hexenlied '

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three acts,

;

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;

several books of songs.

in

him again Anna Eegan.

find

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North Germany. In 1872 we at Florence, where he married (See below). From 1874 to 1877 he was teacher of singing in the Conservatorium at Leipzig, and from thence was called to Munich, where he was professor of singing in the Royal Music School. His original compositions embrace quartets, trios, and solos for the PF., and songs in various languages, and he edited many vocal pieces by Scarlatti, Porpora, Paradies, and other old Italian masters. He died at Leipzig, June 21, 1887. His wife, Anka Regan-Sohimon, was bom at Aich, near Carlsbad, Sept. 18, 1841, and was brought up in the house of Dr. Anger in Carlsbad, till 1859, when she was placed as a pupil

successful

;

;

Pfeifertag,' first

in 1901,

Die beiden 'Anton der domme (Krtner (Sehack and Gerl), 1789 Anions' {with 4 sequels). 'Jakob und Nannerl," and 'Der Stein der Weisen," or "Die Zauberinsel' (Sdmck and others), 1790; 'Die ZanberBQte' (Moaart), 1791; 'Der wohlthatige Derwisch,' or 'Die '

263

The operas Ingwelde,' '

produced at Carlsruhe in 1894,

with Mme. Schubert (k^c Maschinka-Schneider) in Dresden. In the following year she accompanied Mme. Sabatier-XJNGHER, the great contralto, to Florence, where she remained under the care of that eminent artist till Feb. 1864. During this time she made her first attempts on the stage at Siena, her success in which encouraged her in further study. From 1864 to 1867 she was engaged at the Court theatre at Hanover. Then as Kammersangerin to the Grand Duchess Helena in St. Petersburg, where she sang at three of the seven concerts given by Berlioz. In 1869 she visited London in company with her old friend and teacher, Mme. Sabatier, sang twice at the Philharmonic, and three times at the Crystal Palace, and at Hallo's From this time till 1875 she Recitals, etc. was frequently in England, widely known and much liked for her exquisite delivery of Schubert's and other songs. In 1870' and 1871 she visited Vienna with great success, and in 1872 married Dr. Schimon. She took two brilliant tournfes with Mombelli, Sivori, Trebelli, etc., in the winters of 1872 and 1873, and from that time till her death only appeared occasionally at the Gewandhaiis Concerts at Leipzig. [After her husband's death she accepted a post in the Royal Music School at Munich, where she died AprU 18, 1902.] g.

SCHINDELMEISSER,

Louis, was born at 1811, and educated at the at Berlin. Music he learned from

Konigsberg, Dec.

Gymnasium

8,

SCHINDLER

SOHIEA

a French musician named Hostie, and from Gahrich. He first adopted the clarinet, but afterwards took a wider range. From 1832 to

His book on Beethoven is entitled Biographie von I/udwig van Beethoven. Mit dem Portrat Beethoven's und zwei Facsimilen (Miinster, 1840, This was followed by Beethoven 1 vol. 8vo).^ . ein Nachtrag zur Biographic BeetParis hoven's, etc. (Miinster, 1842; 1 thin vol. 8vo), and that by a second edition of the Biographie with additions (Miinster, 1845, 1 vol. 8vo). The third and last edition appeared in 1860. Being so long about Beethoven he accumulated many autographs and other papers and articles of interest, and these he disposed of to the His sister was library at Berlin for an annuity. a singer, who in the year 1830 was engaged at the Konigstadt Theatre, Berlin. Schindler has been the object of much obloquy and mistrust, but it is satisfactory to know, on the authority of A. W. Thayer, that this is unfounded, and that his honesty and intelligence • G. are both to be trusted. SCHIRA, Fkancesco, was born at Malta,

264

1837 he

filled capellmeisters' posts

at Salzburg,

Innsbruck, Graz, then at Berlin (Kbnigstadt theatre), and at Pesth, where he remained for nine years. He at length came to an anchor as Court-capellmeister at Darmstadt, where he died March 30, 1864. His works embrace six operas 'Mathilda,' 'Ten happy days,' 'Peter von Szapary' (Pesth, 1839), 'Malvina' (Pesth, 1851), 'The Avenger,' 'Melusine' (1861); an oratorio, S. Boniface an overture to Uriel

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and incidental music to various plays concerto for clarinet and orchestra ; and a concertante for four clarinets and orchestra ; songs, Acosta,'

;

PF.

pieces, etc.

a.

SCHINDLER, Anton,

the devoted friend and biographer of Beethoven, was born in 1796 at Medl, Neustadt, Moravia, where his father was cantor and schoolmaster. He began the study of music and the violin early in life. While quite young he entered the Vienna University to study law, and assiduously kept up his music by practice in

an amateur orchestra.

His intro-

duction to Beethoven took place accidentally in 1814, when he was asked to take a note from Schuppanzigh to the great composer. Later in the year he played in Beethoven's two concerts of Nov. 29 and Dec. 2. He and the master met often, and the intimacy increased until, early in 1819, on the recommendation of Dr. Bach, he became a kind of secretary to Beethoven and at length, in 1822, took up his residence in the master's house. He then became conductor at the Josephstadt Theatre, w^here he studied several of Beethoven's great works under his own direction. Beethoven, however, at last

began to

tire of his

young

and after much

friend,

unpleasantness, in 1824, after the failure of the concert of May 23, the breach came. Beethoven behaved with great violence and injustice, and Schindler was driven from him till Dec. 1826, when he arrived in Vienna from Gneixendorf, to die. Schindler at once resumed his

him with devotion till his death, wrote several letters i to Moscheles on the details of the event, and in company with

position, attended

Breuning took charge of Beethoven's papers. Breuning died, and then the whole came into Sohindler's hands.

In 1831 he wrote some interesting articles on Beethoven and Schubert in Bauerle's Theaterzeitung. In December he left Vienna, and became capellnieister to the cathedral at Munster, a post which he exchanged four years later for that of music -director at Aix - la - Chapelle. After some years he relinquished this, became first a private teacher and then went entirely into private life. He lived in various towns of Germany, and at length in Bockenheim, near Frankfort, where he died Jan. 16, 1864. 1

Printed in MoBchelee'a

Life,

i.

145-79.

m

,

.

Sept. 19, 1815, received his early education at Milan, and was placed, at the age of nine (1824), in the Conservatorio, where he learned counter-

point under Basily, principal of that institution. seventeen, having completed his studies, Francisco was commissioned to write an opera for the Scala, which was produced Nov. 17, That ' Elena e Malvina ' won favourable 1832. recognition may be inferred from the fact that a Lisbon impresario, being at Milan with the object of forming a company for the Santo Carlos, contracted an engagement with Schiva for the forthcoming season as ' Maestro Direttore, Compositore e Conduttore della Musica.' He remained eight years at Lisbon, where he was also appointed Professor of Harmony and Counterpoint at the Conservatorio, composing ' I Cavalieri di Valenza ' and ' II Fanatico per la Musiea,' for the Santo Carlos, besides ballets,

At

cantatas, etc.

In January 1842 Schira quitted Lisbon for with the idea of obtaining some book in the French language which he might set to music. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Mr. Maddox, then in quest of artists for the Princess's Theatre. This led to an offer from the London manager, and Schira was appointed director of music and orchestral chief at that establishment. On Monday, Dec. 26, 1842, the Princess's opened as a, lyric theatre, and Schira's appearance at the conductor's desk was his first introduction to the English public. The opera chosen was an English version of La Sonnambula,' the leading characters sustained by Mme. Eugenie Garcia, Mme. Feron, Messrs. Templeton, Walton, and Weiss Mr. Loder (father of Edward Loder) being principal violin. Among notable incidents during Schira's term of conductorship may be specified the production of two operas by Balfe, originally comParis,

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3 Thia is the book which was translaterl or adapted by Sfoscheles (London, Colbum, 1641), strange to say with no mention of Schindler

on the

title-page.

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SCHIEMER

SCHIEA

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posed for the Paris Op6ra-Comique 'Le Puits (Nov. 1843), and Les Quatre Fils d'Aymon,' called The Castle of Aymon (Nov. 1844). At the end of 1844 Schira accepted an engagement from Alfred Bunn, then lessee of Drury Lane, to fill the place left vacant hy Benedict, who resigned immediately after Balfe's 'Daughter of St. Mark' was brought out. At Drury Lane he remained until the spring of 1847, when Bunn seceded from the management, the committee having entertained the proposal of Jullien to become future lessee ; and here several adaptations of foreign operas, besides a good number of works by English composers, were produced. From the latter it wiU suffice to name Wallace's Maritana and Matilda of Hungary, Macd' Amour,' called 'Geraldine' '

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farren's

'Don

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Quixote,' Benedict's 'Crusaders,'

Loretta ' (composed for Mme. Anna Bishop), Balfe's Enchantress, etc. ; among the former, Flotow's ' Stradella and Martha.

Lavenu's

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1848 Bunn took Covent Garden Theatre, and Schira was again appointed conductor. The season only lasted two months, but comprised the first theatrical engagement In

Sept.

after his brilliant success, the year before, at

Drury Lane, of Sims Eeeves, for whom an adaptation of Auber's Haydee ' was produced, the great English tenor assuming the part of Loredano ; another English adaptation of '

Rossini's

new

'

Donna

del

Lago

'

;

and an entirely comThe success of

opera, called 'Quentin Durward,' the

position of Henri

Laurent. the enterprise was not in proportion to the expectations of the manager ; ' Quentin Durward

was by no means a

hit,

and though Bunn had

lowered his prices the house was prematurely closed. Thus an opera, entitled ' Kenilworth, from Schira's own pen, which had already been put into rehearsal, with Sims Eeeves in the part of Leicester, was lost to the public, and no more English opera was heard at Covent Garden until Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison migrated from the Lyceum, to carry on their undertaking in a more spacious arena. Although he had severed his connection with the Princess's as musical director, in which position his worthy successor was Edward Loder, Schira wrote two original works for the theatre in Oxford Street 'Mina,' produced in 1845, and Theresa, or the Orphan of Geneva, in 1850, both, the latter especially, received with marked favour. Schira was once more engaged as conductor at Drury Lane, and the theatre opened on Jan. 23, 1852, with an English version of ' Robert le Diable, succeeded by ' Fra Diavolo, with Sims Reeves in the titlepart. The principal incident that marked the season was the production of The Sicilian Biide,' by Balfe, in no respect one of his most From this time Schira desuccessful efforts. voted himself specially to giving instructions He nevertheless did not in the vocal art.

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265

neglect composition, as testified in a number of charming songs, duets, trios, etc. , some of which have attained wide popularity. He also was busily employed in the composition of a grand opera called 'Niccol6 de' Lapi,' performed with marked applause at Her Majesty's Theatre in May 1863. For the Carnival at Naples, two years later, he wroteanother grand opera, entitled Selvaggia,' which was given with brilliant success, and represented at Milan, Barcelona, and elsewhere. The reception accorded to ' Selvaggia led to his being asked to write another opera, ' Lia,' for Venice. This, also brought out during the Carnival, was hardly so much to the taste of the Venetians as its precursor. Nevertheless, there are amateurs who regard ' Lia as Schira's best work. The managers of the Birmingham Festival commissioned Schira to write a cantata for the meeting of 1873, and he wrote a piece entitled ' The Lord of Burleigh,' the libretto, by '

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Desmond Lumley Ryan, being founded upon Tennyson's well-known poem, though not a line was appropriated, save the motto which heads the title-page of the printed edition. An operetta entitled 'The Ear-ring' was performed at the St. George's Hall Theatre. His music, while revealing the hand of one who has thoroughly mastered the principles of his art, was free from all pretence, relying upon its unaffected simplicity and grace for its impression. instructor in singing Schira always main-

As an

tained a high position, many a public vocalist of note having profited by his counsels. In his own country and elsewhere abroad, he held the insignia of several orders of merit, the most prized of which was that of Commendatore della Corona d' Italia prized the more because conferred by King Humbert, mohi propria. Schira died in London, Oct. 16, 1883. j. w. D. SCHIRMER, G. is the corporate name under which is earned on the music-publishing and trading business established in New York by Gustav Schirmer, and which has attained to a place among the largest and most important of its kind in the world. Gustav Schirmer, born in Saxony in 1829, went to New York in 1837, and entered the music -shop of Scharfenberg and Luis. In 1854 he became the manager of Breusing's music business, which had been founded in 1848 by Kerksieg and Breusing. In 1861, with B. Beer, he took over this business, which was then carried on under the name of Beer & Schirmer, when Schirmer obtained com'

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plete control. Under his management it steadily increased in standing and • influence. Gustav

Schirmer died in 1893 in Eisenach, while journeying in Germany in the hope of restoring In the same year the business was his health. incorporated by his heirs, and its management undertaken by his two sons Rudolph E. and Gustave Schirmer (the latter died July 1 5, 1 907), who extended it still further in importance.

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SCHLAGINSTRUMENTEN

SCHLICK

department of publication. The firm haa a large engraving and printing plant of its own, being one of the few maintained by

His first serious effort was degree of enterprise. an edition of Mozart's operas in PF. score, for which Horace Vemet designed the title-page. This was followed by editions of the complete

266

especially the

American publishing-houses. The catalogue of G. Schirmer numbered about 18,000 active titles in 1906. Among the most important of its publications

the Library of Musical Classics, comprising about 850 numbers and a series of modern operas in vocal score with analytical and historical prefaces written by the foremost musical writers of theUnited States. G. Schirmer has published the works of many American composers, including Dudley Buck, George W. ai-e

Ohadwiok, Arthur Whiting, Henry Holden Huss, Horatio W. Parker, Ethelbert Nevin, and especially Charles Martin Loeffler. The literary publications of the house include theoretical works by Dr. Percy Goetsohius. Dr. Theodore Baker, and others. It established and maintained for many years the principal circulating music library in the United

States ; but this was transferred in 1906 to the Institute of Musical Art. r. a.

SCHLAGINSTRUMENTEN.

Instruments of percussion, such as drums, cymbals, tambourine, etc.

SGHLEIFER.

See Slide.

SCHLEPPEN. To drag. A frequent direction in modem scores is 'Nicht sohleppend '

Don't drag

!

SGHLESINGEK.

A

well-known musicalIt was founded in 1795 by Adolf Martin Schlesinger, a man of original character and great ability. Among the principal work^ issued by him was the edition of Bach's Matthew Passion,' one of the fruits of Mendelssohn's revival of it,' and an publishing house in Berlin.

'

astonishingly bold undertaking for those days which Schlesinger brought out, according to his favourite expression, ' for the honour of the house.' It was announced in Sept. 1829, and published soon afterwards both in Full and PF. He also founded the Berliner Allg. mns. score. Zeitung, which under the editorship of A. B. Marx had for seven years (1824-30) much in-

—

fluence for good in p.

685a.]

He

Germany.

[See vol.

iii.

died in 1839.

His second son, HEiNRiCH(born 1807), carried on the business till his death. Dee. 14, 1879. He founded the Echo in 1851, a periodical which remained in his hands till 1864, when it was sold to R. Lienau.

The eldest son, Moritz Adolf, left Berlin, and in 1819 entered the bookselling house of Bossange pere at Paris. In 1 823 he endeavoured • to found a similar business for himself. Police difficiUties prevented him from carrying out his intention, and he founded, in 1834, a music business instead, which for many years has had the lead among French publishers, and is now nearly as famous as Paris itself. He brought his German tastes with him, and an unusual 1

March

11. 1829.

See Marx'a Erinn&nvngen,

il.

pp. 50, 87.

works of Beethoven, Weber, Hummel, etc., Collection de chefs d'ceuvre in twentyHe published also the fuU scores of four vols/ Meyerbeer's 'Robert,' and 'Les Huguenots'; Halevy's 'L'fclair,' 'La Juive,' 'Les MousqueLa Reine de Chypre, Guido et Ginevra, taires,

and a

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La Favorite 'Symphonic fantastique,' and overture the arrangements Camaval Romain to the of Wagner; the chamber -music of Onslow, Reissiger, and a host of other pieces of all descriptions, for which the reader must be re'

VI

Charles

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Donizetti's

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Berlioz's '

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ferred to the catalogue of the firm.

Amongst

educational works the ' M^thode des Methodes is conspicuous. On Jan. 5, 1834, he issued the first number of the Gazette MusiccUe, which in a few months was united to the Bevvs Musicale and ran a useful and successful course

the

'

till its

expiry in 1880.

[See amte, p. 79.]

In

1846 M. Schlesinger sold the business to MM. Brandus and Dufour, and retired to BadenG. Baden, where he died in Feb. 1871. SCHLICK, Arnolt, the elder, was bom in Bohemia about 1460. Like Paumann of Nuremberg he was blind, a fine organist, and a luteplayer. He was a member of the Hofkapelle at Heidelberg before 1511, holding the post of organist to the Count Palatine. In the fourth

book of the Micrologus, 1517, dedicated

to

'mnsico consumatissimo, ac Palatini Prinoipis organisteprobatissimo,' Ornithoparcus From your sentence thus apostrophises him no man will enter appeale because there is no man either leameder, or subtiler in this art, than your selfe, who besides the practise, hast wisdome, eloquence, gentlenesse, quicknesse of wit, and in all kinds of musicke a divine industry, and further the knowledge of many other sciences. Thou wantest the bodily lamp, but in thy mind shineth that golden light wherefore not only by thy princes, who are to thee most gracious, but even of all men (like Orpheus and Amphion) art thou loved' (Dowland's translation, 1609). Schlick himself states in the preface to his 'Tabulaturen that he made tours through Germany and Holland, winning much renown as an organist, and that he was in Worms in 1495, at the time that the Reichstag was held there. Two of Schlick,

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Schliok's works are still in existence, the first

on organs and organists, the second, a volume in tablature. The Spiegel der Orgelmacher vnd Organisten, alien Stifften vnd Kirchen so Orgel halten oder machen lassen hoohniitzlich, of organ

and

lute

former was called

pieces

:

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duroh den hochberiimpten vnd kunstreichen Arnolt Pfalzgrauischen meyster Schlicken Organisten artlioh verfasst,' etc. (1511), small 4to, 30 pages (' Mirror of organ-builders and

.

SCHLICK

SCHLOESSER

very useful to all foundations and churches which possess or order organs, excellently composed by the celebrated and gifted master, A. S. organist to the Palatinate '). The only copy known lacks the page at the end which would have given the name of the publisher, but there is little doubt that it was printed by Peter Soliotfer, at Mainz. Eitner reprinted the whole work in the MonaishefU fur MusikgescMcJUe, 18'69, giving a facsimile of theengraved title-page. It deals with the materials to be used for the construction of an organ, its erection, the tuning of the pipes, and other technical and

Arnolt, asking his father ^o make him a collection of organ and lute music ; it is dated

organists,

to which is added a, description of the organs then in existence, and some allusions to the music of the period. theoretical matters,

paper on the history of musical pitch, read before the Society of Arts, March 3, 1880, refeiTed to this book as being of great use in showing the relation between very high and very low church-pitch, and the method of tuning before the invention of the mean-tone temperament. He notes also the curious fact that Schlick recommended both the very sharp and the very flat pitch, and for the same reason, consideration of the convenience of both singer and organist using the old ecclesiastical tones, that is, consideration of the compass of the voice and of ease in fingerThis appears to account for the high and ing. low pitches in the earlier period of church-pitch. Schlick's work is mentioned in Virdung's

Mr. A. E.

Ellis, in his

Musica getutscht, 1511 (see Eitner's reprint, page E. IV. V.) Dann icli neulich ein tractetlin han gelesen, das ist der spiegel aller organisten vnn orgehnaeher intituliert oder genannt, darin find ich in dem andem capitel, das er spricht der '

dann per fictam musieam spilen, weste der selb von den dreyen geschlechten zu sagen er wurd sye, nit fictam musieam nennen, dann das er maynt fictam musieam syn, organist well

das ist cromaticum genus man soil ihn aber verzeihen dann er hat es tibersehen, ists augen schuld, oder der spiegel ist dunckel worden,' etc. These remarks on his use of the term ' musica fieta did not at all please Schlick, and in return he made a long attack on Virdung in his preface to the 'Tabulaturen,' published the year after there are only two copies known of this important work, one in the Leipzig Stadtbibliothek, the other, without title-page, is in the Berlin Konigl. Bibliothek. The full title .

.

.

'

;

is

:

—

Tabulaturen etlicherlobgesangTiidlidlpinTff die orgelnvnlauten, ein tlieil mlt zweien utimen zu zwicken vn die di-it dartzu alugen, etlich on geaangk mit dreien.Ton Amolt Schlicken Ffalzgranischen ChuTf Ursflichen Organisteu tabulirt, vn In den truck in d'vreprungklichen stadt der truckerei zu M eintz wle hie nach volgt verordnet. (On last page) Getmckt zu Mentz durch Peter Schoffern. Vff Sant MattlielB Abent. Anno 1512, small obi. 4to, 83 pages unnumbered.

It contains fourteen organ pieces, twelve songs with lute accompaniment, and three pieces for Eitner reprinted (Monatshefte, 1869) all lute. They the organ and two lute compositions. are preceded by a letter from Schlick's son

267

Day, 1511, and an answer from do so, although he has become blind, is dated St. Andrew's Day, 1511. Some satirical verses about Virdung follow. Schlick's method of arranging songs, some with one -voice part and two lutes accompanying, others for three lutes only, is noted by Ambros (Geschichte der MusiJc, iii. 440) as being rather remarkable at that early date. Two examples were transcribed and published by 'Wilhelm Tappert (Sang u. Klang aus alter Zeit, Berlin, 1906). Schlick's volume is also the earliest appearance in print of organ pieces in the German tablature, for Ammerbach's Tabulaturhuch was not published until 1571, and Bemh. Jobin's work in 1572. The organ pieces are all taken from sacred vocal compositions, but are arranged with intelligence and artistic feeling, and with a musicianly touch that shows a genuine sense of instrumental composition the next step in advance was to be taken later on by Buns, Willaert, and others, in their Eiceroari for the organ (Wasielewski, Geschichte der Insiru•mentalmusik im X VI. Jahrhunderi, 1878). No. 10 from 'Tabulaturen, 'an organ arrangement in three-part viriting of Maria zart," was published in A. G. Hitter's Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, In the Heilbronn Gymnasial1884, ii. 96. bibliothek is a MS. part-book with the Bass only of a three-part song 'Mi, mi,' by Arnolt Schlick. A manuscript, Mus. Theoret. 40, 57, written between 1533 and 1540, in the Berlin Konigl. Bibliothek, contains a treatise De musica poetica, which has been ascribed to Arnolt Schlick the St. Catherine's

his father promising to

'

'

;

'

'

'

younger, because of the initials A. S. attached to it. It is described by H. Bellermann (ZJcr Oonlrapunct, 1862, p. 28) who gives a facsimile of one of the musical examples in it, a four-part setting by Heinrich Isaac ; it is interesting because of the different parts being distinguished by different colours, the soprano and bass being written in red, the alto in green, and the tenor in black ink. c. s. SCHLICK, Rudolf, a doctor of medicine who lived in Meissen, published the following work : ' KodholfB Schlickii E Exercitatio, qua musices origo prima, cultus antiquissimus, dignitas maxima, et emolumenta, quae tam animo quam oorpori humano confert summa, breviter ac dilucidfe exponuntur. Spirae, typis Bernard! Albini, 1588, 8vo, pp. 48.' A copy is in the Bodleian Library, with ' Robertus Bm-ton, 1600,' on the fly-leaf, probably the author of the Anatomy of Melancholy. c. s. SCHLOESSER, Louis, born at Darmstadt in 1800, learnt music there from Rinck, and in Vienna from Seyfried, Salieri, and Mayseder. In due time he entered the Conservatoire at Paris, and attended the violin class of Kreutzer and the composition class of Lesueur. He then went to Darmstadt and became first leader

';

SCHMITT

SCHMELTZL

268

and then conductor of the Court band. His works comprise five operas, among them Das Leben ein Traum' (1839), and 'Die Braut des Herzogs (1847), a melodrama, music to 'Faust,' a mass, a ballet, and a quantity of instrumental music of all descriptions. He died at Darmstadt, Nov. 17, 1886. His son, Carl Wilhelm Adolph, was bom at Darmstadt, Feb. 1, 1830. He was educated by his father, and in 1847 established himself at Frankfort. In 1854 he went to England, where he has been ever since settled in London as an esteemed teacher. He was a professor at the Koyal Academy of Music '

'

until his retirement in 1903. He has published both in England and Germany a great number of PF. works, both solos and duets ; including

a suite dedicated to Cipriani Potter, and a set of twenty- four studies many songs and vocal pieces, and has many larger works in MS. His 'Schumann Evenings' in 1868 were well known, and did much to advance the knowledge of Schumann in England. G. SCHMELTZL, or SCHMELTZEL, "Wolfgang, a native of Kemnat in the Upper Palatinate, was at first a Protestant cantor at Amberg, where he married, but eventually forsook his wife and children, and became a Roman priest. About 1540 he was a schoolmaster in Vienna, and in 1544 issued the book by which he is known, a coUectionof Quodlibets for four and five voices, as well as folk-songs of the time. The title is ' Guter seltzamer vnd kunstreicher teutscher Gesang, sonderlich etliche kiinstliohe Quodlibet, Schlacht (bei Pa via), vnd .' dergleichen mit 4 oder 5 stimmen. It was printed at Nuremberg in four part-books. Copies are at Berlin, in the British Museum, and elsewhere. (See the Qtiellen-Zexikon, Eitner's DeiUscTies Lied, vol. i. and Monaishefte A long account of the f. Musilcgesch. iii. 201. book is given in the Sammelbdnde of the Int. Mus. Ges. vi. 80, by Elsa Bienenfeld.) M. SCHMID, Anton, Custos of the Hofbibliothek in Vienna, born at Pihl, near Leipa in Bohemia, Jan. 30, 1787, entered the Imperial Library at Vienna in 1818, became Scriptor in 1819, Custos in 1844, and died at Salzburg, July 3, 1857. His department as a writer was the history and literature of music and hymns. He contributed to the following works Dr. Ferdinand Wolfs Deber die Lais, Sequenzen, und Leiche (Heidelberg, 1841) Becker's Darstellung der musikalischen Literatw (supplement, Leipzig, 1839) A. Schmidt's Allg. Wiener musilc. Zeitung (from 1842 to 1848) ; Dehn's Cdcilia (from 1841 to 1848 Mayenoe, Schott) ; and the Oesterreich Blatter fur Lit. und Kunst (1844, 1845). His inde;

'

.

:

.

—

;

;

pendent works are Ottamano dei Fetrucci of Fossombrone, the inventor of moiidble mdal types for prvniing music, and his successors (Vienna, Rohrmann, 1845) Joseph Haydn und Nicolo Zingarelli, proving that Haydn was the author ;

of the Austrian national hymn (Vienna, Rohrmann, 1847) ; Christoph WUlibald Miter vun Gluck (Leipzig, Fleischer, 1864) ; also a work on chess, TschaMranga-vidjd (Vienna, Gerold,

1847).

To Sohmid in the first instance is due the and systematic arrangement of the

orderly

Hofbibliothek.

musical archives of the

In

recognition of his unwearied industry and research he was made a member of many learned c. F. P. societies in different parts of Europe. SCHMIDT, Bernhard. See Smith, Ber-

nard

Father Smith ').

('

SCHMIDT, JoHANN Christoph.

See Smith,

John Christopher. SCHMITT, a German musical family founded by a Cantor at Obemburg in Bavaria. His son Aloys was born at Erlenbach on the Main, August 26, 1788, and taught to play by

his

learned composition from Andre of Offenbach, and in 1816 established After himself in Frankfort as a PF. teacher. during which, a few successful years there among others, he had taught Ferdinand Hiller father

he

;

then

—

—and much

travelling, he migrated to Berlin, then to Hanover, where he held the post of Court Organist (1825-29), and lastly back to His Frankfort, where he died July 25, 1866. reputation as a teacher was great, though he

had

a,

passion for journeys,

and his pupils

He complained of his frequent absences. composed more than 100 works, of all descriptions,

including

oratorios,

masses,

and string

four

quartets,

operas,

two

besides some

useful PF. studies.

His brother Jakob, born at Obemburg, Nov. He settled in 1803, was a pupil of Aloys. Haipburg, where he brought out an opera 2,

('

Alfred der Grosse

of music, including solo

and with

')

and a prodigious amount

many

sonatas for the piano,

books of and ;

violin, variations, three

studies, etc., in all

more than 300 works

died June 1853. The son of Aloys, Geokg Aloys, was bom Feb. 2, 1827, during his father's residence at Hanover. Music came naturally to him, but it was not till after some time that he decided to follow it. He was then at Heidelberg university, and put himself under Vollweiler to serious study of counterpoint. His first attempt was an operetta called 'Trilby,' which was performed at Frankfort in 1850, with great success. He then passed some years in various towns of Germany, and at length, in 1856, was

by Flotow to Schwerin as Court-cappellmeister [he retired on a pension in 1892, and in the following year became head of the Mozartverein in Dresden]. In 1860 he visited London, and played with ^clat before Queen Victoria. called

;

He

wrote operas, music to plays, and orchestral and other works. [He edited and completed Mozart's great mass in minor (1901) he died ;

at Dresden, Oct. 15, 1902.]

Emma

Brandes,

— SCHNEIDER now Mme. Engelmann, was his

SCHNEIDEE

the eminent pianist,

pupil.

G.

SCHNEIDER, Geokg Abraham,

born April 1770, at Darmstadt, became a proficient on the horn, studied theory with Portmann, whose daughter he afterwards married. He was successively oboist in a Hessian regiment, hornplayer in the court bands of Darmstadt, Sohwerin, Eheinsberg, and Berlin. In 1812 or 1814 he undertook the duties of theatrical conductor at Eeval, but went back to Berlin in 1816, and in 1820 was made capeHmeister of the court He had opera, and director of military bands. a rare knowledge of musical instruments of all kinds, and wrote a large number of operettas, masses, cantatas, an oratorio, ' Die Pilgrime auf Golgotha,' symphonies, concertos, and chamber ((juellen-Leocikon; Eiemusic of all kinds. M. mann's Lexikon.) 9,

SCHNEIDER, Johann Christian

Fried-

rich, composer, teacher, and conductor, born Jan. 3, 1786, at Alt-Waltersdorf, near Zittau, composed a symphony at the age of ten. In 1 7 9 8 entered the Gymnasium of Zittau, and studied music with Schbnfelder and linger. In 1804 he published three PF. sonatas, and having entered the University of Leipzig in 1805 carried on his musical studies to such purpose that in

1807 he became organist of

St. Paul's, in

1810

director of the Seoonda opera, in 1812 organist of the Thomaskirche, and in 1817 director at

There he remained till the Stadt Theater. 1821, when he became capellmeister to the Duke of Dessau, whose music he much improved, and founded in the town a Singakademie, a schoolIn master's choral society, and a Liedcrtafel. 1829 he founded a musical Institute, which succeeded well, and educated several excellent musicians, Robert Franz among the number. Schneider was also an industrious composer, his works comprising oratorios 'Die Hollenfahrt des Messias'(1810), 'Das Weltgericht' (1819), 'Totenfeier' (1821), 'Die Sundfluth' (1823), 'Verlome Paradies' (1824), 'Jesu Geburt' (1825), 'Christus das Kind,' 'Pharao,' and

—

'Absalom' (1830), 'Das (1835), Salomonis 'I'empelbau' (1836), 'Bonifazius' (1837), 'Christus der Erlbser (1838), ' Gethsemane und Golgotha' (1838) ; 14 masses ; Glorias and Te Deums ; 25 cantatas ; 5 hymns ; 13 psalms, 7 operas ; 'Gideon'

(1829),

befreite Jerusalem

'

'

'

23 symphonies ; 60 sonatas ; 6 concertos ; 400 Lieder for men's voices, and 200 ditto for a all now forgotten except the men's single voice Schneider directed the musical part-songs.

—

of Magdeburg (1825), Nuremberg (1828), Strasburg(1830), Halle(1830 andl835), Halberstadt (1830), Dessau (1834), Wittenberg (1835), Coethen (1838 and 1846), Coblenz and Hamburg (1840), Meissen (1841), Zerbst (1844), and Liibeck (1847). He also published didactic works SlemerUarbitch der Harmonie und Tontaihimst (1820), translated into English (London, festivals

269

Vorschule der Musilc (1827); and The des Organislen (1829-30). oratorio of the ' Siindfluth ' was translated into English as The Deluge ' by Professor E. Taylor, published in London, and performed at the Norwich Festival of 1833. Schneider was a doctor of music, and a member of the Berlin and several other Academies. He died Nov. 23, 1853. Some traits of his curious jealous temper will be found in Schubring's Reminiscences of Mendelssohn, in Daheim for 1866, No. 26. He was vexed with Mendelssohn for his revival of Bach's Passion but the feeling passed away ; and in the Signale for 1866, Nos. 46, 47, 48, there are eight letters (18291845 (translated in the Musical World, Dee. 29, 1866, and Jan. 5, 1867) from Mendelssohn to him showing that they were on very good terms. When Mendelssohn's body passed through Dessau, on its way to Berlin, Schneider met it at the station, with his choir, and a lament was sung, which he had purposely composed, and which will be found in the A.M.Z. for 1847, No. 48. f. g. SCHNEIDEE, Johann Gottlob, the celebrated Dresden organist, brother of the preceding, was bom at Alt-Gersdorf, Oct. 28, 1789. He is said to have begun to learn organ, pianoforte, and violin, when only five. At twentytwo he was organist of the Leipzig University church, and by 1820 was recognised as one of the first organists living. To his fine playing at a Magdeburg Festival in 1825 he owed his Dresden appointment of Court organist, which he held till his death, April 13, 1864. From the organ-loft of the Hofkirche he made his influence felt ; how widely, may be gathered from the mere names of his pupils, amongst

1828);

Handbuch

'

—

whom

were Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt, Merkel, Topfer, Van Eyoken. The last four were amongst the thirty old pupils who composed and presented to him that graceful offering, the 'Jubel Album fur die Orgel,' in 1861, the fiftieth year of his artistic career. Schumann's studies with him permanently influenced the composer, and directly inspired or helped to inspire the Pedal Pianoforte Studies, and Fugues on the name of Bach ; and Mendelssohn confessed a like obligation and admiration. Schneider's reading of Bach derived straight from him by direct descent in only three removes ^was the best weapon in his equipment He always ended a lesson by as a teacher. playing one of the great fugues, or, especiSir Herbert Oakeley ally, 'organ chorales.' (Schneider's last pupil) used to talk much of his playing of these compositions. He liked playing some of the 48 ' on his deep-toned

—

—

'

Silbermann organ. Mendelssohn records in one of his letters his surprise at hearing him play the D major. He himself used to tell with pride how he ' tried upon Mendelssohn and another Professor of Music the B flat minor of '

— SCHOBEET

SCHNELLER

270

The Professor stood by his unmoved, but the composer of 'Elijah'

the second book. side

disappeared into a remote gallery, to hide his emotion. Schneider's few published works include an 'answer of thanks' to the 'Jubel Album,' a masterly Fantasia and Fugue in minor (op. 3),

D

B. M. o.

etc.

SCHNELLER. short

trill

The German name

or inverted

for the

mordent

She died at the Vincena teacher of singing. A. c. tius Hospital there on Feb. 8, 1904. SCHOBERLECHNER, Franz, born at

Hummel composed Vienna, July 21, 1797. for him his second pianoforte Concerto, in C, which he performed in public with success when The precocious child was only ten years old. taken under the patronage of Prince Esterhazy, and sent to Vienna, to study under Forster. From 1814 he travelled in Austria and Italy. While at Florence he composed a requiem, and In the I Virtuosi teatrali.' a huffa opera, next year, having been appointed chapel-master to the Duchess of Lucca, he wrote Gli Arabi nelle Gallie,' and subsequently, at Vienna, in In 1823 he went 1820, 'Der junge Onkel.' He seems to have written to Beetto Russia. '

Written.

'

Played.

SCHNETZLER, Johann.

See Snetzlbk,

John.

SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD, bom

July

Ludwig,

1836, at Munich, the son of the painter Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, first received instruction in music from Julius Otto at Dresden, where, in 1846, his father became director of the Kunst Akademie. Inl854he was for a short time at the Leipzig Conservatorium, and later in the year studied for the stage under Eduard Devrient at Carlsruhe, where he became engaged. He made his debut in the modest part of Napthali in M^hul's Joseph,' and later made a great success as Robert (Meyerbeer). About this period he married the singer, Malwina Garrigues (born Deo. 7, 1825). On leave of absence, he sang in opera at Wiesbaden and Frankfort, and at festivals at Mainz and Diissel2,

'

dorf.

From 1860

to 1865 he was engaged at

Dresden, where he increased his popularity. In 1862 Wagner heard him when singing at Carlsruhe as Lohengrin, and was so struck with his performance that he determined to confide to him the part of Tristan whenever the opera was produced. Schnorr had been warmly recommended to the composer earlier, both by Tichatschek the singer, and Devrient, but for a time Wagner was not prepossessed in Schnorr's favour, on account of his unromantic figure, in spite of his talent and his enthusiasm for Wagner and his music. (Vide 'Meine Erinnerungen an L. S. V. C.,' Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musik, Nos. 24 and 25, 1868.) On June 10, 1865, Schnorr and his wife created the parts of Tristan and Isolde, when the opera was produced at Munich, at the express instance of the composer. Their leave of absence being limited, they returned to Dresden, July 15, and the tenor died six days after, of a chUl and rheumatism, caught at the first performance of the opera. He was a clever, all-round musician, an excellent pianist and extempore player, a composer, and arranger of songs of Bach, Gluck, and the old Italian school. He was also a painter and a writer of poetry. In 1867 his widow published a volume of poems by herself and her husband. After his death she was engaged at Hamburg, and finally at Carlsruhe, where, on her retirement, she became

hoven, before starting, for letters of introducAt St. tion, which the composer refiised.' Petersburg he recommended himself to dall' Occa, a professor of singing, whose daughter he After travelling in Germany married in 1824. and Italy, the pair returned to St. Petersburg in 1827, where Mme. Schoberlechner was engaged for three years at the Italian Opera at a Her husband comsalary of 20,000 roubles. fiosed for her an opera, II Barone di Dolzheim,' which had some success. In 1831 Schoberlechner retired to a country house near Florence. His last opera was 'Rossane,' produced at MOan, Feb. 9, 1839. He died at Berlin on Jan. 7, 1843. His published works are chiefly for the pianoforte a list of them is to be found in F^tis's '

;

Biog. d. Mus.

His

wife,

Madame Sophie Schoberlechner, daughter of Signdr dall' Occa, was born at St. Petersburg in 1807. Up to 1827 she appeared only in concerts, but was then enga,ged at the Italian

Opera of

St. Petersburg, as

we have

also already

mentioned. She had a veiy beautiful voice, and for twelve or thirteen years sang with unvarying success in almost all the principal towns of Germany and Italy. In 1840 she left the stage, retired to her husband's property in Tuscany, and died at Florence in 1863. f.a.m. SCHOBERT, or CHOBERT in Mozart's orthography, ^ a player on the harpsichord, whose sonatas were the delight of our great- grandmothers. His Christian name does not appear, and little is known of his biography. He is said to have been born in 1720, and brought up at Strasburg. He was at one time organist at Versailles, but was dismissed for negligence. He settled in Paris in 1760, in which year his first works were published there, where he was in the service of the Prince de Conti. On the occasion of his death, August 1767, Grimm, no mean judge of music, inserts in his Correspondence a very high eulogium on his merits as a player.

He ^

praises

him

for

'his

great

ability,

his

See Note to Beethoven's Letters, traiulated by Lady Wallace

vol. ii. p. 118. ' See Letter, Oct. 17,

Vm.

SCH(ELCHER

SCHOELCHER and enchanting execution, and an He had not unequalled facility and clearness. the genius of our Eckard, who is undoubtedly the first master in Paris but Schobert was more universally liked than Eckard, because he was always agreeable, and because it is not every one who can feel the power of genius.' This is the description of a pleasant brilliant player who never soared above the heads of his audience. He left seventeen sonatas for PF. and violin eleven for PF., violin, and violoncello ; three quartets for PF., two violins, and violoncello six sinfonies for PF., violin, and two horns six PF. concertos, and four books of sonatas for PF. solo.' These seem to have been originally published in Paris, but editions of many of them appeared in London between 1770 and 1780. The particulars of his death are given by Grimm. It was occasioned by eating some fungi which he gathered near Paris,

271

and he made during

the

his travels a most interesting collection of foreign musical instruments. His long stay in England had a still more remarkable result in his enthusiasm for Handel. Up to 1850 only the Messiah and a few other works of Handel had been given in Paris, but very spasmodically ; M. Schcelcher resolved to do something to remove this reproach from France. He accordingly made a, collection of Handel's works, and of books and pamphlets bearing on his life and music, a list of which he gives in the beginning of his book. To the autographs in Buckingham Palace and the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, and to the copies by Smith formerly in possession of Mr. H. B. Lennard, he obtained access, and thus provided, published The Life of Sandel, by Victor SchMcher, London, Triibner, 8vo, 1857. The author was materially assisted by Mr. Rophino Lacy,^ whose labours are amply acknowledged in the preface (p. xxii). 'The work was written by M. Schoslcher in French,

A

and translated by James Lowe. It contains much information beyond what is indicated in

brilliant

;

;

'

'

;

;

and which

killed his wife, his children,

a

friend,

Schobert and servant, and himself. ^ Eckard are alike forgotten by modem musicians. Minuetto and Allegro molto in E|> have been

reprinted in Pauer's ' Alte Meister ' (the former has been 'freely arranged' iu L. Godowsky's ' Renaissance ' Maitres '), other movements in the du Clavecin,' and a Sonata, so-called, in the Musical Library. These pieces are tuneful and graceful, but very slight in construction, the harmonies consisting chiefly of alternations of tonic and dominant, seldom in more than three parts, often bnly in two. Burney (Bist. iv. 591, 597) remarks that his music is essentially harpsichord music, and that he was one of the few composers who were not influenced by

Emanuel Bach.

6.

SCH(ELCHER, Victor, French

writer and politician, son of a manufecturer of china, was bom in Paris, July 21, 1804, educated at the College Louis le Grand, and well known as an ultra

-

republican.

On

the accession of the

Emperor Napoleon IIL he was expelled both from France and Belgium, but took refuge in London, where he brought out his Histoire des crimes du 2 Dicemhre (1853), and an English pamphlet entitled Dangers to England of the Allidmce wiOi the men of the Coup d'&at (1854). Schoelcher remained in England till August 1870, returning to Paris immediately before the Revolution of Sept. 4. As staflF-colonel of the Garde Nationale he commanded the Legion of Artillery throughout the siege of Paris. After Jan. 31, 1871, he was elected to the Assemblte Nationale by the Department of the Seine, Martinique, and Cayenne, and sat for Martinique till elected a life-senator (Deo. 16, 1875). His claim to a place in this work, however, is as a distinguished amatem-. His devotion to art of all kinds was proved by his articles in i'.. !

!

'

;

'

I

283

1814

To avoid a

similar danger * Schubert elected to enter his father's school, and after the necessary study for a few months at the Normal School of

Anna, did so, and actually remained there for three years as teacher of the lowest class. The duties were odious, but he discharged them St.

with

strict regularity, and not with greater severity than might reasonably be expected

from the

irritable

condemned

temperament of a musician

to such drudgery.

The

picture of

Pegasus thus in vile harness, and the absence of any remark on the anomaly, throws a curious light on the beginnings of a great composer. Out of school hours, however, he had his relaxations. There was a family in the Lichtenthal named Grob a mother, son, and daughter whose relations to him were somewhat like those of the Breunings to Beethoven (vol. i. p. 218J). The house was higher in the scale than his father's, and he was quite at home there. Therese, the daughter, had, a fine high soprano voice, and Heinrich Grob played both PF. and violoncello the mother was a woman of taste, and a great deal of music was made. It is not impossible that Therese inspired him with a softer feeling.3 The choir of the Lichtenthal church, where his old friend Holzer was still choirmaster, was his resort on Sundays and feast days, and for it he wrote his first mass, in F begun May 17, finished July 22, 1814 fitting pendant to the symphony of the previous October. He was not yet eighteen, and the mass is pronounced by a trustworthy critic* to be the most remarkable first mass ever produced, excepting Beethoven's in C, and as striking an instance of the precocity of genius as Mendelssohn's Overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream.' It seems to have been first performed on Oct. 1 6, the first Sunday after St. Theresa's day, 1814 Mayseder, then twentyfive and an acknowledged virtuoso, leading the first violins and was repeated at the Augustine Church ten days after. This second performance was quite an event. Franz conducted, Holzer led the choir, Ferdinand took the organ, Therese Grob sang, the enthusiasm of the family and friends was great, and the proud father presented his happy son with a five-octave piano.^

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;

—

—

'

—

;

was present and loud in his praises, and He had indeed claimed Schubert as his pupil. begun to take some interest in the lad before * he left the Convict, and continued it by daily That interest was lessons for a long time. ' probably much the same that he had shown to Salieri

'

'

fifteen years before, making him write to Metastasio's words, and correcting the But there must have prosody of his music. been some curious attraction about the old man,

Beethoven

to attach 3 3 * 5 ">

two such original geniuses as Beethoven

He See Ferd. p. See K,H. pp. 141 (i. 144). Prout, in MimtKy Mu*ical Record, Jan. and Feb. 1871. ' K.B.i.^ note. Ferd. p. I33S. Bauemfeld, in W.Z.K. June 9, 1829. yraa

three times suniiDoned to enlist.

IS-I.

!

;

1814—

284 and Schubert

and make them willing scholars of Salieri. i His influence on Schubert may be '

'

permanent measured by the fact that he warned him against Goethe and Schiller, a warning which Schubert attended to so far as to compose sixtyseven songs of the one pqet, and fifty-four of the other Franz's next eflbrt was an opera a light and absurd supernatural 'op4ra-comique in three acts, Des Teufels Lustschloss,' words by Kot2ebue. He probably began it while at the Gonvict, the first act having "been completed Jan. 11, 1814 ; the second, March 16 and the third. May 15. Two days afterwards he began the mass. That over, he had leisure to look again at the earlier work. The experience gained in writing the mass probably revealed many an imperfection in the opera. He at once rewrote it, and finished the revision of it on Oct. 22. The work was never performed. With all these and other labours he found time to visit the Convict ^ in the evenings, take part in the practices, and try over his new compositions. Besides the pieces already mentioned, the productions of 1814 embrace a Salve Begina Also two string for tenor and orchestra. quartets in D and minor respectively, and a third in Bb, published as op. 168, and remarkable for the circumstances of its composition. It was begun as a string trio, and ten lines It was then begun were written in that form. again and finished as a quartet. The movements are more fully dated than usual.' Also five minuets and six Deutsche (or waltzes) for and seventeen songs, among strings and horns them 'Gretchen am Spinnrade' (Oct. 19), and Schiller's 'Der Taucher,' a composition of enormous length, begun Sept. 1813, and finished On Deo. 10 he began in the following August. The autograph his second symphony, in Bl>.* shows that the short Introduction and Allegro vivace were finished by the twenty-sixth of the same mouth, but its completion falls in 1815. Before the year closed he made the acquaintance of Mayrhofer, a man of eccentric, almost hypochondriac character, and a poet of grand and gloomy cast, who became his firm friend, and fifty- four of whose poems' (besides the operas of Adrast and ' Die beiden Freunde von Salamanka '), fortunately for Mayrhofer's im-

—

'

'

;

;

'

'

he set to music

mortality,

— 1815

SCHUBERT

to him,

to style themselves

;

— some

of

them

For Beethoven eee vol. i. p. 222A. Schubert so styles himself on the title-pages of his 'Fernando' and 'Clandlne von Villa>

hella.'

*

among his very finest

songs.

The acquaintance

began by Schubert's setting Mayrhofer's Am He composed it on Dec. 7, and a few See.' days afterwards visited the poet at his lodgings in the Wipplinger Strasse 420 (since destroyed), a small dark room rendered illustrious by being the residence of Theodor Kbrner, and afterwards of Schubert, who lived there in 1819 and 1820. The visit was the beginning of a friendship which ended only with Schubert's '

death.

1815

crowded with compositions.

is literally

Two

orchestral symphonies of full dimensions, Nos. 2 and 3 (that in Bl> ended March 24, that in D,° May 24-July 19); a string quartet in minor (March 25-April J.) ; PF. sonatas in

G

E

E

an adagio Wiener Deutsche, eight Ecossaises (Oct. 3), and ten variations two masses, in G ^ (March for PF. solo 2-7) and Bb (Nov. 11~) ; a new 'Dona'^ for the mass in F a Stabat Mater in G minor five large (April 4) a Salve Eegina (July 5) Der vierjahrige Posten,' onedramatic pieces C, F,

in

G

(Feb. 11) and

.(April

(Feb. 18)

;

twelve

8),

;

;

;

—

;

'

Fernando,' oneact operetta (ended May 16) ; act Singspiel (July 3-9) ; ' Claudine von Villabella,' three-act Singspiel (Act 1, July 26'

5), originally composed complete, but Acts 2 and 3 were used by an officious Die beiden maid-servant for lighting fires Freunde von Salamanka,' a two-act Singspiel by Mayrhofer (Nov. 18-Dec. 31); 'Der

August

;

'

which eight numbers are with the Gesellschaft des MusikSpiegelritter,' three-act opera, of

freunde at Vienna ; perhaps also a Singspiel called 'Die Minnesanger,' and 'Adrast,' an opera by Mayrhofer, of which but seven numbers exist.' In addition to all these there are no less than 146 songs. In August alone there are over thirty, and in October over twenty, of which eight are dated the 15th and seven the 19th And of these 146 songs some are of such enormous length as would seem to have prevented their publication. Minona ' (MS. Feb. 8), the first one of the year, contains six' teen, and Adelwold and Emma' (MS., June 5) no less than fifty-five closely written sides. Of those published, 'Die Biirgschaft' ('Aug. 1815 ') fills twenty-two pages of LitolfFs edition, Elysium ' thirteen, and ' Loda's Gespenst ' fifteen of the same. It was the length of such compositions as these 'pas une histoire, mais des histoires' that caused Beethoven's exclama!

'

'

—

—

s It is in the usual number of movements Adagio maestoso and Allegro con brio (D) ; Allegretto /G) Minuet and Trio (D) ; Finale. Presto vivace (D). Dates ;— Allegro, at beginning, 24 May 1815 end, 'July 12, 1815.' Allegretto, at beginning, 'July 15, 1816.' End of Finale, 'July 19, 1815.' Autograph with Herr Dumba. 1 Published by M. fieiTa, of Prague, in 1846, as the composition of R. Fllhrer. [See vol. li. p. 1135]. 'rhe fraud was not exposed till 1847, when it wasannounced by Ferd. Schubert in the AUg. Wiener Sfusikteitung of Dec. 14. Ferdinand mentions this mass in his list under 1815. A copy, evidently copied closely from the autograph, but with the addition of oboes (or clarinets) and bassoons by Ferd. Schubert (July 23, 1847). is in the Library of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. 8 Mentioned by Ferdinand, p. 339a. B Autographs of Fernando, Teufels Lustschloss, and Adrast, are :

2

K.n.

p. 18

(1.

19).

;

'The Allegro has

at beginning, 6 Sept. 1814,' at end, den B Sept. In 4i Btunden angefertigt," apparently Implying that it was dashed off before and after twelve o'clock at night. Andante, at beginning, den 6 Sept. 1814,' at end, den 10 Sept. 1814.' Minnet, at end, 11 Sept. 1814.' Finale, at end den 13 Sept. 1814.' Autograph Trlth Spina. * At beginning, '10 Dec. 1814'; at end of Allegro, '26 Deo. 1814'; at beginning of Finale, '25 Feb. 3816,' and at end, '24 March 1816." The movements are Lar^ and Allegro vivace (BlJl Andan1» (Bb) Minuet and Trio (C minor) Finale, Presto vivace (w). Played from MS. at the Cryatal'Palace, Oct. 20, IS"/?. Autograph with Herr '

'

'

'

'

'

;

;

Dumba. c

Forty.eight published, and six in MS.

'

'

with Herr Dumba.

—

; ''

SCHUBERT

1815

tion on his deathbed : ' Such long poems, many of them containing ten others,' by which he meant as long as ten. [See p. 3096.] And this mass of music was produced in the mere intervals of his school drudgery Well might !

his brother say that the rapidity of his writing was marvellous.

Amidst tempted to

all

work and, one might be

this

believe, all this hurry, it is astonish-

ing to find that some of the songs of these boyish years are amongst the most permanent of his productions. Gretchen am Spinnrade, a song full of the passion and experience of a lifetime, was written (as we have said) in Oct. 1814, when he was seventeen. The Erl King itself in its original form (with a few slight differences)! belongs to the winter of 1815, and the immortal songs of the Haidenroslein,' Rastlose Liebe,' 'Sohafers Klagelied,' the grand Ossian songs, and others of his betterknown works, fall within this year. The Mass in G, too, though composed for a very limited orchestra, and not without tokens of hurry, is a masterpiece. The dramatic works contain '

'

'

'

many

movements, and are full of striking things, but the librettos are so bad, that in their present condition they can never be put on the stage. The symphonies, though not original, are not without original points and are so sustained throughout, so full of fresh melody and interesting harmony, and so beautiful

extraordinarily scored considering their date, that in these respects a man of double Schubert's

f

age might be proud to claim them. The habit of writing to whatever words came in his way was one of Schubert's characteristics, especially in the earlier part of his career. With his incessant desire to sing ; with an abundant fountain of melody and harmony always welling up in him and endeavouring to escape, no wonder that he grasped at any words and tried any forms that came in his way and seemed to afford a channel for his thoughts. If good, well ; if bad, well too. The reason why he wrote eight operas in one year was no doubt in great measure because he happened to meet with eight librettos ; had it been four or twelve instead of eight the result would have been the same. The variety in the productions even of this early year is truly extraordinary. A glance at the list is sufficient to show that he tried nearly every form of composition, whilst the songs which he set range from gems like Goethe's ' Meeresstille and ' Freudvoll und leidvoll, to the noisy ballads of Bertrand from Mayrhofer's stern classicality and the gloomy romance of Ossian, to the mild sentiment of Klopstock. No doubt, as Schumann says, he The could have set a placard to music.^ '

'

;

1 The Berlin Library poasesses an autograph of the earlier form. All the versions are in the complete edition. 3 'Qu'on medonne la Gazette de Hollande,' says Rameau. But Give Schubert could have thrown poetry into an advertisement me the words,' said Mozart, and I'll put the poetry to them.' I

'

;

'

285

1815

spectacle of so insatiable a, desire to produce has never before been seen ; of a genius thrown

naked into the world and compelled to explore for himself all paths and channels in order to discover by exhaustion which was the best and then to die. During this year he taught diligently and punctually in his father's school, and attended Salieri's lessons. His relations to the Lichtenthal remained as before. The Mass in G, like that in F, was written for the parish church, and according to the testimony of one ' of his old friends was especially intended for those of his

companions who had been pupils of Holzer's with him. A pleasant relic of his home life exists in a piece of music written for his father's birthday, Sept. 27, 1815, for four voices and orchestra 'Erhabner, verehrter Freund der Jugend.'* He kept up his intercourse also with the Convict, and when he had written anything special it was one of the first places to which he would take it. There possibly his Symphonies were tried, though it is doubtful if a juvenile orchestra

—

would contain clarinets, bassoons, trumpets, and horns, all which are present in the scores four Symphonies. There, thanks of another old ' Gonvicter,' we can assist at the first hearing of the ' Erl King.' Spaun happened to call one afternoon,

of the to the

first

memorandum

this very winter, at the elder Schubert's house in the Hiramelpfortgrund, and found Franz in his room, in a state of inspiration over Goethe's ballad, which he had just seen for the first time. A few times' reading had been sufficient to evoke the music, which in the rage of inspiration he was whelming down^ on to the paper at the moment of Spaun's arrival indeed it was already perfect except the mere filling in of the accompaniment. This was quickly done and it was finished in the form in which we can now see it in the Berlin Library. ° In the evening Schubert brought it to the Convict, and there first he and then Holzapfel sang it through. It was not altogether well received. No wonder the form was too new, the dramatic spirit too strong, even for that circle of young Schubert-admirers. At the words Mein Vater, mein Vater, jetzt fasst where Gb, Fl], and Eb all come er niich an

in

;

;

'

!

'

was some dissent, and Ruzicka, as teacher of harmony, had to explain to his pupils, as best he might, a combination which now seems perfectly natural and appropriate. 1816 was passed.much as 1815 had been, in together, there

3 Herr Doppler. I cannot refrain from mentioning this gentleman, who in 1867 was shopman at Spina's (formerly niabelli'a). I

shajl never forget the droll shock I received

when on asking him

he knew Schubert, hereplied, 'Know him?

I

ing!

'

Kreissle's Li/e is indebted to

would otherwise have bsen

him

for

if

was at his christena trait which

many

lost.

* Now in the Imperial Library, Berlin. No doubt there was one every year, though that of 1814 has been lost. 5 givtzuwWtend is Kreissle's word, doubtless from Spaun's lips. 6 If indeed this be the actually first original. "The omission of bar 8, and its subsequent insertion, however, as well as the clean regular look of the whole, seem to point to its being a transcript. [The various versions of this song, and the stages of its growth, can be seen in the complete edition of Breitkopf & Hartel.]

>

I f (

— 286

SCHUBERT

1816

a marvellous round of incessant work. The drudgery of the school, however, had become so insupportable that Schubert seized the oppor-

tunity of the opening of a government school of music, at Laibach, near Trieste, to apply for the post of director, with a salary of 500 Vienna florins £21 a year. The testimonials which he sent in in April from Salieri, and from Joseph Spendou, Chief Superintendent of Schools, were so cold in tone as to imply that however much they valued Schubert, they believed his qualifications not to be those of the head of a large establishment.' At any rate he failed, and the post was given, on the recommendation of Salieri, to a certain Jacob Sohaufl. Schubert found compensation, however, in the friendship of Franz von Schober, a young man of good birth and some small means, who had met with his songs at the house of the Spauns at Linz, and had ever since longed to make his personal acquaintance. Coming to Vienna to enter the University, apparently soon after the Laibach rebuff, he called on Schubert, found him in his father's house, overwhelmed with his school duties, and with apparently no time for music. There, however, were the piles of manuscript operas, masses, symphonies, songs, heaped up around the young schoolmaster-composer, and Schober saw at once that some step must be

—

taken to put an end to this cruel anomaly, and give Schubert time to devote himself wholly Schober to the Art of which he was so full. proposed that his new friend should live with him Franz's father possibly not oversatisfied with his son's performances as a teacher of the alphabet to infants^ consented to the plan, and the two young men (Schober was

—

;

—

some four months Franz's junior) went off to keep house together at Sohober's lodgings in the Landkrongasse. A trace of this change is found on two MS. songs in the Musik Verein at Vienna, ' Leiden der Trennung and LebensUed,' inscribed 'In Herr v. Schober's lodging,' and dated Nov. 1816. Schubert began to give a few lessons, but soon threw them up,' and the household must have been maintained at Sohober's expense, since there was obviously as yet no sale for Schubert's compositions. He had good friends, as Beethoven had had at the same age, though not so high in rank^Hofrath von Kiesewetter, Matthaus von Collin, Graf Moritz Dietrichstein, Hofrath Hammer von '

'

Pyrker, afterwards Patriarch of Venice and Archbishop of Erlau, Frau Caroline Pichler all ready and anxious to help him had they had the opportunity. But Schubert never gave them the opportunity. He was a true Viennese, born in the lowest ranks, without either the art or the taste for imposing on the aristocracy (Beethoven's * favourite phrase) loving the society of his that Beethoven had Purgstall,

—

'

'

;

1 K-.ir.

2

3

*

p. lOT (1. 109). Bauernfeld, W.Z.K.

There ia ground for this suppoBitlon. Jmponiren. Thayer, ii. 313.

own

class,

1816 shrinking from praise or notice of

any kind, and with an absolute detestation of teaching or any other stated duties. But to know him was to love and value him. Three little events, which slightly diversify the

moment

course of this year, are of

as showing

the position which Schubert took amongst his The first was the 50 th anniacquaintances. versary of Salieri's arrival in Vienna, which he had entered as a boy on June 16, 1766. [See Saliebi, p. 212.] On Sunday, June 16, 1816, the old Italian was invested with the Imperial gold medal and chain of honour, in the presence and in of the whole body of Com-t-musicians the evening a concert took place at his own house, in which, surrounded by his pupils, Weigl, Assmayer, Anna Frbhlioh, Schubert, and many ;

male and female, he snuffed up the incense of his worshippers, and listened to compositions in his honour by his scholars past and present. Among these were pieces sent by Hummel and Mosoheles, and a short cantata, both words and music by Schubert." Eight days afterwards, on July 24, there was another festivity in honour of the birthday of a certain Herr Heinrioh Watteroth,^ a distinothers,^ both

guished official person, for which Schubert had been employed to write a cantata on the subject of Prometheus, words by PhilippDriixler, another The cantata has disappeared official person. but from a description of it by Leopold Sonn;

communicated to Zellner's Blatter fiir Theater,'eto. (No. 19),andreprinted*separately, it seems to have been written for two solo voices,

leithner,

'

soprano (Gaa), and bass (Prometheus), chorus, and orchestra, and to have contained a duet in recitative, two choruses for mixed and one for male voices (the disciples of Prometheus). This last is described as having been in the form of a slow march, with original and interesting treatment. The performance took place in the garden of Watteroth's house in the Erdberg suburb of Vienna. As all the persons concerned in the festivity were people of some consideration, and as the music was very well received, it may have been an important introduction for the young composer. A oongi-atulatory poem by von Schlechta, addressed to Schubert, appeared a day or two later in the FhecUerzeitung. Schubert had already, in the previous year, set a song Auf einem Kirchhof and he of Schlechta's promptly acknowledged the compliment by adopting one of more moment from Schlechta's

—

'

'

—

s There was a Liszt among Salieri's pupils at this time, but hardly the future Abbd, who was then but five years old. Franz Liszt and Schubert met once in the curious collection of variations on Diabelli's waltz, to which fifty Austrian composers contributed. Beethoven's contribution being the thirty-three variations, op. 120, LiBzt'BvariationsisNo.24,andSchubert'sNo. 38. Liszt wasthroughout an indefatigable champion for Schubert. 8 Theautograph of this little curiosity was sold in Paris, by auction. May 14, IMl. The words are given by Krelsale, p. 82 (i.'83l, but are not worth quoting. They do not possess the individuality of thought which makes Schubert's later verses so interesting, in spite of the

—

crudity of their expression. ^ His birthday was July 12, but the performance was put off on account of the weather. 8 I am indebted for this reprint to my ever-kind friend Mr. C. y. Pnhl, of the Gesellsohaft der Musikfreunde, Vienna.

6;

;

SCHUBERT

1816

Diego Manzanares,' Wo irrst du duroh einsame Sohatten ? his setting of which is dated July fond of his Schubert evidently 30, 1816.1 cantata. It was performed at Innsbruck by Gansbaoher, and at Vienna by Sonnleithner in 1819. Schubert wished to give it at the Augarten in 1820, and had sent it somewhere for performHe was paid 100 ance at the time of his death. florins, Vienna currency (or £4) for it, and he notes in his journal that it was the first time he had composed for money. The third event was the composition of a cantata on a larger scale than either of the others. It was addressed to Dr. Joseph Spendou, in his character of Founder and Principal of the Schoolmasters' Widows' Fund, and contained ejght numbers, with solos for two sopranos and bass, a quartet and choruses, all with orchestral accompaniment. Whether it was performed or not is uncertain,^ but it was published in 1830 The other in PF. score by DiabeUi, as op. 128. compositions of the year 1816 are as numerous as usual. There is a fine trio for S.S.A. and PF. to the words of Klopstock's 'grosses Halleluja' (Lf. 41, No. 2) a Salve Eegina in F, to German words, for four voices and organ ^ (Feb. 21, 1816) [another, to Latin words, for unaccompanied chorus (Feb. 1816), and a Stabat Mater in F minor (Feb. 28, 1816) to Klopstock's The last of translation of the Latin hymn.] '

'

'

WM

;

is written for soprano, tenor, and bass and chorus, and for an orchestra of the usual strings, two flutes, two oboes, two bassoons, one contra-bassoon, two horns, three trombones, two trumpets and drums. These, however, are not uniformly employed the trumpets and drums only appear for a few chords in Nos. 9 and 12 No. 5, an eight-part chorus, is accompanied by the wind alone, and No. 6, a tenor air, by the This work was perstiings, with oboe solo. formed in 1841 by the Musik-Verein of Vienna, and in 1863 at the Altlerchenfelder church, but was not published until the appearance of

these

solo,

;

Breitkopf

&

Hartel's edition.

[Among

other

works of this year are a setting of the Angels' Chorus from Fatist, Christ ist erstanden (June 1816), a, fragment of a Requiem in E|? * (July 1816), which ends with the second bar of the '

'

second Kyrie, a Tantum ergo in C (Aug.), a Magnificat in C (Sept. ), and a duet, Auguste jam coelestiun (Oct.), strongly tinctured by Mozart."] Of operas we find only one in 1816, probably It because only one libretto came in his way. '

'

Die Biirgsohaft,' and is in three acts. of the words is not known ; and the quotations in Kreissle show that they are in great Schubert continued his part absolute rubbish. is

called

'

The author

1

He returned to thla poet in 18S0,

2 Kreisale,

3

i.

88. Bays

that

Nottebohm's Catatague,

it

182S, 1828,

task to the third act, fifteen numbers, and there stopped. The autograph, in Herr Dumba's possession, is dated May 1816. The Symphonies of 1816 are two the fourth, in C minor, entitled 'Tragic Symphony,' and datedApril 1816 ;8 and the fifth, inBl>, for small orchestra, dated Sept. 1816-Oct. 3, 1816.' The

—

fii'st of

these isa gi'eat advance on itspredecessors

the Andante is individual and very beautiful, and the Finale wonderfully spirited. The other, though full of Mozart, is as gay and untrammelled as all Schubert's orchestral music of that day. It

sometimes entitled Without Trumpets or Drums,' and is said to have been composed for the orchestra at the Gundelhof, which grew out of theSchubert Sunday afternoon quartete.* Both were often played at the Crystal Palace, under Manns's direction, and were among the favourite works in the ripertmre of that establishment. A string quartet in F a striugtriomBi>, apparently very good a rondo in A for violin solo and quartet (June 1816) a violin concerto in C three sonatinas for PF. and violin (op. 137) ;« PF. sonata in F, two movements of another in E various marches for PF. twelve Deutsche (waltzes) six Ecossaises, with the inscriptions Composed while a prisoner in my room at Erdberg and Thank God probably the relic of is

'

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

'

'

'

— — '

some practical joke are still existing. Very little of the above, however interesting, can be said to be of real, firat-rate, permanent value. But when we approach the songs o f 1 8 1 is altered. There are not quite so many with this date as there were with that of 1815, but there are over a hundred in all, and among

the case

them

are some of his finest settings of Goethe, the three songs of the Harper, in Wilhelm Meister' (op. 12, Sept. 6), Mignon's 'Sehnsucht' song (op. 62, No. 4); Der Fischer ; 'DerKdnig Thule' (op. 5, No. 6), Jagers Abendlied,' and 'Sohafers Klagelied' (op. 3), 'Wanderer's Nacht'

'

'

m

'

lied' (op. 4), 'Schwager Kronos' (op. 19). Of Schiller there are the beautiful ' Ritter Toggen-

burg,' Thekla's song (op. 58), etc., and to name only one other, the far-famed 'Wanderer,' by

Schmidt of Lubeok. These magnificent pieces are well known to every lover of Schubert, but they are not more valued than such exquisitely simple and touching little effusions as An eine Quelle of Claudius (op. 109, No. 3), 'Der Abend' of Kosegarten (op. 118, No. 2), or 'Der Leidende' of Hblty (Lief. 50, No. 2), all equally bearing his stamp. The lists of the songs of these two years throw a curious light on Schubert's musical activity and mode of proceeding. Dr. Johnson was said when he got hold of a book to ' tear the heart out of it,' and with Schubert it was very much '

182a

wa&

p. 226.

Pint printed by Scliuinaiin as Appendix to bia newspaper, the N.Z.M., for June 18, 1639. s In Brahms'B poBfiesslon. The date is quoted from the Catalogue of the accurate Nottebohm. I am hound to aay that I saw no date, and Brahms judged it to he later than 1816. *

287

1816

—

'

8 April 1816. Adsgio molto and AUegretto vivace in C minor Andante in Ab Menuet and Trio in Eb ; Finale in The autograph has vanished. ' Sept. 1816.—Fine den 3. Oct. 1816. Allegro, Bb Andante con moto, Eb ; Menuet and Trio, Q minor and 6 major ; Finale, Allegretto vivace, Bb. Autograph with Peters & Co. ;

;

C—

:

s

Hanslicl^, Concertvesen, p. 142.

288

SOHUBEBT

1816

To read a poem, and at onoe to fasten and transcribe it in music seems to have been his natural course and having done one he went at once to the next. A volume of Hblty, or Claudius, or Kosegarten came into his hands he tore from it in a moment what struck him, and was not content with one song, but must have three, four, or five. Thus, in the summer of 1815, he evidently meets with Kosegarten's poems, and, in July, sets twenty of them. In March 1816 he sets five songs by Salis in May, six by Holty in Nov. four by Claudius, three by Mayrhofer, and so on. To read these lists gives one a kind of visible image of the almost fierce eagerness with which he attacked his poetry, and of the inspiration with which the music rushed from his heart and through his pen 'everything that he touched,' says Schumann, turning into music' Thus, at a later date, calling accidentally on Eandhartinger, and his friend being summoned from the room, Schubert, to amuse himself in the interval, took up a little volume which lay on the table. and as his friend It interested him did not return he carried it off with him. Anxious for his book, Eandhartinger called next morning at Schubert's lodgings, and found that he had the same.

upon

it

;

;

;

;

—

'

;

already set several pieces in it to music. The volume was Wilhelm Muller's poems ; the songs were part of the Schone Miillerin.' A year or two after this, in July 1826 it is his old friend Doppler who tells the story returning from a Sunday stroll with some friends through the village of Wiihring, he saw a friend sitting at a table in the beer-garden of one of the taverns. The friend, when they joined him, had a volume Schubert seized of Shakespeare on the table. it, and began to read ; but before he had turned over many pages pointed to ' Hark, hark, the lark,' and exclaimed, ' Such a lovely melody has come into my head, if I had but some music Some one drew a few staves on the paper.' back of a bill of fare, and there, amid the hubbub of the beer-garden, that beautiful song, so perfectly fitting the words, so skilful and so happy in its accompaniment, came intoperfeotexistence. Two others from the same poet not improbably followed in the evening.' It seems that the Quartet afternoons at the house of Schubert the elder had gradually extended themselves into performances of Haydn's Symphonies, arranged as quartets arid played with doubled parts, players of ability and name joined, and a few hearers were admitted. After a time, the modest room became inconveniently crowded, and then the little society migrated to the house of a tradesman named Frisohling (Dorotheengasse 1105), wind instruments were added, and the smaller works of Pleyel, Haydn, and Mozart were attacked. In the winter of 1815 another move became '

— —

1 The drinking-Bong from 'Antony and Cleopatra' (marked 'Wahrinff, July 26'), and the lovely 'Sylvia' ('July 1826'). The Is in Kreissle.

anecdote

1816

necessary, to the house of Otto Hatwig, one of the violins of the Burgtbeater, at the Schottenthor, and in the spring of 1818, to his new residence in the Gundelhof, and later still at

The Pettenkofer's house in the Bauernmarkt. band now contained some good professional players, and could venture even on Beethoven's iirst two symphonies, and the overtures of CheruSchubert Weigl, etc. belonged to it all through, playing the viola, and it was probably with the view to their performance by the society that he wrote the two symphonies of 1816 (Nos. 4 and 5), two overtures in the winter of 1817, an(l his sixth Symphony in the spring of 1818. Sohober and Mayrhofer were Schubert's first friends outside the immediate circle of his youthHe was now to acquire a third, ful associates. destined to be of more active service than either He was twenty This was Vogl. of the others. years Franz's senior, and at the time of their meeting was a famous singer at the Vienna Opera, admired more for his intellectual gifts than for the technical perfection of his singing, and really great in such parts as Orestes in 'Iphigenie,' Alma viva in 'Figaro,' Creon in Medea,' and Telasko in the Vestalin.' About the year 1816 the date is not precisely given Vogl was induced by Schober to come to their lodgings, and see the young fellow of whom Schober was always raving, but who had no access to any of the circles which Vogl adorned bini, Spontini, Boieldieu,

'

'

—

—

and

beautified

by

his presence.

The room

as

usual was strewed with music. Schubert was confused and awkward ; Vogl, the great actor and man of the world, gay, and at his ease. The first song he took up probably the first music of Schubert's he had ever seen was Schubart's 'Augenlied.' He hummed itthrough, and thought it melodious, but slight which it ' is. Ganymed ' and the ' Schafers Klage ' made a deeper impression ; others followed and he left with the somewhat patronising but true remark, ' There is stuif in you ; but you squander your fine thoughts instead of making the most of them.' But the impression remained, he talked of Schubert with astonishment, soon returned, and the acquaintance grew and ripened

—

—

—

they became almost inseparable, and until the two seemed, in Schubert's own words, for the moment to be one.' In those days songs were rarely if ever sung in concert-rooms ; but Vogl had the entrSe to all the great musical houses of Vienna, and before long his performances of the 'Erl King,'the 'Wanderer,' 'Ganymed,' 'Der Kampf,' etc., with the composer's accompaniment, were well known. What Vogl's opinion of him ultimately became, may be learnt from a passage in his diary Nothing shows so plainly the want of a good school of singing as Schubert's songs. Otherwise, what an enormous and universal effect must have been produced till

in their performances of Schubert's songs, '

'

:

—

'

'

SCHUBERT

1816—

throughout the world, wherever the German laugnage is understood, by these truly divine inspirations, these utterances of a musical dair-

voyance How many would haveoomprehended, probably for the first time, the meaning of such expressions as "speech and poetry in music," ' words in harmony, " " ideas clothed in music, etc., and would have learnt that the finest poems of our greatest poets may be enhanced and even transcended when translated into musical language ? Kumberless examples may be named, but I will only mention " The Erl King," "Gretchen," "Schwager Kronos," the Mignon and Harper's songs, Schiller's " Sehnsucht," "Der Pilgrim, "smd "DieBiirgschaft."' This extract shows how justly Vogl estimated Schubert, and how, at that early date, his discernment enabled him to pass a judgment which even now it would be difficult to excel. The word clairvoyance, too, shows that he thoroughly In entered into Schubert's great characteristic. hearing Schubert's compositions it is often as if one were brought more immediately and closely into contact with music itself than is the case in the works of others ; as if in his pieces the stream from the great heavenly reservoir were dashing over us, or flowing through us, more !

'

directly,

with

admixture of any medium

less

or channel, than it does in those of writer even of Beethoven himself.

—

any other

And

this

inmiediate communication with the origin of

music really seems to have happened to him. Ko sketches, no delay, no anxious period of preparation, no revision, appear to have been necessary. He had but to read the poem, to surrender himself to the torrent, and to put down what was given him to say, as it rushed through his mind. This was the true inspira'

tion of dictation, as '

of

much so

any Hebrew prophet

as in the utterance

or seer.

We have

'

and more painful

elaboration.

Vogl

tells

an

anecdote about this which is very much to the On one occasion he received from point.^ Schubert some new songs, but being otherwise occupied could not try them over at the moment.

When he was able to do so he was particularly pleased with one of them, but as it was too high for his voice, he had it copied in a lower key. About a fortnight afterwards they were again making music together, and Vogl placed the transposed song before Schubert on the desk of Schubert tried it through, liked it, the piano. 1

Eauemfeld, W.Z.E.

VOL. IV

B

lu Kreiule,

and

the said, in his Vienna dialect, ' I say song's not so bad ; whose is it?' so completely, in a fortnight, had it vanished from his mind Sir Walter Scott attributed a song of his own to

p. 119 (L 123).

!

!

Byron but this was in 1828, after his mind had begun to fail.' 1817 was comparatively an idle year. Its ;

great musical event was the arrival of Eossini's music in Vienna. L' Inganno felice was produced at the Hoftheater, Nov. 26, 1816, and 'Tancredi,'Dec. 17 ; L' Italiana in Algeri, Feb. 1, 1817; and ' Giro in Babilonia, June 18 ; and the enthusiasm of the Viennese like that of all to whom these fresh and animated strains '

'

'

'

'

—

—

were brought Schubert knew no bounds. admired Rossini's melody and spirit, but rather made fun of his orchestral music, and a. story is told not impossibly apocryphal'' of his having written an overture in imitation of Rossini, before supper, after returning from Tancredi.' At any rate he has left two Overtures in the Italian style in D and C, dated Sept.^ and Nov. 1817 respectively, which were much played at the time. Schubert made fourhand PF. arrangements of both, and that in C has been since published in score and parts as op. 170, and has been played at the Crystal Palace (Dec. 1, 1866, etc.) and elsewhere. Its

—

—

'

'

'

caricature of Eossini's salient points, including of course the inevitable crescendo, is obvious

enough but nothing could transform Schubert into an Italian, and the overture has individual and characteristic beauties which are immediately recognisable. The influence of Rossini wjis no mere passing fancy, but may be traced in the Sixth Symphony, mentioned below, and in music of his later life in the two Marches (op. 121), the Finale to the Quartet in G (op. 161), and elsewhere. ;

—

A

seen

one instance in the case of the 'Erl King.' The poem of the Wanderer attracted him in the same way, and the song was completed in one evening. In a third case, that of Goethe's 'Eastlose Liebe, the paroxysm of inspiration was so fierce that Schubert never forgot it, but reticent as he It often was, talked of it years afterwards.' would seem that the results did not always fix themselves in the composer's memory as permanently as if they had been the effect of longer

289

-1817

D

belongs to 1817, and, third Overture in still in MS., has also been played at

though

the Crystal Palace (Feb. 6, 1869, etc.). It is in two movements Adagio, and All", giusto, and the former is almost a draft of the analogous movement in the overture known as 'Eosamunde' (op. 26), though really the ' Zauberharfe. There the resemblance ceases. What led Schubert to the pianoforte this year in so marked a manner is not known, but his devotion to it is obvious, for no fewer than six sonatas belong to this period, viz. three with opus numbers op. 122, in E|y ; op. 147," in B (August) ; op. 164, in A minor,' and three others, in F, Al>, and E minor (June). Schubert's Sixth Symphony, in C,* completed in February 1818, appears to have been begun in the preceding October. It is the first one '

—

3 Lockhart'a Life of Scott, vii, 129. 4 K.B. 129 (i. 133). s Kreissle an-ja May. September is is is

Nottebohm's date but tbere another Overture in D, and it seems doubtful wbich of the two dated May, and which September, :

6 Autograph in possession of Brahms. 7 Published, by Spina as '7th Sonata.' B

Adagio and Allegro in C ; Andante in E major Finale in C.

Trio in

;

F

;

Scherzo in C, and

'';

SCHUBEBT

18 IT-

290

—

which he has marked aa Grand Grosse Sinfonie though hardly with reason, as both in form and orchestra it is the same as the early ones. It is an advance on the others, and the Scherzo shows the first decided signs '

'

'

—

'

of Beethoven's influence. Passages may also be traced to Bossini and the Italian opera.

The catalogue

of the instrumental composi-

tions of this year closes with a string Trio and a Polonaise for the violin. In the number of the vocal compositions of 1817 there is an

equal falling off. Eossini's popularity for the time shut the door against all other composers, and even Schubert's appetite for bad librettos was compelled to wait. Not only, however, are there no operas this year, there is no church music, and but forty -seven songs. In quality, however, there is no deterioration in the songs. The astonishing Gruppe aus dem Tartarus,' and the 'Pilgrim' of Schiller the 'Ganymed' of Goethe; the 'Fahrt zum Hades,' 'Memnon,' and 'Erlafsee' of May rhofer and "' An die Musik of Sohober, are equal to any that come before them. Among the MS. songs is one showing the straits to which Schubert was sometimes put, either by the want of materials or by the sudden call of his inspiration. It is the beginning of a setting Entziickung an Laura,' and is of Schiller's written on the front page of the second violin part of a duet-fugue by Fux, the words, Fuga. Duetto. Violino Seoundo. Del Sing ^ Fux. appearing in the copyist's formal handwriting through Schubert's hasty notes. It is superscribed ' Entziickung an Laura Abschied August Schubert Mpia' interesting as show1817. ing that in ' Abschied he has added his own comment to Schiller's words ; that he dated his pieces at the moment of beginning them and that he sometimes signed his name without the Franz.' His circle of intimate friends was increased about this date by Anselm and Joseph Hiittenbrenner and Joseph Gahy. Anselm, four years his senior, was a pupil of Salieri's, and there With the younger they had met in 1815. brother, Joseph, he became acquainted in the summer of 1817.' Both were men of independent means, and Anselm was a musician by profession. Gahy was in the government employment, an excellent pianoforte-player, of whom Schubert was for long very fond. The younger Hiittenbrenner was bewitched by Schubert, much as Krumpholz and Sohindler were by Beethoven and Was ever ready to fetch and carry for his idol, and to praise whatever he did, till the idol would turn on his worshipper, and be so cruel '

;

'

;

'

'

:

:

:

— '

;

'

-1818

as to get the

nickname of

'

The Tyrant from '

the rest of the set. How Schubert existed since he threw up his place at the school and left his father's house is a point on which we are in entire ignorance. His wants were few, but how even those few We have seen were supplied is a mystery.' that he lived rent-free with Schober for a few months in 1816, but the return of Schober's brother put an end to the arrangement,* and from that date he must have been indebted to off than himself, and for his visits to the theatre, for there is no trace of his earning anything by teaching in 1817, and the few pounds paid him for the Watteroth cantata is the only sum which he seems to have earned

Spaun, or some friend better for lodgings, for existence,

'

'

up

to this date.

In the summer of 1818, however, on the recommendation of Unger, the father of Mme. Unger - Sabatier, the great singer, Schubert accepted an engagement as teacher of music in the family of Count Johann Esterhazy, to pass the summer at his country seat at Zselesz, in

Hungary, on the Waag, some distance east of He was to Vienna, and the winter in town. be a member of the establishment and to receive two gulden for every lesson. The family con^ sisted of the Count and Countess, two daughters, Marie, thirteen, and Caroline, eleven, and a The Count boy of five. All were musical. sang bass, the Countess and Caroline contralto, Marie had a fine soprano, and both daughters played the piano. Baron von Schbnstein, their intimate friend, slightly older than Schubert, a singer of the highest qualities, with a noble baritone voice, made up the party, which .certainly promised all the elements of enjoyment. It was a pang to Schubert to part from the circle of his companions, to whom he was devoted, but it is not difiicnlt to imagine how pleasant he must have found the comfort and generous living of the Esterhazy house, while at the same time there would be opportunities of retirement, and abundant means of diversion in a beautiful country, a new people, and the

Hungarian and gipsy melodies. When they left town does not appear.^ Schubert's Mass in C,* his fourth, written like the others, for Holzer, is dated 'July 1818' but there is nothing to show whether it was finished in Vienna or in the country. A set ;

MS. Solfeggi for the Countess Marie, also dated July, is perhaps evidence that by that time they were settled at ZseUsz. Two letters to Sohober are printed by Bauernfeld,' and » E.m 109 1121. of

(i.

6 There is an interesting autograph copy of the Forelle song dated at A. HUttenbrenner's Lodgings (in Vienna) midnight, Feb. 21, 1816, and besprinkled with ink instead of sand. It has been publish^ in photography. But the Forelle really dates from 181*7. (Nottfehohm, in the Tfwm. Catalogue.) Published in 1826 ae op. 48. Schubert wrote a new and moiit beautiful Benedlctus to it in 1828, only a few months before hli '

In Bbi in one niOTement. For Sign.' A facsimile ie given by BeiBsmann. 3 So Kreiuie, i. 1S8. But does not the dedication of the song, • Die Bswartvug,' composed Feb. 27, 3810,—' to hia friend,' J. H.— Bliow that the acquaintance vaa of much earlier date ? True, it was not publislied till the April after Schubert's death; and the song may haye been prepared by him for publication shortly before, and the dedication added then. 1 2

'

'

'

'

>

fl

death. 7 In ^Me Preue, Vienna, April 17, Nov. 16, 1869.

1869.

Beprinted in the Signatt\

—

'' ;''

SCHUBERT

1818

August 3, and Sept. 18, 1818. The addressed to his home circle, his ' dearest Spaun, Schober, Mayrhofer, fondest friends and Senn you who are everything to me. There are messages also to Vogl, and to Schober's are dated first is

.

.

.

.

.

sister, and to all possible acquaintances, and an urgent entreaty to write soon 'every syllable of yours is dear to me." He is thoroughly well and happy, and ' composing like a god. . Mayrhofer's Einsamkeit is ready, and I believe it to be the best thing I have yet done, for I was without anxiety ' Ein(ohne Sorge the italics are his own). samkeit is a long ballad, filling nineteen close pages of print, with a dozen changes of tempo and as many of signature ; perhaps not quite coming up to his own estimate of it, though both words and music are often very striking. The length of this and other ballads will probably always hinder their wealth of melody, dramatic effects, and other striking beauties, from being known by the world at large. The other letter, seven weeks later, throws more light on his position at ZseMsz as composer, manager, audience, everything, in one.' No one here cares for true Art, unless it be now and then the Countess ; so I am left alone with my beloved, and have to hide her in my room, or my piano, or my own breast. If this often makes me sad, on the other hand it often elevates me all the more. Several songs have lately come into existence, and I hope very successful ones.' He is evidently more at home in the servants' hall than the drawing-room. The cook is a pleasant fellow ; the ladies'-maid is thirty ; the housemaid very pretty, and often pays me a visit ; the nurse is somewhat ancient the butler is my rival the two grooms get on better with the horses than with us. The Count is a little rough ; the Countess proud, but not without heart ; the young ladies good children. I need not tell you, who know me so well, that with my natural frankness I am good friends with everybody.' The letter ends with an affectionate message to his parents. The only songs which can be fixed to this autumn, and which are therefore doubtless those just referred to, besides the great ' Einsamkeit, are the ' Blumenbrief, 'Blondel und Maria,'

mother and

—

'

'

.

—

'

'

'

'

;

'

'

Das Marienbild

'

—

and

'

Litaney,

' '

Das Aben-

droth' for a contralto, evidently composed for the Countess Vom Mitleiden Maria,' and The Hungarian three Sonnets from Petrarch. national songs left their mark in the 36 original dances,' or 'First Waltzes' (op. 9), some of which were written down in the course of the next year. The Divertissement k la hongroise, and the Quartet in A minor (op. 29), in which the Hungarian influence is so strong, belong the first apparently, the second certainly to a '

;

'

'

—

much

later period.

A third letter of this date, hitherto unprinted, with which the writer has been honoured by the

291

1818

grand-daughter^ofFerdinand Schubert, to whom it was addressed, is not without interest, and is here printed entire. The Kequiem referred to was by Ferdinand, and had evidently been sent to his brother for revision. The letter throws a pleasant light on the strong link existing between Franz and his old home, and suggests that assistance more solid than 'linen' may often have reached him froui his fond step-mother in his poverty in Vienna. In considering the pecuniary result of the engagement, it must be remembered that the florin was at that time only worth a franc, instead of two shillings. The month's pay therefore, instead of being £20, was really only about £8. Still, for Schubert that was a fortune. 24 Aug. 1818.

Dear Bkother Ferdinand, It is half-past 11 at night, and your Requiem is It has made me sorrowful, as you may believe, for I sang it with all heart. What is wanting you

ready.

my

and put the words under the music and the And if you want much rehearsal you must do it yourself, without asking me in Zel6sz. Things are not going well with you 1 wish you could change with me, so that for once you might be happy. You should find all your heavy burdens gone, dear brother I heartily wish itcould be so. — My foot is asleep, and lam mad with can

fill

.signs

in,

above.

;

;

If the fool could only write it wouldn't go to sleep

it.

!

my boy, I have been asleep with my and now go on with my letter at 8 o'clock on the25th. I have one request to make in answer to yours. Give my love to my dear parents, brothers, sisters, friends, and acquaintances, especially not forgetting Carl. Didn't he mention me in his letter As for my friends in the town, bully them, or get some one to bully them well, till they write to me. Tell my mother that my linen is well looked after, and that I am well off, thanks to her motherly care. If I could have some more linen I should very much like her to send me a second batch of pocket-handkerchiefs, cravats, and stockings. Also I am much in want of two pair of kerseymere trousers. Hart can get the measure wherever he likes. I would send the money very soon. For July, with the Good morning,

foot,

!

journey -money, I got 200 florins. It is beginning already to be cold, and yet we shall not start for Vienna before the middle of October, Next month I hope to have a few weeks at Freystadt, which belongs to Count Erdody, the uncle of my count. The country there is said to be extraordinarily beautiful. Also I hope to get to Pesth while we are at the vintage at Bosczmedj, which is not far off. It would be delightful if I should happen to meet Herr Administrator Taigele there. I am delighted at the thought of the vintage, for I have heard so much that is pleasant about it. The harvest also is beautiful here. They don't stow the corn into bams as they do in Austria, but make immense heaps out in the fields, which they call Tristeu They are often 80 to 100 yards long, and 30 to 40 high, and are laid together so cleverly that the rain all runs otf without doing any harm. Oats and so on they bury in the ground. Though I am so well and happy, and every one so good to me, yet I shall be immensely glad when the moment arrives for going to Vienna. Beloved Vienna, all that is dear and valuable to me is there, and nothing but the actual sight of it will stop my longing Again entreating you to attend to all my requests, I remain, with much love to all, your true and sincere, Franz Mpia, !

A thousand greetings to your good wife and dear Besi, and a very hearty one to aunt Schubert and her daughter. The

inscription

'

Zelfez,

Nov. 1818

'

on the

Das Abendroth shows that the return to Vienna was not till nearly the end of the year. song

'

'

1 Fiitulein Caroline Geisler, daughter of Linus Oelaler and Ferdinand's second daughter, Elise.

— 292

He found the theatre more than ever in possession of Kossini. To the former operas, ' Elisabetta' was added in the autumn, and ' Otello '.early in Jan. 1819. But one of the good traits in Schubert's character was his freedom from jealousy, and his determination to enjoy what was good, from whatever quarter it came, or however much it was against his own interest. A letter of his to Hiittenbrenner, written just after the production of ' Otello,' puts this in very good light. ' " Otello " is far better and more characteristic

than "Tancredi." Extraordinary genius it is impossible to deny him. His orchestration is often most original, and so is his melody and except the usual Italian gallopades, and a few reminiscences of "Tancredi," there is nothing to object to.' But he was not content to be excluded from the theatre by every one, and the letter goes on to abuse the canaille of Weigls and Treitsohkes,' and 'other rubbish, enough to make your hair stand on end,' all which were keeping his operettas off the boards. Still, it is very good-natured abuse, and so little is he really disheartened, that he ends by begging Hiittenbrenner for a libretto nay, he had actually just completed a little piece called Die Zwillingsbriider ('The Twins'), translated by Hofmann from the French a Singspiel in one act, containing an overture and ten numbers. He finished it on Jan. 19, 1819, and it came to performance before many months were ;

'

;

'

—

over.

Of his daily life at this time we knownothing. "We must suppose that he had regular duties with his pupils at the Esterhazys' town house, We gather but there is nothing to say so. that he joined Mayrhofer in his lodgings, 420 in the Wipplingerstrasse, early in the year.i 'The It was not a prepossessing apartment. both room and furniture were lane was gloomy the worse for wear the ceiling drooped the light was shut out by a big building opposite a worn-out piano, and a shabby bookcase.' The only relief is the name of the landlady SansNo wonder that Mayrsouci, a Frenchwoman. hofer's poems he was ten years Schubert's senior were of a gloomy cast. The two ii-iends were on the most intimate terms, and addressed each other by nicknames. What Mayrhofer's appellation may have been we do not know, but Schubert, now and later, was called 'the Tyrant,' for his treatment of Hiittenbrenner; also 'Bertl,' '.Schwammerl,' Kanevas and, best of all, because when a

i

;

;

;

—

—

—

'

'

—

stranger came into their circle his first question always was, ' Kann er was V (' Can he do anything?') Their humour took all sorts of shapes, and odd stories are told of their sham fights, their howls, their rough jokes and reMayrhofer was a Government employ^ partees. ''

1

•

In a

letter to

Mayrhofer from Linz, dated August 19, 1819, he my bed while be stays with you.' K.R. have been his before be left town.

aaya, ' Let the bearer have p. 159 (i. 160). The bed must a JT.ir. p. 61 (1. SI).

'

SCHUBERT

1819

'

—

and went

1819 to his office early, leaving his fellow-

Schubert began work directly lodger behind. he awoke, and even slept in his spectacles to save troulale ; he got at once to his writing, It sometimes in bed, but usually at his desk. was so still, when Hiller called on him eight Do you write much 1 said the years later.^ boy, looking at the manuscript on the standing they evidently .knew little in North desk Germany of Schubert's fertility. 'I compose every morning, was the reply ; ' and when one And yet this piece is done, I begin another.' '

'

—

'

—

was the musieien le pirns' poUe que jamais it might have been the answer of a mere Czerny Add to this a trait, communicated to the writer by Schubert's friend, Franz Laohner, of Munich, that when he had completed a piece, and heard it sung or played, he locked it up in a drawer, and often never thought about it again. This close work went on till dinner-time two o'clock after which, as a rule, he was free for the day, and spent the remainder either in a country walk with friends, or in visits as to Sofie Muller, and Mme. Lacsny Buchwieser, whom we shall encounter farther on or at Schober's rooms, or some coffee-house in his later days it was Bogner's Cafd in the Singerstrasse, whei;e the droll cry of a waiter was a never-ending pleasure to him. But no hour or place was proof against the sudden attack of inspiration when anything happened to excite it. An instance occurs at this very time, Nov. 1819, in an overture for four hands in F (op. 34), which he has inscribed as written in Joseph Huttenbrenner's room at the City Hos!

—

—

;

—

'

and dinner missed in consequence.'* If the weather was fine he would stay in the country till late, regardless of any engagement that he might have made in town. The only compositions that can be fixed to the spring of 1819 are five songs dated February, and one dated March a very fine quintet for equal voices, to the 'Sehnsucht' song in Wilhehn Meister a song which he had already set for a single voice in 1816, and was to set twice more in the course of his life (thus rivalling Beethoven, who also set the same words four times) an equally fine quartet for men's voices, ' Ruhe, schbnstes Gliick der Erde, dated April four sacred songs by Novalis, dated May and a striking overture in E minor, in Ser. II. of the complete edition. The earnings of the previous summer allowed him to make an expedition this year on his own account. Mayrhofer remained in Vienna, and Vogl and Schubert appear to have gone together to Upper Austria. Steyr was the first point in the journey, a town beautifully situated on the Enns, not far south of Linz. They reached it early in July it was Vogl's native place, and he had the pleasure of introducing pital in the inside of three hours

;

;

'

'

—

;

;

;

;

»

In HiUer'B

K&nttZeirleben, p. 49.

« S.tT. p. 160

{i.

162).

—

3

SCHUBERT

1819-

—1820

his friend to the chief amateurs of the town,

month under the

Paumgartner, KoUer, Dornfeld, Sohellmami substantial citizens of the town, with wives and daughters, 'Pepi Koller," 'Frizi Dornfeld,' 'the eight Sohellmann girls,' etc., who all welcomed the musician with real Austrian hospitality, heard his songs with enthusiasm, and themselves helped to make music with him. His friend Albert Stadler was there also with his sister Kathi. How thoroughly Schubert enjoyed

Solemnis

himself in this congenial hourgeois society, and in such lovely country he mentions its beauties each time he writes we have ample proof in 1 two letters. Among other drolleries the 'Erl King was sung with the parts distributed amongst Vogl, Schubert, and Pepi Koller. Perhaps, too, Schubert gave them his favourite version of it on a comb. Yogi's birthday (August 10) was celebrated by a cantata in C, containing a terzet, two soprano and two tenor solos, and a finale in canon, pointed by allusions to his various operatic triumphs, words by After this Stadler, and music by Schubert. ^ the two friends strolled on to Linz, the home of the Spauns, and of Kenner and Ottenwald, whose verses Franz had set in his earlier days ; and thence perhaps to Salzburg, returning to Nor did Steyr about the end of the month. the joviality of these good Austrians interfere with composition. Besides the impromptu cantata just mentioned, the well-known PF. quintet (op. 114), in which the air of 'Die Forelle ' is used as the theme of the Andantino, was written at Steyr, possibly as a commission from the good Paumgartner, and was performed by the Paumgartner party. Schubert achieved in it the same feat which is somewhere ascribed to Mozart, of writing out the separate parts without first making a score, and no doubt The date played the pianoforte part by heart.

— —

'

of their departure, Sept. 14, is marked by an entry in the album of Miss Stadler, when Schubert delivered himself of the following

highly correct sentiment so wisely, that the past :

—

'

Enjoy the present

may

be pleasant to recollect, and the future not alarming to contemplate.' This may pair off with a sentence written by Mozart, in English, in the Album of an English Freemason, which has not yet 'Patience and tranquillity of been printed: mind contribute more to cure our distempers AVien, den 30te as the whole art of medicine. Marz 1787.' A few days more saw them again settled in Vienna. Each of the two letters preserved from the journey contains an obvious allusion to some love affair ; but nothing is known of it. He could hardly have adopted a more effectual diversion from such sorrows than the composithat tion of a mass, on an extended scale

—

namely

in.Al>

— 8

1

—his

fifth

— which

E.a. pp. 158-169

(1.

;

he began this

1S9-I60I.

Published to other worHs, Herrllch prangt,' as op. 158. 3 I owe this to good friend Mr. PoU, of Vienna. '

my

293

Missa serious title of but he seems to have dawdled over it more than over any other of his works as it was not finished till Sept. 1822, and '

'

;

;

many marks of indecision. The most pregnant musical event

contains

of this

year is the fact that on Feb. 28, 1819, a song of Schubert's was sung in public the Schafers Klagelied,' sung by Jager at Jail's concert, at 5 P.M. at the 'Rbmische Kaiser,' Vienna. It was Schubert's first appearance before the public as a song- writer [one of the Italian overtures had been given on March 1, 1818, at one of Jail's concerts], and is noticed by the Leipzig A.M.Z. in these terms:- 'Goethe's Schafers Klagelied set to music by Heir Franz Schubert the touching and feeling composition of this talented young man was sung by Herr Jager in a similar spirit.' Such is the first utterance of the press on one who has since evoked so much enthusiasm In the course of this year Schubert appears to have forwarded the three songs, 'Sch wager Kronos,' 'Ueber Thai' (Mignon), and 'Ganymed,' afterwards published as op. to Goethe but no notice was taken by 19), the poet of one who was to give some of his songs a wider popularity than they could otherwise have enjoyed, a popularity independent of country or language nor does Schubert's name once occur in all the six vols, of Goethe's correspondence with Zelter.* 1820 was again a year of great activity. Owing to Vogl's influence, Schubert was gradually attracting the attention of the managers. The Zwillingsbriider had been written for the Karnthnerthor theatre (see p. 292a), and it was not long before the rigisseur of the rival opera-house, the Theatre an-der-Wien, suggested to him a libretto called the Zauberharfe,' or

—

'

'

'

—

—

!

—

—

;

;

'

'

'

Magic harp,' a melodrama in three acts, by the same Hofmann who had translated the former piece. To receive such a proposal and to act upon it was a matter of course with Schubert, and the Zauberharfe is said to have '

'

'

been completed in a fortnight.^ But before this, early in the year, he had met with the works of A. H. Niemeyer, Professor of Theology at Halle, and had adopted the poem of Lazarus, or the Feast of the Resurrection,' for an Easter Easter fell that year on April 2, and Cantata. his work is dated February,' so that he was in ample time. The poem or drama, for there are seven distinct characters is in three parts. '

'

—

1.

The

elegy.

and death.

sickness 3.

The

resurrection.

—

The burial and Of these the first

2.

and a large portion of the second were completed by Schubert, apparently without the knowledge of any of his friends. Ferdinand mentions the first

part in his

list,*

second was unknown,

but the existence of the through the instru-

till,

4 Search should be made in the Qoethe Archiv at Weimar for the autograph of these BongB, and the letter which doubtless accompanied them. c Autograph in Herr Dumba's coUection, s s.Z,M. p. 139a.

'

SCHUBERT

1820

294.

mentality of Mr. Thayer, it was unearthed in 1861. These have been published,' but no trace of the third act has yet been found, and the work was not performed till long after the composer's death viz. in 1863. On June 14 the Zwillingsbriider or 'Zwillinge' was produced at the Kamthnerthor theatre. It is a comic operetta (' Poase '), with spoken dialogue, in one act, containing an overture and ten numbers, and turns on the plot that has done duty many times before, the confusion between two twin-brothers, who were both acted by Vogl. The overture was encored on the first night, and Vogl's two songs were much applauded, but the piece was virtually a fiasco,

—

'

and was withdrawn

'

after six representations.

Schubert took so little interest in its production that, like Mendelssohn at the Wedding of Camacho,' lie did not even stay in the house, and Vogl had to appear instead of him in front* of the curtain. The libretto, though overburdened with characters, is sadly deficient in proportion, and contains very little action. Schubert's music, on the other hand, is light, fresh, and melodious, pointed, unusually compact, and interesting throughout. In the '

concerted numbers there

day

is

evidence of great it, as the critics

To condemn

dramatic power.

as wanting in melody, and constantly striving after originality, is to contradict Schubert's most marked characteristics, of the

do,

and is contrary to the facts. There is possibly more justice in the complaint that the accompaniments were too loud, though that is certainly not the fault in his masses, his only

other published works with orchestral accompaniments anterior to this date. The work has been published in vocal score by Peters (1872).

On August 19 the Zauberharfe was produced at the Theatre an-der-Wien. It consists chiefly of chorus and melodrama, with only a few solo passages. There is a fine overture (in 0), original, characteristic, and full of beauty, which was published before 1828 as op. 26, under the name of 'Eosamunde,' to which it seems to have no claim. ^ The piece was occasionally brought forward till the winter, and was then dropped. These three vocal works appear so far to have whetted Schubert's '

appetite that in the

more important

'

autumn he attacked the

libretto of

'

Sakontala, a regular '

by P. H. Neumann, founded on the Indian drama of that name. He sketched two acts, and there it remains the MS. is in Herr Dumba's possession. Another important and very beautiful piece is the 23rd Psalm,^ set for two sopranos and two altos with PF. accompaniment, at the instigation of the opera

in

three

acts,

;

1 In 1866, by Spina. 2 The overture played to tlie 'Bosamunde' musio Is in D minor, and waa afterwardfl publiehed as Alfonso & Estrella.' There is, perhaps, 3nother]n existence. Bee the letterto Ton Moaet quoted farther on, t To Moses Mendelssohn's translation. '

1820 Frbhlioh,-

sisters

and dated at the beginning

—perhaps with a viewat thesome old concerts given, now

'23 Dec. 1820'

to

or later,

private

Another is the ot. the Musikverein. 'Gesang der Geister iiber den Wassern' of Goethe (op. 167). This fine and mystical poem had a strong attraction for Schubert. He set then he reset it for four equal voices in 1817 it for four tenors and four basses with two violas, two violoncellos, and bass, in Deo. 1820 and lastly revised this in Feb. 1821. It was first produced on March 7, 1821, and found no favour, It was again performed to Schubert's disgust. on March 30, before a more receptive audience, It was revived at with a far better result. Vienna in 1858 by Herbeck, and in England was performed with success on March 22, 1881, It is under the direction of Mr. Prout. enormously diflScult, and, though perfectly in character with the poem, will probably never Another be attractive to a mixed audience. work of 1820 were some antiphons (op. 113) for Palm Sunday (March 26), composed for Ferdinand, who had been recently appointed Choirmaster at the Altlerchenfelder Church, and found the duties rather too much for him. They are written with black chalk, on coarse grey wrapping paper and the tradition is that they and two motets were written in great haste, hall

;

;

;

On

just in time for the service.

Easter Sunday

Franz attended and conducted the mass

for his

brother.

The Fantasia in C for PF. solo (op. 15), containing Variations on Schubert's own Wanderer, is probably a work of this year. It was wTitten for von Liebenberg, a PF. player, to whom Schubert dedicated it. This fine piece was brought into vogue by Liszt's arrangement of it for PF. and orchestra as a concerto ; but it is doubtful '

improved by the process. Schubert never it he always stuck fast in the last movement and on one occasion jumped up and cried Let the devil himself play it Another piece is an Allegi'o for strings in C minor, dated if it is

could play

;

;

!

'

'

Dec. 1820, the

first

movement

of a quartet, of

which there exist besides forty-one bars of the Andante, in Ab. The Allegro is of first-rate quality, and Schubert in every bar. It was published in 1868 by Senff. The MS. was in Johannes Brahms's fine coUqotion of autographs.

The song^ of 1820, seventeen in all, though not so numerous as those of previous years, are very fine. They contain Der JUngling auf '

dem Hugel'

No. 1), 'Der Schiffer,' 'Liebeslauschen,' three grand songs to Mayr(op.

hofer's words,

and

'

8,

OrestaufTam-is,' ' Der entsiihnte

and four von Eomer, who afterwards married Schubert's iriend Spaun, and since published with one which was probably written under Salieri's eye as early as 1813. The most remarkable of all is Im Walde or Orest,'

'

Freiwilliges Versinken,'

Italian Canti, written for Frl.

'

'

—

';

SCHUBERT

1821

' Waldesnaoht, a very long song of extraordinary beauty, variety, force, and imagination. With February 1821 Schubert entered his twenty-fifth year, and it was a good' omen to receive such a birthday present as the three testimonials of this date which Kreissle has preserved. The first is from von Mosel, then Court Secretary ; the second from Weigl, Director of the Court Opera, Salieri, and von Eichthal tlie third from Moritz Count Dietriohstein, whom Beethoven addresses as 'Hofmusikgraf,' and who appears to have been a sort of JupiterApollo with general sway over all Court music. These influential personages waiinly recognise his eminent ability, industry, knowledge, feeling, and taste, and profess the best intentions towards him. The three documents were enclosed by the Count in a letter to Vogl, full of good wishes for the future of his friend. Still more giatifying was the prospect, which now at last opened, of the publication of his songs. It was the first good epoch iu Schubert's '

He had now been hitherto struggling life. writing for more than seven years, with an industry and disregard of consequences which are really fearful to contemplate ; and yet, as far as fame or profit were concerned, might almost as well have remained absolutely idle. Here at. length was a break in the cloud. It was not less welcome because it was mainly due to his faithful friends, the Sonnleithners, who had made his acquaintance through the accident of Leopold Sonnleithner's being at school with him, and ever since cherished it in the most faithful and practical way, Ignaz, the father, having, since 1815, had large periodical musicmeetings of artists and amateurs in his house at the Gundelhof, which were nothing less than Schubert propaganda. Here, before large audiences of thoroughly musical people, Schubert's pieces were repeatedly performed, and at length, on Dec. 1, 1820, the ' Erl King ' was sung by Gymnioh, a well-known amateur, with a spirit which fired every one of the audience

with the desire to possess the song, and appears to have suggested to Leopold and Gymnich the possibility >of finding a publisher for the inspirations which had for so long been their delight

and astonishment. They applied to Diabelli and Haslinger, the leading houses of Vienna, but without success the main objections being ;

the insignificance of the composer, and the On difiBculty of his PF. accompaniments. this they res >lved to take the matter into their own hands and, probably not without misThe Erl King engraved. givings, had the fact was announced at the next Concert at the Gundelhof, and a hundred copies were at once subscribed for in the room— sufficient to defray the cost of the engraving and printing, and of Meantime engraving a second song as well. the Erl King had been sung in public (for ;

'

'

'

— :; '

295

1821

the concerts at the Gundelhof were, strictly speaking, private, limited to the friends of the host) by Gymnich, at an evening concert of the Musikverein, in one of the public rooms of the city, on Jan. 25, 1821, Schubert himself appearing on the platform, and playing the accompaniment. Everything was done by the young enthusiasts to foster the Schubert /mtot-c, even to the publication of a set of Erl King waltzes ' by A. Hiittenbrenner, which at any rate must have made the name familiar, though they provoked Schubert, and drew from Kanne some satirical hexameters and pentameters which may be read in Kreissle. ^ On Feb. 8 the programme of the Musikverein Concert included three songs of his, the Sehnsucht by Schiller, 'Gretchen am Spinnrade," and Der Jiingling auf dem Hiigel ; and on March 8 the ' Gruppe aus dem Tartarus.' On March 7 the ' Erl King' was again sung, this time by Vogl himself, at an unmistakable public concert, at the Kai'nthnerthor theatre, a concert supported by all the most distinguished ladies of the Court, vho Think received the song with loud applause. what the first appearance of these godlike It was the rising of pieces must have been the Sun He is now an everyday sight to us ; but how was it the first time that he burst in In all his brightness on the eyes of mortals ? the midst of all this enthusiasm the ' Erl King was published on the 1st of April 1821, by Cappi and Diabelli, on commission. It was dedicated to Count Moritz Dietrichstein, whose On kindness well deserved that recognition. April 30, 'Gretchen am Spinnrade' appeared The succeeding publications each as op. 2. made to depend on the success of the last '

'

'

'

'

!

!

—

were as follows

May

29.

Op.

3.

:

Scliafers

Heidenroslein

Op.

Do. July

9.

4.

Meeres-Stille Elagelied ; ; Jagers Abendlied.

Der Wanderer

derers Nachtlied. 5. Rastlose Liebe

Morgenlied

;

;

;

;

;

in Tliule.

Aug.

23.

Nov.

27.

Op. 6. Memnon Antigone und Oedip ; .^ m Grabe Anselmos. Op. 7. Die abgebliihte Linde Der Flug der Zeit ; Der Tod und das Madchen. ;

;

Here the publication by commission stopped, the Diabellis being evidently convinced that the risk might be profitably assumed ; and accordingly op. 8 appears on May 9, 1822, as 'the property of the publishers.' The dedications of the first seven numbers no doubt furnish the names of Schubert's most influential supporters 1. Graf von Dietrichstein ; 2. Eeichsgraf Moritz von Fries ; 3. Ignaz von Mosel ; 4. Johann Ladislaus Pyrker, Patriarch of Venice ; 5. Salieri 6. Michael Vogl ; 7. Graf Ludwig Sz^chteyi. It must be admitted that the above are very good lists, and that if Schubert had waited long for the publication of his works, the issue

'

I

K.B. p. 20a

(1.

208).

;

Wan-

Nahe des Geliebten Erster Verlust Der Konig

Op.

Der Fischer

;

HansUck, Cmicertwesen,

p. 284

;

and K.H.

p. 60

(i.

60).

— ;

296

SCHUBEET

1821

of twenty songs in eight months, under the patronage of seven such eminent personages, was a substantial compensation. We do not hear, however, that much money came into his hands from the publication. The favourable impression made by the publication may be gathered from the long, intelligent, and sympathetic criticism, 'Blick auf Schuberts Lieder,' by F. von Hentl, which appeared in the Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kvmst, etc. a periodical belonging

—

to Diabelli's rivals, Steiner 23, 1822.

&

Co.

—

for

March

Schubert was now a good deal about the and when it was determined to produce

theatre,

a

German

version of Herold's 'Cloohette,' as 'Das Zauberglbekchen,' at the Court-opera, he was not unnaturally called upon to insert a couple of pieces to suit the Vienna audience. It was what Mozart often did for the Italian operas of his day what indeed we know Shakespeare

—

have done in more than one case. The opera was produced on June 20. The interpolated pieces were a long air for tenor,' in three movements Maestoso, Andante, and Allegro full of passion and imagination, and a comic duet between the princes B flat and C natural (Bedmand Cedur). They were more applauded than anything else in the work, but Schubert's name was not divulged ; the opera as a whole did not please, and wal soon withdrawn. The little Variation which he contributed, as No. 38, to Diabelli's collection of fifty Variations the same for which Beethoven wrote to

—

—

—

his thirty- three (op. 120)

—should not be over-

looked. Though not published till 1823, the autograph, now in the Hofbibliothek at Vienna, The variation is fresh is dated ' March 1821.'

and pretty, in the minor of the theme, but is more noticeable from its situation than from its

own qualities. A few dances for PF. solo are dated 8th March and July in this year, and a collection of thirty-six, containing those alluded to and others of 1816 and 1819, was published by Cappi and Diabelli on Nov. 29, Some of these are inscribed on the as op. 18. autograph Atzenbrucker Deutsche, July 1821,' indicating a visit to Atzenbruck, the seat of an uncle of Schober's, near Abstetten, between Vienna and St. Pblten, where a three days' annual festivity was held, to which artists of all kinds were invited, and where Schubert's presence and music were regarded as in'

'

'

'

'

1821

sion,2 is a very curious manuscript, probably quite unique, even among Schubert's feats of

composition. It occupies 167 pages of 42 sheets (10 quires of 4, and 1 of 2), and is in the usual movements Adagio in E minor, and Allegro in E major ; Andante in A ; Scherzo in C, and Trio in A ; ' and Allegro giusto in E major. The Introduction and a portion of the Allegro are fully scored and marked ; but at the 110th bar the end of a page Schubert appears to have grown impatient of this regular proceeding, and from that point to the end of the work has But these memomade merely memoranda.

—

—

are, in their way, perfectly complete and Every bar orderly to the end of the Finale. is drawn in ; the tempi and names of the instruments are fully written at the beginning of each movement ; the nuances are all marked ; the very double bars and flourishes are gravely added at the end of the sections, and ' Fine ' at

randa

and Schubert the conclusion of the whole evidently regarded the work as no less complete on the paper than it was in his mind. And for each subject is complete it virtually is given at full length, with a bit of bass or accompaniment-figure, ovfugaio passage. There is not a bar from beginning to end that does not contain the part of one or more instruments at all crucial places the scoring is much fuller ; and it would no doubt be possible to complete [It is said it as Schubert himself intended. that the sketch was submitted to Mendelssohn, who refused to complete it. In later days, at the suggestion of Sir George Grove, Mr. J. F. Bamett undertook the task, and the symphony, scored by him from Schubert's indications, was produced at the Crystal Palace on May 5, 1883. See Barnett's Musical Eeminiscences and Impressions, pp. 312-22.] We next find the two friends at the castle of Ochsenburg, a few miles south of St. Polten, the ;

;

;

seatof the Bishop, whowasarelativeof Schober's and there and in St. Polten itself they passed a thoroughly happy and healthy holiday of some weeks in September and October. The

Bishop and Baron Mink, a local magnate, were congenial hosts, and the visit of the* two clever

young men was the signal for various festivities, in which all the aristocracy of the country-side 'a princess, two countesses, and three baronesses,'

—

took part, and in in Schober's enumeration which the music and drollery of Schubert and

dispensable.

his friend delighted every one.

Whether after this he and Sohober returned but to Vienna we know not, no letters remain the next event of which any record remains is

of the visit, however,

;

the composition of a symphony, his seventh, in E, which is marked, without note of place, He did not complete the as begun in August. writing of it, and indeed it is probable that it did not occupy him more than a few hours but the autograph, which is in the writer's posses;

1

Introduced into Alfonao nnd Estrella in 1881 by Joh. Fucho. '

'

The great result

was the composition of an

opera to Schober's words, on a romantic subject of battles, love, conspiracy, hunting, peasant life, and everything else, so natural in opera librettos, 2 I received it in 1868 from the late Paul Mendelssohn, Felix's brother, into whose bands it came after his brother's death. Felix

Mendelssohn bad it from Ferdinand Schubert direct. 3 The change in this symphony from the Scherzo in C to the Trio In A. by an B in octaves in the obopj lasting four l)ars, is an antici. pation of the similar change in the same place in the gieat C major Symphony of 1828, and a curious instance of the singular way in which many of Schubert's earlier symphonies lead up to his crowning e^ort.

SCHUBERT

1821so impossible in real

und

Estrella,'

It was called ' Alfonso acts were completed be-

life.

and two

fore their return to town. The first act is dated at the end of the autograph Sept. 20, and the second Oct. 20. A week later they were back again in Vienna. The songs composed in 1821 are very important, and comprise some of his very finest, and in the most various styles. It is sufficient to name among the published ones ' Grenzen der Mensohheit' (February); 'Geheimes' (March); Suleika's two songs (opp. 14, 31); 'Sei mir gegriisst for four

(op. 20, No. 1) ; and Die Naohtigall,' men's voices (op. 1 1, No. 2) all of the '

'

—

very highest excellence, of astonishing variety, and enough of themselves to make the fame of any ordinary composer. A fine setting of Mahomet's song,' by Goethe, for bass (possibly for Lablache), was begun in March. The third act of Alfonso und Estrella was The fact that a finished in Feb. 27, 1822. thoroughly worldly, mercenary, money-making manager like Barbaja, who was at the same time a firm believer in Rossini, had become lessee of the two principal theatres of Vienna, augured badly for Schubert's chance of success in that direction. But indeed the new piece seems to have been calculated to baffle any manager, not only in Vienna, but everywhere else. It caused, aswe shall see, a violent dispute, eighteen months later, between Schubert and Weber, which but '

'

for Schubert's

'

good temper would have led to a

Milder, to whom Schubert sent a copy of the work in 1825, tells him, in a letter full of kindness and enthusiasm, that the libretto will not suit the taste of the Berliners, 'who are accustomed to the grand tragic opera, or the French op&a-eomique.' Nor was the libretto the only drawback. Schubert, like Beethoven in ' Fidelio,' was in advance of the modest execution of those days. At Graz, the abode of the Hiittenbrenners, where there was a, foyer of Schubert-enthusiasts, the opera got as far as rehearsal, and would probably have reached the stage, if the accompaniments had not proved impossible for the band, i No performance took place until twentysix years after poor Schubert's death, namely at "Weimar, on June 24, 1854, under the direction of Liszt, who, with all his devotion to the master, had to reduce it much for performance. It was very carefully studied, and yet the success, even in that classical town, and with

permanent

Anna

quarrel.

all Liszt's enthusiasm and influence, seems to have been practically nil. At last, however, its time came. Twenty-five years later, in 1879, it was again taken in hand by Capellmeister Johann Fuchs of the Court opera,

Vienna, who entirely rewrote the libretto, and greatly curtailed the work ; and in this form it was brought to performance at Carlsruhe in

March 1881, with great >

K.B.

p.

success.

249

(i.

252).

-1822

297

But to return to Schubert and 1822. in the year he made the acquaintance^ of

Early

Weber,

who

spent a few weeks of February and March in Vienna to arrange for the production of his Euryanthe. ' No particulars of their intercourse on this occasion survive. With Beethoven '

Schubert had as yet hardly exchanged words. And this is hardly to be wondered at, because, though Vienna was not a large city, yet the paths of the two men were quite separate. Apart from the great difference in their ages, and from Beethoven's peculiar position in the town, his habits were fixed, his deafness was a great obstacle to intercourse, and, for the last five or six years, what with the lawsuits into which his nephew dragged him, and the severe labour entailed by the composition of the Mass in D, and of the Sonatsis opp. 106, 109, 110, and 111 works which by no means flowed from him with the ease that masses and sonatas did from Schubert he was very inaccessible. Any stranger arriving from abroad, with a

—

—

was seen and treated But Schubert was a born Viennese, and at the time of which we speak, Beethoven was as much a part of Vienna as St. Stephen's tower, and to visit him required some special reason, and more than special resolution. letter of introduction, civilly.

A

remark of Rochlitz's ^ in the July of this year shows that Schubert was in the habit of going to the same restaurant with Beethoven, and worshipping at a distance but the first direct evidence of their coming into contact occurs at this date. On April 19, 1822, he published a set of Variations on a French air as op. 10, and dedicated them to Beethoven as his admirer and worshipper {sein Verehrer und Bewunderer). The Variations were written in the winter of 1 820-21, and Schubert presented them in person to the gi'eat master. There are two versions of the intei-view,* Schindler's and J. Huttenbrenner's. Schindler was constantly about Beethoven. He was devoted to Schubert, and is very unlikely to have given a depreciating account of him. There is therefore no reason for doubting his statement, especially as his own interest or vanity were not concerned. It is the first time we meet Schubert face to face. ;

'

'

He was

accompanied by Diabelli, who was just beginning to find out his commercial value, and would naturally be anxious for his success. Beethoven was at home, and we know the somewhat overwhelming courtesy with which he welcomed a stranger. Schubert was more and when the bashful and retiring than ever great man handed him the sheaf of paper and the carpenter's pencil provided for the replies ;

2

For their meeting we have the authority of Weber's eon in hia ii. 420. But his statement that Schubert -v&a alienated

biography,

from Weber by Weber's criticism on 'Rosamnnde' is more than doubtful, because 'Rosamnnde' was prolaably not composed till some nineteen months later, and because it was not Schubert's habit to take offence at criticism. 3 Fur Prmnde der Tonktmst, iv. 352. See the lifelike and touching picture by Braun von Braun given in Nohl'B Beethoven, iii. 6f'2. i

Schindler's Beethoven,

ii.

176.

U

298

SCHUBERT

1822

not collect himself word. Then the Variations were produced, with their enthusiastic dedication, which probably added to Beethoven's good humour. He opened them and looked through them, and seeing something that startled him, naturally pointed it out. At of

his

visitors,

could

sufficiently to write a

this

Schubert's

remnant of

last

self-control

seems to have deserted him, and he rushed from the room. When he got into the street, and was out of the magic of Beethoven's personhis presence of mind returned, and all that he might have said flashed upon him, but ality,

was too late. The story is perfectly natural, and we ought to thank Beethoven's Boswell for it. Which of us would not have done the same 1 Beethoven kept the Variations and liked them and it must have been some con-

it

;

solation to the bashful Franz to hear that he

often played them with his nephew. Huttenbrenner'si story is that Schubert called, but found Beethoven out which may have been an invention of Diabelli's to shield his young ;

client.

This autumn Schubert again took up the Mass in At*, which was begun in 1819 ; finished wn. 7* 822 teendet.' ^ Not it, and inscribed it that that was the final redaction for, contrary '

—

instancy—

solitary

^in

fact it is

^he

;

poetical.

During this summer Joseph Hiittenbrenner was active in the cause of his friend. He made no less than four endeavours to bring out the

'Teufels Lustsohloss'

— at

the

Josefstadt

2 l'' atands tor September. (i. 284). This was kindly pointed out to the writer by Johannes Brahms, who had an early copy ol the score, made by Ferdinand Schubert from the autogiaph in Its original condition. In this shape Eiuhms rehearsed the maas, but found many portions unsatisfactory, and was intereated to discover subsequently from the autograph that Schubert had altered the very passages alluded to, and made them He made three attempts at the Cum Sancto before practicable. succeeding, each time in fugue, and always with a dliTerent subject. Of tlie flrst there ai'e four bars ; of the second 199 the third ia that printed in Schreiber'a edition. Tills edition is unfortunately very incorrect. Not only does it swarm with misprints, but whole paesagea, and those most important ones (as in the Horns and Trombones ot the Dona), are clean omitted. The nuances also are shamefully treated. * First printed by B. Schumann in the ^eue Zeitachrift fS/r Muiile for Feb, S, 1839. See also K.B. p. 333 (11. 18). 1

K.I7. p. 281

3

—

and Court theatres of Vienna, at Munich, and' At Prague alone was there a gleam at Prague. of hope. Hollbein, the manager there, requests to have the score and parts sent to him, at the same time regretting that during a month which he had passed in Vienna, Schubert had not once Hiittenbrenner also urged come near him. Schubert on Peters, the publisher, of Leipzig, in a tedious egotistical letter, dated Wov. 14, 1822, gives the usual sound reasons of a cautious publisher against taking up with an unknown composer for in North Germany One is Schubert was still all but unknown. sorry to hear of a little rebuff which he sustained at this time from the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde of Vienna, to whom he applied to be

who

—

admitted as a practising member (on the viola), but who refused him on the ground of his being a professional, and therefore outside their rules.* A somewhat similar repulse was experienced by Haydn from the Tonkiinstler Societat. [See On the other hand, the vol. ii. p. 354.] musical societies both of Linz and Graz elected him an honorary member. To the latter of these distinctions we owe the two beautiful movements of the symphony No. 8, in B minor, which was begun at Vienna on Oct. 30, 1822, and intended as a return for the compliment.

;

almost a took it up again before his death, and made material improvements' both in the position of the voice-parts and in the instrumentation, aa may be seen from the autograph score now in the Library of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. This year seems to have been passed entirely in Vienna, at least there are no traces of any journey and the imprisonment in the broiling city, away from the nature he so dearly loved, was not likely to improve his spirits. What events or circumstances are alluded to in the interesting piece called 'My Dream,'* dated It may not 'July 1822,' it is hard to guess. improbably have been occasioned by some dispute on religious subjects of the nature of those hinted at in his brother Ignaz's letter of Oct. 12, 1818.* At any rate it is deeply pathetic and to his usual practice

1822

'

'

The Allegro and Andante alone are finished, but these are of singular beauty and the greatest In them, for the first time in composition, Schubert exhibits a style absolutely his own, untinged by any predecessor, and full of that strangely direct appeal to the hearer of which we have already spoken. It is certain that he never heard the music played, and that the new and delicate originality.

orchestral

and orchestral combinations with-which crowded, were the result of his imagination alone. The first movement is sadly full of agitation and distress. It lay hidden at Graz for many years, until obtained from Anselm Hiittenbrenner by Herbeok, who first produced it in Vienna at one of the Gesellschaft concerts in 1865.^ It was published by Spina early in 1867 was played at the Crystal Palace, April 6, 1867, and elsewhere in England, and always with increasing success. In fact no one can hear it without being captivated by it. effects it is

;

—

The Songs composed in 1822 fourteen printed and two in MS. comprise ' Epistel von Collin' (Jan.) ; ' Heliopolis ' (April); 'Todesmusik,' with a magnificent opening (op. 108, No. 2 Sept.) ; ' Schatzgrabers Begehr (op. 23, No. 4 Nov.) with its stately bass ; ' Willkommen und Absohied ' (op. 56, No. 1 ; Dec.) ; ' Die

—

'

;

;

Rose

'

(op. 73)

The concerted

and

'

Der Musensohn

pieces,

'

'

(op. 92).

Constitutionslied

'

(op.

;

5

E.H.

p. 146

(I.

148).

157 Jan.), Geist der Liebe' (op. 11, No. 3), Gott in der Natur (op. 133), and Des Tages Weihe' (op. 146), all belong to this year. Publication went on in 1822, though not so '

;

'

'

B

K.H.

p. 280

(i.

283).

7 See Hanalick,

'

CovctrUaal,

p. 350.

— SCHUBEET

1822•

The Variations dedicated to 10) were first to appear, on April 19. They were followed by op. 8 (four songs) on May 9, and op. 11 (three part-songs) on June 12. Then came a long gap till Dec. 1 3, on which day opp. 12, 13, and 14, all songs, We have not space to name appeared at once. But with such accumulated treasures them. to draw upon, it is unnecessary to say that they The pecuniary result are all of the first class. of the publications of 1821 had been good ; 2000 gulden were realised, and of the '£rl King alone more than 800 copies had been sold ; and if Schubert had been provident briskly as before.

Beethoven

(op.

'

enough to keep his works in his own possession he would soon have been out of the reach of Pressed want. ThiSj however, he did not do. by the want of money, in an incautious moment he sold the first twelve of his works ' to Diabelli for 800 silver gulden (£80), and entered into some injudicious arrangement with the same His old and kind firm for future publications. friend Count Dietrichstein about this time

him

a post as organist to the Court Chapel,^ but he refused it, and he was probably right, though in so doing he greatly distressed offered

his methodical old father.

His habits, like

Beethoven's, made it absurd for him to undertake any duties requiring strict attendance.

The Vienna Theatre being closed to Alfonso and Estrella,' Schubert turned his thoughts in '

the direction of Dresden, where his admirer

Anna Milder was

and where Weber was Director of the Opera and we find him in a letter of Feb. 28, 1823 (published in 1881 for the first time) ^ asking his old patron Herr von Mosel for a letter of recommendation to He is confined to the house by illness, Weber. and apologises for not being able to call. There are no traces of reply to this application, but it living, ;

probably led to nothing, the score of the opera was

for, as

we

shall see,

still in his hands in October. He was evidently now set upon opera. In the letter just mentioned he implores von Mosel to entrust him with a libretto ' suitable

and though he seems never went on with the best he could get, and 1823 saw the birth of no The first was less than three dramatic pieces. a one -act play with dialogue, adapted from the French by Castelli, and called 'Die Verfor his littleness

'

;

to have obtained this, he

sohworenen, or The Conspirators. The play was published in the Dramatic Garland an annual collection of dramas for 1823. Schubert must have seen it soon after publication, and by April had finished the composition of it. The autograph, in the British Museum, has at '

'

'

—

—

but the works pubHahed on conunisaion were 1-7, containing twenty songs. [The evidence for this tr&nsaotion is veiy obscure, and the story with a proposed application in 1825. confused may have l)ecome 1

So say the books

;

opp. 2

See below,

p. 305a.]

3 In the Seuus Freie Preste of Vienna, Nov. 19. 1881. The letter, though formal in style, is curiously free in some of its expressions. It mentions tho overture to the 1st Act of Alfonso und Estrella. known that name (op. 69) is overture under What can this be? The dated 'Dec. 1823," and is said to have been written for' Bosamunde.' '

299

-1823

the end the words 'Aprill 1823. F. Schubert, Ende der Oper.' It contains an overture and eleven numbers, and appears from Bauernfeld's testimony to have been composed with a view to representation at the Court theatre. The libretto is a very poor one, with but few dramatic points, and confines the composer mainly to the Chorus. The licensers changed its title to the less suspicious one of Der hausliche Krieg' or 'The Domestic Struggle,' and it was duly sent in to the management, but it returned in twelve months without examination. It did not come to performance at all during Schubert's lifetime, nor till 1861. In that year it was given, under Herbeck's direction, by the Musikverein, Vienna, on March 1 and 22 and on the stage at Frankfort on August 29 since then at the Court theatre, Vienna, at Munich, Salzburg, and other German towns in Paris, Feb.. 3, 1868, as La Croisade des Dames,' and at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, March 2, 1872, as 'The Conspirators." In less than two '

;

;

;

'

months

after throwing off this lively Singspiel, Schubert had embarked in something far more serious, a regular three-act opera of the heroicoromantic pattern also with spoken dialogue the scene laid in Spain, with Moors, knights, a king, a king's daughter, and all the usual furniture of these dreary compilations. The libretto of Fierrabras,' by Josef Kupelwieser enough of itself to justify all Wagner's charges * against the opera books of the old school was commissioned by Barbaja for the Court theatre. The book was passed by the Censure on July 21 but Schubert had by that time advanced far in his labours, and had in fact completed more than half of the piece. He began it, as his own date tells us, on May 25. Act 1, filling 304 pages of large oblong paper, ^ was completely scored by the 31st of the month Act 2, in five days more, by June 5 and the whole three acts, fully 1000 pages, and containing an overture and twenty-three numbers, were entirely out of hand by Oct. 2. And all for nothing Schubert was not even kept long in suspense, for early in the following year he learnt that The ground for the work had been dismissed. its rejection was the badness of the libretto but knowing Barbaja's character, and seeing that Kupelwieser was secretary to a rival house (the Josefstadt), it is difiicult not to suspect that the commission had been given by the wily Italian, merely to facilitate the progress of some piece of business between the two establishments. It is, as Liszt has remarked, extraordinary that Schubert, who was brought up from his youth on the finest poetry, should have unhesitatingly accepted the absurd and impracticable librettos which he did, and which have kept in '

—

—

'

'

—

;

;

;

!

;

oblivion so much of his splendid music. His devotion to his friends, and his irrepressible 4 Hansllck, Coticerttaat, p. 160. 5 The autograph was shown to Sullivan and the writer by that energetic Schubert apostle, Herr Johann Herbeck, in 1868.

,

—

;

300

SCHUBERT

1823

desire to utter

what was

in him, no doubt help

to explain the anomaly, but an anomaly it wiU always remain. It is absolutely distressing to think of such extraordinary ability, and such

more extraordinary powers of work, being thrown away, and of the sickening disappointment which these repeated failures must have entailed on so simple and sensitive a

still

so cruelly

heart as

his.

Fortunately for us the strains in

which he vents his griefs are as beautiful and endearing as those in which he celebrates his joys. His work this summer was not, however, to be all disappointment. If the theatre turned a deaf ear to his strains there were always his beloved songs to confide in, and they never deceived him. Of the Song in Schubert's hands we may say what Wordsworth so well says of the Sonnet With this key Shakespeare unlocked his heart ; the melody Of this small lute gave ease to Petrarch's wound. :

and when a damp hand The thing became a trumpet, whence he blew Fell round the path of Milton, in his

—

Soul-animating strains, alas too few

1

^with the notable difference that it

was given

up and express,

in his one person and his one art, all the various moods and passions which Wordsworth has divided to Schubert to gather

amongst so many mighty

poets.

And

now, in the midst of the overwhelming tumult and absorption which inevitably accompany the production of so large a work of imagination as a three-act opera, brought into being at so extraordinarily rapid a pace, he was to stop, and to indite a set of songs, which though not of greater worth than many others of his, are yet so intelligible, so expressive, address themselves to such universal feelings, and form so attractive a whole, that they have certainly become more popular, and are more widely and permanently beloved, than any similar production by any We have already described other composer. the incident through which Schubert made acquaintance with the Mullerlieder > of Wilhelm Miiller, twenty of which he selected for the beautiful series so widely known as the Schbne Miillerin.' We haveseentheenduringimpatience with which he attacked a book when it took his fancy, and the eagerness with which he began upon this particular one. We know that the Mullerlieder were all composed this year ; that some of them were written in hospital that a considerthat Ko. 15 is dated October' able interval elapsed between the second and probably the best third Act of Fierrabras Putting these facts part of July and August. together it seems to follow that the call on Eand'

'

;

'

'

—

1 The Mullerlieder, twenty-three in number, with Prologue and Epilogue in addition, are contained in the 1st vol. of the Gcdichte aiu den hinierlcuaenen Papieren einea reitenden Waldhornisten (Pooma found among the papei-e of a travelling French-hom-player), which were first published at Dessau, 1821. Schubert has omitted the Prologue and Epilogue, and three poems 'Das MUhlenleben' after 'Der Neugierige'; 'Brater Schmerz, letzter Scherz,' after 'Elferaucht und Stolz' and 'BlUmleln VerglBBmein' after 'Die bOae Farbe.'

—

;

'

1823

hartinger (see oMte, p. 24) and the composition of the first numbers of the Sohone Miillerin took place in May, before he became immersed Then came the first two Acts in ' Fierrabras.' of that opera ; then his illness, and his sojourn in the hospital, and more songs ; then the third Act of the opera ; and lastly the completion of '

the Lieder.

Be this as it may, there was no lack of occupation for Schubert after he had put Fierrabras' Weber arrived in Vienna late in out of hand. September 1823, and on Oct. 3 began the rehearsals of ' Euryanthe ; and for a month the musical After the world of Austria was in a ferment. '

'

first

performance, on Oct. 25,

Weber and Schu-

Schubert, into collision. with characteristic frankness, asserted that the new work wanted the geniality and grace of bert

came somewhat

Der Freischiitz,' that its merit lay mainly in its harmony, 2 and that he was prepared to prove '

that the score did not contain a single original Weber had been much tried by the melody. rehearsals, by the growing conviction that big work was too long, and by the imperfect success of the performance ; and with a combination of ignorance and insolence which does him no credit replied, ' Let the fool learn something himself Schubert's answer to before he criticises me.' this was to go off to Weber with the score of ' Alfonso und Estrella.' When they had looked through this, Weber returned to Schubert's criticisms on 'Euryanthe,' and finding that the honest Franz stuck to his point, was absurd enough to lose his temper, and say, in the obvious belief that the score before him was Schubert's first attempt, ' I tell you the first puppies and the first operas are always drowned.' Franz, it is unnecessary to say, bore no malice, even for so galling a speech, and it is due to Weber to state that he took some pains later to have the work adopted at the Dresden theatre.^ Schubert did not yet know the fate which awaited ' Fierrabras ; all wsis at present couleur de rose ; and the fascination of the theatre, the desire innate in all musicians, even one so self-contained as Schubert, to address a large public, sharpened not improbably by the chance recently enjoyed by the stranger, was too strong to be resisted, and he again, for the third time in ten months, turned towards the stage. This time the temptation came in the shape of 'Rosamunde, Princess of Cyprus,' a play of ultraroraantio character, by Madame von Chezy, authoress of Euryanthe," a librettist whose lot seems to have been to drag down the musicians connected with her. The book of ' Rosamunde' must have been at least as inefficient as that with which Weber had been struggling, to cause the failure of such magnificent and interesting '

'

music as Schubert made for it. The drama has disappeared, but Kreissle gives the plot,* and 2

See MendelPEOhn'B opinion in 246 (i. 249) note.

> IC.ir. p.

2*7*6

Mendelseohn Family, < Ibid. p.

28S

(i.

i. 23f?,

288), etc.

;

'

SCHUBERT

1823—

It had is both tedious and improbable. moreover the disadvantage of competition with

a sensational spectacular piece, written expressly to suit the taste of the suburban house, the Theatre an-der-Wien, at which Kosamunde was produced, and which, since the time when Schikaneder induced Mozart to join him in the 'Magic Flute,'' had a reputation for such extravaganzas. Schubert completed the music in It consists of an Overture in D,^ five days.^ since published as 'Alfonso und Estrella,' op. three Entr'actes ; two numbers of ballet 69 '

'

;

—

22, May 27 ; op. 23, August 4 ; op. 24, Oct. 7 ; op. 16, Oct. 9 ; op. 19, twenty-one (no dates) or part-songs, op. 17, Oct. 9. With op. 20, the names of Sauer & Leidesdorf first occur as publishers. op.

;

; a little piece for clarinets, horns, and bassoons, called a ' Shepherds' Melody, of bewitching beauty ; a Romance for soprano solo,

music

—

'

The Romance

(op.

26),

the Shepherds' chorus, the Entr'acte in 'Bi>, and the Air de Ballet in G, are not only very beautiful but very attractive ; and the Entr'acte in B minor, of a grand, gloomy, and highly imaginative cast, is one of the finest pieces of music existing. The play was brought out on Dec. 20, 1823 ; the overture, though the entire orchestral part of the music had only one rehearsal of two hours, was twice redemanded, other numbers were loudly applauded, and Schubert himself was called for at the close ; but it only survived one more representation, and then the parts were tied up and forgotten till the year 1867, when they were discovered by two English travellers in Vienna.* Besides the Miillerlieder several independent songs of remarkable beauty belong to 1823. Conspicuous among these are Viola ' (Schneegloeklein ; op. 123), a long composition full of the most romantic tenderness and delicacy, with all the finish of Meissonnier's pictures, and all his breadth and dignity. Also the '

'Zwerg' Collin,

22, No. 1), by Matthias von which Schubert has immortalised

(op.

in

the one brother, as Beethoven, in his overture to Coriolan, did the other. This long, dramatic, and most pathetic ballad, which but few can hear unmoved, was written absolutely a Vimproviste, without note or sketch, at the top of his speed, talking all the while to Eandhartinger, who was waiting to take him out for a walk.' Equal, if not superior, to these in merit, though of smaller dimensions, are Dass sie hier gewesen' (op. 59, No. 2) 'Du bist die Euh' (do. No. 3) ; the Barcarolle, ' Auf dem Wasser zu singen (op. 72), to which no nearer date than 1823 can be given. Below these again, though still fine songs, are Der ziimende Barde' (Feb.) 'Drang in die Feme' (op. 71 '

'

'

;

'

'

'

'

;

March 25)

' ;

;

Pilgerweise

'

(April)

;

'

Vergiss-

meinnicht' (May). The fine Sonata in minor for PF. solo, published as op. 143,

301

dated Feb. 1823, and the sketch of a scena for tenor solo and chorus of men's voices with orchestra, dated May 1823. The latter was completed by Herbeck, and jiublished in 1868 by Spina as Eiidiger's Heimkehr.' Ten works (opp. 15-24) were published in 1823. The earliest was a collection of dances, viz., twelve Waltzes, nine Ecossaises, and seventeen Landler, op. 18, published Feb. 5 the PF. Fantasia, op. 15, followed on Feb. 24. The rest are songs, either solo op. 20, April 10

it

and three choruses.

—1824

A

The year 1824 began almost exclusively with instrumental compositions. An Introduction and Variations for PF. and fiute (op. 160), on the 'Trockne Blumen' of the 'Schone Miillerin,' are dated 'January,' and were followed by the famous Octet (op. 166), for clarinet, horn, two violins, viola, violoncello, and which is marked as begun in February, and finished on March 1. It was

bassoon,

contrabass,

—

written not, let us hope, without adequate remuneration, though that was probably the last thing of which its author thought for Count F. von Troyer, chief officer of the household to the Archduke Rudolph, Beethoven's patron. In this beautiful composition Schubert indulges his love of extension. It contains, like Beethoven's Septet, eight movements ; but, unlike the Septet, it occupies more than an hour in performance. But though long, no one can call it tedious.^ The Count played the clarinet, and must have been delighted with the expressive melody allotted to him in the

—

Andante.

that he had written two before the 31st March,' and these are doubtless those in El> and E (op. 125), since the only other quartet bearing the date of 1824 that in A minor has so strong a Hungarian flavour as to point to his visit to Zselesz later in the year. How powerfully his thoughts were running at present on orchestral music is evident from the fact that he mentions both octet and quartets as studies for 'the Grand Symphony,'* which was then his goal, though he did not reach it till eighteen

—

months ing

him

—

later.

A bitter disappointment,

is

Floduced at the Theatre an-der-Wien. Sept. 30, 1791. 2 So saya Wilhelm Ton Chezy, the son of the librettist, vho was on terms with Schubert. See his Joamsl, Srinnerwngen, etc., 1863. 3 The autograph is dated Dec. 1823.' * [It is hard^ necessary to remind the reader that the two travellers were Sir Ge*rge Grove and Sir Arthur Sallivan.] B Kreissle, Sketch, p. 154 nou.

The work was performed immedi-

ately after its composition, with Schuppanzigh, Weiss, and Linke, three of the famous Rasoumowsky quartet, amongst the players. His association with the members of this celebrated party may well have led Schubert to write string quartets ; at any rate he himself tells us

in the rejection of

however, was awaitFierrabras,' which,

'

^

'

s 7

Published by Spina in 1854. In his letter to Leopold Kupelwieaer of March

31,

K.H.

p. 321

(ii. 6|.

8 ' In this manner I shall prepare the way to the (zur grossen Sintonie}.' Ibid,

Grand Symphony

— SCHUBEET

1824

was returned by Barbaja, ostensibly on account of the badness of its Two full-sized operas this and 'Allibretto. to be laid on ,the shelf fonso und Estrella aa already mentioned,

'

—

—

Whatever the cause, without even a rehearsal the blow must have been equally severe to our simple, genuine, composer, who had no doubt been expecting, not without reason, day by day for the last four months, to hear of the acceptance of his work. His picture of himself under this temporary eclipse of hope is mournful in the extreme, though natural enough to the 1

depressed temperament of a man of After speaking of himself as 'the most unfortunate, most miserable being on earth,' he goes on to say, think of a man whose health can never be restored, and who from sheer despair makes matters worse instead of better. Think, I say, of a man whose brightest hopes have come to nothing, to whom love and friendship are but torture, and whose enthusiasm for the beautiful is fast vanishing ; and ask yourself if such a man is not truly unhappy. easily

genius.

'

My peace is gone, my heart is sore. Gone

for ever

my

This is daily cry ; sleep hoping never again to wake,

go to

and every morning only brings back the torment of the day before. Thus joylessly and friendlessly would pass my days, if Schwind did not often look in, and give me a glimpse of the old Your brother's opera' happy times. this is a letter to Kupelwieser the painter, and the allusion

is

.

.

to

'

.

Fierrabras

'

—

'

Beethoven's That gloomy document called Will,' to which even Schubert's most wretched letters must yield the palm, was written at the very time that he was pouring out the gay and healthy strains of his Second Symphony. Schubert left town with the Esterhazys in a few weeks after these distressing utterances, and for a time forgot his troubles in the disAt tractions of country life in Hungary. Zselesz he remained for six months, but his '

We there is almost entirely a blank to us. can only estimate it by the compositions which life

attributable to the period, and by the scanty information conveyed by his letters, which, though fuller of complaint than those of 1818, are even less communicative of facts and occurrences. To this visit is to be ascribed that noble composition known as the Grand Duo' (op. 140), though designated by himself Zsel^s, as Sonata for the PF. for four hands. June 1824'; a piece which, though recalling in one movement Beethoven's Second, and in another his Seventh Symphony, is yet full of the a symphonic work individuality of its author in every sense of the word, which, through Joachim's instrumentation, has now become an orchestral symphony, and a very fine one. To Zselesz also are due the Sonata in Bl> (op. 30, May or June), the Variations in Ab (op. 35, 'middle of 1824'), two Waltzes (in op. 33, 1824, July'), and four Landler (' July, 1824,' Nott. p. 215)— all for PF. four hands other Waltzes and Landler in the same collections for two hands and the Gebet of Lamotte Fouqu^ (op. 139a), signed 'Sept. 1824, at Zelesz in Hungary all evidently arising from the necessity of providing music for the Count's family circle. 'The young Countesses were now nineteen and seventeen, and doubtless good performers, as is implied in the duet-form of the pianoforte works. We are probably right in also attributing the lovely String Quartet in A minor (op. 29), and the four-hand 'Divertissement k la hongrois6 (op. 54), to this visit, at are

'

'

;

and evermore. for every night I

1824

turns out to be

and my music is therefore wasted. Castelli's " Versohworenen " has been set in Berlin by a composer there, and produced with success. Thus I have composed two operas for nothing.' This sad mood, real enough at the moment, was only natural after such repulses.. It was assisted, as Schubert's depression always was, by the absence of many of his friends, and also, as he himself confesses, by his acquaintance with Leidesdorf the publisher (in Beethoven's banter Dorf des Leides,' impracticable,

'

a very village of sorrow '), whom he describes but as a thoroughly good, trustworthy fellow, so very melancholy that I begin to fear I may have learnt too much from him in that direction.' It must surely have been after an evening with this worthy that he made the touching entries in his journal which have been preserved e.g. Grief sharpens the understanding and strengthens the soul Joy on the other hand seldom troubles itself about the one, and makes the other effeminate or frivolous.' My musical works are the product of my genius and my misery, and what the public most relish is that which has given me the greatest distress.' Fortunately, in men of the genuine composertemperament, the various moods of mind follow As soon as they begin one another rapidly. to compose the demon flies and heaven opens. '

'

'

;

:

'

'

;

'

;

'

'

—

'

any

immediate influence. Both are steeped in the Hungarian spirit, and the Divertissement contains a succession of real national tunes, one of which he heard from the lips of a maidservant as he passed the kitchen with Baroii Schbnsteln in returning from a walk. For the Baron was at Zsel&z on this as on the last occasion, and frequent and exquisite must have been the performances of the many fine songs which Schubert had rate to its

written in the interval since his former visit. The circumstances attending the composition of the vocal quartet ('Gebet,' op. 139) just mentioned are told by Kreissle, probably on the authority of Schbnstein, and they give a good instance of Schubert's extraordinary facility. At breakfast one morning, in Sept. 1824, the Countess produced Lamotte Fouque's poem, and proposed to Schubert to set it for the family

!

'

SCHUBEET

1824-

He withdrew after breakfast, taking the book with him, and in the evening, leas than ten hours afterwards, it was tried through from the score at the piano. The next evening it was sung again, this time from separate parts, which Schubert had written out during the day. party.

The

piece is

composed

for quartet, with solos

Mme.

Esterhazy, Marie, Sohonstein, and the Count, and contains 209 bars. A MS. letter of Ferdinand's,' dated July 3, full of that strong half-reverential affection which was Ferdinand's habitual attitude towards his gifted brother, and of curious details, mentions having sent him Bach's fugues (never-cloying food of great composers), and an opera-book, ' Der kurze Mantel.' Strange fascination of the stage, which thus, in despite of so many failures, could keep him still enthralled The country air of the Hungarian mountains, and no doubt the sound and healthy living and early hours of the ch3,teau, restored Schubert's health completely, and in a letter of Sept. 21 to Schober he says that for five months he had been well. But he felt his isolation and the want of congenial Vienna society keenly ; speaks with regret of having been 'enticed' into a second visit to Hungary, and complains of not having a single person near to whom he could say a sensible word. How different from the exuberant happiness of the visits to Steyr and St. Pblten, when every one he met was a demonstrative admirer, and every evening brought a for

fresh

triumph

Now,

!

303

-1825

piano with her. We must be content to leave each reader to decide the question for himself. Vocal composition he laid aside almost entirely in 1824. The only songs which we can ascertain to belong to it are four the fine though gloomy ones called 'Auflbsung,' and Abendstern, both by Mayrhofer another evening song Im Abendroth by Lappe, all three in March and the bass song, Lied eines Kriegers,' with which he closed the last day of the year.^ Of part-songs there are two, both for men's voices ; one a 'Salve regina,' written in April, before leaving town ; and the other, the Gondelfahrer,' or Gondolier, a very fine and picturesque composition, of which Lablache is said to have been so fond that he encored it on first hearing, and himself sang in the encore (Spaun). Sonata for PF. and Arpeggione, in minor, dated Nov. 1824, was probably one of his first compositions after returning to town.' The publications of 1824 embrace opp. 25 to 28 inclusive, all issued by Saner & Leidesdorf. Op. 25 is the 'Schbne Miillerin,' 20 songs in five numbers, published March 25 op. 26 is the vocal music in 'Rosamunde,'* the romance and three choruses op. 27, three fine heroic marches, for PF. four hands op.

—

'

'

;

'

'

'

;

'

A

—A

;

;

'

'

;

28, 'Der Gondelfahrer,' for four men's voices and PF., August 12.

—

1825 was a happy year to our hero happy and productive. He was back again in his dear Vienna, and exchanged the isolation of ZseWsz

was the date of his tender feeling for his pupil Caroline Esterhazy, which his biographers have probably much exaggerated. She was seventeen at the time, and Bauemfeld represents her as the object of an ideal devotion, which soothed, comforted, and inspirited Schubert to the end of his life. Ideal it can only have been, considering the etiquette of the time, and the wide distance between the stations of the two ; and the only occasion on which Schubert is ever alleged to have approached anything like a revelation of his feelings, is that told by Kreissle on what authority he does not say, and it is hard to conceive when on her jokingly reproaching him for not having dedicated anything to her, he replied, 'Why should I ? everything I ever did is dedicated to you.' True, the fine Fantasia in F minor, published in the March following his death as op. 1 03, is dedicated to her by Franz Schubert,' a step which the publishers would hardly have ventured upon unless the MS. probably handed to them before his death hsid been so inscribed by himself. But it is difficult to reconcile the complaints of isolation and neglect already quoted from his letter to Schober with the existence of a passion which must have been fed every time he met his pupil or sat down to the

(Schober was in Prussia, and Kupelwieser still at Rome), in whose applause and sympathy and genial conviviality he rapidly forgot the disappointments and depression that had troubled him in the autumn. Sofie MiiUer, one of the great actresses of that day, evidently a very accomplished, cultivated woman, was then in Vienna, and during February and March her house was the resort of Schubert, Jenger, and Vogl, who sang or listened to her singing of his best and newest Lieder, she herself sang the Junge Nonne at sight on March 3 and lived a pleasant and thoroughly artistic life.^ Others, which she mentions as new, and which indeed had their birth at this time are Der Einsame, and Ihr Grab. The ' new songs from the Pirate,' which she heard on March 1, may have been some from the Lady of the Lake, or 'Noma's song,' or even 'Anna Lyle,' usually placed two years later. Schubert published some important works early in this year the Overture in F for four hands (op. 34) also the Sonata in B|> (op. 30), and the Variations in Ab (op. 35), both for four hands ; and the

1 For vhioh I again gladl7 acltnovledge the kindne^ of Frl. Caxoline GdeleT-Srhnbezt. Schubeit'a gxandnlece.

A See her interesting Journal, in her Leben wtd nachgelauene Papiere herausg, von Johonn Orafen Majl&th [Vienna, 18&).

if ever,

—

—

'

— —

life, with his congenial friends Vogl, Schwind, Jenger, Mayrhofer, etc.

for the old familiar

—

'

'

— '

'

'

'

'

—

;

3 The antograph, bo dated, helonga to Hr. O. J, Hargltt, LondoiL 3 Gotthard, Iffn. Autograph In MuBikverein. * Besides the Tocal muBlc the overture was pnbliehed about 1828, and the Entr'actes and Ballet music in 1868.

304

SCHUBERT

1825

A

String Quartet in

minor

his sojourn in Hungary.

(op. 29)

The

—

fruits of

last of these,

the only quartet he was destined to publish during his life, is dedicated 'to his friend I. Schuppanzigh,' a pleasant memorial of the acquaintance cemented by the performance of the octet, a twelvemonth before. And as on such publications some amount of money passes from the publisher to the composer, this fact of itself would contribute to enliven and inspirit him. In addition to these instrumental works some noble songs were issued in the early part of 1825 'Die zlirnende Diana,' and the Nachtstiick,' of Mayrhofer Der Pilgrim and

—

'

'

'

;

'Der Alpenjager,' of Schiller; and Zuleika's The two beautiful solo sonatas in A minor and in C the latter of which he never succeeded in completely writing out, but the fragment of which is of first-rate quality also date from this time.

second song.

—

—

As if to revenge himself for his sufferings at the Esterhazys', he planned an extensive tour for this summer, in his favourite district, and in the company of his favourite friend. Yogi, on March 31, started for his home at Steyr. 1 Schubert soon followed him, and the next five months, to the end of October, were passed in a delightful mixture of music, friends, fine scenery, lovely weather, and absolute ease and comfort, in Upper Austria and the Salzkammergut, partly amongst the good people who had welcomed him so warmly in 1819, partly among new friends and new enthusiasm. Taking Steyr as their point d'appui they made excursions to Linz, Steyreck, Gmunden, Salzburg, and even as far as Gastein, etc., heartily enjoying the glorious scenery by day, received everywhere on arrival with open aims, and making the best possible impression with their joint performances. The songs from 'The Lady of the Lake were either composed before starting or on the road. At any rate they formed the chief programme during the excursion. If the whole seven were sung or not is uncertain ^ but Schubert particularly mentions the 'Ave Maria,' kpropos of which he makes an interesting '

;

My new songs,' says he, from Walter Scotf s " Lady of the Lake," have been People were greatly astonished very successful. at the devotion which I have thrown into the Hymn to the Blessed Virgin, and it seems to have seized and impressed everybody. I think

1825

before a select circle, and all were much impressed, especially by the Ave Maria, which I The way in former letter. mentioned in which Vogl sings and I accompany, so that for the moment we seem to be one, is something quite new and unexpected to these good people.'

my

He had Schubert sometimes performed alone. brought some variations and marches for four hands with him, and finding a good player at the convents of Florian and Kremsmiinster, had made a great effect with them. But he was especially successful with the lovely variations from the solo Sonata in A minor (op. 42) and There I here again he lets us into his secret. played alone, and not without success, for I was assured that the keys under my hands sang like voices, which if true makes me very glad, because I cannot abide that accursed thumping, which even eminent players adopt, but which delights neither my ears nor my judgment.' He found his compositions well known throughThe gentry fought for the out Upper Austria. honour of receiving him, and to this day old people are found to talk with equal enthusiasm of his lovely music, and of the unaffected gaiety and simplicity of his v^ays and manners. The main feature of the tour was the excursion To to Gastein in the mountains of East Tyrol. Schubert this was new ground, and the delight in the scenery which animates his description I'hey reached it about August 18, is obvious. and appear to have remained three or four weeks, returning to Gmunden about Sept. 10. At Gastein, among other gorfd people, he found ;

'

old ally Ladislaus Pyrker, Patriarch of Venice, and composed two songs to his poetry, ' Heimweh ' and ' AUmaoht (op. 79). But the great work of this date was the ' Grand Symphony which had been before him for so long. found him eighteen months ago writing quartets and the octet as preparation for it, and an allusion in a letter ^ of Schwind's shows that at the beginning of August he spoke of the thing as virtually done. That it was actually put on to paper at Gastein at this date we know from the testimony of Bauernfeld,* his

'

'

We

who

is that I never force myself into devotion, or compose hymns or prayers unless I am really overpowered by the

informs us that it was a special Seven songs in all are dated in this autumn, amongst them two fine scenes from a "play by W. von Schiitz called ' Lacrimas (op. 124), not so well known as they deserve. 'The letters of this tour, though not all preserved, are unusually numerous for one who so much disliked writing. 'One long one to his

that alone is real, true devotion.' It during this journey, at Salzburg, that he makes the remark, already noticed, as to the performance of Vogl and himself. At Salzburg Ave Maria that so riveted too, it was the 'We produced our seven pieces his hearers.

and mother another, much longer, to Ferdinand a third to Spaun, and a fourth to Bauemfeld, are printed by Kreissle, and contain passages of real interest, showing how keenly he observed and how thoroughly he enjoyed nature, and displaying throughout a vein of

1 For the dates of the early part of the tour, see E. 11. 21. 3 Schubert speaka of them as unaere sieben Sauhen (Letter to Ferdinand, Kreiaie, p. 363) : but Kos. 3 and 4 are for oborua.

' ^ K. II. p. 398 (it 43). To your Symphony we are looking forvaid eagerly,' implying that Schubert had mentioned it in a former 4 W.Z.K.. June 9-13, 1829^ letter.

revelation.

'

'

that the reason of this

feeling

;

is

'

'

'

'

also

favourite with its composer.

'

father

;

;

— SOHUBEET

1825-

good sense and even practical sagaoity,i and a facility of expression, which are rare in him. At length the summer and the money came to an end, Vogl went off to Italy for his gout, and Schubert, meeting Gahy at Linz, returned with him and the MS. Symphony to Vienna in an EinspOwner, to find Schober and Kupelwieser both once more settled there. The first thing to be done was to replenish his purse, and this he soon did by the sale of the seven songs from 'The Lady of the Lake,' which he disposed of on Oct. 29 to Artaria, for 200 silver gulden just £20 Twentypounds, however, were a mine of wealth to Schubert and even after repaying the money which had been advanced by his father, and by Bauernfeld for the rent of the lodgings during his absence, he would still have a few pounds in hand. During Schubert's absence in the country his old friend Salieri died, and was succeeded by Eybler. The Court organist also fell ill, and Schwind wrote urging him to look after the post but Schubert made no sign, and evidently did nothing in the matter, though the organist died on Nov. 19. He obviously knew much better than his friends that he was absolutely unfit for any post requiring punctuality or restraint. In the course of this year he was made Ersatzmann, or substitute whatever !

;

;

'

—

'

may mean

that

— by

the Musikverein, or Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Of what happened from this time till the close of 1825 we have no certain information. He set two songs by Schulze in December ; and it is probable that the Kauo Sonata in (op. 53), and the noble funeral march for the Emperor of Russia

D

whose death was known in Vienna on

(op. 55),

Dec. 14, both belong to that month. What gave him his interest in the death of Alexander is not known, but the march is an extraordinarily fine specimen. A piece for the Piano in F, serving as accompaniment to a recitation from a poem by Pratobevera, a series of graceful modulations in arpeggio form, also dates

from this year.^

The compositions

summed up (op. 42)

:

— Sonata

ditto in

;

D

of for

1825 may be here PF. solo in A minor

(op. 53)

;

ditto in

A

(op.

120) unfinished ditto in C ('Eeliquie,' Nott. a funeral march, four hands, for the p. 211) Emperor Alexander of Russia (op. 55). Songs 'Des Sangers Habe,' by Schlechta, and Im Walde,' by E. Schulze seven from The Lady of the Lake (op. 52) another from Scott's ;

;

—

'

'

;

'

;

Auf der

Bruck,' by Schulze FuUe by Sehlegel and Allmacht 'Heimweh,' by Pyrker two scenes from ' Laorimas,' by W. von Sohiitz and 'Abendlied fiir die Entfemte,' by A. W. Sehlegel Die junge '

Pirate'

der

;

^

'

'

;

Liebe,'

'

'

'

;

;

;

;

'

1 See his shrewd reatwna for not at once accepting Bauemfeld'a proposition tliat he, Schwind and Schubert, ahould all live together. K.B:. p. 370 fli. 57). Also the whole letter to Spaun. * Printed by Keissmann in his book. 3 So says Sofle MUller (under date of March 1) ; but perhaps it was her m'stake for Norman's song in 'The Lady of the Lake.'

305

-1826

Nonne,"

'

Todtengrabers Heimweh,' and 'Der Der Einsame,' ;

blinde Knabe,' all by Craigher by Lappe ; and, in December,

'

'

An mein Herz

and Der liebliohe Stern, both by Ernst Schulze. It is also more than probable that the string quartet in D minor was at least begun before the end of the year. The publications of 1825 are In January, opp. 32, 30, 34 Feb. 11, opp. 36 and 37 May 9, op. 38 July 26, op. 43 August 12, op. 31 and, without note of date, opp. 29 and 33. Op. 29 is the lovely A minor Quartet and it is worthy of note that it is published as the first of Trois quatuors.' 'This was never carried out. The two others were written, sis we have already seen (p. 3016), but they remained unpublished till after the death of their '

'

:

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

'

author.

1826 was hardly eventful in any sense of the word, though by no means unimportant in Schubert's history. It seems to have been passed entirely in Vienna. He contemplated a trip to Linz with Spaun and Schwind, but it did not come off. The weather of this spring was extraordinarily bad, and during April and May he composed nothing,* The music attributable to 1826 is, however, of first-rate quality. The String Quartet in D minor, by common consent placed at the head of Schubert's music of this class, was first played on Jan. 29, and was therefore doubtless only just completed.^ That in G (op. 161), Schubert himself has dated as being written in ten days (June 20 to June 30), a work teeming with fresh vigour after the inaction of the preceding two months as full, of melody, spirit, romance, variety, and individuality, as anything he ever penned, and only prevented from taking the same high position as the preceding, by its great length due to the diffuseness which Schubert would no doubt have remedied had he given himself time to do so. One little point may be mentioned en passant in both these noble works the evidence they afford of his lingering fondness for the past. In the D minor Quartet he goes back for the subject and feeling of the Andante to a song of his own of 1816, and the Finale of the 6 major is curiously tinged with reminiscences of the Eossini-fever of 1819. The Rondeau brillant in B minor for PF. and violin (op. 70), now such a favourite in the concert-room, also belongs to this year, though it cannot be precisely dated and so does a piece of still higher quality, which is pronounced by Schumann to be its author's 'most perfect work both in form and conception,' the Sonata in G major for PF. solo, op. 78, usually called the Fantasia,' owing to a freak of the publisher's. The autograph is inscribed, in the hand of its

— —

'

'

;

'

4

See his letter to BHuernfeM and Mayrhofer, in

J)ie Pregse,

April

21, 1869.

391 (ii. 77). The finale was voted too long, to which Schubert, after a few minutes' consideration, agreed, and 'at once 6 K.II. p.

cut out a good part.' disappeared.

(Hauer'a information.)

The autograph has

—

306

SCHUBERT

1826

anthor, ' IV. Senate fiir Pianoforte allein. Oct. 1826, Franz Schubert'; above which, in the writing of Tobias Haslinger, stands the title ' Fantasia, Andante, Menuetto und Alle-

We may well say with Beethoven, i Tobias By the side of these undying productions the 'Marche h^roique,' written to celebrate the accession of Nicholas I. of Russia, and the gretto.' '

—

;

'

!

—

1826

voted to him, not in payment but as a token of sympathy, and The letter conveying aa an encouragement. the money is dated the 12th, and on or even before its receipt Schubert brought the manuHis scrijjt and deposited it with the Society. letter accompanying it may here be quoted florins

(£10)

is

for the work,

;

To the Committee of the Austrian Musical Society.— Convinced of the noble desire of the Society to give its

Aadantino and Rondo on French motifs both PF. four hands, are not of gre.at significance. An attack of song- writing seems to have come upon him in March, which date we find attached

best support to every effort in the cause of art, I venture, as a native artist, to dedicate this my Symphony to the Society, and most respectfully to recommend myself to With the highest esteem. Your obedt. its protection.

to six songs

In accordance with this, the MS. probably bears his formal dedication to the Verein, and we may expect to find that though so long talked of, it bears marks of having been written down

for

;

the rest of those to Seidl's

or, if

words forming opp. 105 and "80, and marked merely 1826,' were written at the same time (as, from Schubert's habit of eviscerating his books, they not improbably were) twelve. Three Shakespeare songs are due to this July 'Hark! hark! the lark,'^ from 'Cyrabeline' Who is Sylvia ? from the Two Gentlemen of Verona and the Drinking-song in Antony and Cleopatra the first two perhaps as popular '

—

;

'

'

'

'

;

'

'

—

any single songs of Schubert's. The circumstances of the composition, or rather creation, as

of the first of these has already been mentioned The fact of three songs from the (p. 288a).

same volume belonging to one month (not improbably to one day, if we only knew) is quite d la Sehvi)ert. A beautiful and most character-

—

of this year is the Nachthelle or Lovely night '), written to words of Seidl's not improbably for the Musikverein, through Anna Frbhlich for tenor solo, with accompaniment of four men's voices and pianoforte, which would be a treasure to singing societies, for its truly romantic loveliness, but for the inordinate height to which the voices are taken, and the great difficulty of executing it with sufficient delicacy. A song called Echo (op. 130), probably written in 1826, was intended to be the first of six humorous songs for Weigl's istic piece

'

'

'

—

'

'

Franz Schubert.

most of

as rapidly as

his other productions.^

is gone ; There is no entry not even its key is known. of it in the catalogue of the Society's Library, and except for the minute and letter given above, and the positive statements of Bauernfeld quoted below,^ it might as well be non-existent. That it is an entirely distinct work from that in C, written two and a half years later, can hardly admit of a doubt. Of the publications of 1826, the most remarkable are the seven songs from The Lady of the Lake, for which Artaria had paid him 200 florins in the preceding October, and which appeared on the 5th of this April, in two parts, as op. 52. They were succeeded immediately, on April 8, by the PF. Sonata in D (op. 53V and the Divertissement k la hongroise (op. 54), both issued by the same firm. For these two splendid works Schubert received from the penurious Artaria only 300 Vienna florins, equal to £12. Songs issued fast from the press at

At

present, however, all trace of it

'

'

'

'

'

'

The documents on which these statementa are based are given Herr C. P. Pohl in his BUtory of the QeseUtclu^ft der MuHlcfreuTide or Musikverein Vienna, IWl, p.' 16 and by Ferdinand Schubei-t in the ^eue Zeitachrift fiir Mvtik, for April ao, 1839, 6 l»y

—

—

;

p. 140.

firm.^

Bauernfeld, in an article Uehur Frwnz Btihulimt in the Trien«r Zeiti (op. 100). They were both written for Booklet, Schuppanzigh, and Lincke, and were first heard in public, the one early in January, the other on March The year was closed with an Italian 26, 1828. cantata, dated Dec. 26, alia bella Irene,' in honour of Frl. Kiesewetter (afterwards Mme. Prokesch V. Osten), the daughter of his friend the Hofrath, sponsor to the Gastein Symphony It is probably more interesting for (p. 306a). its accompaniment for two pianos than for anything else. The communications with Probst of Leipzig went on. There is a letter from him dated Jan. 15, and he himself paid a visit to Vienna later '

'

'

'

'

in the season, and made Schubert's * personal acquaintance, but the negotiations were not destined to bear fruit till next year. But a

proof that Schubert was

North Germany

is

Roohlitz, the critic

making his mark in by a letter from

afforded

— editor of the Leipzig AUge—

meine MusiJcalische Zeitung, and a great personage in the musical world of Saxony dated Nov. 7, 1827, proposing that Schubert should compose a poem by him, called Der erste Ton,' or The '

'

Sound,' a poem which Weber had already set without success, and which Beethoven had Eochlitz's letter was probably inspired refused. by the receipt of three of his songs set by first

s Ther stood origlQAUy in Bb minor and Ab, but on republication by Diabelll after hia death, aa op, 93, the keye were changed to Qt minor and Gl major. 3 Compare Jenger'B letter in K.H, {11, 103j, note, with Nottebohm's

notice under op. 106, « E.H. p. 421 (ii. 107).

—

—

;

SCHUBERT

1827-

Schubert as op. 81, and published on May 27. proposition, however, came to nothing. Coincident with these communications from abroad came a gratifying proof of the improyement in his position at home, in his election as

—1828 Mass in Eb (begun). Fugue in E minor, PF. duA,

June.

The

a

member of the representative body of the MxisiThe date of election is

cal Society of Tienna.

not mentioned

but Schubert's reply, as given

:

by Herr Pohl,i is dated Vienna, June and runs as follows

12, 1827,

311 op.

152 ('Baden, Juny,

1828').

July.

Grand Bondeau, FF. duet (op. Vfl). Fsalm 92, in Hebrew, for Baritone and Cborus

August. Songs, Schwanengesang,' Nos. Sept. FF. Sonata in C minor. Uitto in A. *

1-13.

nittoiuBllCSept. 26'). Between August and October. Tantnm ergo in

E

flat,

and

Offer-

torlum in B flat, for tenor aolo, chorus, and orchestra. Fubllshed 1890 by Feters. October. Song. 'Schwanengesang,' No. 14. New Benedictua to Maasin C. Der Hirt auf den Felsen,' Voice and Clarinet (op. 12B). '1828 'only. String Quintet in C (op. 163). '

:

The Managing Committee of the Society of Friends of Music of the Austrian Smpire having thought me worthy of election as a Member of the Representative Body of that excellent Society, I beg herewith to state that I feel myself greatly honoured by their choice, and that I undertake the duties of the position with much satisfaction.

Franz Sohdbekt, Compositeur.

We have

mentioned the more important comThere remain to be named two songs by Schober (op. 96, No. 2) and one by Eeil (op. 115, No. 1) a comic trio, 'Die Hochzeitsbraten (op. 104), also by Schober and an Allegretto in C minor for PF. solo, written for his friend Walcher, in remembrance of April 26, 1827,' and not published till 1870. The publications of 1827 are as follows positions of 1827.

;

;

'

'

:

the Overture to 'Alfonso und Estrella' (op. 69) Bondeau brillant, for PF., and violin (op. 70) ; songs Der "W'achtelsohlag (op. 68, March 2),

—

'

'

Drang in

'

die

Feme

'

(op. 71, Feb.),

'

Auf dem

"Wasser zu singen' (op. 72, Feb.), 'Die Rose' (op. 73, May 10) all four songs previously published in the Vienna Zeiischriftfur Kunst ; four Polonaises, for PF. four hands (op. 75) ; Overture to 'Fierrabras,' for PF. four hands, arranged by Czemy (op. 76); twelve 'Valses Nobles,' for PF. solo (op. 77, Jan.) ; Fantasie, etc. for PF. in G (op. 78) ; two songs, 'Das Heimweh,' 'Die Allma,oht' (op. 79, 'May 16'); three songs (op. 80, May 25) ; three ditto (op. 81, May 28) ; Variations on theme of Herold's (op. 82, Dec.) ; three Italian songs (op. 83, Sept. 12) ; four songs (op. 88, Deo. 12).

—

We

have now arrived at Schubert's last year, It would be wrong to suppose that he had any presentiment of his end though, if a passion for work, an eager use of the day,' were any sign that the night was coming in which no man could work,' we might almost be justiWe hear of his suffering from fied in doing so. blood to the head, but it was not yet enough to 1828.

;

'

'

'

'

He returned to the extrafrighten any one. ordinary exertions, or rather to the superabundant productions of his earlier years, as the following full list of the compositions of 1828, in order, as far as the dates permit, will show.

This truly extraordinary list includes his greatest known symphony, his greatest and longest mass, his first oratorio, his finest piece of chamber music, three noble PF. sonatas, and

some astonishingly fine songs. The autograph of the symphony, 218 pages in oblong quarto,

now one of the treasures of the Library of the Musikverein at Vienna. It has no title or dedication, nothing beyond the customary heading to the first page of the score ' Symfonie Marz 1828, Frz. Schubert Mpia,' marking the date at which it was begun. If it may be taken as a specimen, he took more pains this year than he did formerly. In the first three movements of this great work there are more afterThe subject of the thoughts than usual. Introduction and the first subject of the Allegro have both been altered. In several passages an extra bar has been stuckin between the Scherzo and the Trio, two bars ; in the development of the Scherzo itself sixteen bars of an exquisite have been episode first sketched in the Octet substituted. The Finale alone remains virtually untouched.^ But such alterations, always rare in Schubert, are essentially different from the painful writing, and erasing, andrewriting, which we are familiar with in the case of Beethoven's finestand most spontaneousmusic. This, though the first draft, is no rough copy ; there are no traces of sketches or preparation ; the music has evidently gone straight on to the paper without any intervention, and the alterations are merely a few improvements en passant.^ It is impossible to look at the writing of the autograph, after Schubert has warmed to his work, especially that of the Finale, and not see that it was put down as an absolute impromptu, written as fast as the pen could travel on the paper. It seems that Schubert's friends used to lecture him a good deal on the diffuseness and want of considpiation which they discovered in his works, and were continually forcing Beethoven's laborious processes of composition down his This often made him angry, and when throat. repeated, evening after evening, he would say, ' So you're going to set upon me again to-day ! Go it, I beg you ' But, for all his annoyance, the remonstrances appear to have had some effect ; and after Beethoven's death he asked is

—

—

—

!

Die Steme (op. In C, No. 9.

Jan.

Songs,

Harch.

Symphonr

'

'

96, TSo. 1)

;

Oratorio, Miriam's Siegesgeaanff, Song, ' Aul dem Strom,' Voice and

May.

'

Der Winterabend.'

Horn

(op. 119).

LebensstUime, FF. dnet (op. 144). Hymn to the Holy ahost (op. 164), for two Clioira and

Wind. 2 ClavlerstQclce. Widerscheln.'

Song, 1

'

THe BeteUschaift der MtuiTtfrertnde,

etc., p. 16.

2 See details by the present writer in Appendix to the Life of Schubert, translated by A. D. Coleridge, Esq., vol. 11. p. 820. 3 The original MS. orchestral parts show at any rate that the alterations in the score were made before they were copied from it. C. V. Stanford kindly examined them for me with that view.

312

SCHUBEET

1828

Sohindler to sho\^ him the MS. of 'Fidelio.'i took it to the piano, and pored over it a long time, making out the passages as they had been, and compaiing them with what they

He

but it would not do and at last he broke ; and exclaimed that for such drudgery he could see no reason under any circumstances were

;

out,

;

that he thought the music at first just as good and that for his part he had really as at last no time for such corrections. Whether the amendments to the Great Symphony were a remorseful attempt on Schubert's part to imitate Beethoven and satisfy the demands of his friends we cannot tell ; but if so they are very unlike the pattern. The autograph of the Eb Mass, in the Bibliothek at Berlin, does not show at all the same amount of corrections as that in Ab (see p. 298 minor and major, for PF. solo, published in 1868 as first and second of 3 Clavieratiicke and a song Widerschein.' In June, probably at the request of the publisher, he wrote a, four-hand Rondo for PF. in A, since issued as Grand Kondeau, op. 107 and began his sixth Mass, that in Eb. In this month he paid a visit to Baden Beethoven's Baden since a fugue for four hands in E minor is marked as written there in June 1828.' In the midst of all this work a letter ' from Mosewius of Breslau, a prominent Prussian musician, full of sympathy and admiration, must have been doubly gratifying as coming from North ;

;

'

'

—

'

;

'

'

'

;

'

'

—

;

'

Germany. In July he wrote the 92nd Psalm in Hebrew synagogue at Vienna, of which Sulzer was precentor. In August, notwithstanding his declaration on completing his last Symphony, we find him (under circumstances already described) composing seven aongs of Rellstab's, for the

and

six of Heine's, afterwards issued as Schwanengesang. He opened September with a trifle in the shape of a short chorus,^ with accompaniment of wind band, for the consecration of a bell in A few days the church of the Alservorstadt. after, the memory of Hummel's visit in the spring of 1827 seems to have come upon him like a lion, and he wrote off three fine PF. solo sonatas, with the view of dedicating them to that master. These pieces, though very unequal and in parts extraordinarily diffuse, are yet highly characteristic of Schubert. They contain some of his finest and most original music, and also his most affecting (e.g. Andantino, Scherzo and Trio of the A minor Sonata) and if full of disappointment and wrath, and the gathering gloom of these last few weeks of his life, they are also saturated with that nameless personal charm that is at once so strong '

;

K.B.

Tfala piece, ' Olaube, Koftnuug, und Liebe/ not to be confounded with one of aimllar title for a solo voice, op. 97. published, Oct. 6, 1828,

Ifl

1828

The third of tlie three, that in Btf. dated Sept. 26, has perhaps more The of grace and finish than the other two. sonatas were not published till a year after Hummel's death, and were then dedicated by and so indescribable.

Diabelli- Spina to Robert Schumann, who acknowledges the dedication by a genial though hardly adequate article in his Ges. Schriften, ii. 239. The second part of the Winterreise was put into Haslinger's hands for engraving before the end of this month.' In October, prompted by some occasion which has eluded record, he wrote a new ' Benedictus to his early Mass in C, a chorus of great beauty and originality in A minor, of which a competent critic* has said that its only fault consists in its immeasurable superiority to the rest To the same period may be asof the Mass.' signed a fine ofiertorium, Intende vooi orationis meae,' and an extremely beautiful 'Tantum ergo For some in Et>, for chorus and orchestra. other occasion, which has also vanished, he wrote accompaniments for thirteen wind instruments to his grand ' Hymn to the Holy Ghost probably his a long scena or song for soprano '

M

'

'

'

'

— Anna Milder—-with pianoforte and

old admirer, obbligato clarinet (op. 129)

; and a song called 'Die Taubenpost' ('The carrier pigeon') to The succession of these pieces Seidl's words. is not known. It is always assumed that the Taubenpost, which now closes the Schwanen"Whichever of them was gesang, was the last. the last, was the last piece he ever wrote. The negotiations with Probst and Schott, and also with Briiggemanu of Halberstadt, a publisher anxious for some easy PF. pieces for a series called 'MUhling's Museum,' by no means fulfilled the promise of their commencement. The magnificent style in which the Schotts desired Schubert to name his own terms ^ contrasts badly with their ultimate refusal (Oct. 30) to pay more than 30 florins (or about 253.) for the PF. Quintet (op. 114) instead of the modest sixty demanded by him. In fact the sole result was an arrangement with Probst to publish the long and splendid Eb Trio, which he did, according to Nottebohm,' in September, and for which the composer received the incredibly small sum of 21 Vienna florins, or just 17s. 6d. Schubert's answer to Probst's inquiry as to the Dedication is so characteristic as to deserve !

'

'

reprinting

:

VJEITNA, Aiig.

Kuer Wohlgeboren, the opus of the Trio

1.

is 100.

I

I am extremely anxious about it. The worlc will be dedicated to no one but those who like it. That is the most profitable dedication. With all esteem,

entreat you to

make the edition correct

;

Franz Schubert. 3 Schubei't'B letter to * Mr. B. Prout in the

K.B. p. 437 (ii. Monthly MvMcai Becord, for 1871.

Jenger, Sept. 25.

' K.H. p. 424 (ii. 109). 8 ProljBt announces two

p. 128 (H. 114). 2 K.ff. p. 443 (11. 131). 1

' ;

SCHUBERT

1828

'

—

;

new music

124). p. 56.

in the A.M.Z. for Oct. but makes no mention of the Trio. It is reviewed most favourably in the A.M.Z. for Dec. 10, 1828. Alaa he was then beyond the reach of praise or blame. long

lists of

,

!

—

;'

SCHUBERT

1828''

The home pliblioations of 1828 are not so important as those of former years. The first part of the ' Winterreise ' (op. 89) was issued In January by Haslinger ; March 14, three songs by Sir W. Scott (opp. 85, 86) by Diabelli ; at Easter (April 6) six songs (opp. 92 and 108), and one set of 'Momens musicals,' by Leidesdorf; in May, two songs (op. 93) by Kienreich ^ of Graz ; in June or July (' Sommer '), four songs (op. 96) by Diabelli ; Aug. 13, four Refrain-Lieder (op. Also the following, to which no 95), Weigl. Andantino vari^ and month can be fixed Eondeau brillant (op. 84), PF. four Imads. on French motifs, forming a continuatio^ffit op. 63, Weigl ; three songs (op. 87), Pennauer four impromptus (op. 90), and twelve Gratzer Waltzer (op. 91) forPF. solo, Diabelli ; Gratzer Galoppe, do. Haslinger ; four songs (op. 106) lithographed without publisher's name. There is nothing in the events already catalogued to have prevented Schubert's taking an In either Styria or excursion this summer. Upper Austria he would have been welcomed with open arms, and the journey might have given him a stock of health sufficient to carry him on for years. And he appears to have But the real entertained the idea of both.^ obstacle, as he constantly repeats, was his It's all over with Graz for the poverty.' present, he says, with a touch of his old .fun, ' for money and weather are both against me. Herr Franz Lachner, at that time his constant companion, told the writer that he had taken half-a-dozen of the 'Winterreise' songs to Haslinger and brought back half-a-dozen gulden Let each gulden being then worth a franc. the lover of Schubert pause a moment, and think of the ' Post ' or the Wirthshaus being sold for tenpence ! of that unrivalled imagination and genius producing those deathless strains When this was the and being thus rewarded case, when even a great work like the El> Trio, after months and months of negotiation and heavy postage, realises the truly microscopic amount of 20 florins 60 kreutzers ' (as with true Prussian businesslike minuteness Herr Probst specifies it), of 17s. 6d. as our modem currency has it not even Schubert's fluency and rapidity could do more than keep body :

—

'

'

'

'

—

'

'

!

'

—

together. It must have been hard not to apply the words of MiiUer's Leyennann

and soul

'

to his

own

case Barfdss auf dem Eise Wankt er hin und her, Utid sem HHner Teller Bleibt

Htm vmmer

leer.

In fact so empty was his little tray that he could not even afford the diligence-fare to Pesth, where Laohner's Biirgschaft was to be brought out, and where, as Schindler reminds him, he would be safe to have a lucrative concert of his '

whom

'

1 Schubert parodies as ' Oieiner ' i.e. gmrabler. Jeoeer's and Traweger's letters, K.ff, pp. 416, 4^, 431, etc 3 Letters, K.E. p. 4St (11. 124), etc.

315

16

music, as profitable as that of March 26. Escape from Vienna by that road was impossible

own for

him

this year.

Schubert had for some time past been living with Schober at the Blaue Igel (or Blue Hedgehog), still a well-known tavern and resort of musicians in the Tuchlauben but at the end of August he left, and took up his quarters with Ferdinand in a new house in the Neue Wieden suburb, then known as No. 694 Firmian, orLumpert,*orN'eugebauten, Gasse, now (1881) No. 6 Kettenbriicken Gasse ; a long house with three rows of nine windows in front ; a brown sloping tiled roof; an entry in the middle to a quadrangle behind ; a quiet, clean, inoffensive place. Here, on the second floor, to the right hand, lived Schubert for the last five weeks of his life, and his death is commemorated by a stonfl||teblet over the entry, placed there by the Ma%iergesang Verein in Nov. 1869, and containing these words In diesem Hause starb am 19 November 1828 der Tondu' dj^H^ Franz Schubert (In this house died onj 19, 1828, the composer Franz Schubert), it tn^^H nand had removed there, and Franz went too. He made the move with the concurrence of his doctor, von Binna, in the hope that as it was just over the it was nearer the country Schubert river in the direction of the Belvedere would be able to reach fresh air and exercise more easily than he could from the heart of The old attacks of giddiness and the city. blood to the head had of late been frequent, and soon after taking up his new quarters he became seriously unwell. However, this was so far relieved that at the beginning of October he made a short walking tour with Ferdinand and two other friends to Ueber-Waltersdorf, and thence to Haydn's old residence and grave It at Eisenstadt, some 26 miles from Vienna. took them three days, and during that time he was very careful as to eating and drinking, regained his old cheerfulness, and was often very gay. Still he was far from well, and after his return the bad symptoms revived, to the At length, on the great alarm of his friends. evening of Oct. 31, while at supper at the Rothen Kreuz in the Himmelpfortgrund, an eating-house much frequented by himself and his friends, he took some fish on his plate, but at the first mouthful threw down the knife and fork, and exclaimed that it tasted like poison. Fromthatmoment hardly anything but medicine passed his lips but he still walked a good About this time Lachner returned from deal. Pesth in all the glory of the success of his opera ; and though only in Vienna for a few days, he called on his friend, and they had two Schubert was full of plans hours' conversation. for the future, especially for the completion of 'Graf von Gleichen,' which, as already mentioned, he had sketched in the summer of 1827. '

'

;

:

'

—

'

—

i

—

;

*

K.B.

p. 453 rwte.

—

—

!'

SCHUBERT

1828

316

He discussed it also with Bauemfeld during the next few days, and spoke of the brilliant style in which he intended to score it. About this time Carl Holz, Beethoven's old friend, at Schubert's urgent request, took him to hear the great master's C% minor Quartet, still a novelty in Vienna. It agitated him extremely. He got (says Holz) into such a state of excitement and enthusiasm that we were all afraid for him.'i On Nov. 3, the morrow of All Souls' day, he walked early in the morning to Hernals then a village, now a thickly built suburb outside the Giirtelstrasse to hear his brother's Latin Requiem in the church there. He thought it simple, and at the same time effective, and on the whole was much pleased with it. After the service he walked for three hours, and on reaching home complained of great weariness. Shortly before this time the scores ofil^ndel's oratorios had come into his hands not imposof the set of Arnold's edition given to '

—

—

^^

—

Bime ven

and sold in hia sale and the study of them had

before his death,

2 florins

home

;

him

his deficiencies in the ' nent of counterpoint. I see now, said he 2 to the Frohlichs, ' how much I have still to learn ; but I amgoing to work hard with Seohter, t

to

'

—

and make up for lost time Sechter being the recognised authority of the day on counterpoint. So much was he bent on this, that on the day after his walk to Hernals, i.e. on Nov. 4, notwithstanding his weakness, he went into Vienna and, with another musician named Lanz, called on Seohter, to consult him on the matter, and they actually decided on Marpurg as the textbook, and on the number and dates of the lessons. 3 But he never began the course. During the next few days he grew weaker and weaker ; and when the doctor was called in, it was too late. About the 1 1th he wrote a note * doubtless his last letter. to Sohober '

—

Dear Schobeb, I am ill. days, and

I have eaten and drunk nothing for eleven am so tired and shaky that I can only get from the bed to the chair, and back. Rinna is attending me. If I taste anything, I bring it up again directly. In this distressing condition, be so kind as to help me to some reading. Of Cooper's I have read the Last of the Mohicans, the Spy, the Pilot, and the Pioneers. If you have anything else of his, I entreat you to leave it with Fran von Bogner at the Ooffee house. My brother,

who

is

conacientiousness

itself, will

bring it to me in the

most conscientious way. Or anything else. Your friend, SCHUBEBT.

What

answer Schober made to this appeal is not known. He is said to have had a daily report of Schubert's condition from the doctor, but there is no mention of his having called. Spaun, Randhartinger,* Bauemfeld, and Josef Hiitten1 Quoted by Kohl, Jleethoven, liL 964. Holz eays it was the lAst music that poor Schubert heard. Ferdinand claims the same for his Bequlem. At any rate both were very near the end.

3 Krelsale's Sketch, p. 162. 3 S.ff. p. 461 (ii. 138), expressly on Bechter's authority. 4 diven by Sanemfeld, In JHe Preue, April 21, 1869. B

FrSuIeln Gelsler-Schubert informs

me

that Ferdinand's wife

(stlU living, 1882) maintains that Randhai-tlnger was the only one visited blm during his illness ; but It is difficult to resist the

who

'1828

brenner, are all said to have visited him ; but in those days there was great dread of infection, his new residence was out of the way, and dangerous illness was such a novelty with Schubert that his friends may be excused for not After a thinking the case so grave as it was. few days Rinna himself fell ill, and his place

by a staff-surgeon named Behring. the 14th Schubert took to his bed.^ He was able to sit up a little for a few days longer, and thus to correct the proofs of the second part of the ' Winterreise, probably the last occupaHe tion Q£||hose inspired and busy fingers. app^^^o have had no pain, only increasing w^nniesa, want of sleep, and great depression. no wonder he was depressed I?or fellow everything was against him, his weakness, his poverty, the dreary house, the long lonely hours, the cheerless future all concentrated and embodied in the hopeless images of Miiller's poems, and the sad gloomy strains in which he has clothed them for ever and ever— the ' Letzte Hoffnung,' the 'Krahe,' the 'Wegweiser,' the 'Wirthshaus,' the 'Nebensonnen,' the Leiermann' all breathing of solitude, broken hopes, illusions, strange omens, poverty, death, the grave As he went through the pages, they must have seemed like pictures of his own life ; and such passages as the following, from the 'Wegweiser' (or Signpost), can hardly have failed to strike the dying man as aimed at himself : was

filled

On

'

!

—

'

—

!

Einen Weiser seh' ich stehen, Unverriickt vor

meinem

Blick,

Eine Sirasse muss ich gehen^ Die TLOch

Iceiner gvtig zurUck.

he was indeed going the road which On Sunday the 16th the doctors had a consultation ; they predicted a Alas

no one

!

e'er retraces

!

nervous fever, but had still hopes of their patient. On the afternoon of Monday, Bauemfeld saw him for the last time. He was in very bad spirits, and complained of great weakness, and of heat in his head, but his mind was still clear, and there was no sign of wandering ; he spoke of his earnest wish for a good opera-book. Later in the day, however, when the doctor arrived, he was quite delirious, and typhus had unmistakably broken out. The next day, Tuesday, he was very restless throughout, trying continually to get out of bed, and constantly fancying himself in a strange room. That evening he called Ferdinand on to the bed, made him put his ear close to his mouth, and whispered mysteriously, What are they doing with me ? ' Dear Franz, was the reply, they are doing all they can to get you well again, and the doctor assures us you will soon be right, only you must do your best to stay in bed.' He returned to the idea in his wandering ' I implore you to put me in my own room, and not to leave me in this corner under the earth ; don't I '

'

'

—

statements of Bauemfeld (Preue, April Informants, p. 462 (il. 140). « Ferdinand, lu the y.Z.M. p. 143.

S

,

1869)

and of

Kreleale's

—

; ' '

SCHUBERT

1828

deserve a place above ground ? ' ' Dear Franz, said the agonised brother, ' be calm ; trust your brother Ferdinand, whom you have always

and who loves you so dearly. You are room which you always had, and lying

trusted,

in the

on your own

'No,' said the dying man, ' So that's not true ; Beethoven is not here. ' strongly had the great composer taken possession of him An hour or two later the doctor came, and spoke to him in the same style. Schubert looked him full in the face and made no answer but turning round clutched at the wall with his poor tired hands, and said in a slow earnest voice, ' Here, here, is my end. At three in the afternoon of Wednesday the 1 9th Nov. 1828 he breathed his last, and his simple He earnest soul took its flight from the world. was thirty-one years, nine months, and nineteen days old. There never has been one like him, and there never will be another. His death, and the letters of the elder Franz and of Ferdinand, bring out the family relations in a very pleasant light. The poor pious bereaved father, still at his drudgery as ' school teacher in the Rossan, ' ' afflicted, yet strengthened by faith in God and the Blessed Sacraments,' writing to announce the loss of his beloved son, Franz Schubert, musician and composer the good innocent Ferdinand, evidently recognised as Franz's peculiar property, clinging to his brother as the one great man he had ever kno^vu ; thinking only of him, and of fulfilling his last wish to lie near Beethoven, these form a pair of interesting figures. Neither Ignaz nor Carl appear at all in connection with the event, the father and Ferdinand alone are visible. The funeral took place on Friday Nov. 21. It was bad weather, but a number of friends and sympathisers assembled. He lay in his coffin, dressed, as the custom then was, like a hermit, with a crown of laurel round his brows. The face was calm, and looked more like sleep than death. By desire of the family Schober was chief mourner. The coffin left the house at half- past two, and was borne by a group of young men, students and others, in red cloaks and flowers, to the little church of S. Joseph in Margarethen, where the funeral service was said, and a motet by Gansbacher, and a hymn of Sohober's, ' Der Friede sey mit dir, du engelreine written that morning in substitution for Seele his own earlier words, to the music of Schubert's ' Pax vobiscum were sung over the coffin. It was then taken to the Ortsfriedhof in the village of Wahring, and committed to the ground, three places higher up than the grave of Beethoven. 1 In ordinary course he would have been buried in the cemetery at Matzleinsdorf. but the appeal which he made almost with his dying breath was naturally a law to the tender heart of Ferdinand, and through his piety and selfbed.'

!

:

'

'

—

'

—

'

—

Next to Beethoven caitie Preiherr von Waaehrd then Graf Odoiiel and Griifiu O'Donnell,' and then Schubert. 1

;

'

'

;

'

Joh,

1828

317

denial his dear brother rested if not next, yet near to the great musician, whom he so deeply reverenced and admired. Late in the afternoon Wilhelm von Chezy, son of the authoress of '

Euryanthe and '

'

Rosamunde,' who though not

in Schubert's intimate circle was yet one of his acquaintances, by some accident remembered that

he had not seen him for many months, and he walked down to Bogner's cofiee-house, where the composer was usually to be found between five and seven, smoking his pipe and joking with his friends, and where the Cooper's novels mentioned in his note to Schober were not improbably still waiting for him. He found the little room almost empty, and the familiar round table deserted. On entering he was accosted by the waiter 'Your honour is soon back from the funeral Whose funeral ? said Chezy in astonishment. Franz Schubert's,' replied the waiter, he died two days ago, and is buried this

— !

'

'

'

'

'

afternoon. '

^

He left no will.

The ofiicial inventory ' of his possessions at the time of his death, in which he is described as ' Tonkiinstler und Compositeur ' musician and composer is as follows :

—

—

'3 dress coats, 3 walking coats, 10 pairs of trousers, 9 waistcoats togetherworth 37 florins 1 hat, 5 pairs of shoes and 2 of boots valued at 2 florins ; 4 shirts, 9 cravats and pocket handkerchiefs, 13 pairs of socks, 1 towel, 1 sheet, 2 bedcases 8 florins ; 1 mattress, 1 bolster, 1 quilt 6 florins ; a quantity of old mxisio valued at 10 florins— 63 florins (say £2 10s.) in all. Beyond the above there were no eff'ects. Is it possible then, that in the ' old music, valued at 8s. 6d., are included the whole of his unpublished manuscripts ? Where else could they be but in the house he was inhabiting ? The expenses of the illness and funeral amounted in all to 269 silver floiins, 19 kr. (say Of this the preliminary service cost 84 fl. £27). 35 kr. ; the burial 44 fl. 45 kr. ; and the ground 70 fl. ; leaving the rest for the doctor's fees and incidental disbursements. Illness and death were truly expensive luxuries in those days. On Nov. 27, the Kii'chenmusikverein performed Mozart's Requiem in his honour ; and on Dec. 23 a requiem by Anselm Hiittenbrenner was given in the Augustine church. On Dec.

—

—

—

—

:

'

'

14, his early Symphony in C, No. 6, was played at the Gesellschaftsconcert, and again on March

12,

At Linz on Christmas Day

1829.

there

was a funeral ceremony with speeches and music. Articles in his honour appeared in the Wiener Zeitsckrift of Dec. 25 (by von Zedlitz), in the Theaterzeitung of Vienna of the 20th and 27th in the Vienna Zeitschrift fur (by Blahetka) Kunst of June 9, 11, 13, 1829 (by Bauernfeld) in the Vienna Archiv filr GescMchte by Mayrhofer) ; and memorial poems were published by ;

;

2

Wilhelm von Chezy. Erinnerunuen aus meinen leben

(1863),

pp. 182, 1S3. 8 Given at length by Kreieale (p. 457)—bnt entirely omitted in the translation and materially misquoted by Gumprecht (p. 15).

—

— 318

SCHUBERT

1828

On Jan. 30, 1829, Seidl, Schober, and others. a concert was given by the arrangement of Anna Frohlich in the hall of the Musikverein the programme included 'Miriam,' and consisted entirely of Schubert's music, excepting a set of flute variations by Gabrielsky, and the first Finale in Don Juan and the crowd was so great that the performance had to be repeated shortly afterwards. The proceeds of these concerts and the subscriptions of a few friends sufficed to erect the monument which now stands at the back of the grave. It was carried out by ;

'

Anna

'

;

Frohlich, Grillparzer,

The

and Jenger.

bust was by Franz Dialler, and the cost of the whole was 360 silver florins, 46 kr. The inscription ^ is from the pen of Grillparzer :

DIE TONKUNST BEGRUB HIER EINEN RBICHEN BESITZ ABER NOCH VIEL SCHOENERE HOFFNUNGEN. FRANZ SCHUBERT LIEGT HIER. GEBOREN AM XXXI. J^NNER MDCCXCVII. GESTORBEN AM XIX. NOV. MDCCCXXVIII. XXXI JAHRE ALT.

MUSIC HAS HERE ENTOMBED A RICH TREASURE, BUT MUCH FAIRER HOPES. FRANZ SCHUBERT LIES HERE.

BORN JAN.

31, 1797

;

DIED NOV. ig, 1828, 31 YEARS OLD.

The

allusion to fairer hopes has been

much

but surely without reason. When we remember in how many departments of music Schubert's latest productions were his best, we are undoubtedly warranted in believing that he would have gone on progressing for many years, had it been the will of God to spare him. In 1863, owing to the state of dilapidation at which the graves of both Beethoven and Schubert had arrived, the repair of the tombs, and the exhumation and reburial of both, were imdertaken by the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. The operation was begun on the 12th of October and completed on the 13th. The opportunity was embraced of taking a cast and a photograph of Schubert's skull, and of measuring the principal bones of both skeletons. The lengths in Schubert's case were to those in Beethoven's as 27 to 29, 2 which implies that as Beethoven was 5 ft. 5 in. high, he was only 5 ft. and ^ an inch. Schubert was reburied in the central cemetery of Vienna on Sept. 23, 1888. Various memorials have been set up to him in Vienna. The tablets on the houses in which he was born and died have been noticed. They were both carried out by the Miinnergeaang Verein, and completed, the former Oct. 7, 1858, the latter in Nov. 1869. The same Society criticised,,

erected

by subscription

the Stadt-Park,

a

monument

a sitting

figure

to

in

him

in

Carrara

1 We have given the inscription exactly as it stands on the monument. KrelBsIe'a version (p. 463), followed by Gumprechtand others, is incorrect in almost every line. 2 See Actenm&uige DargtelluMg der Auagrabwng vmA Wieder-

heeimeizvmg derirdiachenRestevonBeethovenwidScJmbert.yiwiiia., Gerold, 1663.

1828

marble by Carl Kuntmann, with the inscription Franz Schubert, seinem Andenkeu der Wiener It cost 42,000 Mannergesangverein, 1872.' florins, and was unveiled May 15, 1872. '

Outside of Austria his death created at first Eobert Schumann, then little sensation. eighteen, is said to have been deeply affected, and to have burst into tears when the news Mendelssohn too, reached him at Leipzig though unlike Schubert in temperament, circumstances, and education, doubtless fully

but

;

estimated his loss and Rellstab, Anna Milder, and others in Berlin who knew him, must have mourned him deeply but the world at large did not yet know enough of his works to understand either what it possessed or what it had lost in that modest reserved young musician of But Death always brings a man, thirty-one. ;

;

especially a young man, into notoriety, and and increases public curiosity about his works the stream of publication at so it was now :

;

once began and is even yet flowing, neither the supply of works nor the eagerness to obtain them having ceased. The world has not yet recovered from its astonishment as, one after another, the stores accumulated in those dusky heaps of music paper (valued at 8s. 6d.) were made public, each so astonishingly fresh, copious, and different from the last. As song.s, masses, part-songs, operas, chamber-music of

and all dimensions— pianoforte-sonatas, impromptus and fantasias, duets, trios, quartets, quintet, octet, issued from the press or were all sorts

; as each season brought overture, entr'acte, or ballet-

heard in manuscript its

new symphony,

music, people began to be staggered by the amount. 'A deep shade of suspicion,' said MusicaZ World of Jan. 24, 1839, p. 150, ' is beginning to be oast over the authenticity of posthumous compositions. All Paris has been in a state of amazement at the posthumous diligence of the song-writer, F. Schubert, who, while one would think that his ashes repose in peace in Vienna, is still making eternal new songs.' We know better now, but it must be confessed that the doubt was not so unnatural then. Of the MS. music an incredible quantity, of

TU

—

which no one then knew the amount or the particulars, partly because there was so much of it,

partly because Schubert concealed, or rather

—a

forgot, a great deal of his work

certain number

and pianoforte pieces were probably in the hands of publishers at the time of his death, but the great bulk was in the possession of songs

of Ferdinand, as his heir. (op. 106)

A

set of four songs

was issued on the day of his

funeral.

Other songs— opp. 101, 104, 106, 110-112, 116-118 and two PF. Duets, the Fantasia in F minor (op. 103) and the 'Grand Rondeau' ;

(op.

the

107)—followed up first

important

to April 1829. publication was

But the

—

—

';

;

SCHUBERT well-known

Schwanengesang,' so entitled by collection of fourteen songs, seven by Rellstab, six by Heine, and one by Seidl unquestionably Schubert's last. They were issued in May 1829, and, to judge by the lists of arrangements and editions given by Nottebohm, have been as much appreciated as the Schone MiiUerin or the Winterreise. A sti-eam of songs followed for which we must refer the student to Nottebohm's catalogue. '

—a

Haslinger

'

'

'

The

early part of

1830

'

—

saw the execution of a bargain between Diabelli and Ferdinand, by which that Firm was guaranteed the property of the following works ; opp. 1-32, 35, 39-59, •

62, 63, 64, 66-69, 71-77, 84-88, 92-99, 101104, 106, 108, 109, 113, 115, 116, 119, 121124, 127, 128, 130, 132-140, 142-153 ; also 154 songs ; 14 vocal quartets ; the canons of 1813 ; a cantata in C for three voices ; the Hymn to the Holy Ghost ; Klopstock's Stabat Mater in F minor, and Grosse Halleluja ; Magnificat in C ; the String Quintet in C ; four string quartets in 0, B|>, G, B|> ; a string trio in B|> ; two sonatas in minor, variaand tions in F, an Adagio in D|>, and Allegretto in Cjt— all for PF. solo; Sonata for PF. and Arpeggione ; Sonata in A, and Fantasie in C both for PF. and violin ; Eondo in for violin and quartet ; Adagio and Eondo in F, for PF. and quartet ; a Concert-piece in for violin and orchestra ; Overture in for orchestra ; ' Overture to third Act of the Zauberharfe ' Lazarus ; a Tantum ergo in Elj for four voices ' and orchestra ; an Offertorium in Bl? for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra. Another large portion of Ferdinand's possessions came, sooner or later, into the hands of Dr. Eduard Schneider, son of Franz's sister Theresia. They comprised the autographs of Symphonies 1, 2, 3, and 6, and copies of 4 and 5 ; Autographs of operas The ' Teufels Lustschloss,' 'Fernando,' ' Der Vierjahrige Posten,'

A

A

A

D

D

'

:

'

—

Die Freunde von Salamanka, Fierrabras,' and Sakontala

'

'

Die Biii-gschaft,

the Mass in F and the original orchestral parts of the whole of the music to Rosamunde. The greater part of these are now(1882) safe in the possession of Herr '

'

'

'

;

;

'

Nicholas Dumba of Vienna. On July 10, 1830, Diabelli began the issue of whatwas entitled 'Franz Schubertsnachgelassene musikalische Dichtungen ; and continued it at intervals till 1850, by which time 50 Parts containing 137 songs, had ap.), In 1830 he also issued the two astonand a set ishing 4-hand marches (op. 121) whilst other houses of 20 waltzes (op. 127) published the PF. Sonatas in A and El^ (opp. 120, 122) the two string quartets of the year 1824 the D minor Quartet, etc. For the (op. 125) '

;

;

;

;

1 The list which follows is taken from Kreinle, p. 5€6 (ii. 245), who apparently had the original document before him. The only date given by Krelasle is 1£0O, but it most have been early in that year, since op. 121, which forms part of the bargain, was issued in February. Some of the numbers In the list had already been issued afi the property of the publishers.

319

progress of the publication after this date we refer the reader to Nottebohm's invaluable TheTnatic Catalogue (Vienna, Schrei-

must again

which contains every detail, and may merely mentioning the principal works, and the year of publication Miriam, Mass in B|?, three last Sonatas and the Grand Duo, 1838 ; Symphony in C, 1840 Phantasie in C, PF. and violin, 1850 Quartet in 6, 1852 Quintet in C, and Octet, 1854 Geaang der Geister,' 1858 ; Verschworenen,' 1862; Mass in E|7, 1865; 'Lazarus,' 1866; Symphony in B minor, 1867 Mass in Ab, 1875. ber, 1874),

be implicitly relied on

;

:

'

'

;

;

;

'

'

;

Before the complete critical edition of Schuworks issued by Breitkopf & Hartel was finished, there were many publications of songs, pianoforte pieces, etc., for which the reader is bert's

Nottebohm's Thematic Catalogue. Of the Songs two collections may be signalised as founded on the order of opus numbers that of Senff of Leipzig, edited by Julius Reitz, 361 songs in 20 vols, and that of Litolff of Brunswick songs in 10 vols. But neither of these, though styled ' complete are so. For instance, each omits opp. 83, 110, 129, 166, 172, 173 ; the six songs published by Miiller, the forty by Gotthard and Litolff also omits opp. 21, 60. Schumann's visit to Vienna in the late autumn of 1838 formed an epoch in the history of the Schubert music. He saw the immense heap of MSS. which remained in Ferdinand's hands even after the mass bought by Diabelli had been taken away, and amongst them several symphonies. Such sympathy and enthusiasm as his must have been a rare delight to the poor desponding brother. His eagle eye soon discovered the worth of these treasures. He picked out several works to be recommended to publishers, but meantime one beyond all the rest riveted his attention the great symphony of March 1828 (was it the autograph, not yet deposited in the safe keepingoftheGesellschaftder Musikfreunde, or a copy ?) and he arranged with Ferdinand to send a transcript of it to Leipzig to Mendelssohn for the Gewandhaus Concerts, where it was produced March 21, 1839,^ and repeated no less than three times during the following season. His chamber -music was becoming gradually known in the North, and as early as 1833 is occasionally met with in the Berlin and Leipzig progi-ammes. David, who led the taste in chamber music at the latter place, was devoted He gradually introduced his to Schubert. works, until there were few seasons in which the Quartets in A minor, D minor (the score of referred to

:

—

—

'

;

—

which he edited

for Senff), and G, the String Quintet in C (a special favourite), the Octet, both Trios, the PF. Quintet, and the Rondeau brillant, were not performed amid great

applause, at his concerts.

Schumann had long

2 March 22 in the AUg, Jfus. Zeitwng, March 21 in Schumann's paper. The Symphony was repeated Dec. 12, 18S9, March 12, and April 3, 1840. Mendelssohn made a few cuts In the work for per-

formance.

—

; '

SCHUBERT

320

been a zealous Schubert propagandist. From an early date his Zeitschri/t contains articles of more or less length, always inspired by an ardent admiration Schubert's letters and poems and his brother's excellent short sketch of his life, printed in vol. x. (April 23 to May 3, 1839) obvious fruits of Schumann's Vienna visit ;

—

—

are

indispensable

biography

;

materials for

Schubert's

when the Symphony was performed

he dedicated to

it one of his longest and most genial effusions, ^ and each fresh piece was greeted with a hearty welcome as it fell from the press. One of Schumann's especial favourites was the El> Trio he liked it even better than that in Bb, and has left a memorandum of his fondness in the opening of the Adagio of his Symphony in C, which is identical, in key and intervals, with that of Schubert's Andante. The enthusiasm of these prominent musicians, the repeated performances of the Symphony, and its publication by Breitkopfs (in Jan. 1850), naturally gave Schubert a strong hold on Leipzig, at that time the most active musical centre of Europe ; and after the foundation of the Conservatorium in 1843 many English and American students must have carried back the love of his romantic and tuneful music to their ;

own

countries.

Several performances of large works had taken place in Vienna since Schubert's death, chiefly through the exertions of Ferdinand, and of a certain Leitermayer, one of Franz's early friends such as the Eb Mass at the parish church of Maria Trost on Nov. 15, 1829 ; ' Miriam,' with Laohner's orchestration, ataGesellschaft Concert in 1830 ; two new overtures in 1833 ; an overture in E, the Chorus of Spirits from ' Rosamunde, the Grosses Halleluja, etc., early in 183 5, and four large concerted pieces from ' Fierrabras ' later in the finale of the last ; the year ; an overture in Symphony ; a march and chorus, and an air and chorus, from 'Fierrabras, 'in April 1836 ; another new overture, and several new compositions from

D

As the 'Remains,' in the winter of 183>38. far as can be judged by the silence of the Vienna newspapers, these passed almost unnoticed. Even the competition with North Germany failed to produce the effect which might have been expected. It did indeed excite the Viennese On the 15 th of the December to one effort. following the production of the Symphony at Leipzig its performance was attempted at Vienna, but though the whole work was announced,^ such had been the difficulties at rehearsal that the first two movements alone were given, and they were only carried off by the interpolation of an air from

'

Lucia

'

But symphonies and symphonic works can hardly be expected to float rapidly songs are more buoyant, and Schubert's songs soon began to make their way outside, as they had long since done in his native place. Wherever they once In Paris, penetrated their success was certain. where spirit, melody, and romance are the certain criterions of success, and where nothing dull or obscure is tolerated, they were introduced by Nourrit, and were so much liked as actually to find a transient place in the programmes of the Concerts of the Conservatoire, the stronghold of musical Toryism.' The first French collection was published in 1834, by Kichault, with transIt contained six songs lation by Belanger. Meer, 'Das Fischer'Die Post, 'Standchen, madohen,' 'Der Tod und das Madchen,' and The Erl King and others Schlnmmerlied.' followed. A larger collection, with translation ;

Am

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

EmU Deschamps, was issued by Brandus in 1838 or 1839. It is entitled 'Collection des Lieder de Franz Schubert,' and contains sixteen

by

— 'Lajeunereligieuse,' aulnes, '

'

La rose,

' '

'Marguerite,' 'Leroides

La serenade,

' '

La poste,

'

'

Ave

Maria,' 'La cloche des agonisants,' 'La jeune fille et la morte,' 'Rosemonde,' 'Les plaintes de la jeune fille,' 'Adieu,' 'Les astres,' 'La jeune m^re,' ' La Berceuse, ' ' !^loge des larmes. * Except that one ' Adieu ' ' is spurious, the selection does great credit to Parisian taste. This led the way to the 'Quarante melodies de Schubert' of Richault, Launer, etc., a thin 8vo volume, to which many an English amateur is indebted for his first acquaintance with these treasures of life. By 1845 Richault had published as

—

many

—

as

'

150 with French words.

Some of the chamber music

also soon obtained a certain popularity in Paris, through the playing of Tilmant, Urban, and Alkan, and later of Alard and Franchomme. The 'Trio in Bb, issued by Richault in 1838, was the first instrumental work of Schubert's published in France. There is a 'Collection complete' of the solo PF. works published by Richault in 8vo, containing the Fantaisie (op. 15), ten sonatas, the two Russian marches. Impromptus, Momens musicals, five single pieces, and nine sets of dances. Liszt and Heller kept the flame alive by their transcriptions of the songs and waltzes. But beyond this the French hardly know more of Schubert now than they did then none of his large works have become popular with them. Habeneck attempted to rehearse the Symphony in C (No. 10) in 1842, but the band refused to go beyond the first movement, and Schubert's name up to this date (1881) appears in the ;

between them.

Rttiier.

3 'La jeune religieuse' and 'Le TOi des aulnes' were sung by Ifourrit, at the Concerts of Jan. 18, and April 26, 1685, respectively the latter with orchestl-al accompaniment. On March 20, 1836, Mai-gmirite was sung by Mile. Falcon, and there the list stops. ^ This list is copied from the Paris correspondence of the A.M.Z. 1839, p. 894.

2 The MS. parts In the posaesslon of the Muslkvorein show the cruel cuts, possibly with a view to this performance. In the Finale, one of the most esflential and effective sections of the movement is clean expunged.

5 This song is made up of phraaes from Schubert's aongs and will probably always be attributed to blm. It standa even in Pauer's edition, Bi^t it is by A. H. von Weyrauch, who published it himself in 1824. See Nottebohm'a Cataloipui, p. 264

Schuniann's expreaaloiis leave do doubt that the Symphony in C was in Ferdinand's posaesaiun at tlie time of hia visit. This and many others of his articles on Schubert have been translated into English by Miss M. E. von Olelui, and Mrs. 1

Qei. Schriften,

most

iii.

195.

—

—

;

';

SCHUBERT programmes of the Concerts of the Conservatoire attached to three songs only. M. Pasdeloup introduced the Symphony in C and the fragments of that in B minor, but they took no hold on the Parisian amateurs. Liszt's devotion to Schubert was great and unceasing. We have already mentioned his production of ' Alfonso und Estrella at Weimar '

in 1854, but

right to give a list of his transcriptions, which have done a very great deal to introduce Schubert into many quarters where his compositions would otherwise have been a sealed book. His first transcription 'Die Bose,' op. 73 was made in 1834, and appeared in Paris the same year.i It was folit is

—

lowedinl838by the 'Standchen,' 'Post,'and 'Lob der Thranen,' and in 1839.by the Erl King 'and by twelve Lieder. These again by six Lieder '

;

four GeistUche Lieder

six of the Miillerlieder ; ; the 'Schwanengesang,' and the Winterreise.' Liszt also transcribed the Divertissement h, la hongroise, three Marches and nine 'Valsescaprices,' or ' Soirees de Vienne,' after Schubert's op. 67. All the above are for PF. solo. He also scored the accompaniment to the 'Junge Nonne,' 'Gretchen am Spinnrade,' 'So lasst mich scheinen, and the'Erl King, fora small orchestra has adapted the Allmacht for tenor solo, male chorus, and orchestra, and has converted the Fantasie in C (op. 15) into a Concerto for PF. and orchestra. Some will think these changes indefensible, but there is no doubt that they are done in a masterly manner, and that many of them have become very popular. Heller's arrangements are confined to six favourite songs. England made an appearance in the field with the Moment musical in F minor in 1831, followed in 1832 by the 'Erl King' and the 'Wanderer.' In 1836 Mr. Ayrton printed 'The Letter of Flowers' and 'The Secret,' in the Musical Library, to Oxenford's translation. Mr. Wessel (Ashdown & Parry) had begun his '

'

'

—

'

'

Series of

German Songs

'

'

earlier

than

this,

and

by 1840, out

of a total of 197, the list included 38 of Schubert's, remarkably weU chosen, and including several of the finest though less known ones, e.g. ' Ganymed,' ' An den Tod,' ' Sei mir

Ewer's 'Gems of Song,' containing many of Schubert's, were begun in Sept. 1837. Schubert's music took a long time before it obtained any public footing in this country. The first time it appears in the Philharmonic programmes then so ready to welcome novelties is on May 20, 1839, when Ivanoff sang the Serenade in the ' Schwanengesang to Italian words, ' Quando ' avvolta.' Staudigl gave the 'Wanderer,' May On June 10, 1844, the Overture to 8, 1843; 'Fierrabras' was played under Mendelssohn's direction, and on June 17 the ' Junge Nonne was sung to French words by M. de Eevial, gegriisst,' 'Die Bose,' etc. etc.

German

—

—

1 These particulars are taken partly from Uias Bamann's H^e of Ltazt, and partly from IjBzt'9 Thematic Catalogue. The third No. of the 'Apparitions' is founded on a Waltz melody of Schubert's,

VOL. IV

321

Mendelssohn playing the magnificent accom-

We

blush to say, however, that The Musical World (1844, p. 197) says that 'the overture is literally beneath criticism perhaps a more overrated man never existed than this same Schubert.' Its dictum on the song is even more unfortunate. It tells us that 'it is a very good exemplification of much ado about nothing as unmeaningly mysterious as could be desired by the most devoted lover of bombast.' Mendelssohn conducted the last five Philharmonic concerts of that season (1844) ; and amongst other orchestral music new to England had brought with him

paniment.

neither piece

met with approval. :

—

Schubert's Symphony in C, and his own overture to 'Buy Bias.' At the rehearsal on June 10, however, the behaviour of the band towards the symphony excited, it is said, by the continual triplets in the Finale was so insulting that he refused either to go on with it or to allow his own overture to be tried. ^ But the misbehaviour of our leading orchestra did not produce the efiect which it had done in Paris ; others were found to take up the treasures thus rudely rejected, and Schubert has had an ample revenge. The centres for his music in England have been for the orchestral and choral works, the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, and HaUi's Concerts, Manchester and for the chamber music, the Popular Concerts and Halle's Becitals. At the Crystal Palace the Symphony in C (No. 10) was in the repertoire of the Saturday Concerts from April 5, 1856 ; the two movements of the B minor Symphony were first played April 6, 1867, and have been constantly repeated. The six other MS. Symphonies were obtained from Dr. Schneider in 1867 and since, and have been played at various dates, a performanceof the whole eight in chronological order forming a feature in the series of

—

—

—

1880-81. The 'Kosamunde' music was first played Nov. 10, 1866, and the air de ballet in G, March 16, 1867. Joachim's orchestration of the Grand Duo (op. 140) was given March 4, 1876. The overtures to 'Alfonso und Estrella,' 'Fierrabras,' 'Freunde von Salamanka,' 'Teufels Lustschloss,' and that 'in the Italian style' have been frequently heard. Miriam's Song' was first given Nov. 14, 1868 (and three times since) the Conspirators,' March 2, 1872 the 23rd Psalm, Feb. 21, 1874 the E|> Mass, March 29, 1879.^ At the Popular Concerts a beginning was made May 16, 1859, with the A minor Quartet, the D major Sonata, and the Eondeau brillant. Afterwards the D major and G major Quartets, many sonatas and other '

'

'

'

;

;

3 Even fifteen yeaiB later, vben played at the Musical Society of London, the same periodical that we have already quoted says of it ; ' The ideas throughout it are all of a minute character, and the instrumentation is of a piece with the ideas. There is no breadth, there is no grandeur, there is no dignity in either; clearness, and contrast, and beautiful finish are always apparent, but the orchestra, though loud, is never massive and sonorous, and the music, though always correct, is never serious or imposing.' (Mutical World, April 3, 18S9|. Is it possible for crtUcism to be more hopelessly wrong t

—

—

;

SCHUBERT

322

PF. pieces were added, and the Octet, the Quintet in C, and the two Trios were repeated season by season, and enthusiastically received. The Quartet in Bb, the trio in the same key, the Sonata for PF. and Arpeggione, etc. were brought to a hearing. A large number of songs were made familiar to the subscribers to these concerts through the fine interpretation of Stockhausen, Mme. Joachim, Miss Sophie Lowe, Mr. Sautley, Mr. Henschel, and other singers. At Halle's admirable recitals at St. James's Hall, from their commencement in 1861 all the published Sonatas were repeatedly played ; not only the popular ones, but of those less known none have been given less than

back and shoulders (perhaps due to incessant writing), fleshy arms, and thick short fingers. His complexion was pasty, nay even tallowy his cheeks were full, his eyebrows bushy, and his But there were two things nose insignificant. that to a great extent redeemed these insignihis hair, which was black, and ficant traits remarkably thick and vigorous,' as if rooted and his eyes, which were in the brain within truly 'the windows of his soul,'and even through the spectacles he constantly wore were so bright

—

;

If Rieder's

as at once to attract attention.* portrait

very

may

faithful,

—

be trusted and though perhaps a

it is said to

little

too fine

be

—

twice the Fantasia in C, op. 15, three times the PF. Quintet, the Fantasia for PF. and Violin, the Impromptus and Momens musicals, the '5 pieces,' the '3 pieces,' the Adagio and Kondo, the Valses nobles, and other numbers of this fascinating music have been heard again ;

and

;

again.

The other

principal publications in England are the vocal scores of the six Masses, the PF.

accompaniment arranged from the full Ebenezer Prout, published by Augener

score

&

by

Co.

the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th in 1871, the 6th (Eb) in 1872, and the 5th (Ab) in 1875.1 The Masses have been also published by Novellos, both with Latin and English words ( Communion Service ') ; and the same firm has published 'Miriam,' in two forms, and the 'Rosamunde music, both vocal score and orchestral Messrs. Augener have also published parts. editions of the PF. works, and of a large number of songs, by Pauer. Schubert was not sufficiently important during his Ufetime to attract the attention of painters, and although he had more than one artist in his circle, there are but three portraits of him known. 1 A poor stiff head by Leopold Kupelwieser, full face, taken July 10, 1821, photographed by Mietke and Wawra of Vienna, and wretchedly engraved as the frontispiece to 2. A very characteristic Kreissle's biography. '

'

.

half-length, three-quarter-face, in water-colours, "W. A. Eieder, taken in 1825, and now in possession of Dr. Granitsch of Vienna.^

by

A

dated 1840, is now in the Musikverein. It has been engraved by Passini, and we here give the head, from a photograph expressly taken from the original. 3. The bust on the tomb, which gives a very replica

by the

artist,

prosaic version of his features. His exterior by no means answered to his His general appearance was insignigenius. '

ficant.

As we have already

said,

he was prob-

ably not more than 5 feet and 1 inch high, his figure was stout and clumsy, with a round 1

ReTiewed by Mr, E. Prout in Concordia for

1876, pp, 8, 29, 109,

'

'

;

affectation or attempt.'

His general disposition was in accordance with his countenance. His sensibility, though his music shows it was extreme, was not roused An

' All three portraits agree in this. eminent suiweon of our with a great is accustomed to say, 'Never trust a of black bair, be is sure to be an enthOBJaslL' * W. T. Chezy, Brinnerunffeti 'with eyes so brilliant seat the

own day

etc

He bought It

in Feb. 1B61 (or 1205 flOTine, or about £120, It is about 8 inches high, by 6 wide. It waa talcen, or begun, while Schubert took refuge in the artist's house from a storm (Pohl), 2

they had a peculiarly steadfast penetrating look, which irresistibly reminds one of the firm rhythm of his music. His glasses are inseparable from One of our earliest glimpses of him his face. is a little boy in spectacles at the Convict ; he habitually slept in them and within eighteen months of his death we see him standing in the window at Dobling, his glasses pushed up over his forehead, and Grillparzer's verses held close to his searching eyes. He had the broad strong jaw of all great men, and a marked assertive prominence of the lips. He had a beautiful set of teeth (Benedict). When at rest the expression of his face was uninteresting, but it brightened up at the mention of music, especially that of Beethoven. His voice was something between a soft tenor and a baritone. He sang 'like a composer,' without the least

head first

man

—

glance to betray the

fire within,'

^

Bauemfeld,

SCHUBERT by the small things

of

He had

life.

of

little

that jealous susceptibility which too often distinguishes musicians, more irritable even than the irritable race of poets. His attitude towards Bossini and Weber proves this. When a post which he much coveted was given to another,' he expressed his satisfaction at its Transbeing bestowed on so competent a man. parent truthfulness, good -humour, a cheerful contented evenness, fondness for a joke, and a desire to remain in the background such were his prominent characteristics in ordinary life. But we have seen how this apparently impassive man could be moved by a poem which appealed to him, or by such music as Beethoven's CB minor Quartet.^ This unfailing good-nature, this sweet lovableness, doubtless enhanced by his reserve, was what attached Schubert to his friends. They sidmired him ; but they loved him still more. Ferdinand perfectly adored him, and even the derisive Ignaz melts when he takes leave.' Hardly a letter from Schwind, Schober, or Bauemfeld, that does not amply Their only complaint is that testify to this. he win not return their passion, that 'the affection of years is not enough to overcome his distrust and fear of seeing himself appreciated '

'

—

and beloved.'* Even strangers who met him in this entowrage were as much captivated as J. A. Berg of Stockholm, who was in Vienna in 1827, as a young man of twenty-four, and met him at the Bogners', speaks of him* with the clinging affection which such personal charm inspires. He was never really at his ease except among liis chosen associates. When with them he was genial and compliant. At the dances of his Mends he would extemporise the most lovely waltzes for hours together, or accompany song after song. He was even boisterous playing the 'Erl King' on a comb, fencing, howling, and making many practical jokes. But in good a society he was shy and silent, his face grave word of praise distressed him, he would repel the admiration when it came, and escape into

his friends.

—

;

the next room, or out of the house, at the first In consequence he was overpossible moment. looked, and of his important friends few knew,

what a

treasure they great player like Booklet, after performing the Bl> Trio, could kneel to kiss the composer's hand in rapture, and with broken voice stammer forth his homage, but there is no trace of such tribute from the upper classes. What a contrast to Beethoven's their positio* among his aristocratic friends devotion and patience, his contemptuous behaviour, the amount of pressing necessary to make him play, his scorn of emotion, and love [See vol. i. of applause after he had finished The same contrast is visible in the p. 223%.]

or showed that they knew, had within their reach.

A

—

!

1

4

2 See pages 285. 316. Welgl. Schvjnd, in K.H. p. 345 (iL 28).

B

3 K.H. p. 149 (i. 1611. In a letter to the vriter.

323

—

Beethoven's dedications of the music of the two chiefly to crowned heads and nobility, Schubert's in large proportion to his friends. It is also evident in the music itself, as we shall endeavour presently to bring out. He played, as he sang, like a composer, that is, with less of technique than of knowledge and expression. Of the virtuoso he had absolutely nothing. He improvised in the intervals of '

'

throwing on his clothes, or at other times when the music within was too strong to be resisted, but as an exhibition or performance never, and there is no record of his playing any music but his own. He occasionally accompanied his songs at concerts (always keeping very strict time), but we never hear of his having extemporised or played a piece in public in Vienna. Notwithstandingthe shortness of his fingers, which sometimes got tired,* he could play most of his own pieces, and with such force and beauty as to compel a musician who was listening to one of his latest Sonatas to exclaim, I admire your playing more than your music,' an exclamation susceptible of two interpretations, of which Schubert is said to have taken the unfavourable one. But accompaniment was Ms forte, and of this we have already spoken [see pp. 3046, 3096, etc.]. Duet-playing was a favourite recreation with him. Schober, Gahy, and others, were his companions in this, and Gahy has left on record his admiration of the clean rapid playing, the ''

'

bold conception and perfect grasp of expression, and the clever droll remarks that would drop from him during the piece. His life as a rule was regular, even monotonous. He composed or studied habitually for six or seven hours every morning. This was one of the methodical habits which he had learned fi-om his good old father others were the old-fashioned punctilious style of addressing strangers which struck Hiller ^ with such consternation, and the dating of his music. He was ready to write directly he tumbled out of bed, and remained ;

steadily at

work

two.

till

'

When

I

have done

begin the next was his explanation to a visitor in 1827 and one of these mornings produced six of the songs in the Winterreise At Invo he dined when there was money enough for dinner either at tlie Gasthaus, where in those days it cost a Zwanziger (8^d.), or with a friend or patron and the afternoon was spent in making music, as at Mme. Lacsny Buchwieser's [p. 3096], or in walking in the environs of If the weather was fine the walk was Vienna. often prolonged tUl late, regardless of engagements in town but if this was not the case, he was at the coffee-house by five, smoking his pipe and ready to joke with any of his set then came an hour's music, as at Sofie Miiller's [p. 3036] ;

one piece

I

'

;

'

—

'

—

!

'

'

;

;

;

6 8

Bauemfeld. KHmOerleben,

p. 49.

7 Horzalka. s,ff. p. 128 (I. 132). -'Schubert Ifind mentioned in loyJoumMl

as a quiet 7?w»n—possibly not always so, though it was only amongst bis intimates that he brokeout. When I visited him in his mod est lodging he received me kindly, but so respectfully, as quite to frighten me.'

—

;

SCHUBERT

324

then the theatre, and supper at the Gaathaua and the coffee-house, sometimes till far into the morning. In those days no Viennese, certainly no young bachelor, dined at home so that the repeated visits to the Gasthaus need not shook the sensibilities of any English lover of Schubert. .[See p. 3076.] Nor let any one be led away with the notion that he was a sot, as some seem prone to believe. How could a sot how could any one who even lived freely, and woke with a heavy head or a disordered stomach— have worked as he worked, and have composed nearly 1000 such works as his in eighteen years, or have performed the feats of rapidity that Schubert did in the way of opera, symphony, quartet, song, which we have enumerated ? No sot could write six of the Winterreise songs perfect, enduring works of art in one morning, and that no singular feat Your Morlands and Poes are obliged to wait their time, and produce a few works as their brain and their digestion will allow them, instead of being always ready for their greatest efforts, as Mozart and Schubert were. Schubert like Mozart loved society and its accompaniments he would have been no Viennese if he had not and he may have been occasionally led away but such escapades were rare. He does not appear to have oared for the other sex, or to have been attractive to them as Beethoven was, notwithstanding his ugliness. This simplicity curiously characterises his whole life no feats of memory are recorded of him as they so often are of other great musicians ; the records of his life contain nothing to quote. His letters, some forty in ' Heavens all, are evidently forced from him. and Earth,' says he, 'it's frightful having to describe one's travels ; I cannot write any ' Dearest friend on another occasion more. you will be astonished at my writing I am so myself.' * Strange contrast to the many interesting epistles of Mozart and Mendelssohn, Beetand the numberless notes of Beethoven hoven was well read, a politician, thought much, and talked eagerly on many subjects. Mozart and Mendelssohn both drew travelling was a part of their lives ; they were men of the world, and Mendelssohn was master of many accomplishments. Schumann too, though a Saxon of Saxons, had travelled much, and while a most prolific composer, was a practised literary man. But Schubert has nothing of the kind to show. He not only never travelled out of Austria, but he never proposed it, and it is difficult to conceive of his doing so. To picture or work of art he very rarely refers. He expressed himself with such difficulty that it was all but impossible Besides the letters just to argue with him.^ mentioned, a few pages of diary and four or five poems are all that he produced except his In literature his range was wide indeed, music. again,

—

'

'

—

!

—

;

;

;

;

—

'

'

—

'

:

!

;

I K.E. p. 388 HI. 65) p. 417 (II. Wi). i ^ Seytrled, In SchDliQ^s Lexicon.

but

it

all

went into his music

and he was

;

He seems to have been strangely uncritical. hardly able at any rate he did not care to discriminate between the magnificent songs of Goethe, Schiller, and Mayrhofer, the feeble domesticities of Kosegarten and Hblty, and the turgid couplets of the authors of his librettos. All came alike to his omnivorous appetite. But the fact is that, apart from his music, Schubert's life was little or nothing, and that is its most peculiar and most interesting fact. Music and music alone was to him all in all. It was not his principal mode of expression, it was his only one ; it swallowed up every other. His afternoon walks, his evening amusements, were all so many preparations for the creations No doubt he enjoyed of the following morning. the country, but the effect of the walk is to be found in his music and his music only. He left, as we have said, no letters to speak of, no journal ; there is no record of his ever having poured out his soul in confidence, as Beethoven did in the 'Will,' in the three mysterious letters to some unknown Beloved, or in his conversations with Bettina. He made no impression even on his closest friends beyond that of natural kindness, goodness, truth, and reserve. His life is all summed up in his music. No memoir of Schubert can ever be satisfactory, because no relation can be established between

—

—

and his music ; or rather, properly speaking, because there is no life to establish [a relation with. The one scale of the balance is absolutely empty, the other is full to overflowing. In his music we have fluency, depth, lacuteness, and variety of expression, unbounded imagination, the happiest thoughts, nevertiring energy, and a sympathetic tenderness beyond belief. And these were the result of natural gifts and of the incessant practice to which they forced him ; for it seems certain that of education in music meaning by education the severe course of training in the mechanical portions of their art to which Mozart and Mendelssohn were subjected he had little or nothing. As we have already mentioned, his, life

—

—

the two musicians who professed to instruct him, Holzer and Ruzicka, were so astonished at his ability that they contented themselves with wondering, and allowing him to go his own way. And they are responsible for that want of counterpoint which was an embarrassment to him all his life, and drove him, during his last illness, to seek lessons. [See p. 316as.] What he learned, he learned mostly for himself,

from playing in the Convict orchestra, from incessant writing, and from reading the best scores he could obtain ; and, to use the expressive term of his friend Mayrhofer, remained a ' Naturalist ' to the end of his life. From the operas of the Italian masters, which were

recommended

to

him by and

to those of Mozart,

Salieri,

he advanced

of Mozart abundant

—

'

'

SCHUBERT traces appear in his earlier instjumental works.

In 1814 Beethoven was probably still tabooed in the Convict ; and beyond the Prometheus music, and the first two Symphonies, a pupil there would not be likely to encounter anything '

of his.

To speak first of the orchestral works. The first Symphony dates from 1814

(his

18th year), and between that and 1818 we have five more. These are all much tinctured by what, he was hearing and reading Haydn, Mozart, Rossini, Beethoven(the last but slightly, for reasons just hinted at). Now and then as in the second subjects of the first and last

—

Allegros of Symphony 1, the first subject of the opening Allegro of Symphony 2, and the Andante of

Symphony

produced

ment

the themes are virtually re-

5,

—no doubt unconsciously.

more

The treat-

own, especially in regard to the use of the wind instruments, and to the working out of the movements, where his is

'

his

'

of education drives him to the repetition of the subject in various keys, and similar

want

in place of contrapuntal treatment. In the slow movement and Finale of the Tragic Symphony, No. 4, we have exceedingly happy

artifices,

examples, in which, without absolutely breaking away from the old world, Schubert has revealed

an amount of original feeling and an extraordinary beauty of treatment which already stamp him as a great orchestral composer. But whether always original or not in their subjects, no one can listen to these first six Symphonies withoutbeing impressed with theiriWiOT^i«iK Symphony at a concert at the Gewandhaus on the 18th the Pianoforte Trio in G minor (op. 110) On Nov. at a chamber concert on the 21st. 6, 1851, the overture to the 'Braut von Messina' was also performed at the Gewandhaus. The public had thus, during this season, ample opportunity of becoming acquainted with the latest works of this inexhaustible composer. But although he had lived in Leipzig for fourteen years, and had brought out most of his compositions there, besides having a circle of sincerely devoted friends in that city, he could not on this occasion boast of any great success ;

'

;

'

'

;

;

;

;

the public received him with respect and esteem, but with no enthusiasm. But in this respect Schumann had lived through a variety of experience ; 'I am accustomed,' he writes to Pohl, Dec. 7, 1851, when speaking of the reception of the overture to the ' Braut von Messina,' ' to find that my compositions, particularly the best and deepest, are not understood by the public at a first hearing.' Artists, however, had come to Leipzig from some distance for the '

Schumann -week

'

;

among them

Liszt

and

Joachim. In August 1852 there was held in Diisseldorf a festival of music for men's voices, in which Schumann assisted as conductor, though, owing to his health, only to a very limited extent. He took a more important part at Whitsuntide 1853, when the 31st of the Lower Rhine Festivals was celebrated in Diisseldorf on May 15, He conducted the music of the 16, and 17. first day, consisting of Handel's 'Messiah' and of his own Symphony in D minor, which was exceedingly well received. In the concerts of the two following days, which were conducted

—1853

365

chiefly by Hiller, two more of larger compositions were performed

Schumann's

the PianoConcerto in minor, and a newly composed Festival Overture with soli and chorus on the Rheinweinlied (op. 123). But although Schumann appeared in so brilliant a way as a composer, and as such was honoured and appreciated in Diisseldorf, yet there was no concealing the fact that as a conductor he was inefiBcient. The little talent for conducting that he showed on his arrival in Diisseldorf, had disappeared with his departing health. It was in fact necessary to procure some one to take his place. An attempt was made after the first winter concert of the year (Oct. 27, 1853) to induce him to retire for a time from the post of his own accord. But this proposal was badly received. The fact, however, remains, that from the date just mentioned all the practices and performances were conducted by Julius Tausch, who thus became Schumann's real successor. No doubt the directors of the society were really in the right ; though perhaps the form in which Scluraiann's relation to the society was expressed might have been better The master was now taken up with chosen. the idea of leaving Diisseldorf as soon as possible, and of adopting Vienna, for which he had preserved a great affection, as his permanent residence. But fate had decided otherwise. The dissatisfaction induced in his mind by the events of the autumn of 1853 was, however, mitigated partly by the tour in Holland already It mentioned, and partly by another incident. happened that in October a young and wholly unknown musician arrived, with a letter of introduction from Joachim. Johannes Brahms for he it was immediately excited Schumann's warmest interest by the genius of his playing and the originality of his compositions. In his early days he had always been the champion of the young and aspiring, and now as a matured artist he took pleasure in smoothing the path Schumann's literary pen of this gifted youth. had lain at rest for nine years he now once more took it up, for the last time, in order to say a powerful word for Brahms to the wide An article entitled Neue JSahnen world of art. (New Paths) appeared on Oct. 28, 1853, in No. 1 8 of that year's Zeitschrift. In this he pointed to Brahms as the artist whose vocation it would be to utter the highest ideal expression of our time. He does not speak of him as a youth or beginner, but welcomes him into the circle of Masters as a fully equipped combatant. When before or since did an artist find such words of praise for one of his fellows ? It is as though, having already given so many noble proofs of sympathetic appreciation, he could not leave the world without once more, after his long silence, indelibly stamping the image of hia pure, lofty, and unenvious artist-nature on the hearts of hia fellow-men. ;

A

forte

'

'

—

—

;

'

'

'

366

;

SCHUMANN

1853-

So far as Brahms was concerned, it is true that this brilliant envoi laid him under a heavy debt of duty, in the necessity of measuring his productions by the very highest standard ; and at the time Schumann was supposed to have attributed to Brahms, as he did to the poetess Elisabeth Kulraann, giifts which he did not actually possess. Twenty-eight years have now [1881] passed and we know that Schu-

mann's keen insight did not deceive him, and that Brahms verified all the expectations formed of him. His intercourse with the young composer (then twenty years old), in whom he took the widest and most affectionate interest, was a great pleasure to Schumann.

At that time, too, Albert Dietrich (afterwards Hofcapellmeister at Oldenburg) was staying in Dusseldorf, and Schumann proved to the utmost the truth of what he had written only a few months previously of Kirchner, that he loved to follow the progress of young men. A sonata for pianoforte and violin exists in MS. which Schumann composed during this month (October 1853), in conjunction with Brahms and Dietrich. Dietrich begins with an allegro in A minor Schumann follows with an intermezzo inF major; Brahms who signs himself Joha/imes Kreissler jwnior swids an allegro (scherzo) in C minor ; and Schumann winds up the work with a finale in minor, ending in A major. The title of the sonata is worth noting. Joachim was coming to Dusseldorf to play at the concert of Oct. 27, so Schumann wrote on the title-page ' In anticipation of the arrival of our beloved and honoured friend Joseph Joachim, this sonata was written by Robert Schumann, Albert

— —

A

and Johannes Brahms. This interesting intimacy cannot have continued long, since in November Schumann went to Holland with his vrife, and did not return till Dec. 22. But he met Brahms again in Hanover in January 1854 at a performance of Paradise and the Peri,' where he found also Joachim and Julius Otto Grimm. A circle of gifted and devoted young artists gathered round the master and rejoiced in having him among them, little imagining that within a few months he would be suddenly snatched from them for Dietrich,

'

'

ever.

Schumann's appearance was that of a man with a good constitution his figure was above the middle height, full and well-built but his nervous system had always shown extreme excitability, fend even so early as his twenty-fourth year he suffered from a nervous disorder which ;

;

increased to serious disease. At a still earlier date he had shown a certain morbid hypertension of feeling, in connection with his passionate study of Jean Paul, of whom he wrote, even in his eighteenth year, that he often drove him to the Violent shocks of emotion, verge of madness. 1

The HS. was

publication of the

iJD

Joachlm'fi iMuession,

and he permitted the

movement by Brahma, which appeared in 1907.

.

-1854

as for instance the sudden announcement of a death, or the struggle for the hand of Clara Wieek, would bring him into a condition of mortal anguish, and the most terrible state of bewilderment and helplessness, followed by days A predisposition of overwhelming melancholy. to worry himself, an ' ingenuity in clinging to unhappy ideas,' often embittered the fairest Gloomy anticipations moments of his Ufe. darkened his soul ; ' I often feel as if I should not live much longer,' he says in a letter to Zucoalmaglio of May 18, 1837, 'and I should like to do a little more work ' ; and later, to Hiller 'man must work while it is yet day.' The vigour of youth for a time conquered these melancholy aberrations, and after his marriage the calm and equable happiness which he found in his wife for a long time expelled the evil spirit. It was not till 1844 that he again fell a prey to serious nervous tension. This was evidently the result of undue mental strain, and for a time he was forced to give up all work, and even the hearing of music, and to withdraw into perfect solitude at Dresden. His improvement was slow and not without relapses ; but in 1849 he felt quite re-established, as we gather from his letters and from the work he accomplished ; and his condition seems to have remained satisfactory till about the end of 1851. Then the symptoms of disease reappeared ; he had, as usual, been again working without pause or respite, and even with increased severity ; and was himself so much alarmed as to seek a remedy. Various eccentricities of conduct betrayed even to strangers the state of nervous excitability in which he was. By degrees delusions grew uponhim, and he fancied thathe incessantly heard one particular note, or certain harmonies, or voices whispering words of reproof or encouragement. Once in the night he fancied that the spii-its of Schubert and Mendelssohn brought him a musical theme, and he got up and noted it down. He was again attacked by that ' mortal anguish of mind ' of which he had had former experience, and which left him perfectly distracted. Still, all these symptoms were but temporary, and between- the attacks Schumann was in full possession of his senses and self-control. He himself expressed a wish to be placed in an asylum, but meanwhile worked on in his old way. He wrote some variations for the piano on the theme revealed to him by

—

Schubert and Mendelssohn, but they were his and remained unfinished. OnFeb. 27, 1854, in the afternoon, in one of his fits of agony of mind, he left the house unobserved and threw himself from the bridge into the Rhine. Some boatmen were on the watch and rescued him, and he was recognised and carried last work,

Unmistakable symptoms of insanity declared themselves, but after a few days a peculiar clearness and calmness of mind returned, and with it his irrepressible love of

home.

now

— ;

SCHUMANN

1854-

work. He completed the variation on which he had been at work before the great catastrophe. These last efforts of his wearied genius remain unpublished, but Brahms has used the theme for a set of 4 -hand variations which form one of his most beautiful and touching works (op. 23), and which he has dedicated to Schumann's daughter

Scfmften

collection,

after

his

music

achieved a popularity in Germany which will bear comparison with that of the most favourite of the older masters. When once the peculiarities of his style

grew

familiar, it

was

was one of overwhelming interest, owing to the sympathy taken in it, and the manner in which that sympathy was displayed.

not nearly complete,

it

A

realised

that these very peculiarities had their origin in the deepest feelings of the nation. The desire of giving outward expression to the love which was felt towards him, soon asserted itself more and more strongly. Schumann was buried at Bonn, in the churchyard opposite the Sternenthor, and it was resolved to erect a monument to him there. On August 17, 18, and 19, 1873, a Schumann festival took place at Bonn, consisting entirely of the master's compositions. The conducting was undertaken by Joachim and Wasielewski, and among the performers were Madame Schumann, who played her husband's Pianoforte Concerto, and Stockhansen.

The

is

includes have been much altered. A full and correct edition of his writings is still a desideratum. It must not, however, be imagined that Schumann's aim as an author was to lay down the principles on which he worked as a composer ; it is indeed hardly possible to contrast the critical and the productive elements in his works. His authorship and his musical compositions were two distinct phases of a creative nature, and if it was by composition that he satisfied his purely musical craving it was by writing that he gave utterance to his poetical instincts. His essays are for the most part rather rhapsodies on musical works or poetical imagery lavished on musical subjects than criticisms properly speaking; and thecaseswhere he writes in the negative vein are very rare exceptions. high ideal floats before his mind, and supported by the example of the greatest masters of the art, his one aim is to introduce a new and pregnant period of music in contrast to the shallowness of his own time. Again and again he speaks of this as the ' poetic phase ' and here we must guard against a misunderstanding. The term pontic music is often used in antithesis to pure music, to indicate a work based on a combination of poetry and music as, for instance, a song, which may be conceived of either as a purely musical composition founded on the union of definite feelings and ideas, or as intended to express the preconceived

—

Schumann's death

however,

and the essays

of age.

Soon

Musik und Miisiker published by Wigand in Leipzig, and it

was not long in reaching its second edition, which appeared in two volumes in 1871. This

The last two years of Schumann's life were spent in the private asylum of Dr. Richarz at Endenich near Bonn. His mental disorder developed into deep melancholy at times as in the spring of 1855 when for a while he seemed better, his outward demeanour was almost the same as before. He corresponded with his friends and received visits, but gradually the pinions of his soul drooped and fell, and he died in the arms of his wife, July 29, 1856, only forty-six years ;

iiber

367

in four volumes

Julie.

—

—1856

festival

But it was not emotions and ideas of the poet. anything of this kind that Schumann meant to convey he simply regarded poetry as the antithesis to prose, just as enthusiasm is the ;

,

The proceeds of the concerts were devoted to a monument to Schumann's memory, which was executed by A. Donndorf of Stuttgart, erected

antithesis to sober dulness, the youthful rhapsodist to the Philistine, the artist with his lofty

over the grave, and unveiled on May 2, 1880. On this, occasion also a, concert took place, consisting of compositions by Schumann, and Brahms's Violin Concerto (op. 77), conducted by himself, and played by Joachim.

His aim is to bring to birth a living purpose and feeling, and he cannot endure a mere skeleton of forms and phrases. In this key he pitches his writings on music, and their purport is always the same. He once speaks of reviewers and critics under a quaint 'Music excites the nightingale to lovesimile Nothing could songs, the lap-dog to bark.'

Schumann^ with his activity both as an author and as a composer, was a, new phenomenon in German music. It is true that he had had a predecessor in this respect in C. M. von Weber, who also had a distinct gift and vocation for authorship, and whose collected writings form a literary monument possessing far more than a merely personal interest. Still Weber was prevented by circumstances and by his own natural from fully developing his literary while Schumann benefited by the

restlessness talent,

restraint

and

editorship.

discipline

In. 185.4.

of his

ten years of

he had his Oesammelte

ideal to the mechanical artisan or the superficial dilettante.

art, full of

—

more accurately represent his own attitude in writing on music than the first of these images.; From his point of view a piece of music ought to rouse in the true critic sympathetic feeling, he ought to absorb and assimilate its contents,

and then echo them in words

— Schumann was

in fact the singing nightingale.

may

Though we

apply his other comparison to every critic who does not follow in his steps, we may at least say that the difference between Schumann's style and that of the

not

feel inclined to

!

SCHUMANN

368

musical periodicals of his day was as great as that between a nightingale and a lap-dog. And how strange and new were the tones uttered by this poet -critic A considerable resemblance to Jean Paul must be admitted, particularly in his earlier critiques the ecstatic youthful sentiment, the humorous suggestions, the highly wrought and dazzling phraseology, are common to both ; but the style is quite different. Schumann commonly writes in short and vivid sentences, going straight at his subject without digressions, and indulging in bold abbreviations. There is a certain indolence of genius about him, and yet a sure artistic instinct throughout. Nor has he a trace of Jean Paul's sentimental luxury of woe,' but we everywhere find, sidfc by side with emotional rhapsody, the !

:

;

'

;

refreshing breeziness of youth and health. It has already been said that Schumann connects certain definite characteristics with different feigned names (Florestan, Eusebius, Baro, etc.), a device which none but a poet could have hit on. Indeed, it would be a hindrance to the writing of calm criticism, which must have a fixed and clearly defined position as its basis. But it often introduces a varied and even dramatic liveliness into the discussion, which is very attractive, and leads to a deeper consideration of the subject. Schumann, however, could use still more artificial forms in his critiques. Thus he discusses the first concert conducted by Mendelssohn at the Gewandhaus, October 1835, in letters addressed by Eusebius to Chiara in Italy ; and within this frame the details oiF the concert are gracefully entwined with ingenious reflections and fanciful ideas which add brilliance to the picture. On another occasion, when he was to write about a mass of dance music, Schumann has recourse to the the editorof a certain musical following fiction : Composers paper gives a historical fancy ball. are invited, young lady amateurs and their mothers, music publishers, diplomatists, a few the Davidsrich Jewesses, and of course biindler ; the dance -programme includes the music to be criticised, to which the couples whirl Hence arise about during the whole evening. satirical, all sorts of humorous incidents whimsical, and sentimental outpourings, in which a criticism of the compositions is brought in nnperceived. On another occasion, the Davidsbiindler have met, and the new compositions are played in turns ; during the playing the rest carry on a variety of amusements which culminate in a magic lantern, throwing the figures of a masked ball on the wall, which Florestan, standing on the table, explains, while 'Zilia' plays Franz Schubert's 'Deutsche Tanze.'

—

—

Once, in reviewing a concert given by Clara Wieok, he gives us a real poem ('Traumbild, am 9 September, 1838, Abends,' vol. ii. p. 233). In this he combines his own tender sentiments with a skilful characterisation of all that was For sketching peculiar in the performance. character -portraits Schumann shows a conspicuous talent the articles in which he has characterised Stemdale Bennett, Gade, and Henselt are unsurpassed by anything since He seems to written concerning these artists. have penetrated with the insight of a seer to the core of their natures, and has set forth his conclusions in a delicate and picturesque manner that no one has succeeded in imitating. The foundation of Schumann's critiques lay his fastidious character would in kindness simply have nothing to do with anything bad

—

—

Anything more vivid, charming, and poetical than this essay, has never been written on music (it is in the Gesam. Schriften, vol. ii. p. 9 and is partly translated in Music and Musicians, vol. i. p. 102) ; a little work of art in itself

;

enough to demand energetic reproof. The most cutting and bitter article he ever wrote was the famous one on Meyerbeer's Huguenots (vol. translated in Music and Musicians. ii. p. 220 In its violence it has no doubt vol. i. p. 302). somewhat overshot the mark but nowhere perhaps do the purity and nobleness of Schumann's artistic views shine forth more clearly than in this critique and in the one immediately It following on Mendelssohn's 'St. Paul.' was the great success of the Huguenots which infused the acid into Schumann's antagonism for when dealing with inoffensive writers he could wield the weapons of irony and ridicule both lightly and effectively. But he is most at his ease when giving praise and encouragement ; then words flow so directly from his heart that his turns of expression have often quite a magical charm. As an example we may mention the article on Field's Seventh Concerto (IMd. vol. i. p. 268 ; Music amd Musicians, vol. i. p. 267). Anything more tender and full of feeling was never written under the semblance of a critique than the remarks on » sonata in minor by Delphine Hill-Handley '

'

;

;

'

'

;

—formerly

Delphine Schauroth {Ibid. i. 92). here, given us a really poetical

Schumann has

masterpiece in its kind, full of intellig^t appreciation of the purport of the work, and giving covert expression to its maidenly feeling, even in the style of his discussion ; it must delight the reader even if he does not know a note of the composition. Schumann had fresh imagery always at command, and if in a generally meritorious work he found something to blame, he contrived to do it in the most delicate manner. His amiable temper, his tender heart and his conspicuous talents for literary work combined, never left him at a loss in such cases for some ingenious or whimsical turn. Sometimes, though rarely, in his eager sympathy for youthful genius in difficulty he went too far ; Hermann Hirschbach, for instance, never fulfilled the hopes that

Schumann formed of him remarks on Berlioz, he at

;

and even in

first

his

probably said

KOBERT ALEXANDER SCHUMANN From

a dagucrrotyi'iJ

SCHUMANN more than he would afterwards have maintained.

In

Schumann's flowery and poetic to a calm and contemplative style. His opinions and principles remained as sound as ever, but they are leas keenly and brilliantly expressed than at the earlier period when later years

vein gave

way

he took peculiar pleasure in turning a flashing phrase (see Ges. Schriften, vol. i. pp. 27, 208). Still, the practical musician always predominates, and Schumann himself confesses that the curse of a mere musician often hits higher than all your ajsthetics {Ibid. ii. 246). Here and there, however, we come upon a profound Eesthetio axiom, the value of which is in no degree diminished by our perception that it is the result rather of intuition than of any systematic reflection. It is universally acknowledged that by his essay 'on certain corrupt passages in classical works (IMd. iv. 59 ; Music and Musicians, i. 26), Schumann gave a real impetus to the textual criticism of music historical clues and comparisons are frequently suggested, and though these indications are not founded on any comprehensive historical knowledge, on all important subjects they show a happy instinct for the right conclusion, and are always worthy of attention. It may be said of Schumann's literary work in general that it was not calculated to attract attention merely for the moment, though it did in fact open up new paths, but that it took the form of writings which have a high and permanent value. They will always hold a foremost place in the literature of music, and may indeed take high rank in the literature of art. For analytical acumen they are less remarkable. Schumann cannot be called the Lessing of music, nor is it by the display of learning that he produces his effects. It is the union of poetic talent with musical genius, wide intelligence, and high culture, that stamps Schumann's writings with originality, and gives them their '

'

'

;

independent value. Schumann's literary work was connected with another phase of the musical world of Germany, as new in its way as the twofold development of his genius the rise of party feeling. No doubt Schumann gave the first impetus to this movement, both by his imaginary Davidsbiindlersohaft, and by that Radical instinct which was part of his nature. Schumann's principles as an artist were the same which have been professed

—

'

'

and followed by all the greatest German masters what was new in him was the active attempt to propagate them as principles. So long as he

;

conducted the Zeitsckrift he could not of course lend himself to party feeling the standard he had assumed was so high that all who took a serious view of art were forced to gather round him. Butthe spirit of agitationwas inflamed, and when he retired from the paper other principles of less general application were put forward. It VOL. IV ;

369

self-evident that Schumann was the only contemporary German composer who could stand side by side with Mendelssohn, and they were of course compared. It was asserted that in Mendelssohn form took the precedence of meaning, while in Schumann meaning predominated, striving after a new form of utterance. Thus they were put forward as the

was

two antagonistic principles of and a Mendelssohn party and a Schumann party were formed. In point of fact there was scarcely any trace of such 'an antagonism of principle between the two composers the difference was really one of idiosyncrasy and so, being grounded more or less on personal feeling, the parties assumed something of the character of cliques. The literary Schumannites, having the command of an organ of their own, had an representatives of art,

;

;

advantage over the partisans of Mendelssohn, like Mendelssohn himself, would have nothing to do with the press. Leipzig was for a time the headquarters of the two parties. There, where Mendelssohn had worked for the delight and improvement of the musical world, it was the fate of his art to be first exposed to attack and detraction, which, to the discredit of the German nation, rapidly spread through wider and wider circles, and was fated too to proceed first from the blind admirers of the very master for whom Mendelssohn ever felt the deepest attachment and respect. That Schumann himself must have been painfully affected by this spirit is as clear as that it could only result in hindering the unprejudiced reception of his works and the process thus begun with Schumann has been carried on, in a greater degree, in the case of

who

;

Wagner.

As a composer Schumann started with the and until the year 1840 wrote

pianoforte,

scarcely anything but pianoforte music. For some time he used to compose sitting at the instrument, and continued to do so even until 1839, though he afterwards condemned the practice (in his Musikalische Haus- und LebensAt all events it had the advantage regeln). of making him write from the first in true pianoforte style. If ever pianoforte works took their origin from the innermost nature of the pianoforte, Schumann's did so most thoroughly.

His mode of treating the instrument is entirely He develops upon it a kind of orchestral new. polyphony, and by means of the pedal, of extended intervals, of peculiar positions of chords, of contractions of the hands, and so forth, he succeeds in bringing out of it an undreamt-of wealth of effects of tone. How deeply and thoroughly Schumann had studied the character of the instrument may be seen from the detailed preface to his arrangement of Paganini's caprices Even in his earliest PF. works he (op. 3). nowhere shows any Inclination to the method of any of the older masters, except in the variations, op. 1, which betray the influence 2 B

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SCHUMANN

370

Hummel and Moacheles. But evident that he knew all that others had done, and the time and attention devoted in his writings to works of technical pianoforte of the school of

it is

study were no doubt deliberately given. Notwithstanding this his compositions are scarcely ever written in the bravura style for he seldom cared to clothe his ideas in mere outward brilliancy. Sometimes one is constrained to wonder at his reluctance to use the higher and lower registers of the pianoforte. As is the case v^th the technical treatment of the piano, so it is from the beginning with the substance and form of his compositions. Few among the great German masters show such striking originality from their very first compositions. In the whole range of Schumann's works there is scarcely a trace of any other musician. At the outset of his course as a composer he preferred to xise the concise dance or song-form, making up his longer pieces from a number of these smaller forms set together as in a mosaic, instead of at once casting his thoughts in a larger mould. But the versatility with which the small forms are treated is a testimony to the magnitude of his creative faculty. The predominance of the small forms is explained by his earlier method of composing. Diligent and constant though he was in later ;

,

way of working was fitful and inconstant. The compositions of this period seem as if forced out of him by sudden impulses of genius. As he subsequently says of his early works, the man and the musician in me were always trying to speak at the same time.' This must indeed be true of every artist ; if the whole personality be not put into a work of But by those art, it will be utterly worthless. words Schumann means to say that as a youth he attempted to bring to light in musical form years, in early life his

'

his inmost feelings life-experiences.

with regard to his personal

Under such circumstances

it

but natural that they should contain much that was purely accidental, and inexplicable by the laws of art alone ; but it is to this kind of source that they owe the magic freshness and originality with which they strike the hearer. The Variations, op. 1, are an instance of this. The theme is formed of the notes A, B(l>), E, is

G, G. Meta Abegg was the name of a beautiful young lady in Mannheim, whose acquaintance Schumann, when a student, had made at a ball. Playful symbolism of this kind is not unfrequent in him. To a certain extent it may be traced back to Sebastian Bach, his

own name

mann

who

in a musical phrase

afterwards did Gade's.

(See

; '

expressed as Schu-

Album

fiir

In the same way die Jugend,' op. 68, No. 41.) (Gfes. Schriften, ii. 115) he expresses the woman's name ' Beda in musical notes, and also in the '

Carnaval made those letters in his own name which stand as notes s (es), c, h, a into a But the idea really came from musical phrase. '

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Jean Paul, who is very fond of tracing out Schumann's op. 2 such mystic connections. consists of a set of small pianoforte pieces in dance -form under the name of 'Papillons.' They were written partly at Heidelberg, partly in the first years of the Leipzig period which followed. No inner musical connection subsists between them. But Schumann felt the necessity of giving them a poetical connection, to satisfy his own feelings, if for nothing else, and for this purpose he adopted the last chapter but one' of Jean Paul's Flegeljakre, where a

masked ball is described at which the lovers Wina and Walt are guests, as a poetic background for the series. The several pieces of

may thus be intended to represent partly the different characters in the crowd of maskers, and partly the conversation of the lovers. The finale is written designedly with reference to this scene in Jean Paul, as is plain from the indication written above the notes found near the end The noise of the Carnival-night dies away. The church clock strikes six.' The strokes of the bell are actually audible, being represented by the A six times repeated. Then all is hushed, and the piece seems to vanish into thin air like a vision. In the finale there are several touches of humour. It begins with an old Volkslied, familiar to every household in Germany as the Grossvatertanz.^ In contrast to these two old-fashioned lovetunes is placed the soft and graceful melody of No. 1 of the Papillons, which is afterwards worked oontrapuntally with the Grossvatertanz.' The name Papillons is not meant to indicate a light, fluttering character in the pieces, but rather refers to musical phases which, proceeding from various experiences of life, have attained the highest musical import, as the butterfly soars upwards out of the chrysalis. The design of the title-page in the first edition points towards some such meaning as this ; and the explanation we have given corresponds with his usual method of composing at that time. There exists, however, no decisive account of it by the composer himself. In a kind of connection with the Papillons is the Carnaval,' op. 9. Here again Schumann has depicted the merriment of a masquerade in musical pictures, and a third and somewhat similar essay of the same kind is his Faschings^chwank' aus Wien,' op. 26. The 'Carnaval' is a collection of small pieces, written one by one without any special purpose, and not provided either with collective or individual titles until later, when he arranged them in their present order. The musical connection between the pieces is, that with few exceptions they all contain some reference to the succession of notes music

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1 In a letter to hta friend Heniiette Volgt, Schumann calls it the ThlB, although obviously a slip of the pen, has led latt chapter.

several writers to the ' Papillons.' 2 3

wonder what grand or

fanciful idea lurks

See Grossvatbrtanz, vol. il. p. 246.Faaching is a German word tor the Carnival

behind

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SCHUMANN

371

a, es, c,

The

Now

tastic story

h (A, E|>, C, B) or as, c, h (Ab, C, B). Asch is the name of a small town in Bohemia, the home of a Fraulein Ernestine von Frioken, with whom Schumann was very intimate at the time of his writing this music. The same notes in another order, s (or es), c, h, a, are also the only letters in Schumann's own name which represent notes. This explains the title Sphinxes, which is affixed to the ninth number on p. 13 of the original edition. '

The

'

named, some from characters in

pieces are

—

the masked ball Pierrot, Arleqnin, Pantalon, and Colombine, and some from real persons. In this last category we meet with the members Plorestan, Eusebius, and of the Davidsbund Chiarina Ernestine von Fricken, under the name Estrella, Chopin, and Paganini ; there is also a Coquette,' but it is not known for whom this is intended. Besides these, some of the

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;

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pieces are

named from situations and occurrences

; a recognition, an avowal of love, a promenade, a pause in the dance (Reconnaissance, Aveu, Promenade. Pause) ; between these are heard the sounds of waltzes, and in one of the pieces the letters A-S-C-H, and S-C-H-A, ' Lettres dansantes,' themselves dance boisterously and noisily, and then vanish like airy phantoms. A piece called Papillons rushes by like a hasty reminiscence, and in the numan actual passage bers entitled. Florestan from No. 1 of the 'Papillons (op. 2) is inserted. The finale is called March of the Davidsbiindler against the Philistines.' The symbol of the Philistines is the Grossvatertanz, here called by Schumann a time of the 17th century. The fact of the march being in 3-4 time has perhaps a humorous and symbolic meaning. The Davidsblindlertanze (op. 6), the FanKinderscenen (op. 16), tasiestiicke' (op. 12), Kreisleriana (op. 16), Novelletten (op. 2l),

at the ball

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and Albumblatter (op. 124), the contents of which all belong to Schumann's early period, and, of the later works, such pieces as the Waldscenen (op. 82) all bear the impress of having originated like the 'Papillons' and the 'Carnaval,' in the They personal experiences of Schumann's life.

'Bunte Blatter'

(op.

99),

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are poisies d'occasUm (Gelegenheitsdichtungen),

a term which, in Goethe's sense, designates the As highest form that a work of art can take. to the 'Davidsbundlertanze,' the 'Kreisleriana,' and the 'Novelletten,' Schumann himself tells us that they reflect the varying moods wrought in him by the contentions about Clara Wieck. In the 'Davidsblindlertanze' the general arrangement is that Florestan and Eusebius appear

usually by turns, though sometimes also together. The expression 'dance' does not, however, mean, as is sometimes supposed, the dances that the Davidsbiindler led the Philistines, but merely indicates the form of the pieces, which is, truth to say, used with scarcely less freedom than that of the march in the finale to the ' Carnaval.

'

have their origin in a fanwith the same title by E. T. A.

Kreisleriana

'

Hoflmann, contained in his Famtasiestucke in HoffCallots Manier (Bamberg, 1814, p. 47). mann was a follower of Jean Paul, who indeed wrote a preface to Fantasiestiicke, Half musician, half poet, Schumann must have looked on him as a kindred spirit and in the figure of ;

the wild and eccentric yet gifted

'

Kapellmeister

drawn by Hoffmann from incidents in his own life, there were many traits in which Schumann might easily see a reflection of himself. Of the Novelletten Schumann says that they are 'long and connected romantic stories.' There are no titles to explain them, although Kreisler,'

'

much may

'

be conjectured from the indications

and expression. But the rest of the works we have just mentioned nearly always have their separate component parts, headed by names which lead the imagination of the player or hearer, in a clear and often deeply poetic manner, in a particular and definite direction. This form of piano piece was altogether » very favourite one with Schumann. He is careful to guard against the supposition that he imagined a definite object in his mind, such as a pleading child (in op. 1 5) or a haunted spot in a wood (in op. 82), and then tried to describe His method was rather to invent it in notes. the piece quite independently, and afterwards to give it a particular meaning by a superscription. His chief object was always to give the piece a value of its own, and to make it intelligible of This principle is undoubtedly the right itself. one, and, by adopting it, Schumann proved himof time

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a genuine musician, with faith in the independent value of his art. Nevertheless, had he considered the poetical titles utterly unimportant, he would hardly have employed them as he has self

in

so'

large a majority of his smaller pianoforte His doing so seems to evince a feeling

pieces.

that in the composition of the piece alone, he had not said everything that struggled within him for expression. Until a particular mood or feeling had been aroused in the hearer or the player, by means of the title, Schumann could not be sure that the piece would have the effect which he desired it to have. Strictly speaking, poetry and music can only be really united by means of the human voice. But in these pianoforte pieces with poetical titles, Schumann found a means o^ expression which hovered as it were between pure instrumental music on the one hand, and vocal music on the other, and thus received a certain indefinite and mysterious character of its own, which may most justly be called Romantic, but which is entii-ely apart from any connection with what is now called Programme Music. Among the compositions consisting of small forms we must count the variations. Schumann treated the variation -form freely and fancifully, but with a profuse wealth of genius

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SCHUMANN

372

and depth of feeling. For the Impromptus on " theme by Clara Wieok (op. 5), Beethoven's so-called 'Eroioa Variations' (op. 35), apparentlyserved as a model ; they remind ns of them

both in general arrangement and in the employment of the bass as a theme, without being in any way wanting in originality. In the Andante and Variations for two pianofortes (op. 46),(|0ne of the most charming and popular of Schumann's pianoforte works, he treated the form with such freedom that they are not so

much

variations as fantasias in the style of [They were at iirst intended to be

variations.

accompanied by two violoncellos and horn, and tliis version is in the supplementary volume of the Breitkopf edition.] His most splendid work in this form ia his op. 13 (the ' Etudes symphouiques '), a work of the grandest calibre, which alone would be sufficient to secure him a place in the first rank of composers for the pianoforte, so overpowering is the display of his own individual treatment of the piano-

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frequently rising to the highest limits of the bravura style of execution of his overflowing profusion of ideas, and his boldness in turning the variation form to his own account. In the finale the first two bars only of the theme are employed, and these only occasionally in the working-out section.' In other respects the proud edifice of this elaborately worked number has nothing in common with a variation. It contains, however, a delicate reference to the person to whom the whole work is The dedicated, William Sterndale Bennett. beginning of the chief subject is a fragment of the celebrated romance in MarsChner's Templer und Jiidin' (' Du stolzes England, freue dich,' It is an ingenious way of paying a cometc.). pliment to his beloved English composer. Schumann had made early attempts at works of larger structure, but it cannot be denied that The Fj minor they were not at first successful. Sonata (op. 11) teems with beautiful ideas, but is wanting in unity to a remarkable degree, at The F minor least in the Allegro movements. Sonata (op. 14) shows a decided improvement in this respect, and the Sonata in G minor (op. 22) is still better, although not entirely free from Schumann afterwards a certain clumsiness. showed himself quite aware of the faults of They offer the these sonatas in regard to form. forte

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striking example of Ms irregular and rhapsodical method of working at that period. The second movement of the G minor Sonata was written in June 1830, the first and third in June 1833, the fourth in its original form in October 1835, and in its ultimate form in 1838, the whole sonata being published in 1839. The F( minor Sonata was begun in 1833, and not The F minor Sonata, completed till 1835. finished on June 5, 1836, consisted at first of

most

The Ave varlattonfl left out in the puhllahed edition are included in the supplementaly volume of Breitkopf's editiob. 1

';

movements, an Allegro, two Scherzos, one an Andantino with variations, and a Prestissimo. When the work was first published, under the title of 'Concerto sans Orchestre, Schumann cut out the two scherzos, five

after the other,

'

apparently intending to use them for a second This, however, was not sonata in F minor. carried out, and in the second edition of the work he restored the second of the scherzos to When we observe how he took up its place. 2 one sonata after another, we see how impossible it is that any close connection can subsist between the several parts, or that there should be any real unity in them as a whole. The Allegro for pianoforte (op. 8) is somewhat disjointed in form, while the Toccata (op. 7), a bravura piece of the greatest brilliance and difficulty in perfect sonata-form, exhibits a great In the degree of connection and consequence. great Fantasia (op. 17) we are led by the title The classical to expect no conciseness of form. masters generally gave to their fantasias a very clearly defined outline, but Schumann in this case breaks through every restriction that limits the form, especially in the first movement, where he almost seems to lose himself in limitless freedom. In order to give unity to the fantastic and somewhat loosely connected movements of this work of genius, he again had recourse to poetry, and prefaced the piece with some lines of F. Sehlegel's as a motto :

Dntvh alle Tjine ti>net Im hunten Erdeutraum, Ein leiser Ton gezogen FUr den der heiiolich lauBchet.

Through all the tones that vibrate About earth's mingled dream, One whispered note is sounding For ears attent to hear.

The ' earth's mingled dream ' is in a manner portrayed in the substance of the composition. Schumann means that ' the ear attent to hear will perceive the uniting- tones that run through all the pictures which the imagination of the composer unrolls to his view. Sehlegel's motto seems almost like an excuse offered by Schumann. The original purpose of this Fantasia was not, however, to illustrate these lines. About Dec. 17, 1835, an appeal having been made from Bonn for contributions to a Beethoven memorial, Schumann proposed to contribute a composition and this was the origin of the work now called Fantasia,' the three movements of which were originally intended to bear the respective inscriptions of 'Ruins,' 'Triumphal Arch,' and 'The Starry Crown.' By these names the character both of the separate parts and of the whole becomes more intelligible. In order to get into the right disposition for the work Schumann's four articles on Beethoven's monument should be read (Gfesammelte Schri/ten, vol. i. p. 215). Although few of Schumann's pianoforte works of the first period are without defects of foi-m, '

yet their beauties are so many that we easily forget those defects. In certain ways the com2 The iirat appeared in 1866 as No. 12 of the Posthumous Works pub] ished by Eieter-Biedermann, together with the discarded Finale of the Sonata in Q minor as TSo. 13. Both are in the supplementary volume of the Breitkopf Be Biirtel edition (1893).

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SCHUMANN positions of the first ten years present the most characteristic picture of Schumann's genius.

he proposed and attained loftier works worthy of the perfect master. But the freshness and charm of his earlier pianoforte works was never surpassed, and in his later In after

life

ideals in

years wasbutrarelyreached. Adreamy imaginative nature was united in Schumann's character with a native solidity that never descended to the commonplace. From the first his music had in it a character which appealed to the people ^nay, which was in a way national ; and

—

quickly as he reached his present immense popularity in Germany, it will probably be long before he has the same influence in other nations, especially in France and Italy. After Beethoven, Schumann is the only master who possesses the power of giving full and free expression to the humorous element in instrumental music. Both in his writings and compositions he allows it to

and it is in his earlier PF. works most prominent. One of his freshest and fullest works is the Humoreske (op. 20), the most wonderful portrayal of a humorous

have

full play,

that

it is

disposition that it

is

possible to imagine in

Schumann's thorough individuality is music. prominent, alike in harmonies, rhythm, and It colouring, and in the fonns of the melodies. is, however, characteristic of his early PF. works that broad bold melodies rarely occur in them, though there is a superabundance of melodic fragments germs of melody, as they might be called, full of a deep expression of their own. This music is pervaded by a spring-like animation and force, a germ of future promise, which givesitapeculiar roinantic character ; a character strengthened by the admixture of poetic moods Schumann was both musician and feelings. and poet, and he who would thoroughly understand his music must be first imbued with the spirit of the German poets who were most

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prominent in Schumann's youth above all others Jean Paul and the whole romantic school, particularly Eichendorff, Heine, and Riickert. And just as these poets were specially great in short lyrics, revealing endless depths of feeling in a few lines, so did Schumann succeed, as no one has done before or since, in saying great ;

things and leaving unutterable things to be felt, in the small form of a short pianoforte piece. Schumann's enthusiastic admiration and thorough appreciation of Bach have been already He shared this with Mendelssohn, described. but it is certain that he entered more thoroughly than Mendelssohn did into the old master's It would therefore mysterious depth of feeling. have been wonderful if he had not attempted to express himself in the musical forms used by His sti-ong natural inclination towards Bach. polyphonic writing is perceptible even in his earliest pianoforte works, but it was not until 1840 that it comes prominently forward. His Bach (op. 60), the six fugues on the name '

'

373

four fugues (op. 72), the seven pianoforte pieces in fughetta form (op. 126), the studies in canon form for the pedal-piano (op. 56), and the other

separate canons and fugues scattered up and down his pianoforte works all form a class in modern pianoforte music just as new as do his pianoforte works in the free style. The treat-

—

ment

of the parts in the fugues

is

by no means

always strictly according to rule, even when viewed from the standpoint of Bach, who allowed himself considerable freedom. In employing an accompaniment of chords in one part, he also goes far beyond what had hitherto been considered allowable. But yet, taken as a whole, these works are masterpieces; no other composer of modem times could have succeeded ais he has done in welding together so completely the modern style of feeling with the old strict form, or in giving that form a new life and vigour by means of the modern spirit. In these pieces we hear the same Schumann whom we know in his other works his ideas adapt themselves as if spontaneously to the strict requirements of the polyphonic style, and these requirements again draw from his imagination new and characteristic ideas. In short, though a great contrapuntist he was not a pedantic one, and he may be numbered among the few musicians of the last hundred years to whom polyphonic forms have been a perfectly natural ;

means of expressing their ideas. As a composer of Songs Schumann stands by the side of Schubert and Mendelssohn, the youngest of the

trio of great writers

in this

Schubert shows the greatest wealth of melody, Mendelssohn the most perfect roundness of form; but Schumann is by far the most profoundly and intellectually suggestive. He displays a more finely cultivated poetic taste than Schubert, with a many-sided feeling for lyric expression far greater than Mendelssohn's. Many of his melodies are projected in bold and soaring lines such as we meet with in no other composer but Schubert for instance, in the wellknown songs 'Widmung' (op. 25, No. 1), 'Lied der Braut' (op. 25, No. 12), Liebesbotsohaft Stille Thranen (op. 35, No. (op. 36, No. 6), 1 0), and others. Still more frequently he throws himself into the spirit of the German Volkslied, and avails himself of its simpler and narrower Indeed his songs owe their forms of melody. class

of music.

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extraordinary popularity chiefly to this conspicuously national element. The reader need only be reminded of the song ' Sonnenschein (op. 36, No. 4), of Heine's ' Liederkreis (op. 24), and of the Heine songs 'Hbr' ich das Liedchen klingen," ' Allnachtlich im Traume,' 'Aus altien Marchen'(op. 48, Nos. 10, 14, 15), of most of the songs and ballads (op. 45, 49, 53), and above all of the ' Wanderlied (op. 35, No. 3), which sparkles with youthful life and healthy vigour. Besides these there are many songs in which the melody is hardly worked '

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SCHUMANN

374 out,

and which are

case with

his

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as is also frequently the pianoforte works as it were,

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mere sketches, or germs, of melodies. This style of treatment, which is quite peculiar to Schumann, he was fond of using when he wished to give the impression of a vague, dreamy, veiled sentiment and by this means he penetrated more deeply into the vital essence and sources of feeling than any other song-writer. Such songs as Der Nussbaum (op. 25, No. 3), or 'Im Walde' (op. 39, No. 11) are masterpieces in this kind. Besides this, Schumann always brought a true poet's instinct to bear on the subtlest touches and most covert suggestions in the poems which he chose for setting, and selected the musical expression best fitted to their purport. Schubert and Mendelssohn set verses to tunes, Schumann wrote poems to them in music. He was the first who ventured to close on the dominant seventh when his text ended with a query (as in op. 49, No. 3). "With him also the vocal part often does not end on the common chord, but the true close is left to the accompaniment, so as to give an effect of vague and undefined feeling. The part filled by the pianoforte in Schumann's songs is a very important one. With Schubert and Mendelssohn we may very properly speak of the pianoforte part as an ' accompaniment, however rich and independent it occasionally appears. But with ;

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Schumann the word is no longer appropriate, the pianoforte asserts its dignity and equality with the voice to perform his songs satisfactorily the player must enter fully into the singer's part and the singer into the player's, and they must constantly supplement and fulfil each other. It was evidently of moment in the history of his art that Schumann should have come to the work of writing songs aftei'ten years' experience as a composer for the pianoforte, ;

and

after instituting

an entirely new

style of

This style supplied him with pianoforte music. an immense variety of delicate and poetic modes and shades of expression, and it is owing to this that he displays such constant novelty in his treatment of the pianoforte part. The forms of phrase which he adopts in his 'accompani-

ments are infinitely various, and always correspond with perfect fitness and ingenuity to the In some cases the character of the verses. pianoforte part is an entirely independent composition, which the voice merely follows with a few declamatory phrases (op. 48, No. 9, ' Das ist ein Flbten und Geigen ') while in '

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in contrast to this, the voice stands almost alone, and the pianoforte begins by throwing in a few soft chords which nevertheless others,

have their due characteristic effect (op. 48, No. In Schumann's 13, 'Ich hab' im Traum'). songs the proper function of the pianoforte is to reveal some deep and secret meaning which it is beyond the power of words,- even of sung words, to express ; and he always disliked and

avoided those repetitions of the words of which other composers have availed themselves in order to fill' out in the music the feeling to which When he does repeat he the words give rise. always seems to have a special dramcUic end in view rather than a musical one, and often makes the piano supplement the sentiment aroused by the text, while the voice is silent. He is particularly strong in his final symphonies, to which he gave a value and importance, as an integral portion of the song, which no one before him had ventured to do, often assigning to it a new and independent musical thought Sometimes he allows the general of its own. feeling of the song to reappear in it under quite sometimes the musical phrase a new light suggests some final outcome of the words, opening to the fancy a remote perspective in ;

which sight is lost (a beautiful example is op. Or he 48, No. 16, 'Diealten bbsen Lieder '). of which a continues the poem in music ;

striking instance liebe

und Leben

is '

the close of the

'

Frauen-

where by repeating song he revives in the

(op. 42),

the music of the first fancy of the lonely widow the memory of her early happiness. The realm of feeling revealed to us in Schumann's songs is thoroughly youthful, an unfailing mark of the true lyric ; the sentiment he principally deals with is that of love, which in his hands is especially tender and pure, almost maidenly. The set of songs called ' Frauenliebe und Leben ' gives us a deep insight into the most subtle and secret emotions of a pure woman's soul, deeper indeed than could have been expected from any man, and

no composer but Schumann would have been capable of it. Schumann also found musical equivalents and shades of colour for EichendorfFs mystical views of nature his settings of Eichendorff' s poems may be called absolutely classical, and he is equally at home in dealing with the bubbling freshness or the chivalrous sentiment of the poet. Many of Schumann's fresh and sparkling songs have a touch of the student's joviality, but without descending from their high distinction never under any circumstances was he trivial. Indeed he had no sympathy with the farcical, though his talent for the humorous is amply proved by his songs. A masterpiece of the kind is the setting of Heine's poem ^n Jiingling liebt ein Madohen' (op. 48, No. 11), with its strange undercurrent of tragedy. It was principally in dealing with Heine's words that he betrays this sense of humour ' Wir sassen am Fischerhause (op. 45, No. 3), is an example, and still more 'I^ leuchtet meine Liebe' (op. 127, No. 3), where a resemblance to the scherzo of the A minor String Quartet is very obvious. A thing which may well excite astonishment as apparently quite beside the nature of Schumann's character, is that he could even find characteristic music for Heine's bitterest irony (op. 24, No. 6) in fact

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SCHUMANN 'Warte, warte, wilder Schiffsmann,' and of the

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many

Diohterliebe.

Schumann's Symphonies may, without any be considered as the most important

injustice,

in their time since Beethoven. Though Mendelssohn excels him in regularity of form, and though Schubert's C major Symphony is quite unique in its wealth of beautiful musical ideas, yet Schumann surpasses both in greatness and force. He is the man, they the youths ; he has the greatest amount of what is demanded by that

most mature, and most important of forms of instrumental music. He comes near to Beethoven, who it is quite evident was almost the only composer that he ever took as a model. No trace whatever of Haydn or Mozart is to be found in his Symphonies, and of Mendelssohn just as little. A certain approximation to Schubert is indeed perceptible in the working out {Durchfuhnrng) of his Allegro movements. But the symphonies, like the pianoforte works, the songs, and indeed aU that Schumann produced, bear the strong impress of a marvellous originality, and a creative power all his own. Even the first published Symphony (in Bb, op. 38) shows a very distinct talent for this branch of composition. We do not know that Schumann had ever previously attempted orchestral compositions, except in the case of the symphony written in the beginning of 1830, which still remains in MS. In 1839 he writes to Dorn ' At present it is true that I have not had much practice in orchestral writing, but I hope to master it some day.' And in his next attempt he attained his object. In a few passages in the Bl> Symphony, the effects of the instruments are indeed not rightly calculated. One great error in the first movement he remedied after the first hearing. This was in the two opening bars, from which the theme of the Allegro is afterwards generated, and which were given to It ran originally thus, the horns and trumpets. in agreement with the beginning of the Allegi'O greatest, all

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^ -T

ir-cr

5il=«t

Another, but less important passage for the horns has remained unalteted. In bar 17 of the first Allegro, Schumann thought that this phrase

ought to be made more prominent than it usually was on the horns, and requested both Taubert and David, when it was in rehearsal at Berlin and Leipzig in the winter of 1842, to have it played on the trombones. But in general we cannot but wonder at the certain mastery over his means that he shows even in the first Symphony. His orchestration is less smooth and clear than that of either Mendelssohn or Gade, and in its sterner style reminds us rather of Schubert. But this stem power is suited to the substance of his ideas, and there is no lack of captivating beauty of sound. We even meet in his orchestral works with a number of new effects of sound such as only true genius can discover or invent. Instances of these are the treatment of the three trumpets in the ' Manfred overtm-e, the use made of the horns in the second movement of the E|; Symphony, the violin solo introduced into the Romanza of the minor Symphony, etc. etc. It is hard to decide which of Schumann's four symphonies (or five, counting op. Each has individual beauties 52) is the finest. of its own. In life and freshness and the feeling of inward happiness, the Bb Symphony stands at the head. Schumann originally intended to call it the ' Spring Symphony ' ; and indeed he wrote it, as we learn from a letter to Taubert, in Feb. 1841, when the first breath of spring was in the air. The first movement was to have been called ' Spring's Awakening, ' and the Finale (which he alvyays wished not to be taken too fast) ' Spring's Farewell.' Many parts of the symphony have an especial charm when we thus know the object with which they were written. The beginning of the introduction evidently represente a trumpet -summons sent pealing down from on high ; then gentle zephyrs blow softly to and fro, and everywhere the '

D

dormant

which, on account of the G and A being stopped notes, had an unexpected and very comic effect. Schumann himself was much amused at the mistake when he was at Hanover in January 1854 he told the story to his friends, and it was very amusing to hear this man, usually so grave and silent, regardless of the presence of strangers (for the incidenttook place at apublicrestaurant), sing out the first five notes of the subject quite loud, the two next in a muffled voice, and the He placed the phrase a third last again loud. higher, as it stands in the printed score ;

:

3V5

forces

awake and make

their

way

to

the light (we are quoting from the composer's own programme). In the Allegro the Spring comes laughing in, in the full beauty of youth. This explains and justifies the novel use of the triangle in the first movement an instrument not then considered admissible in a symphony. An enchanting effect is produced by the Spring song at the close of the first movement, played as though sung with a full heart ; and it is an entirely new form of coda (see p. 67 of the score). In publishing the Symphony, Schumann omitted the explanatory titles, because he believed that the attention of the public is

—

1 SchmnanD Intended the PiU vtvtue of the Introduction to be talEen diatlnctl7 faster at once, ao that the time might glide imper-

ceptibly into the AUegro. ,

''

SCHUMANN

376

main purpose of a work by things of that kind. may well believe, moreover, that a good part of the spring-like feeling in this symphony comes from the deep and heart-felt joy which Schumann felt at being at last united to his hard -won bride. The same influence is seen in the D minor Symphony (op. 120), written in the same year with that just described, and immediately after it. It is entirely similar to its predecessor in its fundamental feeling, but has more passion. The form too is new and very successful ; the four sections follow each other consecutively without any pauses, so that the work seems to consist of only one great movement. The subjects of the Introduction re-appear in the Eomanze, with different treatment, and the chief subject of the first Allegro is the foundation of that of the last. The second part of the first Allegro is in quite an unusual form, and before the last Allegro we find a slow introduction imaginative, majestic, and most original. As has been already mentioned, Schumann intended to call the work 'Symphonic Fantasia.' Here,' too, poetic pictures seem to be hovering round him on every side. His third symphonic work of the year 1841 is also irregular, but only in form, and has as good a right as the second to the name of ' Symphony. It appeared, however, under the name ' Overture, Scherzo, and Finale as op. 52. Of this' work, which is charming throughout, the first movement offers us the only example to be found in Schumann of the influence of Cherubini, a master for whom he had a great reverence, perhaps the most lovely movement is the highly poetic Scherzo in gigue-rhythm, which might constitute a type by itself among symphonyscherzos. His other scherzos approximate in style to those of Beethoven,' whose invention and speciality this form was, and who had no distracted from the

We

—

'

'

successor in it but

Schumann.

The

charac-

C

The other movements are powerful, and full variety and charm, and the whole symphony full of vivid pictures

the

gem

of Rhineland

of the whole

is

is

Perhaps

life.

the second

of

movement

which power and beauty are mingled with the romance which in every German heart hovers round the Rhine and its multitude of songs and legends. Although written in 1850, when Schumann's imagination was becoming exhausted, the work bears no trace of any diminution of power. (Scherzo),

in

The poetical

concert-overture, a form invented

by Mendelssohn, and practised by Bennett and Gade, was one never cultivated by Schumann. His overtures are really opening pieces, whether to opera, play, or some festivity or other. In '

this again

'

His overtures,

he follows Beethoven.

most effective in the concert-room, when the drama or occasion for which they were composed is kept in mind. It is so even with the wonderful Genoveva overture, which contains something of Weber's power and swing ; but more than all is it true like those of Beethoven, are

'

of the overture to Byron's 'Manfred,'so full of

None of the overtures subsequently written by Schumann i-eached this degree of perfection, least of all his ' Faust overture, though that to the ' Braut von Messina'(op. 100) is not much inferior to 'Manfred.' In the last year of his productive activity Schumann was much occupied with this form, but the exhausted condition of his creative powers cannot be disguised, either in the ' Faust overture or in those to Shakespeare's Julius Caesar' (op. 128) and Goethe's 'Hermann und Dorothea ' (op. 136), which last he had intended to set as an opera. The festival overture on the ' Rheinweinlied (op. 123) is cleverly worked, and a very effective piSce d'occasion. It was in the spring of 1838 that Schumann made his first attempt, so far sis we know, at a String Quartet. It was scarcely successful, for tremendous passion.

'

'

major Symphony (op. 61) is a graver and more mature depth of feeling its bold decisiveness of form ' and overpowering wealth of expression reveal distinctly the relationship in art between Schumann and Beethoven. The form, too, as far as regards the number and character of the movements, is

he was too much immersed in pianoforte music at any rate the world has hitherto seen nothing of it. In June and July 1842 he was much more successful. The three string quartets (op.

quite that of the classical masters, while in the

mann

teristic of the

;

Symphony

(Eb, op. 97) Schumann once of the modem school. This is divided into five separate movements, including a, slow movement in sustained style, and of a devotional character, between the Andante and the Finale. Schumann originally inscribed it with the words ' In the style of an last

more appears

as one

accompaniment

to a solemn ceremony (ira Charakter der Begleitung einer feierlichen Ceremonie), and we know that it was suggested to him by the sight of Cologne Cathedral, and the festivities on the occasion of Archbishop

Ton

Geissel's

elevation

'

to

the

Cardinalate,

;

41), written at this time, are the only ones that

have become known. "They cannot be said to be in the purest quartet style but as Schu;

never played any stringed instrument, this is not surprising. They still retain much of the pianoforte style ; but by this very means

Schumann attains many new and beautiful At the time of writing the A minor quartet Schumann had become acquainted with

effects.

Marsohner's G minor Trio (op. 112), and speaks of it in the Zeitschrift. The fine scherzo of that work struck him very much, and in his own scherzo it reappears, in a modified form certainly, but yet recognisable enough. In spite of this plagiarism, however, we must allow the quartet to be in the highest degree original, and full of richness and poetry.

;

SCHUMANN It contains much enchanting beauty, never surpassed even by Schumann. He seems here to have

resumed his practice of mixing up mysticism with his music. What other reason could there be for proposing to use the four bars of modulation from the first quartet (bars 30-34), exactly as they stand, for an introduction to the second quartet? He afterwards struck them out, as may be seen in poetic

the autograph. The other quartets also arrived at their present form only after manifold alterations. The slow introduction to the A minor Quartet was at first intended to be played con sordini. The third quartet began with a chord of the 6-5 on D, held out lor a whole bar. The greatest alterations were made in the first Allegro of the A minor and in the variations in A|> of the F major Quartets. Whole sections were re-written and modified in various ways.

But Wasielewski

is mistaken in saying (3rd ed. that the piii lento over the coda in these variations is a misprint for piii, mosso. Schumann wrote piii lento quite plainly, and evidently meant what he wrote. He may

p. 178, note)

possibly have changed his mind afterwards, for to tempo he was often moved by the opinions of others. Of the works for strings and pianoforte, the Quintet (op. 44) is of course the finest ; it will in regard

always keep

its

masterpieces.

place in the

first

rank of musical

It claims the highest admiration,

not only because of its brilliant originality, and innate power which seems to grow with every movement, and at the end of the whole leaves the hearer with a feeling of the possibility of never-ending increase but also because of its gorgeous beauty of sound, and the beautiful and well-balanced relations between the pianoforte and the strings. Musicians are still living, like Carl Eeinecke of Leipzig, who at the time of its appearance were in the most susceptible its

—

—

period of youth, and who tell of the indescribable impression the work made upon them. It must have seemed like a new paradise of beauty revealed to their view. The Pianoforte Quartet (op. 47) only wants animation, and a more popular character in the best sense of the word, to make it of equal merit with the Quintet.

There is much in it of the spirit of Bach, as Is perhaps most evident in the wonderful melody of the Andante. A high rank is taken by the Trios in D minor (op. 63) and F major (op. 80), both, as well as the quintet and quartet, written In the first a in one and the same year. passionate and sometimes 'gloomy character predominates, while the second is more cheerful and full of warmth in the middle movements. The canonic style is employed in the Adagios The of both trios with new and powerful effect. treatment of the strings with respect to the pianoforte may here and there be considered but it must not be too orchestral in style forgotten that it was adopted to suit the piano ;

style,

377

which in Schumann

is

very different from

that of the classical masters and of Mendelssohn. The two trios, however, are wanting in that expression of perfect health which isso prominent They in both the quintet and the quartet. show traces of the hurry and breathless haste which in his later years increases the complication of his rhythms. The third and last Trio (G minor, op. 110) is far inferior to the others. There is still the same artistic design, and in isolated passages the noble genius of the master still shines clearly out ; but as a whole this trio tells of exhaustion. The same may be said of most of the other chamber works of Schulatest years. Among them are two sonatas for pianoand violin, gloomy, impassioned compositions, which can hardly be listened to without a feeling of oppression. There are also a number of shorter pieces for different instru' ments, among which the ' Marchenbilder fiir Pianoforte und Viola' (op. 113) are prominent. No one who bears in mind Schumann's ultimate fate can hear without emotion the last of these ' Marchenbilder,' which bears the direction 'Langsam, mit melancholischem Ausdruck.' In the sphere of the concerto Schumann has left an imperishable trace of his genius in the Pianoforte Concerto in minor (op. 54). It is one of his most beautiful and mature works. In addition to all his peculiar originality it has also the qualities, which no concerto should lack, of external brilliancy, and striking, powerful, well-rounded subjects. The first movement is written in a free form with happy efl'ect the cause being that Schumann had at first intended it to stand as an independent piece, with the Fantasia. title He did not add the other two movements until two years afterwards. The ' Introduction und Allegro appassionato,' for pianoforte and orchestra (op. 92), is a rich addition to concerto literature. In Schumann there is a deeper connection between the pianoforte and orchestra than had before been

mann's

A

;

'

'

—

customary, though not carried to such a point as to interfere with the contrast between the He was far from two independent powers. writing symphonies with the pianoforte obbligato. His other works in concerto-form, written in the last years of his life, do not attain to Among them is the height of the Concerto. an unpublished violin concerto written between Sept. 21 and Oct. 3, 1853, and consisting of the following movements (1) D minor alia breve, Imkraftigen, nicht zu schnellen Tempo Langsam (2) Bb major, common time, (3) D major, 3-4, 'Lebhaft, doch nicht zu schnell.' The autograph was in the possession of Joachim. A Fantasia for violin and orchestra, dedicated to the same great artist, is published as op. 131. The Violoncello Concerto (op. 129) is remarkable for a very beautiful slow middle movement. There is also a Concerto for four horns and orchestra (op. 86). Schumann himself thought :

'

'

'

'

26

;

'

SCHUMANN

378

very highly of this piece, partly because, as he wrote to Dr. Hartel, 'it was quite curious.' It is indeed the first attempt made in modern times to revive the form of the old Concerto grosso which Sebastian Bach had brought to perfection in his six so-called 'Brandenburg' concertos. As these concertos of Bach were not printed until 1850, and Schumann can scarcely have known them in manuscript, it is a remarkable and Interesting coincidence that he should thus have followed Bach's lead without knowing it. The piece is particularly hard for the first horn, because of the high notes. When well rendered it has a peculiarly sonorous, often very romantic effect, to which, however, the ear soon becomes insensible from the tone of the four horns.

In his account of Marschner's Klange aus work performed in Leipzig on Oct. '

Osten,' a

22, 1840,

Schumann

for the form, in

expresses great admiration it was possible to make

which

use for concert performances of romantic stories, which had hitherto been only used on the stage. He was the first to follow this example in The text was his 'Paradise and the Peri.' taken from Moore's poem, of which Schumann shortened some parts to suit his purpose, while he lengthened others by his own insertions. It was his first work for voices and orchestra, and is one of his greatest and most important. The subject was happily chosen. The longing felt by one of those ideal beings created by the

imagination from the forces of nature, to attain or regain a, higher and happier existence, and using every means for the fulfilment of this longing, is of frequent occurrence in the German popular legends, and is still a favourite and It is the root sympathetic idea in Germany. of the legends of the Fair Melusina, of the

Water Nixie, and of Hans Heiling. Schumann's fancy must have been stimulated by the magic of the East, no less than by Moore's poem, with displayed on a background The fact of Schumuch of .Moore's narrative is worthy of all praise ; it is the descriptive portions of the poem that have the greatest charm, and the music conforms to this. True, there will always be a certain disadvantage in using a complete self-contained poem as a text for music, a great deal of which will inevitably have been written without regard to Much that we pass over lightly the composer. in reading has, when set to music, a more definite and insistent effect than was intended. In other places again, the poem, from the musician's point of view, will be deficient in opportunities for the strong contrasts so necesThis is very obvious sary for effect in music. The third portion in Schumann's composition. of the work, although he took much trouble to give it greater variety by additions to the poetry, Not that the suffers from a certain monotony.

its poetic pictures

of high moral sentiment. mann's having retained so

separate numbers are weaker than those of the former parts, but they are wanting in strong But there is something else that shadows.

prevents the work from producing a, really striking effect upon large audiences, and that is, if we may say so, that there is too much Schumann brought it forth from music in it. the fulness of his heart, and threw, even into its smallest interludes, all the depth of expresThe beauties are sion of which he was capable. crowded together, and stand in each other's If they had been fewer in number they light. would have had more effect. But, with all these allowances, ' Paradise and the Peri ' is one of the most enchanting musical poems in existence. And we can now confirm his own words in a letter to a friend after the completion of the work : ' A soft voice within me kept saying while I wrote. It is not in vain that thou art writing ' : for this composition will go far to All the choruses in make him immortal. ' Paradise and the Peri,' perhaps with the exception of the last, are fine, original, and effective. But it must be admitted that choral composition was not really Schumann's strong

In this respect he is far inferior to Mendelssohn. In many of his choruses he might even seem to lack the requisite mastery over the technical requirements of choral composition, so Instrumental in style, so impracticable and unnecessarily difficult do they seem. But if we consider Schumann's skill in polyphonic writing, and recall pieces of such grand conception and masterly treatment as the beginning of the last chorus of the Faust music, we feel convinced that the true reason of the defect lies deeper. The essential parts of a chorus are large and simple subjects, broad and flowing development, point.

'

'

and divisions qlearly marked and intelligible to all. In a good chorus there must be somethingto speak to the heart of the masses. Schumann took exactly the opposite view. The chorus was usually an instrument unfitted for the expression of his ideas. His genius could have mastered the technical part of choral composition as quickly and surely as that of orchestral composition. But since the case was otherwise, the chief importance of Paradise and the Peri is seen to be in the solos and their accompaniments, especially in the latter, for here the orchestra stands in the same relation to the voice as the pianoforte does in Schumann's songs. A good orchestral rendering of Paradise and the Peri is a task of the greatest difficulty, but one re'

'

'

warded by perfect 'enjoyment. In the fairy-tale of The Pilgrimage of the Kose (op. 112) Schumann intended to produce a companion picture to Paradise and the Peri,' but in less definite outline and vaguer colours. '

'

'

of the poem is similar to that of the former work, but Horn's execution of the idea is entirely without taste. Schumann was

The idea

possibly attracted

by

its

smooth

versification

'

'

SCHUMANN and a few

379

The really good musical situations. music contains much that is airy and fresh, as well as a beautiful dirge. On the other hand,

its delicate

is full of a feeble sentimentality utterly foreign to Schumann's general character, and ascribable only to the decay of his imagination. The insignificant and wholly idyllic subject was

feeling of the

it

quite inadequate to give employment to the whole apparatus of solo, chorus, and orchestra, and Schumann's first idea of providing a pianoforte

accompaniment only was the right one.

With a small section of Schumann's admirers the work will always keep its place, and produce a pleasing though not very deep effect. His other works in this form consist of four ballads 'Der Konigssohn' (op. 116), 'Des Sangers Fluoh' (op. 139), 'Das Gliick von Edenhall

—

:

and 'Vom Pagen 143), all by Uhland und der Konigstochter (op. 140), by Geibel. It is painfully evident that these poems were not really written for music. The way the principal events of the story are described, and the whole (op.

;

'

verses, imply that they were intended to be recited by a single person, and that not a singer but a speaker. If necessary to be sung, the form of a strophic song should have been chosen, as is the case with 'Das Gliick von Edenhall,' but this would confine the varieties of expression within too narrow a range. It is as though Schumann's pent-up desire for the dramatic form were seeking an outlet in these ballads especially as we know that in the last years of his creative activity he was anxious to meet with a new

outward form of the

;

opera-libretto.

The

and subjects

faults of texts

might, however, be overlooked, if the music made itself felt as the product of a rich and unwearied Unfortunately, however, this is imagination. seldom the case. It is just in the more dramatic partsthat we detect an obvious dulness in the music, a lameness in rhythm, and » want of It must be refresh and happy contrasts. marked, however, that isolated beauties of no mean order are to be met with ; such as the whole of the third part and the beginning and end of the second, in the ballad Vom Pagen und der Konigstochter. These works, however, taken as a whole, will hardly live. On the other hand, there are some works of striking beauty for voices and orchestra in a Among these should be purely lyrical vein. Eeqniem for Mignon from mentioned the Wilhelm Meister (op. 98J), and Hebbel's Nachtlied (op. 108). The former of these was especially written for music, and contains the loveliest thoughts and words embodied in an unconstrained and agreeable form. Few composers were so well fitted for such a work as Schumann, with his sensitive emotional and faculty and his delicate sense of poetry it is, no wonder that he succeeded in producing this beautiful little composition. But it should never be heard in a large concert rooiu, for which '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

;

proportions and tender colouring are utterly unfitted. The ' Nachtlied is a long choral movement. The peculiar and fantastic '

poem

by a particular

receives adequate treatment

which the chorus is sometimes used only to give colour, and sometimes is combined with the orchestra in a polyphonic structure, in which all human individuality seems to be merged, and only the universal powers of nature and of life reign supreme. Schumann's music to Faust is not intended to be performed on the stage as the musical complement of Goethe's drama. It is a piece for concert performance, or rather a set of pieces, for he did not stipulate or intend that all three parts should be given together. What he did was to take out a number of scenes from both parts of Goethe's poem, and set music to them. It follows that the work is not self-contained, but requires for its full understanding an accurate knowledge of the poem. From the First Part he took the following: (1) Part of the first scene in the garden between Gretchen and Faust (2) Gretchen before the shrine of the Mater dolorosa (3) The scene in the Cathedral. These three form the first division of his Faust music. From the Second Part of the play he adopted (1) The first scene of the first act (the song of the spirits at dawn, the sunrise, and Faust's soliloquy) (2) The scene with the four aged women from the fifth act (3) Faust's death in the same act (as far as the words, Der Zeiger fallt Erfallt, esist vollbracht'). Theseform the second division of the music. Schumann's third style in

'

'

—

;

;

:

;

;

'

—

division consists of the last scene of the fifth act (Faust's glorification) divided into seven num-

The experiment of constructing a work of art, without central point or connection in itself, but entirely dependent for these on another work of art, could only be successful in the ease bers.

poem like Faust and even then, perhaps, only with the German people, with whom Faust is almost as familiar as the Bible. But of a

it

'

'

really

was

;

successful,

more particularly in

the third division, which consists of only one great scene, and is the most important from a musical point of view. In this scene Goethe himself desired the co-operation of music. Its mystic import and splendid expression could find

who

no composer so well

fitted as

Schumann,

seemed, as it were, predestined for it. He threw himself into the spirit of the poem with such deep sympathy and understanding, that from beginning to end his music gives the impression of being a commentary on it. To Schumann is due the chief meed of praise for having popularised the second part of ' Faust. In musical importance no other choral work of his approaches the third division of his work. In freshness, originality, and sustained powef of invention it is in no way Inferior to ' Paradise' and the Peri.' Up to about the latter half of

SCHUMANN

380

the last chorus it is a chain of musical gems, a perfectly unique contribution to concert literature, in the first rank of those works of art of which the German nation may well be proud. The second division of the Faust music, consisting of three other scenes from the Second Part of the poem, is also of considerable merit. It is, however, evident in many passages that Schumann has set words which Goethe never intended to be sung. This is felt still more in the scenes from the First Part, which are, moreover, very inferior in respect of the music. The overture is the least important of all ; in fact the merit of the work decreases gradually as we survey it backwards from the end to the beginning ; a circumstance corresponding to the method pursued in its composition, which '

'

began in Schumann's freshest, happiest, and most masterly time of creativeness, and ended close upon the time when his noble spirit was plunged in the dark gloom of insanity. There exist only two dramatic works of Schumann's intended for the theatre the opera of Genoveva and the music to Byron's Manfred.' :

'

'

'

text of the opera may justly be objected to, for it scarcely treats of the proper legend of

The

Genoveva at

all

characteristic

;

almost

all

that

made the

story

and touching being discarded, a

which Schumann thought an advantage. may perhaps be explained by remembering his opinion that in an opera the greatest stress should be laid on the representation of the emotions, and that this object might most easily be attained by treating the external conditions of an operatic story as simply and broadly as fact

This

possible. He also probably felt that a great part of the Genoveva legend is epic rather than dramatic. He was mistaken, however, in thinking that after the reductions which he made in the plot, it would remain sufficiently He himself, interesting to the general public. as we have said, arranged his own libretto. His chief model was Hebbel's ' Genoveva,' a tragedy which had affected him in a wonderful way ; though he also made use of Tteck's Besides these he took Weber's 'Genoveva.' Euryanthe ' as a pattern. The mixture of three poems, so widely differing from one another, resulted in a confusion of motives and an uncertainty of delineation which add to the uninteresting impression produced by the libretto. The character of Golo, particularly, is very indistinctly drawn, and yet on him falls almost The the chief responsibility of the drama. details cannot but suffer by such a method of compilation as this. A great deal is taken word '

word from Hebbel and Tieok, and their two by side without any compromise whatever. Hebbel, however, predominates. Tieck's work appears in the finale of the first act, and in the duet (No. 9) in the for

utterly different styles appear side

act, e.g. the line 'Du liebst mieh, holde Genoveva's Braut, da ist der Tag begonuen.'

second

taunt on Golo's birth is also taken from Tieck, although he makes the reproach come first from Wolf and afterwards from Genoveva herself, but without making it a prominent motive in the Beside this several Volkslieder are drama. This confusion of styles is surprisinterspersed. ing in a man of such fine discrimination and delicate taste as Schuraitnn displays elsewhere. The chief defect of the opera, however, lies in

In the opera of 'Genoveva,' the the music. characters all sing more or less the same kind of music ; that which Schumann puts to the

words is absolute music, not relative, i.e. such as would be accordant with the character of each individual. Neither in outline nor detail his music sufficiently generated by the situations of the drama. Lastly, he lacks appreciation for that liveliness of contrast which appears forced and out of place in the concert-room, but is

Genoabsolutely indispensable on the stage. veva' has no strict recitatives, but neither is there spoken dialogue even the ordinary quiet parts of the dialogue are sung in strict time, and usually accompanied with the fall orchestra. Schumann considered the recitative a superannuated form of art, and in his other works also makes scarcely any use of it. This point is of course open to dispute ; but it is not open to dispute that in an opera, some kind of calm, even neutral form of expression is wanted, which, while allowing the action to proceed quickly, may serve as a foil to the chief parts in which highly-wrought emotions are to be delineated. The want of such a foil in Genoveva weakens the effect of the climaxes, and with them, that of the whole. As in the formation of the libretto Schumann took Euryanthe as his model, so as a musician he intended to carry out Weber's intentions still farther, and to write, not an opera in the old-fashioned ordinary sense, but a music-drama, which should be purely national. At the time when Genoveva was written, he was utterly opposed to Italian music, not in the way we should have expected him to be, but exactly as Weber was opposed to it in his time. 'Let me alone with your canary-bird music and your tunes out of the waste-paper basket,' he once said angrily to Weber's son, who was speaking to him of Cimarosa's ' Matrimonio Segreto.' But although he may not have succeeded in producing a masterpiece of '

is

;

'

'

'

'

'

'

German opera, we may appreciate with gratitude the many beauties of the music, the noble sentiment pervading the whole, and the constant artistic feeling, directed only to what is true and genuine. The finest part of the work is the overture, a masterpiece in its kind, and worthy to rank with the classical models. The music to Byron's ' Manfred (op. 115) consists of an overture, an entr'acte, melodramas, and several solos and choruses. Byron expressly desired the assistance of music for his work, though not s'o much of it as Schumann has given. '

; '

SCHUMANN Sohiimann inserted all the instrumental pieces in the work, with the exception of the tunes on the shepherd's pipe in the first act ; also the requiem heard at Manfred's death, sounding from the convent church. On the other hand, it is remarkable that he left the song of The captive usurper in Act ii. Scene iv. without music. The whole work consists of sixteen numbers, including the overture this Schumann composed first of all, and probably without intending to write music for the drama itself. Even here he does not evince any special gift for dramatic writing. In the present day Byron's drama is frequently performed upon the stage with Schumann's music, and its effectiveness can thus be tested. The music hardly '

'

;

ever serves to intensify the dramatic effects, and yet this is all that is necessary in a drama. It appears rather to be the

outcome of the

impression produced on

Schumann by Byron's

poem. There is 'Manfred' music.

peculiarity

part of

its

effect,

one

about the

On

the stage it loses a great just as, in my opinion, the

poem loses half its fantastic and weird magic by being dressed in the clumsy and palpable illusions of a scenic representation. The overture is

a piece of music of the most serious character, fitted for concert performance

and much more

than for assembling an audience in '^ theatre. This is still more true of all the other pieces, so delicate in construction and subtle in feeling, the closing requiem by no means excluded. And yet in the concert-room the music does not make its due effect partly because the hearer is withdrawn from the influence of the action, which is indispensable to the fuU understanding of the whole work and also because in the melodramas the spoken words and the music which accompanies them disturb one another more than when performed on the stage. From these remarks it might be imagined that the ' Manfred music is an inferior work ; but strange It is a to say such is by no means the case. splendid creation, and one of Schumann's most It hovers between the inspired productions. and, paradoxical as stage and the concert-room it may seem, the deepest impression is produced ;

;

'

;

picturing in one's mind the action and the spoken dialogue, and allowing the music to sink deep into the ears of one's Perhaps the most striking parts of it mind.

by reading the

score,

the melodramas, and among them the deeply touching speech of Manfred to Astarte and these all stand out with a peculiar purity and unity, when read as just described. They are in a manner improvements upon those highly poetic piano pieces of Schumann's with superscriptions ; and we ought to think of the words when hearing the piece. In this music, if all are

;

else, is revealed Schumann's characterstruggle after the inward, to the disregard of the outward; and we see how diametrically opposed to his nature was the realisation of

nowhere istic

381

where all is put into visible and But he devoted himself to the composition of the 'Manfred' music just as if he had been fitted for it by nature. The poet and the composer seem to have been destined for one another as truly as in the case of the Faust music, but in a different way. Byron had no

dramatic

effects

tangible form.

idea of stage representation in writing Manfred' '

he only wished his poem to be read. Its romantic sublimity of thought, spurning all firm foothold or support on the earth, could only find its due completion in music such as this, which satisfies the requirements of neither stage nor concertroom. That a work of art, mighty and instinct with life, can be produced with a sublime disdain

by circumstance, provided only work upon it, is amply proved by

of all limits set

genius

is

at

Byron and Schumann tion.

in this their joint

It has been already

produc-

remarked more than

once that the gloomy, melancholy, and passionManfred, ate intensity of strife in Byron's heightened by contrast with the splendid descriptions of nature, corresponded to the conditions of Schumann's spirit at the time when the music was written. And indeed a deep sympathy speaks in every bar. But there was in Schumann a longing for peace and reconciliation, which is wanting in Byron. This comes out very plainly in different passages in the music, of which the most striking is the Requiem at the close, which sheds over the whole work a gentle gleam of glory. If we were to go into details, we should neither know where to begin nor to end. In January 1851 Schumann wrote to a friend, It must always be the artist's highest aim to apply his powers to sacred music. But in youth we are firmly rooted to the earth by all our joys and sorrows it is only with advancing age that the branches stretch higher, and so I hope that the period of my higher efforts is no longer distant.' He is here speaking emphatically of { sacred,' not of church music. Church music he never wrote, his Mass and his Requiem notwithstanding. It should be adapted to the church-services, and calculated to produce its effect in combination with the customary ceremonial but sacred or religious music is intended to turn the mind of the hearers, by its own unaided effect, to edifying thoughts of the eternal and divine. Of compositions of this class we possess several by Schumann ; nor was it in 1851 that he first began writing them. '

'

'

'

;

;

is an Advent hymn for solo, chorus, and orchestra (op. 71), written in 1848 ; a motet for men's voices with organ, subsequently arranged for orchestra (op. 93), of 1849, and a

There

New

Year's hymn for chorus and orchestra (op. 144) of the winter of the same year all three ;

poems by Friedrich Riickert. The Mass (op. 147) and the Requiem (op. 148), on the other hand, were composed in 1852, and Schumann may have been thinking mainly of works of this kind when he wrote the letter settings of

;

SCHUMANN

382

As a Protestant his relations to quoted above. the Mass and Requiem were perfectly unfettered and in the oompositlon of these works he can have had no thought of their adaptation to divine service, since even in form they exhibit peculiarities opposed to the established order of the Mass. It may, however, be assumed that it was the Catholic feeling of Diisseldorf which suggested them, and that he intended the works to be performed on certain occasions at church concerts. The words of the Mass will always have a great power of elevating and inspiring an earnest artist but irrespective of this, the composition of a mass must have had a peculiar attraction for Schumann on other grounds. A poetical interest in the Catholic Church of the Middle Ages was at that time widely prevalent in Germany, particularly in circles which were most influenced by romantic poetry, and found in the Middle Ages the realisation of their mostcherished ideals. Schumann shared in this tendency ; a vein of otherwise might have lain dormant, often shows itself in his later compositions. For instance, under the name

mystical religionism, which

find the setting of a hymn, ascribed to Heloise, the beloved of Ab^lard (op. 90,

Eequiem we No.

7),

Eeguiescat a Itibora Dolorosa, et amore, etc.

Other instances are the poems of Mary Stuart In 135), and the Requiem for Mignon. the Mass he has, contrary to custom, introduced an offertorium, TotapuUhra es, Maria, et onaeula (op.

non

est

in

te.

In judging of Schumann's sacred music, it is necessary to repeat that, though the chorus is not, strictly speaking, the musical means by which he was best able to express himself, yet both custom and the character and importance of the subject urged him to make considerable Thus they contain a use of it in these works. contradiction in themselves ; they are all nobly and gravely conceived, but as choral music are The Mass, no only very rarely satisfactory. doubt, ranks highest, and contains much that Agnus,' Kyrie,' the is very beautiful ; the the beginning and end of the 'Sanotus,' and '

'

part of the ' Creclo,' being among Schumann's Unfortunately there very best choral works. is less to be said for the Requiem ; we should have expected the mere idea of a mass for the dead to have inspired such a genius as Schumann's, even without recollecting the wonderful tones which he has found for the final requiem But this work was undoubtedly in ' Manfred.' written under great exhaustion ; and the iirst romantic chorus alone makes a uniformly harIt closes the list of Schumonious impression. mann's works, but it is not with this that we should wish to complete the picture of so great and noble a master. He once said with reference to the Requiem, ' It is a thing that one writes But the abundant treasure of for oneself.'

individual, pure, and profound art which he has bequeathed to us in his other works is a more lasting monument to his name, stupendous and

imperishable.

Among the published works that treat of Schumann'slifeandlabours, that by Wasielewski deserves the first mention {Bohert Schumann, eine Biographic, von Josef W. von Wasielewski ; ed. 3, Bonn, E. Dresden, R. Kunze, 1858 Though in time it may yet Strauss, 1880). receive additions and revision, it has still the enduring merit of giving from accurate acquaintance the broad outlines of Schumann's Ufe. [August Reissmann's Robert Seh/wmarm seim, Zeben undseine fFerke(1865, 1871, andl879)contains Other valuable conanalysis of many works.] tributions to his biography have been written by Franz Hueffer, Die Poesie in der Musik (Leipzig, Leuokart, 1874) ; by Richard Pohl, Ermnervmgen am, R. Sch/uma/rm, in the Deutsche Revue, vol. iv., Berlin, 1878 (pp. 169 to 181, by Max Kalbeck, R. and 306 to 317) Schumann in Wien, forming the feuilletons of the Wiemer Allgem^ine ZeUurvg of Sept. 24, 29, and Oct. 5, 1880. An accurate and sym;

,

;

pathetic essay on Schumann, Robert Schumann's Tage und Werhe, was contributed by A. W. Ambros to the Culturhistorische Bilder aus dem, Musikleben der Gegenwart (Leipzig, Matthes,

Schumann's literary work H. Deiters in the Allg.

1860 pp. 51-96). was reviewed by ;

musik. Zeitumg (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, [The Gesammelte Schriften 1866, Nos. 47-49). and were reached their third edition in 1883 ;

translated by Davidsbilndler interest.

A

Fanny Raymond Ritter Die hy F. 6. Jensen (1883) is full of ;

collection of the master's Jugend-

by Clara Schumann, appeared in 1885, andwas translated in 1888 F. 6. Jensen's Neue Folge of letters (1886) appeared as The briefe edited

;

Life of Robert Schumann told in his Letters, translated by May Herbert (1890). Litzmann's biography of Clara Schumann contains much new information. large selection from all the letters was published by Dr. Karl Storck in 1907, and translated by Hannah Bryant.] Schuberth & Co. published in 1860-61 a Thematic Catalogue of Schumann's printed works,

A

extending to op. 143 only. A complete index to all the published compositions of Schumann, with careful evidence as to the year in which each was written, published, and first performed, and their different editions and arrangements, was compiled by Alfred Dbrffel as a supplement to the Musikalisches Wochenblatt (Leipzig, It is impossible to indicate 1875). the shorter notices of Schumann in books and periodicals. The author of this article has had the advantage of seeing a considerable number T)f his unpublished letters, and of obtainingmuch information at first hand from persons who were in intimate relations with him. Fritzsch, all

.

—

,

CATALOQUE OF SCHUMANN'S PUBLISHED WORKS. [The complete edition of Breitkopf ft Hfirtel la thirty-four -volames, edited by Clara Schumann and othere, was completed in 1693 by a supplementary volume edited by Btalims.] {All works down to op. 23, inclusive, are for pianoforte aolo.) Op. 2. S.

4. 5. 6.

Variations on the name Abegg.' Fapillons, twelve pieces. Six Studies after Faganinl's Caprices. Intermezzi, six pieces. Impromptus (Variations) on a theme of Clara Wleck. DavidsbUndlertSnze, eighteen pieces. '

8.

Toccata. Allegro.

9.

Camaval, twenty-one

7.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. SI. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

pieces.

Six Studies after Faganini's caprioea. Sonata in F sharp minor. FantasiestUcke, eight pieces. Etudes en forme de variations (Etudes symphonjqaes). Sonata in F minor. Kinderscenen, thirteen pieces, Kreisleriana, eight pieces. Fantasia In C. Arabeske.

BlumenstUck. Humoreske. Novelletten, eight pieces. Sonata in G minor. Nachtstiicke. four pieces. Liederkreis (nine songs). Myrtheii, twenty-six songs.

Faschingsschwank aue Wien, pf. solo. Lieder und GesSnge (5). Three Romances for pf. solo. Three Foems by Geibel (the first for two Sopranos, the second for three sopranos, and the third [Zigeunerleben— Gipsy Life '] for small Chorus, Triangle, and Tambourines od lib.). '

30. liiree songs to Geibel's words. 31. TJaree songs to Cbamiaso's words. 32. Scherzo. GIgue, Romanza, and Fughetta, for pf. aolo. 33. Six Four-part songs for men's voices. 34. Four Duets for sopr. and tenor. 35. Twelve songs to words by Eemer. 36. Six songs to words by Beinick. 37.

Twelve songs from BUckert's ' Liebeafrilhlli^.' 2, 4, and 11 are by Clara Schumann.)

(Three Noa.

58.

59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78.

for the

young

and orcb.

pf.

(forty pieces).

Six romances, for female chorus. Adagio and Allegro, for piano and horn (or violoncello or violin). Adventlied, for chorus and orchestra. Pour fugues for piano. Three FantasiestUcke for pf. and clarinet (violin or violoncello). Spanisches Liwlerspiel, for vocal quartet, with pt ftcct. Five Romanzen und Balladen, for chorus.

Four marches for

pf.

Five songs. Four duets for sopr. and tenor. 79. Lieder-Album, twenty-eight songs for the young, 80. Trio for pf. and strings in F. 81. Genoveva, opera in four acta. 82. Waldscenen, nine pieces for pf. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

Three songs. A Parting Song {' Es ist bestiramt '), chorus and orch. Twelve piano duets, 'fUr klelne und grosse Kinder.' ConcertstUck, for four horns and orch, Der Handschuh, ballad for voice and pf. Fom- PhantasiestUcke for pf. and vioUn and violoncello.

Six songs. Seven songs. Six romances for female chorus. Introduction and Allegro appassionato, pf. and orch. organ acct. 93. Motet, ' Verzwelfle nicht,' double male chorus with 94. Three romances for oboe and pf. (or violin or violoncello). of harp 95. Three songs &om Byron's Hebrew Melodies, wltji acct. or pf. 96. Five songs. 97. Symphony In E flat. 98a. Nine songs from Wllhelm Meister. '

of

the Rose) for

soli,

chorus,

113. MSrcheubilder, for pf. and viola (or violin), 114. Three songs for female chorus. 115. Music to Byron's 'Manfred.' 116. Der KQnigssobn, ballad for soli, chorus, and orch. 117. Four Husarenlieder, for voice and pt 116. Three pf, sonatas for the young. 119. Three songs. 120. Symphony in minor, 121. Sonata for pf. and violin, minor. 122. Two ballads for declamation with pf. acct. 123. Festival Overture on the lOieinweinlied, tor ordi. 124. Albumbliitter, twenty pf. pieces. 125. Five Songa. 126. Seven pieces in fughetta form for pf. 127. Five Songs. 128. Overture to ' Julius Caes^a".' 129. Concerto for violoncello and orch. 130. Eanderball, six pieces for pf. duet. 131. Fhantasie for violin and orch. 132. Marchenerzlthlungeu, tour pieces for pf., clarinet (or violin) and viola, 133. GesSnge der Frilhe, five pf. pieces. 134. Concert-allegro with introduction, for pf. and orch. 135. Five Gedichte der Maria Stuart, for voice aud pf. ' 136. Overture to ' Hermann und Dorothea.' 137. Five hunting-songs for male chorus, with acct. of four horns. 138. Spanlsche Liebeslleder, for soli, solos, with acct. of pL duet. 139. Des Siingers Fluch, for soli, chorus, and orch. 140. Pagen und der Konigstochtej-, four ballads for soli,

D

D

Vom

chorus, and orch. Four songs for double chorus. Four songs. Der OlUck von Edenhall, for soli, chorus, and orch. Neujahrslied, for chorus and orch. Five Romanzen und Balladen, for chorus. Five Romanzen und Balladen, for chorus. Mass, for chorus and orch. Requiem, for chorus and orch.

Scenes from Goethe's

Bilder aus Osten, for piano, four hands. Five Romanzen und Balladen, for chorus.

Album

HI. Three FantasiestUcke for pf. 112. Der Rose Pllgerfahrt (Fllgrlmage and oixh.

'

accompaniments to Mich's suites

Ff.

The following edition 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

soli, chorus, and orch. chorus. for violin alone.

Faust' for

Der deutflche Bhein, song with

Five songs by Bums for mixed chorus. Studies for the pedal piano, six pieces in canon. Belsatzar, ballad by Heine. Four sketches for pedal piano. Four songs for mixed chorus. Six fugues on the name Bach, for piano or organ. Symphony in C, for orch. "Iliree songs for male cboms. Trio for piano and strings in D minor.

Three Romanzen und Balladen, voice and RitomeUen, canons for male chorus.

Schloco Abbaa. Jean de Muris, Speculum musicae' (boolcs A Carthusian. De musica plana.' ' Anonymus. De musica.' '

and

Ti.

vi].).

'

Vol. HI. 1.

2.

'

Marchettl of Fadua.

Brevis compilatlo

'

'

(see Oerbert).

Introductio de contrapuncto.' John de Garlandia. Philip of Vitry. Ars nova '

'

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

*

,,

'Ars contrapuncti.' * Ars perfect'

,,

„

„

,,

,,

'

Liber musicalium.'

'Llbellua cautus mensurabllis,' 'Ars contnbpuncti,' * Ars discantus.' ,, „ Henry of Zeland. ' De cantu perfecto et imperfecto.' Philoppotus Andreas. ' De contrapuncto.' Philip de Caserta. ' De diversis figuris.' Giles de Murino. 'Cantus mensurabllis.' Johannes Verulua de Anagnia. ' De musica.' Theodore de Campo. ' Musica mensurabiiie.' FroHdoclmus de Beldemandia. ' De contrapuncto.' Tractatus practice cantus men-

Jean de Muris. ,,

,,

surabllis.' '

19.

'

modum Italicum.' Llbellus monochordl.'

Do. ad

Summula

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

NiuasiuB Weyts, Carmelite. Christian Saze of Flanders.

' '

pronortionum.' Bogulae muslcaei Tractatus.'

Gulielmus Monachus. De praeceptis artis musicae.' Antonlus de Leno. Reguie de coutraponto.' John de Hothby. Regulae super proportlonem.' De cantu flgurato.' ,, ,, Begulae supra contrapunctum,' ,, ,, Anonymous works, 2840 (pp. 334-498). '

'

'

John

Tinctorls. (1) prietate tonorum' valore notarum :

*

:

Expositio (3)

(5)

'

manus

De notis

' ;

(2)

'

et pausis'

De natura et proDe regulari (4) '

;

'

;

'

' :

'

torium muslces.'

6.

Simon Tunstede.

;

;

;

;

;

sources,

of which a continuation, Frid^rique,

appeared in the Mevue des Deux Mondes, but was not republished. All his works were printed in Paris. Scudo finally became insane, and died Oct. 14, 1864, in an asylum at

THE

last oratorio.

'

'

Wolf), Leipzig, 1893, and a valuable

little

— Die

G. c.

Jahreszeiten

—

The book was compiled

German from Thomson's ' Seasons by Van Swieten, who induced Haydn to undertake its composition immediately after the success of the ' Creation and the music was written between April 1798 and April 24, 1801, on which day the first performance took place at the Sohwarzenberg palace, Vienna. Haydn always averred that,!.the strain of writing it had hastened his death. [See Vol. ii. p. 362a.] It is in four parts. The score was published in 1802-3 (without date) at Vienna a barbarous English version accompanied the German text. in

'

'

Quatuor principalia muslces.' Johannes Qallieus. 'Ritua eanendi'; 'Introductio.' Antonlus de Luca. 'Ars cantus figurati.' Anonymus. De musica flgurata.'

For Boethius's De Institutione musica recourse may be had to his works in Migne's Patrologia Latimaor inT&ihnev' sBiUiotheca (ed. Friedlein). Note also Ein anonymer MusiHractat (ed. J.

8vo

Haydn's

'

4.

Critique et liiterature musicale (1850, 1852, 12mo), 2nd series (1859, 12mo) La Musique aiicienne et moderne (1854, 12mo) L'Annie musicale, 3 vols. (Hachette, 1860, 1861, and 1862) La Musique en 1868 (Hetzel, 1863) and Le Ohevalier Sarli (1857, 12mo), a musical novel taken from Italian and German titles:

SEASONS,

Liber imperfectionum (6) Tractatus alterationum (7) 'Super punctis musicallbus'; (8) 'Dearte contrapuncti'; (9) Proportlonale muslces'; (10) 'Dlliini-

3.

He Les Partis politiques en proviiice (1838). gradually restricted himself to musical criticism, but as long as he wrote only for the Heime de Paris, the Biforme, and the Ilevue i'ndipendainie, he was unknown outside certain cliques in Paris. As musical critic to the Bevue des Deux MoTides, he became a man of mark, though he was never more than a laborious writer, who made good use of German and Italian books,

'

'

2.

knowledge of harmony and the elementary laws of musical accent was but slight, as he himself Continuing his admits in spite of his vanity. career as a professor of singing, he took to writing, and published Physiologic da rire and

Blois.

'

Vol. IV. 1.

Returning to Paris he made his way into society, set up as a teacher of His singing, and a composer of romances. a military band.

and managed by means of certain dogmatic formulae and fine writing to conceal his want of knowledge and ideas. Scudo's articles are worth reading as specimens of French musical criticism before Berlioz was known, and while Fdtis occupied afield without a rival. They have been mostly republished under the following

^

'

'

'

;

;

,

SEBASTIANI

SECHTER

In 1813 Clemen ti published a vocal score with a The Kev. John Webb followed with a further improvement, and more recently, in 1840 or 1841, Professor E. Taylor made a better version.

was in the repertory of the Cecilian and the Sacred Harmonic Society performed it on Deo. 5, 1861, and four times more down to 1877. 6. SEBASTIANI, JoHANN, was born at Weimar, fourth.

Society

It

;

Sept. 30, 1622. The known facts of his life are few. He is said to have studied music in Italy, but no hint is given as to who his teachers were. He is next heard of as settled at Kcinigsberg in Prussia about 1650, where

1661 he was appointed Cantor to the Domkirehe in the Kneiphof quarter of the town, and in 1663 became Capellmeister to the also in

Electoral Schlosskirche. Heretired on a pension in 1679, and died 1683. He is chiefly known as the composer of a Passion music, which

occupies an important place in the development of the forhi. The full title of the work is 'Das Leyden und Sterben unsers Herrn und

Heylandes J. Chr. naoh dem heiligen Matthaeo. In eine recitirende Harmoni von 5 singenden

und

6 spielenden Stimmen nebst Worinnen zu continue geaetzet.

dem

Basso

erweokung

mehrer Devotion untersohiedliche Verse aus denen gewbhnliohen Kirchenliedern mit eingefiihret. Kbnigsberg, 1672.' The work is .

.

.

Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. As the title indicates, it is a Passion with instrumental accompaniment a 6, and Chorus a 5. The instrumental parts are for first and second violins, three for Viola da Gamba or da Braccio, and one for Viola Bassa. But the full accompaniment is only reserved for the dramatic choruses in the work. Elsewhere the distinction is made that while the violas alone accompany the words of the Evangelist and other single characters sung by solo voices, the first and second violins alone with basso continuo accompany the utterances of our Lord. There are also short symphonic interludes for violas alone, and the chorale verses are intended to be sung by a solo voice with the accompaniment of violas. The conclusion consists of a hymn of thanksgiving, the first four verses of which are sung solo, and only the last verse tutti. The whole interesting work has now been reprinted in Bd. xvii. of the 'Denkmaler Deutscher Tonkunst,' Erste Folge. Other works of Sebastiani, enumerated in the Quellen-Lexikon, are two collections of dedicated

to

und weltliche Lieder bearing the Pamass - blumen, published at Hamburg 1672 and 1675, also a large number of occasional

geistliche title

compositions for weddings and funerals.

A

few

sacred compositions in the concerted style for voices and instruments remain in MS. J. K. M.

SECHTER, Simon. One of the most important of modern contrapuntists. Born at FriedIn 1804, berg, in Bohemia, on Oct. 11, 1788.

405

moderate musical education, he went to Vienna, where he applied himself with ardour to theoretical studies. In 1809, while Vienna was in the hands of the French, he made theacquaintance of Dragonetti then living in concealment under the curious apprehension that Napoleon would oblige him to go to Paris for whom he wrote the pianoforte accompaniments to his concertos for the double bass. In 1810 Sechter became teacher of the piano and singing to the Blind Institute, for which he wrote many songs and two masses. During the whole of this time he pushed forward his studies, working more especially at Bach and Mozart. He found a good friend in Abb^ §tadler, through whose means, thi'ee of Sechter's masses were performed at the court chapel. A requiem of his and a chorus from Schiller's Bride of Messina were also executed at the Concert Spirituel with success. In 1824 he became court-organist, first as subordinate, and in 1825, on the death of Worzischeck, as chief, an oflice which he retained till after a

—

—

'

'

His fame as a theoretical teacher attracted numerous scholars, amongst others the great Schubert, who was on the point of taking lessons from him when attacked by his his death.

illness. (See Schubekt, ante, p. 316a.) The Emperor Ferdinand conferred upon him the large gold medal for a gi-and mass dedicated to his Majesty, which was shortly followed by

last

the order of St. Louis from the Duke of Lucca. In 1850 he became Professor of Composition in the Conservatorium at Vienna. His Aphorisms, etc. which he communicated to the Vienna Allg. inusik. Zeitung, show him to have beenaprofound thinker, and give many instructive hints both to teachers and scholars. His most intimate friends were Staudigl, Lutz, and Hblzel, for whom he wrote a quantity of humorous Volkslieder in contrapuntal style, as well as many comic operettas, ballads, etc. His diligence in study was astonishing. No day passed in which he did not write a fugue. A few years before his death he had the misfortune, through his own good nature, to lose almost everything, and died on

Sept.

12, 1867, nearly eighty years old, in poverty and privation. Sechter was much esteemed and beloved for his simplicity and goodness, and it may be truly said that he had no enemies. His system, though severe,

was simple,

clear, and logical. His scholars were almost innumerable amongst them may be mentioned, Preyer, Nottebohm, the Princess Czartorijska, Sucher, Bibl, Rosa Kastner (Escudier), Rufinatscha, Bruckner, Otto Bach, Dohler, Schachner, Filtsch, S. Bagge, Benoni, Vieuxtemps, Pauer, C. F. Pohl, and Thalberg. Notwithstanding the multitude of his lessons he found time to compose a gi-eat deal of music. His unpublished works in the Imperial Library and the Musikverein at Vienna contain four oratorios, operas and large cantatas, music for voice, organ, and pianoforte, including 104 :

; ;

SECOND

406

SEEGR

variations on an original theme of 104 bars also a complete theoretical treatise ready for publication, in two portions, first on acoustics,

Among his published works second on canon. are an edition of Marpurg On Fuffm, with many Orundsdtze der musik. Composition additions (3 vols. B. & H.) twelve masses ; Practical Examples of Accompaniment from Figured 5ass,op. 59 Practical School of Thorough £ass,0TppA9, 98 preludes for the organ, in four books fiigues, hymns, choral preludes four fugues for PF., op. fugue in minor, to 5, dedicated to Beethoven the memory of Schubert, op. 43 etc. Sechter completed the grand fague for orchestra in D major, left unfinished by Mozait. o. F. p. SECOND. The smallest interval in the scale used for musical purposes. It is described by notes which are next to each other on the stave or by letters which lie next each other in the alphabet, as A B, B 0, C Dt(, El> Fff. ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Three kinds can be practically distinguished. The minor second, which is equal to a semitone, as the major second, which at (6) in the example is equal to a tone (but of which there are two ;

—

and acute see below), as at (a) and the augmented second, which is equal

kinds, grave

;

to three semitones, as at (c). discords, but are characterised

They are all by different

The minor second is of roughness. extremely harsh, the major decidedly so, though not s6 extremely, and the augmented degrees

In ordinary musical usage second but slightly. the last is actually the same interval as a minor third, which is not looked upon as a dissonance at all ; nevertheless the ear, distinguishing relations instinctively, classifies the combinations according to their context as having a dissonant or consonant significance. Thus when the context suggests the interval Ab Bt|, the mind will not accept it as final, but as whereas if a dissonance requiring resolution the same interval could be expressed as A\^ Ob, it might be recognised as a characteristic portion of the minor chord of At>, and could be accepted as final without desire for farther The numerical ratios of the several inmotion. tervals in just intonation are given as follows the minor second, 16 15 the grave major second, 10 9 the acute major second, 9:8; and the augmented second, 75 64. [See Semitone.] 0. H. H. p. SEOONDO. The second player in a duet. ;

—

:

—

:

:

;

;

:

[See Peimo.]

SEDIE, DELLE, Eneico, baritone singer, son of a merchant of Leghorn, was bom June Ri the year 1848 he volimteered in 17, 1824. the army of Charles Albert of Piedmont, and fought against the Austrians in the war for He was taken prisoner Italian independence.

at the battle of Curtatone but afterwards reand at the close of the campaign of

leased,

the following year retired from the army with Under the direction of the rank of lieutenant. his fellow-citizen, Orazio Galefli, he then devoted himself to the study of singing, and in 1851 made his d^but at Pistoia in Nabucco. From 1854, when he made a great Success as Eigoletto in Florence, his position was secure. He appeared with unvarying success at Rome,

Milan, Vienna, Paris, and London, and though possessed of so little voice as to gain the sobriquet of II baritono senza voce, he made up by dramatic accent and purity of style for the In 1867, at the shortcomings of nature. earnest request of Auber, he accepted a professorship at the Conservatoire of Paris on the most Under ^vantageous terms hitherto offered. him a commission was appointed for the entire remodelling of that institution, but the death of Auber atnd the outbreak of the FrancoPrussian War compelled the government to "

In 1874 he pubabandon their intention. lished a large work upon the art of singing and musical declamation, under the title of L'Art Lyrique.

Translations of this and other vocal

New York as A ComMethod of Singing. Signer Delle Sedie was Cavaliere of the Order

treatises are published in

plete

of the Crown of Italy, for his military services in the campaigns of 1848, 1849 ; Cavaliere of

the Order of SS. Maurizio and Lazzaro ; and member of many societies and academies both For some time he lived ot Italy and France. in Paris, and devoted himself entirely to the He died there Nov. 28, teaching of his art. 1907. J. 0. li.

SEEGE (Sbegbe, Segee, Saoee, Segert, Zeokeet), Joseph Feedinand Noebeet, eminent organist and composer, born at Repin near Educated Mebiik, Bohemia, March 21, 1716. at Prague, where he graduated' Master of PhiloHe was alto singer at St. James's sophy. Church in that city, and, later, organist at St. Martin's. In 1735 he was first violinist at the TeinChuroh, but was appointed organist in 1741, which position he retained until his death on April 22, 1782. In addition he held the appointment of organist at the KreuzheiTenkirche in the Old Town for thirty-seven years In this church Joseph II. heard Seegr play, and was so delighted with the masterly performance that he at once determined to give him a Court appointment at Vienna but, sad to say, when the official document containing this preferment arrived, Seegr was no more. Amongst his pupils were the principal Bohemian musicians of that time, viz. Kozeluoh, Maschek, Mysliwecek, Gelinek, Brixi, Kucharz, etc. That Seegr was well known to Bach is testified by the fact that the latter advised Count Millesimo to place Mathias Sofka under Master Seegr, remarking that he could not entrust him to a

(1745 to 1782).

;

:

—

.

:

SEGUIDILLA

SEELING Bvcrney {Present State of Music, pp. 13-14) mentions him as being a fine organ-player, a good linguist, and an excellent musician. The unanimous testimony of his contemporaries proclaims Seegr as one of the finest organists of his time. At his death his compositions were acquired by Ernst, concert-master of Gotha. Daiiiel Gottlob Turk, better teacher.

Germany,

vol.

ii.

music director of Halle, was employed to edit the first posthumous instalment of these compositions Eight Toccatas and Fugues for the organ (published by Breitkopf in 1793), which are up to the present his best known

—

'

'

works. The toccatas are in reality preludes with the exception of No. 6, the style of which is more in accordance with its title. His other compositions consisted of many masses, psalms, litanies, etc., printed copies of which do not exist. After the lapse of nearly a centuiy and a quarter, Messrs. Breitkopf are about to reissue the Eight Toccatas and Fugues,' edited by Dom Samuel Gi-egory Ould, and adapted to the requirements of the inodem organ. w. w. s. SEELING, Hans, was born at Prague in 1828, and towards the end of his life returned to his native city, where he died on May 26, 1862. FaOing health obliged him to go to Italy in 1852, and in 1856 he toured in the East, retxmiing to Italy in 1857. After settling in Paris, 1869, he made his home in Germany. An excellent pianist, he met with unfailing success on his tours. Seeling composed a number of brilliant pieces and studies for the piano, of which the best known are the 'Barcarolle,' the ' Lorelei ' (op. 2), the ' Concert Studies ' (op. 10),and the 'Memories of an Artist' (op. 13). These compositions are highly effective,, and their character partakes of Henselt on the one hand and Bendel on the other. d. h. SEGNO, i.e. the sign ». [See Dal Seono-.] SEGUE, ' follows as Segue I' aria, ' the aria follows ; a direction frequently found at the end of recitatives. It is thus equivalent to the more modem word attacca. It is also found occasionally at the foot of a page where a space is left after one movement in order that the next may begin at the top, to avoid turning over in the middle. It then indicates that no stop is to be made between the two movements. M. SEGUIDILLA (sometimes written SiGuidilla), a popular national dance of Spain. The origin of both name and dance are uncertain it existed in La Maucha in the time of Cervantes (see Don Quixote, part ii. chap. 38), but there is no evidence to show whether it is indigenous, or introduced into Spain by the Moors. It is, however, certain that from La Mancha it spread all over Spain, and it is still danced in both town and country. Segnidillas are divided into three kinds Seguidillas Manchegas, the original form of the dance, in which it assumes a gay and lively character ; Seguidillas '

'

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;

—

407

more measured and stately and Seguidanced very slowly and sentimentTo these some writers add a fourth kind, the

Scleras, '

;

dillas Gitanas, ally.

Seguidillas Taleadas, said to be a combination of

the original Seguidilla with the Caohucha. The music is written in 3-4 or 3-8 time, usually in a minor key, and is performed on the guitar with occasionally a flute, violin, or Castanet accompaniment. The capias, or words sung by the musicians, are written in couplets of four short lines followed by an estremllo or refrain of three lines, but some coplas want this latter

Both music and words often partake an improvisation, the former remarkable for stiange and sudden modulations, and the latter treating of both serious and comic subjects. A collection of coplas was published at the end of the 18th centiiry by N. Zamacola, writing under the pseudonym of Don Precise. From the introduction to this book the following feature.

of the character of

quaint description of the Seguidilla is translated So soon as two young people of the opposite sexes present themselves standing face to face at a distance of about two varas ^ in the middle of the room, the "ritornelo" or prelude of the music begins ; then the seguidilla is insinuated by the voice if it be a manchega, by singing the first line of the copla ; if it be a bolera, by singing two lines, which must only take up four bars. The guitar follows, playing a pasacalle ; ^ and at the fourth bar the seguidilla begins to be sung. Then the dance breaks out with castanets or crotolas,* running on for a space of nine bars, with which the first part concludes. The guitar continues playing the pasacalle, during which the dancers change to opposite positions by means of a very deliberate and simple promenade (" paseo "). While singing again, at the beginning of the fourtl bar, each goes on for nine bars more, making the variations and '

—

differences

of their respective schools, which

forms the second part. Again they change places, and upon eachdancerreturningto the spot where they began to dance, the third part goes on in the same way as the second, and on arriving at the ninth bar, the voice, the insti-ument, and the castanets cease all at once, and as if impromptu, the room remaining in silence, and the dancers standing immovable in various beautiful attitudes,

which

is

what we

call

' '

well

stopped " (Bien parade).' Space will not allow us to give an example of the music which accompanies this beautiful dance. In Book IV. of Luigi Borghi's Opera Dances' (London, 1783) is a seguidilla modified for theatrical representation, and in the first act of Carmen there is a Spanish air which Bizet has entitled Seguidille.' Better examples than these will be found in Mendel's Lexikon (sub voce Seguidilla), '

'

'

'

1 Not to be confounded with the Bolero, said to have been invented in 1780 by Don Sebastian Zerezo.

2 1 3

vaTa=34 inchea

Litemlly

CAGLIA, vol. 4

A kind

'

street-pass

iii. p. 643.] oi Castanet.

'

;

ajiy popular street-song.

[See Passa-

:

:

'

.

SEGUIN

408

SEIFPERT

and in the Appendix to Part

I. of Marino Soriano Tnertea'slTistoriadelaMusica£!^ianola(M.a.dTid, 1855-59), in which specimens are given of With regard to the the varieties of the dance. words, the following oopla (from Don Preoiso's

OoUeccion de Goplas, Madrid, 1799)

may

serve

as an example

El Lunes me enamoro, Mdrtes lo digo, Mi6rcoles me declare, Jiieves conslgo Vi6rnes doy zelos

'

'

Temple Church. He died He married Miss GoocH, Dec. 28, 1850. soprano singer, a fellow pupil at the Academy, who survived him a few years only. His sister Elizabeth, born in London 1815, was also a singer, and was the mother of Mme. Parepaw. h. H. Rosa she died in London, 1870. SEIDL, Akton, born May 7, 1860, at Pesth, was entered as a pupil at the Leipzig ConservaEarly in 1872 he torium in October 1870. went to Bayreuth, and was there employed by Wagner to make the first copy of the score of He also assisted at the Nibelungen trilogy. the festival in August 1876. In 1879, through Wagner's recommendation, he obtained the post of conductor at the Leipzig Opera-House, and remained there until 1882, when he wen^upon a long tour through Germany, Holland, England, Italy, etc. , in the capacity of conductor of Angelo Neumann's Nibelungen ' opera troupe. The performances were not altogether faultless it is true that the vocalists were good, but the great music drama was reproduced in a sadly mutilated condition. Yet Seidl proved himself to be an energetic conductor, and was personally successful. In 1883 he became conductor at the Bremen Opera-House. Early in 1885 he married the well-known soprano singer Frl. Kraus, and in September of that year accepted the post of conductor at the New York German Opera-House, which post he filled with great distinction until the temporary eclipse of German opera in favour of Italian. In 1895-97 he again conducted German opera in New York, and in 1897 he conducted at Covent Garden. On Nov. 28, 1898, he died in New of the choir of the

Y

Sabado y Domingo Busco Amor nuevo. i

W.

B. S.

SEGUIN, Akthue Edvi^ard Shblden, commonly known as Edward, was born in London He received (of Irish descent), April 7, 1809. his musical education at the Royal Academy of Music, and first appeared in public in 1828 at concerts and performances of Italian operas

given by its pupils. His voice was a deep bass, of very extensive compass, and he met with In 1829 he sang a very favourable reception. In 1831 he appeared at the Exeter Festival. at the theatre in Tottenham Street as Polyphemus in 'Acis and Galatea.' In 1832 he In sang at the Concert of Antient Music. 1833 and 1834 he was engaged at Co vent Garden, and in the latter year appeared' at the King's Theatre as II Conte Robinson in Cimarosa's 'Matrimonio Segreto,' and also sang at

From the Festival in Westminster Abbey. 1835 to 1837 he was engaged at Drury Lane. In August 1838 he appeared at the English Devil's Opera, Opera House in Maofarren's and soon afterwards quitted England for America, made his first appearance at the National Theatre, New York, as the Count in Rooke's 'Amilie' on Oct. 15, 1838, and was He afterwards formed extremely well received. an opera company named 'The Seguin Troupe,' who performed at various places in the United Amongst other distinctions States and Canada. he was elected a chief by one of the Indian tribes, and received an Indian name, signifying an The man with the deep mellow voice honour which had never before been conferred on any Englishman, except Edmund Kean, the tragedian. He died at New York, Dec. 9, 1852. His wife, Ann Childe, born in London 1814, was also a pupil of the Royal Academy of Music, and appeared in public as a, soprano singer in 1828 in the same performances as her future husband, and with equal success. In 1832 she sang at the Concert of Antient Music, and in 1834 at the Westminster Abbey Festival. After performing for two or three seasons at the King's Theatre as 'seconda donna,' she appeared on the English stage at Drury Lane, Nov. 3, 1837, as Donna Anna in the Englisli '

'

'

;

— On Monday I fall in love, on Tuesday I aay 80, 1 Tranalfttioa Wednesday I declare myself, Thm-aday I succeed Friday I cause jealousy, and Satm-day and Sunday I seek a fresh love.' :

Don Giovanni. She accompanied her husband to America and performed in opera until his death, when she retired from the stage and taught music in New York, where she died in August 1888. Seguin's younger brother, William Henry Seguin, born in London 1814, also a pupil of the Royal Academy of Music, possessed a light bass voice and was a concert singer and member version of Mozart's

'

;

'

:

York.

c. A.

8EIFFERT, Max, born

at

Beeskow on the

Spree, Feb. 9, 1868, was educated at his native and at the Joaohimsthal Gymnasium at Berlin, studied musical science and literature

place

under

Philipp Spitta, wrote a treatise on Sweelinck for the doctor's degree in 1891 (printed in the Vierteljahrssehrift of that year).

Besides many contributions to that periodical, to the Allg. Dmtsche BiograpMe, the Tijdschrift of theDutchVereeniging, etc., he viTotea.Oeschichte der KlaviermiLsik in 1 899, and was editor of the complete works of Sweelinck issued in twelve volumes, and of several volumes of the various series of 'Denkmaler der Tonkunst.' Since April 1904 he has been editor-in-chief of the Internationale Musikgesellschaft. (Riemann's

:

Lemkon,

etc.)

u.

ANTON SKIDL

'

SEMBEICH

SEISS SEISS, IsiDOR WlLHBLM, born at Dresden, Dec. 23, 1840, was at first a pupil of F. Wieek for piano and of Julius Otto for theory. In 1 8 5 8 1860 he studied at Leipzig under Hauptmann. He had a success as a pianist in the following In 1871 year, and issued several compositions. he was appointed a piano-teacher at the Cologne Conservatorium, and in 1878 received the title of professor. He has had a long and successful career there, where he devotes much time to conducting the Musikalische Gesellschaft. His compositions, chiefly educational works for the piano, are tasteful and of high aim his clever an-angement of Beethoven's 'Contredanses and Danses alleraandes are among his most famous productions, as well as a revised vereion of Weber's E fiat concerto. A Feierliche Szene und Marsch are for orchestra. (Riemann's ;

'

'

'

'

'

Lexikon.)

M.

SELBY, Bbrtkam Luard-, born ham, Kent, Feb.

'

'

'

'

'

'

the Sea,' short cantatas, part-songs,

'

The Hag,'

Itwas aLover and his Lass,' trios, etc., for female voices, a violin sonata in B minor, some sixteen anthems, ten services, and very numerous organ pieces and some songs, all of which show '

great taste and refinement of treatment. M. SELLINGER'S ROUND, a 16th-oentury tune and round dance, of unknown authorship, which had immense popularity during the 16th and

The

original form of the title

was doubtless St. Leger's Round. The delightful vigour and unusual character of the air are felt to-day, when played before a modern '

'

audience, as fully as in its own period. It is frequently referred to in 16th- and 17th-century literature, including Bacchus Bountic, 1593 ;

Morley's Plaine and Basic Introduction, 1597, and elsewhere. In some cases the sub-title or the Beginning of the World is found added to it, and this is partly explained in a comedy '

'

'

'

Round The

inscribed above them. following is the air, without the variations and harmony, in the Fitzwilliam Book. '

Sellengcr's

12, 1863, received his musical

works are incidental music to Helena in Troas, performed in London, May 1886, and Weather or No,' a musical duologue, produced at the Savoy Theatre in August 1896. An orchestral ' Idyll was played at one of Henschol's London Symphony Concerts on March 11, 1897. This, two quintets for piano and strings, a suite for violin and piano, many piano pieces, and an opera 'The Ring' (1886), remain unpublished. The list of printed works includes 'The Waits of Bremen,' 'The Dying Swan,' 'Summer by

17th centuries.

Lingua,' 1607. An excellent version of the tune, arranged with variations by William Byrd, is found in The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book,' and other copies of the air are in Lady Neville's Vu-ginal Book and William Ballet's Lute-book. Printed copies, which differ considerably, and are not so good as those referred to, appear in some of the Playford publications, including early editions of 'The Dancing Master, "Musick's Handmaid,' and 'Musiok's delight on the Cithren.' The original dance has probably been a May-pole one, and this is borne out by a rude wood-cut on the title-page of a 17th-century 'Garland,' where figures are depicted dancing round a may-pole, and Hey for Sellinger's

named

at Ight-

education at the Leipzig Conservatorium under Eeinocke and Jadassohn. Became organist of St. Barnabas, Marylebone, and Highgate School in 1876, and gave chamber concerts in London before his appointment to the post of organist of Salisbury Cathedral in 1881, a. post lie retained for two years. He was next organist at St. John's, Torquay, in 1884, and of St. Barnabas, Pimlico, in 1886. He was appointed organist of Rochester Cathedral in succession to Dr. John Hopkins, in 1900. His most important

409

From

2'Ae

Bound. Fitzwilliam Virginal Boole.

ee;^r.

^"l^sE^fei^feg^

zSnfc

p£e

:ggEg^^±ggEtp^£Eg^g^:

i??i^iii^liipi^te^

r^iiS'^if^iii3^13 SELNECCER,

or

SELENECCER, NiKO-

1628, at Hersbruck near Nuremberg, was organist of the Burgkapelle in that city, at the age of twelve, and studied at Wittenberg from 1549. From 1557 to 1561 he was court preacher and tutor in Dresden, and subsequently held professional posts in Jena (1561-68), Leipzig (1568-70), Wolfenbiittel In the (1570-74), Leipzig again (1574-88). latter year he was deprived of his offices and became Superintendent at Hildesheim, until at tlie death of the Elector Christian of Saxony he

LAUS, born Dec.

6,

was reinstated. He was an eminent theologian, and wrote the words and music of many hymns his great work in this direction was published at Leipzig in 1587, under the title 'Christliche ;

Psalmen, Lieder, vnd Kirchengesenge,' set for four voices, Selneccer's own compositions being Specimens of his marked with his initials.

music are given in several of the hymn-books of m. the 17th century. (fiuellen-Lcxikon.)

SEMBRICH,

Marzella

(original

name

Praxede Marcelline Koohanska), born Feb. 15, 1868, at Wisniewczyk, Galicia, the daughter of a musician, Kasimir Kochanski, Sembrich being her mother's maiden name. She was taught music by her father, and played in public both piano and violin at the age of

2d

'

SEMELE

410

SEMIBREVE

twelve

she afterwards received further instruc; tion on these instruments from Stengel (to whom she was afterwards married), and Brustermann,

both professors at Lemberg. She then went to Vienna, for completion of her studies under Liszt, but discovering herself to be the possessor of a iine voice, determined to attempt a voeal career, and for that purpose studied singing at Vienna, under Rokitansky, and later at Milan under Lamperti the younger. On JuneS, 1877, she made her d^but at Athena as Elvira in I Puritani,' and was highly successful there for two months in that, and as Lucia and Dinorah. She returned' to Vienna, studied the German repertoire under Professor Richard Lewy the horn -player, and in October 1878 made a highly successful d^but at Dresden as Lucia. She remained there until the spring of 1880, becoming famous in coloratura parts. After singing at the Lower Rhine Musical Festival of 1880 she made her first appearance in England on June 12 of the same year at the Royal Italian Opera as Lucia, and was greatly successful in that, Amina, and Margaret of Valois. She returned there for the seasons 1881-84, playing Dinorah, and Constance in the revival of Mozart's Entfiihrung. Dinorah and Astrifiammante were among her best parts. At Benedict's Jubilee Concert at the Albert Hall, June 7, 1884, she sang and played the violin with great success. After singing with much success in Paris, Russia, Spain, the United States, etc., she appeared at L. E. Bach's concert at St. James's Hall, June 25, 1889, and was to have sung in opera at Her Majesty's Theatre, but for the premature closing of the season there. She reappeared as Susanna at Covent Garden in 1895. Of late her career, both in opera and concerts, has been divided between Austria and the United States. Madame Sembrich's voice is about two and a half octaves in compass, viz. from the lower G to F in alt, and is very brilliant in the upper register she also possesses great powers of '

'

'

'

'

;

execution.

SEMELE, composed in

A. c.

by Handel, was 1743, between June 3 and July 4. a secular oratorio

The

libretto is slightly altered from an operabook of Congreve's, written in 1707. Semele is termed by Arnold 'A Dramatic Performance,' by Main waring 'An English opera but called an Oratorio,' while it was announced at '

different times

in the General Advertiser as Semele, after the manner of an Opera, and ' Semele, after the manner of an Oratorio. The first performance took place on Feb. 10, 1744, at Covent Garden Theatre, where it was repeated three times in the same year. In the following December it was performed twice, with additions and alterations, at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, and was revived by Smith and The Cambridge University Stanley in 1762. Musical Society revived it on Nov. 27, 1878. '

'

'

original MS. is in Buckingham Palace, and there are some interesting sketches (principally of Act iii.) in the Fitzwilliam Museum at

The

w.

Cambridge.

b. s.

Th:^ophile, bom at Lille, Sept. 6, The prizes he gained at the local Con1824. servatoire procured him a grant from the municipality to study in Paris, and he entered His first work Halevy's class for composition. was merely a few songs and some charming orchestral music for La petite Fadette,' vaudeville in two acts (Vari^tes, Dec. 28, 1850), but he at length procured a better opportunity, and his 'Nuits d'Espagne,' two acts (May 26), and La Demoiselle d'honneur,' three acts (Dec. 30), were both produced in 1857 with success at the Gil Bias (March 26, 1860), Theatre Lyrique an opera- comique in five acts, and 'Ondine,' three acts (Jan. 7, 1863), followed at the same theatre, and his next work, La petite Fadette' (Sept. 11, 1869), was produced at the Op&aComique. Besides his operas he composed songs for a piece called 'Constantinople' (1854); songs; a cantata (performed at the Opira, August 15, Les Pirates de la airs de. ballet for 1862) Savane' (1867), and many part-songs, some of which, especially 'La Danse des Sylph es,' are remarkable. He was drummer at the Opera for many years he died at Corbeil, near Paris, G. c. April 15, 1888. SEMIBREVE (Lat. Semihrevis Ital. Semiireve Fr. Monde Germ. Taktnote, Ganze Note, whence the American term 'whole note'). Franco of Cologne, the earliest -known writer on measured music (Oantus Tnensurabilis) who furnishes the types from which the forms of our modern notation are evidently derived, describes the semibreve as the shortest note in use, though no very long time elapsed before the minim was added to the list. The forms of these notes are generally supposed to have been suggested by those of the Neumes of an earlier period, the Breve and Semibreve being derived from the Punctum. Don Nicola Vicentino, however, in his L' antica Musica ridotta alia inodema Praitica, printed at Rome in 1555, refers the forms of all these notes to a different origin deriving the Large, the Long, and the Breve from the qttadratum, or square B (^) and the Semibreve from the B rotmidum ( 5) ; the transformation being effected, in each cEise, by depriving the figure of one or both of its tails. But Vicentino has fallen into so many palpable errors that we cannot trust him and, in the present instance, his theory certainly does not accord with that early form of the Semibreve which is produced by cutting the Breve ( ) in half, diagonally, thus, (r). This form soon gave way to the Lozenge o), which was retained in use until late in the 17tli century, when it was replaced in measured music by the round note of our present system {o), though

SEMET,

'

'

'

;

'

'

'

;

;

;

;

;

;

£

;

;

(or

.'^ -'i»*

#

#'

a,p!irigH

I'll

.1^

»«J'""'

m

MARZELLA SEJIBRICH

a ::

SEMIQUAVER

SEMICHORUS in the Gregorian system of notation the lozenge remains in use to the present day. Until the heginning of the 17th century,

the

Semibreve

represented one -third of a Perfect Breve, and the half of an Imperfect one. In the Greater Prolation it was equal to three Minims ; in the Lesser to two. In either case it was accepted as the norm of all other notes, and was held to constitute a complete measure or stroke. In the Greater Prolation or, as we should now call it, triple time this stroke was indicated by a single down-beat of the hand, representing what we write as a dotted Semibreve. In the Lesser Prolation the common time of the modern system it was indicated by a down and an up beat, called respectively the Thesis and the Arsis of the measure. It will be understood that these two beats represented two minims ; and, happily for us, we are not left altogether in doubt as to the average pace at which these two Minims were sung, in the great polyphonic compositions of the 15th and 16th centuries for, apart from the traditions of the Sistine Chapel, early writers have left a very definite rule for our guidance. The Thesis and Arsis of the Lesser Prolation, they say, represent the Now, the rapidity beats of the human pulse. of the human pulse, taking into calculation the variations exhibited at all ages, and in both sexes, ranges between 66"7 and 140 per minute allowing, therefore, for roughness of calculation, we may say that the compositions of Josquin des Prfe, and Palestrina, may be safely in-

—

—

— —

;

terpreted between

J =60,

and

J =140 —

extended range for any conductor. In modern music the Semibreve retains more than one of the characteristics that distinguished it in the 16th and 16th centuries. It is now, indeed, the longest instead of the shortest note in common use, for the employment of the Breve is altogether exceptional but it is none the less the norm from which sufficiently

other notes are derived. We may say that, of all the notes now in use, the Semibreve is the one which unites us most closely to the system of those who invented the germ of the method we ourselves follow ; and it furnishes the safest guide we know of to the right understanding of their works. w. s. K. SEMICHORUS, i.e. Half- chorus ; a word used to denote a kind of antiphonal effect produced by employing half the number of voices at certain points, and contrasting this smaller M. body of sound with the fuU chorus. all

SEMICEOMA

(Lat.

Semiehroma

;

Eng.

The Italian name Quaver, or Semiquaver). Old writers, however, for the Semiquaver. sometimes apply the term Croma to the crotchet, and Semicroma to the quaver ; and, so vague was once the distinction between the two, that even Baretti, writing as late as 1824, makes

the

411

word 'Croma' signify 'a crotchet or The etymology of the word Chroma

quaver."

derived from the very early custom of using The red notes intermixed with black ones. red notes being sung more quickly than the black ones, the duration of a red minim was a little longer than that of a black Semiminim (or crotchet) and the note was called Chroma on account of its colour. [See Notation, is

;

Quaver.]

w.

SEMIFUSA.

The Latin name

e.

s.

the Semiquaver ; but sometimes applied to the Quaver also. The etymology of the term is not very clear. The most probable theory is that which traces it to a fancied resemblance between the early form of the Quaver, sind that of a spindle [See Notation, Quaver.] (fustis). w. s. r. SEMIMINIMA major and minor (Eng. Greater, and Lesser iralf-Minim Crotchet, for

=

and Quaver

Croma

Semicroma Germ. Viertel und Achtel French Noire et Croche). Though the Minim was so called, because, at the time of its invention, it was the smallest ;

Ital.

e

;

;

the shortest) of all notes, composers soon found it convenient to divide it in half, and even into four parts. Franchinus Gafurius, quoting from Prosdocimus de Beldemandis, (i.e.

and figures these divisions in his Practica Mwsiaae, printed in 1496. The Greater Semiminima, the equivalent of the modern crotchet, was a black lozenge -headed note, describes

with a

tail,

^

;

the Lesser Semiminima, now was a similar note, with a

called the quaver, single hook,

^.

Sometimes the head of the

—

Semiminim was void that is to say, open or white in which case, this note also had a hook, to distinguish it from the minim, greater

'

'

—

when this hooked form was used, the which we have described above as proper to the Greater Semiminim was used for the Lesser one. "When black and red notes were

^

;

and,

figure

used together the red minim served as the diminutive of the black one and the Semiminim was called Chroma, on account of its colour. This name was afterwards applied both to the Greater and the Lesser Semiminim and hence it came to pass that, in later times, the term Chroma was applied indiscriminately to the crotchet and the quaver. [See Notation.] w. s. r. SEMIQUAVER (Lat. Semifusa Ital. Semicroma, Biscroma, Semifusa ; Germ. Sechzehntel, whence the American term, Sixteenth Note Fr. Double croche). The sixteenth part of a semi;

;

;

;

breve.

The earliest mention of the Semiquaver occurs in the Practica Musicae of Franchinus Gafurius, printed at Milan in 1496. It may be found though very rarely in the printed

—

—

polyphonic music of the 16th century, in the form of a black lozenge -headed note, with a double hook,

^

or

4

;

and

it

is

manifestly

;

'

;

SEMIEAMIDE

SENAILL1&

from this early type that our present figure is derived. In the 16th century both Semiquavers and Quavers were always printed with separate hooks. The custom of joining Quavers together by a single line, and Semiquavers by a double one, dates from the 17th century

matic semitone about 18 ; and of the ancient w. p. Greek hemitone about 23. a direction denoting SEMPLICE, simple that the passage so marked is to be performed without any adornment or deviation from the time, used particularly in passages of which the character might possibly be misunderstood. The

412

'

'

and the

credit of the invention is generally accorded to John Heptinstall. about 1690. [See Notation.] w. s. e.

SEMIEAMIDE (i.e. Semiramis, Empress of A favourite subject with Italian

Nineveh).

Librettos upon it were written by Moniglia, Apostolo Zeno, and Silvani ; and writers of operas.

Clement's DicHoivimire Lyrique contains a list of twenty-one operas composed to one or other of these by the masters of the 18 th century. Voltaire's play

and set by Graun (Berlin, 1754), and Catel (1 802). Rossini's well-known chef-dCoemyre was written to a libretto by Rossi, and produced at Venice, Feb. 3, 1823 and in London, at the King's Theatre, July 15, 1824. In French, as ' Semiramis,' it appeared in Paris, July 9, 1860. SEMIEAMIDE BiooNOSOiiTTA, words by Metastasio, was set by Vinci, Porpora, Cocchi, Sarti, Traetta, Meyerbeer, and Gluck the lastof these at Vienna in 1748. G. SEMITONE (from the Greek ii/urSviov). Half a tone ; the smallest interval in the ordinary musical scales. The semitone may be of different kinds, each of which has a different theoretical to music

;

—

—

magnitude. Since the invention of the diatonic scale the natural interval of the fourth has been subdivided artificially into two tones and a semitone. In the ancient Greek time the two tones were both what are now called major tones, and the hemitone had a magnitude determined by the difference between their sum and the fourth ; but when harmony began to prevail, one of the tones was diminished to a miliar tone, and this gave the modern semitone a little greater value. The semitone, so formed, as belonging to the diatonic scale (from B to C, or from E to F for example) is called a diatmiie semitone. The introduction of chromatic notes gave rise to a third kind of semitone, as from C to CJt or from G to Gb ; this Is called a chromatic semitone and has a less magnitude than the diatonic one. Finally came the great simplification of music by dividing theoctaveinto twelve equal intervals, each of which was called a mean semitone ; thus abolishing practically the difference between the diatonic and the chromatic values. A semitone may now be considered, in practical use, as simply the interval between the sounds given by any two adjoining keys on a well-tuned piano. The relations between the theoretical magnitudes of the different kinds of semitones are If we represent the magnitude about as follows of a mean semitone by 25, the true magnitude of a diatonic semitone will be about 28 ; of a chro:

;

Arietta which forms the subject of the variations in Beethoven's last PF. Sonata, op. 11 1, is marked ' Adagio molto semplice cantabile. M. SEMPRE, 'always,' a word used in conjunction with some other mark of time or expression to signify that such mark is to remain in force until a new direction appears. Its purpose is to remind the performer of the directions which might otherwise be forgotten as in the scherzo of the Eroica Symphony, where the direction Sempre pp. e staccato is repeated again and again throughout the movement. M. SENAILLE, Jean Baptiste, a violinist of eminence, at one time member of the band of Louis XV. , born in Paris in the parish of Saint Germain I'Auxerrois on Nov. 23, 1687. He inherited his musical gifts from his father, who played the hautbois at the Opera. He received his earliest violin instruction from Queversin, a member of the famous Vingt-quatre violons,' and during his period of study with this master assisted a maitre d, daiiser named Bonnefons. His next teacher was Corelli's excellent pupil Jean Baptiste Auet, generally known as Baptiste, whose teaching imbued him with such a longing to visit Italy that he travelled to Modena, where he became a pupil of Antonio Vitali. According to the account of Senaille given by Jacques Lacombe in his Dictionnaire Portatif des Beaux-arts (Paris, 1752), Auet's teaching enabled his pupil to surpass the Italian violinist for on his amval at Modena, during the time of the annual fair held in the month of May, the composer of the opera then being performed, begged him to play in his orchestra, and on gaining his consent installed him with ceremony in a place prepared for him above the other members of the band. After the performance, he was presented to the Duke and Duchess of Modena played several of his own sonatas before them and their guests with unqualified success, eventually receiving an appointment in the music of the court. In 1719 he seems to have returned to Paris, where the special recommendation of the Duchess of Modena, daughter of the Duke d'Orl^ans— at that time Regent of France procured him a position in the Court band. similar appointment was accorded him in the private band of Louis XV., and he held this until his death, when he was succeeded by Joseph Franoceur. SenailU ranked as one of the best performers His importation of the of his time in France. Italian methods of playing influenced the French school at that time in its first state of development almost as much as did

—

on the same subject was adapted

'

,

'

:

—A

—

—

'

''

'

SENESINO

SENESINO

Leclair. Through his two best pupils Giiignon and Giiillemain, his ti'aditions were transmitted and preserved. His compositions show the

the recovery of his health, promisThis promise, ing to return the next winter. however, was not kept in time to enable the Opera-house to open till after Christmas. Senesino reappeared in Handel's 'Admeto,' early in 1727. This was followed in the same year by Riccardo Imo,' and in 1728 by Siroe and 'Tolonieo,' in which a great effect was made by the echo song, Dite che fa, sung by Cuzzoni, with many of the passages repeated behind the scenes by Senesino. But now, alter several nnprosperous seasons, the society called the Royal Academy was dissolved. Hawkins attributes to this time the quarrel which ended in a final rupture between Senesino and the great composer. But this is disproved by the fact that Senesino returned to sing for Handel in 1730. That there was, however, much discord in the company before it separated is true enough. He rejoined the Haymavket company, under Handel's management, at a salary of 1400 guineas, and appeared on Feb. 2, 1731, in ' Poro, then considered a great success. In the same year were revived ' Rodelinda and 'Rinaldo.' 'Ezio' and Sosarme were produced in 1732. Besides singing in all these, Senesino took part (May 2, 1732) in 'Esther,' Handel's first oratorio, described as a new species of exhibition at the Opera-house,' and on June 10, in a curious performance, under Acis and the composer's own direction, of Galatea.' Several airs and three choruses were interpolated on this occasion, from Handel's early Neapolitan Serenata on the same subject, and the piece was sung partly in English and partly in Italian. The last of Handel's operas in which Senesino appeared, was 'Orlando' (Jan. 1733), but he took part later in the same season in Deborah, described then as an opera, and performed (as was Esther ') on opera nights. The long im' pending quarrel now came to a crisis. All these wealthy adversaries of Handel naturally espoused the cause of Senesino from the outset and ended by demanding that Senesino . . Handel replied that should be retained Senesino should never reappear in his theatre. (Sohoelcher. ) Accordingly, ^ays Burney, 'the nobility and gentry opened a subscription for Italian operas at Lincoln's Inn Fields, inviting Porpora thither to compose and conduct, and engaging Senesino, Cuzzoni, Montagnana, Segatti, Bertolli, and afterwards Farinelli, to perform there.' There Senesino remained till 1735, when he returned to Siena, with a fortune of £15,000, and built himself a house. Senesino's voice was a mezzo-soprano, or, according to some, a contralto. Although limited in compass it was considered by many good judges to be superior in quality even to that of Farinelli. It was clear, penetrating, and flexible, his intonation faultless, his shake

influence of CoreUi ; they comprised five books of Sonatas for violin alone, and were published in books of ten sonatas in the following years :

1710, 1712, 1716, 1721, 1727. An Aria of his for Pf. and V. is included in G. Jensen's 'Classische Violin Musik, ' Heft iii. A Sarabande and Allemanda (Senate a violon seul) is arranged by Alfred Moffat. A Sonata in G edited by Alfred Moffat is in Simrock's ' Meister-Schule fiir Violine mit Begleitung des Pianoforte.' Alard includes Senaille's Ninth Sonata in his 'Maitres Classiqnes de Violon' (1862), and G. Jensen has arranged the same Sonata for piano and violin which is published in 'Classische Violin Musik,' 1890. A composition of Senaille's is also to be found in E. M. E. Deldevez's Pieces diverses choisies (Paris, Eichault, 1858).— A. Vidal, Les Instruments a, Archei ; G. Hart, The Violin aiid '

Music

Choron et FayoUe, Diet. Hist, des Felix Huet, Etudes sur les diffirentes Ecoles de Violon ; F^tis, Biog. des Mus. ; J. Lacombe, Dictionnaire des Beaux-Arts Clarke, its

Miis.

;

;

;

E. H-A.

Diet, of Fiddlers.

SENESINO, Francesco Beenaedi

detto, one of the most famous of the sopranists who flourished in the 18th century. He was born about 1680, at Siena (whence he derived his name), and received his musical education from Bernacchi, at Bologna. In 1719 he was singing at the Court theatre of Saxony, and when Handel came to Dresden in quest of singers, was engaged by him for London. His first appearance in this country (Nov. 1720) was in Buononcini's opera 'Astarto,' which at once established him in public favour. He sang next in a revival of Handel's Floridante, and in the celebrated Muzio Scaevola afterwards in Handel's 'Ottone,' 'Flavio,' and 'Giulio Cesare' (1723), 'Tamerlano' (1724), 'Rodelinda' (1725), 'Scipio' and Alessandro (1726), '

'

'

'

'

and

in various operas

;

'

and pasticcios by other

composers. In ' Giulio Cesare his declamation of the famous accompanied recitative 'Alma del gran Pompeo created a special sensation. A writer in the London Magazine (Feb. 1733) relates an amusing anecdote of Senesino in this opera : When I was last at the opera of ' Jvilius Csesar," a piece of the machinery tumbled down from the roof of the theatre upon the stage, just as Senesino had chanted forth these words "Cesare non seppe mai che sia timore" (Csesar never knew fear). The poor hero was so frightened that he trembled, lost his voice, and fell crying. Every tyrant or tyrannical minister is just such a Csesar as Senesino.' ' Alessandro had a run of two months, and its last performance, advertised for June 7, was prevented by the sudden illness of Senesino, '

'

'

'

'

who, as soon as he was able to

travel, set off

413

for Italy, for

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

.

.

.

.

';

SENPF

414 perfect.

SEPTET

Purity, simplicity, and expressiveness

were the characteristics of his style, while for the delivery of recitative he had not his fellow '

in Europe.'

In 1739 Senesino was living at Florence, and sang a duet with the Archduchess Maria Theresa there. He died about 1750. f. a. m. SENFF, Baetholf, an eminent German music -publisher, was born at Friedrichshall, Coburg, Sept. 2, 1815. He founded the house which bears his name, in Leipzig, in 1850,

and

his catalogue contains original editions of

Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms (opp. 5, 6, Gavotte by Gluck, 5 Studien fiir PF.), Gade, Hiller, Reiuecke, Reitz, Rubinstein,

and other

masters, as well as the excellent educational works of Louis Kohler. Senff was founder, editor, and proprietor of the well-known musical periodical Signale fiir die musikalische Welt. [See Periodicals,

Musical, vol. iii. p. 686a.] June 25, 1900.

He

died at Baden-

weiler,

towards the end of the 1 5th century. A volume of MS. songs in the Vienna library contains some verses, written and set to music by Senfl himself, describing his early enthusiasm for music, his education under Heinrich Isaac, and his gratitude to that master. At an early age he entered the Court chapel of Maximilian L, ultimately succeeded Isaac as chapel-master, and held that office till the emperor's death (Jan. 1519), on which occasion he wrote music to the words ' Quis dabit ooulis uostris fontem lacrimarum.' In 1520 he was at Augsburg, received a present of fifty gulden from Charles V. on Feb. 19, and in the following November personally edited the Liber selectarumCantionimi,' one of the first inusic books printed In Germany. '

Thence he went to Munich, though in what

On one title-page (1526) Musicus intonator,' on another (1534) 'Musicus primarius,' of the Duke of Bavaria, while in his own letters he subscribes himself simply Componist zu Miinchen.' The In Forster's date of his death is unknown. collection of Liedlein (preface dated Jan. 31, 1556)he is spoken of as 'L. S. seliger' (i.e. dead) and if the title musicus primarius stands for 'chapel-master' he must have died or retired some years before, since Ludwig Daser had held capacity is

is

uncertain.

called

'

'

'

that

office for

'

some years when Lassus went to

Munich in 1557. The well-known

letter from Luther to Senfl no evidence that the composer had worked specially for the Reformed Church, though the is

existence of the correspondence has given rise Indeed his connection with the

to that idea. strictly

Catholic court of

Munich would,

as

Fetis "points out, render it most improbable. ^ Four letters written by Senfl to the Margrave 1

The letter is printed in Dr, M. 4. 1B30. die MuMk, F. A. Beck (Berlin, 1828), p. 08. Bioffraphie del Musiciens, vi. 44.

Dated Coburg, Oct. Gedanken aber

'

'

;

.

.

'

;

(See the Qudlen-Lexikon.) ] 6th century. In modem notation nine sacred pieces {a 4) are given by Winterfeld in Der evaiigelische Kirchcnof the

(Leipzig, 1843), and five Lieder by. Liliencron in Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschsn (Leipzig, 1865-69). j. R. S.-B.

gesaTig

SENNET— also written Senbt, Senkatb, Synnet, Gynbt, Signet or Signate a word which occurs in stage-directions in the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, and is used to

—

denote that a particular fanfare is to be played. The name is probably derived from Seven, and may indicate a flourish of seven notes, as suggested in Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms. It is a technical term, and what particular notes were played is now unknown. A Sennet was distinguished from a Flourish, as is proved by a stage-direction in Dekker's Satiromastix, 'Trumpets sound a florish, and then a sennate.' (Nares's Glossary.) w. B. s. SENZA, without as Senza organo, witha dii'ection of frequent occurrence out organ throughout Handel's organ concertos Senza repetizione, 'without repeat' [see Repeat]; Senza tempo, 'without time,' which occurs in Schumann's Humoreske, op. 20, in the move'

'

'

—

'

;

;

Precipitoso. The right hand is senza tempo ('Wie ausser tempo,' in German), while the left remains in tempo. The same direction is employed at the end of In the Chopin's Nocturne, op. 9, No. 3. ' Sanctus of Verdi's Requiem both the terms M. senza misura and senza tempo occur. SEPTA VE. The compass of seven diatonic notes reckoned upward from the tonic or keynote. The term is occasionally employed by T. e. organ-builders.

ment marked marked Come

'

SEPTET

(Fr.

Septiurr

;

Ital.

Septetto).

A

composition for seven instruments or voices, with or without accompaniment.

Lutlier'g 2

.

100 separate pieces printed in various collections

G.

SENFL, or SENFEL, Ludwig, born at Zurich

he

Albrecht of Brandenburg and to Georg Schultheis are printed in the Allgemeiive Musik. Zeitrntg, for August 12, 1863. A portrait engraved on a medal by Hagenauer Ludovvicus of Augsburg, with the inscription Senfel,' and on the reverse 'Psallam deo meo quamdiu fuero 1529,' is in the collection of coins and medals at Vienna. The royal library at Munich contains the manuscript church service books begun by Isaac and completed by Senfl, as well as manuscript His most important pubmasses by the latter. lished works are (1) Quinc[ue salutationes D. N. Hiesu Christi,' etc. (Norimbergae, 1526) (2) ' Varia carminum genera, quibus tum Horaharmoniis tius, tum alii egregii poetae oomposita' {Id. 1534); (3) '121 newe Lieder' {Id. 1534), with 81 nos. by L. S. (4) Magnificatocto tonorum,' a 4, 5 {Id. 1537); (5) '115 guter newer Liedlein' {Id. 1544), with 64 nos. by L. S. Besides these Eitner^ names above

3

BMiographie

(Berlin, 1877).

—

— — — SEQUENCE

SEQUENCE

Beethoven's famous Septet for strings and wind naturally heads the Ust, and Hummel's for piano, stiings, and wind is the next best known, though it is far inferior to Spohr's difficult and brilliant work for a. similar comA striking, though too bination (op. 147). seldom heard composition, is Saint- Saens's Septet for piano, strings, and trumpet, op. 65. Operatic situations have seldom given rise

troduce intervals and combinations, in those cii'cumstances, which would otherwise have been held inadmissible. Thus a triad on the leading note would in ordinary circumstances be considered as a discord, and would be limited in progression accordingly but if it occurred in a sequence, its limitations were freely obviated by the preponderant influence of the established form of motion. Such diatonic sequences, called also sometimes diatonic successions, are extremely familiar in Handel's works. A typical instance is a Gapriccio in G major, published in Pauer's ' Alte Meister,' which contains at least fifteen sequences, some of them unusually long ones, in four pages of Allegro. The subject itself is a characteristic example of a sequence in a single part ; it is as follows

opportunity for, vocal septets, but the magnificent specimen in the last act of Goetz's Taming of the Shrew deserves foremost F. C. mention. SEQUENCE is generally taken to mean the repetition of a definite group of notes or chords in different positions of the scale, like regular steps ascending or descending, as in the following to, or

'

outlines

415

;

:

:

The device has been a favourite one with composers, irom Corelli, Bach, and Handel, to Schumann, Brahms, and Wagner. The reason is partly that it is so thoroughly intelligible without being commonplace. The mind is easily led from point to point by recognising eacli successive step after the first group of chords has been given, and is sufficiently interested by the slight amount of diversity which prevails at each repetition. It thus supplies a vital element of form in a manner which in some cases has certain advantages over simple exact repetition, especially when short phrases are repeated in juxtaposition. It was consequently made much use of by early composers of sonatas, and instrumental works of like nature, such as Corelli and his immediate and in many cases examples make successors their appearance at analogous points in different movements, indicating the recognition of formal

A kind of sequence which was early developed but which is more characteristic of later music, is the modulatory sequence, sometimes also called chromatic. In this form accidentals are introduced, sometimes by following exactly the quality of the intervals where the diatonic series would not admit of them, and sometimes by them to gain the step of modulation. This will be easily intelligible from the following example pui'posely altering

:

^^^^^ The usefulness of the device in such circumstances is, if anything, even more marked than in a single key, because of the greater breadth of range which it allows, and the closeness and cogency of the successive transitions

it is

possible. A compact and example to the point is the following from a fugue by Cherubini in C major

which

renders

it

significant

:

;

This occurs, for instance, near the beginning of the second half in the following movements from Corelli's Corrente and Allemanda of Opera Quaita Sonata 1, Allemanda and Corrente of Sonata 2, Corrente of Sonata 3, Corrente and Giga of Sonata 4, Gavotte of Sonata 5, Allemanda A and Giga of Sonata 6, and so forth. large proportion of both ancient and modem sequences are diatonic that is, the groups are repeated analogously in the same key series, without consideration of the real difference of quality in the intervals so that major sevenths occasionally answer minor sevenths, and dimin-

-J-

,^^

l£

i^^^^^^i

principles in their introduction.

:

;

;

and ished fifths perfect fifths, and so forth has long been considered allowable to in;

it

Beethoven made very remarkable use of this Bb, op. 106, from which an example is quoted in device, especially in the great Sonata in

the article Modulation [vol. iii. p. 239]. The working out portion of the fii-st movement of the same sonata is an almost unbroken series of sequences of both orders ; and the introduction to the final fugue is even more remarkable, both for the length of the sequence, and the originality of its treatment. The first-mentioned, '

'

—

.

SEQUENCE

416

SEQUENTIA

which

is from the slow moveraeut, is further remarkable as an example of a peculiar manipulation of the device by which modern composers have obtained very impressive results. This is the change of emphasis in the successive steps of which it is composed. For instance, if the characteristic group consists of three chords of equal length, and the time in which it occurs is a square one, it is clear that the chord which is emphatic in the first step will be weakest in the next, and vice versa. This form will be most easily understood from an outline example :

!

1

,

J

,

I

J

J

A

passage at the beginning of the Presto at the end of Beethoven's Leonora Overture, No. 3, is a good example of a sequence of this kind in a single part.

tion

It begins in the following quota-

at*

modern music is that in which a melody is repeated a tone higher

;

figure

or

this has

[See arite, p. 141.] been termed a Rosalia. Another, which is equally characteristic, is a repetition of a figure or passage a semitone higher an example from the Eroica Symphony is quoted in vol. iii. p. 235 of this Dictionary. The device has never been bound to rigid exactness, because it is easy to follow, and slight deviations seasonably introduced are In fact its virtue does often happy in effect. not consist so much in the exactness of transposition as in the intelligibility of analogous repetitions. If the musical idea is sufficiently interesting to carry the attention with it, the sequence wiU perform its function adequately even if it be slightly irregular both in its harmonic steps and in its melodic features and this happens to be the case both in the example from the slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata in Bb, and in the passage quoted from Schumann's Fantasia. It is not so, however, with the crude harmonic successions which are more commonly met with for they are like diagrams, and if they are not exact they are good for ;

;

;

^^tea^l^^ The extension of the characteristic group of a sequence is almost unlimited, but it will be obvious at once that in harmonic sequences the shorter and simpler they are the more immediately they will be understood. In long-limbed sequences the hearer may soon perceive that

a principle of order underlying what he its exact nature may always elude his apprehension, and in respect of the larger branches of form this is a decided advantage. Among short -limbed emphatic sequences in modern music, the one of eight steps which occurs towards the end of the first full portion of the overture to Die Meistersitiger is conspicuous, and it has the advantage of being The long-limbed sequences slightly irregular. are sometimes elaborately concealed, so that the underlying source of order in the progression A can only with difficulty be unravelled. remarkable example of a very complicated sequence of this kind is a passage in Schumann's Fantasia in C major (op. 17), in the movement in E|j, marked Moderate? con energia,' beginning at the 58 th bar. The passage is too long to quote, but the clue to the mystery may be extracted somewhat after this manner there

is

hears,

though

'

'

'

:

—

SIsS In order to see reference

A

how

this has been

must be made

manipulated

to the original.

species of sequence

which

is

familiar in

nothing.

c.

SEQUENTIA

{Prosa;

H. H. P.

Eng.

Sequence, or Prose). hymn of peculiar structure, which owes its name to its position in the Mass ; it

A

appears there as the continuation or sequence of the Gradual and Alleluia. It originally was a long jubilus or melody without words, attached to the a of the Alleluia. In (See Teope.) the 9th century in France words were adapted to the notes, and these were called a 'Prose,' because* they followed the lines of the music and not any scheme of metre. When these compositions had thus won a place for themselves, fresh ones came to be written in regular metre, and the old name Prose being unsuitable gave way to the new name Sequence. From the 12th century to the 15th century such compositions were most popular and many of the most beautiful specimens we possess were written by the great Hymnologists who flourished during these productive periods. Mediseval OflSceBooks contain innumerable sequences of striking originality ; but at the last revision of the Roman liturgy, by direction of the Council of Trent, the greater number, of these were expunged. Five, however, have been retained in the current missal and these five occupy a very prominent position in the services in which they are incorporated, as well as in the history of ecclesiastical music. 1. The sequence appointed for Easter Sunday is 'Victimae paschali,' the oldest now in use, and in reality a Prose, written by Wipe in the first half of the 11th century. ' Veni 2. The sequence for Whitsunday, Sanote Spiritus, in rhymed triplets of Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic, was written probably by Innocent III. at the end of the 12th century ; ;

;

'

,

'

'

SEEAPHIN

SEQUENTIA called

it is

by medisEval

writers,

'

For the

festival

of Corpus

Thomas Aquinas wrote the

Christi,

S.

celebrated sequence,

Lauda Sion, which is generally believed to date from about the year 1261. 4. To Innocent III. is also attributed the ' Stabat Mater,' sung since 1727 on the Feasts of the Seven Dolours of Our Lady (the Friday in Passion Week, and the third Sunday in September). The authorship, however, has not been certainly ascertained ; and many are inclined to attribute it to Jacobus de Benedictis (Jacopone). (See Stabat Mater.) '

'

'

'

5. Even more celebrated than any of these the Dies irae written, during the latter half of the 12th century or beginning of the 13th

is

'

'

century,

by Thomas of Celano, and sung in

Requiem, or Mass

Dead. In the triple stanzas of this wonderful poem the rhymed Latin of the Middle Ages attained its highest perfection and, though the Stabat Mater is frequently said to be second only to it in beauty, the distance between the two is very great. The plain-chant melodies of sequences differ from hymn melodies in their structure. The ancient jubilus was divided into sections, each of which was sung twice, and consequently a sequence melody properly consists of a series of phrsises each of which is repeated. Similarly a sequence is a series of verses each dual in

the

'

'

for the

'

;

'

and consisting of strophe and antiThey may be represented by the formida aa! hV cd, etc. In the early rhythstructure sti'ophe.

:

:

mical proses a, h, c, etc., are usually unlike one another ; in the later metrical proses for the most part the same scheme runs throughout the words though the music varies. The ' Dies irae is irregular and does not conform to the usual type, because it was not originally a sequence at all. All of these, and other sequences besides, are found in use in whole or in part in Anglican services. For ' Dies irae '

see ffymiis Ancietit

Modem

mid

(new

edition),

302, English Hymnal, 351; 'Lauda Sion,' E. H. 317 ; ' Stabat Mater,' fi; A. and M., 132, B. H. 115, in part ' Veni sancti Splritus,' H. A. aiid M. 184, E. S. 155 'Victimae paschali,' E. H. 130. Compare an early French rhythmical prose 'Salus Aeterna,' E. H. 10,- and contrast it with a late metrical sequence such as Sponsa Christi,' H. A. atid M. 245, E. H. 253, both as regards text and melody. In addition to these plain -song melodies, we possess innumerable settings of all the sequences now in use, by the great masters of the Polyphonic School ; and many by the classical composers of the 18th and 19th centuries. For these see Dies Irae Lauba Sion ; ;

;

'

;

Stabat Mater Veni Sancte Spiritus and revised by Victimae Paschali. w. s. r. ;

;

;

w. H.

The English

(i.)

title

of an adaptation (produced 1827) of Mozart's

Sequence. 3.

SERAGLIO, THE.

The Golden

417

r.

VOL. IV

Entfuhrung aus DEM Serail. p.

See vol.

i.

784.

An opera by Charles Dibdin under this was produced at Covent Garden, Nov. 14, 1776. Dibdin being then in France, Dr. Arnold, composer to the theatre, had some share in the musical part of it, but it contains Dibdin's fine song Blow high, blow low sung in the opera by Reinhold, and afterwards introduced by Bannister into Arne's opera 'Thomas and Sally.' The opera had very little success, but both libretto and the music were published. Harris the Covent Garden manager had altered the (ii.)

title

'

'

piece considerably for acting purposes.

SERAPHIN, Sanctus

(or

r. K.

Santo Seraein)

and Giorgio (uncle and nephew), two celebrated violin - makers of Venice. The uncle, as his label infoi'ms us ('Sanctus Seraphin Utinensis fecit Venetiis

'),

was originally of Udine, a town mountains

in the Venetian territory towards the

and probably of Jewish extraction. His violins date from about 1710 to 1740. The nephew, if we may judge from the style of his instruments, worked with the uncle many years, and appears to have succeeded him in the of Carinthia,

The instruments of Sanctus Seraphin occupy a middle place between the Italian and business.

the Tyrolese school. As far as external appearance goes, the maker seems to vacillate between the model of Stainer and that of Nicholas Amati. But in the essential particulars of the art, in the selection of wood of the finest and most sonorous quality, in the proper calculation of the proportions, and the solidity and finish of the parts, he worked on the principles of the Cremona makers. Few equalled him as a work-

man. Those who wish

to see

how far mechanical

perfection can be carried should examine Sera-

phin's purfling with a magnifying glass. In Seraphin's earlier years the Stainer character

predominates in his instruments in his later years he leaned to the Amati model. His instruments are famous for their perfect finish (reminding forcibly of the style of Stradivarius), their remarkably lustrous deep red varnish, and ;

mellow tone. [The period of Sanctus Seraphin's activity extends from about 1678 to 1735. He worked in Udine for nearly twenty years, and during that time he employed an engraved label of large dimensions which runs Sanctus Seraphinus Nicolai Amati Cremonensis AUumnus faciebat Udine A. 1 6 It is worthy of note that the dates on Seraphin's labels are in accordance with the rest of his work, neatly wiitten in, and not bungled, as is frequently the case with his contemporaries. The Venetian label quoted at the beginning of this article is larger than any label to be found in a Cremona instrument. The legend on Seraphin's ticket is framed by a design composed on three sidea 2 £ fine

:

'

:

:

'

— SERAPHINE

SEEENATA

of graceful curving strokes, while the upper side formed of two fern leaves and elegant curves.

the Oi'gano Harmonica,' the improvements on the seraphine consisting of thin steel reeds artistically voiced, and coiled springs in the reservoir to enable the player to produce a rapid articulation with a small wind pressure, and to increase the power of tone as the reservoir Eminent musicians publicly pronounced filled. Mr. Evans's instrument more valuable than the seraphine as a substitute for the organ, but neither the one nor the other was capable of

418

is

On

either side there are respectively

of music

and a

violin.

ticket are given

some

rolls

Representations of this

by M. Laurent

Grillet in his

AncStres du Violon and also in Herr von Lutgendorff's Die Geigen und Lwuten/macher. One of the finest known examples of this maker's work was a violoncello lent to the South Kensington Special Loan Exhibition by its owner Mr. H. B. Heath in 1872.] George Seraphin followed his uncle's later model with such precision that it is difficult to find any point of difference. Like his uncle, he finished his instruments to a degree of perfection which amounts to a fault, depriving them, as it does, of character and individuality. Like his uncle, he used a large copper-plate label (nearly all the Italian makers used letterpress labels) bearing the inscription Georgius Seraphin Sancti nepos fecit Venetiis (1743).' Both makers branded their instruments at tlie tailpin. Their works are not common in England, and specimens in good preservation realise from '

£50 upwards. [A superb violin of Sanctus Seraphin which belonged to Messrs Barr^ and Bayly's collection realised £280, at a sale by auction in 1894, while a violoncello by the same maker, the property of James Goding, Esq., was sold in a like manner for £56 :14s. in 1867. According to Von Lutgendorff, George Seraphin was not Sanctus Seraphin's nephew but his grandson. Von Lutgendorff, Die Geigen und Lavienmacher Charles Reade, A Lost Art Sevi/ved Alberto Bachmann, Le Violon J. M. Fleming, Old Violins Laurent Grillet, Les AiwHres du Violon G. Hart, The Violin A. Vidal, Zes Instruments a Archet.'] B. j. p. with additions in square brackets, by E. h-a. SERAPHINE. In vol. ii. p. 303a reference is made to the seraphine as a precursor of Debain's Harmonittm. It was anEnglish free-reedinstmment resembling the German Physharmonica, which latter was brought to England by the In 1828 a similar Schulz family in 1826. instrument, but named Aeol- harmonica, was played by young Schulz at a Philharmonic Concert (Concertante for Aeol-harmonica and two guitars, April 28). In 1833, John Green, who had been dementi's traveller, and had a shop in Soho Square, brought out the Seraphine. Green engaged Samuel Wesley to give weekly performances upon the seraphine at his shop, and managed for some time to dispose of his instruments at 40 guineas each. But the seraphine was harsh and raspy in tone, and never found favour with sensitive musicians. The wind apparatus, similar to the organ, was a dead-weighted bellows giving a uniform pressure, and a swell was produced by opening a shutter of a box placed over the reeds. In the year 1841, Mr. W. E. Evans invented ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

'

what

is

now known

as

'

dead expression.'

Patents for various improvements of the seraphine were taken out by Myers and Storer in 1839, by Storer alone in 1846, and by Mott in the

same year. There is further reference to it in patents of Pape 1850, and Blackwell 1852. About the last-named date it was entirely superA. J. H. seded by the hannonium. SERENADE (Ital. Serenata ; Fr. Sirinade Germ. Stdndchen). Evening song, from the Italian sera. Hence the word has been applied, indiscriminately, to many different kinds of music intended to be sung or played at night in the open air ; and so generally has this connection of ideas been accepted that, by common consent, the term ' Serenade has identified itself in many languages with the song sung by a lover standing beneath his mistress's window, or the concert of instrumental music substituted for it by an admirer with ' no voice for singing.' To be true to nature, a serenade of this kind should be simple, melodious, sensuous in expression, and accompanied by some kind of instrument which the lover might carry in his hand. All these conditions are fulfilled in the most perfect example of the style that ever has been, or is ever likely to be written ' Deh vieni alia finestra, in ' Don Giovanni. The melody of this is as artless as a folk-song, yet capable of breathing the very soul of voluptuous ;

'

—

'

'

passion. [If Mozart created the perfect type of vocal serenade in the song just mentioned, such things as his ' Hafner Serenade have served as the model of the instrumental serenade, which, like the divertimento, is generally in a large number of short movements. The two Serenade trios of '

Beethoven (opp. 8 and 25) are illustrious specimens of the forms in which each section is of the most concise structure and built upon melodic themes that are easily recognisable by the untutored ear. Two serenades by Brahms are among his earlier works the first, op. 11, is for full orchestra, in D and the second, op. 16 in A, has no violins. It does not appear that the German equivalent, Stdndchen, has found much favour with the composer of instrumental Serenades.] w. s. k. ;

;

SERENATA

(Ital.

Sereiuda

;

Fr. Sirinade

;

Germ. Serenade). Though the terms Serenata and Sei'euade are generally regarded as interchangeable so nearly synonymous, that we have no choice but to give the one as the trans-

—

'

SEEMISY

SEEES

—

lated equivalent of the other they mean, In musical language, two very different things. The vocal Serenata may be considered as a form of Cantata, which may be either dramatic or imaginative, or even a simple Ode on any subject not actually sacred. Handel applied the term to his Italian Pastoral, ' Aci, Galatea, e Polifemo,' written at Naples in 1709 ; to the Ode composed for the Birthday of Anne of Denmark in 1712 ; and to the English Pastoral ' Acis and Galatea, l written at Cannon s in 1 7 2 We must not omit mention of a Serenata by Stradella in which two lovers, each with his orchestra in a coach, serenade a lady, a work which is famous because Handel appropriated a great deal of it in ' Israel. It was republished as No. 3 of Chrysander's Supplemente to the edition of '

[See vol. i. p. 535, vol. ii. p. 514.] of the Instrumental Serenata is

The form

much more clearly defined, and comprised within much narrower limits. It was very popular during the latter half of the 18th century and, for some considerable time, occupied a position midway between those of the Orchestral Suite which preceded, and the Symphony which followed it. From the former it borrowed the multiplicity, and from the latter the colouring, of the long series of lightly developed movements of which it usually consisted. Neither the sequence nor the ;

structure of these

any very

movements was subject

Two

to

however, were considered so necessary that they may almost be described as indispensable the March and the Minuet. With the former almost every Serenata of any consequence began or ended. The latter was almost always interposed between two Allegros, or an AUegi'o and an Andante, or, indeed, between any two movements of any other kind and used so freely that it frequently made its appearance several times in the course of a composition of importance. The Gavotte and Bourree so freely used in the older Suite were completely banished from the Serenata. When wind instruments alone were employed, the composirigid

law.

forms,

—

;

was often called Harmoniemusik and was so generally received that music for wind instruments is popularly called Harmonie in Germany to the present day. The term Cassation was also frequently applied to works of this ^ind, whether written for the full and orchestra or for wind instruments alone many pieces, not differing very much from Sometimes these, were called Divertimenti. the number of Instruments employed was very small, for the Serenata was almost always intended for private performance, and it was a matter of necessity that it should accommodate tion

'

'

;

this term

'

'

;

itself to

the resources of the particular establish-

w. s. k. ment for which it was intended. SERES, William, an early music-printer 1

CaUed

also, in early copies,

'

Opera,' 'Mask,' ajid

'

Paatoral.'

John Day and

had a

others,

He was printing psalters, etc. working in 1548, and was one of the early members of the Stationers' Company, filling the offices of Warden and Master. His shop One of was at the signe of the Hedge Hogg. his noteworthy works is Francis Seagar's 'Certayne Psalms select out of the Psalter of David, drawn into English metre with notes to every Psalm in iiij parts to Synge,' 1653. ¥. K. privilege for

'

'

SERGEANT TRUMPETER.

.

'

Handel.

associated with

419

Tkum-

See

PETER.

SERMISY, Claude

be, one of the gi-oup of

French musicians connected with the Chapelle du Roy early in the 16th century, was born about 1490. The following information is based on the researches of the learned M.Michel Brenet (^Sammelidnde of the Int. Mus. Gesell. 1904). Sermisy is first heard of in 1508, when he was appointed 'clerc musicien' in the Sainte-ChapeUe Palais at Paris, his name appears in the Sainte-ChapeUe registers as Claude de Cermisy.

du

He was there for a short period, as before 1515 he became a 'ohanteur' in the Chapelle de musique du Roy, at that time Louis XII. This post was equivalent to the English Gentleman of the Chapel Royal,' and as a chanteur '

name occurs in a list of the musicians who were present at the funeral of Louis XII. He eventually succeeded Antoine de Longueval as sous-maltre of the Chapelle. In the accounts his

of payments to the various members of the chapelle in 1533, recently published by M.

Brenet, there are some entries concerning Claude As sous-maitre he received the sum of 400 livres tournois ( = 2400 francs), his wages for the said year, and a sum of 1080 livres tournois ( = 6480 francs) for the feedingand maintenance of the Children of the Chapelle royale for the year, and another sum of 240 l.t. ( 1440 francs) for care of the books belonging to the Chapelle and for the procuring of singing boys, 'pour en voy er querir des chantres. This shows his position as sous-maltre to have been similar to that of the English 'master of the Children of the Chapel Royal,' who also received like payments, and fees for journeys made to press children for the service of the Chapel. On Sept. 20, 1533, Sermisy was made a Canon of La Sainte-ChapeUe, which gave him a resi-

de Sermisy.

=

'

'

dence and a large salary, and only imposed the obligation of oflSciating at certain ceremonies he retained therefore his post of sous-maitre, although he and Louis H^rault are mentioned as joint possessors of the ofBce in 1547, when Frangois I. died. They continued to hold it under Henri II. As a member of the Chapelle du Roi, Sermisy was present on three historical occasions, first at the meeting of Francois I. with Pope Leo X. at Bologna in 1515, when the French singers vied with the Papal Choir then in 1520 when Frah9ois I. and Henry VIII. met at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and again ;

;

——

;'

SEEMISY

420 in

':''' ;

SERMISY

1532 when they met at Boulogne

on both

;

occasions the English and the French musicians delighted their hearers with their performances.

A work published in 1554, the Rudimeids de Musicque by Maximilien Guilliaud, was dedicated to the ' excellent musicien Monsieur Maistre Claude de Sermisy, maistre de laChapelle du Roy, etehanoinedelaSaiute-OhapelleduPalais h, Paris 15 Septembre, 1552.' Sermisy probably resigned the post of sous-maitre soon after this date, but retained his connection with

fioyal

;

La Sainte-Chapelle until August 16, 1561, his name then appearing for the last time on the rolls of the Chapter meetings. He died in 1562.

Four

part -books

containing twenty -eight motets composed by Sermisy were published in

1542

:

'

Nora

4, 3, et 2

et prima moteotorum editio 6, 5, vocum, Lib. 1, 2, 3, Paris.' Pierre

Attaingnant. Claude de Sermisy, or Claudin. as he is almost invariably called in music- books, shows an extraordinarily wide range as a composer love songs, masses, motets were published in rapid succession, and retained their popularity for many years after his death, if one may judge by the number of reprints of his works. Upwards of 200 of his chansons were included in the various collections of the period. The set of song-books published by Pierre

Attaingnant in Paris, commencing in January 1529, with the 'Trente et huyt chansons musioales k quatre parties,' which were continued until 1535, contained ninety- two chansons

notre temps,' 1560, which contained Claudin's ' Peine et travail me faut for six voices. Claudin's claim to be a pupil of the great Josquin rests on a phrase in the preface to this volume 'Josquin des Prez, hennuyer de nation, et ses disciples, Mouton, Claudin, Jaquet,' etc. The same publishers also issued in 1571 the ' Second recueil . . . de chansons k quatreparties, in which were eight chansons by Claudin. '

:

is one song in Granjon's 'Trophfe, livre 2.' there are four in ' U primo libro di madrigali d'Archadelt atre voci'(Venetia, Gardano, 1559) another, ' On en dire ce qu'on,' in the ' Troisieme livre delle muse a tre voci' (Venice, Scotto,

There

1562), and three more in the ' Prime libro de canzoni francese a due voci (Venice, Antonio Gardano, 1564). In 1532 Attaingnant issued seven volumes of Masses by various composers, these included the following by Claudin for four voices : '

I. Secunda eat * FhUomena praevia.' XL Secunda est 'MiBBa IX lectionum.' IIL Prima est Missa plurimn motetarum.' „ rv. Secunda est 'JUiesa pro defunctis.' „ VIL Prima est Domini est terra.'

Liber

„

„

'

'

In 1534 Attaingnant published

:

Missarum musicallum ad quatuor Toces, pares. Liber II. *Tota pulchra,' Claudin ; * Miasa ad placitum,' Claudin ; etc. Liber IIL 'Missa Dominus quia babitabit,' Claudin. Paris, 1540.

In 1656 Nicolas Du Chemin published in a great collection of Masses, among

Paris

them

:

Ab initio Missa cum quatuor vocibus. Ad imitationem moduli condita auctore D. Claudio de Sermisy Begio Symphoniacorum ordiui praefecto et in regali parislenala palatii aacello :

.

.

'

.

canonico.

Voulant Missa cum quatuor Todbus. Ad Imitationem cantionis I'honneur condita, etc. Ad imitationem moduli MiBsa cum quatuor vocibus paribua, Tota pulcbnL es condita, etc. Quare Ad imitationem moduli Miaaa cum quinque vocibus. ;

'

'

'

by Claudin. The same publishers commenced a new series in 1538, Premier livre coutenant XXV chansons nouvelles h, quatre parties in this set, up to the ' vingtseptiesme livre' in 1548, there were thirty -five chansons by Claudin. About the same time Jacques Moderne in Lyons was publishing the various volumes of Le Parangon des Chansons,' and in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th, 9th, and 10th volumes (1538-43), which were often reprinted, Claudin was reIn presented by about twelve different songs. '

'

;

'

Venice the Pi-imo libro de le Canzoni francese,' published by Scotto in 1535, included 'Faict '

ou

failly,' for

four voices,

by Claudin.

While

at Anvers, Tylman Susato printed, in 1544, Claudin's '0 combien est malheureux,' in the Quatriesm e livre des chansons h, quatre parties. '

In Paris, Attaingnant's song-books were being replaced by Nicolas Du Chemin's publications, the Premier, Second, and the Quart livre du recueil oontenant chansons Ji quatre parties' in 1551, contained altogether fifteen of Claudin's Shortly before his death, Adrian Le chansons. Boy and Robert Ballard of Paris, the widely known imprimeurs du roy,' who published much of the music of the 16 th century, produced the Livi-e de raeslanges, contenant six soit des vingtz chansons des plus rares autheurs antiques, soit des plus meraorables de '

.

.

.

'

'

.

.

.

'

'

;

fremuerunt gentes' condita,

'

etc.

Three of the masses printed in 1532 were reissued

:

Miesae tree Claudio de Sermisy Kegii Sacelll magiatro, praeatantiacum quatuor vocibua . . Novem lectioaimo miisico auc1x>re num fol. 2 Fhiloniena praavia f ol. 13 * Domini eat terra .

'

.

.

.

'

;

'

;

'

fol. 23.

Lutetiae 1558 apud

Adrianum Le Boy et Bobt. BaUard,

folio.

The There was another edition in 1583. same publishers in the Missae tres a Claudio de Sermisy, Joannes Maillard, Claudio Goudimel, cum quatuor vocibus 'conditae,' 1558, included Missa plurium modulorum. His Claudin's motets. were published in such collections as the 'Fior de motetti' (n526), the 'Motetti del fiore' (1532). Rhaw's 'Tricinia' (1542), and Ochsenkuhn's 'Tabulatur Buoh' (1558). MS. copies of Claudin's music are to be found '

'

'

in different foreign libraries, in Ifome, Berlin,

Cambrai, Bologna, in the Dresden Royal LibMS. 1270, No. 5, a Laudate Dominum in the Munich for six voices by Claudin Royal Library, MSS. 69, 92, and 132 contain motets and MSS. 202, 204, 205, and 207 various chansons, all were published in the 16th century. Of modem reprints, M. Henri Expert's publication Les maitres musiciens includes Attaingnant's Trente et un chansons' (1529), of which rary,

'

;

'

'

'

'

SEROV

SEEOV

eleven were composed by Claudin. Three chansons are in vol. 23, of the Publikation alterer prakt.und theoret. Musikwerke,' Leipzig, 1899. Commer ('Coll. op. mus.' vol. xii.) reprints three, the melodies of which were used for Psalms Ixxii., ciii., and cxxviii., in the ' Souter Liedekens,' Antwerp, 1640. Otto Kade in his book Die dltere Passionskomposition, Giitersloh, 1893, treats very fully of Claudin's Passion music, published by Attaingnant in 1.534. c. a.

one hand Serov pointed to the great musical movement in Western Europe with the other he sought to blind the eyes of Russian society to the awakening which was taking place within. It was not until after his visit to Germany in 1858, from which in his own words he returned Wagner mad, that he took up a distinctly hostile attitude to the New Russian School which was striving to express in music the spirit of the race. Then followed that long polemic between Serov and Stassov which was only a side episode in that greater conflict between Western and Slavophil, the echo of which has hardly yet died away. In spite oS great popular authority, Serov's position ini

'

SEROV, Alexander Nicholabvich, composer and critic, born Jan. 23, 1820, in St. Petersburg, died in the same city, Feb. 1, (Jan. 20, O.S.), 1871. The son of a government official, he was educated at the School of Jurisprudence, where he only made one intimate friend, Vladimir Stassov, destined afterwards to be his stoutest opponent in matters of art. In his Reminiscences of the School of Jurisprudence Stassov has given an interesting He left the account of Serov's student days. institution with a decided hankering after an artistic career, but accepted a clerkship in a government office in obedience to his father's wish. He found, however, some leisure for musical pursuits, studied the violoncello and was busy with the project of composing an opera. From his correspondence with Stassov we gather that he cherished vague, ambitious plans which were hindered by lack oif technical training, and by the unsympathetic attitude of his father. In 1848 he was transferred from the capital to the dull provincial town of Simferopol, which proved fatal to his musical schemes. Nevertheless his determination to acquire further technical knowledge was unshaken. Through Stassov he obtained an introduction to the

famous theorist Hunke, then living in Peterswho undertook to instruct him in counterpoint by correspondence. The method was not very successful, and Serov's progress was slow. It is evident that he was often tempted to throw up his official position for art's sake, but his father sternly discountenanced such a proceeding. Nevertheless, his feeling for music continued to assert itself, and as his ideas assumed more definite shape, he turned to. criticism, which at that time was at a low ebb in Russia. His first articles in the Russian Contemporary in 1851 created something like a sensation, because he brought to bear upon his aesthetic criticism a highly cultivated intelligence, a distinctive style, and an effective, if ponderous, His early articles dealt with Mozart, irony. burg,

Beethoven, Donizetti, Rossini, Meyerbeer, and Spontini, and in discussing the last-named he explained and defended the historical ideal of Considering that at this the music -drama. time Serov was practically ignorant of Wagner's works, the conclusions which he draws do credit

to

vpritings

his

reflection

have now

lost

and

foresight.

much

because of their polemical

His

of their value

character.

With

421

;

—

—

'

'

1860 was in many respects an

isolated

andl

unenviable one. There was neither place noir need for an ardent Wagnerian propaganda in Russia. Between his ungenerous depreciation of the new school and his lukewarm attitude towards Rubinstein, Serov's influence began to wane. Serov had passed his fortieth year before he set to work upon his first opera ' Judith.' With extraordinary energy and determination

he surmounted all technical difficulties, and completed the opera in the spring of 1862. In March 1863 Wagner visited St. Petersburg, and Serov submitted to him the score of 'Judith.'

Wagner more tion, in

particularly praised the orchestra-

which he cannot have

own

failed to see the

Judith was produced in the course of the season 1863-64, on a scale of magnificence hitherto unknown in the production of national opera, and immediately took the public by storm. The subject was well adapted to Serov's opulent and sensational manner. In general style the work recalls the early Wagnerian operas with some curious reminiscences of Meyerbeer. As reflection of his

influence.

'

'

regards picturesque effect, 'Judith is admirable, although the dramatic colour is occasionally coarse and flashy. The many technical defects were easily overlooked by the public in an opera which made so direct an appeal to their sensuous enjoyment. Serov's long apprenticeship to musical criticism taught him what was attractive and practicable for the stage, just as he had acquired from the study of Wagner a considerable power of effective orchestration. Judith fascinated not only the uncritical public, but many of the young musical generation, including '

'

Tchaikovsky, '

first

loves

who

to it as one of his

refers

It still holds its

in music.

'

own

in the repertory of Russian opera.

Serov lost no time in following up his first and Rogneda was completed and performed in the autumn of 1865. Its success was unprecedented. In Rogneda Serov almost discards the Wagnerian influence for that of Meyerbeer. We look in vain in this work for the higher purpose, the eflbrt at psychological delineation and comparative solidity of execution which are occasional success,

'

'

'

'

;

'

SEROV

422

SERPENT

'Serov knew how to of 'Judith.' catch the crowd,' writes Tchaikovsky, and if this opera suffers from poverty of melodic inspiration, want of organic sequence, weak recitative and declamation, and from harmony and instrumentation that are purely decorative yet what sensational effects the composer succeeds in piling up . The whole thing literally crackles with them. Serov had only a mediocre gift, united to great experience, remarkable intellect, and extensive erudition therefore it is not astonishing to find in "Eogneda " numbers rare oases in a desert in which the music is excellent.' Tchaikovsky stood somewhat apart from the heated conflict with national tendencies in which Serov was constantly involved, therefore his judgment may be accepted as less biassed than that of the majority of his contemporaries. After the triumph of ' Eogneda Serov rested awhile upon his laurels. The balm of success seems to have done something to soften his hostility to the national school, for the lectures on Glinka and Dargomijsky which he delivered before the Russian Musical Society in 1866 are valuable not only for clearness of exposition, but for fairness of judgment. For the subject of his third opera Serov turned to contemporary national life as depicted in Ostrovsky's strong, but somewhat sordid, play ' The Power of Evil.'' His correspondence reveals hia intentions with regard to this work. ' Ten years ago,' he says, ' I wrote much about features

'

—

.

!

.

—

—

'

Wagner. Now it is time to act. To embody the Wagnerian theories in a music-drama written in Russian on a Russian subject. ... In this work, besides observing as far as possible the principles of dramatic truth, I aim at keeping more closely than has yet been done to the forms of Russian popular music as preserved in our folk-songs.' He is seeking in fact to fuse the methods of Glinka with those of Wagner, and produce a Russian music -drama. Serov was a connoisseur of Russian folk-songs, but he had not the genius of Glinka ; moreover, with all his knowledge of the popular music he was never penetrated by the national spirit as was In creating this Russohis great predecessor. Wagnerian work Serov created something purely hybrid which could bring forth artificial a, The nothing in its turn. The subject of Power of Evil is exceedingly gloomy and not particularly well adapted to musical treatment, and the work never attained the popularity of Judith and Eogneda. Serov died of heart disease in January 1871. The orchestration of The Power of Evil was completed by one of his most talented pupils, At the time of his death he was Soloviev. busy with a fourth opera based upon Gogol's Christmas Eve Revels, but this work did not :

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

progress beyond a first sketch, from which his widow afterwards arranged an orchestral suite.

Other compositions, all published in 1877. belonging to his later years, are Stabat Mater,' 'Ave Maria,' incidental music to 'Nero' (1869), 'A Christmas Song and two or three Gopak and orchestral works, including a Serov 'Dance of the Zaporogne Cossacks.' married Valentina Semenovna Bergman, a talented pupil of the St. Petersburg Conservatoire, and the composer of several operas, one of which, Uriel Aoosta (Moscow, 1885), brought She was also a constant her some success. contributor to the reviews, and in recent years has devoted her energies to the popularising of :

'

'

'

'

'

music among the masses.

SERPENT (Eng. rohr ;

'

and

Ital. Serpcntone).

B. N.

Fr.

;

Germ.

SchlaiigeTi-

A now obsolete instru-

of the ancient cornet family, played with a cupped mouthpiece similar to that of the bass trombone. It consists of a wooden tube about 8 feet long, increasing conically from f of an inch in

ment forming the natural bass

diameter at the mouthpiece to 4 inches at the open end. The name is

obviously derived from the curved form into which the tube is contorted, presenting three U-shaped turns followed by a large circular convolution.

The

bell

end

is,

moreover, turned forward from the player, and the mouthpiece makes a right-angled backward turn to reach his lips. There are six holes on the front of the instrument, to be stopped by the three middle fingers of either hand ; those for the left hand on the third descending branch ; those for the right on the fourth ascending branch towards the bell. The holes are set in groups of three, within reach of the outstretched fingers. The hands are' passed through the convolutions to the front of the tube, away from the performer ; the weight of the whole is supported on the upper edges of the two forefingers, and grasped by the two thumbs, which are kept at the back of the instrument. The serpent is considered to consist of three parts, (1) the mouthpiece, (2) the crook, or curved brass tube leading into (3) the wooden body, which is built up of several pieces held together by a, leathern covering. [The whole of the instrument was, however, sometimes made of brass or copper.] It is usually said to have been invented by a canon of Auxerre, named Edme Guillaume, in 1590. The story bears a somewhat suspicious resemblance to that of the

SEEPENT

SERPETTE

discovery of the bassoon by a canon of Ferrara in the fii-st half of the same century. But there

The Serpent is probably right. the only instrument in existence exhibiting so This fact, quaint and unscientific a device. and the different lengths of sounding -tube intervening between the holes the distance between the mouthpiece and the first fingerhole being 44 inches between the next three only about 4 inches in all ; between these and the next thi-ee for the right hand, 13 inches ; and from the last hole to the beU, 31 inches making 96 inches, or 8 feet indicate the great imperfection of the instrument mechanically considered, and point to the conclusion that a good player must have relied more on his dexterity and on the strength of his embouchure, as mentioned above, than on the resources of the instrument itself. Later makers, however, added a multiplicity of keys, both above and below, which only complicated without facilitating performance. It is well known that the notes D, A, and some others, the holes for which were the most approximately

can be no doubt that about thjs period clerical musicians employed bsiss reed and brass instruments for the accompaniment of ecclesiastical plain-song. Indeed Mersenne, who gives a remarkably good and complete account of the Serpent, notices that even when played by a boy it is sufficient to support the voices of twenty robust monks.' The Serpewt d'^glise is still S. recognised functionary in French churches, [and '

many

years was an indispensable member of the primitive orchestras which accompanied the singing in rural churches in England.] The scale of the Serpent is in the highest In degree capricious, and indeed fortuitous. Mersenne this respect it resembles the bassoon. gives it a compass of seventeen diatonic notes from 8 -foot upwards, and intimates that the intervening chromatics can be obtained by half-stopping. He does not name the device of cross - fingering so largely employed on the Berlioz, who speaks slightingly of it, bassoon. states that it is in Bb, and that parts for it 'must be written > whole tone above the real The old parts, however, from which sound.' the writer played [in the ' sixties '] at the Sacred Harmonic Society were all, without exception, in C. It is obvious that the Serpent, like every other instrument with a, cupped mouthpiece, can produce the usual harmonic series of notes. These in Mersenne's work seem limited to the There fundamental, its octave, and twelfth. would be no difficulty in obtaining a far larger Liohtenthal' who, as an Italian, compass. highly values the Serpent, gives its compass as no less than four full octaves from the Do bassissimo, which does not exist on the pianoforte (1826), but on the pedal of the organ of 16 feet,' up to the Do of the violin on the third space. He states, moreover, that the lowest soimd of Do can only be used from time to time, ' avendo bisogno di una particolare buona imboccatura' requiring a specially good lip. [As the fundamental note, pedal, or lowest proper tone of the Serpent was the 8-feet C, just as it is on the trombone, euphonium, or ophicleide in C, the statement of Lichtenthal can only be explained by admitting that certain players, by a peculiarly loose embouchure, could produce notes of a forced or constrained pitch one octave lower than due to the length of tube. The compass given in the scales and tutors is three octaves from C to c", with a possible extension downwards, by slackening the lips, to B^ and B>.] It wiU be seen from the woodcut that one hand being applied to an ascending, and the other to a descending branch, the usual sequence of fingering is inverted in the two hands ; the scale proceeding downwards in the left and for

D

'

—

^

IHzionario deUa Mutica, torn,

i

423

upwards in the

—

;

—

;

had far greater force and correctness than others less accurately planted correct in position,

on the resonant tube. On the other hand, owing to the material of the Serpent and to its bore, its tone was certainly more tender and less obtrusive than that of the blatant brass valve -instmments which have replaced it in the modern orchestra. It is practically disused except in some few foreign churches, and but musical antiquaries. A however found in the score of Mendelssohn's overtures 'The Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage and St. Paul, in the overtures to 'Masaniello,' 'The Siege of Corinth' (between the second and third trombones), and Bienzi. It is also found in the score of I forgotten part for

by

it

all

is

'

'

'

'

'

'

Vespri Siciliani.' It is usually replaced in performance by the ophicleide. A Yorkshire-

man

of

named Hurworth, who

Richmond,

played in the private band of George III., could execute elaborate flute variations with perfect accuracy on this unwieldy instrument. There is a Method for the Serpent^ containing studies and duets, published by Cocks. The only concerted music set down to it seems to have been originally intended for the bassoon. A Contra Serpent was shown in the Exhibition of 1851, made by Jordan of Liverpool. It was in Eb of the 16-foot octave. It was however too unwieldy to be carried by the player, and required independent support. Another modification of this instrument was invented by Beacham and played on by Prospere in JuUien's orchestra. It was named the Serpentcleide, and was essentially an ophicleide with a body of wood instead of brass, [w. h. s. with '

'

;

additions in square brackets

SEKPETTE,

Henri

by

D. J. B.l

Chables

Amoine

Gaston, French composer, born at Nantes Nov. 4, 1846, began life as an advocate, but gave up the bar for music. He was a pupil of

'' '

SEREANO

SERVICE

Ambroise Thomas at the Conservatoire, and

dozen years were occupied in a series of long tours through Germany, Holland, Austria, Norway, Russia, and even Siberia. In 1842 In 1848 he he married in St. Petersburg. settled at Brussels as Professor in the Conservatoire, and formed many distinguished pupils. He died at his native village Nov. 26, 1866, of an illness contracted during his third visit His works comprise three to St. Petersburg.

424

took the 'Grand prix' in 1871 for a cantata ('Jeanne d'Aro') of great promise. On his return from Italy, despairing of acceptance at the Opera-Comique, he closed with the Bouftes La Branche cass^e Parisiens, and produced (three acts, Jan. 23, 1874), with a success which induced him to go on composing worlds '

of the same slight character. Pic

Tordu

(May

1875), Vert galant' (April 12, 1876), Muette' (Oct. 3, 1877), all followed in Paris, and La Nuit '

28,

'

Le Manoir du Le Moulin du and 'La Petite '

'

in

de

three acts, St.

Germain'

(March 1880) in Brussels. [' Gendrillonette came out in 1890, 'La dot de Brigitte' in 1895, and Le Carillon in 1896. He died in Paris, Nov. 3, 1904.] G. c. SERRANO, Emilio, born 1850 at Vitoria '

'

court pianist to the Infanta Isabel (Countess of Girgenti), is Director of the Royal Opera and Professor of the Conservatoire of Madrid. Has composed much music, including grand operas, of which Irene de Otranto (1891) and 'Gonzalo de Cordoba' (1898) were produced with great success in Madrid. H. v. H. SERVA PADRONA, the maid turned mistress. An Italian intermezzo, or piece in two acts, containing three characters, one of whom is a mute. Words by Nelli, music by (Spain),

'

LA—

Pei'golesi. Written and produced at Naples August 23, 1733, and in Paris first on Oct. 4, 1746, at the Hdtel de Bourgogne, and was revived by the Bouffons Italiens on August This was followed by an obstinate 1, 1752. contest between the reformers, headed by Rousseau, and the conservative musicians -'Guerre In 1754 a des LuUistes et des Bouffonisteg.' translation, La servante maltresse, was brought out, and had a run of 150 consecutive nights. It was revived, August 13, 1862, at the Op&-a'

'

—

Concertos, and sixteen Fantasies, for violoncello and orchestra ; six Etudes for violoncello and PF. with Gr^goir fourteen Duos for ditto with three Duets for violin and violoncello Leonard one Duet for ditto with Vieuxtemps. Servais' tastes were very simple, and his great delight was to slip on a, blouse and (like

—

;

—

—

;

;

At the close of his life Mozart) play skittles. he became very stout, and the peg now used to support the violoncello is said to have been A biography of invented by him as a relief. Servais was published at Hal by Vanderbroeck Desmeth, 1866. [Interesting reminiscences of him are published in the Guide Musical of June 2, 1907, apropos of the. centenary of his birth.] His eldest son Joseph, bom at Hal, Nov. 28, 1850, succeeded his father in June 1872 as professor of the violoncello at the Brussels Conservatoire. He appeared first at Warsaw with his father, and the pair excited the greatest enthusiasm. In 1868 he was appointed solo violoncellist at Weimar and remained two years. In 1875 he played for the first time in Paris at one of Pasdelonp's Popular Concerts, when some of the journals spoke in terms of eactravagant praise of his performance. The instrument used by both father and son is a fine Stradivarius presented by the

Comique, for the debut of Mme. Galli- Marie, and was given in London, at the Royalty,

Princess Yousoiipoff. [Joseph Servais died at Hal, August 29, 1885.] A second son, Feantz, a successful pianist and composer, was a pupil in the same Conservatoire. T. p. p. SERVICE. In matters relating to the

March

Church

'

7,

1873.

'

— An

imitation

of

Nelli's

this

word

is

used in two totally different

with the same title, was composed by o. Paisiello during his stay at St. Petersburg, SERVAIS, Adeien Feanqois, a great violoncellist, was born at Hal, near Brussels, June 6, 1807. His study of music began early, but it was not till he heard a solo by Platel on the violoncello, that he fixed on the instrument on which he became so famous. He became a

senses'

pupil of Platel's in the Brussels Conservatoire, where he rapidly rose to the first rank. On the advice of Fitis he went to Paris, where his

portions of the liturgy which are by usage allowed to be set to free composition. The term, therefore, excludesall versicles or responses, or other portions founded on plain-song ; all chants, whether Gregorian or Anglican ; and all anthems, as their words are not necessarily embodied in the liturgy, but selected at will. On the other hand, it includes the Nicene Creed, Gloria in excelsis, and other portions of the liturgy which have from the most ancient times received a more or less free musical treatment.

libretto,

was great. In 1835 he visited Engand on May 25 played a concerto of his own at the Philharmonic Concert, where he was announced as principal violoncello to the King of the Belgians.' He then returned home, and wisely resolved to study for a year, and it was during this period that he formed the style by which he was afterwards known. In 1836 he reappeared in Paris, and the next success

land,

'

as a rough translation of Offidv/m, Ordo, Ritus, as when we say Communion-service, ;

first,

Ordination-service,

musical term, as

and so on

next as a purely

:

when we say Wesley's '

Service

with this latter application of the word only that we have here to deal. A Service may be defined as a collection of musical settings of the canticles and other in E,

'

etc.

It is

—

'; ;

SERVICE

SERVICE The

origin of the acceptance of the term in is somewhat obscure.

this limited musical sense

The gradual

—

disuse

of

distinctive

names of

such, for instance, as Matins, Vespers, Mass, etc. after the Reformation, helped to bring the generic word 'service' into very general use and it has therefore been supposed that musicians called their- compositions services because they were set to certain unvarying jjortions of the church services.' But this explanation is far from satisfactory, for obvious reasons it gives too much latitude to the term, and offers no reason why it should ever have become limited to its present meaning. The fullest form of a set or service would include free musical compositions for (1) The Venite, (2) Te Deum, (3) Benedioite, (4) Benedictus, (5) Jubilate, (6) Kyrie eleison, (7) Nicene offices

—

;

'

'

'

;

Creed, (8) Sanotus, (9) Gloria in excelsis Magnificat, (11) Cantate Domino, (12) Dimittis, (13) Deus Misereatur.

;

(10)

Nunc

It win be necessary to say a few words about some of these movements separately before making any remarks on our services generally.

The

Venite has long since disappeared from the of free compositions, and is now universally treated as one of the psalms, and sung to a chant instead of being rendered as a motet. In the form in which the Venite was printed in the Breviary may perhaps be traced the reason why many of our earliest church-composers after the Reformation, such as Tallis, Bevin, Byrd, Gibbons, and others, left settings of the Venite in motet-form. But this treatment of the psalm was probably found to lengthen unduly the time occupied by Matins ; and it may also have been felt that an elaborate choral setting of these particularwords seriousljrinjured their force as an invitation to join in public On the whole it is not a matter for worship. regret that the Venite now takes its place merely as an introductory psalm. The free setting of the Benedioite omnia opera did not long maintain its ground, owing probably to its excessive length. Purcell set this canticle, and it is even now occasionally sung to his music Blow also wrote an elaborate Benedioite in his Service in E minor. But the canticle itself fell for a long time into neglect, and when revived, it was sung either to a chant in triple measure, or to a single chant, or to a Gregorian tone having a short ending. ' Hayes contributed one of the earliest triple-measure chants [and there are numerous modern specimens in which waltzthemes, more or less ingeniously disguised, are list

'

'

'

in use.]

The Gloria in excelsis, though set to music by Tallis, fell almost entirely out of the service owing to the loss of choral celebrations of the Holy Communion. On their resumption the Gloria was once more included in the set, after a long period of virtual disuse. The Kt/rie eleison and Sandus maintained their place in the set '

425

the former because it was always sung at the so-called table prayers (that is, a CommunionofSce brought to a conclusion at the end of the Creed, Sermon, or Prayer for the Cliuroh '

'

Militant) a duty

;

the latter lived on as an introit, at one time universally in

it fulfilled

our cathedrals.

The Jitbilate completely ousted the Benedictus long period. The earliest writers of our

for a

—

Reformed Church Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons, Bevin, Farrant, and others settheBenediclus to music, but it was afterwards practically lost, until, within recent times, a better feeling has restored it to the place which it should hold according to the spirit of the rubric, if not according to its letter.

The Cantate Domino and Deus misereatur

may

be said to have been in fashion from time

Both Blow and Purcell set these alternative canticles, and later Aldrich also ; but they reached their highest popularity at the end of the 18th and the early part of the 19th century. At the present time they have again fallen somewhat into the background. To the contents of a service as above enumerated, the most modern composers add musical settings of the Offertory sentences, also of the Doxologies before and after the Gospel, and sometimes also of the Sursum Corda, Agnus Dei, and Benedictus. The Offertory sentences may perhaps be looked upon as a legitimate addition to the set, but the Gospel-doxologies and Sursum Oorda have both their own ancient plain-song, and the Agnus Dei and Benedictus are not ordered by our rubric to be sung in the office of Holy Communion. Having made these few remarks about the contents of a service, we must now discuss the musical character of our English services, assuming that a Te Deum, Benedictus (or Jubilate), Magnificat, and Nunc Dimittis may be taken as the main framework of an ordinary service. It can hardly be doubted that Tallis, the chief of the early post-Reformation composers, was influenced, when setting his celebrated Te Deum in Dminor, by the character of the then well-known to time.

Ambrosian Te Deum which Marbeok published in the 1550 Prayer-book. There can be traced an evident wish to form a melody, if not actually in aChra'ch mode, in a tonality closely resembling one of them. Tallis also avoided contrapuntal devices (in which he was a distinguished expert), and limited within strict bounds the ambitus of his melody and the number of his harmonic combinations. Anybody who will take the trouble to compare his graceful and melodious anthems Hear the voice and prayer and If ye love Me with his Service, must perceive that he wrote his setting of the canticles under an evident self-imposed restraint. The whole '

'

'

'

of the Service was made to follow absolutely the style of the Te Deum, and the result is, that music of a dignified and ecclesiastical type has

2 e

' '

SERVICE

426 been produced

; '

SESQUIALTEEA

—Ledpure, in

perhaps, but certainly by so great and famous a. composer as Tallis, many of his contemporaries and immediate successors followed in his footsteps, and English cathedrals possess a considerable store of plain contrapuntal services in minor keys. Closely following the class of services just described comes the strict contrapuntal school, of which ' Gibbons in F forms such a noble example. It must not be thought that Gibbons was the first to write the ' pure contrapuntal service ; a Magnificat and Nxinc Dimittis by

with S. S. Wesley, whose Service has been, and is, a model for many living and he has been followed by a large writers group of living composers, all of whom are striving to produce services in which the natural emotions called up by the character of the words shall be reflected in unartificial music. Those who desire to study the literature of services will find ample materials in Barnard's Boyce's Collection of Cathedral CoUeotion Arnold's Collection, 3 vols. Music, 3 vols. OuseKimbault'a Collection of Services, 1 vol.

Dr. Tye (who was organist to Edward VI.) show that he transferred his motet-style without any change to his settings of these canticles, which consist almost entirely of short ' points or phrases of four-part imitation. This is just what Gibbons did, but he threw more melodic freedom and greater breadth into his work, and therefore it has lived, while Tye's Magnificat is only known to antiquaries. Half a century after the death of Gibbons the settings of the canticles had become merely meaningless collections of short ' points and, instead of running on with dignified continuity, the music came to be broken up into a number of small sections, for voices soli, alternately with, or in frequent contrast to, short choruses. The influence of the French school, which had the

Full informamanuscripts in our cathedrals. tion as to Barnard's Collection will be found under the head Baknakd. [Of late years efi'orts have been made to restore the fine old Cathedral Services to general use, from which they were easy for many years kept by the crowd of services purveyed by the least skilful organists and writers of the day. The Church Music Society has already done much good in this

uninteresting.

this direction

'

'

most disastrous

;

on English anthems, though to a lesser degree. The services of Purcell and Blow may be considered typical of both the virtues and effects

affected the services also,

vices of this school,

—melodious, butrestless and

purposeless.

Seven years before the death of Blow a man was born, who, without possessing any special musical gifts, was destined to bring about, a vast change in the character of services ; that man was the very second-rate Charles King. The only possible way of accounting for the enormous popularity of his services is to view them as a protest against contrapuntal devices, and as a restoration of simplicity, even if the simplicity To the influence is closely allied to weakness. of King we probably owe two short but beautiful settings from the pen of Dr. Boyce (who died about thirty years after him) ; one is in the key of C, the other in A. Thenextdevelopment of the form and character of services was the forerunner of tlie ' dramatic school. Attwood deserves an important place in any sketch of the history of services for his bold attempt to attach to the words music which should vary as their character. This had of course been done to some extent before his time, but nearly always with a polite leaning to the conventionalities of the past ; Attwood struck out a fresh path. This fact should be bonie in mind by those who are disposed to criticise severely the weak points in his services. Attwood died in 1838, and we soon find ourselves

face to face in

E

;

;

;

;

ley's

Collection

of

Services,

1

vol.

;

various

'

direction.]

SESQUI.

J. s.

A Latin word

signifying, literally,

the whole pliis its half. In musical terminology, the prefix Sesqui is used in combination with certain numeral adjectives, to express the proportion, either of harmonic intervals or of rhythmic combinations. [See Pkopobtion.] Thus, Sesquialtera expresses the proportion of two to three, and therefore represents the perfect fifth, which is produced by sounding two -thirds of a given string. Sesquitertia, indicating (not very correctly) the proportion of three to four, represents the perfect fourth, sounded by three-fourths of the string. Sesquiquarta, or four-fifths, represents the major third. Sesquiquinta represents the minor third, given by five -sixths of the resonant string. Sesquisexta, six-sevenths, and Sesquiseptima, seven -eighths, correspond with no intervals in the accepted canon of the scale : but, Sesquioctava, or eight-ninths, represents the peculiar form of the major second known to theorists as the Greater Tone ; and Sesquinona, nine-tenths, an interval, which, gives the Lesser Tone though conventionally called a major second, and ti'eated, in practice, as identical with that just described, is less, by one Comma, than the Tone represented by Sesquiootava.^ In rhythmic combinations, Sesquialtera is used as the general symbol of triple time. The term Sesquialtera is also applied to passages of three notes sung against two ; Sesquitertia, to three notes sung against four and Sesquiquarta, to four notes sung or played against five.

—

;

w.

[See Hbmiolia.]

SESQUIALTERA.

A

s.

e.

compound organ stop

consisting of several ranks of pipes, sometimes as many as five. Various combinations of intervals are used, but they only represent different 1 The Greater and Lesser Tones are, by some theorists, Acute and the Grave major second.

cnllrrl

the

SESTET

SEVOIK

positions of the third, fifth, and eighth of the ground-tone in the third or fourth octave above. The sesquialtera thus gives brilliance to the tone by reinforcing these upper partials. The origin of the term Sesquialtera, as applied to an organ stop, is rather obscure. In the list of ratios given by Boethius, at the close of the 5th or beginning of the 6th century, which were exactly reproduced by almost every writer on music up to the 16th century, the term proportio sesquialtera signifies numbers having the ratio 2:3; the term therefore is really applicable to all stops having pipes at an interval of a fifth (or its octaves) from the groundtone, such as the Quint, Twelfth, Larigot (nine-

8, 1809, as 'one of my earlier things, and not only that, but wi-itten in a single night perhaps the only thing in its favour is that it is the work of an author who has at least brought forward better works though for many such works are the best.' (Nohl's NeiK Briefe, No. Sterndale Bennett's Sestet for piano and 53.) strings, a very early work (op. 8), is an elegant pianoforte piece with an unimportant though often picturesque accompaniment for strings, in which the piano has an undue share of work. Onslow left two sestets opp. 30 and 77 bis. It should be noticed that the sestets and quintets of Keicha and other composers, when written for wind instruments only, are practically quartets, one or more of the instruments taking a rest in turn. [Vocal sestets occur in operas whenever the dramatic exigencies of the piece

As

teenth), etc.

stated above, the Sesquialtera

organ stop, does actually contain pipes having this

only,

relation,

having the ratio

5

and :

4

also

— the

pipes

contains tierce

— which

Boethius called a proportio sesqttiquarta. On the whole it may be safely said that the word Sesquialtera was originally used for the purpose of showing that the stop contained pipes having ratios other than 2 1, or other than an octave:

series.

SESTET,

J. s.

SEXTET

Sextuor Ital. Sestetto). A composition for six instruments, or six voices, with or without accompaniment. Instrumental sestets are of two kinds : those for strings only, which belong to the same class as string quartets and quintets, being monochromes in six real parts, and those for various combinations of strings, wind and pianoforte, which belong to the class of pianofoi-te quartets, etc., and may be regarded as miniature symphonies. The first of these two classes is, naturally, but rarely met with, six-part harmony not being esisy to write but the few or

(Fr.

;

;

examples we have are striking ones.

We may

pass over Haydn's solitary specimen, called an Echo,' for four violins and two violoncellos, '

and mention only that of Spohr, in (op. 140), a charming work the two immortal compositions of Brahms (Bb, op. 18 G, op. 36), which stand at the head of modern chambor-musio the Sextet of Raff, op. 178, in G minor and ;

;

;

;

that of Dvorak, op. 48. All the above are for two violins, two violas, and two violoncellos. Turning now to the second and more comprehensive class, we find a few more in point of number but none of much artistic value. The prolific Boccherini wrote sixteen, Haydn one, Mozart only the Musical Beethoven's Sestet for Strings and two Joke.' obbligato Horns (op. 816) is interesting, but unfortunately impracticable for modern players.* His Sestet for Wind Instruments, op. 71 (for '

two horns, and two bassoons, in an early work and little known. Beethoven himself mentions it in a letter of August

two

clarinets,

Ei>) is

1 A lat Horn part is in existenoe, on which BeethoTen has writiMn '6tet of mine. Ood Icnows where the other parts are.' The slow movement ha£ been adapted to voices as The Vesper Hymn,' and '

had a wide poptdarity in Orpheus.' '

427

;

—

—

them ; there are two in Don Giovanni,' of which only one, 'Sola, sola,' is performed on the ordinary stage, as the splendid finale is

require

'

usually left out in the present day. The sestet in ' Lucia was long famous, and there is a very fine specimen in Berlioz's 'Troyens a Carthage.'] f. c. '

SEVCIK, Ottakae, violinist and pedagogue, was born on March 22, 1852, at Horazdowitz in Bohemia, and is of Czech nationality. His father, a teacher of the violin, after giving him elementary lessons, sent him in 1866 to the Conservatorium in Prague, where he studied under Anton Bennewitz until 1870, and then accepted an appointment as Concertmeister of the Mozarteum in Salzburg. This engagement, varied by the organising of self-supporting concerts at Prague, lasted imtil 1873, in which year he made his d^but as a soloist at Vienna, becoming eventually Concertmeister of the Komische Oper in that city. At the closing of the opera-house he gave concerts in Moscow, and in 1875 was appointed Professor at the Imperial Music School in Kiev, remaining there till 1892, when he accepted an invitation from Anton Bennewitz, then dii-ector of the Prague Conservatorium, to return to Bohemia and fill the post of principal professor of the violin at that institution. From that day to this, although he has occasionally played in public (for the last time in 1898), he has mainly devoted himself to teaching. His appointment happened to synchronise with the entry, as a pupil, of Jan Eubelik, then twelve years of age, and possessed of a marvellous gift for technique. SeviSlk taught him for six years, moulding him in accordance with his own

which Kubelik's drew the world's atten-

special theories of teaching, to

phenomenal success

first

tion. This success wa^ thought, however, to be very largely due to the young violinist's own natural ability, and it was not until, first, Kocian,

and then, in a still greater degree, Marie Hall, confirmed, by the brilliance of then- performances, the effectiveness of his system of training, that

sevCIk

428

reputation became established abroad. Pupils offered themselves in such great numbers, mainly from England and America, that only a small proportion of them could be accepted. Among them were the sons of Wilhelmj and Hugo Heermann, the daughter of Wieniawski, Zacharewitsch, Michel de Sioard, "Walter Schulze, Vivien Chartres, Leon Sametini, and many others more locally known, who, after studying under Sevolk,reoeived teaching appointments at various musid schools. The number of students working under him varies from 75 to 100 during the winter months, some taking two or three lessons monthly, and others, who also learn from his assistants, one lesson only a month whilst during the summer recess many follow him to his country residence at G-raz, and continue to get the benefit of his advice in holiday time. Thanks to him, Prague adds to its distinctions that of being a sort of university town of the violin, where students learn and draw inspiration from each other as well as from the Professor. But the latter's personal magnetism is the chief factor in his success in bringing forward so many technically accomplished pupils. He prides himself on teaching them how to learn,' and has the gift of stimulating them to an almost superhuman exercise of patience. For as many hours daily as their strength will allow, they play small sections of passages backwards and forwards hvmdreds, even thousands of times, in every possible fingering and variety of bowing. No other teacher of the violin has the knowledge which §ev6Ik possesses of the anatomical The position structure of the hand and arm. of the hand holding the violin he regulates according to the physique of the pupil, whose muscles (those controlling the fingers) are systematically trained by his exercises to respond quickly, so that in the end remarkable The facility in shifting position is gained. fingers of the left hand are kept down more rigidly than in the Joachim school, and the management of the bow is taught with extraHe divides it ordinary minuteness of detail. not only into the usual three sections, but also into subdivisions, and of course the pupil has to apportion each accurately in accordance with the nature of the phrase, thus acquiring great command of tone and accent. In short, under the Sev8ik system, nothing is left undone that methodical training of ear or muscles can accomplish. In regard to interpretation, the professor (seated at the pianoforte) teaches all the great concertos on sound technical lines, but the development of the psychical side of the student's nature, the bringing to bear upon his

;

'

him of subtle influences which tend to make "him a great interpretative artist, must come from without. In the case of some of his pupils, these influences appear to have been absent, but that is no fault of Sevolk, whose life-

SEVEN LAST WORDS, THE work lies in the domain of pure technique, which he teaches not only to his pupils, but to the world, with a passion which is akin to genius to the world by means of his Method, which is a monument of patient toil that will secure him fame after his pupils are forgotten. Book I. is a Violin It consists of four books. Method for Beginners (in seven parts, op. 6). In this he has adopted for the early stages of practice what he calls his 'Semitone System.' Whereas in the ordinaiy diatonic scale the stoppings are unequal, the semitones which ;

occur being produced on almost every string with the aid of difierent fingers, in this book scales are placed before the beginner, in which all the stoppings are the same on each string. This helps him to acquire quickly pure intonation, and enables him to devote his entire attention to the holding of the violin and the handling of the bow. Book II. contains Studies preparatory to the shake and for developing Changes of the touch (in two parts, op.. 7).

and preparatory scale studies, op. 8. and Preparatory Studies in double stopping, op. 9. Book III. is a School of Violin Technique (in four parts, op. 1), for more advanced pupils, and is §ev61k's magnum opus. Book IV. is a School of Bowing Technique (in six parts, op. 2), in which appear some 4000 varieties of bowing in progressive order, with metronome marks, and exhaustive directions tending to the development of the bow ann. Such is the §evclk method, for the creating of which he has drawn from the technical storehouse of the past, taken from all schools their characteristics and traditions, arranged position

them

in order, blended them, filtered them through his own originality, and by adding

many new

features carried

His publications include a dances' for violin

solo.

them a

step farther.

Bohemian 1886 the Czar

series of

In

'

upon him the Order of pedagogic services, w. w. c. SEVEN LAST WORDS, the i.e. seven last utterances of the crucified Saviour. A composition of Haydn's dating about 1785. It was then the custom in the principal church of Cadiz to have a kind of oratorio during Passion week. The church was hung with black, and a single lamp only was lighted. At noon the doors were shut. An orchestral prelude was played then the Bishop mounted the pulpit, read one of our Lord's last 'words,' and made an exhortation upon it. He then came down, and threw himself on his knees During this there was again before the altar. He then mounted the pulpit orchestral music. a second time, and pronounced the second word, and a second discourse, and so on till In 1785 Haydn received a request the last. from Cadiz to compose orchestral pieces for this purpose, each piece to be an adagio of This he did, subabout ten minutes long. Alexander

II.

conferred

St. Stanislaus for

THE—

;

'

'

;

SEVENTH

SEVENTH

stituting however (as the original parts show) for the Bishop's voice a long recitative for a bass in the case of each of the seven 'words.' In this form the work was performed at Vienna,

March 26, 1787, and was published in parts by Artaria in the same year as 7 sonate, con un Introduzione, ed al fine un terremoto for

—

47

op.

for

;

piano solo, op. 49.

strings,

op.

48

—

for

;

It quickly spread to other

was sold to Forster of London in the summer of the same year for five guineas, Haydn protesting, and endeavouring to obtain another five, but with doubtful success ^ and was announced by Longman & Broderip in the Times of Jan. 1, 1788, as 'A set of countries,

;

Quartetts . Our Saviour,

the Passion of himself conducted them (whether with the recitatives or not does not appear) as the middle part of a concert at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, May 30, 1791, and repeated the performance at the benefit of little Clement the violin-player. The work is now known as a cantata, with words to each movement. When or by whom the words were added is not quite clear ; for the various statements the reader must be referred to Pohl's Joseph Saydn (ii. 217, 218).2 Pohl's conclusion appears to be that Haydn adapted to his music perhaps with Van Swieten's assistance words which he met with at Passau on his way to England in 1794, except those to the Earthquake, which are from Bammler's 'Tod Jesu.' At the same time he arranged each of the ' words in plain harmony, and added a movement for wind instruments only between movements 4 and 5. The ' Seven Words were for long a favourite in Vienna One of the both in church and concert-room. last performances was at the Alt-Lerchenfeld church, when Franz Schubert's brother Anton ('Father Hermann') delivered the dis.

expressive of

.

op.

48,

>.

Haydn

8s.'

—

—

'

'

courses.^

6.

SEVENTH.

The

which contain seven notes comprise some of the most important chords in music, and such as have been intervals

peculiarly conspicuous in musical history. They are divided mainly into three classes major

—

minor

jievenths,

sevenths

;

sevenths,

or down, while the rest of the chord is stationary, as at (a) or (i),

'

'

orchestra,

429

and

diminished

as

or with the condensed forms of resolution, when the rest of the chord moves simultaneously with

the motion of the discordant note, as at (c). Of these major sevenths there are several forms, but as they all have the same general principles of formation and treatment they do not require detailed consideration. 2. The minor sevenths are more individually characteristic. Of these the most important is the Dominant seventh, as at (c), for the key of C. The discordance of this combination is very slight. By itself it is but little more harsh than (0)

(d)

(e)

some combinations which

CO

to)

are universally ac-

cepted as concords, such as the minor sixth ; but its harshness is increased by the addition of the other notes which fill up the harmony, as at {d), since the indispensable major third in the chord makes a diminished fifth with the seventh. Nevertheless its mildness has long been recognised, and it was used as early as the beginning of the 17th century with greater freedom than any other discord, by being relieved of the condition of being prepared. [See Harmony, vol. ii. p. 310.] But the laws of its resolution continued, and still continue, more or less restricted. It naturally resolves into the tonic chord ; because its third is the leading note of the key and tends to the tonic ; its seventh naturally tends to the third of the tonic chord, which is in the major divided from it only by the small interval of a semitone and its root or bass note already supplies the fifth of that chord, which naturally acts as the connecting link between the two haiTnonies of dominant and tonic ; so that all the vital notes of the tonic chord are, as it were, predicted by its sounding, and consequently it is the most natural and forcible penultimate in cadences, in which it occurs with exti'eme frequency. Harmony.] It is hardly [See Cadence II. necessary to point out that it can be resolved otherwise, since it so often plays a part in as for instance where the interrupted cadences tonic chord is supplanted by the chord of the submediant («) but it is in consequence of the very predisposition which it creates to expect the tonic chord that interrupted cadences have such marked effect. [See Cadence III.] There is no other minor seventh in the key which can be accompanied by a diatonic major third but there are two at least that can be obtained with one chromatic note in them, and these are so frequently used as if they belonged to ;

1.

The major

—

sevenths, as

OB, FE, GFjf, are

very harsh in fact the harshest combination used in modem music except the minor second, such as BO. They are only endurable either when prepared and duly resolved, or when they result from the use of an appoggiatura or They occur most grace-note, or passing note.

commonly

as suspensions, resolving either up

HaySn in London, p. 92. Btoj/raphif! Univergelle states categorically

1

Pohl,

2

The

tion w.ifl hv Michael Haydn. ^ See Pohl'8 Jnaei'h Haydn,

ii.

214, 341, etc.

that the adapta-

;

;

;

SEVERN

430

SEYFEIED

the key that some theorists have agreed to them. These are the minor seventh on the supertonio with a chromatic major third, and the minor seventh on the tonic, in which the seventh itself is chromatic, as (j) and (g), in relation to the key of C. These are respectively the dominant sevenths of the Dominant and Subdomiuant keys, so that in any sense they lie very close to the principal key, and can resolve into it with the greatest ease ; and they are often taken witliout preparation as distinct ingredients of its harmonic material without other reference to the keys to which they diatonically belong. The minor seventh on the supertonio, with a diatonic minor third, is a chord which has much exercised theorists. It comprises the same notes as the chord which has been generally known formerly and even partially now as the Added sixth ; and it is more often met with in the form from which that name was derived. But in whatever position, it has long been peculiar among discords for the variability of its resolution, since the note which would be the seventh if the supertonio were at the bottom of the chord, stands still in resolution almost as often as it moves downwards to the conveniently contiguous leading note of the key. For the various views entertained concerning this chord, see Harmony and Root. 3. The chord of the Diminished seventh is a familiar combination both to theorists and musicians. It is in its complete form composed of a set of minor thirds, and this as much as anything gives it its notoriously ambiguous character, since any of its elements can be treated as the discordant note, with the result of leading to a different key in each several case. It is now commonly held to be the inversion of a minor ninth with the root note [See Diminished Intervals, vol. i. omitted. affiliate

702.]

p.

c.

SEVERlir,THOMAS Henry

He was virtually self-taught, and i. p. 526.] knowledge of music was derived from study of the scores of the great masters, and from He died at Wandsworth, April 15, practice. 1881. Severn was the author of an opera, and of various songs which were very popular in

vol.

his

time

;

a

Cantata,

'

The

Spirit

two Te Deuras (Novello &

;

Sextam

of the

Co.), etc.,

etc.

G.

SEXT ;

(Lat. Offieium (vel Oratio) ad

Ad Sextam).

Lesser Hours

in the

The

last

Roman

Horam

but one of the

Breviary. The Office begins, as usual, with the Versiole and Response, 'Deus in adjutorium.' These '

'

'

'

'

'

day.

In Collegiate Churches the Offices of Teroe

and Sext are usually sung immediately before and after High Mass. The Plain-song Music for Sext will be found in the Antiphonal. w. s. R.

SEXTET.

See Sestet.

SEXTOLET (Fr.

Sextolet

;

Ger. Sextole

;

Ital.

A

group of six notes of equal length, played in the time of four ordinary notes of the same species. To distinguish them from regular notes of like form the number 6 is placed above or below the group. The true sextolet is formed from a triplet, by dividing each note into two, thus giving six notes, the first of which alone but there is also a similar gi-oup is accented of six notes, far more frequently used than the real sextolet, in which a slight accent is given This to the fomth note as well as the first. group, which really consists of two triplets, is properly known as the Double Triplet, and should be marked with the figure 3 over the second and fifth notes, though it is frequently marked with 6, and called a sextolet. The difference is well shown in the following two extracts from the Largo of Beethoven's Concerto [See also Triplet.] in C, op. 15. Sestina).

;

DovMe

n

I.

.

!

r

a

Triplets.

l^iiiJ (Tri#

H. H. p.

—

Shell'

—

—brother ofJoseph

Severn the painter, the intimate friend of Keats, was born in London, Nov. 5, Leigh Hunt, etc. 1801, and after many difficulties became manager of Farn's music-business at 72 Lombard Street. He was the first conductor of the City of London [See Classical Harmonists, started in 1831.

their

—

'Rector potens, followed by a Hymn which never changes; Verses verax Deux' 81-129 of the Psalm, 'Beati immaculati,' sung in three divisions, but under a single antiphon ; the Capitulum and Responsorium breve for the Season ; and the Prayer (or Collect) for the are

SEXTUS {Pars sexta, Sexlwplvm ; Eng. The Sixth Voice, or Part). In the Part -books of the 15th and 16th centuries four voices only were, as a general rule, mentioned by name, the Cantus, Alius, Tenore, and Bassus. When a fifth voice was needed, it was called Quintus, or Pars Quinta, and corresponded exactly in compass with one of the first four. When yet another voice was added, it was called Sextus, or Pars Sexta, and corresponded in compass with another original voice -part. The extra part, therefore, represented sometimes an additional treble, sometimes an alto, sometimes a tenor, and sometimes a bass ; and always corresponded in compass with some other part of equal importance with itself. w. s. r. SEYFRIED, Ignaz Xavir, Ritter von, born August 15, 1776, in Vienna, was originally intended' for the law, but his talent for music was so decided, that, encouraged by Peter

'

'

SFOGATO

SGAMBATI

Winter, lie detemiined to become a professional musician. In this, his intimacy with Mozart and subsequent acquaintance with Beethoven were of much use. ^ His teachers were Kozeluch for the PF. and organ, and Haydn for theory. In 1797 he became joint conductor of Schikaneder's theatre with Henneberg, a post he retained an der Wien from its in the new Theatre opening in 1801 till 1826. The first work he produced there was a setting of Schikaneder's comic opera 'Der Loweubrunnen (1797), and the second, a grand opera 'Der WundeiTnann am Kheinfall' (1799), on which Haydn wrote him a very complimentary letter. These were succeeded by innumerable operas great and small, operettas, singspiele, music for melodramas, plays (including some by Schiller and Grillparzer), ballets, and pantomimes. Specially successful were his biblical dramas, 'Saul,

Exhalation is the skilful performers. only word that conveys an idea of this tone when it is produced. A Soprano sfogato is M. a thin, acute, voice.

Konigvon

who had

'

'

'

Israel' (1810),

'Abraham' (1817),

'Die Maocabaer,' and 'Die Israeli ten in der Wiiste.' The music to 'Ahasverus' (1823) he arranged from piano pieces of Mozart's, and the favourite singspiel, 'Die Ochsenmenuette (1823) (an adaptation of Hofmann's vaudeville Le menuet du boenf ') was similarly a pasticcio ii-om Haydn's works. His church music, widely known and partly printed, included many masses and requiems, motets, offertoires, gradual es, a Libera for men's voices composed for Beethoven's funeral, etc. [See QueUen-Zexikon.^ '

'

'

Seyfried also contributed articles to Schilling's Universal Lexikoii der Tonhwnst, Schumann's

Neue

Zeitschrift fur

Zcittmg, berger's

and

Musik, the Leipziger Allg.

Caeilia, besides editing Alhrechts-

complete

works

Compositionslehre,

Schiile,

— the

Generalbass-

and a Supplement

in three vols, on playing from score (Haslinger) and Beethoven's Studies Oounterpoiiit (1832). Nottebohm's critical investigations re-

—

m

last work to its proper value. [See 230, and iii. p. 408.] Seyfried was elected an honorary or a corresponding member of innumerable musical societies, at home and abroad. His pupils included Louis Schlosser, Karl Krebs, Heinrich Ernst, Skiwa, Baron Joseph Pasqualati, Carl Lewy, Heissler, Kessler, J. Fischhof, Sulzer, Carl Haslinger, Parish - Alvars, K. Mulder, S. Kuhe, Walther von Goethe, Baron Hermann

duced this vol.

i.

p.

Lowenskiold, F. von Suppe, Kohler, and Basadona. His closingyears were saddened bymisfortune, and his death took place August 26, 1841. He rests in the Wahringer cemetery (Ortsfriedhof), c. F. p. near Beethoven and Schubert. SFOGATO (oi)en, aiiy), a word used in rare instances by Chopin (as in the ' Barcarole ') in certain of those little cadenzas and ornaments that he is so fond of using, to indicate what may be called his own peculiar touch, a delicate and, as it were, ethereal tone, which can only be produced upon the pianoforte, and then only

by

431 '

'

'

'

SFORZANDO, SFOEZATO,

'forced';

a

direction usually found in its abbreviated foim sf. or sfz. I'eferring to single notes or groups of notes which are to be especially emphasised. It is nearly equivalent to the accent =-, but is

apt to be overlooked in performance, and important passages. Good instances occur in Beethoven's Sonata for violin and piano in C minor, op. 30, No. 2, in the trio of the Scherzo in Schumann's Etudes Symphoniques, Variation 3, etc. M. SGAMBATI, GiovAKNi, a remarkable pianist and composer, born in Rome, May 28, 1843. His mother, an Englishwoman, was the daughter of Joseph Gott the sculptor, a native of London, less is

therefore used in all

;

for

many

years practised his art in

Eome.

Giovanni was intended for his father's profession, that of an advocate, and he would have been educated with that view but for his [He took his first lessons strong turn for music. in pianoforte-playing at the age of five from Amerigo Barberi, author of a treatise on harmony, who used to pride himself on the fact that his own teacher had been a pupil of Clementi.] After the death of his father in 1849 young Sgambati's mother migi-ated with her two children to Trevi in Umbria, where she married again. Here Giovanni's lessons, supplemented by a course of harmony, were continued under Natalucci, a former pupil of Zingarelli, at the Conservatorio of Naples. From the age of six the boy often played in public, sang contralto in church, conducted small orchestras, and was known as the author of several sacred pieces. In 1860 he settled in Rome and soon became famous for his playing, and for the classical character of his programmes. His favourite composers were Beethoven, Chopin, and Schumann, and he was an excellent interpreter of the fugues of Bach and Handel. Shortly after this he was on the point of going to Gennany to study when the arrival of Liszt in Rome saved him from that necessity. "With him Sgambati studied long and diligently. [He soon began to give orchestral concerts in the 'Galleria Dantesca,' which, as the 'Sala Dante,' was for many years the only concerthall in Rome. Here, under Sgambati's direction, the symphonies and concerts of the German masters, until then unknown in the papal city, at length found a hearing. Beethoven's Eroica was introduced to the Roman public and the Emperor concerto was played to them by Sgambati for the first time, just as later they learned at his hands to know and appreciate Brahms, Saint-Saens, and later writers.] At the same time Sgambati was busy with his compositions. In 1864 he wrote a string quartet; in 1866, a pianoforte quintet (F minor. '

'

'

SGAMBATI

432

SQAMBATI

an overture for full orchestra to Cola di Rienzi, together with other and in the same year he conducted Dante symphony (Feb. 26) with great op. 4), '

'

'

'

and

Cossa's

works, Liszt's

success

credit to himself.

In company with Liszt, he visited Germany in 1869, and at Munich heard Wagner's music for the first time. Sgambati's talent naturally attracted the notice of Herr von Keudell, the

well-known amateur and German ambassador in Eome. At the orchestral concerts which he conducted at the embassy many of his works were first heard. Here also, in 1876, he made the acquaintance of Wagner [in whose honour the ambassador one evening gave a concert consisting entirely of Sgamhati's compositions, including two pianoforte quintets and several

Wagner, much surprised to find in Rome a composer who made music of this kind, expressed a wish to hear it again, and on the following evening the programme was privately songs.

repeated for the deleolation of the master, who immediately wrote to the publishing-house of Schott, advising them to purchase and print Sgambati's works without delay. The firm then published the two quintets, as well as o. prelude and fugue for pianoforte.] Encouraged by this well-merited recognition Sgambati wrote a Festival-overture and a concerto for pianoforte

phony Dante

and

orchestra.

His Sym-

in D, produced at a concert in the '

early in 1881

'

Sala

and repeated on March 28

of that year at the Quirinal, being the first

work

of the kind ever given at the Italian Court, in

the presence of King Humbert and his Consort, Queen Margherita, to whom it was dedicated. In 1882 Sgambati paid his first visit to England and played his pianoforte concerto at the Philharmonic concert of May 11. His symphony was given at the Crystal Palace on June 10 Both works under the composer's direction. were well received, but the symphony made mVich the greater impression of the two. Though original in its ideas and character it it is at once adheres to established forms thoughtfully worked out and gi'acefully expressed, with a great deal of effect, and no lack of counterpoint. flat, printed His quartet for strings in about this time, is one of the works by which Sgambati is best known. First played in London by the Kneisel quartet of Boston, it was afterwards included by Joachim and Piatti, along with his second pianoforte quintet, in the repertory of the famous Popular Concerts, and eventually attained wide popularity throughTwo years later (1884) Sgambati out Europe. conducted the symphony in Paris, where he had been invited as representative of Italy at the International Concerts given in the Trocad^ro. In 1886 he was named one of the five corresponding members of the French Institute to In 1887 he fill the place vacated by Liszt. ;

D

was invited to conduct his second symphony, in E flat (written in 1883 and still unpublished), and to execute his first quintet at the great musical festival of the Tonkiinstler- Versammlung in Cologne. [In the same year he wrote, in honour of the wedding of the Duke of Aosta, an Epitalamio Sinfonico,' which takes the form of a suite, though considerably more developed than is usually the case in compositions so described. After its production at Turin the author conducted performances of the work in Milan and Eome, and brought it to London on the occasion of his second visit in 1891, when it was given During the same at a Philharmonic concert. season he gave a concert of his own composi'

and was commanded to Windsor where he played before Queen Victoria. One of the most memorable journeys made by Sgambati to foreign countries included a visit to Russia in the autumn of 1903. Received with enthusiasm, he gave concerts, consisting chiefly of his own works, at St. Petersburg, Moscow, and other places in Northern Europe, with such conspicuous success that they would have welcomed him gladly another year. To commemorate the death of King Humbert he wrote a Messa da Requiem for chorus, baritone solo, and orchestra, which was produced at the Pantheon, Jan. 17, 1896, and several times repeated. It was also given in Germany, at Cologne in November 1906, in the composer's presence, and at Mayence in March 1907. Its tions at Princes' Hall,

'

'

reception on both occasions bore testimony to German appreciation of Sgambati, whose work was highly praised. The Requiem is a fine piece of religious writing, in strict conformity with the spirit of the sacred text, modem without extravagance of any kind, and its themes well developed, though not so diffusely as to render it unsuitable for performance on liturgical occasions. It is, perhaps, Sgambati's most ambitious work, and the author's success as a choral writer occasions regret that more of his time had not been given to compositions of the kind.

He

preferred, instead, to devote the energies

of his best years to teaching

and, as a result, ; the founder, with his colleague Penelli, of the Liceo Musicale in connection with the Accademia di S. Cecilia in Rome (see Rome). Beginning with a free class for the pianoforte in 1869 he has persevered to the present day (1907) in giving instruction of the soundest description. Under him the study of the instrument in Rome has reached an exceptional degree of development, and it cannot be doubted that had Sgambati chosen, as the field of his labours, a city of central Europe, he would have attained a far wider celebrity as a master. His success as a writer for the pianoforte is due to his rare knowledge of its resources, to his facility in producing required effects with

must be

considered

,

—

—

.

SHAKE

SGAMBATI the simplest means, to his complete command of harmonic combinations of the subtlest kind, and to the exquisite finish given to even the least of

With Sgambati device is rarely His figures of accompaniment are as spontaneous as the melodies they sustain. Certain of his minor compositions, such as the beautiful intermezzo in op. 21 and certain numbers in his ' Pieces Lyriques (op. 23) and

his inspirations.

evident.

Op.

FogU

Tolajiti for pf., S pieces. pf. Easy edition arranged by author. Concerto, pf. and orchestra, in G minor, Symphony in D. Quartet in D flat for strings. Quattro pezzi for pf. Freludio, Vecchio mlnuetto, Ifeuia, Toccata. 19. Four Italian songs. 20. Tre Nottumi for pf 21. Suite for pf (Prelude, Valse, Air, Intermezzo, Etude mdlodique). 22. Fassiflore, voice and pf.

12. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Gavotte for

.

2."*.

kind has never, perhaps, been surpassed. His more important pianoforte pieces, his chambermusic, and his orchestral writings, taken together, place him at the head of those Italian musicians of the latter part of the 19th century, who, not writing for the stage, have moulded their work on classic models. Sgambati, in appropriating received forms, has invested them with southern feeling, deep but restrained, rich and even glowing, but utterly free from the mereti'ioious sentiment which served to win immediate popularity for Italian composers of lesser claims. His writings, in a word, possess the qualities

which endure. His native city owes him a lasting debt

Due

29. 30. 31.

Goudoliera for violin and piano. Benedizione nuziale for organ. Fifth Nocturne for pf. Melodie Liriche, four songa. Sixth Nocturne for pf. ' Versa eat in luctum cythara mea.' Motet for baritone, oi-gan, ajid strings (included in opus 38). Quattro melodie per una voce e pf. Melodies po^tiques (12J for pf. 'Tout has,' Melodia per canto. Messa da Bequlem per coro, baritone solo, orchestra ed orgajio (od lib,].

Te

and

His

du-ector.

efforts

have not gone His influence

Queen Margherita's quintet, and motu propria of King Victor Emmanuel III. in 1903, Commendatore of the But by Order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus. his countrymen at large it cannot be said of

named,

by

that Sgambati's talent has as yet been estiThis, in a nation so its proper value. quick to recognise and even exaggerate any indication of artistic eminence, is little short of astounding. The omission may be explained in part by a certain indifference in the musician himself, though not sufliciently to account for the slow awakening of Home and Italy to the merits of a man who was honoured as a amfrire

mated at

by Liszt and Wagner. Yet it is certain, as M. Eugene d'Harcourt wrote in 1906, after he had been commissioned by the French government to report on the state of music in Italy, that 'quand la musique symphonique italienne aura une histoire et qu'on I'&rira, il faudra lui reconnaitre, pour v&itable fondateur, le

Eomain Giovanni Sgambati.'] Some of the works mentioned above

unprinted following

his published

;

landamue, andante solenne, for strings and organ.

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.

for full orchestra.

[The following are without opus nuiaber.] Serenata, per canto e pianoforte. Ballata, per teuore. Sbjmello toscano, per una voce e pianoforte. Bomanza senza painle, pL II faut aimer,' Gavotte chant^e. La mia Stella, Melodia. '

Melodie Liriclie

Two

(flve,

and a

duet).

songs

Fior di siepe. Fuori di porta.

1. 2.

TRANBCRlpnoNa. Liszt. Die Ideale, pf. four hands. Chopin. Canzone Utiuina, pf. solo. Gluclc. Melodia deU' Orfeo, pf. solo. Separazione,' old Iti^an folk-song (edited and provided with accompaniment by G. Sgambati). '

as

unrecognised in high places. has been felt and appreciated at the Italian court, where he was appointed pianist and director

Deum

The same

its apostle of classical music, as teacher, per-

former,

Lyriques (6) for pf. Pezzi for violin and piano.

Piftces

24. 28.

'

in his 'Melodies po6tiques' (op. 36) may be cited as exemplifying a level of artistic perfection which in little descriptive pieces of the

433

are still

works include the

G.

;

with additions in square brackets, by

H. A, w.

SHAKE

or

Tremblement,

TRILL Cadeiice

(Fr.

Trille,

formerly

Ger. Triller ; Ital. Trillo). The shake, one of the earliest in use among the ancient graces, is also the chief and ;

most frequent ornament of modern music, both vocal and instrumental. It consists of the regular and rapid alternation of a given note with the note above, such alternation continuing for the full duration of the written note.

[On

other instruments and on the voice, this definition of the shake holds good text -books and methods will give examples of how the shake should be performed, but it is originally one of the ornaments designed for the keyboard, ;

and most

effective there.]

The shake

is the head of a family of ornafounded on the alternation of a principal note with a subsidiary note one degree either above or below it, and comprising the MoKDBNT and Pbailteillee still in use, and

ments,

all

EiBATTUTA (Ger. Zuriickschlag) and Battement ' (Ex. 1), both of which are now obsolete. (See Agk:^mbns.) the

1.

$

BaMemAnt.

f#:rrrrr g

:

Mbattuta,

Op. 1. 2.

3.

AJbuin of

five songfl.

Album of ten songe. Nottumo for pf.

5.

Quintet, pf. and strings, Quintet, pf. and strings,

6.

Prelurie

4.

10.

and fugue

Two Etudes Method

for

pf.,

of Lebert

VOL. rv

F minor. B flat. E flat minor.

for pf. in

D flat

and P sharp minor, written for the and Stark, Stuttgart.

1

RouBseau

{Diet,

de Musipie) deHcribea the BaUemcnt as a

trill

which diffei'ed fi'om the ordinary trill or cadence only in beginning with the principal instead of the subsidiary note. In this he is certainly mistaken, since the hattenumt is described by all other writers as an alternation of the principal note with the note beloiv.

2 F

—

—

—

SHAKE

SHAKE

The sign of the shake is in modern music tr. (generally followed by a waved line if over a long note), and in older music tr. /iv vw,

his Singing School (published 1601), describes the trillo as taught by him to his pupils, and

and occasionally +, placed over or under the note and it is rendered in two different ways,

single note,

434

,

;

beginning with either the upper note, as in example 2 Written.

2.

principal

These two modes of performance is

be,

effect,

the

Or thus.

Performed.

siderably in

or

:

it

consists of the rapid repetition of a

and that in learning to execute it the singer must begin with a crotchet and strike each note afresh upon the vowel a {ribattere ciascuna nota con la gala, sopra la vocale a). Curiously enough he also mentions another grace which he calls Gruppo, which closely resembles the modem shake. Trillo.

differ con-

because the accent, which

always perceptible, however slight it may is given in the one ease to the principal

and

in the other to the subsidiary note, and it therefore important to ascertain which of the

is

says that

two methods should be adopted in any given case. The question has been discussed with much fervour by various writers, and the conclusions arrived at have usually taken the form of a fixed adherence to one or other of the two modes, even in apparently unsuitable cases. Most of the earlier masters, including Emanuel Bach, Marpurg, Tiirk, etc., held that all trills should begin with the upper note, while Hummel, Ozerny, Moscheles, and modem teachers generally (with some exceptions) have preferred to begin on the principal note. This diversity of opinion indicates two different views of the very nature and meaning of the shake ; according to the latter, it is a trembling or pulsation the reiteration of the principal note, though subject to continual momentary interruptions from the subsidiary note, gives a certain undulating effect not unlike that of the tremulant of the organ ; according to the former, the shake is derived from the still older appoggiatura, and consists of a series of appoggiaturas with their resolutions is in fact a kind of elaborated appoggiatura, and as such requires the accent to fall upon the upper or This view is enforced by most subsidiary note.

—

— —

thus Marpurg says, of the earlier authorities ' the triU derives its origin from an appoggiatura (Vorsehlag von oben) and is in fact a series of descending appoggiaturas executed with the ;

And Emanuel Bach, speaking employment of the shake in ancient (German) music, says 'formerly the trill was

Grv/ppo.

^^^^S

g^i^jjiiUj

lS

And Playford, in his Tntrodiiction to the Skill of Musich (1655) quotes an anonymous treatise on the Italian manner of singing, ' in which precisely the same two graces are described.^ Commenting on the shake Playford says, ' I have heard of some that have attained it after this manner, in singing a plain-song of six notes up and six down; they have in the midst of every '

note beat or shaked with their finger upon their throat, which by often practice came to do the same notes exactly without.' It seems then clear that the original intention of a shake was to produce a trembling effect, and so the modem custom of beginning with the principal note may be held justified. In performing the works of the great masters from the time of Bach to Beethoven then, it should be understood that, according to the rule laid down by contemporary teachers, the shake begins with the upper or subsidiary note, but it would not be safe to conclude that this rule is In some cases we to be invariably followed. find the opposite effect definitely indicated by a small note placed before the principal note of the shake, and on the same line or space, thus 6.

Mozart (ascribed

to),

'

TJne

fifevre,'

Var.

3.

tr.

tr.

greatest rapidity.'

of the

usually only introduced after an appoggiatura,' and he gives the following example :

Nevertheless, the theory which derives the shake from a trembling or pulsation, and therefore places the accent on the principal note, in which manner most shakes in modern music are executed, has the advantage of considerable, if not the highest antiquity.^ For Caceini, in 1

The exact date

of tlie introduction of tlie trill is

not known, but

and even when there

no small note it is no all shakes which are situated like those of the above example in the same manner, that is, beginning with the principal note. So therefore a shake at the is

doubt correct to perform

commencement of a phrase or after a rest (Ex. 6), or after a downward leap (Ex. 7), or when preceded by a note one degree below it (Ex. 8) should begin on the principal note. It is also customary to begin with the principal ConBorti, a celebrated singer (1590), ie said to have been the first who could sing a trill (Schilling, Lexikon der TonJeu/rut). 2 The author of this treatise is said by Playlord to have beep a pupil of the celebrated Scipione della Falla, who was also Cacdni's

master.

'

SHAKE

SHAKE Bach, Prelude No.

16,

Book

435

When

the note carrying a shake is preceded of the same name (Ex. 12), the upper note always begins, unless the anticipating note is marked staccato (Ex. 13), in which case the shake begins with the principal note.

I.

by a short note

tr.

MozAKT, Concerto in Bl?. ,^h^_ ^m^^^m^^

Aitdante.

Bach, Chromatic Fantasia.

12.

tr. ^

tr.

tr.

Baoh, Art of Fugue, No.

8.

Bach, Sonata

for

8.

PF. and Flute, No.

Mozakt, Sonata in

13.

6. ,

note

by

when the note hearing the shake is preceded

a note one degi'ee above

it (Ex. 9), especially the tempo be quick (Ex. 10), in which case the trill resembles the PralUriller or inverted mordent, the only difference being that the three notes of which it is composed are of equal length, instead of the last being the longest (see vol. iii. if

p. 808).

Bach, Organ Fugue in

9.

J~^

F. tr.

MozAET, Sonata

in F.

.^

Played.

minor.

Flayed.

tr.

.,=.

,

II

)

In former times

(0)

many composers were

accus-

tomed

to dispense with the last sharp or flat of the signature, both in major and minor keys,

and to mark

it as an accidental (like the sharp seventh of the minor scale) wherever required, possibly in order to call attention to its importance as an essential note of the scale, or more probably on account of the influence of the ecclesiastical modes. Thus Handel rarely wrote F minor with more than three flats, the D|> being marked as an accidental as well as the Et| from Messiah ') (see And with His stripes and a duet Joys in gentle train appearing ('Athalia'), which is in reality inE major, has Similar instances may be but three sharps. found in the works of Corelli, Geminiani, and '

'

'

;

'

Oflat.

others.

The order

in which the signs are placed in the signature is always that in which they have

been successively introduced in the regular formation of scales with more sharps or flats out of those with fewer or none. This will be seen

When in the course of a composition the key changes for 9ny considerable period of time, it is frequently convenient to change the signature, in order to avoid the use of many accidentals. In afiecting this change, such sharps or flats as

—

—

— ;

SIGNATUEE

SIGNATURE are no longer required are cancelled by naturals, and this is the only case in which naturals are employed in the signature. (See Atjflosungs-

ZEICHEN.) In such a case the modulation must be into a sufficiently distant key modulations into nearly related keys, as, for instance, into the dominant, in the case of the second subject of a sonata, never require a change of signature, however long the new key may continue, Othei-wise, there is no limit to the frequency or extent of such changes, provided the reading is

(a)

Both Moods

Perfect.

(6)

Greater

451 Mood

Perfect,

and Lesser Imperfect.

;

The Circle and the Semicircle were also used either alone or in combination with the figures 3 or 2, as signatures of time, in the limited in which that term was used in the Middle Ages i.e. as applied to the proportions existing between the Breve and the Semibreve only three to one Imperfect, and two to one in

sense

;

facilitated thereby.

F. T.

TiME-SiGSNATUKE (Lat. Signum Modi, vel Tem/poris, vel Prolationis Germ. Taktzeichen). A sign placed after the clef and the sharps or flats which determine the signature of the key, in order to give notice of the rhythm in which II.

;

a composition is written. Our present Time- Signatures are directly descended from forms invented in the Middle Ages. Mediaeval composers used the Circle to denote Perfect (or, as we should now say, Triple) Rhythm and the Semicircle for Imperfect or Duple forms. The signatures used to distinguish the Greater and Lesser Moods^ Perfect or Imperfect Sigma Modi, Modal Signs were usually preceded by a group of rests, ^ showing the number of Longs to which a Large was equal in the Greater Mood, and the number of Breves which equalled the Long in the Lesser one that is to say, three for the Perfect forms, and two for the Imperfect. Sometimes these rests were figured once only sometimes they were twice repeated. The following forms were most commonly used ;

—

—

Imperfect forms. Perfect Time.

The same signs were used to indicate the proportion between the Semibreve and the Minim, in the Greater and Lesser Prolation ;2 but generally with a bar drawn perpendicularly through the Circle or Semicircle, to indicate that the beats were to be represented by minims ; and sometimes, in the case of the Greater Prolation, with the addition of a Point of Perfection.

The Greater

Prolation.

;

:

Greater

Mood

Perfect.

Combinations of Mood, Time, and Prolation sometimes give rise to very complicated forms,

which varied so much at

Lesser

Mood

Imperfect.

S Combinations of the Greater and Lesser Moods, when both were Perfect, were indicated by a Point of Perfection, placed in the centre of the Cii'cle, as at (a) in the following example. When the Greater Mood was Perfect, and the Lesser Imperfect, the Point was omitted, as at When both Moods were Imperfect, or the (i). Greater Imperfect, and the Lesser Perfect, the

was indicated by the groups of Rests, and (cl).

difference as at (c)

The reader moatbecarefulto observe the poBltipn of these Rests because it is only when they precede the Circle or Semicircle that they are used as signs. When they foUowit. they must he counted OS marlu of silence. a

different epochs, that even Ornithoparcus, writing in 1517, complains of the difficulty of understanding them.* Some writers used two Cii'cles or Semicircles, one within the other, with or without a Point of Perfection in the centre of the smaller one. The inversion of the Semicircle ([])) always denoted a diminution in the value of the beats, to the extent of one-half but it was only at a comparatively late period that the doubled figure (Q 3) indicated an analogous change in the opposite direction. Again, the barred Circle or Semicircle always indicated minim beats but the unbarred forms, whUe indicating semibreves in Mood and Time, were used by the Madrigal writers to ;

;

indicate crotchet beats in Prolation. The application of these principles to modem time-signatures is exceedingly simple, and may be explained in a very few words. At present

we

use the unbarred Semicircle to indicate four crotchet beats in a bar ; the barred Semicircle to

indicate 3 See vol.

four iii. p.

minim

823.

beats, 4

in

See vol.

the Time iii.

p. 82e.

—

;

SILBERMANN

SIGURD

452 Alia

called

Alia

MS. an English opera, Mtocris and incidental music to Fanchette

and two minim beats in Some Gennan vpriters once

breve,

Cappella.

'

the doubled Semicircle, barred (CD) Alia breve which they called the Orosse Allabrevetakt, and the ordinary single form,

used

The Circle is no longer used all other forms of rhythm than those already mentioned being distinguished by fractions, the denominators of which refer to the aliquot parts of a semibreve, and the numerators, to the number of ;

ete.

And

3

in a bar, as ^ (=^), | (=(=)>

even in this we only follow the

mediasval custom, which used the fraction g to denote Triple Time, with three minims in a bar, exactly as we denote it at the present day. A complete list of all the fractions now used as time-signatures will be found in the article Time, together with a detailed explanation of w. s. E. tlie peculiarities of each. SIGURD. Opera in five acts ; text by Dulocle and A. Blau, music by Ernest Eeyer. Produced at Brussels, Jan. 7, 1884 ; at Co vent Garden, July 15 of the same year, and at the Grand Opera, Paris, June 12, 1885. SILAS, ilDOUARD, pianist and composer, was l.orn at Amsterdam, August 22, 1827. His first teacher was Neher, one of the Court orchestra He first appeared in public at Mannheim. at Amsterdam in 1837 he studied the piano ;

in

1839 with Lacombe, and in 1842 he was

placed under Kalkbrenner at Paris, and soon afterwards entered the Conservatoire under Benoist for the organ and Halevy for composition, and in 1849 obtained the first prize for In 1850 he came to England the former. played first at Liverpool, and made his first appearance in London at the Musical Union, May 21. From that date Mr. Silas was established in London as teacher, and as organist of the Catholic Chapel at Kingston-on-Thames. His oratorio 'Joash' (words compiled by G. Linley) was produced at the Norwich Festival ;

of 1863. A Symphony in A (op. 19) was produced by the Musical Society of London, April 22, 1863 repeated at the Crystal Palace, ;

A Feb. 20, 1864 ; and afterwards published. Concerto for PF. and orchestra in D minor is A Fantasia and an El^gie, also published. both for PF. and orchestra, were given at the Three Crystal Palace in 1865 and 1873. Mythological Pieces for orchestra were played In at a Philharmonic Concert in 1888. 1866 he received the prize of the Belgian competition for sacred music for his Mass for four voices and organ. Mr. Silas is the author of a Treatise on Musical Notation,and an Essay on a new method He has still of Harmony ^both unpublished.

—

'

;

;

disuse.

2

;

;

barred, for Alia Cappella Kleine Allairevetakt but this distinction has long since fallen into

them contained

;

'

'

—

for

overture a musical an comedietta, Love's Dilemma ; a Cantata 'AveVerum'; two 'OSalutaris' a Symphony and other compositions. The list in C major of his published instrumental works is very large, and includes many PF. pieces, among which the best known are Gavotte in E minor, Bourrfe in G minor, 'Malvina' (romance), Suite in A minor, op. 103, Six Duets, etc. etc. Mr. Silas was for many years a teacher of harmony at the Guildhall School of Music and G. the London Academy of Music. SILBERMANN. A family of organ-builders, clavichord and pianoforte makers, of Saxon origin, of whom the most renowned were Andreas, who built the Strasburg Cathedral organ, and Gottfried, who built the organs of Freiberg and Dresden, and was the first to conAuthorities struct the pianoforte in Germany. diSer as to whether Andreas and Gottfried were Following brothers, or uncle and nephew. Gerber's Lexicon they were sous of Michael Silbermann, a carpenter at Kleinbobritzsch, near Frauenstein in Saxony, where Andreas was bom May 16, 1678. He was brought up to his father's craft, and travelled, according to He learnt the custom of the country, in 1700. '

'

in

,

organ-building, and in 1703 we find him settled According to in that vocation at Strasburg. Hopkins and Rimbault ' he built the Strasburg

organ

— his

—

greatest

work of 29 recorded by

of whom three were organ-builders, and after the father's death, March 16, 1734, carried on the business Of the three, Johann Andreas, in common. the eldest (bom June 26, 1712, died Feb. 11, 1783), built the Predigerkirche organ at Strasburg and that of the Abbey of St. Blaise in the In all he built fifty-four organs, Black Forest.

them

in 1714-16.

He had ninesons,

in addition to writing a histoiy of the city of

Strasburg, published 1775. His son, Johann Josias (died June 3, 1786), was a musical The next son of Andreas, instrument maker. Johann Daniel, born March 31, 1717, died May 6, 1766, in Leipzig, was employed by his uncle Gottfried, and was intrusted after his uncle's death with the completion of the famous organ (in the Hofkirche) in Dresden. Mooser,^ however, who claims to follow good authorities, attributes the completion of this instrument to

Zaoharias Hildebrand. Be this as it may, Johann Daniel remained at Dresden, a keyedinstrument maker, and constructor of ingenious

A composition of his is preserved Racoolta (1757). Johann Heinrich, the youngest son of Andreas, born Sept. 24, 1727, died at Strasburg, Jan. 15, 1799. His pianofortes were well known in Paris ; he made them with organ pedals, and constructed a harpsichord of which the longest strings were of

barrel-organs. in Marpurg's

^

The Organ,

'

its

'

Hittorp and Conttruction, London, 1870. Silbermann. Langenaalza, 1857.

2 Gottfriad

—

!

SILBEEMANN nliat

may

be called the natural length, 16 feet

[The above dates are from Eiemann's Lexikon.'\ But the greatest of the Silbermann family was Gottfried, who was born in the little village of Kleinbobritzsch, near Frauenstein, in

1683 (according to Mooser on Jan. 14). He was at first placed with a bookbinder, but soon quitted him and went to Andreas at Strasburg. Having got into trouble by the attempted abduction of a nun, he had to quit that city in 1707 and go back to Frauenstein, where he built his first organ (afterwards destroyed by fire, the fate of several of his instruments).

453

SILOTI

He

appears

have settled at Freiberg in 1709, and remained there for some years. [He built the cathedral organ there in 1714.] He built, in all, forty-seven organs in Saxony. ^ He never maiTied, and was overtaken by death August 4, 1753, while engaged upon his finest work, the Dresden Court organ. Although receiving what we should call very low prices for his organs, by living a frugal life he became comparatively rich, and his talent and exceptional force of character enabled him to achieve an eminent position. His clavichords were as celebrated as his organs. Emanuel Bach had one of them for nearly half a century, and the instrument, many years after it was made, when heard under the hands of that gifted and sympathetic player, excited the admiration of Burney. It cannot be doubted that he was the first German who made a pianoforte. He was already settled in Dresden in 1726, when Konig translated into German to

Scipione Maffei's account of the invention of the pianoforte at Florence by Cristofori. This fact has been already mentioned [Pianoforte, vol. iii. pp. 719-20,] and we now add some further particulars gained by personal search and inspection at Potsdam in 1881. We know from Agricola, one of J. S. Bach's pupils, that in 1736 Gottfried Silbermann submitted two pianofortes of his make to that great master. Bach finding much fault with them, Gottfried was annoyed, and for some time desisted from further experiments in that direction. It is possible that the intercourse between Dresden and Northern Italy enabled him, either then or later, to see a Florentine pianoforte. It is certain that three grand pianofortes made by him and acquired by Frederick the Great ^ for Potsdam where they still remain in the musicrooms of the Stadtschloss, Sans Souci, and Neues Palais,^ inhabited by that monarch are, with unimportant differences, repetitions of the Cristofori pianofortes existing at Florence.

—

—

Fire of 3 manuals, Frei^rg, Zittan, and Frauenstein tlie Frauenklrclie and Xatholiache Hofkirche at Dresden twenty-four of 3 manuals ; fifteen of 1 manual with pedals, and three of 1 manual without pedals. (Mooserrp. 125.) ^ Probably in 1746. The peace of Dresden was signed by Frederick, Christinas Day, 1745 ;hewouldhavetime after that event to inspect I

,-

;

SUbermann's pianofortes. 3 The Silbermann piano Burney mentions was that of the Neues Palais. He must have heard the one at Sans Souci, although he does not aay so. In all probability the piano .T. S. Bach played upon specially, on the occasion of his visit to Frederick the Great, was the one still in the Stadtschloss, the town palace of Potsdam.

is said to have acquired more than but no others are now to be found. Bumey's

Frederick three,

depreciation of the

own country

work

of

Germans

in their

no support in the admirable work of Gottfried Silbermann in these pianofortes. If its durability needed other testimony, we might refer to one of his pianofortes which Zelter met with at Weimar in 1804, and praised to Goethe and to another spoken of by Mooser in 1857 as having been up to a then recent date used at the meetings of the Freemasons' Lodge at Freiberg. Gottfried Silbermann invented the Cembal d' Amore, a kind of double clavichord. [It is described in Mr. Hipkins's finds

;

History of the Piano,

A. J. s.

p. 66.]

SILCHER, Fkiedrich, weU-known composer June 27, 1789, at Schnaith, near Schorndorf in Wiirtemberg, was taught, music by his father, and by Auberlen, organist at Fellbaoh near Stuttgart. He was edncatedl for a schoolmaster, and his first post was at Ludwigsburg, where he began to compose. In 1815 he took a conduetorship at Stuttgart, and composed a cantata, which procured him, in 1817, the post of conductor to the University of Tubingen. This he held till 1860, when he retired, and died shortly after (August 26) at Tiibingen. The honorary degree of Doctor had been conferred upon him by the University in 1862. His most important publications are ' Sechs vierstimmige Hymnen (Laupp), Dreistimmiges wiirtemb. Choralbuch' (Ibid.), and ' Swabian, Thuringian, and Franconian Volkslieder ' (12 parts), many of which are his own compositions. Several of SUcher's melodies published in his ' Sammlung deutseher Volkslieder,' etc., have become true songs of the people, such as 'Aennchen von Tharau,' 'Morgen muss ich fort von hier,' Ich weiss nicht was soil es bedeuten,' 'Zu Strassburg auf der Schauz,' etc. The Lieder were published simultaneously for one and two voices, with PF. and for four men's voices. He edited a method for harmony and composition in 1861. A biographical sketch of Silcher by Xostlin appeared in 1877. F. G. SILOTI, Alexander, born Oct. 10, 1863, on his father's estate near Charkow in Southern Russia, a remarkable pianist, and one of the most eminent of Liszt's pupils. He studied at the of Lieder, born

'

'

'

MoscowConservatoriumfroml875 tol881 under Swerew, Nicolas Rubinstein, Tchaikovsky, and Hubert, and from 1883 to 1886with Liszt. Since 1883, when he appeared at Leipzig at a Concert of the Tonkiinstlerversammlung, he has been regarded as one of the leading Russian pianists, but he had already appeared with success in Moscow in 1880. From that year till 1890 he was Professor at the Moscow Conservatoiium ; then he sojourned for several years out of his own country in such places as Frankfort-on-theMain, Antwerp, and Leipzig, conducted the Moscow Philharmonic concerts in 1901-2, and since 1903 has figured largely as a conductor

— SILVA

454 in

Petersburg,

St.

SIMON

and other great Eusaian

H. v. H. SILVA, Andreas de, was a singer in the Papal Chapel, 1519, and the first to be described as Papal composer (Haberl, BausUine, iii. p. cities.

In 1522 he appears to have been in the Duke of Mantua. It is natural to identify him with Andreas Sylvanus, from whom Glarean quotes the Kyrie and Osanna of a very peculiar mass for three voices, Malheur me bat, also with the Andreas SUvanus, to whom 69).

chapel of the

'

'

Sebastian Virdung refers as the intimate friend for whom he wrote his Musica Getvischt, 1511. But Eitner, in the Quellen-Lexikon and Monatshefte, xxvi. p. 47, refuses to accept this identification, because he thinks Virdung's friend must have been a German ; and if de Silva had been a German it is unlikely that his works would

have found their way into French collections like those of Attaingnant, or ItaMan collections like those of Gardane and Petrucci. This not very convincing, all the less that Eitner himself assumes that the Sylvanus who is the author of the mass Malheur me bat is identical with the Silvanus the friend of Virdung. In any case the Sylvanus of the mass Malheur me bat is more likely to have been a Netherlander than a German, and to be identical with de Silva than with the That de Silva was known Silvanus of Virdung. in Germany appears from the reception of an Italian madrigal by him, Che sentisti Madonna,' in Ott's Liederbuch, 1544, attributed to him This madrigal has in all the four part-books. a surprising degree of expressiveness for the time at which it must be supposed to have been written. Besides the works of Silva in the collections of the time, there are two masses and seven motets by him in the Archives of the Papal Chapel. One of the motets, Illumina oculos meos, a 6,' deserves notice, as being that on which Palestrina based one of his more important masses a 6, bearing the same title. Among other MS. motets of Silva enumerated in the Quellen-Leaakmi, there are two mentioned and Regem together, Virtute magna coeU,' both a 4. Possibly the theme of the two four-part masses of Palestrina in his first book, J. E. M. 1654, may be taken from these motets. SILVANA also called Silvana das Waldmadchen, or das stumme Waldmadchen the dumb Wood-maiden. A romantic opera in three acts ; words by F. K. Hieraer, music by Weber his sixth dramatic work, completed Feb. 23, 1810 ; produced at Frankfort, Sept. 16, 1810. It is probably founded to some extent on his early opera 'Das Waldmadchen' (1800), which was afterwards burnt and was to a small extent reasoning, however,

;'

is

from it, ' Warum musstf ich.' It was produced in English (as ' Sylvana ') at the Surrey Theatre, under EUiston's management, Sept. 2, 1828. It was again revived, with a revised libretto by Herr Pasque, and with 'musical amplifications,' at

Hamburg and Liibeck in the spring of 1885. SILVANI, Gkoseffo Antonio, born

6.

at

Bologna late in the 17th century, was maestro di cappella at S. Stefano from 1702 to 1725. He inherited the publishing business of Marino SUvani, who may have been his father, and who issued several important collections of motets, His published Giosefib died before 1727. etc. works are as follows :

1.

Litanie concertete a 4 voci.

2.

InniSacripertuUor anno a voce Bola.

3.

Sacri EoBponsorii per

.

.

.

1702. 1702.

lafiettimana santa, a 4Toci.

Inni sacri per tutto 1' anno a 4 Toci. 1705. Cantate moi-all e spirituali a 1, 2, 3 Toci. 1707. S^bat mater, Benedlctus, Mieerere, etc., a 8 TOoL Meuge brevi concertate, a 4 TOci. 1711. Motetti a 8 voci. 1711. Motetti con le quatro Antifone a voce sola. 1713. Motetti a2e 3 voci, 1716. ^esae brevi a 4 voci. 1720. Versi della tiirba, etc., a 4 voci. 1724. Sacre Lamentazionl a voce sola. 1725. Litanie della B.V, a 4 voci concertate. 1725.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

1704.

1708.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

:

'

'

—

;

;

M.

kon.)

'

'

'

All these have accompaniments (some ad {Qnsllen-Zexilibitum) for strings or organ.

SIMAO. SIMILI,

[See 'like

series of passages or figures of similar form, to

After be performed in exactly the same way. the first few bars of such passages or figures the word simili is used to save trouble of copying the marks of expression and force at every Simili marks occur recurrence of the figure. '

The

'

Abu Hasaau

'

and

'

Freischiitz.'

Moscow

to

in 1871,

music

Saxony clarinet

;

for the

by Weber as the prelude wedding of Prince John of

and he wrote seven variations and PF., for H. Barmann, on an

for

the school of the

fessor of the pianoforte to

Philharmonic Society, in 1891, and a year or two later was made superintendent of the orchestras of the Imperial Theatres in Moscow, and musical director of the Alexandrovsky Simon is a voluminous composer, Institute. the list of his works being as follows. A. Opeeahc. ' Rolla ' (op. 40, Moscow, 1892) ; (op. 46, libretto from Tourgeniev

'

The Song

of Love

Triumphant

' by N. Wilde, Moscow, 1899) The Fishers '(op.51, Ubretto from VictorHngo brir.Wilde,Moscow, 1900); ' Living Flowers (op. The Stars (ballet in 5 acta, Moscow, 1902)'; Esmeralda (mimo-diama in 4 acts, Moscow, 68, ballet in 1 act) ; ;

'

'

'

'

1902),

B. OBOEBSTKAli.

Danse Bayad&re ' (op. 34) Suite (op. 29) Overture (op. 13) Overture Fantaaia on Malo-Rusaian themes (op. 35) ; Symphonic

—

:

'

;

The Midnight Review ' and La PiSchereBSe ' (opp. S6 and Triumphal Overture on 3 Russian themes, composed for the 44) unveiling of the monument to Alexander II., Moscow (op. 54).

poems ;

air

where he became conductor He was appointed pro-

to the Theatre Bouffe.

overture was used

to his

'

generally in MS. or old printed music, and signify that the contents of the previous bar are to be repeated in every consecutive succeeding bar in which the marks occur. M. SIMON, Anton Yulibvich, composer, bom in France in 1851, received his musical education at the Paris Conservatoire and migrated

'

employed in

'

Poktugal, vol. iii. p. 797a.] ; a word commonly used in a

:

'

'

—

;

SIMPSON

SIMONE BOCCANEGRA G, iNSTElUafEKTAI.

Pianoforte concerto {op.

qnartet

(op. 24) (op.

trombones

19)

;

AXD ChAJIBEK MUBIC. clarinet concerto (op. 30)

fantasia

;

16and 25) ; string and alto ajid tenor ; quartet for 2 comets-ft-piston 22 ensemble pieces for wind instruments (op. 23)

for violoncello (op. 42)

;

two pianoforte

triofl (opp.

;

4 septets 4 sextets. 6 quintets ; 8 quartets. A considerable number of pieces for one and two pianos ; pieces for violin and pianoforte, including the popular ' Berceuse (op. 28) a Mass (op. 22) ; three female choruses (op. 33) and upwards of 80 songs. B,, jf. 26)

;

;

'

SIMONE BOCOANEGKA. three acts, with prologue

;

An

libretto

opera

by

in

Piave,

Produced at the Fenice by VerdL March 12, 1857 remodelled and rescored, with a fresh libretto by Boito, and reproduced at La Scala, Milan, March 24, music

Theatre, Venice,

1881.

;

G.

.

SIMONETTI, AoHiLLB,

violinist

and com-

was born at Turin, June 12, 1859. In early youth he studied the violin under Signor Gamba, and composition under Maestro Pedrotti, poser,

Principal of Rossini's Conservatorio in Pesaro. Later, proceeding to Genoa, he placed himself into the hands of CamiUo Sivori, who took great interest in him, and whose clear-cut style and Italian temperament are reflected in After some successful appearances his playing. in Marseilles and Lyons he went to Paris to receive further tuition from Charles Dancla (violin), and Massenet (counterpoint), passed four winters at Nice, and then visited England to fulfil an engagement to tour with the Marie Roze Company and B. Schonberger the pianist. His present headquarters are in London, where he is fi-equently heard as soloist and member (Simouetti, of the so - called ' London Trio Amuia Goodwin, and W. E. Whitehouse), whilst he occasionally visits Vienna and other continental cities. Besides a series of graceful solos for the violin, which have achieved considerable popularity, he has written two sonatas for violin and pianoforte and two string quartets. He plays on a Carlo Bergonzi violin. w. w. c. late

'

SIMOUTRE, Nicolas

Eua'toE,

a French

violin-maker, the patentee of certain inventions by which he claims to improve the tone of violins and instruments of that class either of defective or feeble timbre. The son of a luthier, he was bom at Mirecourt, April 19, 1839, and was first the pupil of his father, then of Darohe He in Paris, and lastly of Roth in Strasburg. began work as an independent maker at Basle in 1859, and there published in 1883 his brochwre entitled Aux Amateurs du Violon. In 1886 a second brochure Un Progris en iMtherie appeared, a German edition being published at the same time entitled Ein Fortschritt

—

—

in der Geigenbaukunst (Rixheim, 1886, 2nd In 1889 he brought out a small edition, 1887). ' Supplement The to the above pamphlets. '

two last-named works deal mainly with

his

principal of these, called Le Support Harmonique,' was based upon Savart's scientific discovery that the beUy of a violin

inventions.

The

'

Testing the nodal lines vibrates unequally. formed by sand distributed upon the belly of

455

a violin when in vibration, Mons. Simoutre observed that the fibres of the wood vibrated in alternate sections, i.e. one and three vibrated in unison, likewise two and four, and that the vibrations of one and two were as much in opposition to one another, as were three and four. Starting from this point, he applied himself to the discovery of a system which should stop the vibrations of alternate fibre sections so as to allow the rest to vibrate in unison, and this he claims to do with his patent ' Briefly, this invention Support Harmonique. consists in glueing two small sections of wood variable in form and dimensions according to the effect required upon the centre of the belly This and back of the violin transversely. method, he considered, concentrated the vibrawhere they are most tions Hear the sound-post numerous and by so doing, increased the sonority of the instrument so furnished, and at the same time prevented the belly from sinking under the pressure of the bridge. Various experiments for ascertaining the best thickness and forms of the Support Harmonique resulted in the discovery that an innovation in the form of the bass bar was necessary where the new system was employed. A semi-detached bar slightly scooped out at the centre, and glued only at each end to the belly of the violin, was patented by Mons. Simoutre, that form proving most efficacious where the violin was free from cracks, etc. A third patent applies to the setting of the sound -post in one of the two small circular grooves made for it in the lower 'Support Harmonique.' In 1890 this maker settled in Paris at 38 Rue de I'Echicqmer, where he worked for many years in partnership with Von Lutgendorfl', Die Geigen und his son. Lautenmaeher, and Mons. Simoutre's works already mentioned. E. h-a. SIMPLIFICATION SYSTEM (Organ). This refers to a method formerly in use of planting all the pipes of an organ in semitonal or chromatic order, to simplify the mechanism, but now discontinued for various reasons. (See '

—

—

—

'

'

—

VOGLEK.)

T. B.

SIMPSON, Cheistophbk,

a

distinguished

17th century viola -da -gamba player, famous his day both as an executant and a

in

Very little is known of and the exact date of his birth remains problematical, but the few facts that have come to light reveal him to have been the son of a Yorkshire yeoman a descendant of some theoretic musician. his

life,

—

Nottinghamshire Simpsons, who spelt their name with a y {vide Harl. MS. 5800) a man commended by his fellows for his' upright habits, and a staunch upholder of the Cavalier Party against the Parliament. He joined the Royalist army under the command of William

—

Duke of Newcastle, in 1643. He alludes in a passing phrase to the hardships

Cavendish,

and poverty he endured at

this period in his

'

SIMPSON

SIMPSON

456

' Introduction ' to the second edition of his Divinion Viol, 1667, when he thanks his patron for the Sir Robert BoUes Cheerful Maintenance he had afforded him. This Sir Eobert BoUes and his family were all fervent Royalists and ardent patrons of music, and at the end of the civil war Christopher Simpson enjoyed

—

—

'

'

their hospitality at their residence, Scampton, Lincolnshire. To him was assigned the musical

tuition

of Sir Robert's son and heir, John and a certain Sir John Barber, and

Bolles in this congenial musical atmosphere Simpson began to write his valuable book of instructions

gamba, which he called The Division

for the

Viol. The excellence of this work is confirmed by Sir Roger L'Estrange, himself a distinguished

gamba-player, who remarks in the preface to the second Edition that it is not only the Best but the only Treatise I find extant upon this argument.' Simpson's pupil, John Bolles, attained a high degree of perfection as a viol-dagamba player, and a laudatory ' Ode addressed to him while in Rome is inserted by Simpson, with pardonable pride, in the second edition of his Division Viol. On assuming the title at the death of his father John Bolles showed his regard for his old master by continuing the patronage which had previously been extended him by Sir Robert. This was fortunate as was also the fact that Simpson's publications brought him in a good income, for Sir R. Bolles, whose will he witnessed, left him only the sum Before that event came to pass the of &o. eminent gambist had purchased a house and near Pickering, in Yorkfarm Hunt-house '

'

;

—

'

'

—

and settled this property, by deed, upon nephew Christopher, the sou of Stephen

shire,

his

According to evidence gained from Simpson. Simpson's will, he died in the year 1669, between Apparently the 5th May and the 29th July. his demise took place at one of Sir John Bolles's residences, for although Hawkins {Hist. Mus.) states that he died at Turnstile, Holbom, where he had lived for many years, his contemporary Anthony k Wood records Anno 1669, Mr. Christopher Sympson, a famous musitian, '

died at Sir John in Lyncolnshire or

Bolles

house,

whether

know not.' Although nothing is definitely known as to whether Simpson married or not, it may be London

I

assumed, from his leaving all his property to his nephew, and all his musick-books or whatsoever is of that concernment,' to Sir John Bolles, that he was not. Simpson's skill was greatly respected by his contemporaries, and musicians such as Lock, Salmon, Mace, and Sir Roger L'Estrange have shown their esteem by their various complimentary allusions to him. He lived in an age when the gamba was much cultivated, both by but besides being professionals and amateurs the best authority on that instrument he was a composer of talent, and Mace (Musiek's Monu'

;

ment, 1676) ranks him with William Lawes and John Jenkins as a composer of ' Fancies. The Oxford Music School possesses a portrait of

Simpson. List or Poblishbd Woeks. 1. Annotations on Dr, Campion'B Art o/DUeamt, 1655. These remarks were introduced into the second edition of Playford's arief Introduction, 1660, and in the other editions untU 1684. 2. The Division Violist or an Introduction to the playing upon a ground Divided into two parts. The first Directing the Hand with other Preparative Instructions. The second, Laying open the Manner and Method of playing Ex-tempore, or Composing division to a ground. To which are Added some Divisions made upon Grounds lor the Practice of Learners. London, 1659. W. Oodbid, for J. Playford. Fol. (with portrait). Dedicated to Sir Eobert Bolles. Second Edition with title and text in Latin and English thus :— Chelys mlnuritionum artiflcio exomata sive Minnrltiones ad Basin, etiam Extempore Modulandi Batio. In tree partes distributa. The Division Viol or the Art of PLiying Extempore upon a Ground. Divided into Three Parts. London, 1665. Fol. with portrait. A further supply of this second Edition was published by W. Oodbid for Henry Brome at the Gun in Ivy Lane in 1667. Pol, with portrait by Faithome engraved from a painting by G. Carwarden. Dedicated to Sir John Bolles. Third edition published by Pearson, with portrait of Simpson engraved by Faithome, appeared in 1712. With two Sonatas for the gamba. , :

:

3.

The

Principles of Practicle Musiclr.

.

playing upon an instrument, London, 1665.

—

.

.

either in singing or

Dedicated to Sir John

Bsche A compendium of Practicall MusiclE in five parts teaching by a new and easie method. 1. The rudiments of Song. 2. The 4. The form 3. The use of discords. principles of composition. of Fignrate Discant. 5. The contrivance of Canon. W. Godbid Dedicated to William Cavendish, Duke of for H. Brome, 16fl7. Newcastle. The first part of this, the Jiudiments of Song, was reprinted in a revised form. Third Edition. London, W. Godbid for Henry Brome, 1678. Fourth Edition. W. Pearson for T. Culien, 1706. Fifth Edition. Loudon, 1714. Sixth Edition. Loudon, 1722. Seventh Edition. 1727. Eighth Edition. 1732, W. Pearson. Ninth Edition, with portrait. Id Playford's Catch that Catch can,' 1672-73, there is a composition of Simpson's, and Hawkins tffigt, ofMutic) mentions a Divijsion on the Ground for viola da gamba by Simpson of the year 1665. In Thomas Campion's Art of Setting or Composing of Muaic there is a composition by Simpson for the viola da gamba. '

'

'

MS. COHFOsmoKB.

A

Series of Suites in

Three parts (British

Museum Add. MSS.

18,940, 18,944).

Months and Seasons, namely Fancies, Airs, Galliards for two Basses and a Treble [lb. 31,436). Consorts of Parts for two Basses and two Trebles with figured Bass. (Heidelberg, MS. 3193.) Bales of Theory (British Museum, MS.

142).

Fancies for a viola da gamba (Christ Church, Oxford). Fancies and Divisions (British Museum MS. 31,436 and Bodleian Library, Oxford). Mnsgrave, in his Obituary, mentions a MS. (music) under the date 1666, by Christopher Simpson.

Hawkins, Hist. Music Burney, Hist. Music Mace, Miisick's Mommient ; Lock, Observations ;

Hart, The Violin and

its

Music

;

;

Wasielewski,

;

Quellen-Lexijcon Die Violoncell Fetis, Biog. desMus. Simpson, The Division Viol ; Anthony ;

;

;

k Wood, Life.

E. h-a.

SIMPSON, John,

a London music-publisher and instrument-seller of some note. As may be gathered from one of his early engraved labels, he had been employed by Mrs. Hare of Comhill, the widow of Joseph Hare (see vol. ii. p. 295), but about 1734 he began business on his own account at the Viol and Flute in Sweeting's Alley, a street running out of Cornhill, at the back part of the Royal Exchange. In Simpson's early business career this was named Switlien's '

'

'

but in 1741 references to Simpson give this address, indifferently, with Sweeting's Alley.' He first published sheet songs, which he afterwards gathered into the two volumes as Thesaurus Musicus (circa 1745-47), and had probably bought the stock and plates of both He was in business Mrs. Hare and B. Cooke. connection with the proprietors of the PrintingAlley,'

'

'

1:

'

SIMPSON house

itt

Bow

Cliurch yard,

'

SINCLAIR

who were successors

to Cluer (j.u).

So far as can be ascertained he died about 1747. Simpson's most notable publications are 'Thesaurus Musicus,' in which ' God Save the King' probably iirst appeared ; Carey's ' Musical Century,' 1740; 'Calliope,' 1746; and much other music now of considerable antiquarian interest. He was succeeded by John Cox, who reissued from Simpson's plates. At Cox's death, or retirement, Robert Bremner, Thorowgood, and the Thompson family became possessed of many of Simpson's plates, and republished some of his works. In 1770, and thirty years later, Simpson's premises were occupied by John and James Simpsin, apparently descendants, who were flute-makers, and, in a small way, music-publishers. Later than this {circa 1825) a John Simpson was manufacturer and teacher of the flute and flageolet at 266 Regent Street. F. K. SIMPSON, Thomas, an English musician,

who settled

in

Germany, and in 1610 was

viola-

player in the Elector Palatine's band ; in 1 6 1 7 - 2 he was in the band of the Prince of Holstein Schaumburg. He was subsequently in the royal band at Copenhagen. He published the following works : ' Opusculum neuer Pauanen, Galliardeu, Couranten vnd Volten,' Frankfort, 1610 ; 'Pauanen, Volten und Galliarden,' Frankfort,

'Opus Newer Paduanen, Galliarden, mit 5 Stim.,' Hamburg, 1617, and Taffel Consort allerhand lustige Lieder von 4 Instrumenteu und General-bass,' Hamburg, 1621, containing, besides pieces by Simpson himself.some by Peter PhiUips, John Dowland,Robert and Edwai'd Johnson, and others. "Vf. H. H. SIMROCK. A very famous German musicpublishing house, founded in 1790 at Bonn by Nikolaus Simrock(1752-1834), second waldhorn player in the Elector's band, to which Beethoven The first of Beetand his father belonged. hoven's works on which Simrock's name appears 1611

;

Intraden,

.

.

.

'

as original publisher is the Kreutzer Sonata, But he published for op. 47, issued in 1805.

Beethoven an ' Edition trfes coi-recte of the two G and D minor (op. 31, Nos. 1 and 2), which Niigeli had printed so shamefully and there is evidence in the letters that Simrock was '

Sonatas in

;

concerned in others of Beethoven's early works. The next was the Sextet for strings and two then the two Sonatas horns, op. 81i (1810) the ten for PF. and violoncello, op. 102 (1817) themes with variations for PF. and violin or He was succeeded in flute, op. 107 (1820). 1834 by Peter Joseph Simkook, who died in ;

:

1868, and about 1870 his successor, Friedrich SiMROOK, founded the Berlin house, and there published the principal works of Brahms. (fiuellen-Lexikon. )

G-

SINCLAIR, George Robertson, Mus.D., son of Robert Sharpe Sinclair, LL.D., Director

457

India, was born at Croydon, Out. 28, 1863, and was educated at St. Michael's College, Tenbury, and at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. He studied successively under Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley, Sir Robert Stewart, and Dr. C. H. Lloyd. In 1879 he became assistant organist of Gloucester

of Public Instruction in

Cathedral,

and organist and choirnlaster of

Mary de

Crypt, Gloucester; in 1880, the age of seventeen, he was appointed organist and choirmaster of Tnu'O Cathedral. Since 1889 he has filled the post of organist of Hereford Cathedral with distinction, and his conducting of the Hereford (Three Choirs) Festivals from 1891 to 1906 brought him into contact with the most eminentEnglish musicians of the time, and ripened his experience as a conductor, a capacity in which he has exhibited very remarkable powers, being in sympathy with every school of excellence, and being able to impress his own reading of the classical and other works upon all imder his command. He is conductor of various Hereford and Herefordshire societies, both choral and orchestral, and as an organist he played at .six successive Gloucester Festivals. In 1895 he was made an honorary member of the Royal Academy, St.

at

having been L.R.A.M. since 1887; in 1899 he was appointed conductor of the Biimingham Festival Choral Society, and received the degiee of Mus.D. from the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1904 he was made an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Organists. (SeeMusical Times, 1906, pp. 168, if.) He is also an ardelit Freemason, a Past Grand Organist of England, a Past Master of the Palladian Lodge, Ko. 120, and Master of the 'Yaga' Lodge, No. 3146. His impetuous character, his skilful pedalplaying, the barking of his dog, and other things, are immortalised in the eleventh variation of Elgar's Enigma ' set for orchestra. M. '

SINCLAIR, John, born near Edinburgh, Deo. 9, 1791, was instructed in music from childhood, and while stOl young joined the band of He a Scotch regiment as a clarinet player. also taught singing in Aberdeen, and acquired sufficient means to purchase his discharge from Possessed of a fine tenor voice, the regiment. he was desirous of trying his fortune upon the stage, came to London and appeared anonymously as Capt. Cheerly in Shield's Lock and Key 'at the Haymarket, Sept. 7, 1810. His success led to his becoming a pupil of Thomas Welsh. He was engaged at Covent Garden, '

where he appeared Sept. 30, 1811, as Don Carlos in Sheridanand Linley's Duenna. He remained there for seven seasons, during which he had many original parts. He was the first singer of the long popular recitative and air The Pilgrim of Love in Bishop's Noble Outlaw, jiroduced April 7, 1815. He also sang originGuy Mannering and The ally in Bishop's Slave,' and Davy's 'Rob Roy,' and acquired '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

2?

SINGAKADEMIE

BINDING

458

great popularity by his performance of Apollo in Midaa. In April 1 8 1 9 he visited Paris and studied under Pellegrini, and thence proceeded to Milan and placed himself under Banderali. In May 1821 he went to Naples, where he received advice and instruction from Rossini. In 1822 he sang, mostly in Rossini's operas, at Pisa and Bologna. In 1823 he was engaged at \'enice, where Rossini wrote for him the part of Idreno '

'

Semiramide. After singing at Genoa he returned to England, and reappeared at Covent Garden, Nov. 19, 1823, as Prince Orlando in 'The Cabinet,' his voice and style having greatly improved. He continued at the theatre for a season or two in 1828 and 1829 was engaged at the Adelphi, and in 1829-30 at Drury Lane. He then visited America on his return retired from public life, and died at Margate, Sept. 23, 1857. w. H. H. SINDING, Christian, born Jan. 11, 1856, at Kongberg in Norway became a student at Leipzig, and at Munich, and at Berlin. A very talented pianist, he has written much for his own instrument as well as for stringed instruments. His highest opus number is now His principal works are the Rondo (1907) 51. infinite for Orchestra, op. 42 ; "Violin Concerto in A, op. 45 Piano Concerto in D flat, op. 6 Trio in D major, Quintet in E minor, op. 5 Variations for two pianos, op. 2 Suite, op. 23 op. 3 Studies, op. 7 Sonatas for Violin and Piano Suite for Violin and Piano, op. 14 Six Burlesques, op. 48 Caprices, op. 44 pieces, op. 49 besides many songs, and many arrangements of Folk-songs. Binding's music is in

'

'

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

characterised by great facility in construction, tunefulness, variety, and elegance. He is always intelligent, and even if not deep is a

who

very pleasing writer,

secures the interest

D. H. See Symphony. SINFONIA SACRA (Saoeisd Symphony). A term used to describe certain short cantatas, in which an unusual closeness of musical connection is to be suggested, such as Parry's 'The love that casteth out fear,' and 'The Soul's Ransom,' Walford Davies's 'Lift up your M. Hearts, and Stanford's ' Stabat Mater. ' SINFONIE-CANTATE. The title of Men-

of his auditor.

SINFONIA.

'

delssohn's Lobgesang or

Hymn of Praise (op. 52).

— properly Symphonie-Cantate — Klingemann, according

The term

'

'

is

life in Berlin as musicThe Singakademie teacher and composer. originated with some attempts made by Fasch and a few of his pupils and musical friends to perform his own sacred compositions for mixed

he led a quiet and retired

The actual Akademie was founded on voices. Thursday, May 24, 1791, and up to the present time the weekly practices are still held on a Thursday. The original members were twentyseven soprani, five seven, thus distributed: The Society alti, seven tenors, and eight basses. was at first entirely private, the meetings taking place at the house of Frau Voitus (Unter den Linden, No. 59, afterwards Charlottenstrasse No. 61). This character it retained after the practices were held in a room at the Royal Academy of Arts, whence the name of the

—

Society was suggested, and the use of which was granted to the Singakademie, Nov. 5, 1793. The first of the regular public performances took The proceeds were at place at Easter, 1801. first devoted to charitable objects, but after the Akademie had, in 1827, erected its own buildings, where the meetings are still held, and which contain a fine concert-room, it became necessary to have performances for the benefit of the institution, and these are still carried The object of the founder was to promote on. the practice of sacred music both accompanied and unaccompanied, but especially the latter.

The

Society at first confined itself to Fasch's compositions, singing, amongst others, his 16 -part Mass a cappella, but in a short time pieces by Durante, Graun, Leo, Lotti, etc. were added. The first oratorio of Handel's put in rehearsal was 'Judas Maccabseus' (1795). The first performance of Bach's Matthew-Passion in 1829 is well known, and indeed marks an epoch, but the chief credit is due, not to the Singakademie, but to the conductor of the performance, Mendelssohn. The Berlin Singakademie has served as a ,

model

for

most of the vocal unions

of

Germany.

Its structure is exceedingly simple,

the governing body consisting of a director, who has charge of all musical matters, and a committee of members (ladies as well as gentlemen) who manage the business. All of these are elected at general meetings. Since 1815 the director has had a fixed salary out of the funds of the

New members are admitted by tlie and the committee. There is a special practice on Wednesdays for less advanced members, who must attain a certain amount of Society.

due to to Mendelssohn's own statement in his published letter of Nov. 1 8, Mendelssohn was so much in love with 1840. it as to propose to bestow it also on the "Walpurgisnight (see the same letter and that to his mother of Nov. 28, 1842). That intention was

director

not, however, carried out.

1841 to 618. Fasch died in 1800, and was succeeded in the

'

'

SINGAKADEMIE,

G.

The, Beklin, one of the most important art -institutions in Germany. Its founder was Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch, born 1736 and appointed in 1756 cembalist to Frederick the Great of Prussia, after whose death

proficiency at this, before being allowed to join the main body. The numbers rose in 1788 to 114, in 1813 to 301, in 1827 to 436, and in

directorship

An

by his pupil Carl Friedrich

Zelter.

attempt to bring in Mendelssohn having failed, Zelter was succeeded by Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen (1832 to 1851) and he by Eduard

SINGING

SINGING

Grell, who relinquished the directorship in 1876, on account of hia advanced age, but retained a seat and vote in the committee, with the title of honorary director. Martin Blumner, the next conductor, was bom in 1827, and ap-

Music demands a high development of a particular sense, the foundation of which is inborn, though its perfection requires cultiva-

August

pointed in 1870

;

[he wrote a history of the

which was published in 1891, and shortly before his death in 1901 the present conductor, Georg Schumann, was appointed.] p. s. Society,

SINGING

is the musical expression of the part of our natm-al condition to possess organs for the production of sound, and perceptions to make them musical, and being thus equipped, it is but natural that the art of music should be intimately associated with

voice.

human

It

is

life.

many of the other animals, we express our pain, sorrow, joy, pleasure, hunger, rage, satisfaction, and love, in sounds which have their vital and instinctive meaning like any of the actions or gestures associated with the elemental functions of human nature. We have no more necessity than they have, however imitative we may be, to look to external phenomena for the origin of this wonderful possession. It is natural to the infant to cry when it is cold or hungry, and crow when it is pleased. So, with the growth of sensibility and perception, a little child knows how to plead with its voice, in tones quite different fi'om those of mere asking, without any vocal training whatever. The same instinct which has enabled the child to appeal to its parents and fellowcreatures, has taught man to appi-oach his God with praise and supplication. But the most remarkable indication of the instinctiveness of song is the characteristic growth of the voice organs at the outset of manhood and womanhood. It is as if the full development of the body were crowned with the completion of the instruments of sound, which express with such particular eloquence the passions and emotions attendant upon the great mystery of sex. Through the growth and refinement of our perceptions, the art of singing becomes the musical expression of every emotion suggested by thought and imagination. It not infrequently happens that individuals are bom to attain by the light of nature to a high degi'ee of perfection in this art ; and even when this is not so, the inherent sincerity of imperfect singing can sometimes appeal more powerfully to our feelings than the most efficient While the whole of training could make it do. humanity is probably in some measure acquainted with the feeling of a desire to sing, and the form and condition of the vocal instruments appear to be as a rule normally fitted for the production of musical sound, the wonder is But there is no that everybody cannot do it. Like

doubt that the fault lies more often in defective musical perception than in the condition of the organs of voice.

459

there are individuals who ; and therefore have all the materials for singing, but are still without the faculty of using them for that purpose. Another important obstacle to the acquirement of the power of singing is that, with the intellectual development of the race tion

has arisen a

demand

and

which often

diction,

for perfection in speech

interferes

with the

process of vocal training. It should be remembered that language is a purely artificial acquisition of mankind. all have to spend years in acquii-ing habits of speech so that we may understand and explain th« ordinary cu'cumstances of life. So local is this, that we grow up speaking the language which prevails around us, by the simple process of imitation, without thinking whether its sounds are musical or not, and this introduces a series of common difficulties which are more linguistic than vocal, and which will be con-

We

more fuUy

sidered

It thus

later on.

becomes apparent that the art of

singing has within it a great deal that is quite outside the province of music. For although the musical expression of the voice is of prime importance, the whole foundations of the instruments involved belong strictly to the province of Physiology, like any of the other natural functions of the body, and by far the greater shsire of its educational side belongs to the study of the speech organs. The science of Phonology (i.e. the science of vocal sound) has been specialised from its parent science of Physiology, so that it may occupy itself solely with the study of all the problems involved in this important subject, and, by an obligatory knowledge of music and languages, carry out its conclusions in the service of the art.

The is

fu-st

step towards understanding singing

to acquire a

knowledge of the forces and it employs, and their phono-

instruments which

logical outline should, therefore,

he made clear

before the fuller details are filled in. The voice is built upon the same physical principles as a reed-pipe of a chm-ch organ. There is (1) a wind-chest in which the air is

compressed (2) a produces the sound

'

;

gives

it

;

reed

and

'

which vibrates and which

(3) a resonator,

certain qualities.

By

the act of breathing out, we compress the air which has been taken into the chest. This force in being liberated causes (2) the Vocal reed ' to vibrate when we bring it into position and the sound thus produced is then modified by (3) the Resonator, formed by the hollows in the neck, mouth, and nose, which give quality to the sound, and impress upon it the characteristics of language. Under these headings the components of the (1)

'

— SINGING

460

and their more complex combined performances are then more

SINGING

voice can be studied separately,

diaphragm

is is

easily understood.

contraction wall caused

hidden and the evidence of its the protrusion of the abdominal

by lowering the roof of that cavity. use of the diaphragm than women, whose upper ribs are more movable,

Men make more

but singers of both sexes have to make good use of both diaphragm and ribs. There are reasons, especially in women, against the extreme use of the diaphragm on account of the pressure it exerts upon the abdominal organs, besides the difiiculty of controlling the This has caused a great breath when so taken. deal of misunderstanding between doctors and

—

The Breath. Theordinarybreathingof everyday life brings oxygen into contact with the blood in the lungs and carries carbonic acid away from it. Elevation of the ribs expands the chest and increases its circumference, and the contraction of the diaphragm lowers its floor and enlarges its capacity in a

The two

downward direction. and draw a suffi-

actions go on together

volume of fresh air (30 cubic inches) into the lungs with a slow, easy movement. The used air is more c[uickly emitted, principally by the elastic recoil of the lungs and chest, and after that there is a slight pause. This occurs about fifteen times a minute. Its Breathing for singing is very different. whole object is to maintain a long and wellregulated air-pressure for the production of sound. A full breath must often be taken very rapidly, and then kept in a state of controlled Thus compression for as much as 20 seconds. the number of respirations possible in a minute may be reduced to a minimum. This necessitates a much larger volume of breath than is ordinarily needed, not only for the length of time the sound may have to continue, but also for the supply of oxygen to the blood. The first point is, therefore, to secure the power of taking in a large volume of air as quickly as possible. The second point is to give it out with carefully regulated force, for upon this the controlled production of sound entirely depends. Breathing in. The largest amount of air can be inhaled by the properly combined action of raising the ribs (costal breathing) and of contracting the diaphragm (diaphragmatic The latter has also been called breathing). abdominal " breathing, from the fact that the cient

—

'

'

singing-masters, and has produced extreme views on either side, neither of which can be supported by phonology. When the ribs are fully raised, and especially the lower ones (6th-10th) which are the most elastic and movable, and correspond to the thickest part of the lungs, not only is the circumference of the chest increased and its floor widened, but the roof and upper part of the abdomen is also enlarged. Under these circumstances a considerable contraction of the diaphragm will cause no more than a protrusion of the upper part of the abdomen, that is,' above the waist and between the margins of the ribs in front, without causing any harmful pressure upon the abdominal organs. The more the lower ribs expand, the more the diaphragm may descend with impunity, and a large in-take It of breath can be obtained without danger. has been called ' Central breathing, because the principal expansion takes place in the centre at the level of the space between the 6 th and 7 th ribs, and is designed to promote a good proportion of both actions, and to avoid the disproportionate or exclusive use of either the too high costal and clavicular breathing, or the too low purely abdominal breathing, both of which are sometimes advocated by extremists. Breathing out. In order to secure an even and continuous air-pressure three forces have to be considered : 1. The elastic recoil of the inflated lungs and expanded chest 2. The contraction of abdominal muscles that assist the relaxed diaphragm to return to its place ; and 3. The contraction of muscles that pull down the ribs. The elastic recoil does most of the work in ordinary breathing out, and is most useful in producing sound, only it is a force that begins with a maximum and rapidly diminishes. To make the force continuous, it must be augmented by one of the others. These may If they act together act together or separately. they must maintain their proper proportion If they act separately the diathroughout. phragm must be replaced by abdominal contraction first, that is, before the ribs are allowed to. descend, for, as has already been stated, the '

—

;

SINGING

SINGING

461

edges of the membranes they

subsidence of the expanded chest while the diaphragm is contracted, causes too much ab-

ticity

dominal distension. Those who have developed a good expansion of the lower ribs will be able to maintain that expansion while the diaphragm is supported by the abdominal muscles, and the upper part of the abdomen becomes concave before the ribs are allowed to descend. In this manner very great delicacy in breath-control can be exercised. When the capacity is large enough the ribs can be kept expanded while the diaphragm moves to and fro, opposed by the abdominal muscles, and thus the breathing both in and out becomes This is entii-ely diaphragmatic or alidominal. the only form in which this is permissible, namely, when the ribs are fully expanded all the time and the movement of the abdominal wall is confined to the region above the waist. Towards the end of a very long phrase, howIt is ever, the ribs will have to come down. better then, that only the lower ribs should be relaxed while the upper ribs remain raised as part of a permanent position. The permanent expansion of the ribs is partly secured by straightening the upper part of the spine in standing or sitting up straight, and the

which govern the action of reeds in general. This may happen before the whole passage is occluded, and a soft breathy note is produced, but the reed acts most strongly and perfectly when the two cartilages are brought into close contact, so that the whole air-pressure acts upon the vibrating edges of the membranes, and is

larger

lungs

amount is

of residual air retained in the

of great value in maintaining continuity

of air-pressure

and

'

'

'

'

converted into sound. Singing is practically confined to the last position. The tremor of the elastic membranes rapidly opens and closes the fine slit between their edges and releases the air-pressure in a quick succession of minute puffs. One group of muscles regulates the movements of the small triangular cartilages, by the action of which the membranes are brought together and drawn aside. Another group is concerned with tightening and loosening the membranes, and thereby regulates the tension upon which the rapidity of their vibration depends. Every vocal reed may be expected to have a compass of two octaves which can be controlled by this function of tension and relaxation, and it must not be forgotten that this tension is an unconscious act guided solely by sound perception or ' ear,' and cannot be appreciated by any muscular sense as in the case of a voluntary

movement.

tone.

It will be noted that the

of the

vibrate, in accordance with the physical laws

form of breathing here

explained and advocated is practically invisible. It is also designed to add to volume, the continuity and control of air-pressure necessary The permanent expansion of to good phrasing. the ribs also assists resonation in the neck, an

advantage which will be dealt with later. The vocal reed is formed by two elastic membranes or cords which can be drawn together from their position of rest, so that they meet like curtains, and completely close the air-passage at the upper end of the windpipe, where the larynx begins. Their front ends are fixed close together to the shield cartilage, and behind they are attached to two small triangular cartilages which move very freely upon the thick ringDuring shaped cartilage supporting them. breathing in they are wide apart, and during In breathing out they approach one another. the act of whispering, they are definitely drawn, so as to reduce the opening between their edges considerably. As soon as air-pressure acts upon the elas-

The general pitch of every voice

is

determined

by the size of the membranes. In men they are both wider and thicker than in women, and their length is generally estimated at

^ths of an inch and ^ths

of an inch in

about

women.

Roughly speaking, the male voice is about an octave lower than the female, but in either sex all degrees of general pitch exist between certain limits. For convenience three types are usually considered high, low, and middle. The maj ority of voices are near the middle type in both sexes, while exceptional instances of abnormally high or low are sometimes met with. The male Alto voice has an intermediate position between the two gi-oups, but being an unnatural product it cannot be considered with the others. Thus every voice has its middle note whence if may be expected to range to the extent of an octave upwards and downwards by performing In the figure the the same muscular action. middle note of each voice is indicated by a double vertical line. _Soprano_

—

SINGING

462

SINGING

Besides the tension of the membranes there another physical condition which undergoes variation with every change of pitch, and that is the air-pressure exerted by the breath.

is

From experiments (M'Kendriok,

Schdfer's

Physiology) it is found that the air-pressure varies in about the same ratio as the tension. Therefore, in a general plan of the vocal compass the middle note may be regarded as the

product of both mean tension and mean

The

air-

tension is well known to vary in the ratio of the square of the vibrations, and thus both the tension and air-pressure may be represented by the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, while the vibrations are as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in the pressure.

diagram appended. Pressure and Tension.

Vibrations.

SINGING

SINGING

slight cough before a note in order to secure a distinct attack upon it. *

Above the vocal membranes and with them are two muscular

parallel

folds called the

vocal cords, or ventricular bands. In conjunction with the muscles that bring the membranes together, they form a strong constrictor of the air-passage, to close it firmly when reijuii'ed. This occurs always in swallowing, when the chest has to be held inflated to support a strong muscular action, and also in coughing. The elastic vocal membranes are themselves unable to restrain any air-pressure in the chest, so it was thought necessary to accumulate a little force by constriction with these ventricular bands, and by suddenly relaxing them to allow the force to impinge upon the membranes which were supposed to be held in There is no readiness for the sudden shock. doubt that a crisp attack can be effected in this way, but the sound of the note is always preceded by an explosive noise however lightly it may be done. The first phonological objection to this shook of the glottis ' {amp de glotte) is that it is quite unnecessary. When the breath is under control and intimately associated ss it ought to be with the production of sound, the simultaneous onset of breath force and the proper approximation of the membranes produces a perfectly clear and clean attack, straight upon the note by the ordinary natural action performed with decision. The introduction of any constriction above the reed cannot be regarded as a natural part Moreover, the quasiof the action of attack. spasmodic act of constriction produces often an unduly hard attack which is not good for the vocal reed, and its constant repetition produces false

'

congestion of the parts around the cartilages, and a troublesome desire to clear the throat. Phonology insists that the production of sound is always the result of an expiratory act, and that every sound effect, whether it be strong or soft, quick or gradual, must be the outcome of a similar intention in the breath control. Such control leaves the throat free to its unconscious action, which would be destroyed by any muscular constriction in tlie larynx. The ' shock of the glottis is part of a timeworn tradition in the teaching of singing, and is often heard in voices that are beautiful as well as in those that are hard and throaty ; it is sometimes regarded as essential to the proper pronunciation of German and some other '

languages of a guttural nature, but artificial fashions of speech cannot be tolerated if they are opposed to the natural uses of the voice organs. The cessation of a note is brought about by As a rule the withdrawal of the membranes. the membranes spring back elastically to their open position, and some breath pressure escapes in a puff after the note. escape,

The amount

and consequently the sound

it

463

a matter of breath -control. A high note is naturally followed by a strong burst, because the pressure is higher than that of a low is

The free release, as this is called, is not objected to in operatic singing, and there is nothing to say against it on phonological grounds. Moreover, it is useful in getting rid of carbonic acid, and in facilitating the quick taking of another breath. It may, therefore, be left to discretion, to make the sound of the release inaudible by breath-control. Under no circumstances should the note be note.

stopped by constriction of any part of the throat, is frequently sissooiated with the equally detrimental attack by shock just referred to. Many singers deceive themselves in the belief that their throats remain open when their notes cease. One of the difficulties in sliowing the natural behaviour of the vocal membranes with the laryngoscope is that the power of tolerating a mirror in the back of the throat itself requiresa long course of training without which the organs under observation cannot act naturally. The second vocal instrument, the Hesonatm; belongs, as such, to a later date in the evolution of the voice as we now hear it. The particular function of the Ilesonator, which warrants its being treated as a separate instrument, is its power of modifying sound by assuming different shapes, which is made use of in the formation

which

'

'

of language.

Every hollow space enclosed within walls but communicating with the outer air, is capable of allowing only certain sound vibrations or waves to continue within it. This is called its Resonant note, and its pitch corresponds with the size, and its character with the shape, of

The pitch is the resonant cavity or Resonator. Partly also affected by the size of its opening. closing it not only changes the character of the note, but also lowers its pitch. In the case of the voice, in which the reed is strong and the Resonator comparatively weak, much of the fulness of the sound must depend upon keeping the openings free. At the same time the cavities should be made as large as possible in order to keep their resonant pitches low, and thereby impart a richer tone to the voice.

The size

men

;

in

of the Resonator varies a little among is about 20 per cent smaller,

women it

and in children, smaller still. But all, by the same physiological action, can bring it into similar positions, and thus it is the shape of the Resonator that gives characteristic qualities and language is as intelligible in the mouth of a child as in that of a giant. The sounds of language are divided into two to speech,

groups. 1.

Vowel sounds, due

to

open and expanded

of this

positions of the Resonator suitable for continuous

makes,

sounds of the best possible quality.

— SINGING

SINGING

464 2.

'

due to more or

Consonants,

and movements

lesa closed

of the

Resonator which give certain characters to the approach to and departm-e from the vowel positions. The position of the Resonator in forming the vowel sounds is a most important question in the art of singing. So much latitude is permitted in ordinary speaking that pronunciation in singing has been looked upon as something quite different from it. But when the sound of the voice is at its best, the Resonator is in the position most favourable to sound. This principle applies as strongly to speaking as it does to singing, and when singers do not sing as they would speak, it is either because they do not speak properly, or they do not use the Resonator

positions,

breath passing into the nose, but without any conscious

effort.

expanded by the combined the head erect, the ribs and drawing down the larynx, more

The neck actions raised,

is fully

of holding

by the action of the sterno- thyroid muscles which act upon the larynx from below, than by the sterno-hyoid muscles which bring down the This position has the form base of the tongue. of a double Resonator, with two principal resonance chambers uniting in the middle at right angles, where they are joined by a third accessory chamber, the nose. The back chamber in the neck is shaped like a bag, wide below, where the vocal reed is placed,

It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that the principles of good resonation are carefully adhered to from the first, speech, being solely a matter of education, can always be made

and narrow above, where it opens into the back The front of the mouth by an oval opening. chamber, in the mouth, is shaped like an irregular hemisphere, with a flat floor and an arched roof and a large round opening in front. Although the whole Resonator acts as one, the back chamber may be said to have most to

beautiful.

do with the

naturally. if

This is generally neglected in our schools, where children learn their habits of speech, but it is absolutely essential to singing, and not infrequently it happens that a great part of vocal training is spent upon teaching a singer to use the Resonator properly, for the first time. Vowel Sounds. In studying the sounds belonging to the five signs U, 0, A, E, I, the Italian pronunciation is here adopted

—

English Equivalent

U

O

A

E

I

(oo)

(oi)

(ah)

(eh)

(ee)

The position A is that in which the whole passage is open and expanded to the fullest extent convenient (natural habits never go to extremes), and from it the others are differentiated by two principal actions. 1. Closure of the opening by the lips, and 2. Raising and advancing the body of the tongue.

full resonation of vocal sound while to the more variable cavity of the mouth is given the office of forming all the characterThe accessory cavity of the istics of language. nose adds to the sound the nasal resonance when required, through the opening controlled by the soft palate. The resonant properties of cavities are demonstrated by blowing a stream of air through or across them, so that their resonant notes can be heard by themselves. This The partly occurs in the whispering voice. closed glottis allows the breath to rush through it without producing any vocal note, and the rushing sound awakens the resonant notes of the air-chambers so distinctly that not only are all the qualities of language distinguishable, but with a little practice the pitch of the resonant notes of the various yowel sounds can bedetected. These notes are mostdistinct, and deeplypitched in the whispering here employed, which requires a fully expanded and open Resonator and a reef out-breath with no constriction of the throat whatever. Following these rules the pitch of the vowel A is commonly found to be c" or c"l( among men and about a minor third higher c"b or e" ;

—

among women. The double nature

A

of the Resonator can be

taken as the basis of our Resonation, its position must be closely defined. The jaw is open at least an inch between the

shown by introducing a tuning-fork of the

front teeth.

at the junction of the two chambers, ^as would

Since

The

is

lips are at rest

upon the

teeth,

and not

retracted at the sides.

The tongue lies flat upon the floor of the mouth with its tip and margins touching the backs of the lower teeth. The base of the tongue is flat enough to make the back of the throat visible from the front.

The

palate

is

held up just enough to prevent

A strong reinforceright pitch, into the throat. ment occurs in that position indicating a ' node be expected. The resonant note may, therefore, be said to belong to both the mouth and the This is an imneck cavity acting in unison. portant acoustical point, which receives further confirmation in the formation of the other vowels.

The first group of vowels derived from A, by closing the opening with the lips, are three which is the most closed. varieties of 0, and

U

— SINGING

SINGING By various degrees of this action, but keeping the jaw still open to the extent of an inch between the front teeth, the positions are obtained for

465

J. Average

^

Man

:

English Equivalent

A

03

02

01

U

all

not

or

oh

oo.

By every successive degree of closing, the pitch of the resonant note is lowered, and thus are indicated the several positions which produce the notes of a scale as a simple way of fixing them.

By rounding

the lips enough to lower the

A a whole fifth, a good resonant position found for U (oo), and the deep, middle, and

pitch of is

shallow forma of

find their proper places intervening. in practice, as well as in physiological works, that with the closure of the lips there is at the same time a lowering of the larynx and a slight raising of the base of the tongue. Both these actions tend to enlarge

upon the three notes It win be noticed

and

close in the

chamber in the neck, and by

thus lowering its pitch, they maintain the unison of the two chambers, as may be further shown by tapping the cheek and the neck, when both are found to possess the same note. Whispered Besonances. Areragi

The second group

of vowel sounds owe their character to the position of the tongue. The jaw remains open about an inch as before, then the tongue, with its tip against the back of

the front teeth, advances and rises. The lips remain still, the larynx- is drawn upwards by the movement of the tongue, but this is restrained to some extent by maintaining the expansion of the neck as in the position of A. This action raises the resonant pitch of the mouth because it becomes gradually encroached upon by the body of the tongue, but while it makes the mouth cavity smaller, it makes the neck cavity larger. When the tongue is so far forward as to touch with its margin the upper molar teeth, the pitch of the mouth resonance may be raised a sixth and the neck resonance lowered a third. This is the position allotted to the vowel E (eh). A still further advance of the tongue to its extreme position, when it has raised the mouth resonance an octave, and lowered the Resonator Scale of

A Average

Man

Whispered JUsonances

Average

.

Woman

neck resonance a fifth, will give a suitable resonance to the vowel I (ee). The perfect concords of an octave (1 to 2) and a twelfth (1 to 3) established for the relation of the chambers in these two vowel sounds is not a mere accident. It is more probable that the selection of these sounds as pure vowel sounds in all languages, has been due to their

particular resonant advantages, for the

resonance of

a,

double resonator can only go

on perfectly when the component chambers

A

are either in unison or simply related. further point in the formation of the vowel

sounds E and two chambers

I, is

is

that the

orifice

between the

made smdUer by the approach

of the tongue to the hard palate. This lowers the pitch of both, so that the division of the chambers does not take place in linear measurement as upon a mouochord. Intermediate between A and E there are several positions which belong to some of the English vowel sounds in common use. The first movement of the tongue is principally forward, and enlarges the opening of the throat, raising the resonant pitch of both chambers while they remain in unison. This position belongs to the sounds of the unaccented a in alone, the u in 'up,' and the o in 'love.' But after this the unison can no longer be maintained owing to the disparity of the chambers, and we find their pitches a third apart, which is not very good for the resonation of the soimd er as in earth.' The shallow a as in hat has resonance chambers a fifth apart, and in the short S as in 'get' they differ by a sixth. Hence all these indefinitely resonated sounds are those which are more frequently varied in pronunciation than any others, and are the most difiicult Between E and I is the to fix in singing. short i as in hit,' in which the chambers are a tenth apart. The full Resonator Scale is therefore con'

'

'

'

'

'

structed as follows. The several positions are marked by Roman numbers to indicate them in relation to the pitch

for all voices

which governs that vidual case.

To

Vowel Sounds.

of A, of the others in each indi-

these

must be added in English

X

SINGING

466

the more open 'oo' sound in 'good,' 'would,' whioh is on I - between (oo) and Qi (oh).

U

etc.,

Besides these thirteen simple sounds in English there are several compounds which require a movement from one position to another while the breath continues.

-

—

SINGING

'

SINGING

SINGING

been confused by the

assumption that the tones of voice were produced by different actions of the vocal reed. The terms ' head register and ' chest register have, no doubt, been intended to mean conditions in which the singer has felt the sound in the head and in the chest. The former signifies the absence, and the latter the presence, of expansion in the neck. The chest itself is occupied with the airpressure and cannot be regai-ded as a resonator, since it is practically closed, except for the minute slit through which the pressui-e issues. The head register has been further confounded with the compression of the membranes which also occurs in the upper notes of many voices. Certain descriptions of the vocal membranes in explanation of the different registers have been given, and named lower thick, ' upper thick,' 'middle,' 'lower thin,' 'upper thin,' different

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

(Lennox Browne), but they have not been confirmed by further observation. As at present known the membranes behave in the same way throughout the entire compass, and their compression in the high notes must be regarded as a departure from the natural etc.

process.

The true high note requires a development of breath power and control, and it would be better for their instrument if singers would refrain from singing by compression, and be satisfied with the compass that their breath power can give them. High notes might become rarer, but their sound would be of better quality. Other forms of ' register diie to alternative resonation are used as the singer wishes to '

express different tone-colour.

But by

insisting

upon the maintenance of the double character of the Resonator with all articulation in the front of the mouth, and resonant control in the neck, there are no sudden changes which could produce an obligatory register.' Variety of colour due to control of the resonation of the neck may occur in all parts of the voice.' "When, however, the base of the tongue is pressed down so as to produce a heavy resonation in the mouth, at the expense of that in the neck, as well as to the detriment of good diction which requires the tongue to be free, it may readily occur that a sudden change has to be made near the middle of the voice, on passing from one note to the next. '

Phonology is as much opposed to fictitious tone as to fictitious notes, and prefers to sacrifice the heavy tone of a voice if it is not natural to it, that is, if it is not obtained by the natural actions which are known to govern the sounds of the voice, in this case by expansion of the neck. Therefore the so-called ' Registers cannot be That they are often accepted as natural. acquired is beyond doubt, but it is astonishing how they disappear when singers are relieved of the necessity of thinking about them. '

467

Phonology does not acknowledge some of the of singing teachers, but it is able to support, on rational grounds, some of the best traditions of the great masters, which are

common methods

the foundation of the following picture of the use of the singing voice. The singer stands erect with a broadly expanded chest. He takes a deep breath by expanding both chest and abdomen at the level of the 6th7th rib. He opens his mouth and throat to the

A

position suitable for the pronunciation of (ah), and at the same time he thinks of the note he

about to sing.

"Without allowing the ribs by breathing out with decision, by a contraction at the upper part of the abdomen and a simultaneous approximation of the vocal membranes. If the note is in the middle of his compass, he will sing a succession of notes up to an octave higher and down to an octave lower, and back again, without any movement of his mouth or ribs ; being conscious only of the breath force, which produces the notes he hears in his mind. The notes are lifted up and let down upon the breath pressure, controlled by the muscular action felt in the region of the lower ribs. By changing the position of the Resonator other vowel qualities can be given to the whole process, but under all circumstances the production of the notes remains the samer By movements of the resonator before and after the open vowel positions the effects of consonants can be introduced for the formation of words. By expanding the neck from below, a fuU resonant tone can be given, or withheld according to the ' colour required. The throat is always free, that is, relaxed, open, and unconscious. This is a brief picture of what singing is in the individual, illustrating the action of the two instruments which combine to produce the sound of the voice. The one instrument expresses in music the emotions of the soul, while the other expresses in words the poetic thoughts of the mind. It is the oflBce of the musical composer to bring these two together into the form is

to yield he strikes the note

'

of song.

Just as

it is essential

to the writer of vocal

music to understand thoroughly the technique of the living instrument for which he writes, '

so is it also a necessary part of singing to be acquainted with the manner in which the dual expression is conceived in the song. Phonology has supplied the singer with an absolutely material estimate of work to be done by the already referred voice, in the song diagrams to, but in order to show how the vocal instruments are to be used in the service of Art its analysis of song must be carried farther. As presented' upon the page, a song consists of a line of music written upon a stave, and a line of words below it, in ordinary character. It is evident therefore from the first that the vocal reed or instrument of music has to '

'

SINGING

468

SINGSPIEL

perform a musical composition while the resonator or instrument of speech has to perform a composition in verse. All that can be said about the performance of music by an insti-ument, or about the recitation of verse, is applicable to the vocal reed and the resonator, each by itself. The vocal reed, however, has two offices to perform. It is either behaving as a true instrument of music, giving utterance to feelings in the direct manner belonging to its nature, or it is lending itself as an instrument of sound to assist, by emphasis and inflexion, the sense of words. In the former case its action is melodic, in the latter, declamatory. The line of music may be intended by the composer to be interpreted in either of these senses, or it may happen that the feeling suggested by the words ia so perfectly treated in the application to it of a form of melody, that both are satisfied, and the song is both Examples of this melodic and declamatory. are rare, and it more often happens that either one or the other element predominates. Not infrequently, however, it occurs that they clash, so that neither is satisfactory. The rhythm of music, with its division into time measures, and the rhythm of words, with their arrangement into metrical verse, only indicate motion, and when these are applied to one another only the rhythm in which they may move together is emphasised, and This cannot be regarded as nothing more. song composition. It is the sense of words and not the sound The music that stimulates the musical sense. thus evolved may have no melodic form of its own, in which case it is declamatory, or it may add to the words the power of its own form of ;

expression and become melodic. Periodicity in poetic expression is as necessary to verse as it is to music, and the study of the works of Heine gives a striking illustration of its force. The period of two lines, in which he usually expressed his thoughts, presented to the musician the simplest foundation for melodic form, and how that appealed to the melodic genius of Schubert is seen distinctly in such a If other poets masterpiece as 'Am Meer. could speak with such measured simplicity and directness, the art of song would be richer than '

With a little analysis the poet's scheme of conveying a succession of ideas may next be It will not then be difficult to see detected. at once whether the composer has adapted these obvious.

ideas to a corresponding

scheme of melodic form,

or whether he has been content to use his music as a means of supporting the words only ; and the value of the music as depicting the poetic

intention can be readily estimated. It is not within the scope of this article to carry such analysis into the extensive field of Modem existing examples of song -writing. music is full of examples of declamatory song distorted and exaggerated by the musical exigencies of the pianoforte and orchestral accom-

paniment. The melodic form is regarded as a survival of the past which does not really belong to In present methods of musical expression. fact, the sound as well as the sense of the voice has been almost swamped by the wealth of instrumentation which is considered necessary How far this can be carried for modem ears. it is impossible to say, but it is quite possible that singing will soon be regarded as a separate form of art, and composers will either write for the voice, or for the orchestra, but not for both together'.

In estimating the general character of modern and ancient music the singer can thus realise what part it is that his voice has to take. Throughoutthe works of the old Italian, English, and German masters, up to the end of the 18th century, he will find abundant opportunity for the full exercise" of the natural instrument of song. A more highly cultured and intellectually restrained form was the outcome of the literary period which we owe to the German lyric poets, and perfection of diction, with a refined use of musical expression, characterises the ' Lied,' and those songs of other nations which are conceived upon that model. Of the vocal necessities of modern music no more need be said than that the singer must be able to realise the situation. The voice is a living thing, and can be ruined by the strain of singing too loud and too high, as only too many modern singers have discovered, but its powers of endurance, if properly treated, are remarkable, and every singer who understands his work

intention in singing, or the performance will be nothing more than the mechanical recitation of

ought to know where to stop. Besides an excellent technique and an intelligent sense for music and poetry, the singer only requires the sincerity which brings to his art the charm of his own personality. If any technique could possibly be learned in order to obtain that inestimable quality, phonology would certainly point to the exercise of tlie most truly vital of all human functions, and recommend the free and unhindered service of

words and notes.

the breath.

of the words is always to be considered first, since that is generally the most

SINGSPIEL. This term has been in use in Germany for the last 300 years to denote a

it is.

suiting of music to words may appear to be a subject belonging to the art of composition, but it is necessary to consider it from the

The

point of view of singing, since it forms the foundation of the singer's attitude of mind.

The

singer

cal ability,

must know how to direct his techniand must have some distinct mental

The sense

vi^.

A. A.

'

'

SINGSPIEL

SINGSPIEL

469

in 1627. The earliest instance of an independent German Singspiel with singing and spoken dialogue was Seelewig,' a In a sacred Waldgedicht or Freudenspiel.

dramatic representation with music not any one particular kind singing being capable of being employed in such various ways but any entertainment in which spoken dialogue and singing alternate. In time speech gave way at intervals not only to singing, but to singing by several voices at once. Latei-, when the spoken dialogue had been brought into entire subjection to music,

by Heinrich Schutz

Nos.

4,

5,

6)

by Siegmund Gottlieb Stadek.

was the case in Italy after the revolution effected in the whole nature of dramatic representation by the rise of opera, not only concerted

The

piece

is

intended for private perform-

ance,

and written

;

—

—

as

vocal pieces were introduced into the Singspiel, but instrumental music

monody

German

and its i^rot^g^

We

find the earliest traces of the German miracle -plays, which were gradually developed outside the churches from the Passions given inside them. The Passions were sung throughout, while in the miracle-plays spoken words in German were introduced, the singing still being in Latin, as for example in the Ludus pasohalis de passione Domini' MS. of the 13th century. In course of time the Latin text and consequently the music were thrust into the background. In a 14th-century MS. called Marienklage,' preserved in the convent of Lichtenthal near Baden, Mary sings in German. Indeed we already find the typical German miracle-play in the Spiel von den zehn Jungfrauen performed at Eisenach in 1322, in which all the words sung are German. These plays were generally performed on the eves of the great festivals, such Gradually the as Whitsunday, Epiphany, etc. ecclesiastical element disappeared, leaving only the secular, and thus originated the Shrove Tuesday plays, in which the characteristics of

the

as well. Singspiel in

'

'

'

'

whole

classes of society, priests, doctors, travelling scholars, etc., were held up to ridicule. Nuremberg and Augsburg were specially cele-

brated for these plays, written for the most part by Hans Kosenblut (about 1405), Hans Folz of Worms (about 1480), both living in Nuremberg, and Nicolaus Mercator. They gradually, however, degenerated into obscene pieces, until in the 16tli century Hans Sachs and Jakob Ayrer (both of whom introduced music into their plays) started the movement which ended in the reBy Ayrer formation of the German stage. we still have a 'SchiJns neus singets Spiel,' ' Der Munch im Kesskorb,' sung in 1618 by five persons entirely on the melody of the English Roland.' This melody is repeated fifty-four times, and one cannot help suspecting that the English stage was to some extent Ayrer's model. A reaction from these ' people's plays (as they might be called) was caused by the school plays in Latin, annually performed by the pupils of Between the acts German interthe Jesuits. ludes with music were introduced, and these were The virtually Singspiele in the modern sense. first Singspiel in imitation of the Italian opera without any spoken dialogue was the lost ' Dafne,' written by Martin Opitz and composed '

'

'

'

spoken play of Harsdorffer's (1644) were introduced Arias after the Italian manner, composed (see the Monaishefte fur MiisikgescMchie, 1881,

two

two

for three trebles,

altos,

tenors, one bass, three violins, three flutes,

three reeds, and one large horn, the bass being taken throughout by a theorbo. No two voices ever sing at the same time, and the insti'uments

have short symphonies to themselves. The only regular stage at that time was the Italian operahouse of each capital (that of Vienna being built in 1651, and that of Dresden in 1667) and of

Nuremberg and other Imperial cities. The German Singspiel found a home in Hamburg in the theatre built in 1678, but soon encountered a formidable rival in German opera, founded by Eeinhard Keiser. After this, half a century went by before the Singspiel was heard of again. In 1743 the Dobbelin company in Berlin produced without success a German Liederspiel, Der Teufel ist los, founded on the English piece 'The Devil to pay,' followed by Sohiirer's 'Doris'(l747)andScheibe's'Thusnelda'(1749), both very successful. Thus encouraged, Koch's company began to play Singspiele in Leipzig, Weimar, and Berlin, their first piece being Die verwandelfen Weiber,' another version of 'The Devil to pay, written by C. F. Weisse, composed by J. A. Hiller, and produced at Leipzig in 1764 with great success. The same authors produced a succession of similar pieces, ' Der lustige Schuster' (1765), 'Lottchen am Hofe,' and ' Die Liebe auf dem Lande (1 767), Die Jagd Der Dorihar(1771), ' Aerndtekranz ' and bier' (1772). Neefe, Eeichardt, Stegemann, Schweitzer, and others, brought to perfection this new species, now called Operetta. Independently of all this going on in North Germany, the German Singspiel had sprung up in Vienna, starting, curiously enough, with ' Die doppelte Verwandlung (1767), an adaptation from the French 'Le Diable k quatre,' Sedaine's version of 'The Devil to pay.' Werner, Haydn's predecessor at Eisenstadt, had already produced at the Court Gei-man theatre a Tafelstiick {i.e. piece intended for private performance) .called Der Wienerische Tandelmarkt (1760). The marionette plays, of which '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Haydn was so fond, were Singspiele, and he supplied the court of Esterhaz with ' Philemon und Baucis' (1773), 'Genoveva' (1777), 'Dido,' a parody on a grand opera (1778), and 'Die ' erfuUte Eache (1780). Der krumme Teufel,' to words by Kurz, was a real Singspiel. Ditters'

dorfs 'Doctor und Apotheker,' 'Liebe im Narrenhause,' Hieronymus Knicker,' 'Eothe Kappchen,' etc., produced at the Imperial '

;

SINIGAGLIA

470

SIR BOGER DE COVEELY

were brilliant successes. Kauer (1751-1831) composed no fewer than 200 Singspiele, and Schenk was almost equally prolific. The classic Singapiel was founded by Mozart with his 'Entfiihrung' (July 12, 1782), which, according to Goethe, threw everything else of the kind into the shade. The 'Zauberflbte' (1791), too, was styled a Singspiel on the titlepage of the PF. score. From this point the Singspiel proper becomes continually rarer, though Wenzel Miiller's 'Schwester von Prag,' 'Das neue Sonntagskind," and a few more deserve mention. Lortzing's works are a mixture of opera and Singspiel, certain numbers in the ' Czaar und Zimmermann,' Waffenschmied, and Undine being quite in the Liedstyle, and the music consequently of secondary importance, while in others the music undoubtedly assists in developing the characters, liTationaltheater,

'

'

'

and

'

raises these portions to the dignity of opera.

We

are here brought face to face with the main and Singspiel ; the latter by no means excludes occasional recitative in place of the spoken dialogue, but the moment distinction between Opera

the

music

develop the dramatic d^noument we have to do with Opera and not with Singspiel. F. a. SINIGAGLIA, Leone, born at Turin, August 14, 1868, was a pupil of the Oouservatorio of his native city, and subsequently studied with Mandyczewski in Vienna, where he enjoyed the friendship and advice of DvoMk, Goldmark, and other musicians. His early works include a

number

helps

to

new

steps, that the original form of the dance seems to have been distinguished by the name It is frequently mentioned by the Cinq Pas. Elizabethan writers, well-known examples being the allusions in Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing' (Act ii. So. 1), 'Twelfth Night' (Act Satiromastix (Act i.), i. Sc. 3), Marston's and Sir John Davies's Orchestra (stanza 67). The following less-known quotation is from the Histriomastix (Part 1) of Prynne (who was Alas especially bitter against this dance) there are. but few who finde that narrow way Not and those few what are they ? dancers, but mourners not laughers, but weepers whose tune is Lachrymae, whose musicke, sighes for sinne ; who know no other Cinqua-pace but this to Heaven, to goe mourning all the day long for their iniquities to mourne in secret like Doves, to chatter like Cranes for their owne and others sinnes.' The following example of a Cinque-pace is given by Wolfgang Caspar Printz, in his Phrynis Mitilenaeus, oder Satyrischer Componist (Dresden, 1696), as a specimen of Trichonum lambicum.' A longer example will be found in Dauney's edition of the 17th-century Skene MS. (Edinburgh, 1838). '

'

'

'

'

'

'

:

.

.

.

:

;

;

'

of violin and violoncello pieces, songs,

female choruses, etc., and one of these, op. 5, a concert ^tude ' for string quartet, was often played by the Bohemian Quartet. His op. 19 is a set of variations on Schubert's ' Haidenroslein for oboe and piano ; op. 20 is a brilliant and very successful violin concerto in A op. 22 is a set of variations on a theme by Brahms, for quartet op. 26 is a Eapsodia piemontese ' for violin and orchestra ; and op. 27 is a string quartet in D, which has won great favour from many of the continental

W.

'

'

;

'

;

organisations.

Two

pieces for

horn and piano,

A

for violin and 28, and a romance in orchestra, are among his more recent works

op.

and two

' Danze piemontese for orchestra, op. 31, are arrangements of genuine popular themes. '

These have been arranged in a variety of ways, and are very successful. M. SINK-A-PACE also written Cinque-pace, CiNQUA-PAOE, CiNQtTE PaSS, OlNQUB PAS, SiNQUA-PACE, SiNQUB-PACE, ZiNCK-PASS and SiNCOPAS a name by which the original Galliard was known. Praetorius (Syntagma Mus.

—

—

chap.

24) says that a Galliard therefore called a Cinque Pas. These five steps, or rather combinations of steps, are well described in Arbeau's OrcMsographie (Langres, 1588). In later times the Galliard became so altered by the addition of

vol.

has

iii.

'

five steps

ii.

and

p.

is

SIE

B. S.

ROGER DE COVERLY,i

the only one of the numerous old English dances which has retained its popularity until the present day, is probably a tune of north-country origin. Mr. Chappell (Popular Music, vol. ii.) says that he possesses a MS. version of it called Old Roger of Ooverlay for evermore, a Lancashire Hornpipe,' and in The First and Second Division Violin' (in the British Museum Catalogue attributed to John Eocles, and dated 1705) another version of it is entitled Roger of Coverly the true Cheisere way.' Moreover, the Calverley family, from one of whose ancestors the tune is said to derive its name,^ have been from time immemorial inhabitants of the Yorkshire village which bears their name. The editor of the Skene MS. on the strength of a MS. version dated 1706, claims the tune as Scotch, and says that it is well known north of the "Tweed as 'The Maltman comes on Monday.' According to Dr. Rimbault (Notes and Queries, i. No. 8), the earliest printed version of it occurs in Playford's 'Division VioUn' (1685). In 'The Dancing Master' it is first found at page 167 '

'

'

,

1 Or more correctly 'Boger of Coverly.' The prefix Sir' is not found until after Steele and Addison had used the name in the '

SpcBttUor. 2

See Ifatea

and

Queries, vol.

i.

No,

23, p. 368.

— SIR ROGER DE COVERLY

SIREN

of the 9th edition, published in 1695, where the tune and directions for the dance are given exactly as follows

tune stands as follows, although the Scottish scordatura is likely to puzzle the casual reader, since the first notes which appear as G, A, B, sound A, B, C, D. (See Scoedatuka.) It is well known that the name Roger was bestowed upon the Royalists during the Civil War, and it is suggested that Ooverly is * really a corruption of Cavalier.' As the dance, later, was almost invariably used at the conclusion of a ball, it was frequently called 'The Finishing Dance.' See Wilson's Companion to the Ball-Boom, circa 1816, and Chappell's Popular Music for the modern figure. According to an early correspondent of Notes and Queries, the tune was known in Virginia, U.S.A., as My Aunt Margery.' r. K. SIREN. This, though not strictly a musical instrument, has rendered such good service to acoustical science that it deserves brief notice for fuller details the works referred to below must be consulted. Lord Eayleigh ' describes it as 'a stiff disc, capable of revolving about its centre, and pierced with one or more sets of holes arranged at equal intervals round the circumference of ch-cles concentric with the disc. A windpipe in connection with bellows is presented perpendicularly to the disc, its open end being opposite to one of the circles, which contains a set of holes. When the bellows are worked, the stream of air escapes freely if a hole is opposite to the end of the pipe but otherwise it is obstructed. As the disc turns, puffs of air in succession escape through it, until when the velocity is sufiScient, these blend into a note the pitch of which rises continually with the rapid sequence of the puffs. One of the most important facts in the whole science of Acoustics is exemplified by the siren namely that the pitch of a note depends upon the period of its vibration. The size and shape of the holes, the force of the wind, and other elements of the problem may be varied but if the number of pufis in a given time, such as one second, remains unchanged, so does the pitch. We may even dispense with wind altogether, and produce a note by allowing a card to tap against the edges of the holes as they revolve the pitch will still be the same.' The Siren may be defined as a wind instrument, in which the successive air-waves are produced not at random or by consonance, but by circular rotatory motion, which is susceptible of accurate adjustment as well as measurement. It was originally invented by Cagniard de la Tour, who made it needlessly complicated by using the force of the wind to drive the rotating disc as well as to produce the required note. For this purpose the speaking holes in the top of the small wind-chest were pierced in' an oblique direction those in the disc sloping in an opposite diagonal. There was also a counting apparatus attached to the upper part of the

:

Moger of Longways

Ooiierly.

fbr as

many

471

'

'

as will.

'

'

'

^3^ The 1. man go below the 2. wo. then round, and so below the 2. man into his own place then the 1. wo. go below the 2. man, then round him, and so below the 2. wo. into her own place. The 1. cu. [lirst couple] cross over below the 2. cu. and take hands and turn round twice, then lead up through and cast off into the 2. cu. ;

place.

-W. B. S.

Scots song, ' The Maltman comes on Monday,' is not, as erroneously asserted by

The

Chappell, by Allan Eamsay, although it is inserted in the first volume of his Tea- Table Misoellany, 1724. The English title is not so easily disposed of.

The

2nd number, 1711, speaks of de Coverley as a gentleman of Worcestershire, and that 'His great grandfather was the inventor of the famous country dance which is called after him.' Fanciful as this is, it shows that the dance, Sir

Spectator,

Roger

that time, was considered an old one. Another origin for the name of the tune is based on a MS. in the writer's possession, For the violin, Patrick Gumming, inscribed Edinburgh, 1723.' At the end the his Book name is repeated, and the date 1724 given. The at

'

:

a^,.

TTie

Maltman, or Roger

datura [not given in the MS.).

the Cavalier.

'

;

;

—

;

;

;

1

Theory of Sound,

vol-

i,

p, 5.

472

SIRilNE,

main axis, with two number of rotations

SIEMEN

LA

dials for registering the in a given time. This

form has been faithfully reproduced in every

manual of Physics up to now.^ The name is said to have been somewhat fancifully, and indeed incorrectly, given it from Homer's Sirens, on account of its property of singing under water. It is true that if water be forced through it after the fashion of the Turbine, a buzzing or humming sound is produced. Seebeok and others effected material improvements, but the only two which need special notice are the instruments constructed by Helmholtz and Rudolph Komig respectively. The former is figured and described in that author's Tonempfindungeii,^

and

consists essentially of

two

sirens

united on a single axis, each disc of which possesses four rows of holes susceptible of being separately opened, thus giving means for producing a large variety of intervals. The upper wind-chest, whichlooksdownwards, can be rotated on its feeding-tube so as to bring about varying changes of phase between the two discs. With this instrument Helmholtz succeeded in producing excellent results, using a small electromotor for driving it at a uniform rate.

The Siren of M. Rudolph Kcenig of Paris is It was made a far more imposing instniment. for Vf. Spottiswoode, Esq., P.E.S., was exhibited by the writer at the British Association meeting at York in 1881, and is now in the physical laboratory of the College of Science at

It is furnished with more than a dozen rotating discs of different kinds, which fit on to a vertical spindle, above a wind-chest of large size fitted with a keyboard of eight notes. Bristol.

A

strong clockwork actuated by heavy weights forms the motive power, and an ingenious counting apparatus is made not only to record the number of rotations, but also to set going automatically a watch movement, and thus obtain by one motion of the observer's hand the speed of the disc, and the time of the By properly computing the rings observation. of perforations, the harmonic series is given by one disc, and the enharmonic scale by another. Indeed there is hardly any law of musical acoustics which it cannot be made to illustrate.^ For purposes of demonstration the siren is excellent, and also for the illustration of perfect liiusioal intervals ; but fortheacouratedetermination of absolute pitch it is far inferior to Lissajous's optical method ; and still more so to the tuning-forkmethod, described under Scheibler, and to Prof. M'Leod's Cycloscope. w. h. s. SIRENE, LA. Opera-comique in three acts ; .words by Scribe, music by Auber. Produced In at the Opi5ra-Comique, March 26, 1844. I Deschanel, jVot. P7tiIo or EC, contains 8 semitones, and the ratio of its limiting sounds is 8 5. It is also a concord, and in harmony regarded as the first inversion of the major common chord. (3) The augmented sixth, which is arrived at by flattening the lower. or sharpening the upper extreme sound of a major sixth, as D|> B, or Ab Fj, contains 10 semitones, and the ratio of the limiting :

:

125 72. The augmented sixth is a discord, and is usually resolved by moving each note a semitone outwards to the octave, the sharpening or flattening of one of the extreme sounds already implying a straining in that sounds

is

:

The Neapolitan Sixth is the name by which a chord consisting of a minor sixth and minor third on the subdominant has long been known as (d) in the key of C minor. ;

Theorists, starting from difierent radical as-

sumptions, suggest different derivations for this chord. Some, taking the major and minor scales to comprise all the notes which can be used for essential harmonies, except in the cases where important root notes in those scales bear fundamental harmonies on such principles as they accept, derive the chord from a combination of two roots ; so that the dominant is the root of the two lower notes which are respectively its seventh and minor ninth, and the tonic of the Others, acupper, which is its minor ninth. cepting the unquestionably frequent use of some chromatic harmonies in relation to an established Tonic, by many great masters, indicate the major concord on the minor or flat supertonio (as the major common chord of Db in relation to the Tonic 0) as one of them, and hold the Neapolitan sixth to be its first inversion. Others, again, hold this sixth to be found in the minor scale of the subdominant and others, yet further, that it is merely produced by the artifieial lowering of the sixth for artistic purposes, similar to the artificial sharpening of the fifth which is commonly met with and that its object may either be to bring the supertonic melodically nearer the Tonic in downward progression, or to soften the harshness which results from the augmented fourth in the chord of the sixth and minor third on the subdominant of the usual minor scale. In the theory which explains some chromatic combinations as reflections of the old ecclesiastical modes, this chord would spring from the use of the ecclesiastical Phrygian, which was the same as the Greek Doric mode. c. H. H. p. [Concerning one chord of the sixth, that on the supertonic of the key, a good n deal of doubtfully authoritative f^ .H '^ teaching has been made public, in regard to its use mainly in contrapuntal work. There is no doubt that the motion of all three parts is unimpeded though the B may usually proceed to C, the keynote, the F moves quite '

'

;

;

^

'

^

;

up to G as down to E. Yet a certain school of theorists still maintain that the chord is the second inversion of the dominant seventh with the root left out. (See Front, Warmony, as often

;

SKENE MANUSCRIPT

SJOGREN No explanap. 106.) concerning the freedom of motion which is admittedly allowed. The fact is that the chord was used commonly by the polyphonic masters long before the dominant seventh was considered as an essential part of the key. The circumstance that each of the upper parts makes a concord with the lowest was held to excuse the discord between the two upper parts, and the same liberty of movement was given as in the case of an undoubted concord. Its occurrence, with this obvious freedom of motion, in compositions of the madrigalian era, is too common 20th impression, 1903,

tion

to

is offered

need citation.]

SJOGREN", Emil, born June

6,

1853,

at

Stockholm studied first at the Conservatoire there, and afterwards at Berlin under Kiel for composition and Haupt for the organ. In 1884-85 he made tours through Europe, visiting Vienna, Munich, Venice, and Paris. During a stay at Mcran, he was for six months under the influence of Lange Miiller, which affected his work very deeply. Since 1891 Sjogren has been organist at the Yohannes-kyrka at Stockholm, where he has been employed in teaching, and in ;

composition of aU kinds

;

chiefly for piano solo,

and piano, and songs. He is a composer whose works do not display the almost exclusviolin

ively Scandinavian character of Grieg ; but who shows an infusion of German ideas. Among his

best -known works are 'Der Contrabandista,' op. 9, forbassvoice ; Erotikon,' op. 10, for piano '

Novelettes, op. 14, for piano ; the three Sonatas, op. 19, op. 24, op. 32, in G minor, E minor, and G minor, for violin and piano ; the two sonatas,

A

op. 44, in E minor and major Besides these Sjbgi-en has written a great number of melodies, and detached pieces for the piano, but up to the present time (1907) he has not produced any compositions in the symphonic style. He has also written much for the voice, asweU as manypiecesfor the organ. His music shows a certain amount of Scandinavian style, coupled with a warm emotionalism which D. H. is derived from more southern countries. SKENE MANUSCRIPT. A collection of airs, chiefly Scottish, though with a considerable admixture of foreign dance tunes and English vocal melodies, supposed to have been written at various dates between 1615 and 1635. In 1818 the MS. came into the possession of the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh, along with a charter chest of documents, by bequest from Miss Elizabeth Skene of Ourriehill and She was the last Hallyards in Midlothian. representative in line of the family, and greatgreat-granddaughter of John Skene of Hallyards, who died in 1644, and was the original possessor and probably also the writer of some parts of It consisted originally of seven the MS.

op.

35 and

for piano.

distinct parts, but these have since been bound together, and now form one tiny oblong volume It is written in tablature inches by 4^.

6J

479

a lute with five strings. As amateur scribes however were rarely correct, either in their barring or in marking the lengths of the notes, a translator into modern notation requires much patience, as well as knowledge and ingenuity, to decipher and correct the unfor

certainties

these

of

work

MSS.

In

the

present

was undertaken by George Farquhar Graham, whose fitness for the task is sufficiently shown by the article Music which he wrote for the 7th edition of the Erwydopxdia Britannica. In 1838 Mr. William Dauney, F.S. A.Scot., urged by his friends and encouraged by the members of the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs, published the instance the

of translation

'

'

with a very learned preliminary dissertation on the music of Scotland, and an appendix by Finlay Dun containing an analysis of the structure of Scottish music. [See Daunet, vol. i. p. 6646.] The MS. contains 115 airs of these 85 were published, 11 were found to be duplicates, and the rest were rejected as being either unintelti"anslation in 4to

;

The airs of Scottish origin appear to be about 45, of which 25 were previously unknown. Many of the latter are

ligible or uninteresting.

no doubt sufficiently commonplace in style, but a few are really fine melodies, worthy of a place in our present collections, and worthy of the attention of rising poets. In some instances the airs are in a simple unadorned vocal state, a few being even pentatonic of which Lady Rothiemay'sLilt,' 'LadyLaudian's Lilt,' and the first part of 'Kilt your coat, Maggie,' may be named as examples. In most cases the first '

;

half strain of the air

more

florid

—

;

this

is

simple, the repetition frequently followed by

is

variations or divisions as they were then called consisting of scale and other passages well fitted to show the dexterity of the player. Like many other Scots tunes, a considerable

—

number of the airs are either 'pentatonic or modal as regards their scale. The fact of so many duplicates being found in the MS. has caused the remark to be made that the seven parts must have belonged to different individuals. Nothing can be inferred Part III., howfrom the others in certain respects, and not improbably belonged to some other as to the date of either part. ever, differs

member

of the family. It is written for a lute all the others being for a lute ADADA. The only air that is said to bring the MS. down to a later date than has

tuned tuned

CFADG,

been claimed

(1635) occurs in Part VI. is ouer the sie with the souldier. This is the tune of an English ballad included in the catalogue issued by Thackeray in 1689. There is a copy of the ballad, printed about 1655, in the Euing collection of Glasgow University, and a still earlier copy in the Roxburghe Ballads and we learn from Chappell's list of the publishers of black-letter ballads

and

is

for it

named Peggie '

'

;

SKETCH

SKENE MANUSCRIPT

480

that its date is from 1620 to 1629, both prior The simple to the date claimed for the MS. Skene versions of some of our old melodies, two of which have already been given in this work

Scottish Music], show how

[see

little

we

really

The disof the early forms of our airs. covery in this MS. of these and of some other

know

unknown until the middle of the following century, proves that first appearance in print is no guide whatever to actual age. The tunes, otherwise

appearance also in

imknown

it

of so

many as 25 previously

airs leads to the belief

of ancient melodies

may have

that the loss been as great

even as that of songs, in regard to which Eitson, in a letter to George Paton, after enumerating about 120, adds that he believes he has the names of as many more, none of which he had ever been able to recover. Several of the parts of the Skene MS. contain airs which date themselves such as Ostend (taken 1604) Prince Henry's masque (1610) Lady Elizabeth's ;

;

;

masque (1613).

m the

List of the 115 tunes contained seven parts of the Skene MS.

The

first row of figures shows the order in which they appear in the original the second is that of Mr. Dauney's volume. The asterisks point out the duplicates, and the figures after the names show their place in the MS. The omitted tunes are marked by ;

The double dagger in the first line of figures between 29 and 30 shows the place of a tune omitted in Mr. Dauney's list. daggers.

PAET

I.

(24 leaveo.)

1. 38. 2. 40.

Male Simme. Doun in yoa banke.

3. 76.

SiUie Boule alace. Long ere ooie old man. The Spanislie Ladle. My deareab sueate la fardest fra me. 1 long for your verginitle. *48. Hutchesou's Oalzlard. Pitt in an inche and mair of it Frencli Tolt.

10.

4.

6. 63. 6.

8.

7. 41. 8.

t

9. 59.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

t

69. 47. 85. 60. 68. 42. 78. 36.

A

Lady Ellzabetli'e Maake. Kette Bairdie. Trumpeters Currand. * 50. Joy to tlie persone. Comedians maske.

Ademeis

Lilt.

Sommersetts Maske.

Jolin Devesonnes pint of wine. * 45. t Horreis Galziard. 20.64. Froggis Oalziard. 21. 22. 1 cannot Hue and want thee. 22. 20. 1 mett Iier in the medowe. 23. 9. Frettie well begunn man. 24. 67. Prince Henreis Maske. Flnia quod Skine.

PAET .

. .

t 37. 21. 1,

.

."M.

27. 30.

II.

Lady wilt thou love me. The lass o Glasguwe.

(8 leaves.)

(Fragment.)

Shoe looks as shoe wold lett me. Alace yat I came owr the moor and left me. • 42. Bone Jeane makis meikiU of me. Let never crueltie dishonour bewtie.

my

love behind

— SLIDE

SLIDE Menits construction. three little Capriccios, written in Wales for the cousins of Professor Taylor, and now known as op. 16, have also been published under the title of Sketches, and may fairly lay claim to it, though it was not given from the slightneas of

note, as in Ex. 3.

delssohn's

note.

to

them by the composer

himself.

Bach, Suite Fran5aise, No.

3.

principal

3.

^Written.

'

'

SLIDE.

(Ger. Schleifer

I.

;

Fr. Coul£).

An

ornament frequently met with in both vocal and instrumental music, although its English name has fallen into disuse. It consists of a rapid diatonic progression of three notes, either ascending or descending, of which the principal note, or note to be ornamented, is the third, and the other two are grace-notes, and are either written of small size (Ex. 1), or, in old music, indicated by an oblique line drawn towai ds the principal note from the note preceding (Ex. 2). 1.

The accent is on the

Schumann's

Skizzen ' for the pedal-pianoforte (op. 58), are of an altogether different class, and derive their name from the composer's modest appreciation of their calibre ; and Sterndale Bennett's three sketches (op. 10), 'The Lake,' 'The Millstream,' and The Fountain,' are among his best and most popular works. w. s. K. four

481

Beethoven,

Bagatelle, Op. 119, No. 5.

e3 _

Written.

When a note followed by another, one degree above or below it, is ornamented by a NackSCHLAG of two notes [vol. iii. p. 346, Ex. 8], the small notes present exactly tlie appearance of a slide to the second large note, and thus a misapprehension as to the proper rendering might arise. For according to the invariable rule of all grace-notes, the small notes of the Nachschlag would be executed during the latter portion of the value of the first large note (Ex. 4), but those of the slide not until the commencement of the second (Ex. 5). Properly, a slur should be introduced to connect the grace-notes with their own principal note, as in the examples this prevents the possibility of mistake, but in the absence of the slur and it is frequently omitted the performer must be guided by his own judgment. ;

—

—

*'•

^^E^^_z3=

4.

Nachschlag.

5.

SUds.

Written.

^pfei

Flayed.

Played.

^§^^^=83^1^

Chopim, Andante Spianato, Op. 22.

a.

Sometimes the

note of a slide is sustained In old music this was indicated by writing the extreme notes of the slide on a single stem, and drawing an oblique line between them, either upwards or downwards, according to the direction of the slide (Ex. 6). In modem music the same thing is expressed (though not very accurately) by means of a tie (Ex. 7). first

for the duration of the whole.

as in the FitzwilUam Virginal Book, the slide is indicated by a line crossing the stem of the note diagonally

Occasionally,

:

Written.

^^

g

Played.

^

1.

Schubert, 'Momens Musicals,' No.

3.

Vritten.

Another method of indicating it is by means of a direct (w) placed upon the degree of the stave on which the slide is to commence, and having its right extremity prolonged so as to extend to the position of the principal note (Ex. 3). The short notes of the slide are always executed within the value of the principal note, and not before it, and any note which may accompany it must fall together with the first

VOL. IV

Slides of greater extent than three notes are not infrequent groups of three notes leading to a principal note are often met with (Ex. 8), and slides of four and even more notes occasionally (Ex. 9). This extended slide is sometimes ;

2l

SLIDE

SLIDE

called Tirade or Tirata (from tvrare to draw, 'or to shoot). E. W. Wolf, in his Mudkalische

effect entirely depend upon the judgment of the player, but the following directions are generally observed (1) A ' slide is effected by allowing the linger already upon the string to move up or down to within a fourth or third Care should be taken to keep of the new note. the fingers strictly within the range of each new Another kind of ' slide is made by position. moving the finger over two or more adjoining semitones, without interruption. In imitation of the matchless legato which the human voice alone can attain, violinists frequently employ a ' slide limited to adjoining notes. A third ' slide is entirely of a brilliant type, and belongs to the virtuoso, par exoelleiwe, It consists having originated with Paganini. in executing chromatic passages, singly or in thirds, octaves, or other combinations, entirely with the same fingers. Paganini's music abounds in this species of 'slide,' as also do the compositions of the masters of the Belgian and French school, who adopted his methods. This ' slide ' did not come into general use until the end of the 1 8th century or beginning of the 1 9th. Yet its sister acquirements, the tremolo, and shift, were known to violinists a century

482

Unterrickt (Dresden, 1788), calls such passages 'sky-rockets.'

Meyeebeee,, 'Roberto.'

8.

.jJ^E:

Written.

:

—

'

'

'

'

Hummel,

9.

Written.

'

Pianoforte- School.'

^ ^^i^ _

,

m Played.

?E^g^

_

U:ft

-^

.i2|«-*

Besides the above, a more complicated kind of

mentioned by Emanuel Bach and others, called the dotted slide, in which the first gracenote received the addition of a dot. Its execution, slide is

however, varies so considerably —as is proved by the two examples by Emanuel Bach, selected from a variety of others (Ex. 10) that the sign has never met with general acceptance, although the ornament itself, written out in notes of ordinary size, is of constant occurrence in the works of the great masters (Ex. 11).

—

10.

Played.

Written.

^^^m-^^m f^

Writtm.

^^—~^

1^

^^^^^ Haydn,

11.

Sonata in G.'

hh Beethoven, 'Sonata Pathetique.'

1^^^^ m B*

II.

Glissade

(Fr.

or

Porte

de

Voix

P. T.

;

Ital.

Portamento.) To violinists the slide is one of the principal vehicles of expression, at the same time affording a means of passing from one note to another at a distance. The rules governing the slide are not restricted, as its use and '

'

'

'

earlier.

Mersenne {Harm.

Universelle,

1636)

speaks with delight of such professional violinists as 'les Sieurs Bocan, Lazarin,' and others, who employed a certain ' tremblement qui ravisient I'esprit,' and the same author mentions the violinists who could mount to the octave on every string. Notwithstanding the lack of any direct mention of the 'slide 'previous to the 18th century, the following remark by Jean Rousseau in his TraiU de la Viole (1630), might indicate that the eminent viola da gamba player, Hott' man, was acquainted with it. . It was he (Hottman), says Rousseau, ' who in France first composed melodies (pieces d'harmonie) regulated for the viol, so as to make the effect of beautiful singing {beaux chants) in imitation of the voice.' Corelli in the first half of the 17th century founded the correct position and independence of the left hand, but it is doubtful whether he, or his immediate successors, knew the use of the ' slide.' Even at the beginning of the 18th century the generality of violinists relied mostly upon every species of turn and flourish to give expression to their playing. To the 'Beat,' 'Back Fall,' 'Double BaokfaU,' 'Springer, 'etc., writers of violinmethods devoted elaborate attention, and, curiously enough, as though foreshadowing the coming of the ' slide,' these very turns were in France called by the name no w employed in that country for its English equivalent, i.e. Porte de Voix. Neither Leopold Mozart nor Geminani in the middle of the 18th century mentions the slide, but like their predecessors consider good taste entirely dependent on the judicious employmentof turns. But with Viotti's advent, and his establishment of the French School, the old methods began to give .

'

'

'

.

SLUE

SLIDE way to a truer mode of expression which found medium in the change of position on the same

its

Viotti's most gifted pupil, Rode, was particularly devoted to this method of playing tender phrases, and no violinist cultivated it

string.

more

oarefolly

Spohr.

than Rode's imitator and admirer

The compositions

of the latter are full

' slide in its most classical form, and his Violin School contains some of the best instructions and examples of the art to be found. Huet, Felix, j^tvdes sur les Differentes £coles de Violmi; Geminani, F., The Art of Playing fhe Violin ; BaUliot, P., L'Artdu Violon ; Cartier, J. B. , L'Art du Violon ; Mersenne, Sarmonie Vniverselle ; Rousseau, Jean, Traite de la Viole, La Ohronique MitsicaU, August 1873, 'Un Tirtuose en 1682'; Scudo, P., La Musique Ancienne et Modeme ; Spohr, Violin School ; Playford, John, An Inlroduction to fhe SMll of

of examples of the

'

Musick.

o. E.

III. A contrivance fitted in some form or other to nearly aU wind instruments for the purpose of adjusting the pitch by altering the length of the vibrating air-column. It is also applied in a special form to trombones and to some trumpets for the purpose of filling up those notes of the chromatic scale which lie between the various harmonics or ' open notes. For this particular use of the slide principle '

see

Trombone and Tkumpet.

this instrument

and others of the horn type do not admit of a successful application of the slide in this way. d. j. b. SLIVINSKI, Joseph ton, bom at Wai-saw, Dec. 15, 1865, studied at Warsaw Conservatorium underStrobl at Vienna with Leschetizky for four years and finally with Rubinstein at St. Petersburg. His first appearance in public was in 1890, and he was not long in finding his way to England, where he first appeared at a recital of his own in St. James's Hall, May 17, 1892. In January 1893 he played at one of Henschel's London Symphony Concerts; at the Crystal Palace, March 4 and at the Philharmonic, March 9 of the same year. In the following November he metde his first appearance in New York. His playing is remarkable for poetical ;

;

;

weU as for sm-prising brilliance of (Baker's Biog. Diet, of Mus. etc.) M. MOVEMENT. generic tei-m for all pieces in slow time, whether separate or forming part of a larger work. It is specially applied to such pieces when they occur in a work in sonata-form. The right of any movement to this title must depend rather on its character than its time indication, for many feeling,

as

touch.

SLOW

A

movements marked Allegretto movements.

SLUR. This word, taken widest sense, signifies an

which

For the attainment of the first object the may be simple, as on the flute, or 17-shaped, as is usual on brstss instruments. As the slide is used only for the general adjustment of pitch, it should not move too freely, in case the setting should be accidentally altered. In instruments such as the flute and clarinet, the speaking length of which varies with the opening of the

483

Italian

are strictly slow

m. in its original and effect

of phrasing

more commonly expressed by the term legato, i.e. connected. The sign of is

to the limitation of the efficiency of the slide, and the consequent need of new instruments

the slur is a curved line (Ger. Schleifbogen ; Fr. Liaison) drawn over or under a group of notes, and the notes included within its limits are said to be slurred, and are perfoimed witli smoothness, if on a stringed instrument, by a single stroke of the bow, or in singing, on a single syllable. [See Legato, vol. ii. p. 665.] But although this was originally the meaning of the word, it is now used in a more restricted sense, to denote a special phrasing effect, in which the last of the notes comprised within the curved line is shortened, and a considerable stress laid on the first. This effect has already been fully described in the article Phrasing [vol. iii. p. In vocal music the slur is employed to713]. indicate the use of Portamento, and it is also very generally placed over two or more notes which are sung to a single syllable. In this case, however, the sign is superfluous, since if the passage consists of quavers or shorter notes, the connection can be shown by writing them in groups instead of separate, while even if the notes are crotchets, the fact of there being but a single syllable sufficiently indicates the legato. Moreover, an effect analogous to the slur in instrumental music, whereby the second of two notes is curtailed and weakened, is

constructed to the required pitch.

perfectly possible in singing,

slide

any permissible alteration of pitch by means of the tuning-slide, or its equivalent in the form of socketed joints, is necessarily small. The reason for this is that the length added by the extension of the slide different side-holes,

cannot bear a uniform proportion to the

vii-tually

different lengths of the instrumentas determined

by the different side-holes ; therefore, no considerable alteration of pitch can be obtained on such an instrument without throwing it out This apparently trifling of tune within itself. matter is practically important, and the want of apprehension of it has led many to underestimate the difficulty and cost of carrying out such a change of pitch as was determined on by tlie Philharmonic Society of London in 1896, when the present (low) pitch was introduced. The slow progress of the change is largely due

Attempts have been made to adapt the shifting slide as used on the trombone, to the French horn, but the particular proportions of

and may very probably have been intended by the earlier composers where the sign of the slur is employed. This view is insisted upon by Mendelssohn, who

;

SMAET

SMALL OCTAVE

484

in a letter to G. A. Maofarren ' strongly objects to the engravers of his edition of Israel in '

Egypt' placing the

slur over

two quavers or

semiquavers which are to be sung to one word. When the slur is used in combination with a series of dots,

thus J •

il

,

it

indicates the effect

called mezzo staccato, in which the notes are made of longer duration than if marked with the staccato-sign only, being sustained for nearly their full value, and separated by a very brief f. t. interval of silence. [See also Staccato.] SMALL OCTAVE. See C, vol. i. p. 433. SMART, George, a London music-publisher who had some skill as a, performer on the He was one of a musical family, double bass. and his son. Sir George Smart, and other relatives Before entering business, attained distinction. he was an assistant to Robert Bremner, and

had been possibly also employed by William Napier. He began in the music trade about 1770, his shop being at the comer of Argyll He Street, and numbered 331 Oxford Street.

many minor publications, such as country dances and sheet music, and remained at 331 Oxford Street until one of the earliest years of the 19th century, the period of his death. George Smart was one of the founders of a F. K. benevolent society for musicians. SMART, Sir George Thomas, Knight, bom May 10, 1776, son of the above George Smart, rnceived his early musical education as a chorister He of the Chapel Royal under Dr. Ayrton. learned organ - playing from Dr. Dupuis and On quitting the composition from Dr. Arnold. choir in 1791 he obtained the appointment of organist of St. James's Chapel, Hampstead Road, and was also engaged as a violinist at

issued

At a rehearsal of a symSalomon's concerts. phony of Haydn's for one of those concerts the drummer was absent, and Haydn, who was at the harpsichord, inquired if any one present could play the drums. Young Smart volunteered, but from inexperience was not very successful, whereupon the great composer, ascending the orchestra, gave him a practical lesson in the About the same time he art of drumming. practice as a teacher of the harpsichord and singing. He soon showed an aptitude In 1811, for conducting musical performances. having successfully conducted some concerts in Dublin, he was knighted by the Lord Lieutenant. In 1813 he was chosen one of the original members of the Philharmonic Society, and between that date and 1844 conducted

commenced

From 1813 to 1825 forty-nine of its concerts. he conducted the Lenten oratorios at one or other of the patent theatres, at one of which in 1814 he introduced Beethoven's 'Mount of In 1818 he Olives' to the English public. directed the City concerts established by Baron On April 1,. 1822, he was appointed Heath. 1

Goethe

and Mendelstohn, 2nd

ed. p. 77.

organist's of the Chapel Royal in the room of Charles Knyvett, deceased. In 1825 he accompanied Charles Kemble to Germany to engage Weber to compose an opera for Covent Garden, and when Weber came to England in 1826 to bring out his 'Oberon' he was the guest of Sir George Smart, in whose house he [See Musical Times, 1902, died on June 5. It was mainly by the exertions of p. 533.] Sir George Smart and Sir Julius Benedict that the statue of Weber at Dresden was erected,

one of the

the greater part of the subscriptions having In 1836 Sir George St. Paul to England [On his duties at the Liverpool Festival. in connection with the coronation of Queen Victoria, see the Musical Times, 1902, p. 18.] On the death of Attwood in 1838 he was appointed one of the composers to the Chapel Royal. To careful musicianship he added an administrative ability which eminently qualified him for the conductorship of musical festivals and other performances on a, large scale, and his services were for many years in request on He consuch occasions all over the country. ducted festivals at Liverpool in 1823, 1827, 1830, 1833, and 1836 Norwich, 1824, 1827, 1830, and 1833 ; Bath, 1824 Newcastle-upon-

been collected in England. introduced Mendelssohn's

'

'

;

;

Tyne, 1824 and 1842 Edinburgh, 1824 Bury Dublin and Derby, 1831 St. Edmund's, 1828 Cambridge, 1833andl835 Westminster Abbey, 1834 Hull, 1834 and 1840 and Exeter Hall and Manchester, 1836. He was long resorted to by singers desirous of acquiring the traditional manner of singing Handel's songs, which he had been taught by his father, who had seen Handel conduct his oratorios among the many he so instructed were Sontag and Jenny Lind. He gave lessons in singing until he was past eighty. He edited Orlando Gibbons's Madrigals for the Musical Antiquarian Society, and the Dettingen Te Deum for the Handel Society. He took an active part in procuring the foundation of the Mendelssohn Scholarship. His compositions consist of anthems, chants, Kyries, psalm tunes, and glees. In 1863 he published a collection of his anthems and another of his glees and canons. Two of his ;

;

;

;

;

;

:

'

glees,

'

The

'

Squirrel

and The '

'

Butterfly's Ball,'

were very popular. He died at his house in Bedford Square, Feb. 23, 1867. [A volume entitled Leaves from t}te Journal of Sir George Smart, by H. B. Cox and C. L. E. Cox, was published in 1907.] A younger son of George Smart, senior, was Charles Frederick, who was a chorister of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards a double-bass player in the principal orchestras. Older than Charles, but younger than George, was another brother, Henry, born in London in 1778 [was for a time in his father's business, and subsequently (about 1803) in that of a brewer. This latter trade being unsuccessful, he returned to the

' '

SMART

SMETANA

musical profession]. He had begun his musical education at an early age, and studied the violin under Wilhelm Cramer, in which he made such progress that when only fourteen he was engaged at the Opera, the Concert of Antient Music, and the Academy of Ancient Music. He was engaged as leader of the band at the Lyceum ou its being opened as an English Opera-House in 1809, and continued so for several seasons. He was leader at the present Drury Lane Theatre On June from its opening in 1812 until 1821. 12, 1819, the band presented him with a silver cup as a token of their regard. He was leader of the Lenten oratorios from the time they came under the management of his brother. Sir George, in 1813, and a member of the Phil-

two large anthems for solos, chorus, and organ were written for the Festivals of the London Choral Choirs Association at St. Paul's in 1876 and 1878 'Sing to the Lord,' and Lord, thou hast been our refuge.' For many yeaiB past his sight had been failing, and soon after 1864 he

—

to write. All his compositions date therefore were committed to paper like those of another distinguished English composer. Sir G. A. Maofarren through the truly disheartening process of dictation. It is as a composer of part-songs and a writer for the organ that Henry Smart will be known in the future. His earlier part-songs, 'The Shepherd's Farewell,' 'The Waves' Reproof," and 'Ave Maria,' are lovely, and will long be sung ; and his organ pieces are full of charming melody and effective combinations. He edited Handel's thirteen Italian duets and two trios for the Handel Society. His health had for several years been very bad, and cancer on the liver gave him excruciating agony. In June 1879 the Government granted him a pension of £1 00 a year in acknowledgment of his services in the cause of music, but he did not live to enjoy it, for he died July 6, 1879. He was buried in Hampstead Cemetery. His last composition was a Postlude in El> for the organ, finished very shortly before the end. His life was written by his friend Dr. Spark (Reeves, 1881), and the book will always be interesting, though it might perhaps have been more usefully arranged and more accurately printed. [See the Musical Times for May 1902.] w. H. H. SMART, Thomas, probably brother to the elder George Smart, was an organist at St. Clement's Danes in 1783. He composed many songs and pieces for the pianoforte and harpsichord. He set to music the well-known song on the death of General Wolfe by Tom Paine, beginning ' In a mouldering cave where the wretched retreat.' Dates of birth and death not ascertained. f. k. SME6ERGILL, William. See C^esae, vol. i. p. 443. SMETANA, Feiedeich, born March 2, 1824, at Leitomischl in Bohemia, was a pupil of Proksch at Prague, and subsequently for a short He became a highly time studied with Liszt.

after that

—

factory of pianofortes, of a peculiar eonstraction,

and on July 22, 1823, obtained a patent for improvements in the construction of pianofortes. He went to Dublin to superintend the debut of his pupU, Miss Goward (afterwards Mrs. Keeley), where he was attacked by typhus fever, and His son, died, Nov. 27, 1823. as

Henry Smart), a

prominent member of the modern English School, was bom in London, Oct. 26, 1813, and after declining a commission in the Indian army, was articled to a solicitor, but quitted law for music, for which he had extraordinary natural faculties, and which he studied principally under W. H. Kearns, though he was to a great extent selftaught. In 1831 he became organist of the parish church of Blackburn, Lancashire, which he resigned in 1836. While at Blackburn he composed his first important work, an anthem for the tercentenary of the Reformation, in 1835.

Inl836

he settled in London as organist to St. Philip's Church, Regent Street. In March 1844 he was appointed to the organ of St. Luke's, Old Street, where he remained until 1864, when he was He was an chosen organist of St. Pancras. excellent organ-player, specially happy as an accompanist in the service, a, splendid extemporiser, and a voluminous and admirable com-

But his compositions poser for the instrument. On were by no means confined to the organ. May 26, 1855, an opera from his pen, Berta, or. The Gnome of the Hartzberg,' was successfully produced at the Haymarket. In 1864 he composed his cantata, ' The Bride of Dunkerron (his best work), expressly for the Birmingham '

Heproducedtwocantatas, 'KingRen^'s Daughter,' 1871, and 'The Fishermaidens, An opera on the subject both for female voices. of 'The Surrender of Calais,' the libretto by Planche, originally intended for Mendelssohn, was put into his hands by Messrs. Chappell, about 1852, but though considerable progress was made with it, it was never completed. A sacred cantata, 'Jacob,' was written for the Glasgow Festival, produced Nov. 10, 1873, and Festival.

'

became too blind

harmonic Society's orchestra, which he occasionally led. In 1820 he established a inanu-

Henet Thomas (known

485

—

and opened a music school of at Prague, where he married the pianist Katharina Kolar. In 1856 he accepted the

skilled pianist,

his

I

own

directorship

of the

Philhaiinonio

Society

of

Gothenburg in Sweden, and his wife died there in 1860. In 1861 he made a tour in Sweden, and on the foundation of the National Theatre in Prague, betook himself again to his native

country, and eventually became chief conductor of the new institution in 1866, the year of production of his most famous work, ' Die Verkaufte Braut.' He produced three other

Bohemian operas, 'DieBrandenburgerinBohmen' (1866), 'Dalibor' (1868), and 'ZweiWitwen'

' '.

:'

SMETANA

486

SMITH

^1874), before he was compelled, by increasing deafness, to resign his post. Subsequently to his retirement the following were produced

company of Saxe-Ooburg and Gotha Drury Lane on June 26, 1895, and at Covent There is plenty of Garden on Jan. 24, 1907. vis comica in it, and lovely music from beginning to end, quite original and characteristic but so

the Ducal at

'Der Kuss' (1876), 'Das Geheimniss' (1878), 'Libussa' (1881), and 'Die Teufelswand During his tenure of the conductor(1882). ship his keen interest in the career of a member of his orchestra, Antonin Dvorak, had a great influence on the younger man's work. Smetana's other works are of great importance though they are not very numerous. The symphonic poem Mein Vaterland is east in six sections, Vysehrad (Visegrad), Vltava (Moldau), '

;

has made quite such a success as its overture, which, under the name of Lustspiel or Comedy overture, was widely known and dearly loved long before the opera was produced in England. Monographs on the composer were written by B. Wallek in 1895 and Hostinskh in 1901, the latter being in Czech (Riemann's far nothing

'

'

'

'

'

'

SMETHEEGELL, William,

a pianist in London, was author of A Treatise on Thorough Bass, 1794, and Rules for Thoraagk Bass, with three sonatas for harpsichord and violin (1795) ; [he composed also six concertos for harpsichord or pianoforte with two violins and violoncello (1785), six duets for two violins, op. 17 (1800),

Sarka,'

,

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;

'

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' Prager Karneval for orchestra. Two string quartets exist, in E minor and major ; the first, entitled 'Aus meinem Leben,' is a remarkable piece of chamber music, in which the classical form, somewhat modified, is used to describe the main event of the composer's career, and in which a persistent high note in the finale is understood to be a deliberate statement concerning a note, similarly persistent to his own ear, which was the eflfeot of his deafness. There are also a trio for piano and strings, part-songs, a festival march for the Shakespeare tercentenary, and much piano music. He became insane at the end of his life, and died in an asylum at Prague, May 12, 1884. Snaetana is the first (and, as some think, the greatest) Bohemian composer who deliberately took his stand as an exponent of the art of his native country. But he is a great deal more '

than

this, for,,

six easy solos for violin (1790), six lessons for harpsichord, six overtures in eight parts, and a set, op. 8. He also adapted compositions from Jommelli and other composers, and wrote songs. Brit. Mus. Biog."]. He was organist of St. Margaret on the Hill, Southwark, and w. H. H. Allhallows Barking. SMITH, Alice Mart (Mrs. Meadows White), a distinguished English composer, was bom May 19, 1839. She was a pupil of Sir W. Stemdale Bennett and Sir G. A. Macfarren ; married Frederick Meadows White, Esq., Q.C. (afterwards a Judge for the County of Middlesex), Jan. 2, 1867, was elected Female Professional Associate of the Philharmonic Society in November 1867, Hon. Member of the Eoyal Academy of Music in 1884, and died Dec. 4, She was a prolific composer of works of 1884. all dimensions. The list embraces two Symphonies, in C minor (1863), and G Overtui-es

second

though his music has been long

making its way outside Bohemia, yet it has now obtained so strong a hold that it is most in

;

'Endymion' (1864, rewritten 1871), 'Lalla Rookh (1865), Masque of Pandora,' with two Intermezzi (1878), and 'Jason' (1879); a Concerto for clarinet and orchestra (1872) an Introduction and Allegro for PF. and orchestra

to

If he may not have unlikely to be forgotten. succeeded in obtaining for his national polkameasure the entry into classical structure that Dvo?ak won for the furiant 'and dumka, yet his attempt to do so marks a point in the history Though his symof the development of form. phonic poems are not realistic, yet there can be no doubt that they carried on the tradition of that form from the hands of Liszt, and increased its power of pictorial expression. The famous opera 'Die Verkaufte Braut' ('Prodana Nev&ta' 'The Bartered Bride'— is the ori-, ginal Bohemian) is one of the most beautiful of

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(1865); fom- PF. quartets, in Bb (1861), D (1864), E, and G minor; a PF. trio in 6 (1862) ; three String quartets, in D (1862), A also five Cantatas for soli, (1870), and G ;

and orchestral accompaniment

chorus,

—

—

'Rlides-

heim or Gisela' (Cambridge, 1865), Kingsley's Ode to the North-East Wind (Hackney Choral Association, 1 8 8 0), Collins's Ode to the Passions (Hereford Festival, 1882), Kingsley's 'Song of the Little Baltung' (1883), Kingsley's 'Red King' (1884); PartSong, 'The Dream' (1863); Duet (S.T.) Maying' many solo-songs, dueta, etc. Her music,' says the Athenceum of Dec. 13, 1884, 'is marked by elegance and grace rather than by anygreat individuality . that she was not deficient in power and energy is proved by portions of the "OdetotheNorth-East Wind," and "The Passions." Her forms were '

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modern comic operas, and on a stnall stage, presented by performers who understand the true comic traditions, it must always impress itself on the audience. Hitherto, though twice bi;ought out in London, it has not achieved a great success with the general public, for Covent Garden and a company accustomed to interpreting the later works of Wagner are not the ideal conditions of its presentment. It was first given by

M.

lasBikon, etc.).

'

'AusBdhmensHainundFlur," 'Tabor,' and 'Blauik.' It is a work of remarkable power, and very picturesque in treatment. There are besides three other symphonic poems, 'Wallenstein's Lager, 'Kichard III. and Hakon Jarl a I'riumphsymphonie dated 1853, and '

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.

I

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•

FKIEDRICH SlIETAXA

'; ;

SMITH

SMITH

always clear and her ideas free from ecoentrieity her sympathies were evidently with the classic rather than with the romantic school.' G. SMITH, Chakles, born in London in 1786, was in 1796 admitted a chorister of the Chapel Eoyal under Dr. Ayrton, but was withdrawn from the choir in 1798 and became a pupil of John Ashley. In 1 800 he sang at the Oratorios, Ranelagh, etc. Upon the breaking of his voice in 1803 he acted as deputy organist for Knyvett and Stafford Smith at the Chapel Royal, and soon afterwards became organist of Croydon Church. In 1807 he was appointed organist of Welbeck Chapel. He composed the music for the following dramatic pieces Yes or No,' 1809 ; The Tourist Friend,' and Hit or Miss,' 1810 'Anything New,' 1811 'How to die for Love Knapschou, or the Forest Fiend,' Lyceum, 1830. In 1815 he appeared, with success, at the Oratorios as a baritone singer.In the next year he settled in Liverpool, where he resided for many years. He composed many songs and ballads, the best of which is The Battle of Hohenlinden. He published in 1844 a work called Ancient Psalmody,' consisting of adaptations from music of Ravensoroft, Morley, etc. He ultimately retii'ed to Crediton, Devon, where he died Nov. 22, 1856. w. H. H. SMITH, Edward Sydney, bom at Dorchester, July 14, 1839, received his first musical instruction from his parents, and at the age of sixteen went to Leipzig, where he studied the piano under Moscheles and Plaidy the violouT cello under Grlitzmacher harmony and counterpoint under Hauptmann, Eichter, and Papperitz and composition under Rietz. He returned to England in 1858, and in the following year he settled in Loudon, where he long enjoyed considerable reputation as a teacher. His compositions, which are confined to PF. pieces, were extremely popular with the numerous class of performers whose tastes are satisfied by a maximum of brilliance combined with a mini-

and one for St. Margaret's, Westminster (1675), of which in the following year he was elected organist at a salary of £20 a year. He was now rapidly acquiring fame and was appointed Organ-maker in ordinary to the King, apartments in Whitehall being allotted to him, called in the old plan 'The Organ -builder's Work-

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mum his

of difficulty.

many

The most successful of La Harpe Eolienne,

pieces were

'

Le Jet d'Eau,' 'The Spinning Wheel,' and a Tarantella in E minor, whioli (like most of his compositions) have been published, and met with the same popularity on the Continent as in England. Hedied inLondon, March 3, 1889, and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, w. b. s. '

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SMITH, FATHER, the usual Bernard Schmidt, a celebrated

appellation of organ-builder,

in Germany about 1630, who came to England in 1660 with two nephews, Gerard and

bom

To distinguish him Bernard, his assistants. from these and express the reverence due to his His first abilities, he was called Father Smith. organ in this country was that of the Royal Chapel at Whitehall, which Pepys mentions in his Diary as having heard on July 8, 1660. Subsequently he built one for Westminster Abbey, one

for St. Giles's4n-the-Fields (1671),

house.

487

'

In 1682 the treasurers of the societies of the

Temple had some conversation with Smith

re-

specting the erection of an organ in their church. Subsequently Renatus Harris, who had warm supporters amongst the Benchers of the Inner Temple, was introduced to their notice. It was ultimately agreed that each artist should set up an organ in the church, and in 1684 both instruments were ready for competition. In 1685 the Benchers of the Middle Temple made choice of Smith's organ [which was played by

Henry

but those of the Inner Temple and it was not until 1688 that Smith received payment for his instrument, namely, £1000. In 1683 he contracted for the organ of Durham Purcell]

;

dissented,

Cathedral. In consequence of the reputation he had acquired by these instruments, he was made choice of to build an organ for St. Paul's Cathedral, then in course of erection. This instrument was opened on Dec. 2, 1697. Smith became Court organ-builder to Queen Anne, and died 1708. [His portrait is in the Music School Collection at Oxford.] According to Hawkins and Burney the two nephews of Schmidt, as above mentioned, were named Bernard and Gerard. But Horace Walpole alters Bernard's name to Christian. These two are very little known, although they built several fine instruments. In 1755a Mr. Gerard Smith was organ-repairer to Chelsea Hospital. This was probably a grandnephew of Father Smith, since from the date he could hardly have been his nephew. v. de p. SMITH, George Townshend, son of Edward Woodley Smith (born May 23, 1775, chorister of St. Paul's Cathedral, afterwards lay vicar of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, from 1795 until his death, June 17, 1849), was born in the Horseshoe Cloisters, Windsor, Nov. 14, 1813. He received his early musical education as a chorister of St. George's, Windsor. On quitting the choir he became a pupil of Highmore Skeats, the Chapel organist, and afterwards came to London and studied under Samuel Wesley. He next obtained an appointment as organist at Eastbourne, whence he removed to King's Lynn on being chosen organist there. On Jan. 5,

1843, he was appointed organist of Hereford Cathedral. As such he became, ex officio, conductor of the Meeting of the Three Choh-s at Hereford, besides discharging the duties of which office he voluntarily undertook the laborious office

by

of honorary secretary to' the festival,

his untiring

and and energetic exertions, in the

;

SMITH

SMITH

course of the twelve triennial festivals which he directed, raised it musically, from a low to a very high condition, and financially, from a

music, Handel began teaching him when he was thirteen years old. He afterwards studied composition under Dr. Pepusch and Thomas Roseingrave, and in 1732 produced his English opera, 'Teraminta,' and in 1733 another

488

He composed an 8-voice Jubilate for the festivals, and other church music, as well as piano pieces of a popular kind. He died, very suddenly, August heavy

loss to

a gain.

anthem and a

1877, viniversally beloved and respected. brother Alfred Moxtem, born at AVindsor, May 13, 1828, was also educated in the choir of St. George's. On quitting it he became a tenor singer, and after belonging to the choir of St. Andrew's, Wells Street, succeeded J. W. Hobbs as lay vicar of Westminster Abbey ; he was also a gentleman of the Chapel Royal (1858). He was distinguished as a ballad singer, 3,

His

and

He was a proRoyal Academy of Music and the Guildhall School. He died in London, for his skill in recitative.

fessor of singing at the

May

2,

1891.

oratorio, 'David's

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Another brother, Samuel, was born in Eton, August 29, 1821. In 1831 he was admitted as one of the children of the Chapel Royal under William Hawes. Shortly after leaving the choir he obtained the appointment of organist at Hayes Church, Middlesex, and was subsequently organist at Eton and Egham. In 1857 he became organist at Trinity Church, Windsor, and in 1861 organist of the Parish Church. He issued some compilations of tunes and chants. w. H. H. SMITH, John, Mus.D., wasbornatCambridge in 1797. On Nov. 23, 1815, he was admitted to a situation in the choir of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, but failed to secure the appointment of viear choral owing to his having quarrelled and gone to law with the Dean in 1824. On Feb. 5, 1819, he was appointed a Patrick's Cathedral. On 1827, the degree of Mus.D. was conferred upon him by the University of Dublin. He afterwards obtained the appointments of Cliief Composer of the State Music, Master of tlie King's Band of State Musicians in Ireland, and Composer to the Chapel Royal, Dublin and in 1847 was chosen Professor of Music in Dublin University. He composed The Revelation,' an oratorio, some church music, and In several prize glees and other compositions. 1837 he published a volume of Cathedral Music containing services and chants, and a ' Veni, Creator.' He died Nov. 12, 1861. w. h. h. vicar choral of St.

July

In 1738 he composed an Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan.' About 1745 he travelled on the Continent, remaining absent about three years. In 1754 he was appointed the first organist (See of the Foundling Hospital Chapel. Musical Times, 1902, p. 377.) When Handel became blind Smith was employed as his amanuensis, and Handel's latest compositions He also played the were dictated to him. In organ at Handel's oratorio performances. 1754 he composed the opera of 'The Fairies,' altered from Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream,' which met with great success, and in 1756 the opera of The Tempest,' adapted from Full Shakespeare's play, two songs in which, fathom five,' and 'The owl is abroad,' long continued favoxnites ; and in 1760 'The En'Ulysses.'

opera,

7,

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SMITH, John (organ-builder). SeeVowLBS!. SMITH, John Christophek, born in 1712, was son of John Christopher Schmidt, of Anspaoh, who, a few years later, came to England and became Handel's treasurer. [He was agent for While John Cluer the sale of Handel's music. engraved the several works published by Handel on his own behalf, Meares sold them in St. Paul's Churchyard, and Smith at the sign of The Hand and Musick-Book in Coventry Street.] The younger Smith showing a fondness for '

'

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Handel a musical entertainment. bequeathed to him all his original MS. scores, chanter,'

his harpsichord, his bust

by

Roubilliac,

and

his

by Denner.

After Handel's death Smith carried on the oratorios, in conjunction with Stanley, until 1774, when he retired and went to reside at Bath. Besides the beforementioned works he composed Paradise Lost,' 'Rebecca,' 'Judith,' Jehoshaphat,' and 'Redemption,' oratorios (besides compiling two oratorios from Hsfndel's works, ' Nabal, and 'Gideon'); 'Dario,' 'Issipile,' and 'II Ciro riconosciuto,' Italian operas ; a Burial Service ; and several miscellaneous vocal and instrumental pieces. (See Anecdotes of G. F. Handel and J. C. Smith.) George III. having continued to Smith a pension which had been granted by his mother, the Princess Dowager of Wales, Smith evinced his gratitude by presenting to the King all Handel's MS. scores now at Buckingham Palace the harpsichord, and the bust by Roubilliac, retaining only the portrait by Denner. He died Oct. 3, 1795. Three large collections of Handel's works exist in Smith's MS. one belonged to H. B. Lennard, Esq., Hampstead, and is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge ; another to Dr. Chrysander ; and a third to the Granville family of Wellesbourne Hall, Warwickshire. y^. h. h. portrait

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SMITH, John Stafford, son of Martin Smith, organist of Gloucester Cathedral from 1743 to 1782, was born at Gloucester in 1750. He obtained his earliest musical instruction from his father, and was soon afterwards' sent to London to study under Dr. Boyoe, and also became a chorister of the Chapel Royal under James Nares. On quitting the choir he sedulously pursued his studies, and became an able organist, an efficient tenor singer, an excellent composer, and an accomplished musical anti-

SMITH

SMITH quary. In 1773 he was awarded two prizes by the Catch Club, one for a catch, 'Here flat,' and the other for a canon, ' remember not the sins. In the next four years he gained prizes for the following compositions Let happy lovers fly,' glee, 1774; 'Since Phillis has bubbled, catch, and ' Blest pair of syrens, glee '

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1775 'While fools their time,' glee, 1776 and 'Return, blest days,' glee, 1777. He rendered great assistance to Sir John Hawkins (five voices),

;

;

in the production of his History, not only by reducing ancient compositions into modem notation, but also by the loan of some valuable early MSS. from his extensive and curious library, from which Sir John culled several pieces to enrich his Appendix. In 1779 he published 'A Collection of English Songs, in score, for three and four voices, composed about the year 1500. Taken from MSS. of the same age among which is the Agincourt song, Our king went forth to Normandy.' (See English Carols of the Fifteenth Century.') In 1780 he won another prize from the Catch Club by his ode, 'When to the Muses' haunted hill.' He published at various times five collections of glees, containing compositions which place him in the foremost rank of English glee composers. Besides his prize glees they include 'As on a summer's day,' 'What shall he have that killed the deer?' 'Hark, the hollow woods resounding,' and the madrigal Flora now calleth forth each flower.' Fourteen glees, fourteen catches, four canons, two rounds, an ode, a madrigal, and a motet by him are given in Warren's collections. He also published a collection of songs (1785), and Twelve Chants composed for the use of the Choirs of the Church of England.' On Deo. 16, 1784, after having for many years oflSciated as a deputy, he was appointed a gentleman of the Chapel Eoyal, and on Feb. 22, 1785, a lay vicar of Westminster Abbey, being installed, after his year of probation, April 18, 1786. In 1 790 he was engaged as organist at Gloucester Festival. In 1793 he published a volume of Anthems, composed for the Choir Service of the Church of England.' In 1802, upon the death of Dr. Arnold, he was appointed one of the organists of the Chapel Royal, and on May 14, 1805, upon the resignation of Dr. Ayrton, succeeded him as Master of the Children. In 1812 he produced his interesting work ' Musica Antiqua.' [See vol. iii. pp. 328-9.] In June 1817 he resigned the Mastership of the Children of the Chapel Royal. Besides the before-named compositions he produced An Ode on the First '

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of April, for voices and instruments, which was never published. A MS. Introdibction to the Art of composing Mxbsic, by him, is in the library of the Sacred Harmonic Society, which also conHe died tains his Musical Commonplace Book. in London, Sept. 21, 1836. By his will, dated Jan. 21, 1834, he bequeathed all his property to his only surviving daughter, Gertrude Stafford '

Smith and appointed her

489

A few

sole executrix.

years afterwards she became insane, and in 1844 the Commissioner in Lunacy ordered that her property should be realised and the proceeds

invested for her benefit. Through ignorance or carelessness the contents of her house (which included her father's valuable library, remarkably rich in ancient English musical manuscripts) were entrusted for sale to an incompetent auctioneer. The library was sold April 24, 1 844, such books as were described at all being catalogued from the backs and heaped together in lots, each containing a dozen or more works ; 2191 volumes were thrown into lots described as Fifty books, various,' etc. The printed music was similarly dealt with ; the MSS. were not even described as such, but were lumped in lots of twenties and fifties, and called so many volumes of music' 578 volumes were so disposed of, and there were besides five lots each containing a quantity of music' The sale took place in Gray's Inn Road ; Smith's name did not appear on the catalogue ; nothing was done to attract the attention of the musical world, and two dealers, who had obtained information of the sale, purchased many of the lots at very low prices. These after a time were brought into the market, but it is feared the greater part of the MSS. is altogether lost. w. H. H. SMITH, MoNTEM. See under Smith, Geokge '

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TOWNSHEND. SMITH, Robert Archibald, bom ing,

Nov.

16, 1780.

His

at Read-

father, a Paisley silk-

weaver, finding his trade declining in Reading, removed back to Paisley in 1800. Robert soon showed a great aptitude for music, and at ten could play the violin. In 1 807 he was appointed precentor at the Abbey Church, Paisley, a situation which he filled for many years. While there he made the acquaintance of Robert Tannahill the poet, many of whose fine lyrics he set to music. One of these, ' Jessie, the Flow'r o' Dunblane,' published in 1808, at once made its mark, and was universally admired. Smith possessed a fine vein of melody, and in vocal composition had at that time perhaps no equal in Scotland. In 1820 he began to publish [edited by Lady Nairne and other ladies] The Scottish Minstrel' (6 vols. Svo, 1820-24), containing several hxindreds of the best Scottish songs, not a few of them his own, frequently without indication. It is still considered a good In August 1823 he obtained the compilation. leadership of the psalmody at St. George's Church, Edinburgh. Besides anthems and other pieces (published in 1810 and 1819, most of the former written for the boys of George Heriot's Hospital), Smith now found time to publish his 'Irish Minstrel,' [which was suppressed owing to an infringement ol Moore's copyright,] followed in 1826 hy an ' Introduction to Singing,' and in 1827 by Select Melodies of all Nations,' in one volume, one of his best works. '

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SMYTH

SMITH

490

In 1828 he brought out his

'

Sacred

Harmony

SMORZANDO

(Ital.,

'fading away').

A

same meaning as Morendo, but

Church of Scotland," by which he is now His health was at no time robust, best known. and he suffered from dyspepsia, under which he linally sank, Jan. 3, 1829. He was buried in

tei-m with the

Outhbert's churchyard. ' Smith,' says the late George Hogarth, ' was a musician of sterling talent. . His compositions are tender, and tinged with melancholy simple and unpretending, and always graceful and unaffectedly elegant. ... He had the admirable good sense to know how far he could safely penetrate into the depths of counterpoint and modulation without losing his way ; and accordingly his music is entirely free from scientific pedantry.' His most popular pieces are the songs, 'Jessie, the Flow'r o' Dunblane,' and Bonnie Mary Hay ; the duet, Row weel, my boatie ; the trio ' Ave Sanctissiraa ; and the anthems, Sing unto God,' and ' How beautiful upon the mountains ; although m^ny more might be named which are yet frequently sung. Owing to the modem alterations in congregational singing, the introduction of German chorales and ancient ecclesiastical melodies, and the change from florid to syllabic tunes, Smith's 'Sacred Harmony' is to a great extent superseded. But it still has its value, even at a distance of eighty years from its publication. [An excellent memoir of Smith is attached to an edition of Tannahill's poems edited by Philip Kamsay, Edinburgh, 1851.] D. B. ; additions in square brackets by F. K. SiVIITH, Samuel. See under Smith, Geoegb

Daughter of General J. H. April 23, 1858. Smyth, late of the Royal Artillery. For a short time in 1877 she studied at the Leipzig Conservatorium, and under Heinrich von HerzogenAt Leipzig berg after leaving that institution. a quintet for strings was performed with success in 1884, and a sonata for piano and This latter is numbered violin in 1887. After op. 7, opp. 3 and 4 being books of songs. her student days, she does not appear to have A serenade for orchestra used opus-numbers. in four movements, in D, was given at the Crystal Palace, April 26, 1890 ; and an overture, 'Antony and Cleopatra,' on Oct. 18 of the same year, the latter being repeated at one of Heuschel's London Symphony Concerts in 1892. A far more important work, a Solemn Mass, in D, was performed at the Albert Hall, under Barnby's direction, Jan. 18, 1893. This work definitely placed the composer among the most eminent composers of her time, and easily Tlie at the head of all those of her own sex. most striking thing about it was the entire absence of the qualities that are usually associated with feminine productions ; throughout it was virile, masterly in construction and workmanship, and particularly remarkable for the excellence and rich colouring of the orchestraMiss Smyth did not, however, come tion. into her own until she was recognised as an

of the

St.

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TOWNSHEND.

SMOLEJrSKY, Stephen Vassilievich, a leading authority on Russian church music, Having had unusual born at Kazan, 1848. opportunities of gaining an insight into the customs and peculiarities of the sect known as ' Old Believers, who have preserved the church music in its primitive forms, Smolensky was led to make a special study of the old manuscripts of the Solovetsky library, preserved in In 1889 he the Clerical Academy at Kazan. became director of the Synodal School and Choir in Moscow, and in the same year was appointed successor to the ecclesiastic Razoumovsky, as professor of the history of church music at the Moscow Oonservatorium. While working at the Synodal School, Smolensky has formed a unique collection of manuscripts from the loth to the 19th century, including many rare chants and other examples of sacred music. In 1901-3 he directed the Imperial Court Chapels. Among his numerous contributions to the abstruse and complicated subject on which he is an authority the principal are Course of Ohurch-Ohant Siiiging (Moscow, 1900, 5 th edition) ; Old Choral Manuscripts in the Synodal School, Moscow (St. Petersburg, 1899) ; AiKyiemt Notation of the Russian Chii/rch-Oha'iiis R. N. (1901). '

:

A

used indiscriminately in the course of a piece. [See

Morendo.]

SMYTH, Ethel Mary,

born in London,

writer. Her Tantasio' (libretto founded by herself on De Musset) was produced at Weimai in 1898 in unfortunate conditions, and it was not until its revival at Carlsruhe in February 1901 that it could be properly judged. The one-act Der Wald was given at Dresden in September 1901 it was produced at Covent Garden, July 18, 1902, with very great success, given again at the Metropolitan Opera -House, New York, in March 1903, and again at Covent Garden on June 26, 1903. The distinction of its being revived in the year after its first production is significant

operatic

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of its success, to all

who know

the singular

methods followed by English operatic managers. It was evident that here was a work of highly romantic character (the treatment of the spirits of the wood as the primary agents in the drama is full of suggestive beauty), by one who had mastered not only all the secrets of stage effect, butwho understoodhow to makeherclimaxes impressive, and how to differentiate her characters. The German libretto of this, like that of her former work, was written by the composer Her crowning achievement so far, is herself. the three-act opera, 'Les Naufrageurs ('The Wreckers'), produced at Leipzig as 'StrandThe libretto, by recht' on Nov. 11, 1906. '

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SOCIEDADE DE QUAETETOS

SNAEES H. B. Leforestier, bears some slight traces of being originally intended to suit the conventions of the Paris Opera -Comique I'ather than the German stage ; but in any language the wonderful power of the conception, musical and dramatic, must make itself felt. In spite of a performance which was so far from ideal that the composer refused to allow it to be repeated at the same theatre, the work created a profound impression. It was given with far more care and success at Prague on Dec. 22 of the same year, and is accepted for perfonnanoe 'While the style is so at Vienna (1908). far modern as that set pieces are dispensed with and Wagner's artistic ideals are fulfilled, there is no attempt to curry favour with the lovers of ugly music, or to ^vrite what sounds bizarre for the sake of making a sensation. The fine treatment of the choruses in the first act, the orchestral introduction to the second act, and, in the same section, the great loveduet which rises in intensity of emotion with the rising of the beacon-flame lit by the lovers to warn ships from the dangers of the coast and, in the third act, the whole treatment of the final situation, in which the lovers are left by the people to be drowned by the advancing tide, all these poiuts are among the most remarkable things in modern opera, and it is difficult to point to a work of any nationality since Wagner that has a more direct appeal to the emotions, or that is more skilfully planned and

carried out.

wardens, upon their asking him what their old organ would be worth if repaii-ed, If they would lay out £100 upon it, perhaps it would be worth '

fifty.'

Snetzler lived to an advanced age, and died

at the end of the 18th or the commencement of the 19th century. Having saved sufiicient money, he returned to his native country but after being so long accustomed to London porter ;

and English

fare, he found in his old age that he could not do without them, so he returned to London, where he died. His successor was v.de p. Ohrmann. [See Hill, W., & Son.]

SNODHAM,

'

An

Thomas.

early

London

He was

the son-in-law of Thomas Este, and succeeded to the latter's business in 1609. He published a great number of the madrigal books of his period, as Byrd's Psalms, Songs, and Sonnets,' 1611 Maynard's 'The XII. Wonders of the World set and composed for Robert Tailour's the Viol de Gamba,' 1611 'Sacred Hymns,' 1615; a second edition of By reason of 'Pammelia,' and other works. some of his imprints reading 'Thomas Este alias Snodham,' it has been considered that This, however, is a Este changed his name. mistake, the fact being that Snodham (who had married into the family and obtained Este's business), merely desired to be associated with the better-known name of Este, Thomas Este

music printer.

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having just then died.

SKOW,

Some charming and delicately

written French poems, for mezzo-soprano and very small orchestra, were sung at the Queen's Hall, Nov. 12, 1907. M. SNAKES. A group of four or five pieces of catgut rather loosely stretched across the lower end of the side-drum, which jarring against the parchment when the drum is struck at the other end produces a peculiar rattle characteristic of F. K. the instrument. SNETZLER, John, was bom at Passau in This truly eminent Germany about 1710. organ-builder, after acquiring some fame in his own country, was induced to settle in England [in 1740 ; he built the organ for Chesterfield Church in 1741 and opened a factory in London in 1755. w. h. g. f.]. He built the noble instrument at Lynn Regis (1754) ; a very fine one at St. Martin's, Leicester (1774) ; that of the German Lutheran Chapel in the Savoy, which was the first in this country provided with a pedal clavier ; and many others, including chamber organs of high quality. Two stories are current of his imperfect way of speaking English and At the competition for his quaint expressions. the place of organist to his new organ at Halifax (1766), he was so annoyed by the rapid playing of Dr. Robert Wainwright, that he paced the church, exclaiming, He do run over de keys like one cat, and do not give my pipes time to shpeak.' And at Lynn he told the church-

491

r. k.

Valentine, was possibly son

of

Moses Snow, gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1689 until his death, Dec. 20, 1702, and also lay-vicar of Westminster Abbey (Mus.B. Cambridge, 1606), and a minor composer. Valentine Snow became the finest performer upon the trumpet of his -day was a member and it was for of Handel's oratorio orchestra him that the great composer wrote the difficult obbligato trumpet parts in Messiah,' Samson,' 'Dettingen Te Deum,' 'Judas Macoabaeus,' etc. ;

;

'

'

No better evidence of his ability can be required. In January 1763 he was appointed (in succession John Shore, deceased) Sergeant Trumpeter to the King, which office he held until his death in December 1770. w. H. h. SNUFFBOX, Musical. See vol. i. p. 136. to

SOCIEDADE DE QUARTETOS DO PORTO Society of Oporto). This Society originated in private musical gatherings at the house of a banker of Oporto (Sr. Joao Miranda GuimarSes). In 1875 the violoncellist J. Casella settled in Oporto, and it was resolved to give public concerts. The first subscription was for twelve concerts, and resulted in a net profit of

(Quartet

Encouraged by these results, the body of musicians has continued to give two series of chamber concerts yearly, twelve in the autumn, and sfx in the spring. They take place on Sunday afternoons in a about £32.

same

little

small concert-room at the

S.

Joao Theatre.

'

SOOIETA ARMONICA

SOCIETY OF BRITISH MUSICIANS

The programmes are entirely instrumental, and consist of movements from the ohamber-musio

members during sickness ; to assist in the support of those who, by old age or unavoidable calamity may become unable to follow their and to allow a. certain sum at tlie profession death of a member or a member's wife. The office is at 28 Gerrard Street, and the Secretary

492

of the great masters, as well as from the works of Grieg, Dvorak, Saint-Saens, Liszt, Gradener,

Svendsen, Tchaikovsky, and Miguel Angelo. Short analytical remarks are written by Sr. B. V. Moreira de Sa, to whose energy and eutliiisiasra the Society owes much of its

w.

success.

SOCIETA ARMONICA.

B. s.

Founded about

1827 for the purpose of giving subscription concerts in which symphonies, overtures, and occasionally instrumental chamber works were intermingled with vocal numbers usually drawn from the Italian operas. Mr. H. Forbes was the conductor, and Tolbecque and the younger Mori were the leaders of the band. Beethoven's Overture in C major, Berlioz's Overture to Les Francs Juges,' Reissiger's Overture in F minor, and the Overture to 'Les Huguenots,' were among the works which gained a first hearing in England at the Society's concerts ; and Weber's Mass in G was also produced. Among the vocalists who assisted in the concerts were Mmes. Grisi, Persiani, Albertazzi, Bishop, Alfred Shaw, Miss Clara Novello, and Miss Birch, Messrs. Phillips, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache, Mario and Ivanoff. The band included Spagnoletti, A. Griesbach, Willy, Wagstafif, Dando, Patey, Jay, Alsept, Lindley, Hatton, Brookes, Dragonetti, Howell, Card, Ribas, Barrett, Harper, etc. Henri Herz, the pianist and composer, and Hausmann the violinist, made their first appearance in this country at the Societa Armonica. The concerts were successively held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand, Freemasons' Tavern, and the Opera Concert room in the Haymarket. They terminated in or about the yfear 1850. 0. M. '

SOCIETE DE MUSIQUE DE CHAMBRE, POUK INSTRUMENTS i VENT.

This is a Society performance of chamber-music for wind instruments in Paris. It was founded by Mons. Paul Taffanel, the distinguished fluteplayer, and the first concert took place on Feb. 6, 1879. Six concerts were given in the February, March, and April of each year at 4 P.M. on alternate Thursdays, at the Salle Pleyel ; subscription, 20 francs per season. The executants were all artists from the Conservatoire concerts, or those of Pasdcloup such for the

—

as flute, Taffanel

;

oboe, Gillet

clarinet, Grisez

and Turban

and Bourdeau

;

and BouUard

;

bassoon, Espaignet horn, Garigue and Br^mond piano, Louis Dimmer. Society modelled on tliis, the 'Wind Instrument Chamber Music ;

;

A

Society,'

did good work in

London

years 1889-93.

in

the o.

SOClfiTfi DES CONCERTS DU CONSERVATOIRE. See vol. i. pp. 574, 575. SOCIETY OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN MUSICIANS. A benevolent society, established in

1822

to provide a

fund for the

relief of its

;

is

Mr. F. Orcherton.

c.

M.

SOCIETY OF BRITISH COMPOSERS. This Society was founded in 1905 with tlie primary object of promoting the publication of works by British composers. As a proof of the need of something of the kind, it may be pointed out that in two years after the Society's formation the number of members (composers) and associates (others interested in the movement) was 254, while there had been published fortyfour works of various kinds, principally chambermusic and songs. The Society issues a YearBook, which is a useful volume, being a complete list of its members' compositions, published or in MS. The publication of music is undertaken by the Society, either by defraying the whole or part of the cost, subject to the approval of an elected council, or at the sole expense of the composer concerned the engraving and printing is done at cost price and the terms as to royalties, etc., are of an exceedingly favourable nature. The publications are issued by the publishing company, Charles Avison, Ltd., on behalf of the Society, and the trade agents are Messrs. N. G. Breitkopf & Hartel. ;

SOCIETY OF BRITISH MUSICIANS, The, was founded inl 834 with the object of advancing native talent in composition and performance. In the original prospectus of the Society attenwas called to the contrast between the encouragement offered to British painting, sculpture, and the tributary arts at the Royal Academy, and the comparative neglect of Englisli music and English musicians, the overwhelming preponderance of foreign compositions in all musical performances being cited as calculated to impress the public with the idea that musical tion

'

genius is an alien to this country,' and as tending also ' to repress those energies and to extinguish that emulation in the breast of the youthful aspirant, which alone can lead to preeminence.' One of the rules adopted was to exclude all foreign music from the programmes of the Society's concerts and to admit none but natives of Great Britain among its members but this was set aside in 1841, when the Committee reported in favour of ' introducing a limited proportion of music by composers not members of the Society either British or foreign, and the suggestion was adopted, though not without strong opposition, in which the editor of the Musical World joined (Miisical World of Oct. 14, 1841). In its earlier days the Society achieved a complete success, numbering in 1836 as many as 350 members, while its finances It not only were also in » prosperous state. gave concerts of works of established merit, but ;

— ;

SODEEMAN

SOCIETY OF BRITISH MUSICIANS adopted a system of

trial performances at which compositions were heard. The programmes included the names of all the leading English writei-s of the day, who as a rule conducted their own works, among them Cipriani Potter, G. A. Maofarren, W. H. Holmes, W. L. Phillips, Sterndale Bennett, J. HuUah, J. H. Griesbach, T. German Eeed, W. M. Eooke, H. Westrop, Joseph Barnett, H. C. Litolff, C. Lucas, T. M. Mudie, James Calkin, and John Goss. The music included orchestral and chamber compositions, varied by vocal solos and part-music, to which nearly all the above-named coniposei-s contributed original works, and the members in turn directed the performances. After 1837 the Society began to decline, and even when the introduction of music by foreign composers was resolved upon, in the hope of creating more general interest in the concerts, it failed to restore the Society to prosperity, and after another period of far from successful management a special appeal for support was put forth at the close of 1854. At that date the members included Messrs. H. C. Banister, W. S. Bennett, H. Blagrove, J. B. Calkin, C. Coote, J. T. Cooper, W. H. Holmes, C. E. Horsley, H. Lazarus, E. J. Loder, Kate Loder (Lady Thompson), C. Neate, W. S. Rockstro, C. Severn, C. Steggall, C. E. Stephens, J. W. Thirlwall, H. J. Trust, F. Westlake, H. Westrop, J. Zerblni, and Sir George Smart. This.eifort was ridiculed in the Musical World of Dec. 16, 1854, on the ground that the Society had no true claim to its title, as many composers and artists of note held aloof from it. The movement served, however, to draw some new friends to the ranks, and as a means of fulfilling its objects prizes were offered for chamber compositions, which were gained in 1861 by Ebenezer Prout and Edward PeiTy for string quintets ; in 1863 by J. Lea Summers and W. Gibbons, also for string quintets ; and in 1 8 6 4 by Ebenezer Prout and J. Lea Summers, for quartets for piano and strings. The umpires on these occasions included Joachim, Molique, Piatti, Cipriani Potter, G. A. Macfarren, A. Mellon, T. M. Mudie and H. Leslie. In 1865 the Society was dissolved, its library was sold by Messrs. Puttick & Simpson, and Mr. C. E. Stephens was appointed custodian of the minuteThe secretaries of the Society were books, etc. Messrs. J. E. Tutton (its founder), 1834-35 ; G. J. Baker, 1835 until his death in 1851 J. Rackham, 1851-54 ; W. W. Grice, 1864-55. The honorary treasurers were the three brothers Erat, in succession to each other, in 1834-58 and Cipriani Potter held the post in 1858-65. The Society and its library were housed gratuitously at 23 Berners Street, by Messrs. Erat, from 1834 until 1858, when they gave up the premises; 1858-59 in Wornum's Music Hall, Store Street; 1860 in St. Martin's Hall until its destruction by fire on August 26, 1860

many new

;

;

493

(when the Society's property was saved) ; 18601862 at 44 Charlotte Street, Fitzroy Square, by permission of Mr. H. Webb; and 1862-65 at Messrs. CoUard's, Grosvenor Street, free of all expense. For the first five years the concerts were given at the Hanover Square Rooms, and

the trials of orchestral and chamber works were subsequently held at those rooms or at the above-named buildings. On July 20, 1843, the Society gave a complimentary concert to Spohr at Erat's, and on June 15, 1844, at tlie same place, a complimentary concert to Mendelssohn, c. M. SODERMAN, AtTGUST JoHAN, one of the gi'eatest Swedish composers of modern times, was born in Stockholm, July 17, 1832 his father being director of the orchestra at a minor theatre and at an early age displayed traces of musical genius. When eighteen years of age he was selected by Stjernstrbm, the director of the orchestra at the Royal theatre in Stockholm, as instructor to a company of musicians, then on a tour to Finland. On his return Siiderman wrote his first operetta, with the fantastic title, ' The Devil's fii-st Rudiments of Learning,' which was performed at the Mindre theatre at Stockholm, Sept. 14, 1856. During the following two years he stayed in Leipzig, studying under Eichter and Hauptmann ; in the year 1860 he was appointed chorus-master at the Royal Opera in Stockholm ; and from that date until his election as a member of the Swedish Academy of Music, his life was occupied in such minor offices in the musical world as are too often the lot of gi'eat composers when cast in a small community. But however poor the ofiices he held, Soderman filled them with a sincerity and zeal which many a man of inferior talents might have envied. [About 1865 the generosity of Jenny Lind enabled him to continue his studies in Germany.]

—

—

His works are about sixty in operettas,

number

songs, ballads, part-songs, funeral and cantatas ; of which, however,

marches, only half have been printed, and these at the expense of the Swedish Government after his death. Of the printed works we can only mention a few, besides the above-mentioned, namely, two operettas, 'The Wedding at Ulfasa,' and ' Regina von Emmeritz ; overture and incidental music to ' The Maid of Orleans songs ; Trios for male voices, containing the Finnish national air ' Suomi sang ' ; a quartet for female voices, ' BroUop,' very popular in Germany, a Circassian dance, and a concertoverture, also ' Sacred songs for organ,' containing a number of hymns of great beauty and purity, of which the best known are a Benedictus '

'

and an Agnus Dei. Though a Protestant, his is a Mass for solos, chorus, and orchestra, which has only been rarely performed in Stockholm, but is considered by his countrymen as equal to any by the great composers, and chef-d'muvre

—

;

SOGGETTO

SOLESMES

which is animated by such sincere devotion and stamped by such a high degree of originality and masterly finish, as to rank among the choicest gems of Swedish music. Another of his works worth mention is his music to the poeti-y of Bellman. This poet, whose genius is akin to that of Marlowe, has

Eastern March, and an Andante Elegiaco for

494

written a number of rhapsodies, depicting the gay, jovial, and careless nature of the Swede, with a force of animal spirit and genuine originality which few other poets have equalled ; and to these productions, which every Swede

knows by heart, Sbderman set music. The foreign composers who seem to have fluenced his more elaborate productions

in-

are

Beethoven, Schubert, and, in particular, SchuHis compositions, though thoroughly Swedish, are not national they bear the impress of the vigorous and energetic nature of the Northerner, which makes Scandinavian compositions so charming. Soderman died Feb. 10, 1876, at the early age of forty -four, and a national subscription was at once raised in Sweden for the benefit of his widow and children. It was a token of the gratitude and respect of a musical nation for a great composer. c. s^ SOGGETTO (Ital. Svbject or Theme). The true subject of an orthodox Fugue as opposed to the Andamento, which is a subject of abnormal length and the Attacoo, which is a mere Point ;

;

of Imitation.

In '

its

most regular form, the Soggetto consists homogeneous section as in No. 1 of ;

Das Wohltemperirte

however,

Clavier.

its division into

marked

'

Occasionally,

two sections

is

very

as inNo. 7 of thesame.

Subjecta of this last-named class frequently make a very near approach to the Andamento, fi-om which they sometimes differ only in their less extended dimensions. [See Andamento and Attaoco, and FUGTJE, vol. ii. p. 116o.] w. s. R. SOKALSKY, Pbte^ Petkovioh, bom at Kharkov, Sept. 26, 1832 ; died at Odessa in March 1887. He was educated at the University of Kharkov, and while acting as under-master in one of the public schools in the town began to collect the folk-songs of the district. Later in life (1857-60) he was Secretary to the Russian Consulate in New York, and on his return to Russia became editor of the Odessa News. Sokalsky composed several operas : 'Maria' ('Mazeppa'), 'A Night in May,' and ' The Siege of Doubno (irom Gogol's Tarass Boulba). His article upon The OhiTiese Scale in Russian Naiional Music, and Jttissian National Music (Kharkov, 1888), are valuable to students of this subject. clearly

;

'

Vladimir Ivanovich, his nephew, born at Heidelberg, May 6, 1863, studied law at the university of Kharkov. His unpublished compositions include a symphony in G minor (Kharkov, 1894), a dramatic Fantasia, an

and

orchestra.

His pianoforte

pieces,

'Impressions Musicales' op. 1, the pianoforte suite ' In the Meadows,' and some songs, have R. N. been published.

SOKOLOV,

Alexandeovioh,

Nicholas

composer, born in St. Petersburg, 1859. Here he studied at the Conservatorium from 1877 to 1885 and was a pupil of Rirasky-Korsakov. ' Elegy (op. 4), His chief compositions are and incidental music to Shakespeare's ' Winter's :

'

three string quartets, eight pieces for violin and pianoforte ; six for violoncello and pianoforte seven choruses a cappella ; four choruses for female voices ; about eighty songs, and a ballet Tale,'

opp.

mann.

of a single

violoncello

orchestra

for

7,

14,

entitled

SOL.

and 20

;

;

R. 'The "Wild Swans.' The fifth note of the natural

N. scale

according to the nomenclature of France and In the old Italy ; in English and German G.

hymn from which Guido formed the

is

supposed to have

scale it occurs as follows

:

Ut queant laxis resonaTe fibris, Mil-a gestorum/amuli tuorum, Solve pollutis labia reatis,

Sancte Johannes.

SOLDAT, Marie (Madame

Soldat-Eoger), 25, 1864. In her fifth year she studied the pianoforte under her father, a professional organist. Two years. later she began to learn the, organ, and was soon able occasionally to act as substitute for her father. Then in her eighth year she took up the violin, under Pleiner, and appeared in public when ten years of age, performing the ' Fantaisie-Caprioe of Vieuxtemps, a type of music with which she has not since been identified. Coming under the influence of Joachim and Brahms she resumed study in the Berlin Hochschule in 1879, remaining there tUl 1882 and gaining the Mendelssohn prize. She subsequently took private lessons from Joachim, whose repertoire both of solo and chamber music she adopted, making a special study of the Brahms concerto, which she introduced for the first time to a Viennese audience under Richter. In 1889 she was married to Hen Roger, a lawyer by profession, but has since continued her public career. She has travelled a great deal as a soloist, visiting England occasionally (playing for tjie first time at a concert of the violinist,

was born at Graz on March

'

Bach Choir, March

1, 1888), and has a following those who admire solid before brilliant acquirements. w. w. c. SOLESMES. A village near Le Mans, whose Benedictine monastery has become famous through the labours of its monks in the restoration of liturgical music, forwhichthey established a printing press, with special type. The order of the ' Congregation of France,' better known in England as the ' Benedictines of Solesmes,' was founded in 1833 by Dom Prosper Gu^ranger, who became the first Abbot.

among

'

'

SOLESMES Under Gu^ranger and Ms

SOLESMES

successors, Solesmes

became a centre for the study and execution of plain-song, and was visited by many students from all parts of Europe. In 1901, however, owing to their non-oomplianoe with the new

Law

of Associations, the monks were expelled from Solesmes, and movedin a body to Appuldurcombe, in the Isle of Wight, where they still are; but in 1908 they propose to settle at Quarr Abbey, near Ryde. Their printing-press having been confiscated by the French Government, the publication of their works is now carried out

by the firm

of Desclee et Cie, Tournai,

Belgium. Their choir in the Isle of Wight is the practical exponent of their method, and they hold a ' Summer School,' in July and August, for the benefit of those who wish to study and hear plain-song. The work of reform began under Dom Gueranger, who, wishing to restore Gregorian music to its earliest known fonn,^ engaged his colleagues Dom Pothier and Dom Jausions((Z. 1870) to examine and compare manuscripts, laying down as a principle that where the manuscripts of different periods and different countries agree in their version of a melody, it may be afBrmed that the true Gregorian text has been discovered. But it was of little use to discover the trae text unless the proper method of its performance At that time Gregorian could also be found. music, following the traditions of Zarlino and others, was sung in a slow, heavy, imacceiited, '

and unrhythmical style, and accompanied on the organ by a separate chord to each note. This style was afterwards alluded to by the Solesmes monks as the 'hammered,' 'marteU,' Gufranger and Pothier, on studying the theoretical works of the 9th and 10th centuries, found that plain-song had anciently a rhythm peculiar to itself, differing in important particuTTie first lars from that of measured music. result of this discovery was that Dom Gueranger was able to give the singing at Solesmes a rhythm that no one had yet dreamed of,'^ and from henceforth the chief aim of the musicians of Solesmes was to perfect the rhythmical theory as well as the musical readings. In 1881 the first edition appeared of Les Melodies gregoriennes, d'apres la tradition,' by Dom Pothier, treating the whole theory of plain -song from an entirely new point of view. This important work has formed the basis of all subsequent studies. style.

'

'

The investigations now went on more earnestly than

Photography was called in to

ever.

aid,

monks were

sent to the principal libraries of Europe to photograph codices, and the year 1883 saw the publication by Dom Pothier of the Liber Gradualis a Gregorio Magno olim '

ordinatus,

cum

notis musicis

.

.

.

nsum Congregationis Benedictinae

restitutis in

Galliarum."

1 For the reason why the earliest form is preferable to that of the time of Palestrina. aee Pi«mn-Song, vol. iii. p. 761. 2 Plain-Chant and Solesmea. Cagin and Mooquereau.

495

This was followed in 1891 by the Liber Antiphonarius pro Vesperis et Completorio,' also by Pothier, and in 1896 by the 'Liber Usualis Missae et Oflicii,' by Mocquereau. But others besides the monks of Solesmes were now in the field, endeavouring to reform the liturgical music. Chief among them was Frederic Pustet of Ratisbon, who obtained from Rus IX. a decree under which he was given, by the Congi'egation of Sacred Rites, the sole right for thirty years of republishing the celebrated Medicean edition, authorised by Paul V. in 1614. The same authority recognised Pustet's '

'

'

publication as the

official

and recommended

it for

version of plain-song, use in the whole of the Roman Church. The privileges thus given were confirmed by the next Pope, Leo XIII. This version (known £is the 'Ratisbon' edition), which also claims to be the tnie music of Gregory, is founded on an entirely diffi-rent principle from that of Solesmes. It is explained thus in the Magister Ohoralis of Haberl (Ratisbon, 1893) Since the 13th century a principle has existed of improving the melodies by cutting down their enormous length, which arose, partly through a bad method of execution, and partly through the mameruji of singers. . . The revision undertaken by the Congregation of Sacred Rites by order of Pius IX. put the foundation of the Roman Cliant on the system followed since the Council of Trent. The Solesmes view is that at the time the Medicean edition was authorised, plain-song had reached, not its highest development, but its most decadent stage : that in the time of Palestrina, who is supposed to have had a hand in preparing the edition, the traditions of its proper performance had been forgotten for and that its real apogee was immecenturies diately after the time of Gregory the Great, when :

'

.

;

it was method

collected

and

wi'itten

down, and its by the theo-

of performance described

retical writers.

trath of these views Dom of the Abbey), who brought exceptional musical training to bear on the work, commenced in 1889 a quarterly publication, entitled PaUographie musicale, consisting of photographic facsimiles of Gregorian, Ambrosian, Mozarabic, and Galilean manuscripts, together with exhaustive discusThe sions of the various questions involved. melodies obtained through the comparative study of many manuscripts on the principle laid down by Gueranger, when sung by the Solesmes chou- according to the method explained in the PaUographie, proved to be of greater artistic and aesthetic excellence than any other form

To support the

Andr^ Mocquereau (now Prior

of plain-song.

Owing edition,

to the support given to the Ratisbon

the

monks did not

at

first

obtain

recognition beyond their monastery and a few similar establishments. Their labours were.

'

'

SOLESMES

SOLESMKS

however, rewarded when in 1904 the new Pope, Pius X., who is well versed in music, established a Papal Commission to prepare a new Official Edition, and at the same time wrote to Dom Paul Delatte, the present Abbot, appointing the monks of Solesmes to be the editors. This edition, known as the 'Vatican edition,' has, up to the present date (1907), embraced the Kyriale, or ordinary of the mass, and the Commune Sanctorum. It is primarily based on the Liber gradualis but in the preparation of that work the learned editor had not the

In Melismatic Plain-song,' of which the short passage quoted ^elow is an example, the same laws of distinctions,' caesureis, and ' morae ' are applied, the syllables and words of prose being represented in the melody by the groups of neumes, which may not only occur in connection with the single verbal syllables, but may form long ' Melismata, apart from the words. The technical name for the melisma is ' Pneuma, i.e. ' Breathing,' which must not be confounded The with 'Neuma,' a note, or group of notes. intimate relation as to rhythm between the neume in melody and the syllable in words is shown by the fact that groups of notes are often called Syllabae ' by the ancient writers. The chant is now executed more rapidly than in the days of the ' hammered ' style ; and the notes have no relative time-value, but take their duration from the syllables in Syllabic, and from certain rules in Melismatic melody. The opening phrase of the Gradual 'Justus ut palma,' as found in the Ratisbon and Solesmes books respectively, will serve to show the difference between the two versions. The difference in method of performance can only be observed by a visit to one of the many churches in which Solesmes Plain-song is now cultivated. Below it is appended the Solesmes example in modern

496

'

'

;

abundant means of research at his disposal which have since been available J hence certain deficiencies became apparent when the book came into use. These are removed in the Vati;

can edition, while the monks are issuing for their own use a special Vatican edition containing

the marks of expression as performed by them. The practical application of the laws of Rhythm to the chant is described in the various Methods oi Plain-Chant that have issued from the Solesmes and other presses. The theory underlying what is known to modern stndente of plain-song as Free Rhythm may be briefly described as follows. Free Rhythm arpse from the setting of the words of Scripture to music at a time when the idea that melody could have a rhythm of its own, to which the words sung must conform in respect of time-duration, had not yet been thought of. Free Rhythm practically obeys all the laws of modern musical rhythm except that of definitely fixed timeWriting in the 11th century, relationship. when its laws were still understood, and when what we call Free was called by musicians Good Prose Prose Rhythm,' Aribo says Rhythm requires that there should be a rough balance in the gi-oups of syllables, and, naturally, also in the groups of accents, and in the members of sentences but they are not to be subjected to the rigorous laws of metre.' In ' Syllabic Plain-song, in which each syllable has a single note (or at most two or three notes very occasionally), the accentuation of the melody is ruled by that of the words. For rhythmical purposes, as well as for the understanding of the ideas to be expressed by them, words are divided into accented and unaccented syllables, and are also grouped into sentences and members of sentences. This is a law of all language, and Syllabic Plain-song is simply prose language uttered in melody instead of being spoken. The technical plain-song names '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

i=c;

•

flo

Ilia

t6

-

T^J-P;;-

:X=^ drus Li

-

ba

ni

-

mul-ti-pli-(cabitQr)

'

:

:

'

'

pal

Tit

'

'

:3^5fl=v:

-•i^=X

'

tt

-Msft-t Ju

-

stu8

ut pal

ce

drus

•

ina

flo

-

ro

'—^^^-^^^-rp^ztgr^ si

i

-

cut

.

.

Li

-

ba

nl

i^\.^:^^ .

mul

-

-

tl

pU-(cabitur)

^^^^^^^^^^^ Ju

-

ut pal-ma

BtuB

flo>r), '

Prtnciple8 ofMugitik, by C. Bntler (London, 1636). 3 IntroctwAifm to the SkiU of Mu*i£k (London, 16S5J. 3 Bifieaeioni sopfa atla maggl/trfacUtttt Che trovaH net apprentlere canto, etc. etc, (Venezia, 1746.) 1

it

Tu

(Fif,

Gb),

De

(Gfl,

This

Ab), N^o (AJ, Bb).

method was adopted by Hasse, and highly approved by Giambattista Mancini^ but in 1768 a certain Signer Serra endeavoured to supersede it by a still more numerous collection of syllables ; using Ca, Da, Ae, Fa, 6a, A, Ba, to represent the seven natural notes. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; C«, De, E, Fe, Ge, Ao, Be, to represent the same notes, raised by a series of sharps ; and Ci, Di, Oe, Fi, Gfi, Au, Bi, to represent them, when lowered by flats. [See the SanwmeWa/nde of the Int. Mus. Ges. i.

w.

535.]

SOLO

s.

K,

A

alone '). piece or passage Airs are executed by one voice or performer. solos ; a pianoforte piece for two hands is a pianoforte solo. A violin solo, strictly speaking, is a piece for the violin alone, like Bach's unaccompanied sonatas ; but the term is often used loosely for a concerto or other piece in which the solo instrument is accompanied by the band, '

(Jtal.

the pianoforte,

etc.

In an orchestral piece where one instrument has a passage which is intended to sound out Solo,' as in the prominently, it is marked second subject of the Adagio in Beethoven's Symphony No. 4, which is for the 1 st clarinet, and marked Solo in the flute solo near the end of the working-out in the Leonora Overture (where, however, the bassoon, equally solo, is merely marked 1 ') and in a thousand other instances. In arrangements of pianoforte concertos for two hands, the entry of the solo instrument is marked Solo, to distinguish it from the compressed accompaniment. G. SOLO 0E6AN, a manual or clavier of an organ having stops associated with it which for the most part are intended for use solo, that is, in single notes as opposed to chords. The solo organ is generally a fourth manual placed above that of the swell but it occasionally supersedes the choir organ, and is then placed below the ' Great manual. The stops in a solo organ are most frequently (1) Flutes of 8 ft. and 4 ft. (2) A stop of clariiiet-tone (3) a stop of oboetone (orchestral oboe) ; (4) Reeds of 8 ft. and 4 ft. of trumpet-tone (tromba, tuba, ete. ). Larger solo organs contain also stops imitative of the violin, horn, piccolo, and other instraments perhaps also an open diapason, and, in a few cases, a, carillon or glockenspiel. The solo tnimpetstops are most frequently on a heavy pressure of wind, and in order to obtain special brilliance are sometimes harmonic,' as are also the flutes that is, they have tubes of twice the ordinary length, pierced with a small hole at their half length. Some of the stops of a solo organ are often used in chords, such for instance as flutes and reeds. This is most commonly done by '

;

'

;

;

'

;

;

;

'

;

Solo to Great,' by which of a coupler the diapason or flute tones of the solo organ can be used as a valuable reinforcement of the foundation stops of the Great manual ; and the tone

means

'

—

;

'

SOLO STOP

SOMERVELL

of the full Great organ can be similarly enriched

VoUig geendiget.' Juin 13, 1748, setatis 63. The words of the oratorio are supposed to be by Dr. Morell but this is not certain. It was produced at Co vent Garden Theatre, March 17, 1749, 'with a Concerto," and was revived by Sir G. Smart at Exeter Hall, April 14, 1836. The Sacred Harmonic Society followed, Dec. 3, 1838 and with Costa's additional accompaniments, April 8, 1870. G.

by coupling the

In instruments which contain a Vox humana, that stop is perhaps more often found associated with the Swell-manual than with the Solo-manual hut when placed on the solo organ its pipes are generally shut up in a separate box with Venetian shutters worked by a second swellpedal. When composition-pedals are made to act upon the Swell, Great, and Choir organs, it is evidently wise to make the combinations they produce proceed as gradually as possible from piano to fortissiino. But this simple principle is not applicable to the combinations or rather solo reeds.

;

which are made by means The difficulty by a method suggested some years ago by the writer of this

selections of solo-stops

of composition -pedals or pistons. seems, however, to be overcome article

:

namely, to arrange them in the order

which the instruments are found in a modern full-score. Thus, six combination-pedals would act on the solo-stops in the following system in

:

SOLOVIEV, Nicholas Theopemptovich, May 9 (April 27, O.S.), 1846, at Petrozavodsk. He was intended for the medical born

but entered the St. Petersburg Conservatorium in 1868, eventually passing into Zaremba's class for composition. In 1871, Serov, being then upon his deathbed, entrusted the orchestration of his music -drama, 'The Power of Evil,' to Soloviev. About this time his symphonic picture, Russians and Mongols,' was given at one of the concerts of the Russian Musical Society. In ,1874, Soloviev became a professor at the St. Petersburg Conservatorium. profession,

'

'

(5) Stops of Trumpet and Trombone tones. (6) Stops of Violin and Viola tones.

at once simple

and

exhaustive, might be indefinitely extended thus, for example, a carillon, drum, or triangle, would be produced by a composition-pedal or

piston lying between the trumpet-stops and violin-stops ; and a vox humana would naturally Smaller follow after stops of the violin-tone. solo organs would probably be easily brought under control by combination-pedals or pistons acting on (1) Flute. (2) Oboe. (3) Clarinet.

(4)

;

is the best known, ha-ving been widely performed in Russia, and also at Prague in 1890. Other compositions

(2) Stops of Oboe-tone. (3) Stops of Clarinet and Bassoon tones. (4) Stops of Horn-tone.

is

;

Of his three operas Cordelia

(1) Stops of Flute- tone.

This method, which

Trumpet.

The Solo organ is an introduction of modern times, and followed naturally upon the invenof pipes closely imitating the tones of J. s. orchestral instruments. SOLO STOP. (1) stop or register of a solo tion

A

organ or fourth manual. (2) Any stop which can be used as a solo that is, in single notes, a cornopean, e.g. a clarinet on the choir organ hautboy, or other reed on the swell organ a olarabella or flute on either of the three manuals The name Solo stop does great, swell, or choir. not necessarily imply that full chords may not j. s. [See Solo Organ.] be used upon it. SOLOMOIT. I. A serenata by William Boyce, to words by Edward Moore, produced 1743. southern breeze was The song Softly rise, popular for many years. IL An oratorio of Handel's composed between 'Alexander Balus' and 'Theodora.' It was begun on May 5, 1748, and the memorandum at the end of the work is G. F. Handel;

—

;

;

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'

;

'

503

'

comprise a Cantata for the bi- centenary of the birth of Peter the Great ; an Orchestral Fantasia on a folk-song and a number of songs and pieces for pianoforte. As a critic, Soloviev has ;

written for the Novoe Vremya, Novosti, Rossia, ete. He is also well known as a collector of folk-songs.

K. N. _

SOMBREE.

Voix somirSe

is

the French

term

for the veiled voice or voce velata, in contradistinction to the voix claire. [See Veiled

Voice.]

g.

SOMERVELL, Akthue, bom

at Winder-

mere, June 5, 1863, was educated at Uppingham School from 1877, and Cambridge (King's College), where he took the degree of B.A. in 1883. During his residence at the university he studied •with Stanford, and on taking his degree he went to Berlin to study at the Hochsclmle, where his masters were Kiel and Bargiel. Returning to England in 1885 he entered the Royal College of Music, and after two years there became a private pupil of Parry in 1887. His charmingly graceful songs obtained a wide popularity, but his first ambitious introduction to the world of serious music was in his Mass in C minor, performed by the Bach Choir in 1891. In March 1893 the Philharmonic Society per-

formed his orchestral ballad, 'Helen of Kirkconnell,' and with his first important work for an important festival, The Forsaken Merman (Leeds Festival, 1895), he took a position among the most accomplished composers of the day. In 1901 he was appointed Inspector of Music for England, Wales, and Scotland, in succession to Stainer. He took the degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge in 1 903. Besides the works already mentioned, his list of compositions includes choral works, 'A Song of Praise (Kendal, 1891); '

'

'';

SOMIS

SONATA

'The Power of Sound' (Do. 1895); 'Elegy' (Robert Bridges, Hovingham, 1896); 'Charge of the Light Brigade' (1896) 'Ode to the Sea (with soprano solo), Birmingham Festival, 1897; Intimations of Immortality (Wordsworth), In Arcady,' a suite for Leeds Festival, 1907. small orchestra, was given at Brighton in 1897 but Somervell's purely orchestral works are very few. Of sacred works the most important is his setting of the Seven Last Words from the Cross. A quintet for clarinet and strings, and a

where he became Professor ofPhysios subsequently he was appointed Director of the technical High School of his native place, a post he gave up in 1884. In 1885 settled in Berlin, in 1888 in Weimar, and in 1898 returned to Brunswick. He has won success on the operatic stage with his later dramatic works in a fantastic Der Nachtwachter ^nd Loreley were form both given in Brunswiok^the iirst in 1865, the second in 1891 in 1894, a one-act piece, 'Saint Foix, was given at Munich ; two other one-act Der Meermann, at operas deserve mention, Weimar in 1896, and 'Augustin'; 'MiinchRiibezahl, were hausen,' in three acts, and and 'Riquet a given in Brunswick in 1904 la Houppe at the same theatre on April 14, 1907. It is by his songs that Sommer's name his op. 3, Madchenis best known in England lieder,' from Julius Wolffs Wilde Jager; his op. 4, three sets of songs from the same poet's JSunold Singuf; his op. 5, a set from Woltt's

504

'

;

'

'

'

;

symphony, are still in MS. Two sets of variations for two pianos, and a number of small pianoforte pieces, including some excellent concert- studies,

compositions

;

are

and a

among

instrumental

his

special success

rewarded

his song-cycle from Tennyson's 'Maud,' while other songs in series include ' Shropshire

A

and

James Lee's Wife (the last with orchestra). His Songs of the Four Nations,' and other books of arrangements, are an imLad,

'

'

'

'

portant addition to the subject of folk-song; and his many songs show remarkable skill in writing for the voice, as well as possessing the charm that makes for popularity while avoiding all that could be thought meretricious. M.

SOMIS, Giovanni Battista, violinist, was born in Piedmont in 1676. He studied first under Corelli at Rome, and afterwards under After his return to Turin Vivaldi at Venice. he was appointed solo violinist to the King, and leader of the royal band, a position he retained until his death, which ocourreS on August 14, 1763. After having once settled at Turin he appears scarcely ever to have left it ; and so few of his compositions were published that tliere is little opportunity of directly forming an estimate of him as a, player but judging from the style of his numerous and well-known pupils, Somis did not merely hand on the traditions of the great Italian masters, but formed a style of his own, more brilliant and ;

more emotional, marking technically, and

also,

in a sense, musically, a decided forward step

As the head and founder of the Piedmontese School, and the teacher of Leolair, Giardini, Chiabran, and in the art of playing the violin.

again the teacher of Viotti Pugnani — the —he occupies a prominent place the history latter

Giittingen,

'

jirima di-sonate a violino e violoncello o cembalo.

Roma 1722

[but a set of sonatas, op. 4, was published in Paris in 1726, and twelve sonatas, Besides these, an edition of op. 6, in 1734. some of his works appeared at Amsterdam, and a concerto is in MS. in the royal collection at Quellen-Lexikon.^ p. D. Dresden. '

SOMMER, Hans (actual

name,

Hans Fkibd-

name occasionNeckniz '), born at

KiOH August Zincken, the

last

transformed into Brunswick, July 20, 1837, was educated at ally

'

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'

'

'

'

'

;

'

'

:

Tannhmiser Sylva's

;

his op. 6, to

words from Carmen

Sappho, and his songs to words of

diiferent authors, opp. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,

and

16,

contain many things that are effective for the voice, well expressed, original, and full of a sort of ingenuity that delights all cultivated amateurs. In particular, his Stelldichein from op. 4, a vocal obbligato to a brilliant pianoforte waltz, and ' Waldtelche,.' in which the alternate Latin and German words of the poem '

Am

are cleverly set to mu'sio in different styles, are in their way little triumphs of art. Here and there the composer drifts into rather commonplace ways of expressing himself, but his best

songs are things that no educated singer can afford to neglect. He has made several contributions to musical literature, such as his Ueber die WertsckcUzung der Musik (1898). M. SOMMEROPHONE. An instrument of the

saxhorn or bombardon class, named after its inventor. It was largely played in the Exhibition of 1851. 'The Euphonic horn of Herr Sommer is honourably mentioned in the Reports of the Juries (pp. 331, 335) as 'an instrument of great powte as well as sweetness of tone. It possessed no very special peculiarities, and is now seldom, if ever, used. w. H. s. '

SON AND STRANGER.

in

and forms the connecting link between the classical schools of Italy and France. Opera Fiitis names as his only published work of violin-playing,

'

:

See

Hbimkehr

AUS DBK FrEMDE. SONATA. The history

of the Sonata is the history of an attempt to cope with one of the most singular problems ever presented to the mind of man, and its solution is one of the most successful achievements of his artistic instincts. sonata is, as its name implies, a sound-piece,

A

and a sound-piece alone perfect examples, text,

it is

;

in its purest and most

unexplained by

and unassisted by

voices

;

it is

title or

nothing

but an unlimited concatenation of musical notes. Such notes have individually no significance and even the simplest principles of their relative definition and juxtaposition, suchasarenecessary ;

SONATA to make tlie most elementary music, had to be drawn from the inner self and the consciousness of things which belong to man's nature only,

without the possibility of finding guidance or more than the crudest suggestion from the observation of things external. Yet the structural principles by which such unpromising materials become intelligible have been so ordered and developed by the unaided musical instinct of many successive generations of composers, as to render possible long works which not only penetrate and stir us in detail, but are in their entire mass direct, consistent, and convincing. Such works, in their completest and most severely abstract forms, are sonatas.

The name seems

to have been first adopted

purely as the antithesis to Cantata, the musical piece that was sung. It begins to come into notice about the same time as that form of composition, soon after the era of the most marked revolution in music, which began at the end of the 16th centuiy ; when a band of enthusiasts, led by visionary ideals, unconsciously sowed the seed of true modem music in an attempt to wrest the monopoly of the art in its highest forms from the predominant iniluenoe of the Church, and to make it serve for the expression of human feelings of more comprehensive range. At this time the possibilities of polyphony in its ecclesiastical forms may well have seemed almost exhausted, and men turned about to find new fields which should give scope for a greater number of worlcers. The nature of their speculations and the associations of the old order of things alike conspired to direct their attention first to Opera and Cantata, and here they had something to guide them but for abstract instrumental music of the Sonata kind they had for a long time no clue. The first suggestion was clearly accidental. It appears probable that the excessive elaboration of the Madrigal led to the practice of accompanying the voice parts with violS ; and from this the step is but short to leaving the viols by themselves and making a vague kind of chamber music without the voices. This appears to have been the source of the instrumental Canzonas which were written in tolerable numbers till some way into the 18th century. It does not appear tliat any distinct rules for their construction were recognised, but the examination of a large number, written at different periods from Frescobaldi to J. S. Bach, prove.3 the uniform object of the composers to have been a lax kind of fugue, such as might have served in its main outlines for the vocal madi'igals. Burney says the earliest examples of ' Sonatas ' he had been able to discover in his devoted inquiries were by Turini, published His description of those at Venice in 1624. he examined answers perfectly to the character of the canzonas, for, he says, they consist of one movement, in fugue and imitation throughout. ;

505

Sonatas did not, however, rest long at this point of simplicity, but were destined very early to absorb material from other sources and though the canzona kind of movement ;

maintained its distinct position through many changes in its environment, and is still found in the Violin Sonatas of J. S. Bach, Handel, and Porpora, the madrigal, which was its source, soon ceased to have direct influence upon three parts of the more complete structure. The suggestion for these came from the dance, and the newly invented opera or dramatic cantata. The former

had existed and made the chief staple of instrumental music for generations, but it requires to be well understood that its direct coimection with dancing puts it out of the category of abstract music of the kind which was now obscurely germinating. The dances were understood through their relation with one order of dance motions. There would be the order of rhythmic motions which, taken together, was called a Branle, aimther that was called a Pavan, another a Gigue and each dance-tune maintained the distinctive rhythm and style throughout. On the other hand, the radical principle of the Sonata, developed in the course of generations, is the compounding of a limitless variety ;

of rhythms ; and though isolated passages may be justly interpreted as representing gestures of

an ideal dance kind, like that of the ancients, it is not through this association that the group of movements taken as a whole is understood, but by the disposition of such elements and others in relation to one another. This conception took time to develop, though it is curious how early composers began to perceive the radical diff'erence between the Suite and the Sonata. Occasionally a doubt seems to be implied by confusing the names together or by actually calling a collection of dance-tunes a Sonata but it can hardly be questioned that from almost the earliest times, as is proved by a strong majority of cases, there was a sort of undefined presentiment tliat their developments lay along totally different paths. In the first attempts to form an aggregate of distinct movements, the composers had to take their forms where they could find them ; and among these were the familiar dance-tunes, which for a long while held a prominent position in the heterogeneous group of movements, and were only in late times transmuted into the Scherzo which supplanted the Minuet and Trio in one case, and the Finale or Eondo, which ultimately took the place of the"^ Gigue, or Chaconne, or other similar dance-forms ;

member The third source,

as the last

of the group. as above mentioned, was the drama, and from this two general ideas were derivable one from the short passages of instramental prelude or interlude, and the other from the vocal portions. Of these, the :

first

was

intelligible in the

relation to

drama through

some point in the

story,

but

it

2k

its

also

SONATA

506

early attained to a crude condition of form which was ec[ually available apart from the drama.

The other produced

at first the vaguest and most rhapsodical of all the movements, as the type taken was the irregular declamatory recitative which appears to have abounded in the

early operas.

who

were much in vogue with almost all composers In the structure from this time till J. S. Bach.

movements the fiigal influences are most apparent, and there are very few signs of the systematic repetition of subjects in connection with well-marked distribution of keys, which in later times became indispensable. Similar features and qualities are shown in the curious set of seven Sonatas for Clavier by JohannKuhnau, called 'Frische Clavier Friiohte,' etc., of a little later date ; but there are also in some parts indications of an awakening sense The of the relation and balance of keys. grouping of the movements is similar to those of Biber, though not identical ; thus the first three have five movements or divisions, and the remainder four. There are examples of the of the

It is hardly likely that it will ever be ascer-

tained

accepted as an instrument fit for high-class nmsic. The writing for the instrument is decidedly elaborate and difficult, especially in the double stops and contraijuntal passages which

experimented in sonatas of Many composers are mentioned in different places as having contributed works of the kind, such as Farina, first

several distinct

movements.

Graziani, among Italians, Rosenmiiller among Germans, and John Jenkins among

Oesti,

Englishmen. Burney also mentions a Michael Angelo Rossi, whose date is given as from about 1620 to 1660. An Andantino and Allegro by him, given in Pauer's Alte Meister, require notice parenthetically as presenting a curious '

'

and the authorship rightly attributed. [These pieces are now known to be spurious (see p. 149a), but genuine specimens of Rossi's works are in Torchi's ' Arte Musioale in Italia,' vol. iii. See also Oskar Bie's The Piamoforte, Engl, transl. p. 82.] Though belonging to a period considerably before Corelli, they show a state of form which certainly was not commonly realised till more than a hundred years later. The distribution of subject-matter and key, and the clearness with which they are distinguished, are like the works of the middle of the 18 th rather than the l7th century, and they belong absolutely to the Sonata order, and the conscious style of The actual structure of large the later period. numbers of sonatas composed in different parts of Europe soon after this time, proves a tolerably clear consent as to the arrangement and quality A fine vigorous example is of the movements. a Sonata in C minor for violin and figured bass, by H. J. F. Biber, a German, said to have been This consists of five first published in 1681. movements in alternate slow and quick time. The first is an introductory Largo of contrapuntal character, with clear and consistent treatment in the fugally imitative manner ; the puzzle, if the dates are correct

same kind of rhapsodical slow movements,

as

may

be seen in the Sonata (No. 2 of the set) there which is given in Pauer's Alte Meister '

'

;

movements, some of them and there are clearly and musically written some good illustrations of dance types, as in the last movement of No. 3, and the Oiaccona of No. 6. But more important for the thread of continuous development are the peculiar attempts to balance tolerably defined and distinct subjects, and to distribute key and subject in large expanses, of which there are at least two are

several fugal

;

clear examples.

In a considerable proportion

of the movements the most noticeable method of treatment is to alternate two characterLstio

groups of figures or subjects almost throughout, in different positions of the scale

and at

irregular

This is illustrated in the first movement of the Sonata No. 2, in the first movement of No. 1 and in the third movement of No. 5. The subjects in the last of these are intervals of time.

,

as follows

:^

second is a Passacaglia, which answers roughly to a continuous string of variations on a short well-marked period the third is a rhapsodical ;

movement

consisting of interspersed portions

of Poco lento. Presto, and Adagio, leading into a Gavotte and the last is a further rhapsodical movement alternating Adagio and Allegro. In this group the influence of the madrigal or canzona happens to be absent the derivation in the first, the contraof the movements being puntalism of the music of the Church, in the second and fourth, dances, and in the third and fifth, probably operatic or dramatic declamation. The work is essentially a violin sonata with accompaniment, and the violin-part points to the extraordinarily rapid advance to mastery which was made in the few years after its being ;

—

;

The point most worth notice is that the device lies half-way between fugue and true sonata-form. The alternation is like the recurrence of subject and counter-subject in the former, wandering hazily in and out, and forwards and backwards, between nearly allied keys, as would be the case in a fugue. But the subjects are not presented in single parts or fugally answered. They enter and re-enter for the most part as concrete lumjis of harmony, tlie harmonic accompaniment of the melody

SONATA being taken as part of the idea and this is essentially a quality of sonata-form. So the movements appear to hang midway between the two radically distinct domains of form and while deriving most of their disposition from the older manners, they look forward, though obscurely, in the direction of modern practices. How obscure the ideas of the time on the subject must have been, appears from the other point which has been mentioned above which is, that in a few cases Kuhnau has hit upon clear outlines of tonal form. In the second Sonata, for instance, there are two Arias, as they are called. They do not correspond in the least with modern notions of an aria any more than do the rare examples in Bach's and Handel's Suites. The first is a little complete piece of sixteen bai's, divided exactly into halves by a double bar, with repeats after the familiar manner. The first half begins in F and ends in C, the second half goes as far as D minor and back, to conclude in F again. The subjectmatter is iiTegularly distributed iu the parts, and does not make any pretence of coinciding with the tonal divisions. The second Aria is on a different plau, and is one of the extremely rare examples in this early period of clear coincidence between subject and key. It is in the form which is often perversely misnamed 'lied-form,' which will in this place be called primary form to avoid circumlocution and waste of space. It consists of twenty bars in D minor representing one distinct idea, complete with close then sixteen bars devoted to a different subject, beginning iu Bt> and passing back ultimately to D minor, recapitulating the whole of the first twenty bars iu that key, and emphasising the close by repeating the last fombars. Such decisiveness, when compared with the unregulated and unbalanced wandering of longer movements, either points to the conclusion that composers did not realise the desirableness of balance in coincident ranges of subject and key on a large scale or that they were only capable of feeling it in short and It seems highly easily grasped movements. probable that their minds, being projected towards the kind of distribution of subject which obtained in fugal movements, were not on the look-out for effects of the sonata order which to modems appear so obvious. So that, even if they had been capable of realising them more systematically, they would not yet have thought In it worth while to ap]ily their knowledge. following the development of the Sonata, it ought never to be forgotten that composers had no idea whither they were tending, and had to use what they did know as stepping-stones to In art, each step that is gained the unknown. opens a fresh vista ; but often, till the new position is mastered, what lies beyond is comIn fact, pletely hidden and undreamed of. each step is not so much a conquest of new ;

;

;

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:

;

507

as the creation of a new mental or emotional position in the human organism. The achievements of art are the unravellings of hidden possibilities of abstract law, through the constant and cumulative extension'of instincts. They do not actually exist till man has made them they are the counterpart of his internal conditions, and change and develop with the changes of his mental powers and sensitive qualities, and apart from him have no validity. There is no such thing as leaping across a oliasm on to a new continent, neither is there any gulf fixed anywhere, but continuity and inevitable antecedents to every consequent the roots of the greatest masterpieces of modern times lie obscm-ely hidden in the wild dances and barbarous bowlings of the remotest ancestors of the race, who began to take pleasure in rhythm and sound, and every step was into the unknown, or it may be better said not only unknown but non-existent till made by mental effort. The period from about 1600 to about 1725 contains the very difficult steps which led from the style appropriate to a high order of vocal music of which the manner of speech is polyphonic, and the ideal type of form, the fugue to the style appropriate to abstract instmmental music, of which the best manner is contrapuntally- expressed harmony, and the ideal type of form, the Sonata. These works of Kuhnau 's happen to illustrate very curiously the transition in which a true though crude idea of abstract music seems to have been present in the composer's mind, at the same time that his distribution of subjects and keys was almost invariably governed by fugal habits of thinking, even where the statement of subjects is in a harmonic manner. In some of these respects he is nearer to, and in some further back from, the true solution of the problem than his famous contemporary Corelli ; but his labours do not extend over so much space, nor had they so much direct and widespread influence. In manner and distribution of movements they are nearer to his predecessor and compatriot Biber and for that reason, and also to maintain the continuity of the historic development after Corelli, the consideration of his works has been taken a little before their actual place in point of time. The works of Corelli form one of the most familiar landmarks in the history of music, and as they are exclusively instrumental it is clear that careful consideration ought to elicit a

land,

;

;

—

—

;

great deal of interesting matter, such as must throw valuable light on the state of thought of his time. He published no less than sixty sonatas of different kinds, which are divisible into distinct groups in accordance witli purpose or construction. The first main division is that suggested by their titles. There are twentyfour 'Senate da Chiesa' for strings, lute, and organ, twenty-four ' Senate da Camera ' for the same instruments, and twelve Solos or Sonatas

SONATA

508

and violoncello, or cembalo. In these the first and simplest matter for observation is the distribution of the movements. The average, in Church and Chamber Sonatas alike, is strongly in favour of four, beginning with a slow movement, and alternating the rest. There is also an attempt at balance in the alternation of character between the movements. The first is commonly in 4-time, of dignified and solid character, and generally aiming less at musical expression than the later movements. The second movement in the Church Sonata is freely fugal, in fact the exact type above described as a Canzona ; the style is commonly rather dry, and the general effect chiefly a complacent kind of easy swing such as is familiar in most of Handel's fugues. In the Chamber Sonatas the character of the second movement is rather more variable ; in some it is an Allemande, which, being dignified and solid, is a fair counterpart to the. Canzona in the other Sonatas sometimes it is a Courante, for violin

'

:

which

is

of lighter character.

ment is the only one which is key from the first and last. characteristic one, in

The third moveever in a difterent It is generally a

which other early com-

posers of instrumental music, as well as Corelli, clearly endeavoured to infuse a certain amount of vague

common

and tender sentiment.

The most

time is The extent of the movealways limited, and the style, though simply contrapuntal in fact, seems to be ordered with a view to obtain smooth harmonious fullchord effects, as a contrast to the brusqueness of the preceding fugal movement. There is generally a certain amount of imitation between the parts, irregularly and fancifully disposed, but almost always avoiding the sounding of a In the Chamber Sonatas, as single part alone. might be anticipated, the third movement is frequently a Sarabande, though by no means always for the same kind of slow movement as that in the Church Sonatas is sometimes adopted, as in the third Sonata of the Opera Seconda, which is as good an exampje of that The last movement is class as could be taken. almost invariably of a lively character in Church In the latter, and Chamber Sonatas alike. Gigas and Gavottes predominate, the character of which is so familiar that they need no description. The last movements in the Church Sonatas are of a similar vivacity and sprightliness, and sometimes so alike in character and rhythm as to be hardly distinguishable from dance -tunes, except by the absence of the defining name, the double bar in the middle, and the repeats which are almost inevitable in This general scheme is the dance movements. occasionally varied without material difference of principle by the interpolation of an extra quick movement, as in the first six Sonatas of the Opera Quinta in which it is a sort of show movement for the violin in a Moto oontinuo

ment

3-2.

is

;

;

'

'

added before or after the central slow movement. In a few cases the number is reduced to three by dropping the slow prelude, and in a few others the order cannot be sysstyle,

tematised. In accordance with the principles of classification above defined, the Church Sonatas appear to be much more strictly abstract than those The latter are, in many cases, for Chamber.

The Sonatas not distinguishable from Suites. Thus the attracof Opera Quinta are variable. tive Sonata in E minor, No. 8, is quite in the Some are like the recognised suite - manner. Sonate da Ohiesa, and some are types of the mixed order more universally accepted later, having several undefined movements, together with one dance.

The

actual structure of the

individual movements is most uncertain. Corelli clearly felt that something outside the domain of the fugal tribe was to be attained, but he had no notion of strict outlines of procedure. One thing which hampered him and other composers of the early times of instrumental music was their unwillingness to accept formal

They tunes as an element in their oi-der of art. had existed in popular song and dance music for certainly a centin-y, and probably much more but the idea of adopting them in highCorelli class music was not yet in favour. ;

occasionally produces one, but the fact that they generally occur with him in Gigas, which

and least responsible portion of the Sonata, supports the inference that they were not yet regarded as worthy of general acceptance even if realised as an admissible element, but could only be smuggled-in in the least respectable movement with an implied smile to disarm criticism. Whether this was decisively so or not, the fact remains that till long after Corelli's time the conventional tune element was conspicuously absent from instrumental compositions. Hence the sti-uctural principles which to a modern seem almost inevitable were very nearly impracticable, or at all events unsuitable to the general principles of the music of that date. A modern expects the opening bars of a movement to present its are the freest

most important subject, and he anticipates .

its

repetition in the latter portion of the movement as a really vital part of form of any kind. But

and common sense were alike against such a usage being imiversal in Corelli's time. The associations of ecclesiastical and other serious vocal music, which were then preponderant to a supreme degree, were against strongly salient points, or strongly marked association

a, movement in contrast to parts of comparative unimportance. Consequently the opening bars of a movement would not be expected to stand out in sufficiently strong relief to be remembered xmless they were repeated at once, as they would be Human nature is against it. For in fugue.

interest in short portions of

;

;

SONATA not only does the mind take time to be wrought up to a fully receptive condition, unless the beginning is most exceptionally striking, but what comes after is likely to obliterate the impression made by it. As a matter of fact, if all things were equal, the portion most likely to remain in the mind of an average listener, is that immediately preceding the strongest cadences or conclusions of the paragraphs of the movement. It is true, composers do not argue in this manner, but they feel such things vaguely or instinctively, and generally with more sureness and justice than the cold-blooded argumentation of a theorist could attain to. Many examples in other early composers besides Corelli, emphasise this point effectively. The earliest attempts at structural form must inevitably present some simply explicable principle of this sort, which is only not trivial because it is a very significant as well as indispensable starting-point.

Corelli's

commonest devices

of

form are the most unsophisticated applications of such simple reasoning. In the first place, in many movements which are not fugal, the opening bars are immediately repeated in another position in the scale, simply and without periphrasis, as if to give the listener assurance

of an idea of balance at the very outset. That he did this to a certain extent consciously, is obvious from his having employed the device in at least the following Sonatas 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, of Opera 1™* ; 2, 4, 7, 8, of Opera 3==^' 4'" and 2, 4, 5, and 11, of Opera and Tartini and other composers of the same school followed his lead. This device is not, however, either

—

;

common as that of repeating the concluding passage of the first half at the end of the whole, or of the concluding passages This, howof one half or both consecutively. ever, was not restricted to Corelli, but is found in the works of most composers from his time to Scarlatti, J. S. Bach and his sons and it is no extravagant hypothesis that its gradual extension was the direct origin of the characterof istic second section and second subject modern sonata movements. In many cases it is the only element of form, in the modern In a few cases sense, in Corelli's movements. he hit upon more complicated principles. The Corrente in Sonata 5 of Opera 4'* is nearly a The wellminiature of modern binary form. known Giga in A in the fifth Sonata of Opera 5^, has balance of key in the first half of the movement, modulation, and something like consistency to subject-matter at the beginning of the second half, and due recapitulation of The last principal subject-matter at the end. movement of the eighth Sonata of the Opera Terza, is within reasonable distance of rondoform, though this form is generally as conspicuous for its absence in early sonatas as tunes are, and probably the one follows as a natural consequence of the other. Of the simple primary so conspicuous or so

;

509

form, consisting of corresponding beginning and end, and contrast of some sort in the middle, there is singularly little. The clearest example is probably the Tempo di Gavotta, which con-

He cludes the ninth Sonata of Opera Quinta. also supplies suggestions of the earliest types of sonata form, in which both the beginnings and endings of each half of themovement correspond as this became an accepted principle of structure with later composers, it will have to be co:i-

more fully in relation to their works. Of devices of form which belong to the great polyphonic tribe, Corelli uses many, but with more musical feeling than learning. His fugues are not remarkable as fugues, and he uses considered

trapuntal imitation rather as a subordinate

means of carrying on the interest, than of expounding any wonderful device of pedantic wisdom, as was too common in those days. He makes good use of the ohaoonne-form, which was a great favourite with the early composers, and also uses the kindred device of carrying the repetition of a short figure through the greater part of a movement in different phases and positions of the scale. In some cases he merely rambles on without any perceptible aim whatever, only keeping up an equable flow of sound with pleasant interlaoings of easy counterpoint, led on from moment to moment by suspensions and occasional imitation, and here and there a helpful^ sequence. Corelli's position as a composer is inseparably mixed up with his position as one of the earliest masters of his instrument.

His

be both

style of writing for it does not appear to

so elaborate as that of other contemporaries,

older and younger, hut he gi'asped of expressing things with

part the

fit

it,

and

ajust way most

for the

things to say. The impression he people in all parts of the

made upon musical

musical world was strong, and he was long regarded as the most delightful of composers in his particular line ; and though the professors of his day did not always hold him in so high estimation, his influence upon many of his most distinguished successors was unquestion-

ably powerful. It is possible, however, that appearances are deceptive, and that influences of which he was only the most familiar exponent, are mistaken

achievement. Thus knowing head of a great school of which continued through several

for his peculiar

his position at the violinists,

generations down to Haydn's time, it is difficult to disunite him from the honour of having fixed the type of sonata which they almost uniformly adopted. And not only this noble and vigorous school, comprising such men as Tartini, Vivaldi, Locatelli, Nardini, Veracini, and outlying members like Leclair and Eust,

but

men who were not

their violins, such

specially attached to and Purcell,

as Albinoni

and later. Bach, Handel, and Porpora, equally adopted the type. Of Albinoni not much

'

SONATA

510

seems to be distinctly known, except that he was Coi'elli's contemporary and probably junior. He wrote operas and instrumental music. Of

of a short coda starting from a happy interrupted cadence. It is out of the question to follow the variety of aspects presented by the intro-

the

ductory slow movement a fair proportion are on similar lines to the above examples, others Their character is almost uniare isolated. they are often exformly solid and large pressive, but generally in a way distinct from the character of the second slow movement, which from the first was chosen as the fittest The to admit a vein of tenderer sentiment. most important matter in the history of the Sonata at this period is the rapidity with which advance was made towards the realisation of

latter, several

sonatas are

still

to be seen,

but they are, of course, not familiar, though at one time they enjoyed a wide popularity. The chief point about them is that in many for violin and figured baas he follows not only the same general outlines, but even the style of Corelli. He adopts the four-movement plan, with a decided canzona in the second place, a slow movement first and third, and a quick movement to end with, such as in one case a Corrente. Purcell's having followed Corelli's lead is repudiated by enthusiasts but at all events the Hues of his Golden Sonata in F are wonderfully similar. There are three slow movements, which come first, second, and ;

fourth ; the third movement is actually called a Canzona and the last is a quick movement in 3-8 time, similar in style to corresponding portions of Corelli's Sonatas. The second movement, an Adagio, is the most expressive, being happily devised on the principle above referred to, of repeating a short figure in different positions throughout the movement. In respect of sonata-form the work is about on a par with the average of Corelli or Biber. The domain of the Sonata was for a long while almost monopolised by violinists and writers for the violin. Some of these, sjich as Geminiani and Locatelli, were actually Corelli's pupils. They clearly followed him both in ;

style and structural outlines, but they also began to extend and build upon them with

remarkable speed. The second movement continued for long the most stationary and conventional, maintaining the Canzona type in a loose fugal manner, by the side of remarkable Of these the changes in the other movements. first began to grow into larger dimensions and clearer proportions even in Corelli's own later works, attaining to the dignity of double bars and repeats, and with his successors to a con-

and self-sufficing form. An example of the admirable Larghetto aflfettuoso with which Tartini's celebrated Trillo del Diavolo commences. No one who has heard it could fail to be struck with the force of the simple device above described of making the ends of each half correspond, as the passage is made to stand out from all the rest more characteristically than usual. A similar and very good example is the introductory Largo to the Sonata in G minor, for violin and figured bass, by Locatelli, which is given in Ferdinand David's Hohe Schule des Violinspiels.' The subjectmatter in both examples is exceedingly well handled, so that a sense of perfect consistency is maintained without concrete repetition of subjects, except, as already noticed, the closing bars of each half, which in Locatelli's Sonata are rendered less obvious through the addition sistent

this

is

'

'

;

;

modern harmonic and tonal

principles of struc-

the perception of the effect and significance of relations between chords and distinct keys, and consequent appearance of regularity of purpose in the distribution of both, and increased freedom of modulation. Even Corelli's own pupils show consistent fonu of the sonata kind with remarkable clearness. The last movement of a Sonata in C minor, by Geminiani, has a clear and emphatic subject to start with ; modulation to the relative major, El>, and special features to characterise the second section and conclusion of the first half in that key, with repeat after the supposed orthodox manner. The second half begins with a long section corresponding to the working out or free fantasia portion of a modern sonata movement, and concludes with recapitulation of the first subject and chief features of the second section in C minor this latter part differing chiefly from modem ways by admitting a certain amount of discursiveness, which is characteristic of most of the early experiments in this form. Similar to this is the last movement of Locatelli's Sonata in G minor, the last movement of Veracini's Sonata in E minor, published at Vienna in 1714, the last movements of Tartini's Sonatas in E minor and D minor, and not a few others. It is rather curious that most of the early examples of what is sometimes called first-movement form are last movements. Most of these movements, however, in the early times, are distinguished by a peculiarity which is of some importance. It has been before referred to, but is so characteristic of the process of growth, that it will not be amiss to describe it in this place. The simple and almost homely means of producing the effect of structural balance by making the beginning and ending of each half of a movement correspond, is not so conspicuously common in its entirety as the correspondence of endings or repetition of cadence bars only but it nevertheless is found tolerably often, and that in times before the virtue of a balance of keys in the first half of the movement had been decisively realised. "When, however, this point was gained, it is clear that such a process would give, on as minute a scale as possible, the very ture, or, in other words,

;

'

'

;

;

SONATA next thing to complete modern binary form. It only needed to expand the opening passage into a first subject, and the figures of the Cadence into a second subject, to attain that type which became almost universal in sonatas till Haydn's time, and with some second-rate composers, like Eeichardt, later. The movements which are described as binaiy must be therefore that in divided into two distinct classes: which the first subject reappears in the complementary key at the beginning of the second half, which is the almost universal type of earlier times ; and that in which it appears in the latter part of the movement, after the working-out portion, which is the later type. The experiments in Corelli and Tartini, and

—

othei-s

who

are close to these types, are endless.

Sometimes there are tentative strokes near to tlie later form sometimes there is an inverted ;

order reproducing the second portion of the movement first. Sometimes the first subject makes its appearance at both points, but then, may be, there is no balance of keys in the first The variety is extraordinary, half, and so forth. and it is most interesting to watch the manner in which some types by degrees 5)reponderate, sometimes by combining with one another, sometimes by gradual transformation, some nearer and more decisively like the types which are generally adopted in modem times as fittest. The later type was not decisively fixed on at any particular point, for many early composers touched it once or twice at the same period that they were writing movements in more elementary forms. The point of actual achievement of a step in art is not marked by an isolated instance, but by decisive preponderance, and by the systematic adoption which shows at least an instinctive realisation of its value and importance.

These writers of violin sonatsis were just touching on the clear realisation of harmonic form as accepted in modem times, and they sometimes adopted the later type, though rarely, and that obscurely they mastered the earlier type, and used it freely and they also used the intermediate type which combines the two, in which the principal or first subject makes its appearance both at the beginning of the first half and near the end, where a modem would As a sort of embryonic suggestion expect it. of this, the Tempo di Gavotta, in the eighth Sonata of Corelli's Opera Seconda, is significant. Complete examples are the last movement of Tartini's fourth Sonata of Opus 1, and the last movement of that in D minor above referred to the last movement of Geminiani'a Sonata in C minor the main portion, excluding the Coda, of the Corrente in Vivaldi's Sonata in A major the last movement of a Sonata of Nardini's, in ;

;

—

;

511

The four-movement type of violin sonata was not invariably adopted, though it preponderates so conspicuously. There is a set of twelve sonatas by Locatelli, for instance, not so fine as that in F. David's collection, which are nearly all on an original three-movement plan, concluding with an Aria and variations on a '

ground-bass.

'

Some

of Tartini's are also in three a set of six by Nardini are also

movements, and in three, but always beginning with a slow movement, and therefore, though almost of the same date,

not really approaching the distribution

commonly adopted by Haydn for Clavier Sonatas. In fact the old Violin Sonata is in many respects a distinct genus, which maintained its individuality alongside the gradually stereotyped Clavier Sonata, and only ceased when that type obtained possession of fie field, and the violin was reintroduced, at first as it were furtively, as an accompaniment to the pianoforte. The general characteristics of this school of writers for the violin, were nobility of style and richness of feeling, an astomshing masteiy of the instrument, and a rapidly-growing facility in dealing

with structure in respect of subject, key, moduand development and what is most vital, though less obvious, a perceptible growth in the art of expression and a progress towards the definition of ideas. As a set-ofif there are occasional traces of pedantic manners, and occasional crudities both of structme and expression, derived probably from the associations of the old music which they had so lately left behind them. At the cro^vn of the edifice are the Sonatas of Of sonatas in general he appears J. S. Bach. He not to have held to any decisive opinion. wrote many for various instruments, and for For various combinations of instruments. lation,

;

and da gamba and clavier, and so on but in most of these the outlines are not decisively distinct from Suites. In some cases the works are described as 'Sonatas or Suites,' and in at least one case the introduction to a church cantata is called a Sonata. Some instrumental works which are called Sonatas only, might quite as well be called Suites, as they consist of a prelude and a set of dance-tunes. clavier, for violin alone, for flute, %'iolin,

clavier,

for viol

;

Others are heterogeneous. From this it appears that he had not satisfied himself on what lines to attack the Sonata in any sense approaching With the Violin Sonatas it the modem idea. was otherwise and in the group of six for violin and clavier he follows almost invariably the main ;

which are characteristic of the Italian school descended from Corelli, and all but one are on the four -movement plan, having slow outlines

major and two Capriccios in Bt> and C, by Hohe Franz Benda, quoted in F. David's

movements first and third, and quick movements second and fourth. The sixth Sonata only differs from the rest by having an additional quick movement at the beginning. Not only this but the second movements keep decisively the

Schule,' etc.

formal lineaments of the ancient type of free

;

;

D

;

'

SONATA

512

more strictness of manner by the Canzonas. Only in calibre and quality of ideas, and in some peculiar idiosyncrasies of structure do they differ materially from the works of the Italian masters. Even the first, third, and fifth Sonatas in the other set of six, for violin fugue, illustrated with

conform accurately to the old four-move-

alone,

ment

plan, including the fugue in the second place the remaining three being on the general ;

In most of the Sonatas for movement is a tower of strength, and strikes a point of rich and complex emotional expression which music reached for the first time in Bach's imagination. His favourite way of formulating a movement of this sort, was to develop the whole accompaniment consistently on a concise and strongly-marked lines of the Suite.

violin

and

clavier, the slow

which by repetition in different conditions formed a bond of connection throughout the whole and on this he built a passionate kind of recitative, a free and unconstrained outpouring figure,

;

of the deepest and noblest instrumental song. This was a sort of apotheosis of that form of rhapsody, which has been noticed in the early Sonatas, such as Biber's and Kuhnau's, and was occasionally attempted by the Italians. The six Sonatas present diversities of types, all of the loftiest order some of them combining together with unfailing expressiveness perfect specimens of old forms of contrapuntal ingenuity. Of this, the second movement of the second Sonata is a perfect example. It appears to be a pathetic colloquy between the violin and the treble of the clavier part, to which the bass keeps up the slow constant motion of staccato semiquavers the colloquy at the same time is in strict canon throughout, and, as a specimen of expressive treatment of that time-honoured form, is almost ;

_

:

unrivalled.

In all these movements the kinship is rather with the conti'apuntal writers of the past, than with the types of Beethoven's adoption. Even Bach, immense as his genius and power of divination was, could not leap over that period of formation which it seems to have been indispen-

mankind to pass through, before equally noble and deeply-felt things tould beexpressedin the characteristically modern manner. Though he looked further into the future in matters of expression and harmonic combination than any composer till the 19th century, he still had to use forms of the contrapuntal and fugal order for the expression of his highest thoughts. He did occasionally make use of binary form, though not in these Sonatas. But he more commonly adopted, and combined with more or less fugal treatment, an expansion of simple primary form to attain structural effect. Thus, in the second tnovements of the first and second Sonatas, in the last of the third and sixth, and the fiirst of the sixth, he marks first a long complete section in his principal key, then takes his way into modulations and development, and discussion sable for

and various kinds of contrapuntal enjoyment, and concludes with simple complete recapitulation of the first section in the principal Bach thus stands singularly aside from key. the direct line of the development of the Sonata as far as the structural elements are concerned. His contributions to the art of expression, to the development of resource, and to the definition and treatment of ideas, had great effect, and are of the very highest importance to instrumental music but his almost invariable choice of either the suite-form, or the accepted outlines of the violin sonata, in works of this class, caused him to diverge into a course which with him found In order to conits final and supreme limit. tinue the work in veins which were yet unexhausted, the path had to be turned a little, and joined to courses which were coming up from The violin sonata continued other directions. to make its appearance here and there as has already been mentioned, but in the course of a generation it was entirely supplanted by the distinct type of clavier sonata. Meanwhile there was another composer of this time, who appears to stand just as singularly apart from the direct high road as Bach, and who, though he does not occupy a pedestal so high in the history of art, still has a niche by no means low or inconspicuous, and one which he shares with no one. Domenico Scarlatti was Bach's senior by a few years, though not enough to place him in an earlier musical generation and in fact though his works are so different in quality, they have the stamp that marks them as belonging to the same parallel of time. His most valuable contributions are in the immense numbei- of sonatas and studies which he wrote for the harpsichord. The two names are used as synonyms, for each of the thirty Eseroizii per Gravicembalo is separately entitled Sonata. But whatever they are called they do not correspond in appearance to any form which is commonly supposed to be essential to the Sonata. Neither can they be taken as purebred members of the fugal family, nor do they trace their origins to the Suite. They are in fact, in a fair proportion of cases, an attempt to deal with direct ideas in a modern sense, without appealing to the glamour of conscious association, the dignity of science, or the familiarity of established dance rhythms. The connection with what goes before and with what comes after is alike obscure, because of the daring originality with which existing materials are worked upon but it is not the less inevitably present, as an outline of his structural principles will show. His utterance is at its best sharp and incisive the form in which he loves to express himself is epigrammatic and some of his most effective of themes

;

;

'

'

'

'

;

;

;

sonatas are like strings of short propositions bound together by an indefinable sense of consistency and consequence, rather than by actual development. These ideasan- commonly brought

—

— '

SONATA home

to the hearer by the singular practice of repeating tliem consecutively as they stand, often several times over ; in respect of which it Is worth' remembering that his position in relation to his audience was not unlike that of an orator addressing an uncultivated mob. The capacity for appreciating grand developments of structure was as undeveloped in them as the power of following widely spread argument and conclusion would be in the mob. And just as the moborator makes his most powerful impressions by short direct statements, and by hammeiing them in while still hot from his lips, so Scarlatti drove his points home by frequent and generally identical reiterations ; and then when the time came round to refer to them again, the force of the connection between distant parts of the same story was more easily grasped. The feeling that he did this with his eyes open is strengthened by the fact that even in the grouping of the reiterations there is commonly a perceptible method. For instance,, it can hardly be by accident that at a certain point of the movement, after several simple repetitions, he should frequently resort to the complication of repeating several small groups within the repetition of large ones. The following example is a happy illustration of his style, and of his way of elaborating such repetitions :

IrnqTM

smim m ,

d=!z

513

It must not be supposed that he makes a law of this procedure, but the remarkably frequent occurrence of so curious a device is certainly suggestive of conscious purpose in structural treatment. [It is only right to point out the

recognised custom of repeating phrases on the harpsichord with a change of registration, which may account in some measure for the habit here referred to.] The result of this mode is that the movements often appear to be crowded with ideas. Commonly the features of the opening bars, which in modern times would be held of almost supreme importance, serve for very little except to determine the character of the movement, and do not make their appearance again. On the other hand, he cariies the practice before referred to, of making the latter part of each half of the movement correspond, to an extraordinary pitch, and with perfect success ; for he almost invariably adopts the key distribution of binary form in its main outlines ; and though it would not be accurate to speak of such a thing as a second subject in his sonateis, the impression produced by his distribution of repetition and the clearness of his ideas is sufficient, in his best movements, to give a general structural efieot very similar to complete binary form on a small scale. In order to realise to what extent the processof recapitulation is carried by him, it will be as well to consider the outline of a fairly characteristic sonata. That which stands fifteenth in the easily available edition of Breitkopf & Hartel ^ commences with eight bars only in E minor ; the next forty-six, barring merely a slight and unimportant digression, are in G major. This concludes the first half. The second half begins with reference to the opening figures of the '

whole and a

little

key

digression,

and then a

characteristic portion of. the second section of first half is resumed, and the last thirtyfour bars of the movement are a recapitulation in E minor of the last thirty-five of the first half, the three concluding bars being condensed

the

*

into two.

In

many

respects his principles of structure

and treatment

are altogether in the direction ways, and alien to fugal principles. That vital principle of the fugue—the persistence of one principal idea, and the interweaving of it into every part of the structure appears completely alien to Scarlatti's disposition. He very rarely wrote a fugue ; and when he did, if it was successful that was less because it was a good fugue than because it was Scarlatti's. The fact that he often starts with imitation between two parts is unimportant, and the merest accident of association. He generally treats his ideas as concrete lumps, and disposes them in distinct portions of the movement,

of

modem

> It is also the flfteenth in the ' Eserdzii ' j in Pauer's edition it No. 18 ; in the Trdsop dea FiaDlstes,' No. 19 ; and occurs on p. 22 of Hoseingrave's second volume. It has not yet appeared in Signer Longo's complete edition.

is

2l

—

— ;

SONATA

514

which is essentially an unfugal proceeding but the most important matter is that he was probably the first to attain to clear conception and treatment of a self-sufBcing effective idea, and to use it, if without science, yet with management which is often convincingly successful. He was not a gi'eat master of the art of composition, biit he was one of the rarest masters of his instrument and his divination of the way to treat it, and the perfect adaptation of his ideas to its requirements, more than counterbalance any shortcoming in his science. He was blessed with ideas, and with a style so essentially his own, that even when his music is transported to another instrument the characteristic effects of tone often remain unmistakable. Vivacity, humour, genuine fun, are his most familiar traits. At his best his music sparkles with life and freshness, and its vitality is apparently quite unimpaired by age. He rarely approaches tenderness or sadness, and in the whole mass of his works there are hardly any slow movements. He ia not a little ' bohemian,' and seems positively to revel in curious effects ;

of consecutive fifths

The

—

and consecutive octaves. which such thin^

characteristic daring of

are the

most

superficial manifestations, joined

with the clearness of his foresight, made him of closer kinship to Beethoven and Weber, and even Brahms, than to the typical contraHis works are genuine puntalists of his day. sonatas' in the most radical sense of the term self-dependent and self-sufficing sound -pieces, without programme. To this the distribution of movements is at least of secondary importance, and his confining himself to one alone does not vitiate his title to be a foremost contributor to that very important branch of the musical art. No successor was strong enough to wield his bow. His pupil Durante wrote some sonatas, consisting of a Studio and a Divertimento apiece, which have touches of his manner, but without sufficient of the nervous elasticity to make

Hasse's in Bt>, quoted in Pauer's ' Alte Meister,' which deserves consideration for the light it throws on a matter which is sometimes said to be a crucial distinction between the early attempts at form and the perfect achievement. In many of the early examples of sonata-form, the second section of the first part is characterised by groups of figures which are quite definite enough for all reasonable purposes, but do not come up to the ideas commonly entertained of

the nature of a subject ; and on this ground the settlement of sonata-form was deferred some Hasse was not a daring originator, fifty years. neither was he likely to strike upon a crucial test of perfection, yet iii this movement he sets out with a distinct and complete subject in B|> of a robust Handelian character :

and

after the usual extension proceeds to F,

and

announces by definite emphasis on the Dominant the well-contrasted second subject, which is suggestive of the polite reaction looming in the future

:

'

them important. The contemporary

writers

for

clavier

of

second rank do not offer much which is of high musical interest, and they certainly do not arrive at anything like the richness of thought

and expression which is shown by their fellows of the violin. There appears, however, amongst

them a tendency to drop the introductory slow movement characteristic of the violin sonata, and by that means to draw nearer to the type of later clavier or pianoforte sonatas. Thus a sonata of Wagenseil's in F major presents almost exactly the general outlines to be met with in Haydn's works— an Allegro assai in binary form of the old type, a short Andantino grazioso, and a Tempo di Minuetto. A sonata of Hasse's in D minor has a similar arrangement of three movements ending with a Gigue but the first movement is utterly vague and There is also an Allegro of indefinite in form. ;

^^^^^^^ The movement as a whole is in the binary type of the earlier kind. The period now approaching is characterised by uncertainty in the distribution of the movements, but increasing regujarity and definition in their internal structure.

Some writers follow

the four-movement type of violin sonata in writing for the clavier ; some strike upon the grouping of three movements ; and a good many fall back upon two. sonata of Galuppi's in D illustrates the first of these, and throws light upon the transitional process. The first movement is a beautiful Adagio of the Arioso type, with the endings of each half corresponding, after the manner traced from Corelli the second is an Allegro, not of the fugal or Canzona order, but clear binary of the older kind, A violin sonata of Locatelli's, of probably earlier date, has an AUemande of excellent form in this

A

;

— SONATA position, but this is not sufifioiently definite in

the inference

it affords to

throw much light on

any ti-aiisition or assimilation of -violin sonataform to clavier sonata-form. Galuppi's adoption of a movement of clear sonata-qualities in this place supplies exactly the link that was needed ; and the fugal or canzona type of movement being so supplanted, nothing further was necessary but expansion, and the omission of the introductory Adagio (which probably was not so well adapted to the earlier keyed instruments as to the violin), to anive at the principle of distribution adopted in the palmiest days of formalism. Later, with a more powerful instrument, the introductory slow movement was often reintroduced. Galuppi's third movement is in a solid march style, and the last is a Giga. All of them are harmonically constructed, and the whole work is soUd and of sterling musical worth. Dr. Ame was born only four years after Galuppi, and was amenable to the same general influences. The structure of his sonatas emphasises the fact above mentioned, that though the order of movements was passing through a phase of uncertainty their internal structure was growing more and more distinct and uniform. His first sonata, in F, has two movements, Andante and Allegro; both of which follow harmonically the lines of binary form. The second, in E minor, has three movements. Andante, Adagio, Allegrissimo. The first and last are on the binary lines, and the middle one in simple primary form. The third Sonata consists of a long vague introduction of arpeggios, elaborated inamannercharaoteristic of the time, an Allegro which has only one subject but is on the binary The lines, and a Minuet and two Variations. fourth Sonata is in some respects the most interesting. It consists of an Andante, Siciliano, The first is of continuous Fuga, and Allegro. character but nevertheless in binary form, without the strong emphasis on the points of division between the sections. It deserves notice for its expressiveness and clearness of thought. The second movement is very short, but pretty and expressive, of a character similar toexamples The last moveof Handel's tenderer moods. ment is particularly to be noticed, not only for being decisively in binary form, but for the ingenuity with which that form is manipulated. The first section is represented by the main subject in the treble, the second (which is clearly marked in the dominant key) has the same subject in the bass, a device adopted also more The elaborately by W. Friedemann Bach. second half begins with consistent development and modulation, and the recapitulation is happily managed by making the main subject represent both sections at once in a, short passage Others of Arne's sonatas afford of canon. similar though less dear examples, which it is superfluous to consider in detail ; for neither

515

the matter nor the handling is so good in them as in those above described, most of which, though not rich in thought or treatment, nor impressive in character, have genuine traits of musical expression and clearness of workmanship. In the same year with Dr. Ame was born Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, the eldest son of John Sebastian. He was probably the most gifted, the most independent, and unfortunately the wildest and most unmanageable of that remarkable family. Few of his compositions are known, and it is said that he would not take the trouble to write unless he was driven to it. Two sonatas exist, which are of different type, and probably represent different periods of his

chequwed

career.

One

in

D major, for its rich-

ness, elaborateness, expressiveness, is well

worthy

theotheris rather cheap, and though masterly in handling and disposition of structural elements, hasmore tiaces of the elegance which was creeping over the world of music than of the grave and earnest nobleness of his father and similar representaThe first, in D, is tives of the grand period. probably the most remarkable example, before Beethoven, of original ingenuity manipulating sonata-form under the influence of fugal associations and by means of contrapuntal devices. The whole is worked out with careful and of the scion of so great a stock

intelligible reasoning,

;

but to such an elaborate

extent that it is quite out of the question to give even a complete outline of its contents. The movements are three TJn poco allegro. Adagio, Vivace. The first and last are specuThe first lative experiments in binary form. half in each represents the balance of expository

—

sections in tonic

main subject

and complementary keys.

The

of the first reappears in the bass

second section, with a new phase of the original accompaniment in the upper parts. The development portion is in its usual place, but the recapitulation is tonally reversed. The first subject and section is given in a relative key to balance the complementary key of the second section, and the secondsection is given in the original key or tonic of the movement ; so that instead of repeating one section and transposing the other in recapitulation^ they are both transposed analogously. In each of the three movements the ends of the halves correspond, and not only this but the graceful little figure appended to the cadence is the same in all the movements, establishing thereby a very delicate but sensible connection between them. This figure is as in the

follows

:

i%=J^>^^ etc.

fi^.^^^

§^=m^=

SONATA

516

upon other grounds. Among these, most prominent is his comprehension and employment of the art of playing and expressing things on He understood it, not in a new the clavier. sense, but in one which was nearer to public comprehension than the treatment of his father. He grasped the phase to which it had arrived, by constant development in all quarters he added a little of his oWn, and having a clear and ready-working brain, he brought it home to the musical public in a way they had not felt His influence was paramount to give before. rest

W ^i^J-?=£3=J:^*^ :JaJ=^=

jl^

etc.

=i53E =P-

;

^^^^ ^1 :^^^te^i^

a decided direction to clavier-playing, possible that the style of which he

and it is was the

passed on continuously to the treatment of the pianoforte by dementi, and through him to the culminating achievements of Beethoven. In respect of structure, most of his important sonatas are in three movements, of which the first and last are quick, and the middle one slow ; and this is a point by no means insignificant in the history of the sonata, as it represents a definite and characteristic balance between the principal divisions, in respect of style and expression as well as in the external traits of form. Many of these are in clear binary form, like those of his elder brother, and his admirable predecessor, yet to be noted, P. Domenico Paradies. He adopts sometimes the old type, dividing the recapitulation in the second half sometimes the later, and of the movement sometimes the composite type. For the most part he is contented with the opportunities for variety which this form supplies, and casts a greater proportion of movements in it than most other composers, even to the extent of having all movements in a work in different phases of the same form, which in. later times was rare. On the other hand, he occasionally experiments in structures as original as could well be devised. There is a Sonata in F minor which has three main divisions corresponding to movements. The first, an Allegro, approaches vaguely to binary form ; the second, an Adagio, is in rough outline like simple primary form, concluding with a curious barless cadenza the last is a Fantasia of the most elaborate and adventurous description, full of experiments in modulation, enharmonic and otherwise, changes of time, abrupt surprises and long passages entirely divested of bar lines. There is no definite subject, and no method in the distribu-

foster-father

The formal pauses on

mony

familiar points ^f harcharacteristic of later times are conspicu-

ously few, the main divisions being generally marked by more subtle means. The whole sonata is so uncompromisingly full of expressive

and would require to be so elaborately phrased and ' sung to be intelligible, that an adequate performance would be a matter of considerable difficulty. The second Sonata, in C, has quite a different appearance. It is also in three movements Allegro, Grave, and Vivace. The first is a masterly, clear, and concise example of binary form of the type which is more familiar in the works of Haydn and Mozart. The second is an unimportant intermezzo leading directly into the Finale, which is also in binary form The treatment is the of the composite type. very reverse of the previous sonata. It is not contrapuntal, nor fugal. Little pains are taken to make the details expressive and the only result of using a, bigger and less careful brush is to reduce the interest to a, minimum, and to make the genuineness of the utterances seem doubtful, because the writer appears not to have taken the trouble to express his best thoughts. Wilhelm Friedemann's brother, Carl Philipp Emanuel, his junior by a few years, was the member of the younger family who attained the highest reputation as a representative composer of instrumental music and a writer on that subject. His celebrity is more particularly based on the development of sonata-form, of which he is often spoken of as the inventor. True, his sonatas and writings obtained considerable celebrity, and familiarity induced people to remark things they had overlooked in the works of other composers. But in fact he is neither the inventor nor the establisher of sonata-form. It was understood before his day, both in defigures,

'

—

;

and in general distribution of movements. reputation of supreme fitness later, but it was not nearly always adopted by Haydn,nor invariably by Mozart,and was consistently departed from by Beethoven ; and Emanuel did not restrict himself to it yet tails

One type obtained the

;

his predecessors used it often. It is evident therefore that his claims to a foremost place

masterly

;

;

It is more like a rhapsodical improvisation of a most inconsequent and unconstrained description than the product of concentrated purpose, such as is generally expected in a sonata movement. This species of experiment has not survived in high-class modern music, except in the rarest cases. It was however not unfamiliar in those days, and superb examples in the same spirit were provided by John Sebastian, such as the Fantasia

tion of keys.

—

—

SONATA Cromatica, and parts of some of the Toccatas. John Ernst Bach also left something more after the manner of the present instance as the prelude to a fugue. Emanuel Bach's position is particularly emphasised as the most prominent

composer of sonatas of his time, who clearly shows the tendency of the new counter-current away from the vigour and honest comprehensiveness of the great school of which his father was the last and greatest representative, towards the elegance, polite ease, and artificiality, which became the almost indispensable conditions of the art in the latter part of the 18th century. Fortunately the process of propping up a tune upon a dummy accompaniment was not yet accepted universally as a desirable phenomenon of high-class instrumental music ; in fact such a stride downward in one generation would have been too cataclystic ; so he was spared the temptation of shirking honest concentration, and padding his works, instead of making them thoroughly complete ; and the result is a curious combination, sometimes savouring strongly of his father's style

:

L ^i^

:=tI*iW4i:?;:

^ Mi

r-

-n

:gp^^1S|

and sometimes coldly predicting the the future

:

style of

.

^^li^fegip^ In general, his building up of movements is full of expressive detail, and he does not spare himself trouble in enriching his work with such things as ingenuity, genuine musical perception, and vivacity of thought can suggest. He occasionally reaches a point of tenderness and poetic sensibility which is not unworthy of his descent, but there is also sometimes an uncomfortable premonition in his slow movements of the posturing and posing which were soon to be almost

The spirit is inevitable in well-bred Adagios. indeed not greatly deep and earnest, but in outward things the attainment of a rare degree of point and emphasis, and of clearness and certainty in construction without emptiness, sufficed to give Philipp Emanuel a foremost place among the craftsmen of the art. P. Ddmenico Paradies was Emanuel Bach's Two of his sonatas, at senior by a few years. least, are deservedly well known to musicians. The structural qualities shown by the whole set

517

of twelve, emphasise the opinion that binary form was familiar to composers of this period. They differ from Philipp Emanuel's chiefly in consisting uniformly of two movements only. Of these, the first movements are almost invariably in binary form. That of the first sonata is perfectly complete and of the later type ; many of the others are of the early type. Some details in the distribution of the movements are worth noticing. Thus the last movenient of No. 4 is a very graceful and pretty minuet, which had hitherto not been so common an ingredient in sonatas as it afterwards became. The last movement i of No. 3 is called an aria ; the arrangement of parts of which, as well as that of the last movement of No. 9, happens to produce a rondo, hitherto an extremely rare featm'e. His formulation and arrangement of subjects is extremely clear and masterly, and thoroughly in the sonata manner that is, essentially harmonica!. In character he leans towards the style of the latter part of the 1 8th century, but has a grace and sincerity which are thoroughly his own. In a few cases, as in the last movements of the Sonatas in A and D, Nos. 6 and 10, which are probably best known of all, the character assumed is rather of the bustling and hearty type which is suggestive of the influence of Scarlatti. In detail they are not so rich as the best specimens of Emanuel's, or of Friedemann Bach's workmanship but they are thoroughly honest and genuine all through, .and thoroughly musical, and show no sign of shuffling or laziness. The two-movement form of clavier sonata, of which Paradies's are probably the best examples, seems to have been commonly adopted by a number of composers of second and lower rank, from his time till far on in the century. Those of Durante have been already mentioned. All the set of eight, by Domenico Alberti, are also in this form, and so are many by such forgotten contributors as Koeser and BarthMemon, and some by the once popular Schobert. Alberti is credited with the doubtful honour of having invented a formula of accompaniment which became a little too familiar in the course of the century, and is sometimes known as the 'Alberti Bass.' (See vol. i. p. 63a.) He may not have invented it, but he certainly called as much attention to it as he could, since not one of his eight sonatas is without it, and in some movements it continues almost through-

—

;

out. The movements approach occasionally to binary form, but are not clearly defined the matter is for the most part dull in spirit, and poor in sound and the strongest characteristic is the unfortunate one of hitting upon a cheap ;

;

which was much in vogue with later composers of mark, without having arrived at that mastery and definition of form and subject device,

1 In some modem reptints of this sonatA the order ments has been reversed.

of 'the move-

;

SONATA

518 which,

alone

made

it

endurable.

The times

were not quite ripe for such usages, and

it is

who was slightly Alberti's he should have attained to a far

fortunate for Paradies, junior, that

better definition of structure without resorting to such cheapening.

There are two other composers of this period deserve notice for maintaining, even later, some of the dignity and nobility of style which were now falling into neglect, together with

who

clearness

of

structure

and expressiveness of

These are Eolle and George Benda. A sonata of the former's in Ei> shows a less certain hand in the treatment of form, but at times extraordinary gleams of musically poetic feeling. Points in the Adagio are not unworthy of kinship with Beethoven. It contains broad detail.

and daring

effects

of modulation, and noble and expression, which,

richness of sentiment

by the

side of the obvious tendencies of music in these days, is really astonishing. The first

and

last

movements

are in binary form of the

some happy and musical though not so remarkable as the contents of the slow movement. George Benda was a younger and greater brother of the Franz who has been mentioned in connection with Violin Sonatas. He was one of the last writers old type, and contain

strokes,

who, using the now familiar forms,

some

still

retained

of the richness of the earlier manner.

is in his work much in the same tone and style as that of Emanuel Bach, but also an earnestness and evident willingness to get the best out of himself and to deal with things in an original manner, such as was by this time becoming rare. After him, composers of anything short of first rank offer little to arrest

There

attention either for individuality in treatment or earnestness of expression. The serious influences which had raised so many of the earlier composers to a point of memorable musical achievement were replaced by associations of far less genuine character, and the ease with which something could be constructed in the now familiar forms of sonata, seduced men into indolent uniformity of structure and commonplace prettiness in matter. Some attained to evident proficiency in the use of instrumental resource, such as Turini and some to a touch of genuine though small expressiveness, as Haessler and Grazioli ; for the rest the achievements of Sarti, Sacchini, Schobert, Mdhul, and the otherwise great Cherubini, in the line of sonata, do not offer much that requires notice. They add nothing to the process of development, ;

and some of them are remarkably behindhand in relation to their time, and both what they say and the manner of it is equally unimportant.

Midway in the crowd comes the conspicuous form of Haydn, who raised upon the increasingly familiar structural basis not only some fresh and notable work of the accepted sonata character, but the great and enduring monument of his

The latter do not within the limits of the present subject, though they are in reality but the great instrumental expansion of this kind of music for solo An arbitrary restriction has been instruments. put upon the meaning of the word Sonata, and With Haydn it is necessary here to abide by it. it is rather sonata-form which is important, than the works which fall under the conventional His sonatas are many, acceptation of the name. but they are of exceedingly diverse value, and As is the very few of really great importance. case with his quartets, some, which internal evidence would be sufficient to mark as early attempts, are curiously innocent and elementary and even throughout, with a few exceptions, their proportionate value is not equal to that But of other classes of his numerous works. the great span of his musical activity, reaching from the times of the Bach family till fairly on in Beethoven's mature years, the changes in the nature of keyed instruments, and the development of their resources which took place during his lifetime, make it inevitable that there should be a marked difl"erence in the appearance and limits of different members of the collection. However, he is always himself, and though the later works are wider and more richly expressed, they represent the same mental qualities as the earliest. At all tifnes his natural bent is in favour of simplification, as against the old His easy contrapuntal modes of expression. good-humour speaks best in simple but often ingeniously balanced tunes and subjects, and it is but rare that he has recourse to polyphonic expression or to the kind of idea which calls for it. Partly on this account and partly on account of narrowness of capacity in the instrument to which in solo sonatas he gave most attention, his range of technical resource is not extensive, and he makes but little demand upon his performers. His use of tunes and decisively outlined subjects is one of the most important points in symphonies and quartets. fall

relation to structure at this period.

Tunes had

existed in connection with words for centuries, and it is to their association with verses balanced

by

distinct

rhythmic grouping of

lines,

sectional tune of instrumental music

mately be traced.

that the

must

ulti-

It appears not to be a genuine

instrumental product, but an importation and the fact that almost all the most distinguished composers were connected with opera establishments, just at the time that the tune-element became most marked in instrumental works, supports the inference that the opera was the means through which a popular element ultimately passed into the great domain of abstract music. In preceding times the definition of subject by hard outlines and systematic conformity to a few normal successions of harmony was not universal and the adoption of tunes was In Haydn and Mozart tiie culmination of rare. regularity in the building of subjects is reached. ;

;

SONATA The virtue of tliis process is that it simplifies the conditions of structure in the whole movement. "When a correct system of centralisation is found by which the subject is restrained within the limits

which

strictly illustrate

tonality, the feelings

which

but one single

this suggests to tlie

hearer are such as will be satisfied with equally simple oixjer in all other parts of the complete structure. If the creative poweris notsuffioiently concentrated and disciplined to restrain the direction of its activity within comprehensible bounds, the result can only be to make perfect balance and proportion impossible. Thus if the first section of a movement is so decentralised that its connection with any pai'ticular key cannot possibly be followed by the hearer, one of the primary conditions of abstract music has been violated, and the balance of pai'ts rendered undistinguishable. Yet the subject or section may range broadly in its course, and touch upon many alien tonalities without violating these conditions ; but then the horizon is broadened so as to necessitate an equal relative extension in every part of the movement. If a poet sets out with a passage expanded to the full with imagery and implication, in which almost every word is suggestive of wide horizons of thought, and carries inference behind it as complicated as those which lie in simple external manifestations of nature, it is useless for liim to go bade afterwards to a more limited and statuesque mode of expression. Even a pei'son of little cultivation would feel at once the violation of artistic proportion. relative degree of heat and intensity must be maintained at the risk of the work being as a whole unendurable. But if a more restricted field of imagination be appealed to at the outset, the work may be the more easily and perfectly carried out in simpler and narrower limits. In abstract music, balance, proportion, equality in the range of emotional and structural elements, are some of the most important conditions. Not that there is to be equal intensity all through, but that the salient and subordinate parts shall be fairly proportionate ; and this cannot be tested or stated by formulas of science, but only by cultivated artistic instinct. In music the art of expressing an idea within the limits and after the manner necessary for abstract music had to be discovered. The process of selection from experimental types had brought this to the closest point consistent with completeness in the latter half of the 18th century. At that time the disposition of the musical mind was specially set upon obviously intelligible order and certainty in the structural aspect of works. It was a necessary condition

A

go throigh and though not by any meansthe sole oraupremecondition of excellence, it is not strange that the satisfaction derived from the sense of its achievement should cause people, in social circumstances which were peculiarly favourable, to put disproportionate for art to

;

519

upon it and that modern writers who have not been able to keep pace with the inevitable march and change in the conditions of musical utterance should stiU insist on it as if whereas in fact it were the ultimate aim of art its prominence in that epoch was a passing phase having considerable dependence upon unique stress

;

;

and

social conditions,

any time

'

its

existence in art at

only one of numberless constituent elements. The condition of art of that time enabled the gi-eatest composers to express the is

utmost of their

ideas,

and

to

their

satisfy

audiences, within the limits of a very simple group of hai-monies. And this simplified the whole process of building their works to the

utmost. Haydn manipulates the resources which Haidly within such limits to admiration. any composer so successfully made uniformity out of compounded diversity on a small scale. He delights in making the separate limbs of a subject of diffeiftnt lengths, and yet, out of theii' total sura, attaining a perfect and convincing symmetry. The harmonic progression of the subjects is uniformly obedient to the principles of a form which is on a preconceived plan, and without some such device the monotony of wellbalanced phrases must soon have become wearisome. With regard to the actual distribution of the movements, Haydn does not depart from that already familiar in the works of earlier composers. Out of forty sonatas, comprising lie

works for pianoforte alone, for pianoforte with accompaniment, and some adaptations, ten have only two movements, twenty-nine have three, and only one has four, this last comprising the only Scherzando in the whole collection of one hundred and eleven movements. Nearly all the first movements are in binary form with an occasional rondo the last is often a rondo, ;

more often in binary form, and occasionally a theme and variations. In the sonatas which have more than two movements, at least twice as many retain the old adagio as those which have the characteristic minuet and trio but ;

as a set-off, several of the sonatas either conclude with a dance form, or a rondo, or set of varia' Tempo di Minuetto.' actual structure of the movements presents occasional peculiarities. In a few cases the

tions in the

The

pure old binary type, with repeat of first subject at the beginning of the second half, reappears.

A considerable form,

in

number are in the composite which the first subject makes two

distinct reappearances in full in the second half, as before described. The two halves of the

movement are generally, but not invariably, repeated the first half almost invariably in fact, the absence of the double bar in the middle of the Sonata in major (No. 32 in Breitkopf & Hartel's edition) appears to be the only exception. The distribution of subjects in balancing keys appears to be absolutely without exception, as tonic and dominant, or tonic minor and relative

—

;

D

SONATA

520

Each movement has usually two distinct but occasionally, as is observable in Haydn's predecessors, the second is not strongly marked. In a few cases the same subject serves for both sections. There are a few examples of major.

subjects,

his anticipating Beethoven's usage of introducing clear accessory subjects to carry

Haydn

on the

sections.

illustrates forcibly the usefulness of de-

main division of the movement, not only by emphasising the harmonic fommla of the cadence, but by appending to it a characteristic phrase or figure, the position of which, immediately before the full stop, renders it particularly easy to recognise. The purpose and fitness of this has been already discussed. fining the

Haydn's cadence-figures are generally peculiarly and seem to be made so of set purpose. As a rule the outlines of his binary movements are more persistently regular than those of his rondos. Haydn was the first composer of mark to adopt the rondo with frequehcy in sonatas. It had existed in isolation and in suites for a long while, and examples there are in plenty by Couperin and other early Frenchmen, who were much given to it and also by various members of the Bach family, including the great John Sebastian. But hxmdreds of sonatas, from the attractive,

;

highest to the lowest grade, may be taken at random with a fair probability of not finding a single example. The influence of the opera may probably be here traced again ; in the set tunes and dance types as significantly as in the general structure. However, though Haydn's kind of

rondo is peculiarly familiar and characteristic, he does not make use of the form in his sonatas nearly so proportionately often as later composers do. The proportion in comparison with Mozart The value and approis almost as one to two. priateness of this form is a matter of opinion. The greatest masters have used it frequently, and Beethoven with the profoundest effect. The usage of some other composers may be fairly de-

The slow movements of all the composers of sonatas till Beethoven's time are rather artificial and inclined to pose, owing partly to the weakness and want of sustaining power in their instruThey contain too little of the deep and ments. liberal feeling which is necessary to make the highest impression, and too much decorative finger -play, corresponding no doubt to the roulades and vocal gymnastics for which operatic singers found such admirable opportuilities in the slow beats of adagios. Haydn's management is artistic, and he occasionally upon an interesting subject, but hardly any of the movements approach to the qualities expected in the ideal slow movement of modern

of such things strikes

times.

His distribution of the keys of the movements simple. In some of the earlier Sonatas all three are in the same, or major and minor of the same key. In more mature examples he adopts the familiar antithesis of subdominant, which in later works, preponderates so strongly. In one case he adopts a very unusual antithesis. This is in the largest and most elaborate of all the sonatas, of which the first and last movements are in E|j, and the middle movement in Et]. One point requires notice in connection with his violin sonatas, viz. that they are the very reis

verse of those of the great school of half a century earlier ; for inasmuch as with them the violin

was everything, with Haydn it was next to nothing. Except in obviously late sonatas it does little more than timidly accompany the pianoforte. It was in this manner that the violin, having departed grandly by the front door in the old style, crept back again into modern instrumental music by the back. But small as such beginnings were, Haydn's later and fuller

examples are the ostensible starting-point

of a class of music which in the 19th century has extended the domain of the solo sonata, by

and it lends itself with greater readiness than any other plan of its scope to frivolity and commonplace. Haydn's

enlarging its effective scope, and obtaining a new province for experiment in the combination of other instruments with the pianoforte upon equal terms, and with equal respect to their several

subjects are often singularly slight, but his de-

idiosyncrasies.

velopment of the form is almost always ingenious. Thus he varies his disposition of the episodes, so that sometimes the main subject and a single

John Christian Bach, the youngest son of John Sebastian, was Haydn's contemporary and junior by three years. In his day he was con-

episodical subject alternate in different circum-

sidered an important composerfor the pianoforte, and his style is held to have had some influence

scribed as obtrusively obvious,

stances throughout

;

at other times they are

disposed so as to resemble the recapitulation -in binary form. In the returns of the main theme

he always exercises some consideration. In hardly any case does he simply repeat the theme as it stands throughout commonly each reappearance is a fresh variation. Occasionally the middle repeats are variations, and the first and last statements simple and identical and sometimes variations of theme and episode alternate. In all such points his readiness and energy are apparent, and make his treatment of the form a ;

;

model in

its particular, line.

upon Mozart. A sonata of his, in Bb, op. 17, fluent and easily written, but not particularly interesting, and thoroughly in the style of the latter part of the 18th century. It consists of three movements, all in binary form of the older type. Another sonata, in C minor, is, for the beginning with a date, in very singular form slow movement, having a fugue in the middle, and ending with a "Tempo di Gavotta.' Its style is not strikingly massive, but there are many traits in it which show that his parentage was not entirely without influence. The fugue. is

;

SONATA though ably written, has too much of the hybrid effect common in such works, after the harmonic structural ideas had laid strong hold of men's minds, to be worthy of comparison with the genuine achievements of his father. The style of the work is broad, however, and some ideas and turns of expression may not unreasonably be taken to justify the influence attributed to him. The difference of age between Haydn and Mozart was twenty-four years, but in this interval there was less change in the form of the sonata than might be expected. It was, in fact, an almost stationary period, when the attainment of satisfactory structural principles by the labours of a century and more of composers left men time to pause and contemplate what appeared to them to be perfection the rhythmic wave of progi-ess poised almost balanced for a short time before the rush which brought about an unexpected culmination in Beethoven. The difference between Haydn and Mozart is plainly neither in structure nor altogether in styleof thoughtandexpression,but in advantages of temporal position. Haydn began nearer to the time of struggle and uncertainty. He found much ready to his hand, and he tested it and applied it and improved it and when Mozart came there was little to do but adapt his supreme gifts of fluency, clearness, and beauty of melody ;

;

to glorify the edifice.

The progression of artistic instinct is at present an unexplained phenomenon ; it can only be judged from observation that the children of a later generation are born with a predisposed facility to realise in perfect clearness the forms which preceding generations have been wanderIt is possible ingly and dimly striving after. that the affinity between genuine music and the mental conditions of the race is so close that the progress of the latter carries the former with it as part of the same organic development. At all events, Mozart was gifted with an extraordinary

and hitherto unsurpassed instinct for formal perfection, and his highest achievements lienotmore in the tunes which have so captivated the world, than in the perfect symmetry of his best works. Like Haydn's his ideas are naturally restricted within limits which simplify to the utmost the developmentof the formwhichfollowsfrom them.

They move in such perfect obedience to the limits and outlines of the hannonic progressions which most certainly characterise the key, that the structural system becomes architecturally patent and recognisable to all listeners that have any understanding. In his time these formal outlines were fresh enough to bear o, great deal of use without losing their sweetness and Mozart used them with remarkable regularity. Out of thirtysix of his best-known sonatas, twenty -nine are in the now familiar order of three movements, and no less than thirty -three have the first movement in binary^ form. That binary form ;

521

moreover so regular, that the same pauses and the same successions of harmony, and the same occurrences of various kinds, may often be safely anticipated at the same point in the progress of the movements. He makes some use, often conspicuously, of the device of repeating short phrases consecutively, which has already been described in connection with Scarlatti's work. Thus in a Sonata in D major for Violin and Pianoforte, the first section of the first movement may be divided into seven distinct passages, each of which is severally repeated in some form or other consecutively. There are some peculiarities, such as the introduction of a new subject in the working-out portion of the work,instead of keeping consistently to development of the principalideas; and thefillingof the episodes of a rondo with a variety of different ideas, severally distinct ; but as these points are not the precursors of further development, they are hardly worth discussing. It only requires to be pointed out that occasionally in pianoforte and other sonatas he makes experiments in novel distribution and entirely original manipulation of the structural elements of binary and other forms ; which is sufficient to prove not only that he recognised the fitness of other outlines besides those that he generally adopted, but that he was capable of adapting himself to novel situations, if there had been any call for effort in that dii-ection. Asit happened, the circumstances both of musical and social life were unique, and he was enabled to satisfy the highest critical taste of his day without the effort of finding a new point of

is

departure.

His treatment of rondo-form is different, and than Haydn's. Haydn most com-

less elementary

monly used a very decisively sectional system, in which every characteristic portion, especially the theme, was marked off distinct and complete. This accorded with the primitive idea of rondos as exemplified, often very happily, in the works of early French composers, and in certain forms of vocal music.

The

root-idea appears in the

most elementary stages of musical intelligence as a distinct verse or tune which forms the staple of the whole matter, and is, for the sake of contrast, interspersed with digressions of subordinate interest. It is so obvious a means of arriving at something like structural balance, probably existed in times even before ths of which evidence remains. In the earliest specimens to be found in sonatas, the traces of their kinship can be clearly followed. Eeference has been already made to the' two examples in the sonatas by Paradies, which consist of an aria, a contrasting passage, and then the aria pure and simple again, and so forth. Haydn adopted the general outline. He frequently begins with a complete theme systematically set out with double bars and repeats, and a full conclusion. He then begins something entirely different either in a new related key, or in that

it

earliest

21

,

SONATA

522

the minor of the principal key, and makes a complete whole of that also, and so on right through, alternating his main tune with one or more others all equally complete. Under such circumstances his principle of giving variations at each return of the theme or repetition of an episode is almost indispensable to avoid monotony. Mozart rarely makes any point of this plan of adopting variations in his sonata-rondos, because it is not required. He does not often cast his theme in such extremely distinct outUnes. In structure it is more what an ordinary binary subject would be ; that is, complete and distinct in itself as an idea, without being so carried out as to make its connection with the rest of the movement a. matter of secondary rather than intriusic consequence. Haydn's conception is perfectly just and rational, but Mozart's is more mature. The theme and its episodes are more closely interwoven, and tire development of the whole has a more consistent and uniform texture. Mozart does not avoid varying his theme ; on the contrary, he constantly puts in the most delicate strokes of detail

and of graceful adornment, and sometimes

resorts

todelightfullyreadydevelopmentof itsresources; but with him it is not so indispensable, because his conception of the form gives it so much more freedom and elasticity.

The

central

movement

of his three-movement

almost invariably a, slow one, commonly in the key of the subdominant. The style of these is characteristic of the time ; that is, sonatas

is

rather artificial and full of graces, which require to be given with a somewhat conscious elegance of manner, not altogether consonant with the spirit of later times. They rarely touch the point of feeling expected in modern movements of the kind, because the conception formed of the proper function of the slow movement in his time was clearly alien to that of the 19th cenAs specimens of elegance and taste, tury. however, Mozart's examples probably attain the highest point possible in their particular genus. The technique of his sonatas, from the point of view of instrumental resource, is richer and fuller than Haydn's, but still thin and rather empty in sound to ears that are accustomed to the wonderful development of the resources of the modern pianoforte ; but the refinement and self-contain-

ment of his style make him particularly acceptable to artists who idealise finish and elegance in solo performance, and nicety of ensemble in works for combined instruments, as the highest and most indispensable condition of art. His instinct for adapting his thouglits to instrumental

was of a very high order when the instruments were familiar and properly developed. This with the pianoforte was not yet achieved, and consequently some of his forms of expression are hardly adapted to its nature, and seem in these days to be rather compromises than perfectly idiosyncrasies

suitable utterances.

With regard to the technical matter of the development of the resources of the pianoforte, Mozart's contemporary, MuzioClementi, occupies Clementi, in his position. a, most important according to his own admission, applied himself rather to the development of the resources of playing than to the matter to be played, and attained a degree and a kind of mastery which no one before his time had heard When he began to apply himself the like of. more to the matter, this study served him in good stead ; and his divination of the treatment most appropriate to the instrmnent, expanded early days,

this means in practical application, marks his sonatas as among the very first in which the genuine qualities of modern pianoforte music

by

They begin to scale are shown. approach to that broad and almost orchestral style which is sometimes said to be characterand the use of octaves and istic of Beethoven fuller combinations of sounds, and the occasional irruption of passages which bring into play stronger muscles than those of the fingers, are In respect all in the direction of modern usage. of structure, it is not necessary to consider more than that he commonly accepted the threemovement type of sonata, beginning with a movement in binary form and ending with a rondo, and having aslow movementinthe middle. His handling is free and at the same time thoroughly under control. One of his characteristics is the love of importing little touches of learning or scientific ingenuity into the treatment as in the Sonata in G (of four movements) in which two canons in direct and contrary motion take the place of the minuet and trio. In another sonata, in F, one figure is woven through the whole substance of the first movement, appearing in the different sections diminished and inverted, and in various phases of expression which quite alter its aspect. His slow movements are sometimes equally simple and expressive, but also frequently of that ornamental order which has been sufficiently on a large

;

;

commented

on.

In one celebrated case he anticipated the modern taste for programme by calling one of his longest and most pretentious sonatas Didone abbandonata. Scena tragica. But appearance of dramatic purpose does not turn him aside from regularity of form any more than in other sonatas. His style is not exempt from the family likeness which is observable in all composers of the latter part of the century. His ideas are large and broad, and not unworthy to have exerted some influence upon both Mozart and Beethoven. A certain dryness and reticence makes him unlikely to be greatly in favour in modern times, but his place as an important figure in the development of the sonata in its relation with the pianoforte is assured. One further composer who deserves some consideration in connection with tlie sonata '

'

SONATA before Beethoven's time is J. L. Dussek,

who

was born ten years after Clementi, and soon after Mozart. His most noteworthy characteristics are an individual, though not incisive style, and an instinct of a high order for the qualities and requirements of the pianoforte. There is some diversity in point of value between his early and his later sonatas. The former are rather narrow in idea and structure, whereas the latter, such as op. 70 in Ab, are quite for freedom and elaboration of form and subject. Both in this sonata and in the op. 77 he makes use of the hitherto almost unknown device of extending the effect of the first sections by subordinate transitions as well as by accessory subjects. In the first movement of op. 70 there is the unusual feature of a happy modulation out and back again in the actual substance of the second subject a characteristic which is common enough in the works of such

remarkable

—

modems

as

Schumann and Brahms, but was

exceedingly rare in Dussek's time. Another characteristic which Dussek has in common with more modern writers is the infusion of a certain amount of sense and sentiment even into his passages and flourishes, which with his immediate predecessors had been too commonly barren. He also takes thought to enliven his recapitulations by variation or ingeniously diversified transposition of order in the ideas (as in op. 77). His writing for the instrument is brUliant and sparkling, and has certain premonitions of Weber in it. The ideas are sometimes, even in his best works, trite and vapid,

but more often delicate and attractive. The slow movements have a sustained and serious manner, also unusual in his time, and said to be derived from his having studied the organ considerably in his younger days. He stands historically with giants on either hand, and this has contributed to make him appear some-

what of a parenthesis

in the direct course of

sonata development. Their vastness of artistic proportion did not however suppress his personality, or extinguish his individuality, which is still clear in his own line, and has exerted some influence both upon the modem style of playing and also upon the style of musical thought of a few modem composers for the pianoforte to whom the giants did not strongly appeal.

The

direct line of

development

after

Haydn,

Mozart, and Clementi is obviously continued As we have pointed out, the in Beethoven. changes which took place after Emanuel Bach's labours were less rapid and remarkable than in The finishing touches had times preceding. been put to the structural system, and men were so delighted with its perfection as structure, that they were content to hear it repeated over and over again without calling for variety or individuality in the treatment, and very often without caring much about the quality of the

523

The other side of development was The pianoforte being a new instrument, the manner of musical speech best adapted to it had to be discovered. With the earlier thing said. technical.

composers forms of expression better suited to other instruments were adopted but by degrees experiments in efl'eot and assiduous attention to the capabilities of the hand, such as Clementi gave in his early years, had brought the mechanism of expression to a tolerably consistent and complete state so that when Beethoven appeared he was spared the waste of force incident to having to overcome elementary problems of instrumental technique, and the waste of effect incidental to compromises, and was enabled to concentrate all his powera upon the musical material. Beethoven's works introduce a new element into the problem, and one that complicates matters iinmeasurably. With his predecessors structural simplicity had been a paramount ;

;

consideration,

and often straitened somewhat The actual subjects

the freedom of the idea.

seem drilled into a regular shape, admitting of very

ment

little variation, in

of the

order that the develop-

movement might march

direct

and

undeviating in its familiar course. Musicians had arrived at that artificial state of mind which deliberately chose to be conscious of formal elements. Their misconception was a natural one.

a

The

man

existing conditions of art might lead notice that uncultivated people

to

delighted in simple and single tunes, and that cultivated people enjoyed the combination of several,

when disposed according to

certain laws,

and to conclude from this that the disposition was of more importance than the matter. But, in fact, the mind is led from point to point by feelings which follow the ideas, and of these and their interdependence and development it is but of the form it is not actively conscious unless the ideas have not sufficient force to possess it, or the necessities of logical consequence are outrageously violated. It is only under peculiar social and intellectual conditions that structural qualities can be so excessively emphasised. The production of a genuine master must be ultimately reducible to logical analysis, but not on the spot or at once and to insist upon art being so immediately verifiable is not only to set the conclusion to be drawn from its historical development upside down, but to refer the enjoyment of its highest achievements to the contemplation of diy bones. The imagination and the reason must both be satisfied, but before all things the imagination. In the middle years of the 18th century the imaginative side had not a fair chance. Music was too much dependent upon the narrow limits of the taste of polite circles, and the field of appeal to emotion was not free. But when at last the natural man threw off' the incubus that had so long oppressed him, the spiritual uprising necessarily conscious

;

;

;

SONATA

524

and the broadening of life brought a new kind of vigour into art and literature. Beethoven was great composer to whom the limitless unoonventionalised human emotion was opened, and his disposition was ready for the opportunity. Even in the ordinary trifles of life he sometimes showed by an apparently superfluous rebellion against polite usages his antipathy to artificiality, and convei'sely the bent of his sympathy towards unmistakable realities of human feeling. He thus became the prototype of genuine modern music, and the first exponent of its essential qualities ; and the sonata form being ready in its main outlines for his use, and artistic instinct having achieved the most perfect spontaneity in its employment, he took possession of it as an appropriate mode of formulating some of the richest and most impressive of his thoughts. With him the idea asserted its rights. This Is not to say that structure is ignored, but that the utmost expansion and liberty is admitted in the expression of the vital parts which can be made consistent with perfect balance in tlie unfolding of the whole and this obviously depends upon the powers of the composer. Under such circumstances he can only be guided by the highest development of instinct, for the process of balance and distribution becomes so complicated that it is almost out of the reach of conscious analysis, much more of the dictation of science. The evolution of this vital ingredient, the idea, is so obscure and difficult that it is out of the question to enter upon it in this place. It is an unhappy fact that the scientists who have endeavoured to elucidate music, with a few great and honourable exceptions, foreseeing that the analysis of ideas was quite beyond their reach, at all events until immense advances are made in the sciences which have direct reference to the human organism, have set their faces to

the

first

field of

;

tlie

structural elements, as if music consisted of

nothing but lines and surfaces. of idea

is

The

existence

so habitually ignored that it neces-

sarily appears to be non-existent in their estimate

of art.

On

who have

said anything about

the other hand, the philosophers it appear on the surface not to be in accord though in reality their views are both compatible and necessary, but require a more detailed experience of the art and of its historical development to explain their interaction. But meanwhile the external method of the scientists gains disproportionate pre-eminence, and conscientious people feel uneasily that there may be no such things as ideas at all, and that they will be doing better to apply themselves to mathematics. And yet the idea is everything, and without it music is absolutely null and void and though a gi-eat and comprehensive mathematician may make an analysis after the event, a synthesis which is merely the fruit of his calculations will be nothing more than a sham and an imposture. In fact, the formulation of the idea is a most ;

;

matter in musical history, and its progress can be traced from the earliest times, proceeding simultaneously with the development of the The expressive general structure of the sonata. raw material was drawn from various sources. The style of expression developed under the influences of religion in the ages preceding the beginnings of instrumental music, supplied something dance music of all orders, mimetic the and merely rhythmic, supplied much pseudo-realism of the drama, in respect of vocal inflexionand imitations of natural circumstances, and the instincts surviving in also something the race from countless past ages, the actual cries arising from spontaneous nervous reaction, and many other similar causes, had a share in vital

;

;

;

suggestion, and in actual, though unrealised,

motive power.

And all these, compounded and

inseparably intermingled, supplied the basis of Through all the expressive element in music. the time from Monteverde to Beethoven this expressive element was being more and more clearly drawn into compact and definite proportions floating at first vaguely on the surface, springing out in flashes of exceptional brightness here and there, and at times presenting almost perfect maturity by fits of individual good fortune ; but hardly ever so free but that 'some of the matrix is felt to be clinging to the ore. It obtained complete but restricted symmetry with the composers immediately preceding Beethoven, but arrived only at last with him at that expansion which made it at once perfect and intelligible, and yet boundless in range within the limits of the art-material at the composer's ;

comjnandr' Prior to Beethoven, the development of a long work was based upon antitheses of distinct tunes

and concrete lumps of subject representing separate organisms, either merely in juxtaposition, or loosely connected by more or less empty passages. There were ideas indeed, but ideas limited and confined by the supposed necessities of the structure of which they formed a part.

But what Beethoven seems to have aimed at was the expansion of the term idea from the isolated subject to the complete whole so that instead of the subjects being separate, though compatible items, the whole movement, or even the whole work, should be the complete and uniform organism which represented in its entirety a new meaning of the word 'idea,' of which the subjects, in their close connection and inseparable aflinities, were subordinate limbs. This principle is traceable in works before his time, but not on the scale to which he carried '

'

;

nor with his conclusive force. In fact, the condition of art had not been sufficiently mature to admit the terms of his procedure, and it was barely mature enough till he made it so. His early works were in conformity with the style and structural principles of his predecessors but he began, at least in pianoforte works, to it,

— SONATA build at once upon the topmost stone of their edifice. His earliest sonatas (op. 2) are on the scale of their symphonies. He began with the four-movement plan which they had almost enIn the second tirely reserved for the orchestra. sonata he already produces an example of his own peculiar kind of slow movement, full, rich, decisive in form, unaffected in idea, and completely divested of the elaborate graces which had been In the before its most conspicuous feature. same sonata also he produces a scherzo, short in this instance, and following the lines of the minuet, but of the genuine characteristic quality. Soon, in obedience to the spread of his idea, the capacity of the instrument seems to expand, and to attain an altogether new richness of sound, and a fulness it never showed before, as in many parts of the fourth Sonata (op. 7), especially the Largo, which shows the unmistakable qualities which ultimately expanded into the unsurpassed slow movement of the opus 106. As early its the second Sonata he puts a new aspect upon the limits of the first sections ; he not only makes his second subject in the first movement modulate, but he develops the cadence -figure into a very noticeable subject. It is fortunately unnecessary to follow in detail the various ways in which he expanded the structural elements of the sonata, as it has ah-eady been described in the article Beethoven, and other details are given in the article Form. In respect of the subject and its treatment, a, fortunate opportunity is offered by a coincidence between a subordinate subject in a sonata of Haydn's in C, and a similar accessory in Beethoven's Sonata for violoncello and pianoforte in

A

major (op. 69), which serves to illustrate pregnantly the difference of scope which characterises their respective treatment.

as follows

"

Haydn's

:

r

'

r

'

is

&25

r

r

'

t

''

r"^

''

etc.

As has been already

explained, an expansion of this kind makes inevitable a similar expansion in the whole struotm-e of the movement, and a

much wider tonic

choice of relative keys than simple

and dominant in the expository sections

;

or else a much freer movement in every part of the sections, and emphasis upon unexpected relations of

harmony.

Even without

this,

the

new warmth and

intensity of the subject precludes mere reiteration of the accustomed usages, and necessitates a greater proportionate vitality

the .subordinate parts of the work. The must be maintained, and to fall back upon familiar formulas would clearly be a jarring anomaly. In this manner the idea begins to dictate the form. But in order to carry out in equal measure the development of the idea, every resource that the range of music can supply must be admissible to him that can wield it with relevance. Hence Beethoven, as early as op. 31, No. 2, reintroduces instrumental recitative with extraordinary effect. Later, he resumes the rhapsodical movement which Bach and earlier composers had employed in a different sense, as in the Sonata in £b, op. 81, and ifl the third division of that in A, op. 101, and in the most romantic of romantic movements, the first in E major of op. 109. And lastly, he brings back the fugue as the closest means of expressing a, certain kind of idea. In these cases the fugue is not a retrogression, nor a hybrid, but a new adaptation of an old and invaluable form under the influence of perfectly assimilated harmonic principles. The great fugue in the Sonata in B|>, op. 106, for instance, is not only extraordinary as a fugue, but is distributed in a perfectly ideal balance of long contrasting periods in different states of. feeling, culminating duly with a supreme rush of elaborate force, as complex and as inexorable as some mighty action of nature. In these sonatas Beethoven touches all moods, and all in the absolute manner free from formality or crude artifice, which is the essential characteristic of genuine modern music. In a few of the earlier sonatas he reverts to manners and structural effects which are suggestive of the principles of his predecessors. But these occasional incursions of external influence are with rare exceptions inferior to the works in which his own original force of will speaks with genuine and characteristic freedom. The more difficult the problem suggested by the thought which is embodied in the subject, the greateris the result. The fuU richness of his nature is not called out to the strongest point till there is something in

relative heat

;

SONATA

526

formidable to be mastered. of the opening bars of such sonatas as that in D minor, op. 31, No. 2 ; C major, op. 53 ; F minor, op. 57 ; Bb, op. 106 C minor, op. Ill, is at such a level of daring breadth aiid comprehensive power, that it becomes obvious in a moment that the work cannot be can-ied out on eq^ual proportionate tea'ms without almost superhuman concentration, and unlimited command of technical resources, both in respect of the instrument and the art of expression, in such cases, Beethoven rises to a height which has only been attained by two or three composers in the whole history of music, in that sublimity which is almost his peculiar monopoly. But, fortunately for average beings, and average moods of people who have not always a taste for the sublime, he shows elsewhere, on a less exalted scale, the highest ideals of delicate beauty, and all shades of the humours of mankind, even to simple exuberant playfulness. The beauty and the meniment often exist side by side, as in the exquisite little Sonata in G, op. 14, No. 2, and in that in Fj major, op. 78 ; and in a loftier and stronger spirit in company with more comprehensive ranges of feeling, in the Sonata in A, op. 101. In all these and many more there is an ideal continuity and oneness which is musically felt even where there is no direct external sign of the connection. In a few, however, there are signs of more than this. In the Bl> Sonata, op. 106, for instance, the similar disposition of intervals in the subjects of the various movements has led to the inference that he meant to connect them by transformations of one principal subject or germ. The same occurs with as much prominence in the Sonata in Aj>, op. 110, which is in any case a specimen where the oneness and continuity are peculiarly felt. It is possible that the apparent transformations are not so much conscious as the result of the conditions of mind which were necessary to produce the oneness of effect, since concentration upon any subject is liable to exert influence upon closely succeeding action, whether of the mind or body, and to assimilate the fruit unconsciously to the form of the object contemplated. This, however, would not lessen the interest of the fact, but would possibly rather enhance it. It only aflects the question whether or no Beethoven consciously reasoned about possible ways of extending and enhancing the opportunities of sonata-form too large a subject to be entered upon here. As a rule, great masters appear to hit upon such germinal principles in the process of composition, without exactly formulating them in so many equivalent terms and those who come after note the facts and apply them as useful resources, orsometimes as invaluable starting-points of fresh It is a noticeable fact lines of development. that Beethoven only seldom indicated a propreternaturally

The very statement

—

;

gramme, and it is extremely rare in him to find In even the dimmest suggestions of realism. fact, as must be true of all the highest music, a work of his is not representative of a stoiy, but of a mental process. Even if it deals with a story it does not represent the circumstances, but the condition of mind which results from or, in other words, the its contemplation musical counterpart of the emotion to which it ;

and it is the coherency and consis; tent sequence of the emotions represented which produce the effect of oneness on the colossal scale of his greatest works, which is Beethoven's gives rise

crowning achievement.

With him the long

process of development appears to find its utmost

and complete culmination and what comes after, and in sight of his work, can be little more than commentary. It may be seen, without much effort, that mankind dora not achieve more than one supreme triumph on the same ;

lines of art.

When

the conditions of develop-

ment

are fulfilled the climax is reached, but there is not more than one climax to each cres-

The conditions of human life change and with them tbe phenomena of art, which are their counterpart. The characteristics of the art of any age are the fruit of cendo.

ceaselessly,

the immediate past, as much as are the emotional and intellectual conditions of that age. They are its signs, and it is impossible to produce in a succeeding age a perfect work of art in the same terms as those which are the direct fruit of a different and earlier group of causes ; and it is partly for this reason that attempts to return to earlier' conditions of art, which leave out the essential characteristics of contemporary feeling, invariably ring false. The time produced other real men besides Beethoven, though not of his stamp. Weber and Schubert were both of the genuine modem type, genuinely musical through and through, though neither of them was a bom writer of sonatas as Beethoven was. Beethoven possessed, together with the supremest gift of ideas, a power of prolonged concentration, and the certainty of self-mastery. This neither Weber nor Schubert possessed. Beethoven could direct his thought with infallible certainty ; in Weber and Schubert the thought was often too much their master, and they both required, to keep them perfectly certain in the direction of their original musical matter, the guiding principle of a consciously realised dramatic or lyrical conception, which was generally supplied to them from without. As should be obvious from the above survey of the process of sonata development, the absolute mastery of the structural outlines, the sureness of foot of the strong man moving, unaided, but direct in his path, amidst the conflicting suggestions of his inspiration, is indispensable to the achievement of great and genuine The more elaborate the art of expressonatas. sion becomes, the more difiioultthe success. Beet-

;

SONATA •hoven probably stood just at the point where the extremest elaboration and the most perfect mastery of combination on a large scale were possible. He himself supplied suggestion for yet fnrtlier elaboration, and the result is that the works of his successors are neither so concenWeber was trated uor so well in hand as his. nearest in point of time, but his actual mastery of the art of composition was never veiy certain nor thoroughly regulated, though his musical He had one instincts were almost marvellous. great advantage, which was that he was a gi'eat pianist, and had the gift to extend the resources of the instrument by the invention of new and characteristic eifects ; and he was tolerably successful in avoiding the

common

trap of letting

Another advantage stand for substance. was his supreme gift of melody. His tunes are for the most part of the old order, but infused with new life and heat by a breath from the genius of the people. His two best sonatas, in A|> and D minor, are rich in thought, forcible, and genuinely full of expression. He always adopts the plan of four movements, and disposes them in the same order as Beethoven did. His treatment of form is also full and free, and he As often imports some individuality into it. simple instances may be taken the use of the introdnctory phrase in the first movement of the Sonata in C, in the body of the movement the rondo structure of the slow movements, especially in the Sonata in D minor, which has a short introduction, and elaborate variations in the place of exact returns of the subject and the interspersion of subjects in the first movement of the Sonata in E minor, op. 70, so as to knit the two sections of the first half doubly ettect

—

;

together.

An

essentially

modern

trait is his

love of completing the cycle of the movement by bringing in a last allusion to the opening features of the whole movement at the end, generally with some new element of expresSpecially noticeable in this sion or vivacity. respect are the first and last (the ' Moto perpetuo ') of the C major, the last of the A|j, minor and the first and last in both the and E minor Sonatas. Weber had an excep-

D

instinct for dance -rhythms, and this comes out very remarkably in some of the minuets and trios, and in the last movement

tional

E

minor. As a whole the Weber group is a decidedly important item in pianoforte literature, instinct with romantic qualities, and aiming at elaborate expressiveness, as is illustrated by the numerous directions in the Ab Sonata, such as'con anima,' 'con duolo,' con passione,' 'con molt' affetto,' and so forth. These savour to a certain extent of the opera, and require a good deal of art and musical sense in the variation of time and the phrasing to give them due effect ; and in this they show some kinship to the ornamental adagios of the times previous to Beethoven, of the

'

527

though dictated by more genuinely musical feelings.

Schubert's sonatas do not show any operatic the old manner, but there is plenty in them which may be called dramatic in a modem sense. His instincts were of a preeminently modern type, and the fertility of his ideas in their superabundance clearly made the self-restraint necessary for sonata -writing a matter of some difficulty. He was tempted to give liberty to the rush of thought which possessed him, and the result is sometimes delightful, but sometimes also bewildering. There are movements and even gi-oups of them which are of the supremest beauty, but hardly any one sonata which is completely satisfactory throughout. His treatment of form is often daring, even to rashness, and yet from the point of view of principle offers but little to remark, though in detail some perfectly magical feats of harmonic progression and sti'okes of modulation have had a good deal of influence npon great composers of later times. The point which he serves to illustrate peculiarly in the history of music is the transition from the use of the idea, as shown in Beethoven's Sonatas on a grand and richly developed scale, to the close and intensely emotional treatment of ideas in a lyrical manner, which has as yet found its highest exponent in Schumann. In this process Schubert seems to stand midway still endeavouring to conform to sonata ways, and yet frequently overborne by the invincible potency of the powers his obti imagination has called up. The tendency is further illustrated by the exquisite beauty of some of the smaller and more condensed movetraits of

—

ments, which lose nothing by being taken out of the sonatas being, like many of Schumann's, specimens of intense concentration in short space, the fruit of a single flash of deep emotion. Among the longer movements, the one which is most closely unified is the first of the A minor, cp. 143, in which a feature of the first subject is made to preponderate conspicuously all through, manifestly representing the per;

sistence of a special quality of feeling

through

the varying phases of a long train of thought. Like many other movements, it has a strong dramatic element but more under appropriate control than usual. As a whole, though illustrating richly many of the tendencies of modern music, the Sonatas

cannot be taken as representing Schnbert's powers as a composer of instrumental music so satisfactorily as his Quartets, his String Quintet,

and some of his finest Symphonies. In these he often rose almost to the highest point of musical possibility. And this serves further to illustrate the fact that since Beethoven the tendency has been to treat the sonata-form with the fresh opportunities afforded by combinations of instruments, rather than on the old lines of the solo sonata.

SONATA

528

Two other

composers of sonatas of Beethoven's These are Woelfl and notice. Hummel. The former chiefly on account of his once celebrated sonata called Ne plus ultra," in which he showed some of the devices of technique which he was considered to have invented such as passages in thirds and sixths, and ingenious applications of the shake. The matter is poor and vapid, and as throwing light upon anything except his powers as a player, is worthless. Its very title condemns it, for Woelfl had the advantage of being Beethoven's junior and it is astonishing how, by the side of the genuine difficulty of Beethoven's masterpieces, such a collection of tricks could ever have been dignified, even by the supposition of being particularly difficult. It seems impossible that such work should have had any influence upon genuinely musical people ; but the sonata has all the signs of a useful piece for second-rate popular occasions for which the variations on Life let us cherish would doubtless be par-

time

reciuire

'

—

;

;

'

'

ticularly effective.

Hummel

in comparison with Woelfl was a and certainly had pre-eminent gifts as a pianoforte-player. Like Weber he had an aptitude for inventing effects and passages, but he applied them in a different manner. He was of that nature which cultivates the whole technical art of speech till able to treat it with a certainty which has all the effect of mastery, and then instead of using it to say something, makes it giant,

chiefly serviceable to

show

off the contents of

However, his technique is large and broad, full of sound and brilliancy, and when the works were first produced and' played by himself they must have been exHis facility of speech is tremely astonishing. also wonderful, but his ideas were for the mosf; part old-fashioned, even when he produced them for it must not be forgotten that he was eight years younger than Beethoven and twenty-six younger that Clementi. The spirit which seems his finger repertoire.

—

to rule

him

is

the consciousness of a pianist

an audience, guided. by the chances of display. His modulations are free and bold, but they are often superfluous, because the ideas are not on the level of intensity or broad freedom which necessitates or even justifies them. He probably saw that modulation was a means of before

but did not realise that there is a ratio between the qualities of subject and the development of the movement that springs from it. From this it will be obvious that his sonatas are not written in the mood to produce works effect,

that are musically important. He had the very finest possible opportunities through living in Mozart's house during his most impressionable days, and the fruit is sufficiently noticeable in the clearness with which he distributes his

and in much of his manner of expressing himself but he had not the inventive gift for musical ideas, which contact structural elements,

;

and even

familiar intercourse with great masters The survival of

seems inadequate to supply.

traits characteristic of earlier times is illustrated

by some of his slow movements, in which he brought the most elaborate forces of his finished technique to serve in the old style of artificial adagio, where there is a hyper-elaborated grace at every corner, and a shake upon every note that is long enough ; and if a chord be suitable to rest upon for a little, it is adorned with quite a collection of ingenious finger exercises, artificially manipulated scales and arpeggios, and the like contrivances which do not serve to decorate anything worthy of the honour, but There are occasional stand on their own merits. ;

traits of expression and strokes of force in the sonatas, but the technique of .the pianist preponderates excessively over the invention of the

At the same time the right and composer. masterly use of the resources of an instrument is not by any means a matter of small moment in art, and Hummel's is right and masterly in a very remarkable degree. After the early years of the 19th century, the sonata, in its conventional sense of instrumental work for a solo or at most for two instruments, occupies a smaller and decreasing space Great composers have in the domain of music. paid it proportionately very little attention, and the few examples they afford have rather an effect of being out of the direct line of their natural mode of expression. In Chopin, for instance, the characteristic qualities of modern music, in the treatment of ideas in short and malleable forms specially adapted to their expression, are found abundantly, and in these his genuine qualities are most clearly displayed. His sonatas are less successful, because, though quite master enough to deal with structure clearly and definitely, it was almost impossible for him to force the ideas within the limits which should make that structure relevant and convincing. They are children of a fervid and impetuous genius, and the classical dress and manners do not sit easily upon them. Moreover the luxuriant fancy, the richness and high colour of expression, the sensuous qualities of the harmony, all tend to emphasise detail in a new and peculiar manner, and to make the sonata-principle of the old order appear irrelevant. The most successful are the Sonatas in B|7 minor for pianoforte, op. 35, and that for pianoforte and violoncello in 6 minor, op. 65. In both these cases the first movements, which are generally a sure test of a capacity for sonataand free from from tautology. There are certain idiosyncrasies in the treatment writing,

are

superfluous

clearly

disposed,

wandering and

of the form, as for instance in the recapitulation,

which in both

cases is almost limited to the materials of the second section, the opening features of the movement being only hinted at The subjects themselves are in conclusion.

'

;

SONATA to the style of movement, and are kept well in hand, so that on the whole, in these two cases, the Impression conveyed is fairly appropriate

consistent with the sonata-character. In scherzos Chopin was thoroughly at home, and moreover they represent a province in which far more

abandonment

is

admissible.

In both sonatas

they are successful, but that in the Pianoforte Sonata is especially fascinating and characteristic, and though the modulations are sometimes rather reckless the main divisions are well proportioned, and consequently tlie general etfect of the outlines is sufficiently clear. The slow movements of both are very well known that of the Pianoforte Sonata being the Funeral March, and the other being a kind of romance in Chopin's own free manner, which is familiar to players on the violoncello. The last movement of the Pianoforte Sonata is a short but characteristic outbreak of whirling notes, in general character not unlike someof his Preludes, and equally free and original in point of form, but in that respect not without precedent among the last movements of early masters. In the mind of the composer it possibly had a poetical connection with the Funeral March. The other last movement is a free kind of rondo, and therefore more consonant with the ordinary principles of form, and is appropriate, without being so interesting as the other movements. The total effect of these sonatas is naturally of an entirely different order from that of the earlier types, and not so convincing in oneness as the works of great masters of this kind of form ; they are nevertheless plausible as wholes, and in details most effective ; the balance and appropriate treatment of the two instruments in the op. 65 being especially noteworthy. The other sonatas for pianoforte, in C minor and B minor, are more unequal. The first appears to be an early work, and contains some remarkable experiments, one of which at least has value, others probably not. As examples may be mentioned the use of 5—4 time throughout the slow movement, and the experiment of beginning the recapitulation of the first movement in Bl> minor, when the principal key In this sonata he seems not to is C minor. move with sufficient ease, and in the B minor, op. 58, with something too much to have the general aspect of a successful work of the kind. The technical devices in the latter as in the others are extremely elaborate and effective, without being offensively obtrusive, and the ideas are often clear and fascinating ; but as a complete and convincing work it is hardly ;

529

anything original into the treatment, is often the most hopeless kind of plagiarism, and far more deliberate than the accidents of coincidence in ideas which are obvious to superficial observers.

As examples of independent thought working in a comparatively untried field, Mendelssohn's six sonatas for the organ have some importance. They have very little connection with the Pianodevelopment Mendelssohn seems to have divined that the binary and similar instrumental forms of large scope were unsuitable to the genius of the Instrument, and returned to structural principles of a date before those forms had become prominent or definite. Their chief connection with the modern sonata type lies in the distribution of the keys in which the respective movements stand, and the broad conti"asts in time and character which subsist between one division or forte Sonata, or the history of its for

a)jd another. Different members of the group represent different methods of dealing with the problem. In the large movements fugal and contrapuntal principles predominate, sometimes alternating with passages of a decidedly harmonic character. In movements which are not absolute fugues the broad outlines of form are commonly similar to those already described as exemplified in Bach's Sonatas, and in the first and last movements of his Italian Concerto. This form in its broadest significance amounts to a correspondence of well-defined sections at the beginning and end, with a long passage of ' free fantasia, sometimes fugally deThe clearest example veloped, in the middle. in these sonatas is the first movement of the third Sonata, in A major, in which the corresponding divisions at either end are long, and strongly contrasted in the modern quality and more simultaneous motion of the parts, with the elaborate fugal structure of the middle division. In the last movement of the Sonata in Bb the corresponding sections are very short, but the

movement

'

effect is structurally satisfying and clear. In no case is the structural system of keys used with anything approaching the clearness of a

pianoforte sonata.

Material

is

contrasted with

material, sometimes simply as subjects or figures,

successful.

sometimes even in respect of style as a chorale with recitative, chorale with fugal passages, or harmonic passages with contrapuntal passages. Sometimes these are kept distinct, and, sometimes, as in the first movement of the Sonata in Bb, they are combined together at the end. The general laying out of the complete works, though based on the same broadest radical principles, is in actual order and manner quite distinct from

Sonatas which followed implicitly the old without doing more than formulate subjects according to supposed laws do not require any notice. The mere artificial reproduction of forms that have been consciously realised from observation of great works of the past without importing

that of pianoforte sonabis. The longer movements alternate with very short ones, which commonly resemhle Romances, Lieder ohne Worte, or such expressive lyrical types and occasionally the whole sonata concludes with a little movement of this sort, as No. 3 in A and

lines

VOL. IV

;

;

2

M

SONATA

530

No. 6 in D. They are generally in the simplest kind of primary form with a proportionately important coda. In point of actual style and treatment of the instrument there is a great diversity in different sonatas. In some the solid old contrapuntal style predominates, in similar proportion to that in the organ preludes, sonatas, etc. of Bach ; hut this rarely occurs without

some intermixture of modern traits. The most completely and consistently modern in style is the Sonata in D major, No. 5, which is practi-

The first is a chorale, the second a kind of song without words in B minor, and the third a species of fantasia, in which the sections are balanced by distinct figures, without more tonal structure than emphasis upon the principal key at the beginning and end, and variety of modulation with some thematic development in the middle. In other sonatas different modes of writing for the instrument are used as a means of enforcing the contrast between one movement ?.nd another. Thus in the second Sonata the first division is a kind of prelude in a modern manner, chiefly homophonic and orchestral ; the second correcally in three divisions.

'

'

sponds to a distinct romance or song without words with clearly defined melody and graceful and constantly flowing independent accompaniment. In the third movement, which though in 3-4 time has something of a march quality, the modern harmonic character is very prominent, and the last movement is a fugue. Similar distribution of styles and modes of writing are as clearly used in the first and fourth Sonatas ; in the former more elaborately. Among the few attempts which have teen made to add something genuine to the literature '

'

of the Pianoforte Sonata, that in Ffi minor, op. 11, by Schumann, first published under the

pseudonym

of Florestan

and Eusebius,

is

most

This was clearly an attempt to adapt to the sonata-form the so-called romantic ideas of which Schumann was so prominent and successful a representative. The outward aspect First, the absolute of the matter is twofold. subordination of the sectional distribution to the ideas contained, and, secondly, the interchange of the subject-matter so as to connect the moveinteresting.

ments absolutely as weU as

intrinsically.

The

point is illustrated by the continuity of the Allegro Vivace and the constant shifting and swaying of modulation and changing of tempo ; also by the variety of the subjects and the apparently irregular manner of their introduction, if judged from the point of view of the older sonatas. Thus the part which corresponds to the first section comprises a first subject, containing a figure which may be called the text of the movement, and many subsidiary features and The second section follows contransitions. tinuously, with new matter and allusions to the first subject, all in a constant sway of transition, till at the end of the first half of the movement first

a long continuous subject in_A is reached, which its sustained and earnest calmness seems to supply the point of rest after the long preceding period of activity. This same subject is the only in

one which is given with complete fulness at the end of the whole movement, the rest of the subject-matter, though all represented in the recapitulation, being considerably condensed and curtailed. The second point is illustrated by the connection between the introduction and the two following movements. The introduction itself is in an elaborate kind of primary form. Its impressive principal subject is reintroduced in the middle of the succeeding allegro ; and the subject of the middle portion serves as the main staple of the beautiful aria which is the central movement of the whole sonata. The success of such tilings certainly depends on the way in which they are done, and mere description of them gives very little impress of their effectiveness in this case. There can hardly be a doubt that in these devices Schumann hit upon a true means of applying original thought to the development of the structural outlines, following the suggestion which is really contained in Beethoven's work, that the structure is perceptible through the disposition of the ideas, and not only by emphasising the harmonic sections. The actual distribution of the structure which is hidden under the multiplicity of ideas is remarkably careful and systematic. Even in the de-

velopment portion there is method and balance, and the same is true of large expanses in the last movement. The freedom with whicli Schumann uses subordinate transitions makes the balance of keys a matter requiring great concentration but it is remarkable in his work, as contrasted with similar modem examples by other composers, that he rarely makes random and unrestrained flights, but keejjs within the bounds which make proportionate balance possible. It is no doubt a matter of very great difficulty to carry out such principles as this work seems to embody but if the sonata form he really capable of any fresh extension it will prohably be to a ;

;

great extent on sudi lines. Schumann's second Sonata, in minor, op. 22, though written during almost the same period, seems to be a retrogression from the position taken up by that in Fj minor. It is possibly a more effective work, and from the pianist's point of view, more capahle of being made to sound convincing. And yet in detail

G

not so interesting, nor is it technically so nor so full and noble in soimd. He seems to aim at orthodoxy with deliberate purpose, and the result is that though vehement and vigorous in motion, it is not, for Schumann, it is

rich,

particularly

warm

or

poetical.

The second

suhjects of tlie first and last movements are characteristic, and so is a great part of the

peculiarly sectional

The andantino

also

and epigrammatic scherzo. has remarkable points about

SONATA it,

but

is

not so fascinating as the slow move-

ment of the Ft minor Sonata. The principles indicated in the sonata opus 11 reappear later with better results, as far as the total impi'ession is concerned, in larger forms of instrumental music, and also in the D minor In this there Sonata for vioiin and pianoforte. is a close connection between the introduction and the most marked feature of the succeeding quick movement, and simOar linking of scherzo and slow movement by means of a reference to the subject of the former in the progress of the

with a distinctly poetic purpose. The A minor for the same combination of instruments is not on such an elaborate scale, nor has it as many external marks to indicate a decided purpose ; but it is none the less poetical in eiTect, which aiises in the first movement from the continuity of sfroeture and the myslatter,

Sonata, in

terious sadness of spirit

in the slow

which

movement from

it expresses,

and

its characteristic

tenderness and sweetness. Liszt, in his remarkable

Sonata in

B

minor

dedicated to Schumann, undoubtedly adopts the same principles of procedure, and works them out with more uncompromising thoroughness. He knits the whole sonata inix) an unbroken unity, with distinct portions passing into one another, representing the usual separate movements. The interest is oonqentrated upon one principal idea, to whicTi the usual second subjects and accessories serve as so many commentaries and antitheses, and express the influences 'winch react upon its course. This is further illustrated by the process sometimes defined as ' transformation of themes,* already referred to in connection with Beethoven's Sonatas in B|> and Al> ; which is really no more than a fresh way of applying that art of variation which had been used from almost the earliest times of sonata- writing, in recapitula.tingsnbjects in the progress of a movement, as well as in regular set themes and variations ; tliough it had not been adopted before to serve apoetioalor idealconception pervading and unifying the whole woA. In the actual treatment of the subject-matter, Liszt adopts, as Beethoven had done, the various opportunities afforded not only by harmonic structural principles, Tjut by the earlier fngal and contrapuntal devices, and by recitative, adapting them with admirable breadth and freedom to a thoroughly modern style of tliought. It seems almost superfluous to add that the purpose is carried out with absolute mastery of technical resource, in respect both of the instrument and of the dispoation of the parts of the

movement.

The pianoforte sonatas of Brahms are as astounding specimens of youthfiil power and breadth and dignity of style as exist in the whole range of the art ; but it must at present be considered doubtful if they represent his maturer convictions. All three appear to have been

531

written before he arrived at the age of twenty and it is certain that he was then more influenced by the romantic theories w;hich Schumann represented, than he was in his latei' works. His adoption of shorter and more individual forms, such ascappriccios, intermezzi, rhapsodies, in his mature age, lends at least indirect countenance to the view that the tendfincy of music is to subordinate form to idea ; and that if the classical form of the sonata is not expansible enough, other forms must be accepted -which will admit of more freedom of development. This impUes a question as to the proper meaning of the word ' sonata,' and a doubt as to its being legitimately assimilable to the tendency to centralise the interest upon the idea, as a contrast to the old practice of making an equal balance between two main subjects as a means of structural eflFeet. If the word is to be so restricted, it will only be another conventional limitation, and, It may be added, must before long put an end to further enrichment of the literature of ;

so-(alled sonatas.

In

tlie finest

of Brahms's three early sonatas,

F minor,

op. 5, the first slow movement headed hy a quotation from a poem of Sternau, and another movement is called Riickblick. These are clearly external marks of a poetical intention. In the actual treatment of the subjects there is no attempt to connect the movements ; but ihe freedom of transitixm, even

that im is

in the actual progress of a subject (see the second

subject of the first movement), is eminently characteristic of the composer, and of a. liberal

liew of sonata development. In the last movement a Hondo ^the most noticeable external

—

—

mark

of continuity is the elaborately ingenious treatment of the subject of the second episode in the latter part of the movement. Brahms added no more to the list of solo pianoforte sonatas, but he illustrated the tendency to look for fresh opportunities in combinations of solo instruments, as in his pianoforte quartets and quintet, which are really just as much sonatas in fact, one of as those usually so designated the versions of the quintet, -which stands as a duet for two pianofortes, is in that form published as a 'sonata.' The three for pianoforte and violin require notice as the work of a, great master, but thiow very little ligTit on any sort of extension of the possibilities of sonata-form. There seems to be a sort of poetic design in the complicated arrangement of the first half of the first movement in the first Sonata, op. 78, in which the characteristic figures of the first subject reappear, as if to connect each section with the centre of interest ; and the half concludes with a complete restatement of the first subject simply and clearly in the original key, as is the case also in the same composer's Serenade in A for small orchestra. It may be observed in passing that this device curiously recalls the early composite form, in which the ;

SONATA

532

subject reappears at the beginning of the There is one second half [see pp. 510, 511]. other slightly suggestive point^ namely, the reappearance of the introductory phrase of the slow movement in one of the episodes of the [In the second sonata we may final Rondo. notice the fusion of the Scherzo and slow move-

second rank such freedom is often experimental, and destructive to the general balance and proportion of the structure, but with Brahms it appears to be a special study to bring everything into perfect and sure proportion, so that the classical idea of instrumental music may be still maintained in pure severity, notwithstand-

ment

ing the greater extension and greater variety of range in the harmonic motion of the various In fact Brahms portions of the movement. appears to take his stand on the possibility of producing new instrumental works of real artistic valiie on the classical principles of abstract music, without either condescending to the popular device of a programme, or accepting the admissibility of a modification of the sonataform to suit the impulse or apparent requirements of a poetical or dramatic principle. A sonata which bears more obviously on the direction of modern art in the poetic sense is that of Sterndale Bennett, called 'The Maid of Orleans.' This is an example of programmeEach of the music in its purest simplicity. four movements has a quotation to explain its purpose, and in the slow movement the second section has an additional one. Nevertheless the movements are simple adaptations of the usual forms, the first standing for an introduction, the second representing the usual binary allegro, the third a slow movement in condensed There is' binary form, and the last a rondo. but little attempt at using any structural means,

first

—

into one.] Certain traits in his treatment of form, such as the bold digressions of key at the very outset of a movement, and the novel effects of transition in the subjects themselves, have already It is only been described in the article Form. necessary here to point out that Brahms seems most characteristically to illustrate the tendency in modernmusic which has been styled 'intellectual ism' ; which is definable as elaborate development of all the opportunities and suggestions offered by figures, harmonic successions, or other essential features of subjects or accessories, so as to make various portions of the work appear to grow progressively out of one another. This sometimes takes the form of thematic development, and sometimes that of reviving the figures of one subject in the material or accompaniment of another, the object being to obtain new aspects of close and direct logical coherence and Beethoven is the prototype of consistency. this phase of modern music, and the examples of it in his later instrumental works are of the finest description.

which

There are several examples tendency in the F minor

illustrate this

One of the most obvious is the case Quintet. in which the cadence concluding a paragraph is formulated, as in the following example at (a), the phrase being immediately taken up by a different instrument and embodied as a most significant feature in the accessory subject which follows, as at (b). (a) Pianoforte.

(6) Violin.

^

a^s^^^^B

u^^^^^ Under the same head

of Intellectualism

is

some-

times erroneously included that broad and liberal range of harmony which characterises the best This may doubtless composers of the day. call for intellectual effort in those who are unfamiliar with the progress of art, or of inexpansive powers of appreciation, but in the composer it does not imply intellectual purpose, but only the natural step onwards from the progressions of harmony which are familiar to With composers of those which are original.

such as original distribution of subject-matter, so the whole can to enforce the poetic idea only be taken as an illustration o£ a poem in sonata form. But this nevertheless has some importance, as showing the acceptance of the aptitude of sonata-form for such purposes by a composer who was by no means in full sympathy with the lengths to which Schumann was prepared to carry the romantic theories. Among other recent composers who treat sonata-form in a poetic fashion, we may name Raft' and Rubinstein. The works of the former are always admirable in the treatment of the instruments, and both composers frequently ;

present subjects of considerable fascination ; but neither have that weight or concentration in structural development

which would demand

detailed

Poetic

consideration.

commonly supposed

treatment

is

to absolve the composer

from the necessity of attending to the structural elements but this is clearly a misconception. Genuine beauty in subjects may go far to atone for deficiency and irrelevancy in the development, but at best it is only a partial atonement, and those only are genuine masterpieces in which the form, be it ever so original, is just as clear and convincing in the end as the ideas of which it is the outcome. The whole process of the development of the Sonata as an art-form, from its crudest beginnings to its highest culmination, took nearly ;

SONATA two Imudred years and the progress was almost throughout steady, continuous, and uniform The earlier history is chiefly in direction. occupied by Its gradual differentiation from the Suite-form, with which for a time it was occaBut there always was a sionally confounded. ;

perceptible difference in the general tendency The Suite gravitated towards of the two. dance-forms, and movements which similarly had one principal idea or form of motion pervading them, so that the balance of contrasts lay

between one movement and another, and not conspicuously between pai-ts of the same moveThe Sonata gravitated towards more ment. complicated conditions and away from pure dance-forms. Diversity of character between subjects and figures was admitted early into single movements, and contrasts of key were much more strongly emphasised and while in the Suite, except in extremely rare cases, all the movements were in one key, amongst the very earliest Sonatas there are examples of a central movement being cast in a different key from the rest. In a yet more important manner the capacity of the Sonata was made deeper and broader by the quality and style of its music. In the Suite, as we have said, the contrasts between one movement and another were between forms of the that is, between same order and character dance-forms and their analogues ; but in the Sonata the different movements very soon came ;

—

to represent different origins and types of music. Thus in the early violin sonatas the slow introductory first movement generally shows traces of ecclesiastical influence ; the second, which is the solid

kind of allegro corresponding to the

first

movement of modem sonatas, was clearly derived from the secular vocal madrigals, or part music for voices, through the instrumental canzonas, which were their closest relations. The third, which was the characteristic slow movement, frequently showed traces of its descent from solo vocal music of various kinds, as found in operss, cantatas, or other similar situations and the last movement earliest and latest showed traces A further of dance elements pure and simple. point of much importance was the early tendency towards systematic and distinct structure, which appears most frequently in the last movement. The reason for the apparent anomaly is not hard to find. The only movement in the group on a scale corresponding to the last was the second, and this was most frequently of a fugal disposition. The fugue was a form which was ;

comparatively well understood when the modern harmonic forms were still in embryo and not only did it suffice for the construction of movements of almost any length, but it did not in itself suggest advance in the direction of the sonata kinds of form, though it was shown to be capable of amalgamation with them when they in their turn had been definitely brought to ;

533

In the dance movements on the other hand, when the fugal forms were not used, all that was supplied as basis to work upon was; the type of motion or rhythm, and the outlines of structure had to be found. As long as the movements were on a small scale the structure which obtained oftenest was the equal balance of perfection.

repeated halves without contrasting subjects, of which the finest examples are to be found in Bach's Suites. The last movement was in fact so long a pure suite movement. But when it began to take larger dimensions, emphasis began to be laid upon that part of the first half of the movement which was in the dominant key ; then the process of characterising it by distinct figures or subjects became prominent ; and by degrees it developed into the definite second section. Meanwhile the opening bars of the movement gradually assumed more distinct and salient features, making the passage stand out more clearly from its immediate context and in this form it was repeated at the beginning of the second half of the movement, the second section being reserved to make a complete balance by concluding the whole in a manner analogous to the conclusion of the first half. So far the change from the suite type of movement rests chiefly on the clearer definition of parts, and more positive exactness in the recapitulation of the subjects but this is quite sufficient to mark the character as distinct, for in the movements of the Suite (excluding the prelude) balance of subject and key was never systematically recognised. The further development of binary form, in which the recapitulation of the distinct subjects was reserved for the conclusion, took some time to arrive at, but even at this early stage the essential qualities of sonata -form are clearly recognisable. The Violin Sonata was naturally the kind which first attained to perfection, since that instrument had so great an advantage in point of time over the keyed instruments used for similar purposes ; and its qualities and requirements so reacted upon the character of the music as to make it appear almost a distinct species from the Clavier Sonata. But in fact the two kinds represent no more than divergence from a similar source, owing to the dissimilar natures of the instruments. Thus the introductory slow movement was most appropriate to the broad and noble character of the violin, and would appeal at once by its means to an audience of any susceptibility ; whereas to the weak character of the early keyed instruments, so deficient in sustaining power, it was in general ;

;

and hence was dropped very For the same reason in o, considerable

inappropriate, early.

proportion of the early clavier sonatas, the third or principal slow movement was also dropped, so that the average type of sonatas for clavier was for a time a group of two movements, both generally in a more or less quick time. In these the canzona movement was early supplanted by

; .

;

SONATA

534

one more in accordanee with the modem idea, 3aoh as is typified in the olayier sonata of Ctalnppi in four movements [see p, 514}, and

hy

occasional allemaindes in the earlier sonatas. As keyed instruments improved in vohuue and sustiining power the central slow movement was resomedi ; but it was necessary for some time to make up for deficiencies in the latter respect by filing in the slow beats with- elaborate graces and trills, and such ornaments as the example of opera-singers made rather toO' inviiing. The course of the violin solo-sonata was meanwhile distinctly maintained till its elimax, and came tO' am abrupt end in J. S. Bach, just as the clavier sonata was expanding into definite importance. In fact the earliest landmarks of importance are found in the next generation, when a fair proportion of works of this class Sihow the lineaments of clavier sonatas fomiliar to a modern. Saeb are the disposition of the three movements with the solid and dignified allegro at the beginning, the ejipressive slow movement in the middle, and the bright and gay qnick movement at the end! ; which last continued in many eases to show its dance oragim. Erom this group the fugal element was genfflally absent, for all the instinct of composers was: temporarily enlisted in the work of perfecting' the harmonic structure in thes

modern manner, and the tendency was

for

a

with the object of attaining clear and distinct symmetry. In. the latter part- of the 18th century this was achieved; the several movements were then generally oast on nearly identical lines, with undeviating distribution of subjects, pauses, The modulations, cadences, and double bars. style of thonghtoonformed for awhile sufliciently well to this discipline, and the most successful achievements of instrumental music up' to that Extime were accomplished in this manner. trinsically the artistic prodnet appeared perfect but art could not standi still at this point, and composers soon felt themselves precluded from putting the best and most genuine of their thoughts into trammels produced by such regular Moreover, the sudden and violent procedure. changes in social arrangements which took place at the end of the century, amd the transformation in the ways of regarding life and its interests and opportunities which resulted therefrom, opened a new point of public emotion, and introdiaeed a new qinaMty ef cosmopolitan human interest in poetry and art. The appeal of music in its higher manifesta>tions became more direct and immediate and the progiession of the idea became necessarily less amenable to the control of artificialities of stractnre, and more powerful in its tm:n of reacting upora the form. This is wrhat lies at the root of mmih which, for want of a moi'e exact word, is frequently described as the poetic element, which has become so prominent and indispensable a quality time to direct special attention to

;

this,

modem music. By this change of position the necessities of structural balance and proin

portion are not supplanted, but made legitimate use of in a different manner from what they previously were ; and the sonata-form, while satisfying the indispensable conditions still

which make abstract music possible, expanded to a fuller and more co-ordinate pitch of emotional material. Partly under these influences, and partly, no doubt, owing to the improvements in keyed instruments, the Clavier Sonata, again attained to the group of four movements, but in a different arrangement from that of the The slow introdnietion was Violin Sonata. sometimes resumed, but without representing

an ingredient in the average scheme. The first movement was usually the massive and dignified Alkgro. The two central portions, consisting of a highly expressive slow movement, and the scherzo which was the legitimate descendant of the dance movement, were ruled in their order of succession by the qualities of the first and last movements, and the work ended with a movement which still generally maintained the qualities to be found in a last movement The tendency to unify of Corelli or Tartini. the whole group increased, and in so far as the influence of intrinsic character or of the idea

became powerful itmodified the orderand quality of the movements. For pai-ticular purposes which approve themselves to musical feeling the number of movements varied considerably, some exceedingly fine and perfect sonatas having only two, and others extending to five. Again, it is natural that in certain moods composers should almost resent the call to end with the conventional light and gay movement and consequently in later works, even where the nstial form seems to be accepted, the spirit is rather ironical than gay, and rather vehement or even fiearoe than light-hearted. The same working of the spirit of the age had powerful effect on the intrinsic qualities of the Scherzo in which there came to be found, along with or under the veil of ideal dance motions, sadness and tenderness, bitterness, humour, and many more phases of ;

;

strong feeling forwhich theidealdancerhythms, when present, are made to serve as a vehicle but in some cases also are supplanted by ;

though kindred forms of expression. In other respects the last movement moved farther away from the conventional type, as by the adoption of the fugal form, or by new use of the Yariation-form in a more cont^uous and consistent sense than in early examples. In different

many

cases the movements are made to pass into one another, just as in the earlier stages the strong lines which marked off the difierent sections in the movements were gradually toned

down

this means they came to have the appearance of separate items than limbs or divisions of a complete organism. This is illustrated most dearly by the examples of ;

less of

and by

.

;

'

SONATA

SONATINA

slow movements which are so modified as to be little more than Intermezzi, or introductory divisions appended to the last movement ; and more strongly by a few cases where the distinct

done away with, work becomes a chain of long

lines of separation are quite

and the

entire

divisions representing broadly the old plan of

four distinct

movements with kindred

subjects

continuing throughout. Since Beethoven the impetus to concentrate and individualise the character of musical works has driven many genuine composers to the adoption of forms which are less hampered by any suspicion of conventionality and even with sonatas they seemed to have grasped the object in view with less steadiness and eonsastency than in previous times. Some have accepted the artifice of a programme, others admit some doubtful traits of theatrical origin ; others develop poetic and aesthetic devices as their chief end and object, ;

and others

still follow up the classical lines, contenting themselves with the opportunities

afforded

by new and more elaborately

perfect

treatment of details, especially in music for combinations of solo instruments. In the latter case it is clear that the field is more open than in sonatas for single instruments, since the combination of such instruments as the pianoforte and violin or pianoforte and violoncello in large works has not been dealt with by the great masters so thoroughly and exhaustively But in any case it is apas the solo sonata. parent that fresh works of high value on the classical lines

can hardly be produced without

The origin and increasing intellectualism. reason of existence of abstract music are, at least on one side, intellectual ; and though up to a certain point the process of development tended to reduce the intellectual effort by making the structural outlines as clear

and

certain as pos-

when

these were decisively settled tlie current naturally set in the direction of complication. The inevitable process of accumulating one device of art upon another is shown in the

sible,

free range of modulation and harmony, and in the inereasing variety and richness of detail both in the subjects and in the subordinate parts of works. In such cases the formal outlines may cease to be strictly amenable to a definite external theory ; but if they accord with broad general principles, such as may be traced in the history of abstract music so far, and if the total effect is extrinsicaHy as well as intrinsically complete and convincing, it appears inevitable to admit the works to the rank of ' Sonatas. The exact meaning of the term has in fact been enforced with remarkable uniformity during the whole period from the beginning to the present day, and decisively in favour of what is called Fair examples of the successful abstract music. disregard of form in favour of programme or a dramatic conception can hardly be found in ;

fact, in

the best examples extant, programme

535

no more than the addition of a name or a story to an otherwise regular formal sonata but on the other hand there is plenty of justification of the finest kind for abstract works in free and more original forms, and it rests with composers to justify themselves by their works, is

rather than for reasoning to decide finally where the limit shall be. c. H. H. i. SONATINA. This is a work in the same form and of the same general character as a sonata, but shorter, simpler,

and slenderer. The

average form of the sonata appears to be the most successful yet discovered for pure instru-

mental works of large scope. It is admirably adapted for the expression and development of broad and noble ideas and the distribution of the various movements, and the clearness with which the main sections and divisions of each ;

movement solidity

are marked out, give it a dignity and which seem most appropriate in such

circumstances. But the very clearness of the outlines and the strength of contrast between one division and another, make the form less fit for works of smaller scope. As long as such

a work to

is laid out on a scale sufficiently large admit variety of treatment and freedom of

movement within the

limits of these divisions, there is fair chance of the work having musical value proportionate to the composer's capacity ; but if the limits are so narrow as to admit little

more than mere statement of the usual form, and no more than the conventional order of modulations, the possibilities of musical sense

and sentiment are reduced to a minimum, and a want of positive nmsioal interest commonly results. Consequently sonatinas form one of the least satisfactory groups of musical products. The composers who have produced the greatest impression with short and concise movements in modem times have uniformly avoided them, and adopted something of a more free and lyrical oast, in which there is a more appropriate kind of unity, and more of freedom and individuality in the general outlines. It might be quite possible to group these small pieces sO' as to present a very strong analogy to the sonata on a small scale but it has not been attempted, owing possibly to a feeling that certain hmitations of style and character are generally accepted in the musical world as appropriate for works of the sonata class, and that it would be superfluous to violate them. The sonatina form has, however, proved peculiarly convenient for the making of pieces intended to be used in teaching. The familiar outlines and the systematic distribution of the principal harmonies afford the most favourable opportunities for simple but useful fingerpassages, for which the great masters have supplied plentiful formulas and they furnish at the same time excellent means of giving the student a dignified and conscientious style, and a clear insight into the art of phrasing and into ;

;

— SONG

536

These works the simpler rules of classical form. may not have any strong interest of a direct kind for the musical world, but they have considerable value in so far as they fulfil the purposes The most famous and they are meant to serve.

most

examples of this kind are de-

classical

menti's sonatinas, of opp. 36, 37, and 38. And much of the same character are several by F. Kuhlau, which are excellently constructed and pure in style. Of modern works of a similar kind there are examples by L. Koehler. Those by Carl Reineoke and Hermann Goetz are equally adapted for teaching purposes, and have also in general not a little agreeable musical sentiment, and really attractive qualities. Some of Beethoven's works which are not definitely described as such are sufficiently concise and slight to be as for instance those in G and called sonatinas G minor, op. 49, which were first announced for That publication as Senates faoiles in 1805. in G major, op. 79, was published as a Sonatine in 1810, though it is rather larger in most Prior respects than the other little examples. to Beethoven the average scale of sonatas was so small that it seems difficult to see how a diminutive could be contrived ; and indeed the grand examples which made the degrees of comparison specially conspicuous were not yet in existence. A modern work on such a scale, and made in the conventional manner, would probably be considered as a Sonatina, and apart from teaching purposes it would also be likely c. H. H. P. to be an anachronism. SONG. Introduction. In relation to the study of music, a Song may be defined as a short metrical composition, whose meaning is conveyed by the combined force of words and :

'

'

'

'

melody. The Song, therefore, belongs equally to poetry and music. For the purposes of this Dictionary the subject should properly be treated with but the musical exclusive regard to music forms and structure of songs are so much determined by language and metre, and their content by the emotions the words express, that their poetic and literary qualities cannot In the strictest sense, lyrical be put aside. pieces alone are songs ; but adherence to so narrow a definition would exclude many kinds of songs whose importance in the history of music demands that they should be noticed. Attention, however, will be directed chiefly to homophonio forms of secular songs i.e, songs for one voice or unisonous chorus. It 'should, moreover, be mentioned that the history of the Song in this article will be treated in regard to country and not to period. For the study of any other branch of music among the leading nations of Europe,* a chronological arrangement would probably be more scientific and instructive ; but the Song is that ;

1 Scotland, Trelnnd, and Wales are purposely left out of this aeheine, as tlie artfeles In this DictlonaiT on the music of those countries give eiltflclent Information on the Songs.

branch of music in which national peculiarities

and idioms linger longest, and international Again, without affinities grow most slowly. attempting to trace the origin of Song, or to say whether or not Song preceded speech or language, it may safely be asserted that certain successions of sounds or intervals varying with different nationalities, have in all ages possessed some particular significance and conveyed some

So message of meaning from man to man. that the music of each nation has qualities and idioms of its own as distinct and definite as those of

its

language.

Vocal music is probably the oldest branch of but from the fact that dance-songs the art preponderate in the music of nations whose musical culture remains in a primitive stage, it is reasonable to conclude that vocal music may have been at first a mere accessory of the dance. Choral singing at (See Dance -Rhythm.) ;

and other festivals was also a practice of very remote antiquity. Recitations by bards, commemorative of the exploits of heroes, were a further and distinct development of vocal music.

religious

Hence the work done by the minstrels, Troubadours and Trouv^res, Minnesinger and Meistersinger,

will call for notice in their different

countries.

During the last quarter of a century, the Song as a branch of music has assumed great importance. "With regard to the Folk-song, scientific musicians and composers in most

European countries have deemed it worthy of serious study. They have assiduously collected and made use of what remains of the indigenous musical material still left untouched by the hand of civilisation. Governments have given aid to such enterprises, thereby showing the value they attach to the preservation of the songs of their people. Folk-lore has become a

study societies have been formed to and arrange in musical notation the songs orally handed down by uncultured singers, and tmly the object is well worthy of the scientific

;

collect

For the folk-song is the origin of all our modem music. From it we have derived not only our scales, but the shape of our melodies, the outlines of our musical form, and indirectly even the art of our harmony and cadences. 2 Hence in treating the history of the Song in each successive country, it is necessary that the folk-song should hold its place. There is another form of Song which, for want of a better term (where a distinction is necessary), it is convenient to designate by theGerman These songs phrase KwmtUed, or Art -Song. are more regular and finished compositions, written with conscious art by men who have made music their study. But formerly there labour.

was no branch of music so freely handled by The lyric song inferior and unpractised hands. may not need so accurate a knowledge of formal 2 See Parry's

Art of Music,

p. 52 et seg.

SONG principles as other kinds of music, but it both demands, and at last has received, the care and serious attention necessary for its proper cultivaFor the art-song simple tion and appreciation. ' guitar accompaniments no longer suffice ; the instrumental part must have a beauty, a fulness and elaboration of its own apart from the voice, though primarily its duty is to enhance and support the melody and the meaning of the words. Further, composers have now recognised that no song can be really good without coiTect accentuation and emphasis ; they have turned their attention to the study of accent, and to the proper relations of musical cadence to grammatical punctuation.' (See Accent, De-

537

the first place in this scheme. Another valid reason for treating this country first is that it possesses, perhaps, one of the oldest songs in existence. This is a Complainte on the death

'

clamation (iii.). The importance

of the choice of words is happily now manifesting itself in every country, for the necessary dependence of the Song upon poetry is obvious. 2 Until the poet supplies lyrics of adequate power and beauty of form, the skill of the composer alone cannot develop the full capacities of the Song. When, however, poets and composers of the first rank have worked

together in mutual sympathy and admiration, did the German poets and composers of Goethe's age, the Song has quickly mounted to the loftiest heights of art. Time alone can produce men of genius and breathe the inspiration of great events, but poets and composers are alike the children of their age, and vividly reflect the dominant emotions of the hour and the scene in which they live. History colours every branch of art, and none more so than the Song, for it is the first and simplest mode of giving expression to strong feeling. Men naturally sing of what fills their heads and hearts ; and thus there is a close con'espondence between great historic events and the multitudes of songs to which they generally if not invariably gave birth. Enough has now been said to show the right the Song has to be cnltivated as a branch of

Ex.

1.

Facsimile of 'Planotus Kaeoli.''

HCl PIT LLA.s.ltTi(

i

A

Soxis

Y

r

z

\/

fau4xX.cloce marred by the interruption of resiAor pauses in the musical phrase. There the student may learn why the strong and weak accents of the uiasic should coincide respectively with the long and short ayllablea of the Terse, and when the departures from this rule are Juatiflable. This excellent treatiae was translated into English by M. E. Ton Olehn, and published by NoTello & Co. 3 That the poet's share in the Song la at length recognised. Is proTed by tlie poet's name being given nearly as often as that of the composer in the programmes of the present day. >

rules

N

'

''

-J

*'

'

1

cccicwoitraz.b

3 Ftftlfl,

-

>•

1/

Biaoire ginSrcUe de la Musiqtte.

iv. 4T4.

2m

— '

SONG

538

of Charlemagne, 8 IS. It may be found in a in fonds-latm dated 1154, in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris,' and has been The music has attributed to S. Colnmbanus. been reduced to modern notation by both

MS.

and

Coussemaker It

vary.

Fetis,

but

their

versions

must be remembered that there

is

certainty on the subject of early music than on early language, for music was handed less

down solely by oral tradition. And even when about the year* 1000 the necessity was some method of musical notation, the plans adopted were so numerous and confused that the question of time or rhythm or actual notes of a mediaeval MS. is constantly interpreted differently by musical historians. We tlierefore give in facsimile a fragment of the MS. (see p. 5 3 7), and a few bars of both versions for comparison : felt for

Ex.

CoUSSEMAKBK's VERSION". ^

2.

A

BO

•

lis

or

-

tu

us - que

ad

oc

ii^^i^gi^p^S ci

Ex.

-

3.

du

• -

a

Lit

to

ma

ra

-

ris

F^Tis's Version".

popular songs were in the early centuries of the Christian era a subject of much trouble to the Church, and Christian people were forbidden to fi-equent places where they were Even Charlemagne, who ordered a collecsung. tion of epic songs to be made, condemned tlie vulgar, reprehensible type of songs "which were sung round about the Churches. In speaking of the musicof the Churchit must be remembered iirst, the that it had two distinct groups ;

liturgical portion, or plain-song, "without regular

and second, the music to the hymns ; (prose or sequence, seqiientia), which was both

rhythm

melodious and rhythmical, and represented the By degrees, the popular part of the service. secular spirit crept into these proses * and from the 11th century onwards popular songs* are to be found in the vtilgar tongue side by side with the Latin canticles. These were called Laudable proses farcies or epitres farcies J attempts also were made by the Church to adapt secular festivals and customs to Christian purposes. Thus the Christian festival of Easter corresponded with the heathen celebration of Many of the old Celtic May-day the spring. .songs 8 still exist, and a great similarity of melody can be traced between them and the Easter music of the Church. The origin of the iilii et filiae is well-known Easter hymn unknown, but it is certainly as old as the 12th century, and has usually been attributed It is unlike Gregorian to French sources. music in chaa-acter, but its aflBnity with some of the following examples of old May-day songs, '

'

called Chatisons de quete, still

The melody has only

four notes

;

indeed,

up

parts of France,

to the last phrase only three, showing that the peculiar French fondness for a, small compass has survived for 1000 years: Since the 10th century the practice existed of using well-known tunes (which later would be called And most timbres) to different Latin words.' of the Crusaders' songs which have come down to us from the 11th century are in Latin.* But an important exception amongst them is Marie, Deu maire, a song commencing dated 1096, which is in the vernacular, and this date marks the epoch when the Latin language began to be superseded by the French. It is necessary to emphasise the close conand perhaps nection which has ever existed in France more than in any other country between the folk-song and the Church. There is reason to believe that some melodies, or fragments of melodies, of Celtic origin have been preserved from the days before Christianity was introduced into France. The old heathen

,

Ex.

is

sung in diiferent

incontestable.'

4.

'

—

1

Another jnmg in the aame MS. on the battle of Fontanet, 841, he by* one Angelbertr a Fianfilsh wamior, who was

vit c'eat an-jour

is said to>

F^tis, flistoire gcnSrate de la Mur^qus, iv. 473 et geq. Wekerlin, 'Cliansons Pop. du Pays de France,' 1. 86. 3 F^tis speaks of two Latin poemssung to tunes called Sfodta libtdiniB (I'alr de I'amour), and MoAuaJtorum (I'air des ileurs). Ibid.

-

d'hul qu'il

faut chanter.

present. 2

It. 430.

as the beautiful ' Jerusalem Wlrabilis,' which is a solemn pieee, like a Gregorian hymn, and probably sung by the people in the open air. Ibid. tv. 4B2, 4

Such

1 LayoiT.

la

itutixiue Pranfatae, p. 20.

5

Usually CoMiptafciftM.recognlHable by

'

For example see

their rhythm.

Fitis, t. 103. contain strange relics of old Celtic words, such aa See Tiersot, Bistoire, p. 192Tiersot, Bigtoire de la Chanson Popvlaire en France, p. 361. Other pagan or Celtic festivals, such as midwinter {ee]\ed la /ete de 8 Tliese

Trimmw^te. fl

;

SONG Another example of the resemblance between the Church and folk-songs is afforded by the Tonus Peregriiins, the oliant sung to the Psalm Again the ^^^len Israel came out of Egypt.' origin is obscure, but already in the 9th century Like filii et it was held to be veiy old. filiae it differs in many ways from Gregorian music, but sereral old French songs could be given where the melody is almost note for note For instance, that of the Tonus Peregrinus. the Chant des Livrtes,' a very old song still or the beautiful sung at country weddings 16th-ceutury 'Rossignolet des bois.'^ '

'

539

Paradis

(given below) in the Aeolian, or ninth

'

mode. 3 „Ex.

ai^^^fai^ 8.

Jo

cioia

Jti -

au pa

Bus nous la

-

un

J'e8-p£rBal-ler

ra-dis

pi'o-mis.

'

2nd.

1st.

au

Jour

glo

-

n

•

eax

'

;

The narrative form of song is very popular in France, and the generic terms for this class of song is tlie Complainte. The old Celtic epics and the later collection of epics made by Charlemagne, the chansons de geste, the early romances,

Ro3-si - gno - l«t dea Aa - tu ou - y la

boys Qui cbante au verd bo vtrix

D'uag gsr-son du

the ligendes of the Passion and of the Christian saints, and the old pathetic ballades of the peasants would all come under that name. The wonderful legende called the ' Ballade de J^sus Christ is still sung in Picardy.* The simplicity of the language and the modal melody point to its being of popiilar origin. The ' Chanson de la Perronelle,' which has lived in the mouths of the people for centuries,* resembles the oldest complwiwtes in its poetic form, consisting of couplets of two Hues without a refrain."

-

vil

2nd.

1st.

'

Ex.

Comme

ce

Though there

c'eat qn'il

faat af

-

^^^3g

mer.

Eggzf^>gE^^3Ea

no definite evidence in this case that the Church adopted a popular melody for the chant, nor that the people used a chant which they heard in church for their own songs, it proves the popularity of this iine melody, and that it was common property to both. And it is

will be seen that this practice of intermixing

sacred and secular music has continued from those early centuries to the present day. It was incidentally remarked in. the introduction to this article that the folk-aongs have given us our scales ; and these scales include not only the modem major and minor but also

the ecclesiastical or GregoHan scales and modes. Modal melodies have existed for hundreds of years, and still exist all over France. It must, however, be admitted that the commonest scales for the French folk-songs are the modem major and minor scales. ^ Among the most beautiful modal tunes are those found in Brittany, such as Le Clerc du Tremolo, which is in the ecclesiastical Dorian or first mode a singularly pathetic religious song sung in a time of famine, Disons le chapelet in the Phrygian or third mode and the well-known 'Ma douce Annette,' or the beautiful 'Le '

'

;

'

'

;

VAauilameaf or V AsuAUaneufi or midsummer, answering respectively to the Church festivajg of ChriatmaafseeCAROi.). the Epiphany, or St. John the Baptist, gave rise to masses of songs still sung In Stance, and coraioon to both kinds of music. Space debais further mention o£ this aabfect. hut fall and interesting Information will be found In ST. Ileisot's above-quoted volume, p. 18S et geq, (In this same i^apter the firniouB 'Ifanmatlde* Chcaisonx are alluded 1

9.

A-v"

ous point veu—

.

La Fer-ron - nel-le

mes ontem ~me

les gen-dar

-

n^I

p^^^^^3^3Eg^ pour pas-ser

M. Tiersot

le

calls attention to

Daol-pbi

'

Melodies,' p. 73.

nd.

fact,

that although these chansoTis tiarratives were known to exist, they were far less often included in the collections made from the 13th to the 3 The above are inclnded in M. BonrgauIt-I>ucoiidia,y's Trente Melodies Populaiies de la Basse Bretagiie ; and here it would be convenient to state briefly M, Boui^tilt-Ducoudtay's theory. He denies that these modal songs have their origin in the Church. His argUr ment is that the modes found in these and other popular melodies, not only of France, but of Ireland, Scotland. Oreece, etc, are actually the survival of music common to the early Indo-European race. He maintains that the Greeks akme cultivated musie as an art that the Church, taking its scales from Greece and afterward^ carrying them to other countries, brought to Brittany, for instance, a kind of music which waaiJreadytamllnirtothe Bretons in their popular songs ; that the bo -called modes may bo ais old and as common to many nationalities as many of the £Eimiliar words common to the different InriiguAges of tlie Indo-European i^ily. On the strength of this, Diicoudray'a nomenclature of the modes is the Greek and not the ecclesiastical, and this hns been adopted \^ other continental writers (see Moora). Throughout this article, however, the Church names and Gregorian numbers of the modes are retained, except in the section relating to Song ta Greece. 1 This legend is widely spread in France. It is found in coiint^tlon with several saints in the La^mtda Awrea of Jacobus de Voiagine. See Charapfleiiry and Wekerlin's 'Chansons pop. des proTtincea de Prance.' ^ The earliest record of the words and mnaic of this song is to be feond in a MS. in the Biblloth^ue NotionaTe ealled Chansons da ig6me Siftcie/ published by Gfaiaton Paris and Gevaert. '

'

'

to.)

Tiersot,

2 Jbld., Biatoire, p. 322.

-

the strange

f Tiersot, Histoire, p. 12.

-

SONG

540

17th centuries than the chansons satiriques, ckansmis d'amour, pastourelUs, etc. Of recent years their extreme beauty has claimed more

and many modern collections of them have been published. To trace the development of song it is now necessary to return to the early Middle Ages. Some strong impulse was evidently given to the human mind in Europe towards the close of the 11th century, and the songs of the Troubadours, like the numerous schools of philosophy which illuminated the 12th century, were fruits of an awakened ardour for intellectual pursuits. "With the Troubadours a new type of music was introduced, which may be described as songs written with conscious art. These versifiers, the Troubadours and Trouvferes to whom music and literature owe much, derived their names from trobar or trouver (to find or invent). They belonged respectively to the south and north of France, and wrote in the Langue d'Oc and Langue d'Oil. It was not unnatural that in Provence and Languedoo the new life should especially express itself in music and verse, for the circumstances of those provinces were favourable to the development of sentiment and imagination. The rise of the Troubadours in southern France was quickly followed by the attention,

'

'

'

'

appearance of the Trouveres in northern France.

There was less gaiety about these northern versifiers than about the southern, but in other respects the resemblance between them was very close. At first the Troubadours and Trouveres sang their own verses, but the functions of the poet and singer soon became distinct. Hence a class of professional musicians arose, who sang the songs of their own lords and other composers. These wandering singers from * Provence and Pieardy, known as Jongleurs or Chanteors in the south, and MeiiltHers or minstrels in the north,' went from court to court, country to country, and joining the Crusaders they returned from the Holy Land filled with enthusiasm and singing songs of love and war. The war-songs or chcmsons de geste were musically uninteresting they were merely long chanted tales where the melody only occurs in the short refrain. But the lovesongs were poems of exquisite grace, perfect rhythm, and highly expressive. Their very names reveal their origin, such as the pastourelle, alba and serena, tensons and sirvente.^ To the ;

^ The Menfitrler seems to have attained a higher standard of culture and taste than the Jongleur, who soon added other modes of popular diversion (such as juggling and acrobatic feats) to his musical accomplishments. It must, however, be remembered that the lower classes In Prance were untouched by the Troubadour movement, which covered the time from the 11th to the 14th They had nothing more in common with tlie laig, centuries. girventeg, etc. than they had with the old chamom de geite. The Jongleurs were the sole connecting link between the people and the

courts. 2 In the pastmirelle the poet feigned to meet and woo a shepherdthe alba and gffrena were aubades and serenades. The teruoru were metrical dialogues of lively repartee on some disputed point of gallantry, and the sirvente was an address of a devoted lover to his mistress. To this latter form of composition, which was also much employed In satire, a special celebrity belongs, because its metre— the terza rima—vaa adopted by Dante and Petrarch.

ess

;

Troubadours likewise

may be

ascribed the canzo

and eansone, the soula (soulagement), a merry song, and the lai,^ which is of a melancholy character and to the Trouveres more especially the romance.* The Troubadours and Trouveres ;

were not less fertile in the invention of dance Such were songs, combining solo and chorus. the famous carol or rondet de carol, the espringerie (or

The

jumping dance), and the ballata. Troubadours on record

earliest of the

was Guillaume, Duke of Guienne, who joined Crusade in 1096. And among the Troubadours and Trouveres of the 12th and 13th centuries, whose names survive and many of whose melodies have come down Richard Cceur de Lion, to us, there were Bertran de Born, Pierre Rogier, Bernart de Ventadour, the Chatelain de Couoy, Guirant de Borneil, Blondel de Nesle, Gace Brul^, Hugues de Lusignan, Thibaut de Champagne (King of NavaiTe), Jehan Erars, Giraut de Calenson, Perrin d'Angecourt, Adam de la Bass^e, Adeuet le Eoi, and Adam de la Hale. The prime of the Troubadours was past when in the year 1320, the Troubadour Academy of Toulouse was founded for the cultivation and the

first

illustrious

:

(See Tkoubadour.) The Troubadours and Trouveres owe great debts to the Church and to the Folk-song. Their music was a compound of the folk-song for its melody and form and of the Gregorian chant for its declamation and ornament. But preservation of their art.^

;

inasmuch as the art of literature was then highly developed, and music was still in its infancy, it was impossible to combine the elaborate and highly finished forms of poetry with the music then existing, and a new kind of song, more artistic and more developed, was the result. The Troubadours were eager to invent new, ingenious and graceful phrases, metres, and rhythms," and their work was of real value in handing down the rhyming stanza as the most perfect vehicle for

lyrical

expression.

Also,

by the preference the Troubadours gave to the modem major scale they helped to establish it in European music before the close of the 13 th century. In this, and in the simple repetitions of their musical phrases, they followed the popular instinct. And though the Trouba-

dour melodies are more developed and finished than those of the chansons populaires, it is in many cases impossible to state with certainty

which are folk-songs and which are the work of trained musicians. For, instance, a pastoral song, 'La reine d'Avril,' belonging to the 12th a

See P. Wolf, Ueber die Lais.

4

The romance is the lyrical outcome of the nan-ative comjtlaintes

and

chamom de geste

12th century

is

In Northern France. Belle Yolans of the See Tiersot, Bistoire. p. 414. '

'

an example.

There were schools in other parts of France where the Gay Science was taught, and whither the Troubadours repaired in Lent (when not allowed to appear in public) to leani new songs and melodies. The minstrels also had rights granted to them to form 5

corporations or guilds in several towns. The earliest charter dates 1338, signed by Robert de Caveian, and lasted until the 18th century. 6 See P. Aubry, La rhythmique musicale des Troubadours etc Paris, 1907.

SONG century,

is said to be of popular origin it melodious and rhythmical, it has a refrain, and the first little phrase is four times repeated. L'autrier par la matinee,' by Thibaut, King of Navarre (1201-54), opens with a phrase exactly similar, which is also repeated. ' There ;

is

'

the same charm of sincerity and pretty sentiment about an older song, the Chatelain de Coucy's (1192) 'Quant le rossignol,'^ though the form is less concise. It is composed in phrases of seven bars each, like many other mediaeval songs. ^ Both are good illustrations of Troubadour songs.* is

Ex.

Quant

10.

Eossignol.

le

Chatelain de Couct.

^^^^

Quant U

lou

•

gaolz

acji

chaBte

lis

Jo

L^^^ii^^ sur la

flor

d'es

.

que naist

t^,

-

^*^-i^ et

se

lys et

le

ro

la

^^^^^^^te I

et

pr£

vert

-

t^ chan-te-rai

.

1

coiiflns

.

'«^

a

bon • ne to

de

plaiiiB

I

-

Jeu de S. Nicolas' and 'Le Juif were of the same type, at once sacred and comic. The '

character of the mysteries remained faithful to tradition ; these were only a continuation of the liturgical dramas of the 11th century.^

But by the end of the 13th century the Trouveres had broken loose from the Chiirch, and resorted to

little village histories or lovestories for their material. Aucassin et Nico'

the well-known chant -faile, belongs to this time. Musically more important was Adam de la Hale's celebrated pastorale ' Le jeu de Robin et de Marion,' which was played at the court of Charles of Anjou at Naples in 1285. This work has long been attributed solely to Adam de la Hale's own invention, but M. 'Tiersot has now shown that A. de la Hale probably wrote the play, and then strung together a number of popular tunes (many of them of far older date) to suit his words.'' Thus this pastoral comedy forms probably the

lete,'

oldest collection of French folk-tunes in exist-

Adam

ence.

de la Hale, together with Guil-

laume de Machault, should more properly be

^^^^ ro

la

541

len

-

'

I

mis,

-

mais di

among the Chansonniers, or the early musicians, who in the 13th centui'y paved the way for the contrapuntal school, which for two centuries was to be the predominating influence in European music. A. de la Hale, surnamed ' Le bossu d' Arras, was born in 1240 ; Machault in 1286, thus fomiing the link between the Trouveres and the scholar musicians of a little later time. Like the Ti-ouvferes they often invented both the words and the melodies of their songs, but they also attempted to write in the polyphonic form of composition ; and raw and imperfect as these efforts were, they marked a step in advance. To Adam de la Hale and G. de Machaiilt French music owes much ; not only can the form of the future classed

tant

Ex.

11.

'»

i

Bo

-

m'aime,

bins

m'a

Robins

Bofiins m'a, Filie.

vira

ser

.

dont

jai

grS.

&

Very few sirventes, but many pasUmrelles, have been preserved from the 12th century. This period was specially rich in sacred and secular dramatic representations

proses

stated,

and

melody are found

canticles side

by

;

in

P^^^S^i^p^ de

man - diS -

e

si

m'a

ma

- ran.

^E^^:

and, as before plain -chant

side with

-

'

ta

CO

•

tS

-

le

•

car

te

bonne

Dal Segno

der

and Tiersot,

SftuiJc, ii. 227,

sous kra

Hist., p. 371.

Ainbros, Ibid. ii. 223. Blimey and Feme put these into modem notation, and where tbey differ, Barney's are the lower notes. 3 Another of Thilwut's songs, ' Je me quidoie partir d'amour,' given by Ambros, ii, 228, has an alternating rhythm of two and three bars, hut it preserves a perfect symmetry of form. ' Further examples of Troubadour songs will be found in Wolf's tjeber die LaiA, Kiesewetter's S(^hiclisale vrtd Begchaffeiiheit dee Vlt^ltchen Geganges J. Stafford Smith's Musica Antiqua,' and in

aZ Fine.

y^mi

'

OetchicJite

et belle

light,

It is thus in Daniel rhythmical popular tunes. Ludus by one Hilaire, played in 1250. The Ambros,

ca-

^E^^ d'ea

'

>

-

-

ni - e et chain

-

tu

-

re

-

le

& leur

iia.

2

'

;

the histories of music by Ambros, Piitis, Bumey, and others. Also for modernised versions see Wekerlin's 'Ecbos du Temps pass6, V..1, i.

vaudeville be detected in the pastorale * Robin et Marion,* but its chansons are strictly similar See Lavoix, La Jlfusigue Pran^aite, p. 41. Space prohibits quoting here at length M. Tiorsot's interesting They are given in different places in his Rwtoire de la CJiansan Pop, See eapeeially p. 422 et seq., and the article Halb, Adam de la, vol. ii. p. 273. 5

8

and conclusive arguments.

'

SONG

542

and character to chansons of modern In the old and new alike we find a strongly marked rhythm, easy intervals, and a paucity of notes, repetition of one short melodic phrase, the major mode, the favourite 6-8 time, and an extreme simplicity of general plan.^ Though hundreds of years have passed since Robin et Marion was written, the song 'Robin m'aime (ex. 1 1) is still sung in Henuegau.^ In two volumes of old French and Latin poems, the author Guillaume de Machault is styled poet and musician. The forms of the poems are very varied, and among them are a great number oilais, virelais, ballades, rondeaux, and rondelets, with description of the music to which they are set.' Machault seems to have been most renowned for his graceful and rhythmical balleites, which are written, as a rule, im triple or compound time. It should be noted that in the songs of this early period the melody is never protracted and drawn out to the detriment of the words, but closely follows the ^uiek succession of syllables without visible eHbrt. And these old melodies often have the Iambic in structure

in black letter at the end of the 15th century, were sung, though the names of the airs (such as 'Fauloe trahison,' etc.) remain as super(See Noel.)' scriptions. In that great age of serious polyphonic music a Iiigh place was held by the French school, or, to speak more correctly, by the Gallo-Belgian school, for during the 14th and 15th centuries no distinction, as regards music, can be drawn between northern France and Flanders. The direct use made of secular music for ecclesiastical purposes is remarkably illustrated by the works of Clement Marot. He was a translator of a portion of the Psalms ; and the first thirty of them, which he dedicated to his king, Fran5ois I., were set or parodied to the favourite dance-airs of the Court. ^ Popularity was thus at once secured for the Psalms, which meiubera of the Court could sing to their favourite courantes, sarabandes, and iourries. After Marot's death Beza continued "his work at Much doubt existed for a Calvin's instance.' long while as to whom belonged the credit of having set the Psalms to music. Some ascribed it wholly to Marot, others to Goudimel ; but M. Douen has now made it clear that these men, together with Jambe de Fer, Franc, Claudin, and others, adapted the Psalms to old secular songs.'" In the 'Psautier Flamand Primitif (1540) all the psalms are for one voice, and with only two exceptions they can all be traced back to their sources in popular French and Flemish songs. ^^ (See Psalter.)

date.

'

'

'

rhythm,

'

for instance*

Adam db la Hale.

12.

lln'eBt

8i

bon

-

ne Ti

an -de

que ina-tons.

Contemporary with, or a little junior to Machault, was Jehannot Lescurel, who wrote romances which are still extant in MS. One of these, A vous douce debonnaire, which has been translated into modem notation by Fftis,^ exhibits a more developed melody and a, more modern tendency than other productions of the same date. If it be true that during the 14th and 15th centuries, the Church exercised an exclusive dominion over music, she was nevertheless a '

'

songs. By taking popular tunes for the themes of their masses and motets, such as 'L'omme arm^,' 'Taut je me deduis,' Se la face ay pale (used by Dufay) or ' Baisez-moi (by Roselli), ' Malheur me bat (by Josquin des Pres), etc.,^ the musicians of the Church preserved many a melody which would otherwise have perished. L'omme arm^ ' is undoubtedly the most famous song of the Middle Ages, and it owes its notoriety not so much to its beauty as to the fact that contrapuntal composers, from Dufay, at the end of the 14th century, to Palestrina, used it more than any other folk-song. (See L'Homme ARMfe, vol. ii. p. 687.) From want of such adoption by the Church, some of the airs have been lost to which the curious old Noels, printed

While

'

'

;

'

'

'

Tieraot, EUtoire, p. 853.

2 This example ia taken from M. Lnesy and E. David's JJistoire de la Notation Mufdcale, p. 105. 3 The volumes were found in 174? by Count de Caylus in a royal library in France. Buraey. Hist, of Mu% ii. 303. * Ambros. Oes. der MugVc, ii. 295. 5 This song is to be found in the Itevue ilujiicdle, vol. xii. No. 34. e Ambroa, Qes. der Musik. iii, 15 et aeq.

music was

secular

thps

made

to

the Church, it had a separate though less conspicuous sphere of its own. Tiis is attested by the vaux-de-vire (or drinking- songs), >^ mix-de-mUe (better known by their modem name of vaudevilles) and airsde-cour, collected and published in the 16th minister to

'

friend to secular

1

'

t

A list of collections of Noels is given by Tifrsot,

9

Wekerlin says in hia

'

lilchos

du Temps

nixt.

,

p. 242.

passii,' iii. 13B,

that

when any dance-air became

popular, rhymers immediai^ly put words to it, so that it could be sung. The term parody thtia had no sense of burlesque, but it simply meant adaptation. The Ballards issued a quantity of these songs. 'L'Abeille,' a well-known example, is really a minuet. 9 Calvin, who deteated the arts, recommended music, nevertheless, from the purely utilitai-ian point of view, 'la parole chant^ qui porte beaucoup plus fort.' 1" See Climent Marot et le Psatutier ffuguenot, I. 606. One of the most noted is the magniHeent Huguenot Battle Hymn, Que Dieuse montre seulement (Psalm 68), SDnietimes called La Marseillaise Huguenote.' Itis asecular tune of Alsatian origin, and It appeared '

parodied ' '

it, i.e. '

'

'

'

first in the first edition of the Straaburg Psalter. ' For caniiqueji, moreover, as well aa masses and psalma, secular ' aits were openly utilised. And according to I^onen (pp. 688 and 703) the Roman Catholics have never ceased to adapt secular airs to ecclesiastical uses from the 16th century down to the present

He supports this statement by reference to 'La pieuse time. alouette avec son tire-lire Chansons Spirituellea. le plupart sur les airs moudaiiis, par Ant. de la Cauchie, 3615'; Imitations de JtjsusChrist en Cantiquesaur dea airs d'Op^raa et de Vaudevilles, par Abbd aaid Concerts Sjiirituela,' a collection Pelegrin, 1727' (Paris) published at Avignon in 1835, of masses, hymns, requiems, prayers, etc., on operatic melodies by Oluck, Piccinni, Mozart, Cimarosa, Bossiui, Wdhul, and others. IB Baaaelin and Jean le Houx, who lived in the little valleys Ivaux) around Vire in Normandy, in the second half of the 25th century, wrote many favourite drinking-songs, and hence drinking-songs came to be called vaux-de^vire. Some writers have confused thie teim with the voix-de-vtUe, whitSi applied to chansons sung in the Btreeta, and later to any songs with gay airs and light words. Jehan Chardavoine'a famous collection of monodic eonga of the Iflth centuiT is described as containing vaux-devt'lle and voix-de-vUle chansons de ville, pieces llttiiraires avec leur musique originale' telle que Mlgnonne. allons voir si la roae,' by Ronsard, etc. See Tiersot, nlt>toire, pp. 228 and 433 for other similar collections ;

'

;

'

'

SONG century. Much grace, indeed, and gaiety were evinced in the poetry and music of 4he songs and romances of this period, and it would be wrong to disparage such writers as Guillaunie le Heurteur, Noe Faignient, Pierre Vermont, and triste departir,' Fran9ois I., whose song, '

a period after the disappearance when the romance was threatened with extinction, by its formidable rival, the polyphonic chanson, but the l7th century saw it again in possession of all its old supremacy. Louis XIII. wrote several and his music-master, Pierre Guedron, was perhaps the foremost composer of romances of that time. One of the best examples of his work, Aux was,

;

'

aux dflices, bergeres,"* contains modulations which are remarkable for that date. Guedron's son-in-law, Boesset, was the author of a very famous romance, 'Caehez beaux yeux.' And the names of Beaulieu, Deschamps, Colasse, Bernier, Lefevre, Lambert, and Pierre Ballard may be recorded as composers of this age. The last (whose 'Belle, vous m'avez blesse,' was a favourite) was a member of the famous Ballard plaisirs,

;

;

'

'

French grace, sensibility, and gallantry and though its attributes may have varied from time to time, it remained unchanged in its essence from the era of the Troubadours until the 19th century. There earliest fruits of ;

1 A celebrated collection, with a dedicatloD to Charles IX., by Bon.sard, wae published in 1572, nnder t1ie title of ' Meslanges de chansons,' and it contained songs forfour, six, and sometimes eight voices by all the best-known Gallo-Belgian composers, such as Josquin, Uouton, Claudin, etc. These songs, like others of the same date, have strong melodies, and are full of canonic devices. PieiTe Rorisard's sonnets were set to music by Philippe de Mont«, in five, six, and seven parts, and his songs In four parts, by Bei-trand and Eeyuard. Mention should also be made of Crespel, Saif, and Clement Jannequin, whose descriptive songs (such as the Crie de Pa/ris) formed a new feature in music, also Gombert and Certon. Tint with the ti-ue polyphonic song this article is not concerned. 2 When public opinion first ceased to approve this practice, composers did not at once abandon it, but they no longer produced vocal pieces which were avowedly parodies or adaptations ; it now became their habit to attach their names to all their melodies, whether they were original or borrowed. As a typical case Char-

VANTB OABRIELT.B may

"be quoted: neither the wolds of which were by Henri IV. nor the music by his maltre de chapelle, Dn Canrroy. The air is really an old NoSl of unknown authorship, and probably some court poet, Desportes, perhaps, wrote t3ie words. See also J. B. Wekerlin, 'Chansons Populaires du Pays de France,'

217.

il.

3

Scudo, Critique et lAUSraturemusicales, vol.

11.

family of music-printers and also composers. printers they preserved a large quantity of iruneltes (see Brunette), 'musettes^ and other dance - songs and drinking - songs. Several brunettes were included in the great collection of the old French popular songs which A. Philidor copied out with his own hand, and dedicated to Louis XIV. Many were undoubtedly written on old Noel airs, especially those in parts. ^ After the l7th century they became scarcely distinguishable from romances. For excellent and typical specimens of the romances of the 18th century we may quote J. J. Rousseau's ' Le Rosier ' and ' An fond d'une sombre vallee,' both of which are found in his collection entitled ' Les Consolations des Miseres de la vie.' The musicians of this period seem to have been inspired by the grace and delicacy of contemporary poetry to create tender and simple melodies. Insipid as these songs must seem to us now, they are thoroughly representative of the age which produced them. It was the time of that singular phase of thought and feeling which will be for ever associated with the name of J. J. Rousseau a time of yeanlings to return to some imagined state of native innocence, to an ideal pastoral life in some visionary and often artificial Arcadia. All this was faithfully reflected in the works of its poets and musicians. Monsigny instinctively returned to the style of the folk-song, even to the pastourelle and complainte. His frequent use of the minor seventh of the scale gives a touch of medisevalism to his songs ^

As

'

'

it is true,

of the Troubadours,

with music by A. Muret, is full of feeling. But more important work was undoubtedly being done by their polyphonic contemporaries. ^ The effects of the great change which came over vocal music at the end of the 16th century were perhaps more marked in France and in the Netherlands than elsewhere. Polyphonic music, whether in masses or in madrigab, had been, as we have seen, the glory of the GalloBelgian School hut when once the monodic system had gained universal recognition polyphonic music began to decline, even where it had flourished most and the French- Flemish School surrendered its individuality by absorption into the Italian School. The French composers were likewise influenced by two other great innovations of this time, namely, the -creation of discords by Monteverde, and the application of music to the drama. Henceforward original melodies of their own invention were expected of musicians, and the old practice of choosing themes for their compositions in folk-songs or popular dance -songs died out, though its disappearance was gradual. ^ Songs Airs de Cour of for one voice, such as the the early 17th century, accompanied by lute or harpsichord, began to find favour and to drive aii'S for several voices from the ground they had occupied for more than 150 years. And that most characteristic type of French song, the romance, was soon to commence, or rather resume, a reign of popularity which is not yet ended. Scudo^ defines the romaiice as a song divided into several couplets, the air always simple, naive, and tender, the words to treat of sentiment Unlike the chanson it is never and love. political or satirical. It was one of the very

543

"

;

:

4

Published in Wekerlin's Echos du '

Temps pasad,'

vol.

iii.

p. 10.

It is taken from a very rare collection entitled 'Aira de Cour de dilTdrents auteuiB, 5 llvres, publi, 'Chants pop. de la Provence' (contains

Lieder.'

many

Aix, 1862-64. populares Andalucea." Cuentoa y Foesiaa '

Cata-

Ionian aonga). Caballero, F.

'

Leipzig,

'•

1861.

Berg^reen, A. P. 'SpanakeFolke-SangeogMelodier.' Copenhagen, 1S66. Brii!, F., Candi, C, and Salto, J. 'Canaona de la (Cants populars Catalans). Barcelona, 1666-74.

Pebiy

Tena'

Lacome, P.,et Pulgy Alsubide. J. * Echoa d'Eapagne.*' Paris, 1872. Cantos Espafloles.' Malaga, 1974. Ocon. t>r. E., y Biva^. Demofilo. Coleccion de Cantos flamencos.' Seville, 1881.2 Fouquier, A. 'Chants populairea Espagnols.* Pans, 1882. Seville, Rodriguez Marin, F. 'Cantos populares Espauoles.' '

'

Canaons y Follies populars." Barcelona, 1885. Bertran y Bros, P. 'Cantos de la montaiia.' Madrid, 1901. 'Die spanischeu Lautenmeister dea 16fcen Jahrhundert' (contains many songs for one voice). Leipzig, 1902. Olmeda. F. 'Folklore de Castilla, 6 Cancionei'o popular de Burgoa.' '

Calleja, B.

Murphy, Don 6. Seville, 1908.

Repertoire de muaique Arabe et Bouenet, J., et Oafll, E. N. Maure.' Alger (en cours de publication), 1905. Wolff, 0. 'Album SpaniacherVolksliederundOeaiinge.' Berlin. 'Cantos y Bailee popnlares de Espana.' Madrid. Inzenga, J. Coleccion de Cantos Espafloles.' Madrid. Nunez Robres, L. '

'

Iztueta's

Basque Co^LKC^IONS and Moldiztegulan'e collectiona of Basque muaic.

1826 (consisting chiefly of dance-tunes). Santesteban, J. A. 'Coll. de aires Vascongadas.'

1824 and

San Sebastian,

1860.

Salaberry, J. D. J.

'Chantapopulairea duPaysbasque.'i.' Bayonne,

1870.

Santestebajl, J. A. 1

'

Chansons basques.'

Bayonne,

1870.

See Eslava.

The Cantos Flamencos are songs of three or four verses in the Andaluslan dialect, composed by the gipsies, and are rarely printed 2

'

in collectiona.

In the lyrics of both races the rhyme follows the assonance principle, and is a more important element than the metre. Moreover, the national poets of Portugal used the Castilian language

much

as their own, especially be sung. Portugal is less rich than her neighbour in collections of early music. And unfortunately a mass of valuable manuscript and printed music which existed in the splendid library founded by King D. Joao IV. (1604-56), perished in the Lisbon earthquake in 1755. Much was also destroyed during the demolition of the monasteries and convents which followed the revolution of 1834. The earliest and most important musical records preserved in Portugal belong to the Troubadour period.' D. Diniz, sixth King of Portugal (1279-1325), who founded a university with a chair for music at Coimbra, was a grandson of Alfonso el Sabio, and well versed in the art of the Troubadours. Of D. Diniz's bastard sons D. Pedro, Count of Barcellos, and D. Alfonso Sancho we have nine trovas, and a cancioneiro * consisting of the work of their father and of 127 other Portuguese troubadours. Two copies are extant one in the Vatican and one in the Ajuda at Lisbon. The fomter has the melody indicated for each line, and the other has pictures of the vai-ious musical instruments then in use.^ The Jogral (jongleur) also for centuries as

for poetry intended to

;

3 Soriano Fiiertea, iu his nistoria de la musica Eapanola, i. 117, gives a hyuin of a somewhat earlier date, writteu by D. Francisco Contino, Count of Marialva, in the same notation as Alfonso el Sabio uaed. * A caneionciro always means a collection of romance.-?. Trova

has the same meaning as in Pi-ovenoe, only the term continued to be applied in Portugal to all extemporised songs, until the 18th century [Portagiesliche JIfusik, Mendel's Lexikon) (Platon von

'

Trovtise Cantares do Conde de BarceUoa, P. A. von Varuhagen, Madrid, 1849. 'i

— SONG

552

played an important part in Troubadour life and the last was Gil Vicente in Portugal (1470-1536), at once poet, actor, musician, and His works, which give interesting composer. information about the various customs and forms of song of his time,i are written partly in Portuguese and partly in Castilian. Inter-

and the sonetos. And the xacara (a gipsy song) and the ckula which is similar to it, the capiiva The fwo latter or mourisca and the jvdenga. naturally disappeared with the expulsion of the

spersed in his pieces are vilhaneetes, cangonetas, cantigas, romances, cangoes pastoris, cantigas de and in his ber(;o, cantigas maritimas, etc. ; enselladas songs with Latin and French words also occur, such as the chanson, Ay de la

mentioned songs.

;

'

noble

ville

The

de Paris.'

vilhaneetes or mlhwncicos, avios,

and

loos

were similar to the Spanish in character semisacred, popular, and yet a form which learned musicians adopted and elaborated, such as Fr. Francisco de Santiago, Gabriel Diaz, and many contrapuntists from Duarte Lobo's celebrated school, as, for instance, Felipe de Magalhaes and Lesbio. The earliest vilha/ndcos we hear of were those by Juan del Fncina ^ and Gil Vicente 3 in the late 15 th century, and the last by the Abbot Luis Calisto da Costa e Feria in 1723.* The old Pagan festivals and the mediaeval Christian festivals blended in Portugal as elsewhere, and heritages from those times are the Maias and Janeiras songs. These festival songs the are still sung on certain days of the year principal ones are O SSo Joao,' sung on St. As John the Baptist's Day (Midsummer) Janeiras,' sung at the New Year and Os Eels,' sung at the Epiphany.* Various forms of songs are given in the works ;

;

'

'

;

;

'

of the poets of the Renaissance, Ribeiro, Juan del Encina, Gil Vicente, Si de Miranda, and Camoens, and these were clearly intended to be sung, as the accompanying instruments and the manner of singing them are frequently recorded.* Many are identical with the Troubadour forms,

example the serranhilha and soldo, which answer to the pastoralla and aoula. We read for

the of the endeixas or funeral songs celeumas sung in chorus by sailors or workmen ;^ the descantes which are always 8 -syllabled and

also

have

estribilhos (refrains),

among the dance-songs

Moors and Jews.' It is difBcult to trace the

music of the above-

no one can deny the antiquity of many of the cwnMgas and cangSes still sung among the peasants in the country and here, unlike Spain, districts of Portugal the dance -songs are not more prevalent than In some the oriental element other kinds. Still

;

there is a careless ease, tinged evident with melancholy about them, which is the secret They are generally sung by of their charm. and one voice without any accompaniment to the ears of foreigners have the sound of recitatives, as the rhythm is often wholly obscured by the singer. ^ The following little

is still

;

;

which the women sing whilst reaping, fair example

song,

always inventing new verses, is a Ex.

:

1.

Foi me acci-fa ao For-to San - to

As

ce

-

a-ras ama

.

re-laa

the shepherds and labourers evening chanting in a minor key, with a pointless, halting measure and vague rhythm cantigas which are purely Moorish In the province of Minho it is in character, w quite common to hear one peasant in his harsh, guttural Eastern voice challenge another to sing one or more verses against him. The curious custom for the men and women to sing in fourths and fifths still exists in the southern This example, wholly province of Alemtejo. Moorish in character, was heard on a popular feast-day in the little town of S. Thiago do

And on the plains may be heard any

Cacem Ex.

in 1897 2,

" :— Sibandeira.

;

It is said that Erasmus learnt Portuguese simply to be able to read Gil Vicente's Tvorka. Several volumes of various editions are in the British Museum. 2 It is doubtful whether Juan del Encina is Spanish or Portuguese. Vicente was among the iirst to write autoi, ' religious pieces resflmbllng In their nature the miracle -plays common all over Europe at the time. . . . Most of these are Christmas pieces, and the dramatists often took advantage of the story of the shepherds to introduce the elements of what may be called pastoral comedy.' nutory of Portugal, by Morse Stephens. 4 Vasconcellos, ii. 191. 5 ' As Janeiras ' and ' Os Rels are especially sung on the respective eves of the New Year and of the Epiphany. The minstrels go from door to door in the evening, singing the praises of the inmates of the house, and accompanying their songs with metal triangles, bells, etc. They are generally rewarded by the master of the house with money, sausages, or dried Hgs. But if they get nothing they sing :— * Esta casa cheira a bren Aqui mora algum Juden." (This house smells of tar ; some Jew Uvea here) ; or else— ' Esta casa cheira a unto Aqui mora algum defunto.' (This house smells of ointment ; there is a dead body in it). s Gil Vicente speaks of 'the pleasing way the atmetoB were sung with guitar accompaniment.' See Th. Braga's Siatoria da

r^

1

,

Si-=P^EP^fl=

SOU

'

LUteratura PoHugueza,

vol. viii. p. 228. 7 See Camolins, Lusiads, 11. 15.

Although the words cantiga and ccm^ao are used indiscriminately for all kinds of songs, the so-called Oantiges das ruas are a special form, and chiefly sung in the towns by blind beggars. Many of the tunes are very old, 8 See Portuffteslsdhe Musik, Mendel's 3Iiis. Con. Lex. p. 499 et seq. (Platon von Waxel). a Nob. S, 7, and 11 of J. A. Ribas's collectlou give aom© idea of this kind of song, but they are spoilt by their accompaniment. "> It is curious that in tJie mountainous pai-ts of Portugal no Arab music is heard. The voices also nre sweeter. 11 SontbyD.AugustdMachado (Director of the Lisbon Conservatoire) to A, Hammerich. Studien uber islAndifcke Musik, Sanvmelb&nde, I.M.G. 1899. p. 341.

— SONG but the words are constantly changed.^ The is the most purely national type of dancesong which exists in Portugal, and it has always maintained its integrity. ^ It is seldom heard outside towns, and properly belongs to the lowest classes of the population, though during the last century it acquired popularity among the higher classes.' The guitar (which is much less used than in Spain) is always employed for the /oc^os, and has a strongly rhythmical and uniform accompaniment

fado

;

^m ,

Ex.

3.

-^^ r

many varieties of /ados a,nd fadinhos in the different towns, but they are all binary in form and have the same rhythm. There are

mention of them occurred in the so-called Jewish operas,'' which rapidly became popular. In the burgher classes inodinhas remained simple sentimental melodies but at the Court and among the more educated classes they developed into highly elaborate brilliant arias, and celebrated composers and poets did not disdain to use this form. In Das Neves' Candoneiro de Musicas populares there are twelve songs {Modinhas) from Gonzagas' Marilia de Dirceu, which, according to good evidence,' were set to music by Marcos Antonio, better known as Portogallo. In 1793 F. D. Milcent published a monthly Jomal de Modinhas at Lisbon, from which the following example is taken, to show the brilliant type of modinha

first '

;

:

Ex.

exercised

their

influence

da

Solo del S. Ant.

S. Leite

M. de

Oapela no Porte,

m

dagio.

upon the

music of Portugal (that is, during the 16th and 17th centuries) this country can claim no great composers, nor school of its own. For when not avowedly borrowing various forms from other countries, Portugal fell unconsciously under their influence. The trovas (Troubadour songs) were merely adopted Provenfal forms, the vilhaneicos, autos, and lods were borrowed from Spain and France the polyphonic 17th century tonos were in reality Italian madrigals written to Spanish words, with eslrihilhos added to them. And late in the 18th century all attempts to form a national opera failed, owing to the invasion 'of the Italian opera, which has exercised complete hold over Portuguese music

—

4.

Moda a

Except during the period when the Netherlanders

553

eoclesijistical

r\

^-^

^

.

paa£^

^?gE^

:pEg-

po

que

bre

-

•

ve

^g^^^p^^^ tl

que bre

ve

;

for the last

two

centuries.

only in two small and unimportant forms of vocal music, the fado and the modinha, that Portugal can claim to have created and established a distinct genre of her own. Of the/ados we have already spoken. The modmha, which is the only kind of art-song that Portugal has as yet produced, is, moreover, the direct offspring of the Italian opera. Though written by trained musicians and sung by educated people, neither as regards form nor character can the modinhas be assigned high rank as artistic music. Still they have retained their popularity from early in the 18th century down to the present day, and are written as a matter of course by every Portuguese composer. These modinJias, or Portuguese romances, are The of a literary as well as a musical form.* It

1

is

Numeroua examples

are

given In Dan Nevea'

Flaton von Waxel derives this dance-forin from the xacara of the Portuguese gipsies, and the word from fatitte or verse-maker. See also M. Boeder's Essay hat TOEcuiTio, p. 145. 3 A celebrated modern singer of /ados vtas 3ob6 Dias (1824-69), who Improvised with wonderful skill. He was a great favourite at the Court, and in the salons at home and abroad. Flnto de Carvalho and Alberto Pimentel have written on the Fades. * The derivation of the word is doubtful. Some say It came from mote or Tnoda, and that It had Its origin In Brazil. We certainly read in a folio dated 1729 lAnnalg of the Bibl. of Rio de Janeiro, 11. 129) that on a wedding-feast of the Viceroy um aZegre divertimento musico de Cantigas e Afodat da terra, de que ha abundancia n'cste pait,' Also many travellers of that time describe with aumiration '

tar

-

de.

;

;

and other

coUections. 2

ti

Since the 16th century, when Portugal colonised Brazil, there has been continual intercourse between these countries ; and during the first quarter of the 19th century, whilst the Portuguese Court was domiciled in Brazil, the Tnodinhas were as fashionable there as in Portugal. But they differed in character the modinhas brasileiras were always very primitive in form, devoid of workmanship; somewhat vulgar, but expressive and gay. In short, a mixture between the French romance of the 18th century and couplets from the vaudevilles. And this description applies to the type of Portuguese modinhas of the present day, which are written for one or two voices, strophic in form, with easy guitar or pianoforte accompaniments. A complete list of greater and lesser composers, who have tried their hand at this form of song, is too long to give, but the following are amongst the most celebrated. In the 18th century Portogallo and also Cordeiro da Silva and Joao de Sousa Carvalho a little later, Rego, Bomtempo, Scares, Pereira da Costa, Coelho, Cabral, and Joaff de Mesquita. In Coimbra,' Jos6 Manricio ; in Oporto, Silva Leite, the modinhas bra^teiras.

For further Information see Th. Braga's

Bistoria da lAtteratura Portugueza (FHinto Elyeio e os dissidentes da Arcadia), vol. XX. p. 603 et seq, 6 Thus named from Antonio Jos^ da Silva, born In 1705. a baptized Jew from Brazil, who wrote Portuguese comedies with these Interspersed. B 7

Braga, Bistoria da Litteratura Portuffueza, vol. xv. p. 604, note. The modinhas vary somewhat in the different districts.

2«

;

SONG

554 Nunes,

Pires,

and Edolo

Joao Leal,

;

>

and

own time, Domingos Sohiopetta, the two monks J. M. da Silva and Jos^ Marquis de

nearer

oxvc

'Caneioneiro mns. portuguez,' Lisbon, 1884. 'Zwaif brasilianlsche Volkslieder.' Hamburg. Cancionero de Musicas Populares.' S vols. Porto, 1898-98. (These volumes contain valuable prefaces by Th. Braga, Viterbo and Bamas, and consist of can^oea, aerenataa, ehnlas, danfoa, deacantea, canti^aa doe campoa e daa ruaa, /ados, romaneea, hynmaa nacioruiei, cantoa patrtoticaa, cantigaa religiosaa de origem popular, canticoa tiiwrgicoa popvlariaadoa, cantilenaa, ccwifffes do ber^o, etc,)

Salvlnl, O. B. Clasing. J. H.

Neves C^rdas, and Campos, Gualdinode.

:

Santa Rita, Frondoni (an Italian, long resident in Lisbon), E. Varella, and Vasconoellos de Sk. But the most popular inodinhas, such as 'A

Serandinha,'

quinhas

'0

Salvia,'

'

anonymous. An exception is Vasconoellos de Sk's can9So, Margarida vae k fonte, which is the favourite modinha of the moment.* There are many patriotic and political songs in every collection. The pianist Innocenoio wrote a whole series Portogallo's Hymno da Patria was the customary national anthem until King Pedro IV. ^ composed his 'Hymno da Carta' in 1826; and Frondoni was the author of the popular hymn of the revolution of Maria da Fonte in 1848. Of late, serious attention has been directed to the national poetry and music of Portugal. One of the first to do so was the poet Almeido Garrett in his Somanceiro. He was followed by Vasconoellos and Th. Braga, who in his numerous volumes on the history of Portuguese literature often touches on the musical form.^ Leading musicians, such as B. Moreira de Sa, A. Machado (Director of the Conservatoire), and are

'

'

'

;

'

Vianna da Motta and others have shown

J.

their practical interest in the subject. BiBLIOORAPHY Machado, D. B. Bibliotheca /Auttema. Llslmn, 1741-59. Wolf, F. Proben Poriuffifiaiacher wnd Caiatf^niacher Volkdieder wnd Romanzen. Vienna, 1856, Bellerinann, O, F. PoTtvgiesieche Volkglieder und Romaiuen. Leipzig, 1864.

Kendel's iftM. Cam. Lex. ; Portugietiache Mv^k (Platon von Waxel), Gazeta da ifculeira, 1866.69, A Muaica em Portugal (Flaton Ton Waxel). Marquea, Joaquim J, Sgtudioe sabre a hiatoria da musica em Portugal. Braga, Th, Hiatoria da Litteratura Portvgueza. Eiat. da Poeaia Pop. Portuffueza. Oporto, 1867. Vaeconcelloa, Jqaqujm de, Oa Mimcoa Portv^vezea. Oporto, 1870. Boeder, Martin, La mujrica en Portogallo ; Sal Ta^jeuirw, etc, Milan, 1877, Leite de Vasconcelloa, J. Romancea popiUa/rea portuguezaa. 1880 TradipSea papuiarea. Oporto, 1882; XA Jfofs (May-dar songs).

ComtedeFuymaigre. Romanceiro; ChoixdevieuxChantaPortugaia; Tradutta Soubies, A.

et

amnot&a, Paris. 1861. de la muaigue en Partugai.

liiatoire

1898,

(The writer is also indebted to Senhor Bernardo Moreii-a de S& for much Inforujatiun kindly supplied to her by letter,)

Collections Milcent, F. D. 'Jomal de Modinhas, com acompanfaamento de Cravo, pelos milhores autores.' Lisbon, 1793, Josd do Rego, A. 'Jomal de Modinhas.' 1812. Edolo, Jose, Joriial de Modinhas.' 1823. Ferreira, Antonio J, 'Collecgao de Modinhas Portuguezas e Brazi'

lieras.'

1826,

Kestner, H, 'Auswahl spanischer

Italy

'As Peneiras,' 'Mari-

meu Amor,' ^ and Tem minha amada '^

more slowly caught by the poetic flame which the Provencal Troubadours had Italy was

For kindled, than other southern countries. not until the middle of the 13th century, when Kaymond Berenger, Count of Provence, visited the Emperor Frederick II. at Milan, bringing Troubadours and Jongleurs in his train, do we similar patronhear of them in this country. age was extended to them by Raymond's son-in-

A

law, Charles of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily. Through which of these two gates the Provencal language entered Italy has ever been a disputed

But taught by these singers, whom the people called Uomini di Corti,'' Italy soon produced her own Trovatori and Oiocolini. At first they deemed their native dialect unsuitable to poeti-y, and used the Provenjal language. But it is certain that already, by the time of Dante, the volgar poesia, which sprang from it, had reached a stage when it was capable of receiving rules and of being point.

common

taught in the schools founded for the purpose. After Dante, no Italian could longer doubt the capacities of his own tongue for all forms of poetry. It must not be forgotten that the term rima, used by the Provencal troubadours for the sirvente, was adopted by Dante for the Divina Commedia and by Petrarch in his 'Trionfi.' But soon the verse of the Troubadours began to pale before the splendours of the great poet and towards the middle of the 14th century, the Trovatori declined in numbers and popularity, and after 1450 were heard of no more. 5 Notwithstanding the subordination of lyric song to other branches of poetry and music in Italy, her long and careful study of la melica poesia poetry wedded to music has not been surpassed elsewhere. Dante's sonnets and Petrarch's Trionfi were among the earliest poems set to music. Dante's own contemporary and friend Casella' (born 1300), who set his sonnet Amor che nella mente to music, is believed to have also composed the music for a ballata by Lemmo da Pistoja, still extant in '

'

;

—

—

'

'

'

'

und

portiigiesischer

Lieder.'

Hanover, 1859. Garcia, Josd M., and Machado, R, Coelho. Two large collections of Brazilian Modinhas. 1851. Berggreen, A. F. 'Portugisiske Folke-aange og Melodier.' 1866. Ribaa, J. A. ' Album de musicas nacionaes portuguezas.' Kevea, A, das e Mello.filho. ' Musicas e can(5es populares,' Fires. 'CangOes populares do Alemtejo,' Colago, A, B. 'CollecQilo de Fados,' Thomaz, P, Pedro, 'CancfieipopularesdaBeira' (with introduction by Leite de Vasconcelloa).

the Vatican.'' The ballate and intiwoiate werfe perhaps the oldest forms of songs written in the vernacular ; both were love - songs sung to a danoe.ii After them the maggiolate or May-day ^

1 Between 1820 and 1840 Jos(! Edolo, a violinist at the opera, was the favourite contributor to the Jomal de Modirihaa. 2 These last two are included In Rlbas's Collection. 3 In Berggreen's collection. * The difference between the camiaea and inodtvhaa is slight, and the names are constantly interchanged, 5 Dora Pedro IV,, the first constitutional king of Portugal, was a pupil of Sigismund Neukonim, and wrote several clioral and operatic

worlcs, e

'

Braga also collected the folk-songs of the Azores,

So called because these singers appeared as retainers from Also Ci'afrlaxaMi, because the exploits of Charle-

princely courts.

magne were a constant theme

of their songs,

8 For further information about the Trovatori see H, von der Hagen's work on the Jllinneaingera, voL iv. s See the fourth Canto of the ' Furgatorio,' and the second Canzone in the 'Convito,' where Casella's name occurs several times. 0 Bumey tells us that the VaticanMS.Ifo. S214isapoem on the uisrglu of which is written: 'Lemmo da Pistoja, e Casella diede il

snonri,' '•

Arteaga gives the words of a ballata of the 13th century by

;

SONG songs had their popularity. These also wore love-songs, sung in the spring-time by bands of young men. The hunting-songs or cacci^ equally deserve mention. The most celebrated were written by Soldanieri and Sacchetti, and the words are far better than their music by

Mcolaus da Perugia, Laurentius, and Ghirar-

Some are realistic, imitating the sounds of the hunt ; ^ others are canonic in form, and others again interesting from the historic side, as they bring in the street-cries of the time.' When later the Canti Camascialeschi came into vogue they at first were Carnival songs, but under the skilful hand of Lorenzo di Medici a kind of consecutive drama grew out of them.* During the 14th century there existed a class of dilettante musicians called cantori a liuto, whose business it was to set other poets' verses to music and sing them. They differed from the Trovatori who were poets, and who sang their own verses to their own music or to that of others, and equally from the Cantori a libra, who were the learned professional musicians.^ Casella (see above) and Minuccio d' Arezzo, mentioned by Boocaecio,* would belong to the canton u, livio. It was the habit of these musicians to improvise,^ for until the 16th century musical notation remained so difficult that only learned musicians were able to avail themselves of it. This is the reason why the melodies of the strophic songs, which contem^ porary writers show to have been so popular and univei-sal during the 1 4th and 1 5 th centuries, have not survived. The compositions of the Netherlands school of music, with their severe contrapuntal style, found their way into Italy in the 15th century, and in time began to exercise a strong influence there. But the prevailing type of Italian secular songs continued to be of a very light order during this and the following century. Petrucei, who issued in 1502 the motets and masses of the Netherland composers, had nothing better to offer of native productions than froitole and villanelle, tuneful but light In form the villaiielle adhered to part-songs. the contrapuntal style, though in spirit they dellus.

Frederick II., and of another by Dante. See Le RiwHuzioni del Teatro mumetUe ItaUano, i. pp. 187, 190. * They may have been written specially for hunting, but Gaspari, in hishistory of Italian Literature, proves that any quick movement at that time would be called a Caccia. 2 In this they resemble the Peootole. 3 They are counterparts of the Oris de Parts, which Jannequin brought into his motet *Voulez ouyr les cria de Paris,' the 'Cries of London,' and 'Court Cries' used by Kichard Deering. See J. Wolfs article FTorenz in der BftuikfiegcTiieJite des iUen JahrhunAerta, Samjnelbdnde, LAf.O., 1901-2, iii. ^ Many of these were written by special invitation by Heinrich Isaak (born 1445). Naumann'e HUt. of Mua. i. 438. s The important part played in Italian music by such a one as Francesco Landini (1325-90) is well described by Fdtis, v. 310 et geg. s Decam. Giom X. No. "7. See Ambros, Oea. der Mus. ii. 497. ' The improvisatore has been for centuries a well-known figure '

'

In Italian life. 8 We read in Sacchetti's novels that Dante's daUate were everywhere known and sung, and how Dante overheard a blacksmith singing his song and scolded him for having altered it. And Trucchi quotes, in proof of Dante having made the music for his own poems, an anonymous writer of the 13th century, who says Dante was ' dilettossi nel canto e in ogni suono ' [Paegte Italiane inedite, ii. 140). See also Ambros. Gea. der JAm. ii, 489, for further account of the songs in the OeciemeroTi,

555

Gradually the term the more serious froitole passed into the madrigal, while the gayer, merrier type was merged in the villanelle.^ But although the froitole were despised by contrapuntists they showed a sense of form in repeating the first part again, and attention was paid to the words by having different music for each verse, whereas the villaiielle were strophical that is, the same melody was repeated for each stanza, i" Other songs, light in character, were the rustic songs. Canzone Villanesche, or Villotte, which peasants and soldiers used as drinking-songs. More refined and yet more trifling were the Villotte alia Napolctana.^^ The so-called fa-la-la was a composition of a somewhat later date and more merit. Those which Gastoldi wrote (about 1590) were good, and so too his balleiti. The vocal music to which our attention has been thus far directed, consisted either of songs in parts, or unisonous chorus with little or no accompaniment. Sometimes the principal or upper voice had a sort of cantilena, but solosinging was yet unknown. The first instance of solo-singing is supposed to have occurred in 1539, when Sdeno sang in an Intermezzo '^ the upper part of a madrigal by Corteccia, accompanying himself on the violone, while the lower parts which represented the satyrs were taken by wind instruments. But the piece itself shows it was far from being a song for one voice with accompaniment the under parts are as much independent voices as the upper one. (See Ex. 1 on next page.) During the last decades of the 16th century a sweeping change came over music in Italy. Hitherto the highest art -music belonged exclusively to the Church, from which the elements of rhythm, modern tonality, and human expression were rigorously excluded. But the spirit of the Renaissance, which had affected the other arts of poetry, painting, and sculpture many years earlier, gradually asserted an influence over music. "With the awakening of the human mind, and its liberation from the bonds of the mediaival Church, which is the real meaning of the Renaissance, it was inevitable that men should seek for a new form in music wherein to express themselves. Each individual now desired to think and speak for himself, and was no longer content to be merged

were essentially popular.

frottola disappeared

;

—

;

9

A.^ottoIa, printed in Junta's aomau collection of 1526. evideBtly

became, ere long, a viHan^Ua, for it is still auug in Venice with the same words and melody, 'Le son tre E^ntinelle, tutti tre da maridar.' Originally, however, it was a part-aong with the tune In the tenor. Ambros, iii. 495. IS See Frottola, also Ambros, iv. 150 et aeq. ; Fhyrenz in der ifusif^ffeschichie d. iMen JahrJnmderti, J. Wolf; Sammelbande, I.M.6., 1901-2, iii. Die FrottoU in tstenjajirhundert, E. Schwarz ;

Viert^aJiTSSchrift /. Ulueikv^sentdhaft, 1686. " These were gallant addresses from singing-masters to their feminine pupils. They were as popular in northern Italy as in Naples. For examples, see in Kiesewetter's ScMcJardi- urui Betchaffenlieit des vjeltlichpn Oesatiges, app. Nos. 12, and 13 by Cambio Several collections of these songs still (1547) and Donati (15!)5). exist in the various libraries, and a specially important one at Naples, 12 The Intermezsi were usually madrigals interspersed in the earlier Ital fan plays.

—

— ^

SONG

556

Sonato da Sileno Fragmenit of a MadrigaX. con violone, soncmdo tutte U parti, e ccmtando il Soprano. CORTEOOIA, 1539.

folk-music before being formulated and taught in schools.

According to the historian 6. B. Doni, * V. Galilei was the first composer who wrote He further actual melodies for one voice. ^ tells us that Galilei set to music the passage of the 'Inferno,' which narrates the tragic fate of Count Ugolino, and that he performed it himself very pleasingly, with viola accompaniment. But be that as it may, an epoch, in musical history was undoubtedly marked by Giulio Caccini, when he published in 1601, under the '

'

title of

'

Le Nuove Musiche,

'

a collection of

madrigali, canzoni, and arie for one voice. These compositions have a figured bass, and In the some are embellished with fioriture. preface " to his collection, Caccini gives minute directions as to the proper mode of singing his pieces, and his airs are well supplied with marks of expression, as the following example will

show '

Ex.

(Scemar di

0%

^^pg^g^^ lor

non e • ra

vis-co

ne

lac

•

-

clo

.

.

^j3:^a^ in the mass.

Thus

ecclesiastical

music was

gradually driven from the field by secular music ; and choral or collective song by pure solo-song, which was the medium best fitted for the expression of the thoughts, emotions, and actions of individuals. Poetry, which had hitherto been smothered in the web of contrapuntal music (where many voices were simultaneously singing difterent words) once again asserted herself, and claimed attention to her meaning and form, i Further, the art of singing, which by the close of the 16th century had reached a highly advanced stage, demanded the In short, a prominence of the solo -singer. different kind of music was now required, and Who the monodio style supplied the want. were the actual inventors of this kind of music it is impossible to decide. Historians have clearly shown that the latent germs must have been present wherever folk-music existed. The predilection for a marked rhythm, the disuse of the old Church scales, the feeling for tlie dominant, the use of the leading -note which is an essential feature in melody,^ all these elements, which form the basis of modem music, were instinctively present in Ambrofl, iv. 178, et aeq. See Parry's Art o/ilvHc. and Monodia (vol. HI. p. 247). 8 Zarlino vtitea in 1558 that the peasants \vho sing \Tith0utan7 art all proceed by the inteival of the semitone In forming their closes. 1

2

:

2.

voce.

^

Esdamaziime

spvritosa.)

Caccini.

.I

SONG {Escl.

con misura

Ex, 3. Larmnto.

larga^)

pi'ii

^^S risE

^E^AJ lo

-

TO,

au

(TrUlo.) .

re ch'io

-

me-ne

557

ie

UONTEVESOE.

g^-^Efe^^^77f3|^EigEg;

mo

la - Bcia

^dEtt^^E^ii

gE 2nd.

(igsci. T-tti/.)

KTHZto iwto m^zsa

te

mi mo

-

ri

-

re

f^r

P S^3 .

mi

mo

-

scia

"n-ff-

3^^^^^

-

ri

-

re

I

te-

-

B

m.

Z)af£uto.)

La

I

E

to

clie

•

le

-

te

vol

Jaoopo Peri succeeded Caccini with a work entitled Le varie musiche del Sig. J. Peri a una, due, tre voci per cantare nel Clavicembalo '

Chitarrone' (Florence, 1609). They are simpler than those by Caccini, and less declamatory. ^ Caccini had numerous followers in the path he had opened, and thus the ' expressive Monodia,' i.e. the attempt to render certain thoughts and feelings in music, and to adapt music to the meaning of the words, was virtually established. But these early pioneers of solo-song were amateurs, and it remained for trained musicians to carry on their work o

systematically. With Monteverde (1562-1654) a turning-point in music was reached. To him we owe that revolution in harmony which showed the use of discords as an effective means of representing the element of expression and the development of the recitative which led to the beginning of the Opera the most important moment in the whole history of music. We also owe to him a debt in the history of Song for having established the so-called ternary form which was soon to become stereotyped for the aria and song. This consisted of an air in three parts the last part being a mere repetition of the first, while the middle part contained a passage of contrast. This form was already familiar in the folk-songs of the Middle Ages, but its first appearance in artmusic would seem to be in Monteverde's 'Lamento' from 'Ariadne' (1610) ^ (Ex. 3). Although in this article the aria proper should be excluded, having already been treated (see Aria), it is necessary to allude to it here, as the secular monodic song henceforth chiefly showed itself in the aria-fonu and became, in short, identical with it. Monteverde's successors, Cesti and Cavalli, both showed aptitude for pleasant melodious solo -music of this form, although Cavalli sometimes wrote arias with only two contrasting portions.

gran

mar

-

-

ti-rel

La

•

scia

-

te

-

mi mo-ri

-re

;

—

;

See 'Bellisalma Regina' In Farisotti's 'Piccolo album.' This vas afterwards arranged as a madrigal in five parts. See Pany, Mtuic of the Beaenteenth Century (Ojiford History of Mtuio), Parry further clearly shows how this simple form later p. 47. dominated one branch of music completely, and indeed 'became the bane of one period of Italian art.' 1

^

other composers of the transition period which witnessed the growth of the opera and cantata were Radesca da Foggia, who published five books of ' Monodie in 1616 ; A. Brunelli, who published in the same year and in 1618 two books of ' Scherzi, Arie, Canzonette, and Madrigali ; 3 G. F. Capello, whose most remarkable work was a set of Madrigali a voce sola ' '

'

'

;

G. Fornacoi, celebrated for his Amorosi Respiri Musicali,' which appeared in 1617 Sigismondo d' India, Pietro della Valle, Luigi Rossi,'' and finally Salvator Rosa.^ great quantity of '

;

A

these vocal compositions are treated in the strophic form, and the words of all are lovepoems of a stilted, artificial character." If Corteccia's madrigal be compared with

the following example from Capello, it will be seen how gi-eat an advance had been' made in solo-singing in less than a century. And a striking resemblance may be observed between Capello and his successor Stradella. 3 Brunelll's collection included seveial pieces of

by other composers the Florentine group. For the numeroua existing collections of Rossi's *aionodie see

*

'

RoBsr. 6 Salvator Koaa certainly was Cariaahni's contemporary, but the example Burney gives shows that he wrote much like the aforea Jmbros, iv, 330. mentioned compoaera

SONG

558 Ex. 4. Madrigcde a voce

sola.

Pal

- 11 •

det

•

to

mio

so

•

G, F. Cafello, • le a tuoi

p^'^^^^^^^^ ^gp-^ Eg dol

SONG hynm- tunes, known

as

'Laudi

Spirituali.'

These, in the Middle Ages, were introduced in the oratorios in order to popularise such performances and the connection between these Laudi with popular dance-songs is obvious. (See Laudi Spirituali.) But although we iind within recent years that the study of the folk-lore of Italy has received serious attention, materials for a satisfactory treatment of the canii popolari do not Much has been written about the words exist. ;

of traditional songs,

and innumerable

Stvdio

Giuseppe Ktre and G.

Pitri's

S.

excellent

character. '

Given by

G..

Fikamoee.

no

attempt has been made towards a scientific and systematic work on the melodies, tracing their origin and development and various forms. In the many volumes of the Archivio per lo tradizioni popolari,

The following Canti delta Mietitura (harvest) are amongst the commonest ; the tonality of both is curious, the first being pure Lydian and the second of more or less Phrygian altered.

collections

of popular poetry have been published,^ but

delle

559

edited

-

tron

-

m'a

a

da

Aria

-

d& la

flj

je.

della notfe.^

Ex. 6. Largo assai.

g^^"^JfS^gS^^

by

Salomone-Marino, and in work, Bibliografia delle

tradizioni popolari d'ltalia (Clausen, Turin, 1894), mention is made of the various collections

of canti popolari ; and in the former volumes there are occasional short articles which refer to the tunes, and give a few musical examples. During the latter half of the last century Kicordi and other publishers have issued large quantities of modern canti popolari in volumes entitled 'Canzonette Veneziane,' 'Stornelli Tos-

'Canti Lombardi,' 'Napolitani,' 'Siciliani,' etc., purporting to be local songs belonging But whether to the several provinces of Italy. these songs can be accepted as the genuine productions they profess to be, or whether they are new compositions, or at any rate new arrangements of old popular tunes, and whether they are really sung by the peasants in the form ^ in which they are here given, is very doubtful. There are exceptions, such as the ' Canti Lombardi,' the melodies at least of which are genuine ; also the ' Canti Siciliani,' edited by Frontini, and the Canti Abruzzesi, collected by P. Tosti and G. Finamore. The latter, in an interesting article ' on the harvest-songs of this district, draws attention to the solemn, religious character of the melodies, in contrast This to the words, which are merry love-songs. peculiarity Finamore attributes to the great antiquity of the melodies,* which have remained unchanged for centuries, though the words have cani,'

'

'

1 See, for instance, G. Pltrfe's jSiudfidijwcfii'apopo^are (Palermo, 18721 : Rnbieri's Storia deOa poena popolarB italiana (Florence, 1877) : A. D" Ancona'8 La poetia popolm-e iealiana {Leghorn, 1878). See also Carduccl's CoTttilime e Ballate, Strambntti e Madrigali nei aec. XIII. e XIV. (Pisa, 1871) ; and an interesting but unfinished work entitled C(ntz(mi antiche dal popolo italiano, riprodoUe neemulo le vetxhie gta/mfie a Clt/ra di Mario ilefnghini, Rome. 2 Speaking of Tuscan songs. Miss Busk shows how in these days of cheap printing and half-educated editing 'the liteiary songs As instances, {I.e. art-songs) have got mixed up with the folk-songs.'

she quotes' Stella Confidente,"Non mi amara," Ritoma! chet'amo'

which were sungin London drawing-rooms as much aa on the wayand in the slums of Italy. Such songs also as Tosti's Vorrei morire are constantly heard in the streets. The Foik-tongi of Italy, p.^Slet aeq. 3 MeHodie popota/ri A&nazeri; ica-nti delta Mietitnra, 6. Finamore; see ToL 13 of the Archivio per lo audio delle tradixioni '

sides

'

popolari, 1894. * 'Ohaque acts de la vie de I'agricultore etalt accompagnd de sacrifice, et

De

on ex^utait lea travaux en

Coulanges,

La

Cit6 Antique, p. 184.

r(!citant

deshymnessacrds.'

Some of the songs from the Abruzzi collected by Tosti are of extreme beauty in form, melody, and words. Many of the Sicilian and Neapolitan songs begin with a long-drawn high note ; they are sung very fast and strongly accented.

The wealth and although

of canti popolari is prodigious, (as

mentioned above) they vary

greatly in the different districts, their general The harmonic characteristics are the same. and formal structure is simple. The accompaniment, which is usually intended for the guitar,

consistsmerely of the tonic and dominant chords, and rarely modulates into anything except the Few modal canti poponearest related keys.'' lari are extant, although the flattened supertonic which is characteristic of the Sicilian and Keapolitan folk-songs recalls the Phrygian mode. 8 The time is more frequently triple than duple, and this especially applies to the The largest proportion of folkdance-songs. songs consists of eight-lined verses of eleven syllables,

and

are vari'ously called strambotti,

The threelined verses are called rUornelli, stornelli, jiori rispetti,^ dispetti, siciliani, or ottavi.

OT fiorette.

terms

But

canli,

it

should be added that the

canzoni,

From the Vasto

canzonette,

stornelli are

noted hy L. Anelli. It should be accompanied by the cornemnse. s From the Guardiagrelle district, noted by M. Brunl. Finamore adds that they are sung in turn hy one voice at a time, accompanied by the chitarra battente, a sort of colaacione. The verses are of interminable length. 7 A weak and very modem colouring is imparted to the harmony of the published folk-songs by an excessive use of the chord of the 5

district,

seventh. 8 It has been remarked that the fiat supertonic may he found In the canznnette from the comic operaa by Vinci and Leo and that an air from A. Scarlatti's cantata Andate o miei sospiri,' marked alia Siciliana, has the same characteristic, showing that Scarlatti realised it aa eaaential to the native quality of the melody. (See E. J. Dent's A. Searlaui, Hit Life a/7ut Works, 1905.) 9 Itisperti are always simg, and as eight lines is the normal number, the popular mode of speaking either of inventing or singing them is, dar I'ottava. R. Busk, The Folk-songs of Italy, p. 20. ;

'

''

SONG

560

very loosely and indiscriminately employed, i But speaking generally, stornelli are lively songs of love, canzoni and ewnsonette narrative songs, and canto is a generic term applicable to Modern composers generally almost any form. nse the word melodia for a lyric song (Lied). A strong claim to the title of eanti popolari may he advanced in favour of the popular melodies taken from operas. Ambros tells us that during the l7th and 18th centuries, '

from operas, which at first had nothing in common with the folk-song beyond being melodious and simple, acquired by degrees a place similar to that held by the Volkslied in Germany.* And the immense favourite

'

couplets

'

popularity of operatic tunes in Italy during the lastcentury cannot surprise us when weremember the theatre is an ubiquitous institution there, and that the quick ear of the Italian instantly catches melodies with a distinct rhythm and an easy progression of intervals.' Having regard, therefore, to the wide diffusion of the opera and its influence on all classes during nearly three centuries, it is reasonable to conclude that it may have checked the normal development of songs, and perhaps helped to obliterate the traces of old traditional tunes. It will be seen later that the exactly contrary process took place in some northern countries, where in order to make their operas popular, composers introduced favourite folk-songs or dances, or indeed whole operas were based on national melodies. The so-called cavii nazionali belong to a period commencing about the year 1821. They have all been inspired by the political movement of the last century for the regeneration of Italy. Their tone is naturally warlike, but the melodies are ultra-simple and rather weak. The most ' Addio, celebrated of them are mia bella ; * '0 dolce piaoer, goder liberty' ; ' Daghela avanti unpasso';* 'InnodiMameli' Tratellid' Italia'; La bandiera tricolore ; ' Inno di Garibaldi, and ' Air armi by Fieri. The years in which Italy has been most deeply stirred by struggles for independence were 1821, 1848, and 1859, and all the songs whose names have just been cited can be traced to one or other of those revolutionary periods. For many important forms of both vocal and instrumental music we are primarily and especially indebted to the Italians, but as :

'

;

'

'

'

1 Canzune is the Sicilian equivalent of rUpetto, and ciuri of KtorThe children's songs in Italy are very numerous, and are usually called Sinne-Nanne or JVane in Venice. Busk, op. cit. p, 47. 3 Orloff recounts how an aria from an opera by P. Cafaro (born 1706), Belle luci,' was for half a century the best-known and most widely-sung song all over Italy ; the melody was even painted on china and embroidered on robes (^Moi mjr VHiitaire dc lamwkque en Jtalie, i. 293). Seealso the account of the popularity of Ficcinnl's opera La Cecchina in the Oa/ord niitory of JAwzc, vol. 6, riermeee Period, p. 97, W. H. Hndow. 3 The chorus of an opera Is frequently chosen from amongst the workmen and labourers of the place where It is performed and thus even difficult choruses may be heard In the streets and suburbs

nello.

•

TM

'

'

;

towns which possess a theatre. 4 This is an adaptation of Italian words to Partant pour la Syrie,' and was probably made during the war of 1820, In which France assisted Italy to liberate herself from the yoke of Austria. 6 A ballet-song written by P. Glorza In 18fS8. of

'

regards the art-song proper we owe them little. From the latter part of the 17th to the early part of the 19th century, the canzoni, and canzonelte da camera exhibited neither merit nor improvement. Several collections were published at intervals, yet apparently they attracted little Many were of a religious tendency ; attention. not hymns but canzoni spiribvudi e morali, as Even when the canzoni they were called.

makrigaleschi were reduced to two voices (as, for instance, those by Benedetto Maroello, published at Bologna in 1717) they continued to be essentially polyphonic, one voice imitating the other.

During the 18 th century the

Metaon vocal music, and many of his ariette were set by contemporary musicians but his influence was not lasting, lyric poet

stasio exercised a certain effect

;

A

little later,

a few inferior composers, such as

Federici, Blangini, and Romagnesi^ (all born in the second half of the 18th century) turned their attention to song- writing, and published quantities of ariette, cansonette, rondi, notlumi, and romanze, but they were too weak to stand the test of time, and such popularity as they may once have kiiown has been brief and fleeting. In fact, few Italian composers of merit ever deemed it worth while to bestow pains on this kind of work ; to write an opera was their natural ambition, and on this they concentrated their powers. ' With all the best talent devoted to the service of the Church or the theatre there was little room left for the more solitary and self-contained expression of lyric feeling.'' Nor was there any demand for lyric songs. Just as the ' couplets and favourite tunes from the operas supplied the people with many canti popolari, the aria and cavatina provided the vocal pieces which the educated classes preferred. If we look through the work of Paisiello, Gimarosa, Mercadante, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, and other celebrated composers of opera, very numerous examples of the above-mentioned miscellaneous kinds of songs may be found, but none evince any serious thought. They were obviously thrown off in leisure moments, and now they are never heard of. An exception, however, must be made in favour of Eossini, some of whose songs have fine melodies and interesting accompaniments. 8 Among song -writers who lived nearer our own time Gordigiani, Mariani, and Giordani are undoubtedly the best for simple melodious songs.^ They wrote in the true Italian style, with the utmost fluency and Asioli,

Barni,

'

sentimentality. 8

These last two oomposeis were better known in Paris than In

their

own

country.

W. H. Hadow, OstfOrdBist. of itufic, v. 325. ^ See for example 'La Kegata Veneziana,' Vfo. 2, where the rhythmical figure lu the left band represents the regular movement of the oars, whilst the right hand has continuous legato passages in double notes. Rossini o!\ce aptly summed up the Italian ideal of a song ; II diletto dev' essere la basa e lo scopo dl quest' arte—Melodiasenipllce 7

'^

— Kitmo chlaro.'

'

SONG With few exceptions Italian swigs are marked in a greater or less degree by the same qualities. The voice-part is ever paramount in them, and all else is made to yield to it. The beautiful quality and the wide compass of Italian voices,' and the facility with which they execute difficult vocal phrases, tempt the composer to write brilliant and effective passages where a simple melody would be far more appropriate to the words. The words may indeed give the foi-m to the song, and the music may substantially agree with them, but we miss that delicate subtle understanding between the poet and the musician, where the music often interprets the words, or a single word gives importance to a note or passage. Again, the accompaniment holds a very subordinate place. Its sole use is to support the voice ; rarely has it any artistic value of its own,^ and seldom, if ever, does it assist in expressing the poetic intention of the

work. It

would be wrong, however,

to apply these

modern Italian instance, knows how

criticisms without reserve to all

composers.

P. Tosti, for

to rise above the

men

common defects

of his country-

he chooses ; he possesses a genuine lyrio talent, and some of his melodies are charming. Clever accompaniments also are met with in the compositions of Marco Sala, Faooio, Bozzano, Coronaro, and Smareglio. The last two have paid especial attention to the words of their if

songs.

A cycle

of songs, entitled

'

La Simona,'

by Benedetto Junck, would have a high rank assigned to them in any country and the same can be said of Sgambati's beautiful songs, with their highly developed accompaniments. ;

E. de Leva's, Enrico Bossi's, P. Tirindelli's,

and

Rotoli's songs have merit and an interesting new composer, Leone Sinigaglia, writes with grace and originality, though his songs are scarcely Italian in character, and he approaches nearer to the German school of song-writers. Amongst the works of the most celebrated composers of modern Italy, such as Martucei, Boito, Mancinelli, Oatalani, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Giordano, Franchetti, Puccini, and Cilea, etc., the writer has searched in vain for It seems as if that any mention of songs. branch of music has not yet aroused the interest, nor attained the rank, in Italy which are accorded to it in other countries. ;

BiBLIOOBAPBY Arteaga, 8, La. RivtHutione cUl teatro mu». ItaZ. Venice, 1785. Orloff, G. Egaai gtw VhUtoire de la rmu. en Italie. Paris, 1822. Lichtenthal, F. Dizitmt^to e Bibliog. deOa MuHca. Milan, 1826. Von der Hagen, F. Die Minnesinger. Leipzig, 1838. Dietz, F. Wolf, F.

Leben und Werke dea Troubadown.

Ueber die Lata. Heidelberg, 1841. Kieaewetter, E. Q. Schicksale und Betchagimheit des wettl. Gelanget. Leipzig, 1841. Qeschichte der ISwrop.-abendZdnd. Muaik. Leipzig, 1834. i It is cutiouB to note how limited ia the compass of voice for which modem Italian composers write songs Intended for circula. tion in foreign countries, while the aongs tliey write for the homemarket often exceed the compass of two octayes. ^ A point to he taken Into consideration as greatly impoverishing and limiting the accompaniments is, that on a/Hiount of the climate and the outdoor life the Italians lead, the guitar and mandoline are as much used as the pianoforte.

VOL. IV

561

Amhros, W.

GesdiicMe der Musik. Breslau, Leipzig, 1882-82. Cenno Storico mlla aeuola Mue. di Hapoli. Naples,

Florimo, P.

1869-71. E. Italieniacha Tondichter. Berlin, 1876. Pfleiderer, R. Das itaZ, Yolk im Spiegel aetner Volkstieder. Leipzig, 1879. Piti-6, G., e Salomone-Mardno, 8. Archivio per lo ttudio delle tradizianipop. P^eimo, 1882, etc. Busk, Rachel. The fblk-aonffa 0/ Italy. London, 1887. Chilesotti, O. Sulla nt^odiapop. del Clnguteeento. Milan, 1869. Parry, C. H. H. Mueic of the Seventeenth Century (Oxford Bistorj/ of Music, vol. ill.). Oxford, 1902.

Naumann,

,

The writer also owes her thanks to Signor for information on the folk-songs of Italy.

Domenico Comparettl

COLLECTIOHS Florimo. F. •Eco dl NapoU.' NapoU, 1840-60. Tommaseo, X. 'Canti pop. Toscani.' Venice, 1841-2. Alveri. Andrea. Canti pop. tradizionali.' Vicenza, 1844. Gordigiani, L. 'Coilezlone del Canti pop. toscani'; 'StomeUi d' Arezzo ';' Eco dell' Amo,' etc. Milan. 1850. Fea, L. A; 'Chants pop. de la Corse.' Paris, 1850. '

Ricordi, G.

'Canti pop. lombardi.' 1857-1900. 'Iveri Canti pop. di Firenze.' Milano, 1862. * Saggl del dialetti greci deir Italia merid.' Piaa,

Giamboni, A. Comparettl,

I>.

1866.

Salomone-Marino,

8.

'Canti pop.

Sicilian],'

Paleimo, 1867.

Fenaro, G. * Canti pop. Monfenini.' Turin, 1870. Casetti, A. 'Canti pop. delle provincle merid.' Rome, 1871-72. Bortolini, G. ' Canzoni naz. delia Lagona.' Milan, 1873. Marchetti, F. ' Canti pop. Roraanescbi.' Milan, 1874. Ive, A. ' Canti pop. Istriani.' Rome, 1877. D' Ancona, A. ' Canti pop. Italiani.' Rome, 187^. Gjaldini, G., e Ricordi, G. ' Eco delia Lombardia.' Milan, 1881-84. DeMiglio, V. '50 Canzoni pop. Kapolitani.' Milan, 1882. Finamoire, G. ' Canti pop. Abruzzesi.' Milan, 1882-94. Tosti, F. P. ' Canti pop. Abruzzesi.' Milan. 1882. Frontinj, F. ' Eco delia Sicilia.' Milan, 1883. Sinigaglia, 0. ' Stomelli d' Amore.' Palermo, 1884. Julia, A. 'Bad,' 'Ninne-Nanne.' Naples, 1884. OrtoH, J. F. B. 'Lesvoceri del'llede Corse.' Paris, 1887. Const. ' Canti pop. del Piemonte.' Turin, 1888. Parisotti, A. ' Le melodic pop. romane.' Borne. Teschner, G. W. 'Sammlung italienischer Volkslieder.' Pargolesi, C. ' Eco del Friuli.' Trieste. Pitr£, G. ' Canti pop. Siciliani.' Palei-mo, 1891 ; ' Bibliografla delle Tradiz. Pop. d' Italia,' Parte 11. ' Canti e melodic.' Torino,

Ni^,

Palermo. 1894. Giannini, G. Canti pop. Lucchesi.' Lucca, 1890-92. Saviotti, A. 'Canti e Ninne-Nanne Arpinati.' Palermo, 1891. '

'

Although

Switzerland bound together by

this country is

a strong national feeling, it contains gi'eat of idiom. More than half the population speak German the rest either French or Italian, and a small fraction Romansch or Ladin. Hence there is little specifically national music, as it generally resembles that For of the country to which it lies nearest. instance, the folk-songs on the southern side are essentially Italian in character, while the French-Swiss and German-Swiss folk-songs are included in the collections of France and Germany. A purely indigenous feature in Swiss music is the cow- call, or Kuhreihen, which has been already treated. (See Ranz DES Vaches.') The old watchman-songs should These date back for also be mentioned. centuries, but are probably of German origin as in the canton of Tessin, where Italian is the common language spoken, the night watch-call Nearly all the is still sung in Old German, true Alpine songs can be played on the Alphorn, The to which in fact they owe their birth. Swiss peasants have always possessed a remarkThe herdsmen can able harmonic aptitude. skilfully improvise songs in many parts, and vary them with Jodels as ritornels or refrains. In many of the dance-songs the rhythm, too, is highly developed, necessitating constant changes of time-signature. Otherwise the melodies, like the poetry, are of the simplest character in form and metre. diversities

;

;

2 o

SONG

562

Looking back on the past history of music in Switzerland

we

find that the composers of

any note in this country have generally identified themselves with other nationalities. Thus in the 16th century the great contrapuntist,

Ludwig

name

appears among German composers in the 18th, J. J. Rousseau is claimed by France, just as Nageli, Kaflf, and Sohnyder von Wartensee, nearer our own time, are by Germany. But Switzerland has never been without her own musicians, who have striven in all ages to keep up the national Senfl's' ;

feeling, although their names are now scarcely remembered. The Reformation exerted a great influence in French Switzerland. The Psalms of G. Franc, the two Bourgeois and Davantes are still heard around 'Geneva. Some of the coraules of the Fribourgeois have beautiful

refrains, recalling the ecclesiastical sequences

;

in many of the old songs used in the peasants' Festspiele are traces of Goudimel's fine hymns adapted to secular words. These festivalplays, in which the peasants represent some

and

national legend or historic event by word, dance, and song, are held in different districts, and form a powerful factor in the musical life of Switzerland. In recent years they have incited some of the younger Swiss musicians, such as Baud-Bovy, G. Doret, and F. Niggli, to take down the songs sung on these occasions by the peasants and to write simple popular melodies in the same spirit. Whilst the Church cultivated the taste for hymns and chorales,^ the frequent wars gave rise to innumerable songs of satire, strife, and politics. Some of the earliest Frendi collections of these songs were printed by P. de Vingle at Neuehatel in the 16th century.^ He also printed many books of carols (Noels Nouveaultx, 1533), usually with very irreverent words set to favourite sacred and secular tunes. In the 17th and 18th centuries music-schools

Greuter, Felix Huber, Kuhn, and Zwinger, some of whom were national poets as well as musicians J. G. Nageli (as much a and collectors. German as a Swiss song -composer) did much

to promote musical education in the country of He was joined in this movement his birth.

by Kunlin, Waohter, Krausskopf, the to-others As songFrbhlich, and Ferdinand Huber. writers Karl Attenhofer, F. Grast, and Ignaz especially mentioned, the latter Zwyssig being perhaps the most popular. composed the 'Cantique Suisse' (the national ma hymn) and Baumgartner the fine chant The names of Methfessel, 0. and F. Patrie.' Munziger, G. Weber, A. Meyer, and F. Hegar (who is principally famous for his choral songs) may complete the list of that period. During the latter part of the 19th century, a new impetus has been given to Swiss music by a ^oup of young and enthusiastic mnsicaans, who have strongly felt the necessity of preserving the traditional treasures of their country and developing them with all the resources They have hereby endeavoured of modem art. to prove the essential unity of feeling in the nation. Though composed of snch various races, the same patriotism, love of liberty, and independence have animated this little republic The leaders of this in all times of its history. movement are Hans Huber and E. JaquesDaloroze the former bears an honoured name in other branches of music besides songs, and the latter is a refined poet, as well as being a prolific composer. His numerous volumes of Chansons romandes,' Chansons populaires et eufantines,' 'Chansons des Alpes,' 'Chansons patriotiques,' etc. contain graceful little pictures of national life, in which Jaques-Daloroze cleverly introduces the types of melody, harmony, and rhythm characteristic of the various

Heim should be

'

;

'

'

cantons.*

Dillhern, Simler, Kruger, Brie^el, Musoufi, theMolitors, Dietbold, Menzingen, and especially L. Steiijer (bom 1688),

—the

In the year 1900 the ' Union of Swiss musicians \ was formed, which now numbers over 300 members, and holds yearly festivals for the performance of new works of all kinds by these composers. Especial interest is attached to those of the younger generation, all of whom have included song as an important branch of their

to cultivate a love

for

were formed in the various towns of Zurich, Basle, Berne, and Coire, and their libraries have preserved numerous collections of songs

by

first

Swiss composer

his country's music.

Schmidli, who set Lavater's 'Chansons to music, and Egli, who published several Chansons Suisses avec melodies, ' followed in his steps. After Egli's death in 1810, his pupil Walder carried on his work, together with Ott, Albertin, Bachofen (a special favourite) J.

Suisses

'

'

1

Senft contributed largely to

the various collectiona of the

16th century; and in one of these called Bicinia Gatlica. dnted 1545, there occurs the oldest icnown version of a dee Vaches. 2 Towards the end of the 15th century L. Moser of Basle contributed largely to the popularisation of the Church songs. Hie book, vaet nnthdflr/tiffe Jfateri, etc. contains a large number of

Ram

Mn

German

songs adapted to familiar Church melodies.

See Becker,

Siet. de la Musique Suieae. 3 !Ehe collection of 1509 contains the celebrated complainte

on Die war History von den vier Ketzer the heretics burnt at Berne Prediger ordens zu Bern in den Bydgenossenschaft verbrannt.' :

'

art.

The

piincipal

names

are

Jaques - Dalcroze, V. Andrae, Otto Barblan, E. Blooh, E. Combe, A. Den^reaz,

as follows

:

E.

G. Doret, F. Klose, H. Eling, E. Reymond, Fritz Niggli, J. Ehrhart, E. Ganz, F. Karmin, J. Lauber, W. Pahnke, P. Maurice, W. Rehberg, G. Pantillon, L. Kempter, etc. The revelation of so much home talent may surprise the world, but it proves that ' a Swiss school of music is rapidly rising, and may in time hold its own.' ^ 4 Jaques Dalcroze has done much to develop the rhythmical -

element among his countrymen by his cborai. dance, and gameand Gymnastiques Rhythmiques.' See also his strildng La pedagogia del iltmo in the Siviata Mvjficale Italiana

songs,

article

'

'

'

Anno xiii. c

E, Jaques-nalcroze, Die MusiJ; in der Schweiz.

—

—

SONG

563

B1BLIOGKA.FHV AppenzelltKJier BpratchMJuitz. Znrich, IS."^. Schubiger, A. Die Sdngerschide St. GaUens vom 8ten bis i2ten Jahrhundert. Einaiedeln, New York, 1858. Becker, G. La musique en Suisse depui* let tempt les plus recuZea jusgu'd la fin du iSme tivcle, etc. Geneva, 1874. Becker, G. KuUurhiatojische Sktiten aus der romanischen Schweiz. Tobler.

^^^^i^^

1878.

Soabies, A. Suiae (Hittoire de la Mutiqtie). Faria, 1899. Jaques-DalcToze, E. Die Mu^k in der Schtoeiz {JHe Mutik, July, I»05.)

Collections Huiubrechtikon, Oreuter de. Buudtner Lieder.' Coire, 1785. Vgll, J. H. 'St^weizer Lieder.' Zaricb. 1798. Voider, J. J. 'Lieder zumgesellscbaftlichenYergnUgen.' JZurich, *

1804.

Wagner, S. von. Acht Schwelzer Kithrelhen.' Berne, 1805. Kuhn, G. * Sammlnng von Scliweizer Kuhreihen und alten Volkaliedem.' Berne, 1812-18. Tarenne, G. 'BecberchesaarlesBanzdesVac1ie8 0UBurIeaGlia.nsonB pastorales des Bergers de la Suisse avec musig.ue.' Paris, 1813. Wysz, J., and Hnber, F., edited the 4t1i edition of Knlin's work in '

1S26. Huber, Felix.*

Sr.

land.'

Bochholz, B. Alemannisches Kinderlled und Kinderspiel aus der Schweiz' (no music). Leipzig, 1857. Kurz, H. Schlacbt- und Yolkslieder der Schwelzer.' Zurich, 1860. Buhler, J. A. ' Canzuns en lungatz rhSto-romansch.' Coire, 1865. Koella. Chansonnier Suisse.' Zurich, 1882. Wysz. J., and Huber, F. Der Schweizer-Biinger.' Lucerne, 1883. Chansons et Coraules f ribourgeoises. Fribonrg, 1894. Chants et Coraules de la QruySre.' Leipzig, 1894. Chansonnier des ZoRnglens de la Suisse xomande.' Lausanne, '

'

'

'

'

'

' '

1894.

Dieterich, O. A.

'

xxil Alpenlieder.'

Stuttgart.

ROTJMANIA Roumania is a Romance eomitry, and embraces both Moldavia and "Wallaehia. The character of its national music

Among

is,

the educated

therefore, very mixed.

classes,

a preference is

shown

for French and Italian music, and thus the Latin ori^n is betrayed. The real folkmusic has also much in common with its Slavonic neighbours, and the gipsy element is strongly represented by the Laoutari.^ Without these gipsy lutenists, no christening, wedding,^ or funeral is held to be complete among the peasants, though at funerals in Roumania, as in Russia, it is the village women who are the professional 'wallers.* Their song of wailing, is a monotonous recitative chanted on a. few notes, interspersed by a succession of sharp little cries, whilst the words enumerate all the qualities of the deceased. The most beautiful of the Roumanian folksongs are enshrined in their doinas.^ This is a generic term, as it includes songs of various origins. In times past, both pastoral and warsongs were alike called doinaSj but at the present time they resemble the French complaintes, as indeed their name rfoi7ia= lament indicates. They are usually in the minor key ; the melody is full of turns, trills, and other embellishments, yet throughout they are of a melancholy cast.

—

—

1 Both Verdi and Liszt have testified their approval of Qie Laotttari In enthusiastic language. See J. Schorr, ' Musik in Boumanien.' Musik, 1903. No. 22. 2 A Roamanian proverb says : * Mar jage sans Laoutaari c'est-i-dire chose Impossible.' 8 The name doina, according to HSadetl, is of Bacian origin, and may also be found in Sanscrit, as d'tiaina.

in

me

eabo-boc

ofl

.

A-mdndol

.

8&

Ae

iu

-

- -

bim.

eu me-dln

The

oldest and most celebrated dance is the a slow choral dance written in rondo form usually in this rhythm Tiora,

:

Ex.

3.

Another dance, equally written in rondo form, but usually in a major key, is the sarta (or sirid). Though the prevailing tendency of this country's national music is melancholy, some of the dance-tunes are, nevertheless, gay and light. The occurrence of tbe augmented second Tjetween unusual intervals is frequent, and doubtless Melodies of more due to gipsy influence. recent date consist usually of the first phrase in the major and the second and concluding phrases in the relative minor, as in so many Slavonic tunes.

.

As mentioned above, the Eoumanians seldom sing at all themselves ; the songs are sung to them as solos by the Laoutari, and mnging in harmony is quite unknown. The iuelody is also often played

by the

chief singer

on the

cdbza, a sort of flute.

The renaissance of music in this country did not begin until the middle of the 19th century, and its principal promoters were Professor

Wachmann (who to

especially

the national music),

called

attention

Flechtenmacher and

— SONG

564

The latter was the creator of the Roumanian national opera, and together with

Caudella.

Ventura, Soheletti, audCavadi, composed numerous and favourite songs. These closely resemble the typical French and Italian rornances, and have little in common with the German or Mention should also be Russian art -song. made of Eduard Hiibsoh, the composer of the Musicesou and Kiriac have national hymn. reproduced in their compositions the old Roumanian church and folk-songs. Margaritesco, Stephanescu, Spirescu, Ciran, Ercole, and Dumitresco have written numerous songs and ballads, and among the younger besides other works

'Album na^onal, colec^iune d'e arii romanesci.' S. Bucarest, 1902. „ , ., ., , i 'Cbltaristui romfln' (Colec^iune de ani si roman^i nayonale). Bucarest, 1903. .. . ,™. . „ Bucarest, 1904-5. Kiriac, D. G. 'Conirlpopulare romanesti. Faulmann,

,

Modern Greece It is difficult if not impossible to avoid the mention of Oriental Songs, when treating

those of Greece, because in the islands and on the mainland the songs are intermingled. M. Bourgault-Ducoudray says that in Greece the oriental chromatic scale is often found : Ex.

^i^^

;

generation, Enescu

and

Lcarlatescu,

who have

already won for themselves European reputations in more than one branch of music, perhaps stand the highest. The cultivation of the national poetry and songs is due to the poet Vasili Alexandri,^ to Asaki, Carmen Sylva, H. Vacaresco, Wachmann, Adamescu, Kogolnkeanu, and others. And the establishment of Conservatoires at Buoarest and Jassy, where young musicians can obtain a scientific training in their own country, augurs well for the future of

Roumanian

song-writers.

There is also a considerable Roumanian colony of Balkan origin in Hungary, who first They established themselves here in 1230. lead a more or less wandering life among the Their language, mountains, pasturing flocks. of a Latin stem, is much intermixed with Albanian, Slavonic, and Hungarian words, but their folk-songs and dances are quite distinct, and essentially their own. Among the dances we find the true Roumanian Jwra, sirba, tarina,

and arddeana and ballads are

;

of

and their innumerable songs Balkan rather than Hungarian

The oldest are theological or mystical origin. in subject, but in the historical ones the heroes Among the kolindas, fight against the Turks. the religious kind are the commonest, treating of the life of our Lord, of the Virgin and saints, and the melodies are

in plain-song. ^

Bibliography Sulzer, F. J.

Geachichte dea tranatUpinischen Daoiena,

Vienna,

1781-2.

Zuatand der Mugik in der Moldau, AUg. Muaik. Zeitwng,

xxiii.

Leipzig, 1821.

Grenville Murray, E. C. Doine, or the National Bongs and LegeTida of Rov/mamia. LondoD, 1854. Wagner, O. 2}as rumftmiache Volkalied, Bammelb&Ttde, I.M,G, 1902,1. Schorr, J.

Musik in Bvmanien,

Me Muaik,

1903,

No.

22.

(The principal material for the above sketch was Itindly supplied to the writer by M. Margaritesco, Bucarest.)

Pann, A.

Collections C&ntece de stea (Cantiques de NoBl).

Bucarest, 1830.48. MusicsBcu, O. 12 Melodil nationale armonizate.' Jassy, 1889. Gebauer, 0.,andFed^r, M. VollcsliederundVollcstftnze.' Bucarest. Wachmann, J. A. 'Mdlodies Valaques pour le piano.' MUller, Vienna. 'Bumftnlsche VollcBmelodien.' Vienna, 1666. Mil£uli, C. 'Airsnationauxroumains.' Ldopol. lonescu, H. 'Col. de cantece rationale.' Bucarest. Vacaresco, H. 'Airs pop, roumaina.' Bucarest, 1900. '

'

'

'

1.

again in Smyrna and other parts of Asia Minor the Aeolian scale ^ is in constant use. The melodies sung along the coast and in the

And

Ionian islands are very Italian in character,

and are easily distinguished from the genuine Greek melodies by being in the European minor scale. But inland, and away from the coast of Asia Minor, the pure Greek songs predominate.* Until within a recent period there existed a number of minstrels or bards who combined the profession of musicians with that of chroniclers, and whose function it was to hand down by word of mouth, and thus keep alive, the great traditions of their country's history. These men were held in high esteem in theu' time ; but, as in other countries, education and the introduction of printing have brought about their rapid disappearance. Yet we are told that only a few years ago, an old and blind minstrel, by name Barba Sterios,^ sat, surrounded by a crowd, on the roadside by the He played gate of Kalamaria in Thessalonica. and sang in a melancholy and monotonous tone to his \ipa,^ without raising his voice to a high pitch, and in pathetic parts drew deep emotion from his audience. In epic recitations of this kind the lyre is only used as an accompaniment in succession to the chanted For instance, the words, and not with them. old man to w.hom reference has just been made, would start by touching a prelude on his lyre, and then commence intoning a couple of verses, after which the instrument came in again, and so on to the end, alternately playing and singing.^ 3 The Greek names of the modes are here retained in preference and those readers not conversant with the interchange of nomenclature are referred to the article on Modes, Ecclesiastical. ' M. Bourgault-Ducondi^y says in the preface to his "Trente MtSlodies Fopulaires de Grdce et d'Orient (using the Greek names) that the Greek Hypodorian, whicli only differs from the European A minor scale by the absence of the leading-note, is of frequent occurrence among the popular melodies of Greece. The Greek Dorian, Fhirgian, Hypophrygiaii, and Mlxolydian modes are also fairly often met with and the Hypolydianwith the fourth lowered (which may easily be confused with the Western major scale of F) is at the present time the commonest of all. B Bofba Buucle, is used as a term of endearment, like dyadya= uncle in Russian. B A rough sort of stringed instrument, recalling the classic Xvpa with five sheep-guts the bow consisting of a stick bent at one end and a bunch of horsc-hiir strung along it. 7 G. F. Abbott's Songa of Modern Greece.

to the ecclesiastical,

'

;

1 Vasili Alexandri was the first to collect the folk-ballads. His collection was published In 1852. See Otto Wagner's article 'Das rumSnische Volkslied,' Sammelbdnxie, I.M.G. No. 1, 1902, where the treatment of the literary side of the folk-song is far superior to the

musical. 2 These Boumanians belong to the Greek Church. See O. Moldarau's article Die RumSner in Die OeUerretchiaeh-imgariscM Monarchie, vol. vi. '

'

.

:

— SONG The rpayoiSta rov x^P^^t or choral songs, are ballads in the original sense of the word, for they are sung as an accompaniment to a complicated set of steps and mimic evolutions.

At weddings, Christmas, on May -Day, and similar festivals,

men and women may

dancing together in side their country dance as he sweeps and sings a verse,

a ring, inns.

be seen

565

Serenades and aubades are most in vogue in the and each province has its owm but there are some ancient sohgs of great celebrity, such as The Fall of Constantinople,' which are the common heritage of all the provinces. large towns, special songs

;

'

hand in hand, outThe leader of the

The Fall of Constantinople.^ Ex.

waves a. handkerchief accompanying it with apon,

3.

To

-

ira-via

^w

-

-

'irdp

ijm

-

-

SifKev, To

propriate gestures, while the rest of the dancers sing alternate verses in chorus. There are also

other dance-songs, which are sung antiphonally by distinct sets of voices. This music is of a light and gay kind, consisting of short phrases which often end on the high octave ; Ex.

with

2.

or no variety in melody or rhythm. of the many Greek cradle-songs are of great beauty, but the melodies are monotonous little

The words

and limited in compass.'

Greater interest

is

imparted to the lyric folk-songs belonging to the eastern parts of Greece and the adjacent islands (where the melodies are naturally of an

by tiie irregular rhythms and constant change of time, such as alternate 2-4 and 3-4 time. The Greeks have a gift for improvising or reciting in verse, and the preponderance of open vowels and the facility of rhyming in the Romaic language ^ render their task easy. oriental character),

Also they are keenly sensitive to emotions roused by striking events, and incidents both of past and present history. Many of theiisongs have reference to the customary periods of absence from home, when the villagers, who follow the professions of merchants or pedlars, descend from their hills to ply their trades in foreign lands. ^

home

Thus a youth who quits

his

the first time is accompanied a certain distance on the road by his family and friends. Before taking final leave of her son the mother laments his departure in a song either improvised or traditional, and in response the youth bewails the hard fate which drives him from his home.* There is proof that among the for

In the Greek folk-songs, as among other nations, the last words or lines are often repeated, or the words are broken up into meaningless syllables, recurring three or four times before

the word

is

Or

completed.

may

it

be that the

words are interrupted by interjections or refrains. It should be noted also that the accents of the words and music do not always agree, which clearly proves that different words were set to already extant melodies. It is difficult to represent these Eastern songs in our present notation, but the following example, of which a few bars are given, is a love-story from the Island of Samos,' and shows many of the above-

mentioned

including

the peculiar changing time and deep melancholy, inherent to them. Stringed features,

tonality, limited compass,

Ex.

4.

Andante,

Sav

et

vat.

va

-

trav

-

eT - - i/at i/a-

^^^^^^^g

mass of folk-poetry still extant, much of it dates back to old classical times. For example, the famous swallow-songs, when boys go about irov

the streets greeting in song the reappearance of the swallows, embody a very ancient custom.' 1

-

At,

av-pe

irov -At

.

.

^ov orb Ka-Ad
dnde. I.M.G.

,

'

'

iiij 1 See ConsBemaker'B Chants des Flamande de France B3hme's 'AltdeutschesLiederbuch.'

1

al die dat hoor-de

and

7 i.

'

241.

Used by Clemens noii Papa in a 3-part chanson.

124.

Bee I>uyse,

— SONG

588

The Netherland masters, however, rarely gave the whole melody even to the leading part, and seldom more than one couplet of the words, and hence the fragmentary character of the songs they bequeathed to us. But gradually spii-it of the folk-song began to Influence then" highest forms of composition, and they

the

realised that in their chansons, vUlanelles,

and

canzmiettes, written in four, five, six, seven, or eight parts, mechanical invention must be '

subservient to idea, and euphony and expression should equally be the objects of the composer. ^ Amongst the works of Dufay, Binchois, Faugiies, Busnois, and in Petrucci'a 'Canti cento cinquanta,' there are songs which, in regularity of form and simplicity of character, '

Nor

rival the folk-songs.

ing in the minor works of la Rue, Josquin des Pr&, Goudimel, Clemens non Arcadelt, and Orlandus melodies conceived in a naivete,

are examples want-

Okeghem,

Pierre de

Gtombert, Willaert,^

Papa,

Jannequin,^

Lassus, of secular strain of freshness,

humour, and brightness, or marked by

a power of lyric expression belonging to a

much

later time.

The picture of an age and its culture is always vividly reflected inits folk-songs ; itwas therefore the natural result of the intensity of the impulse given to religious life by the mystics that so great a number of sacred songs were created '

'

during the 14th century.* The ground had already been prepared by the celebrated ascetics Greert Groote and Johann Ruysbrock, and the numerous sacred Minne-songs ^ were the 'especial outcome of the mystic movement. About the middle of the 15th century the early Rederykers^ (who correspond with the German Meistersinger) substituted for the harshly realistic secular songs of the day their own carefully prepared sacred songs.' For these they either altered the words of the secular songs to give them a sacred meaning, or they adapted totally new religious words, retaining the secular tune unchanged.'*

And

this practice prevailed in the

Netherlands throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1561 Tylman Susato published his

'

Souterliedekens,

'

consisting of portions of

the Psalms according to the rhymed Flemish version, set unaltered to the popular song-tunes Naumann's

ffist. of Mm*, i. 368. In Willaert we clearly aee the modem apirit, not only in what he did for harmony but also for his recognition of the value of the solo-Toice. tn 15S6 he arranged soma of Verdelot's madrigals for Bolo-BODg with accompaniment of lute. 3 Wooldridge gives a lovely little song. 'Ce Moys de Mai,' by Janneqain, showing the transition between the two styles, where the harmony is in plain chords, but 'the polyphonic element is atill present in the melodious flow and independent Interest of the separate parts.' Oxford HUt, of MvMo, ii.^,

1

2

1

See W. Biimnker, Siederl&ndUrihe geUtlbihe LiadertViert^ahra-

gchrift, 1888. 5 AH these songs deal with Christ as the Bridegroom for Whom the loving soul yearns. 6 For information on the guilds of poets and musicians in the Ketherlauds, see Motley's Rise of the Dutch ReptMtc, 1. 76 etteq. ' For examples from the later red^ryker, M. van Castelyn's songs {tiiveriehe Liederkens), see Duyse, ii. 1530 et aeq. One of Caatelyu's songs, Ghepeys, Ghepeys, vol van euvijen,' is included in most '

collections.

B In this manner many secular songs have been preserved intact, instead of only in a fragmentary or mutilated form, such as we

have seen the polyphonic writers reduced them to.

This publication was succeeded of the day. by Fruytier's ' Ecclesiasticus ' (1565) and the various Roman Catholic song -books, such as 'Theodotus,'

'

Het

Paradijs

'

(Antwerp, 1621),

which similarly contained a mass of secular Whilst the Church scales were still melodies. in use the greater part of the earlier melodies

were in the Dorian mode, though the Phrygian and Lydian were also represented.' Very different in character from the sacred songs of the mystics, of the rederykers, of the Roman Catholics, or those which the Reformation produced, were the songs of liberty and patriotism sung a generation later dui'ing the Spanish oppression. Amongst other collections the famous song-book of the Gueux i" ('GeusenLiedenboecxkens,' 1588), and Adrianus Valerius' 'Gedenck-Clanck' (1621-26)" (see Valeritts), contain the classics of Dutch musical hterature, and are historically of inestimable value. They give us the ballads of 'Egmont and Horn,' the 'Storm of Leyden'; the splendid political songs of satire on the Spanish generals, SpotUed such as the Spotlied op de Bossu, op de Alva,' or the patriotic songs such as 'Bin Liedje op den Briel,' or 'De Geuzen bij Antwerpen,' and WUhelmus van Nassonwe (See Wilhelmtts the Dutch national anthem. VAN Nassotjwe.) These grand old Netherland songs breathe a spirit of protest against tyranny, and of warlike determination tempered with resignation under disaster, which sets them on In many of the a distinct plane of their own. collections only the name of the tune {stem) is mentioned to which the song was sung. Such Geusen Liedenis the case with those in the boecxkens,' but Valerius has given the actual melodies as well. Many tunes are derived from foreign sources, and especial interest is attached to those of English origin, of which the following collections contain the most: 'Friesche Lusthof (1621) ;12 'Gedenck-Clanck' (1621-26) ;13 'Den singende Zwaen' (1664) ; Stichtelycke Rymen' (1624):" 'Bellerophon' (1633) ;15 and Thysius's and Vallet's lute-books. At the time of Queen Elizabeth, when the cultivation of '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

music in England was at its height, intercourse between this country and the Netherlands was most frequent. Jhiglish traders arrived in

Dutch harbours, English students studied at Leyden, English actors played in Amsterdam,'^ B

BSnmker has given examples.of

these interchangeable sacred

and secular songs from two old MS. coUections one is in the K. K. Fideikoinmisbibliothek in Vienna, and the other in the Kdnigllche Bibllothek in Berlin. The tunes are nearly all to be found in Btthme's Altdeutsches Liederbuch,' and frequently occur again in :

'

See also GeisUiche nnd Weltliche ComposlDuiich collections. tionen des XV. Jahrhunderts,' bearbeitet von Guide Adler und '

Oswald KoUer, 10 Or Gentlemen beggars.' Forthe origin of the word see Motley's '

Rise of the Itutch Republic, i. 432 ct aeq. 11 Dr. A. Loman has harmonised a selection from the Geusenliedeiiboecxkens and the Gedenck'Glanck.' Both, with his interesting prefaces and notes, were published by the Ma-itschappij tot '

'

bevoidering der Toonkimst for

1^1 and

1872.

(See

Verebnioikg.)

i» J. Starter.

See J.P. Land's article on Valerius's'Qedenck-Clanck'invol. i. of the Tvdachrift der veroettiging vmrr Noerd-Nederlamds ifuzickgeschiedenes. (Land's references are to the let edition of Chappell's 1* Camphnysen. 16 l>. p. pei^ Pop. Music.) 13 Die SinffSpiete der engliecAen KomSdianten, Dr. J. Bolte, 189S. 13

— SONG

589

and English soldiers fought side by side with And it is the Dutch against the Spaniards. clear that Dutch musicians were well acquainted

woe-ste

Zee,

Leeuw.

door het boach de

Ala

with English ballads, for certain songs, such as What if a day (identical with Fortune, '

'

'

'

Wilhelmus van Nassouwe '), Barafostus' Dream,' and the Cobbler's Jig,' ' were evidently '

'

'

favourites, as they occur so frequently. The last-named tune is used in the 'Gedenck-Clanck' Wie dat sich self's verheft, and for the song Valerius calls the stem Engelslapperken.' On comparing this Dutch song of satire on Alva's standard with the English version, it will be seen that not a note has been altered. '

'

'

Ex.

Wie

2.

Wfe dat

dat.

slch Belfs Ter-heft te-met, wert wel een ar-me lieeld, tot Bpijt ge-set, waer al-ge-bro-ken

due d'AU n

^[jjjZ u booBedaed.dieghiJ1»gaetbiJ al-lentochon*

Ble-ter,

be-ter.

Valerius has also included nineteen purely

Dutch and one

folk -tunes in the 'Gedenck-Clanck,'

cannot fail to be struck by the bold sweeping melodic lines, massive structure, and stately dignity of these songs. The Dutch and North Flemish folk-songs have, in fact, much in common with the German Volkslied, which is explicable when we consider the consanguinity of the races, the resemblance of temperament, and the similarity of language and poetical forms.* Many of the tunes are modal, and yet have a feeling for harmony which is unusual in such tunes. The melodies most frequently begin on the up-beat, and as the musical rhythm follows the words very closely ^ frequent changes of time are necessitated, although the actual rhythmical figures present litjle variety :

U]

-

djg is en

otrlj-dlg is

met

on-ser I^anden staet.

Ex. '

Het

4.

One of the most beautiful songs in this collection, Waer datmen sioh al keerd of wend (a fine patriotic poem by Valerius), set to the stem Pots hondert duijsent ^ slapperment (named also by Valerius Allemande Pekelharing'), bears a strong resemblance to Walking in a country

daghet.'^

'

'

Het daghet

in

den

Oosten,

bet

Uch-tet o

-

ver-

'

'

'

town.' Ex.

2

Waer

3.

daim£.n.*'

Waer dat-men slchalkeerd of wend.Eud' waer-men Waerdat-meareijatofrotst,ofrend,End'vaer.mea

The songa

are by no means always in regular constantly the first part consists of eight and the second part of five or six bars, or of five and seven bars each as in the Spotlied.' (Seep. 590, Ex. 5.) Sometimes only one bar is added, as if to give emphasis to the last words. Melodic Tnelismas are of frequent occurrence, even in strophical songs, and are probably due to the influence of the Church. And yet, paradoxical as it may seem, the songs never

periods

;

'

Daer vint-men,

'tsij

oock op wat ree d'Hol-

I

V

aE3=^E^feE;

5 It may be safely asserted tliat two-tblrds of the songs given in Duyse's famous collection occur also in F. Btihme's Altdeutsches Liederbuch' and other German collections, with only slight differences in the words and melodies. As one example, take Daer staet een clooster in Oostenrije (Duyae, 1. 472) and £s liegt ein Schloss im Oesterreich' (Bohme, 154). BQhme drew attention to this point in his preface, saying The Geiman and old Netherland folk-songs are IndistinguiHhable, for from the last half of the 15th to the end of the 16th century they had a fund of folk-poetry in common. And amongst the aongs contained in the Netherland collections (see especially those in the Antwerp Song-book of 1544) many were written both in High and Irow German; and in the German collections (see for instajice, Rhaw's 'Biclnla') songs occnr with Netherland text and sometimes with the mark Braharaica annexed. This Interchange need cause no surprise when the (dose intercourse promoted by the Hanseatic L^gue is taken into '

*

'

'

end

lan-der

de

Zeeuw:

SiJ

loopen door de

:

'

account.' 6 I

See Chappeirs Old English Pop, ifugtc (new edition),

i.

75, 100,

146, eis.

Tauaeni in some versions. possibly took the tune. ^

3

Ohappeil,

i.

II?.

* Tiius arranged by Loman. Swedish song O Wermeland,') '

See Starter's, from wliom Valerius

(The opening phrase recalls the

Following the verse-metre closely

Dutch

Is peculiarly characteristic of

folk-songs.

7 ThiB 15th-centnry song is set to Psalm iv. in the 'Souterliedekens (1540), and was used by Clemens non Papa in a chanson for three voices, and published in Antwerp in 1556. It occurs also in a different form in the Gueux song-book (1675), set to 'Och God will doch vertroosten,' aJso In Camphuysen's and many other collections. See Duyse, i. 124. '

— 590 Ex

SONG SpotUed op da Bossu.^

5

d-pael, dit

lose their

classical

had ick mij

Lorraine, Picardy, Auvergne, and Provence, survive in the Ardennes. In the Walloon songs the refrains follow much the same lines as other countries ; rhyme is by no means universal, and is often replaced by mere assonance ; the dialogue form is very common, and consists of innumerable strophes.' Modal melodies are frequently found amongst the Noels and other religious songs. The profound sincerity and naivete of the Woels must appeal to all, and if a vein of realistic familiarity, attractive to the peasantry, is repellent to the provinces,

>

character of regularity of

form.

Belginm being a bilingual country the folksongs are divided into two classes, Flemish and Walloon.^ The Flemish are more numerous and widespread ; indeed they extend north into Holland, where they intermingle with the Dutch. The Walloon songs are more local, though they include all those sung in French or in the curious Walloon dialect. ' Just as the Flemish people show affinity with the German, the Walloons resemble the French. The grace and liveliness of the French cfiamson, the love the French have for satirical words and strongly marked dance-rhythms,^ are qualities exhibited by the Walloons. In the district round Li^ge a particular genre of satirical song exists, called la pasqueye, and amongst the numerous Belgian dance -songs, the 'Cramignons' of the same district should be especially noticed. The following is a favourite :

Ex.

counteracted by earnest musicians,^ who are devoting themselves to the task of rescuing the folk-songs from neglect, and issuing exhaustive collections from the various districts. The wealth of songs and their beauty have fully

Cramignon.^

6.

more cultivated taste, none will deny tha,t they possess a touching charm of their own, difficult to convey in words. It is inevitable that songs handed down century after century should undergo changes, but this is less so in the Netherlands than in most other countries. Conscious of their value, Flemish and Dutch musicians have at all times been assiduous in forming collections of their songs and thus preserving them in their original condition.' This has not been the case with the French and Walloon-speaking inhabitants of the country. They have depended on oral tradition, and hence their songs have suffered considerable deterioration in the course of time. Indifference to the folk-song steadily gained ground among this people, and their preference for debased tunes from the vwudemlle and opSracomique was fostered by inferior composers, who wrote in accordance with the prevailing taste. Fortunately this evil is now being

justified their labours.

After the 16th century, the glory of the Flemish school ' waned ; the contrapuntal age

was over and monody reigned in

its

From henceforth very few musicians

place.

of any

importance devoted their talents to vocal music. As representative songs of the 18th century we may mention those by the Flemish composer G. de Fesch, who came over to England about 1730 and published there a volume entitled Canzonette ed Arie a voce sola,.' They are sentimental like the French songs of the period, regular in form, with fairly agreeable harmony. Of greater interest are the songs interspersed in '

tu!

The

dont

Wise'

po

drl lea

ca

bus.

traditional ballads of the old French

6 The (Flemish) lace-makers for instance have their own especial songs with apparently meaningless words, but which represent to of stitch. Each worker takes up one of these endless verses in turn. See Lootens and Fey's Chants pop. Flamands.' ^ The efforts of the members of the Maatschapplj tot bevordering der Toonkunst and their Intei«etlng publications have greatly contributed to this end. H. Bogge, J. P. Land, A. D. Loman, •T. BSnligen, F, van nuyae, D. F. Scheuleer, and Ensched^ also deserve special recognition in this connection. B Among these the names of L. Terry and Chaumont, Lootene and Feys, L. Jouret, E. Cloeson, O. Colson (the director of the review Weitlonia, which contains much information about the WaUoon folk-songs), and the curd J. Bols hold an honoured place. 9 Technically, the term Flemish has no' longer the same significance as it had earlier ; that is to say, it is now more identified with Belgian than with Dutch art.

them a given number or kind

'

1 This song does not appear In the first editions of the Gneux soug-bpok, but the melody is given in Luther's hymn-book of 1524 to words by Speratus, Bs ist das Hell ; afterwards it was used by the Bohemian Brothers, and by the Lutherans in Antwerp in 1573. Winterfeld says in his Evans/.' KircheTigesang, 1. 41, that in its original form It was undoubtedly a secular folk-song. 2 Chansons pop. des provinces Beiges (preface), Ernest Closson. » This dialect was dying out, but within the last twenty years efforts have been made by the Lidge poet Nicolas Defrecheux and by folk-lorists to preserve it. * 3-4 and 6-8 time are very common among the Walloon songs. *

'

'

'

6

Terry and Ohaumont's collection, from which the above

taken, includes over 200.

is

LI^

;

SONG the short allegorical, mythological, and pastoral plays then much in vogue. Van der Straeten i gives as a characteristic example, a pretty little 'Bergfee Flamande,' from Lambrecht's ' Vlaemsche Vrede - Vreucht but whether it was original or an adopted folk-song is an open question. ' Le Voegge de Chofontaine,' an operabouffe by the Liege composer G. Noel Hamal, contained the favourite couplets and dances in the district in which- it was written.^ By degrees, however, these unimportant local operas died out,' and composers sought their laurels iu Both Belgium and France lay claim to Paris. Gossec and Gr^try as national composers and similarly Grisar, C^sar Franck, and many others, who, although Belgians by birth, are practically regarded as French composers, having identified themselves with the French school. Belgium. The year 1834 witnessed the constitution of Belgium as a separate kingdom, and the formation of a Belgian nationality. Up to that date there are no songs worthy of mention, with the possible exception of La BEABAN90NNB, the national song of Belgium, composed by Yan Campenhout in 1830. The generality of composers had hitherto continued to use indiscriminately French and Flemish words for their songs, until within recent years a small group of musicians arose who avowedly are endeavouring to give Flemish art once more d, national character. This has been designated the mouvernent flamingatit, and the foremost personalities belonging to it were P. Benoit, whose songs set to Flemish words '

;

;

—

and colour, and Edgar Tinel. an interesting composer with a

are full of life

The

latter is

but his songs are few. other excellent musicians, who have all written ballads and songs, joined this movement, such as Lenaerts, Wambach, and Jan Blockx, the most brilliant of them all. Mention must also be made of Blockx's pupil, Vleeshower, and of Van den Eeden, who succeeded Huberti as director of the Mons Conservatoire. Less exclusively Flemish songstrong individuality,

Many

Eyken and Tilman, who chiefly themselves to sacred songs Mii-y, C. Meerens, and A. Goovaerts, who wrote for the most part nursery or school songs and Van Gheluwe, J. Radoux, A. Samuel, J. Meertens, G. Huberti, and E. Mathieu, who are the best-known names. Mathieu has set many of Goethe's ballads, in which the accompaniments are highly elaborate, and the melodies at times expressive. But they lack proportion and unity, and their great length detracts from their effect. In Mathieu's shorter songs the interest is better sustained. Meertens and Huberti have written songs both graceful and writers

are

confined

;

;

I

^

La Musique aux Fays-Bag,

Yander Straeten, iij. 22. The opera wee revived a short time ago in Paris, edited by E.

L.

TeiTy.

In 1810 Van der Ginste wrote an opera with Plemiah words and later Miry, Van den Acker, and Heertens attempted Flemish vandevilles, achieving, however, only local success. '

591

melodious, and of a simple character ; whilst those of Jan Blockx, G. Lekeu, Paul Gilson, and the younger school of composers, if somewhat eclectic, manifest originality, novelty, and boldness of invention. The curious phase of thought and the peculiar qualities shown in the literature of Belgium by the writings of Maeterlinck, Rodenbach, and Verhaeren, cannot fail to leave their mark also on the music of the period.

—

Holland. After the numerous song-books which appeared in Holland between 1600 and 1700, Dutch composers devoted themselves

principally to instrumental music. title-pages of vocal pieces we

Even on the

mn

find

te

singen

of

linck's skilful organ

spelen

te

and

;

and Swee-

favourites

on ihan the

lutenists,

organists,

clavier variations

the songs were greater songs themselves. As

Dutch musicians held a high place in Europe * and although among the works of various members of musical families (and music in Holland was an essentially hereditary gift) we find incidental mention carillonneurs, or theoreticians,

;

of songs or song - collections, it is evident that this form of art was on the wane. Hooft's

anonymous

publication, 'Emblemata Amatoria,' the last collection of any value in the 17th century, though Jacques Vredeman (a member of the Vredeman family of lutenists) is known to have written some cansoni and mllcmelle to words in the Frisian dialect. To the 18th centm-y belong De Koninck and Snep, who were the authors of some ' Nederlandsche liederen met een en twe Stemmen,' with figured bass, but these are of no musical value. The same may be said of the vocal works of the following composers who lived in the early part of the 19th century: A. Ten Gate, J. G. "Wilms, G. Hutschenmijter, G. W. Smits, J. Boers, and D. H. Dijkhuijzen. Their names still appear in all popular collections of school and pati'iotic songs, together with those by composers of a later date and higher rank, such as J. Viotta, J. Antheunis, Van Eyken, Richard Hoi, S. de Lange (the elder), Prudens van Duyse, and J. van Riemsdijk. The songs of the last-named composers are best described under the German term volkslhumlich, though some of them have shown more interesting and original work, as, for example, Riemsdijk in his Tranenkruikje and Sant Jans Gheleide.' from the Loverkens.^ The most typical Dutch composers of the last century, the words of whose songs are in the vernacular, were undoubtedly Richard Hoi, J. Verhulst, and "\V. F. G. Nicolai. The first

is

'

'

'

named is better known for his patriotic songs Nicolai, who was a prolific and choruses. 4 D. F. Schenrleer gives an interesting picture of musical life in Holland, Amaterdmn in de i?de eeuwe. Bet Muziek leven, The Hague, 1904. s Hoffmann von Falleralehen's Loverkens were favourite words with Dutch composers.

SONG

592

writer and a great favourite, has written melodious and expressive songs, somewhat resembVerhulst was one of the ling Mendelssohn. most gifted Dutch musicians, a friend of Schumann's, and also well known abroad. He has

number of the Flemish poet Heije's words to music, amongst others a volume of children's Kinderleeven, 29 Liederen voor eem songs, stem, which are of great charm. Another very set a

'

'

favourite writer of children's songs in Holland is

Catarina van Kennes,

'Oude Nederlandsche Liederen.' (Melodiee uit de Ghent, 1869. Becherchea sur le Mey-Liedje (hyinne pop.), Haeeelt,

Soifterliedekens.)

Bamijs, C.

*

'

1889.

Vier en twintig liederen uit de 15^* en 16^* eeuwmet geestelijken en wereldHJkenTekst.' Amsterdam, 1890. Vloten, J. van, and Bi-andts-Buya, M. ' Nederlandache Baker-en Leyden, 1694. kinderrijmen. Chansons du pays d'Ath.' Brussels, 1894. Jouret, L. GJlson, P. ' Chansons pop. du pays Borain.' 1894. 'Onze hist, volksl. van v66r de godadieuatige Fredericq, P. beroerten der 16

23 Nov., 1597. The niaister of the sang schoole sail serve bayth the Kirkis in uptacking of the psaliues theirin.

LE (A MidAn op^ra-coraique in

D'ETE,

and took part in their concerts as principal bass-singer. At the musical evenings held at his house, the so-called ' Gundelhof,' in 1815-24, in which his son, Leopold, took part as chorus-

Schubert's Prometheus,' though only with piano accompaniment, was first heard (July 24, 1816), as were also part-songs, 'Das Dorfchen' (1819), Gesang der Geister iiber den Wassern (1821), and the 23rd Psalm for female voices Ignaz died in 1831. (1822). A second son, Joseph, born 1766, devoted himself with success to literature and the fine arts, and in 1799 was sent abroad by the Emperor Franz to collect singer,

'

'

1609.

The baimis and

scoleris of the sang schoolis ordered to find caution for their good behaviour. '

From Dundee Records, 1602. Item to the master of the sang scule Ixxx

'

are

lbs.

Prom Air Records, 1627. the Mr of musick scule for teaching

Item to of the musick scule and tacking up the psalmes in the kirk x bolls victuall and xiiij of silver.

From Our doctour and

The stipend

Irving Records,1633.

musiciaiier

jcii.

of the master of the Edinburgh sang school appears to have been the modest allowance of ten pounds in sterling money.

and biographies of savants and artists During this tour he made the acquaintance of Gerber and Zelter. In 1804 he succeeded Kotzebue as secretaiy of the Court theatres, and as such had the entire management of both houses till 1814, and also of that 'an der Wien' till 1807. He directed his endeavours principally to Gennan opera, and portraits

for his private library.

himself wrote or translated several librettos.

a

;

'

SONNLEITHNER

SONS OF THE CLEEGY

including Beethoven's ' Leonore from the French of du Bouilly (the title of which was changed against the composer's wish to Fidelio ') ; ^ ' Agnes Sorel ' and others for Gyrowetz ; Kaiser Hadrian,' and 'Die Weihe der Zukunft piice d'occasion for the visit of the Allies for ' Weigl Faniska for Cherubini ; an oratorio, ' Die vier letzten Dinge, for Eybler, and numerous plays from various languages. He edited the Viennese Theater -Almanack for 1794, 1795, and 1796, which contains valuable biographies, and articles on the then condition of music in Vienna. For his services as founder (1811) and honorary secretary of the ' Gesellschaft adeliger Fraueu zur Beforderung der Guten und Ntitz-

numerous articles on music are scattered through various periodicals. He was an intimate friend of Otto Jalin's, and furnished him with much valuable material for the life of Mozart, as Jahn acknowledges in his preface. Leopold von Sonnleithner was Ritter of the Order of the Iron Crown, an honorary member of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, and of the Musikvereine of Salzburg, Innsbruck, etc. He died March 3, 1873, and with him disappeared a most persevering investigator and collector of facts connected with the historyof music inVienna, a class which daily becomes rarer, though its labours were never of more value than in the present age of new appearances and general progress, c. F. p. SONS OF THE CLERGY, The CokporaTION OF THE. This venerable institution, which was founded in 1655 by sons of clergymen, has

'

'

'

'

—

—

;

'

'

he was made a counsellor. With inhe next applied himself to founding (1813) the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, and continued to act as its honorary lichen

'

defatigable energy

secretary

till

his death, devoting himself unre-

mittingly to the welfare of the society. Another which he took equal interest was the Conservatorium, founded in 1817.^ The formation of the archives, and especially of the

institution in

library,

was almost entirely

his work,

through

his acquisition of Gerber's literary remains in

1819, and his legacy of 41 MS. vols, in his own hand, full of valuable materials for the history of music. [His discovery of the S. Gall Antiphoner in 1827 was an important event in the history of old liturgical music. The curious incident of the unique copy of Forkel's collection of 16th century church music, undertaken at Sonnleithner's instance, has been narrated under

FoRKBL, vol. ii p. 726.] He lived in close friendship with Schubert and Grillparzer up to his death, which took place Dec. 26, 1835. He received the Danebrog Order and honorary

diplomas from several musical societies. His nephew, Leopold Edlee yon Sonnleithnek, son of Ignaz, advocate and eminent amateur, bom Nov. 15, 1797, was a great friend of the Schubert, Schwind the painter, He took great care to preserve Schubert's songs, and to introduce the composer to the musical world, by publishing, with the help of other friends, his ' Erlkbnig ' and other early songs, for the first time. The ' Erlkbnig was sung by Gymnich * at a soirfe of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Jan. 25, 1821, and for the first time in public on the 7 th of March following, at the old Karnthnerthor theatre, by Vogl, with immense success. As member of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (from 1860 an honorary one), Sonnleithner took an unwearied interest in the concerns of the society, to whose archives he left, among other papers, his highly valuable notes on the operas produced, on concerts, and other mxisical events in Vienna. His sisters Frohlich,

and

^

Tol.

3

Grillparzer.

Revised liyTreitschke for the revivalof the i.

operam

1814.

[See

p. 191.]

Tbe

first

scheme

of instruction

was drawn up by Hofcath Ton

Hosel. ^

Angnstvon Gymnich, an imperial

tenor, died Oct.

6, 1821,

official,

a^d thirty-six.

and a much esteemed

619

for itsobjects the assisting necessitousclergymen, pensioning and assisting their widows and aged

single daughters,

and providing

and educating, apprenticing,

To aid in procuring funds for these purposes it holds an annual festival (at no fixed date), consisting of a choral service with a sermon, followed by a dinner. The first seimon was preached in the year of foundation at St. Paul's Cathedral by the Rev. George Hall, D.D., minister of St. Botolph's, Aldersgate Street. That similar meetings took place in following years is most probable, but there are no means of proving it, owing to the unfortunate destruction of the early records of the institution by fire, in 1838. "We find, however, that in 1674 and 1675 sermons were preached at St. Michael's, Cornhill that from 1676 to 1696 they were delivered at Bow Church, Cheapside ; and that from 1697 down to the present year (1907) they have been invariably given at St. Paul's Cathedral. The association was incorporated by charter of Charles II. in 1678. It was in 1698, according to the records, that 'music' (i.e. orchestral accompaniment to the service and anthems) was first introduced at the festivals. The compositions then performed were PurceU's Te Deum and Jubilate in D, composed for the celebration on St. Cecilia's Day, 1694, and these were annually repeated until 1713, when Handel's Te Deum and Jubilate, composed on the Peace of Utrecht, were given, from which time the two compositions were alternately performed until 1743, when both were laid aside in favour of the Te Deum composed by Handel to celebrate the victory at Dettingen, which continued to be annually performed (with the exception of one or two years when PurceU's Te Deum was revived) until 1843, after which its performance was discontinued in consequence of the services of the instrumental band being dispensed with in deference to the wishes of the Bishop of London (Blomfield). Handel's overture to the oratorio ' Esther was almost invariably played as a ' prelude to the service from near the time of its outfits for their children.

'

SONTAG

SONTAG

production in 1720 until 1843. Dr. W. Hayes was at one time eonductor of the festivals, and added instrumental parts to the Old Hundredth Psalm tune for their use. Dr. Boyce also was for many years their conductor, and composed for them his two anthems, ' Lord, Thou hast been our refuge,' and 'Blessed is he that considereth the poor and needy,' besides adding

1826, as Rosina in the 'Barbiere,' and became Her introduction of Rode's a favourite at once. She sang air and variations created a furore. Italiana in also in the Donna del Lago and Algieri,' and returned to Germany in July with Everywhere her beauty, heightened prestige. charming voice, and exquisite vocalisation combined to excite an admiration amounting to frenzy. At Gottingen her post-chaise was thrown into the river by the ardent crowd, no mortal being counted worthy to make use of it after her. Even Ludwig Borne, after commenting humorously on the extravagance of the public, confesses to have yielded in his turn to the pre-

620

accompaniments to Puroell's Te Deum and Jubilate, and expanding several movements in After 1843 the services were for some them. thirty years accompanied by the organ only, the choir being, as before, very largely augmented. Since 1873 orchestral accompaniment has again been called into requisition Evensong has taken the place of Matins ; and modern com;

by various living composers, often written expressly for the festival, have been introduced. [A history of the corporation, by Rev. E. H. Pearce, was published in w. H. H. 1904.] SONTAG, Hbnriettb, Countess Rossi,'was bom at Coblenz, Jan. 3, 1806. Her father was a good comedian, her mother an actress of no ordinary merit, to whom the daughter, when at the height of fame, continued to turn for instruction. At six, Henriette made her first public appearance, at the Darmstadt theatre, as Salome, in Kauer's Donauweibchen.' Three years later her mother, then a widow, settled at Prague, where Weber was conductor at the theatre. Here Henriette acted in juvenile parts, and in 1815 was admitted, though under the prescribed age, as a pupil to the Conservatoriura She studied singing under Bayer of the city. and Fran Czegka, and when only fifteen was suddenly called upon to replace the prima donna at the opera in the part of the Princess Her precocity, in Boieldieu's 'Jean de Paris.' appearance, and vocal gifts at once created a great impression, but shortly afterwards her mother removed with her to Vienna, where the next few years were spent, Henriette Sontag singing both in Italian and German opera, and deriving, according to her own statement, incalculable benefit from the counsels and example Here "Weber, in of Mme. Fodor-Mainvielle. 1823, after hearing her in the ' Donna del Lago,' went next day to ofl'er her the title-r&le in his 'Euryanthe,' whose production, Oct. 25, was a Beethoven could triumph for Mile. Sontag. not hear her, but How did little Sontag sing ? -w^as his first question to those who had When, in 1824, been at the performance. positions

'

'

'

his

Ninth Symphony and Mass

in

D

were pro-

duced, it was she who sustained the difficult and ungrateful soprano part. She was next

engaged at Leipzig, and then for Berlin, making first appearance at the Konigstadt theatre,

her

August

3,

1825, as Isabella in the 'Italiana in

Algieri.

Henceforward her career was one unbroken triumph. She made her debut in Paris in June

'

'

vailing infatuation.

Her

figure

'

was slender and

mignonne, her hair between auburn and blonde, Her her eyes large, and her features delicate. voice, a soprano of clear and pleasing quality, was specially good in the upper register, reaching the E in alt with facility, and in perfection of execution she seems to have been unsurpassed by any singer of her time. But she was deficient in dramatic power, and only appeared to the highest advantage in works of a light and placid style. On her return to Paris, in Januai-y 1828, she essayed parts of a difl'erent order, such as Donna Anna and Semiramide, with success, but in passion and emotion never rose to the distinction she attained as a songstress. In England she appeared first on April 19, 1828, at the King's Theatre, as Rosina, and met with a most flattering reception, sharing with Malibran the honours of that and the *

succeeding season.

At

Sontag had formed the acquaintance of Count Rossi, then in the diplomatic service of Sardinia. An attachment sprang up between them, and was followed by a secret marriage. It was feared that the young diplomat's future might be compromised were he to acknowledge an artist of low birth as his wife. But after a time Count Rossi's efforts to procure Court sanction to his union were successful the King of Prussia bestowed a patent of nobility on the lady, who henceforth appeared in documents as -nie de Launstein, and she As definitely bade farewell to artistic life. Countess Rossi she accompanied her husband to the Hague, where he was representative of the Sardinian Court. Occasionally she would Berlin,

Mile.

—

sing for public charities, in concerts or oratorio a style in which she is said to have been unrivalled ; still, for nearly half her lifetime she remained lost to the musical public, following the career of her husband at the Courts of As to her Holland, Germany, and Russia. domestic felicity and the character of her

—

husband, we quote the positive testimony of Rossi made my sister her brother, Carl Sontag happy, in the truest sense of the word. Up to the day of her death they loved each other as But the disorders of on their wedding-day 1847-48 had impaired their fortunes, and she :

!

'

'

IIENKIETTE

SUMAU, COUMESS

RO.SSI

!

:

'!

SONTAG

SOPEANO

It was was tempted to return to the opera. notified to Rossi that he might retain his ambassador's post if he would formally separate from his wife on the tacit understanding that so soon as her operatic career was concluded This she should be allowed to return to him:

'Lucrezia Borgia' and the 'Figlia del Reggimento on a single evening without over-fatigue Her last appearance was made in Lucrezia at Mexico, in 1854. She was attacked by cholera, and on June 17 a brief illness cut short a life

—

he, however, at once refused,

and resigned his

though remaining on a friendly footing Luraley, then manager of Her with the Court. Majesty's Theatre, having offered the Countess Eossi £6000 for six months, it was accepted, and in July 1849 her reappearance in London The curiosity Linda was announced. as excited was extreme. Her voice and charms were unimpaired, and the unanimous opinion seems to have been that, in the words of Adolphe ^dam, she now united to youth and freshness As Amina, the qualities of a finished artist. though Jenny Lind was fresh in the public memory, she was rapturously received, as also in Desdemona, and Susanna in the 'Kozze,' one of her favourite parts, and pronounced by a German critic the most perfect thing he had seen on any stage. Her extraordinary preservation of her powers was partly due, no doubt, to long exemption from the wear and tear of incessant public singing ; but Sontag was always extremely careful of her voice, discarding any post,

'

'

that did not lie well within her register. Thus, in an early contract at Berlin, she expressly stipulates that she shall not be bound to sing in the operas of Spontini After a tour in the English provinces in the winter of 1849, she went to Palis, where a successful series of concerts, also under Lumley's management, preceded in the spring of 1850 her reappearance at Her Majesty's to win fresh laurels as Norina in 'Don Pasquale,' Elvira in the 'Puritani,' and Miranda in Halevy's new opera 'La Tempesta.' As Zerlina and the 'Figliadel Reggimento,' she appeared for the first time, and with pre-eminent success. In the autumn of 1850 .she sang in Italian opera at Paris, Lumley again being director of the company. During this season Alary's 'Tre Nozze' was produced, and the polka-duet between Sontag and Lablache never failed to send the public into ecstasies. It was brought out in London in 1851, with similar results. During this season, Mme. Sontag's last in London, she sang in a round of her favourite parts, and in the production of ' L'Enfant Prodigue.' In Germany, wherever she went she carried all before her. At a concert at Munich she was expressly requested to stay to hear the last piece. It proved to be a 'Huldigungs Chor' verses composed expressly in her honour by the Crown Prince, and set to music by Lachner. In 1852, Mme. Sontag received offers from the United States, which tempted her thither with her husband in the autumn. The results were brilliant. Her voice was strengthened by the climate, and at this time she could sing in rfile

—

621

'

'

'

of unchequered prosperity.

remarking on the fact that Sontag suff'er than other equally famous singers from hostile criticism and party spirit, ascribes it to her having so many favourite Berlioz,

had

less to

— sweetness

unsurpassed, fabulous agiand expression. In this last her scope was limited, and warranted Catalani's mot, ' Elle est la premiere dans son genre, mais son genre n'est pas le premier.' Her success in certain pathetic rfiles must be attributed to the charm of her singing. She used to say, 'A Donna Anna over her father's corpse, a Pamina in the air "Ach ich fuhl's," who cannot move the public to tears, has no idea of Mozart.' By her delivery of the short phrase alone, ' Tamino, halt ich muss ihn sehn, sung by Pamina behind the scenes, she could rouse the house to the stormiest applause. She was a thorough and conscientious artist, and her style won her the special favour of eminent musicians. Mendelssohn entertained the highest admiration for her, and she obtained a like tribute of praise from connoisseurs in every country. It fell to her lot to achieve an international popularity and fame never before accorded to a German singer. B. T. SOPRANO. The human voice of the highest pitch or range. Its peculiar clef is the C-clef upon the lowest line of the stave ; but in modem times this has been almost ipij universally superseded by the treble or G-clef on the second line. The word 'Soprano' is etymologically synonymous with Sovrano, the head, chief, or highest. In the present day the soprano is the highest natural voice of women and boys the artificial soprani belonging to the past ; and in women it is, perhaps, the voice which varies most in compass. That of Agujaei is the highest and most extended on record, and that of Tibtjens one of the largest in quality and power. But, as with other voices, it is not a question of compass alone, but of timbre. Many mezzosoprani can sing higher notes than many soprani ; but there is a middle to every voice, which, as a rule, it is not diflicult to find, and about this the tessitura (literally texture) of the music and the practice should be woven. Tessitura is the technical term used by the Italians to signify the notes or part of the scale upon which music is framed, and though, as said above, a mezzo-soprano may sing higher notes than a soprano, it would generally be found distressing to the former voice to dwell upon that part of the scale upon which even a limited soprano part is written. [See Tessitura.] Faustina, Cuzzoni, Mingotti, Anastasia qualities

Uty,

pei-fect intonation,

!

.

'

'

—

SORCERER, THE

SORDINO

Robinson, Mara, Banti, Catalani, Mrs. Billington, and Miss Baton are some of the principal

meet opposite the knees of the player, who, pressing the levers together, by an upward thrust moves a bar which takes the whole of the dampers off the strings. [See Hipkins's Eistory of the Pianoforte, pp. 93, 108, and 110

soprani of bygone days, possessing exceptionally good voices and those of Grisi, Clara Novello, Tietjens, Adelina Patti [and Melba] may perhaps be considered the best natural soprano voices of modern times. h. c. d. ;

SORCERER, THE. acts libretto by W.

Comic opera

two ; S. Gilbert, music by Arthur Sullivan. Produced at the Op&aComique Theatre, Nov. 17, 1877.

SORDINO,

in

Mute,! gp Damper (Fr. Sourdine The violin Sordino is described ;

Ger. Ddmpfer). below.

In the pianoforte the contrivance is called in English the damper. The first pianofortes, as we find Cristofori's and Silbermann's, were made without stops. In course of time a practice common with the harpsichord was followed in the pianoforte, and led the way to the now indispensable pedals. The first stops were used to raise the dampers ; and by two brass knobs on the player's left hand the dampers could be taken entirely off the strings in two divisions, bass and treble. C. P. E. Bach, in his Versuch, makes few references to the pianoforte ; but in the edition of 1797 he remarks (p. 268) that the undamped register of the Fortepiano is the most agreeable, and that, with due care, it is the most charming of keyed instruments for improvising (' fantasiren '). The higher treble of the piano is not now damped. These short strings vibrate in unison with the overtones of deeper notes, and, as a distinguished pianoforte-maker has said, give life to the whole instrument. ^ The terms ' Senza sordini ' and ' Con sordini ' applied to the damper stops were used exclusively by BeetHe did not use hoven in his earlier sonatas. the now familiar 'Fed.' or 'Pedal,' because the pedal was of recent introduction, and was less

(footnote).]

Contemporaneous with the employment of the GenouiUiere was that of the piano stop (German Harfenzug, Fr. CMeste), afterwards transferred, like the dampers, to a pedal. An interesting anonymous Louis Quinze square piano belonging to the painter M. GosseKu of Brussels had this Celeste as a stop. Its origin is clearly the harp-stop of the harpsichord, the pieces of leather being turned over so as to be interposed between the hammers and the strings. A note of directions for the use of the pedals to Steibelt's three

prefixed

sonatas,

op.

35,

gives an approximate date to the use of the pedals becoming recognised, and put under the

composer's direction, insteadof being left entirely He says to the fancy of the player. The Author wishing to make more Variety on the Piano Forte finds it necessary to make use of the Pedals, by which alone the tones can be united, but it requires to use them with care, without which, in going from one chord to another. Discord and Confusion would result. Hereafter the Author in all his Compositions win make use of the following signs to denote the Pedals. The Pedal which raises the dampers. :

'

^ *

The Piano PedaL To take the foot

off

the Pedal that was

used before.' Steibelt's op. 35 was published in 1799, by Longman, Clementi & Co.^ The leather was applied in one length to mute the strings more effectually, and was then called in French Sourdine.' John Broad wood was the '

—

and

* were

put the sordin as it is called in his patent of 1783 upon a foot-pedal he put the dampers upon a pedal at the same time, and for fifty years the pedal-foot was cloven, to divide the dampers into bass and treble sections, as the stops had previously been divided for the same purpose. The use of the pianissimo mute was

ally

became

indicated

commonly employed than the stops, which every little square piano then had. The 'GenouiUiere,' or knee-pedal, replaced the

damper stops in the

German Grands. For the Italian words signifying Without and With dampers the signs substituted by Steibelt, and eventufixed as the constant equivalents. The oldest dated square piano existing, one of Zumpe's of 1766, has the damper stops ; as to the Genouilli^re, Mozart tells us (letter, October 1777) how Stein had one in his improved Grand, and M. Mahillon's Stein of 1780, or thereabouts, accordingly has one. There is one in Mozart's Walther Grand at Salzburg, and in each of the two Hiihn (Berlin) Grands of 1790, or earlier, preserved at Potsdam. The action of the GenouilliSre consists of two levers which descend a little below the key-bottom of the piano, and 1

It will

be noticed that the metaphois at the root of the Italian case and dumbness in the

and English terms are deafness in one other.

we

find the practice of leaving Even in Vlldung, sympathetic strings in the clavlchordH ; as he says to strengthen 2

i^e resonance.

A.D. 1511,

to

first

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;

by the Italian word Sordino.' Mr. Franklin Taylor has pointed out to the writer the use of this term in the sense of a mute as late as Thalberg's op. 41 (Ashdown's edition). The Versohiebung, or shifting pedal, for shifting the hammer first to two strings and then to one (una corda), ultimately gained the day over the muted pedals or stops. The etteet of the una corda was charming, and is expressly indicated by Beethoven in his G major Concerto, '

'

'

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'

The^

in op. 106, etc. and^p^ soft pedal in course of time shared the fate of the divided 3 Steibelt gives a description of the pedals, with his signs for them, in his MitTutde de Piano, drat published by Janet, Paris, isos. He names Clementi, Dussek, and Cramer as having adopted his signs. They differ J!rom and are better than Adain's {StWiovte de Piano du Oon-ervatoire). also published in Paris, 1802. Steibelt calls the 'una corda celeite. '

'

SORDINO

SORIANO

such refinements were banished In the aix-pedal Viennese Grand of Nannette Stein at Windsor Castle, the 'Veraohiebung'and'HarfenThe latter has of late years zug' CO- exist.'

The tone thus produced is thin, nasal, and unpleasing. Wagner has frequently used it (' Siegfried,' Acts 1 and 2 'Meistersinger,' last scene) as a comic effect, imitating the sound of a toy-trumpet. The third means produces a very distant- sounding, but still more nasal quality of tone, and is known to orchestral players as the coffee-pot eftect." It is obtained by allowing the sound to issue from the small end of a small double cone of metal, styled the echo attachment. A good comet player can, by these three devices, produce on his instrument exact imitations of the horn, oboe, and bagpipe. Trombones, Tubas, etc., can also be muted in the same way, and the effect of the fonner has been tried in Richard Strauss's 'Heldenleben.' For muting by means of the hand in the bell,

damper pedal

;

as being of small service in lai^e rooms.

again come forward, at first in oblique pianos that could not sliilt, and since more generally ; and has, to a certain extent, gained the favour of amateurs. The material used is cloth or felt. [See also the glossary of terms in Hipkins's A. j. H. History ofths Pianoforte, p. 123.] Most instruments are capable of having their tone dulled for particular effects, and this is accomplished by partially preventing the vibrations by the interposition of a foreign substance. Violins are muted either by placing an ebony, xylonite, or brass instrument upon the bridge.

623

;

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'

see HoitN, vol.

ii.

p. 431a'..

has been frequently stated that Berlioz muted the Clarinet by enveloping the beU in a bag of chamois leather,' and that The Oboes in Handel's time were muted by placing a ball of cotton wool in the bell. But these devices only affect the bottom note of the instrument, as all others issue from the holes and not from the bell It

c

, G.36 3 easy, pleasing, and progressive Sonatas. PF. ; C, Bb, F. Easy Sonatas. PP. and Vln. Easy Sonata. PF. 6 easy and pleasing Sonatinas : Book 1, Bb, C ; Book 2, D, Bb, A. 3 easy Sonatas, PF. and Vln. 3 Sonatas, PP., with Flute or Vln. ; A, D, 3o.^ 'Mamma naia,' arranged as a Rondo, PP. ; Ep. | Naval Fight, a grand national piece, PP.38 3 Sonatas, PP. ; D, Bb, Eb. Rondo, PP. ; D. ' Amusement pour les Dames," PF.39 Grand Sonata, PP., with Piute or Vln. ; A. Fantasia with var. on ' Der VogelfKnger," PF. 3 Sonatas, PP., with ace, for Violin ; A, Eb, Bb. Grand Sonata (ded. to Mme. Bonaparte). PP.; Ep. SSonatas. PP., withaco. forPluteorVln.; A,D,Bb.^o Sonata, PP.andVln.; A. Grand PolonadsB, PF. and Vln. ; E. Polonaise, PP. 3 Sonatas (' in which are introduced some admired airs.'), PF., with ace. for Flute or Vln. ;'Bb, A, D." I

40.

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1

3.

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2.

i

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(easy PP. pieoeB).^^ 36. 3 Sonatas (ded. to Mme. de Boigne), PF. with a«c. for Piute, or Vln. ; P, Bb, (1799).28 3 Divertissements and 5 Rondos, PP. (1799). 3 easy Divertissements PP. 3 easy Divertissements and Airswithvar.,PF. Sonata for 2 PF.s (1800). 12 Waltzes, Pr.,withacc.forTambourine and Triangle. 29 CombatNaval, PP., with Vln. and Vcello. (and Gr. Tambour ad lib.) ; Ep.30 37. 3 Sonatas, PF., with Vln. ad lib. The first has also a Tambourine obbligato ; C, A, Eb.^i 3 Progressive Sonatas, PF. ; C, Bb, F. 3 Sonatas of progressive diflfioulty, PP., with Vln. and Vcello. ad lib. Sonata, PP. with Vln. ad Ub. ; ]^.32 38. 3 Sonatas, PP., with ace. for Flute or Vln. ; C, Bb, G.33 1 3 Sonatas, PP., with ace. for Flute or Vln. ; A, D, BJ?. 12

Op.

3 Sonatas. TF. and VTn. (1788). Sonata. PP. 2 Sonatas, PF. 3 Sonatas, PP. 3 Sonatas, Harp with Vln. and VceUo. ad Hb. 6 Sonatas, PP., with Flute or Vln. and VceUo. • Sonata, PP. and Vtn. (1788). Sonata, PP. Sonata, PP. and Sonatas. PP., the first with Vln.i 2 Sonatas, Vln, (1791). 3 PP. 3 Sonatas, PP., Vln., and VceUo. 8onaU,PP..Vln., and Vcello. (1791). Turkish Overture,PP. Vln.

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Dames'

44. 1.

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17 Also published for Harp and PP. The air comes from Paisiello's La Modista ra^iratrice." IS This appears to have been also published for PP., Piute, and '^

Vcello.

See op. 28.

This was also published for PF. and Harp. See op, 8. ^ See op. 35. See opp. 46 ajid 62, 23 These 2 Sonatas are described as Liv, 2,' so that another book may have been published. 24 These Quartets appear to be some sort of arrangement or 20 31

'

selection. 25 In 2 books, each containing 12 Waltzes. ITie first book was also published (1) for Harp, Tambourine, Flute, smd Ti-iangle; (2) for 2 Violins ; (3) for 2 Flutes. One book was also published as op. 36. 27 Also published as op. 43. 28 See op. 33. See op. 24. 28 These appear to have been also published as op, 39. 29 AlsopublishedforPP.,VioUn,andTriangle, These Waltzes are ^ See opp. 41 and 42. part of op. 34. 31 In 1802, 5 Sonatas with Violin ad lib. are announced as forming this work. 32 It is possible that all the works numbered op. 37 are variants ^ This was also published as op. 41. of the first mentioned. 34 These appear to have been also published as op. 36. 36 gee op. 38. 35 See opp. 36 and 42. 37 These were also published as op. 45. Theymay be identical with ^ See opp. 36 and 41. the preceding. 39 Also published as op. 35. See op. 24. 40 Also published as op. 42. 41 The ^admired airs' are—in No. 1, "Twas within a mile of

—

STEIGLEDER

Op.

Op. ,

2 Sonatas, PF. ; Bb, A.i 6 Sonatas (in 2 books), FF. Duet for Harp. 8 Quartets for Strings. 6 SoDatiua« of progressive difllculty, PF. 6 favourite (also called progreBsive) Sonatas, FF. ; C, G, D, Eb, A. 3SonatJiB,FF.;C,G,P. Qiw,rtet,PF.,Vln.,Tlola,andVcello.; A. |

51.

^,

6 Bacchanals, FF., witli ace. for Flute, Tambourine, and Triangle,

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58. 59.

1

and

ata, PF., Vln.,

|

Vcello.

Sonata (ded. to Duchess of Courland), FF. Eb. 6 Sonatas, FF. |2Bondos, PP. ; F, A. 61. Grand Sonata. FF.;Eb. SSonatas, FF.,wlthVln.andVc6llo. 2 Souatas, PP., with Vln. and VceUo.(adZi6.); G, Eb. 2 Sonatas, PP., with aoc. for Vln. and Vcello. [ F,D. SSonatas, PP., Vln., and Vcello. ; Bb, Eb^ Grand Sonata, PF., Vln., and Veello.2 62. 2 Sonatas, PF. F, D (1802).9 8 Sonatinas, PF. ; Eb, G, C. 3 Sonatas, PF., with Vln. or Flute C, Bb, G. 63. Sonata, PF. : D. 3 Grand Sonatas, FF. ; C, F, D (1802). Sonata, PP. Bb, I Le Rappel k I'armde,' Military Fantasia on an air by Mozart. FF. P.* 'Eondo, PP. 64 Grand Concerto, No. 5 (' & la Cbasse '), PF. and Orch. (1802). Grand Sonata. PF. G. Second Military Fantasia with a triumphal march by Haydn, PF. es. 3 Sonatas, PP., Vln.. and Vcello. 3 Sonatas, PP. ' lie Rappel & I'armde,' Military Fantasia, FF. F.6 •Rondo, FF. 66. 3 Grand Sonatas, PP., with aco. for Flute or Vln. added by I. Fleyel; F, G, A (1802). 3 Sonatas, PF. and Vln. 2 Sonatas, FF. P, A.8 Air favori de L&mce Vari6, PF. ; D.T 67. 2 Sonatas, PP. Grand Sonata, PP., with aoc. for Vln., Sonata, PF.. with Flute or Vln. D. 68. 3 Sonatas, PP., with Vln. ad lib. 2 easy Sonatas, PF. 6 Bacchanals, PP., with Tajnbourine ad Zib. 69. 3 Sonatas, PP., with Vln., or Vcello., or Bassoon obbligato. Grand Sonata, PF. and Vln. obbligato G min. Les PapilIons,' Rondo, PF. E?. 3 Sonatas, PF., Vln., and Vcello. Grand Sonata, FF.; Eb. 3 Sonatinas, PP., with Flute or Vln. C, so, G. 3 Sonatas, PP., with Vln.; G, P, A. Sonata for Harp. 3 Grand Sonatas, PP., with Vln. obbligato; G min., G, Bb. Sonata (with a dance air by Duport), PF. and Flute. 3 Sonatas (or Sonatinas), PF. and Vln., or Flute C, Bb, G. La BoWinienne (Air by Choron), with var. ; PF. G. 3 Sonatas, PP. and Vln. G, P, A.8 Fantasia with 6 var. on Bdlisaire," PP. D min.a 3 Sonatas, PF. and Vln. Eb, A, E min. 6 Bacdianals, PP., with Tambourine ad lib. 3 Sonatas, PP. 3 progressive Sonatas, PP., with Vln. ad lib. P, G, A. 2 easy Sonatas. PP. Fantasia, PF. 3 Grand Sonatas. PF. ; A, G, Eb."* New Turkish Overture, FF., 60.

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PP.

(1792).

WORKS WITHOUT OPUS-NUMBERS 1. VOCAI. AND ObCHBSTBAL. Six Operas—' Bomdo et Juliette,' in S acts ; produced at Thiktre Feydeau, Sept. 10. 1793. 'Albert and Adelaide,' in 8 acts, an English opera, not wholly original, produced at Covent Garden, Dec. 11, 'LaPrinceBBedeBabylone,'in3acts. 'Cendri]lon,'in3acts. 1798. ' Sargines.' in three acts. Le Jugenient de Midas,' unfinished, but apparently performed. Mve Ballets—' Le Retour de Z^phire (Paris Op^ra, March 3, 1802), Le Jugement du berger P&ris' (King's Theatre, London, May 24, 1804).!^ [' La belle Laitidre. ou Blanche, Reine de Castile' (King's Theatre. Jan. 26, 1805). 'La P£te de I'Empereur' (St. Petersburg, 1809). 'Der blOde Ritter' (St. Petersburg, before 1812) and an Intermezzo, * La PSte de Mars (Paiis 0p6ra, March 4, 1806). Vocal Music.—The 20 Songs of Estelle, with ace. for PF, or Harp.™ 30 Songs with ace. for PF. or Harp, in 5 vols., each of 6 songs. Jftuic for Orchestra. Ouverture en Symphonie (1796). Waltzes for Orch. Grand Concerto for Harp, with Orch ace. Potpourri, arranged as Concerto, with ace. for Orch. 8 Concertos for FF. and |

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Orch.. viz.

No.

1.

2.

m

3.

4. 6. 6.

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[

8.

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]

•

In C (1796). In E min. with ace. for Vln. or Full Orch, ad Ub, (1796!). In E('The Storm'). Op. 33 or 35 (1798-99). In Eb. InEb('AlaChaflse'). Op. 64 (1802) In G min. ('Le Voyage au MontSt. Bernard') (about 1816). In E min. (Grand Military Concerto, 'dans le Genre des Ojrecs,' with 2 Orchestras) (before 1817). In Eb (with Bacchanalian Rondo, ace, by Chorus). (Produced at St. Petersburg, March 16, 1820, and played by Neate at the London Philharmonic Ccmcert of March 26,1822.)

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Vln., and Vcello.u 6 Souatinas. PP. '2 Fantasia with 6 var. on the Romance of Richard Coaurde Lion,' PP. ; 0. Etude for PP., containing 50 exercises of different kinds (in 2 books) (1805). 6 Bacchanals, PP., with Tambourine ajt. When extempore discant gave place to written counterpoint, the C3Tw,

S» Camv Quartet, op. 130, used the suspended fourth together with the third on which it is to resolve, and put the latter at the and Bach top, and the former at the bottom (/) supplies many examples of similar character. Certain simple rules are almost invariably observed such as that the moment of percussion and shall fall upon the strong heat of the bar that the progression shall not imply a violation ;

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a

SVENDSEN

SUSPENSION

758

upwards from those that resolve downwards, [See Ebtaec. h. h. p. Habmony.] SVENDSEN, JohanSeverin, was bom Sept.

styling the former Retardations.

DATioN

of rules against consecutive perfect concords, if the artificial suspension of

which would occur

the part were removed, as in

(g).

Composers early discovered a means of varying the character of the process by interpolating notes between the sounding of the discord and Instances are also to its resolution, as in (A).

be found in which some such forms were used as sufficient to constitute resolution without arriv-

—

^habit and familiarity ing at the normal note, with a particular form of motion leading to the acceptance of a conventional formula in place of The following examples the actual solution. from Corelli's Ist Sonata of opera 2da and 5th of opera 4ta are clear illustrations.

;

30, 1840, at Ohriatiania, where his father was a At the age of eleven he military bandmaster. wrote his first composition for the violin. When fifteen he enlisted in the army, and soon became Even at that age he played, with bandmaster.

He

considerable skill, flute, clarinet, and violin.

soon left the army, and worked during the next few years in the orchestra of the Christiania theatre, and at a dancing academy, for which he arranged some etudes by Paganini and Kreutzer for damcing. A strong desire to travel drove him, at twenty-one, on a roving tour over a great part of Sweden and North Germany. Two years after, being in Liibeok in extremely reduced circumstances, he fortunately met with the SwedishNorwegian Consul Herr Leche, whose interest he gained, and who shortly after obtained a stipend for him from Charles XV. to enable him to but being soon perfect himself as a violinist afterwards attacked with paralysis in the hand, he was compelled to give up the bow for composition. He went to Leipzig in 1863, and his works being already known there, he was placed in the finishing class of the Conservatorium, receiving, however, instruction in elementary theory of music, which he had never been taught. His instructors were Hauptmann, David, Richter, and Reinecke. He wrote a Quartet in A, an Quartets Octet and a Quintet, all for strings ;

;

^^^^^ This particular device is characteristic rather of the early period of harmonic music up to The followCorelli's time than of a later period. ing passage from Schumann's andante and variations for two pianofortes (op. 46) is characteristic of modern uses of combined and chromatic suspension,

and

also of interpolation of notes

(m) 1st Piano.

and a Symphony in D. On leaving Leipzig in 1867 he received the After great honorary medal of the Academy. travelling in Denmark, Scotland, and Norway, Svendsen went in 1868 to Paris. The Second Empire was then at its zenith, and his sojourn in the capital of France influenced the comWhilst there, poser to a very great extent. he played in Musard's orchestra, and at the Odfon, and became intimately acquainted with for

male voices

;

WUbelmine Szarvady, De

Bfoiot, Vieuxtemps,

He arranged the incidental and Leonard. music to Copp^e's Le Passant,' in which both Sarah Bernhardt and Agar performed, but on '

—

the whole his Paris productions were few Concerto for violin in A, and orchestral arrangements of studies by Liszt and Schubert he also began 'Sigurd Slembe,' the overture to a Norwegian drama of that name. He left Paris at the beginning of the war in 1870 for Leipzig, where he had been offered the couductorship of the well-known Euterpe concerts, which however were discontinued, owing to the war. At a great musical festival at Weimar, in the same year, he first met Liszt and Tausig, and his octet was played by a party containing David, Hellmesberger, Griitzmacher, and Hechmaim, with great approbation. Early in the following year his Symphony in D was performed at the Gewandhaus, and his fame as a somposer ;

between percussion and resolution. Some theorists distinguish the combinations which resolve

—

'

SVENDSEN established.

He composed

SWEELINCK

in that year his

Op. 20.

In the autumn

Concerto for violoncello in D.

he went to America to be married to an American lady, whom he had met in Paris, and returned the same year to Leipzig, where, after the end of the war, he undertook the leadership of the Euterpe concerts for one year. There he finished the overture to Sigurd Slembe, which was played at the Euterpe then, and in '

the following year at the musical festival at Caasel, both times with great success. In this year he met "Wagner at Bayrenth, and soon became his intimate associate. For the next five years (1872-77) he was conductor of the Christiania Musical Association and teacher of composition, and composed comparatively few works, which may be explained by the unfortunate want of pecuniary independence. The pieces of this period are numbered opp. 10-22 in his list. In 1874 his labours found some appreciation from his countrymen in the shape of an annuity granted by the Storthing, and several decorations conferred on him by the king. After five years of hard work, he was In 1877 enabled once more to proceed abroad. he revisited Leipzig, and conducted a new work went thence to Munich, at the Gewandhaus and eventually to Rome, where he spent the winter. In 1878 he visited London for the first ;

Scandinavian ajrs arranged

24.

for string quartet. 21, 22.

Rhapsodies Norv, which was written in Vienna in 1788, and stands first in the famous triad.

the

whole forty-nine, in

clarinets five times,

;

These

facts explain to a certain extent

was possible

number

how

it

write such an extraordinary in so short a space of time. Mozart's to

most continuously prolific period in this branch of art seems to have been when he had returned to Salzburg in 1771 for between July in that year and the beginning of 1773, it appears to be proved that he producecT no fewer than ;

But this feat is fairly surpassed in another sense by the production of the last three in three successive months, June, July, and August 1788 since the musical calibre of these is so immensely superior to that of the earlier fourteen.

;

ones.

One detail of comparison between Mozart's ways and Haydn's is curious. Haydn began to use introductory adagios very early, and used them so often that they became quite a characteristic feature in his plan. Mozart, on the other hand, did not use one until his 44th

Symphony, written in 1783. What was the origin of Haydn's employment of them is uncertain. The causes that have been Suggested are not altogether satisfactory. In the ortliodox form of symphony, as written by the numerous composers of his early days, the opening adagio is not found. He may possibly have observed that it was a useful factor in a certain

and then have used it as an experiment in symphonies, and finding it answer, may have adopted the expedient generally in succeeding works of the kind. It seems likely that Mozart adopted it from Haydn, as its first appearance (in the symphony which is believed to have been composed at Linz for Count Thun) coincides with the period in which he is considered to have been first strongly influenced class of overtures,

by Haydn. The influence of these two great composers upon one another is extremely interesting and curious, more especially as it did not take eff'ect comparatively late in their artistic careers. in the general direction of their time, under the influences which have been already referred to. In the department of symphony each was considerably influenced after a time by a special circumstance of his life Haydn by the appointment to Esterhaz before alluded to, and the opportunities it afforded him of orchestral experiment and Mozart by his stay at Mannheim in 1777. For it appears most likely that the superior abilities till

They both began working

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SYMPHONY Mannheim orchestra for dealing with purely instrumental music, and the traditions of Stamitz, who had there effected his share in the history of the Symphony, opened Mozart's eyes to the possibilities of orchestral performance, and encouraged him to a freer style of composition and more elaborate treatment of the orchestra than he had up to that time attempted. The Mannheim band had in fact been long considered the finest in Europe and in certain things, such as attention to nuances (which in early orchestral works had been looked upon as either unnecessary or out of place), they and their conductors had been important pioneers and thusMozart mustcertainly have had his ideas on such heads a good deal expanded. The qualities of the symphony produced in Paris early in the next year were probably the first-fruits of these circumstances and it happens that while this symphony is the first of his which has maintained a definite position among the important landmarks of art, it is also the first in which he uses orchestral forces approaching to those commonly employed for symphonies since the latter part of the 18th century. Both Haydn and Mozart, in the course of their respective careers, made decided progress in managing the orehesti'a, both as regards the treatment of individual instruments, and the distribution of the details of musical interest among them. It has been already pointed out that one of the earliest expedients by which contrast of efi'ect was attempted by writers for combinations of instruments, was the careful of the

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distribution of portions for ' solo and ripieno instruments, as illustrated by Scarlatti's and In J. S. Bach's treatment of later concertos.

771

in major) and the trio consists and elaborate solo for bassoon. Haydn early began experiments in various uses of his orchestra, and his ways of grouping his solo instruments for effect are often curious and original. C. F. Pohl, in his life of him, prints from the MS. parts a charming slow movement from a Bfci symphony, which was probably written in 1766 or 1767. It illustrates in a singular way '

Ouverture

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;

of a long

how Haydn

at first endeavoured to obtain a

special effect without

methods

familiar

movement

is

ceasing to

conform to

of treating his strings.

scored for

first

and second

The

violins,

and bass, all con sordini.' and second violins play in unison throughout, and the violoncello plays the tune with them an octave lower, while the violas play in octaves with the bass all but two or three violas, solo violoncello

The

'

first

bars of cadence

;

so that in reality there are

more than two parts playing at a The following example will show the

scarcely ever

time. style

:

Violini 1

&

2.

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the orchestra the same characteristic is familiar. The long duets for oboes, flutes, or bassoons, and the solos for horn or violin, or viola da gamba, which continue throughout whole recitatives or arias, all have this same principle at Composers had still to learn the free bottom. and yet well-balanced management of their between string forces, and to attain the mean strengthen the use of wind instruments merely to instruments in the strings and their use as solo In Haydn's early long independent passages.

symphonies the old traditions are most apparent. The balance between the different forces of the In obvious. orchestra is as yet both crude and for instance, the symphonv called Le Matin the earliest, which appear^ to have been among the first, and the the second violins play with very marked extent violas with the basses to a '

_in

the

This

first

for flute.

first

'

movement almost throughout.

movement, again, begins with a splo divided The slow movement, which is instruand andante, has no wind

into adagio ments at all, but there

throughis a viohn solo In the minuet a conout the middle portion. passage for wind band trast is attained by a long Bourr^e to the alone (as in J. S. Bach's second

Towards a

really free treatment of his forces he seems, however, to have been led on insensibly and by very slow degrees. For over twenty years of symphony- writing the same limited treatment of strings and the same kind of solo passages are commonly to be met with. But there is a growing tendency to make the wind and the lower and inner strings more and more independent, and to individualise the style of each within fine symphony (in E proportionate bounds. minor, Letter I '), which appears to date from 1772, is a good specimen of Haydn's interThe strings play almost incesmediate stage. santly throughout, and the wind either doubles the string parts to enrich and reinforce them, or else has long holding notes while the strings The passage fi-om play characteristic figures. the last movement, given on the next page, will serve to illustrate pretty clearly the stage of orchestral expression to which Haydn had at

A

'

that time arrived. In the course of the following ten years the No doubt many progress was slow but steady. other composers were writing symphonies besides Haydn and Mozart, and were, like them, imUnfortunately the proving that branch of art. difficulty of fixing the dates of their productions

SYMPHONY

772

own the group of strings which give The same out the first part of the subject. well-balanced method is observed throughout. In the working out of this movement almost all the instruments have something special and relevant of their own to do, so that it is made to seem as if the conception were exactly apportioned to the forces which were meant to The same criticisms apply to all the utter it. The slow movement rest of the symphony. has beautiful independent figures and phrases for the wind instruments, so interwoven with the body of the movement that they supply

Presto.

of their

Comi

in E.

Violas

&r

elements of colour and fulness of harmony, without appearing either as definite The solos or as meaningless holding notes. fresh and merry last movement has much the same characteristics as the first in the matter of instrumental utterance, and in its working-

necessary

J

I

^;^felE^feg^^ii^g^l4^ is

and so their greater recome to be regarded, not only as

almost insuperable

presentatives

;

giving an epitome of the history of the epoch, Mozart's but as comprising it in themselves. first specially notable symphony falls in 1778. This was the one which he wrote for Paris after

Mannheim and some of his Mannheim friends who happened to be in Paris It is in with him assisted at the performance. his experiences at

;

almost every respect a very great advance upon

Haydn's

E minor Symphony, just quoted.

treatment of the instruments

and more individually

is

very

characteristic.

The

much It

freer,

marks

an important step in the transition from the kind of symphony in which the music appears to have been conceived almost entirely for except in violins, with wind subordinate, special solo passages, to the kind in which the original conception in respect of subjects, episodes, and development, embraced all the The forces, including the wind instruments. symphony are first eight bars of Mozart's sufiicient to illustrate the nature of the artistic tendency. In the firm and dignified beginning of the principal subject, the strings, with flutes and bassoons, are all in unison for three bars, and a good body of wind instruments gives the Then the upper strings are left full chord. alone for a couple of bars in octaves, and are accompanied in their short closing phrase by an independent full chord of wind instruments, piano. This chord is repeated in the same form of rhythm as that which marks the first bars of the principal subject, and has therefore at once musical sense and relevance, besides supplying In the subsidiary the necessary full harmony. subject by which the first section is carried on, the quick lively passages of the strings are accompanied by short figures for flute and horns, with their own independent musical In the second subject proper, significance. which is derived from this subsidiary, an excellent balance of colour is obtained by pah's of wind instruments in octaves, answering with an independent and very characteristic phrase

out section all the forces have, if anything, even more independent work of their own to do, while still supplying their appropriate ingredients to the sum total of sound. The succeeding ten years saw all the rest of the work Mozart was destined to do in the

department of symphony much of it showing in turn an advance on the Paris Symphony, inasmuch as the principles there shown were worked out to greater fulness and perfection, ;

while the musical spirit attained a more definite richness, and escaped farther from the formalism which characterises the previous generation. Among these symphonies the most important are the following a considerable one (in E(>) composed at Salzburg in 1780 the 'Haffner' (in D), which was a modification of a serenade, and had originally more than the usual group of movements the Linz Symphony (in G No. 6 ') and the last four, the crown of the whole series. The first of these (in D major) was written for Prague in 1786, .and was received there with immense favour in Jan. 1787. It appears to be far in advance of all its predecessors in freedom and clearness of instrumentation, in the breadth and musical significance of the subjects, and in richness and balance of form. It is one of the few' of Mozart's which open with an adagio, and that too of unusual proportions but it has no minuet and trio. This symphony was in its turn eclipsed by the three great ones in E flat, G minor, and C, which were composed at Vienna in June, July, and August 1788. These symphonies are almost the first in which certain qualities of musical expression and a certain method in their treatment stand prominent in the manner which was destined to become characteristic of tlie great works of the early part of the 19th century. Mozart having mastered the principle upon which the mature art-form of symphony was to be attacked, had greater freedom for the expression of his intrinsically musical ideas, and could emphasise more freely and consistently :

;

'

;

'

;

;

'

;

SYMPHONY the typical characteristics which his inspiration led him to adopt in developing his ideas. It must not, however, be supposed that this principle is to be found for the iirst time in tliese works. They find their counterparts in works of Haydn's of a much earlier date ; only, inasmuch as the art-form was then less mature, the element of formalism is too strong to admit of the musical or poetical intention being so clearly realised. It is of course impossible to put into words with certainty the inherent characteristics of these or any other later works on the same lines ; but that they are felt to

have such characteristics is indisputable, and their perfection as works of art, which is so

commonly

insisted on, could not exist if it were not so. Among the many writers who have tried in some way to describe them, probably the best and most responsible is Otto Of the first of the group (that in El>), Jahn. he says, 'We find the expression of perfect happiness in the charm of euphony which is one of the marked external characteristics of The feeling of pride in the the whole work. consciousness of power shines through the magnificent introduction, while the Allegro expresses the purest pleasure, now in frolicsome joy, now '

'

in active excitement, dignified composure.

and now in noble and Some shadows appear, it

in the Andante, but they only serve to relief the mild serenity of a mind communing with itself and rejoicing This is the true in the peace which fills it.

is true,

throw into stronger

source of the cheerful transport which rules the last movement, rejoicing in its own strength

Whether this is all being.' perfectly true or not is of less consequence than the fact that a consistent and uniform style and in the joy of

and object can be discerned through the whole work, and that it admits of an approximate description in words, without either straining or violating familiar impressions. The second of the gi-eat symphonic trilogy— that in G minor— has a still clearer meaning. The contrast with the El> is strong, for in no

symphony and

of Mozart's

regretfulness.

is

there so

much

sadness

This element also accounts

most modern of his symphonies, and shows most human nature. very E. T. A. Hoffmann (writing in a spirit different from that of Jahn) says of it, Love and melancholy breathe forth in purest spirit we feel ourselves drawn with inexprestones which beckon sible longing towards the forms the us to join them in their flight through for the fact that it is the

'

;

m

Jahn agrees clouds to another sphere.' and attributing to it a character of sorrow complaining ; and there can hardly be a doubt such that the tonality as well as the style, and characteristic features as occur incidentally, would all favour the idea that Mozart's inspirafar tion took a sad cast, and maintained it so throughout; so that, notwithstandingthe formal

V73

passages which occasionally make their appearance at the closes, the whole work may without violation

of probability receive a consistent psychological explanation. Even the orchestration seems appropriate from this point of view, since the prevailing effect is far less soft and smooth than that of the previous symphony. detail of historical interest in connection

A

with this work is the fact that Mozart originally wrote it without clarinets, and added them afterwards for a performance at which it may be presumed they happened to be specially available. He did this by taking a separate piece of paper and rearranging the oboe parts, sometimes combining the instruments and sometimes distributing the parts between the two, with due regard to their characteristic styles of utterance.

The last of Mozart's symphonies has so obvious and distinctive a character throughout, that popular estimation has accepted the definite name 'Jupiter' as conveying the prevalent feeling about it. In this there is far less human sentiment than in the G minor. In fact, Mozart appears to have aimed at something lofty and self-contained, and therefore precluding the shade of sadness which is an element almost indispensable to strong human sympathy. When he descends from this distant height, he assumes a cheerful and sometimes playful vein, as in the second principal subject of the first movement, and in the subsidiary or cadence subject that This may not be altogether in follows it. accordance with what is popularly meant by the name 'Jupiter,' though that deity appears to have been capable of a good deal of levity in his time ; but it hag the virtue of supplying admirable contrast to the main subjects of the section ; and it is so far in consonance with them that there is no actual reversal of feeling The slow in passing from one to the other. movement has an appropriate dignity which keeps it in character, and reaches, in parts, a considerable degi'ee of passion, which brings it nearer to human sympathy than the other The Minuet and the Ti-io again movements. show cheerful serenity, and the last movement, with its elaborate fugal treatment, has a vigorous austerity, which is an excellent balance to the The scoring, character of the first movement. especially in the first and last movements, is fuller than is usual with Mozart, and produces and it is effects of strong and clear sound also admirably in character with the spirit of dignity and loftiness which seems to be aimed at in the greater portion of the musical subjects In these later symphonies Mozart and figures. certainly reached a far higher pitch of art in the department of instnimental music than any ;

hitherto anived at.

The

characteristics of his

attainments may be described as a freedom of style in the ideas, freedom in the treatment of the various parts of the score, and independence

'

SYMPHONY

774

and appropriateness of expression in the manage-

come

ment

two

groups of instruments employed. In comparison with the works of his predecessors, and with his own and Haydn's earlier compositions, tliere is throughout a most The distriburemarkable advance in vitality. tion of certain cadences and passages of tutti still appear to modern ears formal ; but compared with the immature formalism of expression, even in principal ideas, which was prevalent twenty or even ten years earlier, the improvement is immense. In such structural elements as the development of the ideas, the concise and energetic flow of the music, the distribution and contrast of instrumental tone, and the balance and proportion of sound, these works are generally held to reach a pitch almost unsurpassable from the point of view of technical Mozart's intelligence and taste, criticism. dealing with thoughts as yet undisturbed by stiong or passionate emotion, attained a degree of perfection in the sense of pure and directly intelligible art which later tunes can scarcely hope to see approached. Haydn's symphonies up to this time cannot be said to equal Mozart's in any respect though they show a considerable improvement on the style of treatment and expression in the 'Trauer or the Farewell Symphonies. Of those which are better known of about this date are 'La Poule and Letter V, which were written (both 'Letter Q,' or for Paris) in 1786 and 1787. the Oxford Symphony, which was performed when Haydn received the degree of Doctor of Music from that university, dates from 1788, Letter the same year as Mozart's great triad. the

of

various

;

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

T

'

and

'

Letter

Q

'

are in his

mature

style,

and

thoroughly characteristic in every respect. The orchestration is clear and fresh, though not so sympathetic nor so elastic in its variety as and the ideas, with all their geniality Mozart's and directness, are not up to his own highest standard. It is the last twelve, which were writtenfor Salomon afterl790, which havercally iixed Haydn's high position as a composer of symphonies ; these became so popular as practically to supersede the numerous works of all his predecessors and contemporaries except Mozart, to the extent of causing them to be almost completely forgotten. This is owing partly to the high pitch of technical skill which he attained, partly to the freshness and geniality of his ideas, and partly to the vigour and daring of harmonic progression which he manifested. He and Mozart together enriched this branch of art to an extraordinary degre6,and towards the end of their lives began to introduce far deeper feeling and earnestness into the style than had been customary in The average orchestra early works of the class. had increased in size, and at the same time had gained a better balance of its component elements. Instead of the customary little group of strings and four wind instruments, it had ;

to comprise, besides the strings, two flutes, oboes, two bassoons, two horns, two To these were occasiontrumpets, and drums.

added two clarinets, as in Haydn's last minor and one in Eb), and three (the two in in one movement of the Military Symphony. Neither Mozart nor Haydn ever used trombones

ally

D

symphonies but uncommon instruments were sometimes employed, as in the 'Military,' in which Haydn used a big drum, a triangle and cymbals. -In his latest symphonies Haydn's treatment of his orchestra agrees in general with the description already given of Mozart's. The bass has attained a free motion of its own the violas rarely cling in a dependent manner to it, but have their own individual work to do, and the same applies to the second violins, which no longer so often appear merely col Imo.'" The wind instruments fill up and sustain the harmonies as completely as in former days but they cease merely to hold long notes without in

;

;

'

;

characteristic features, or slavishly to follow the string parts whenever something livelier is required. They may still play a great deal that

mere doubling, but there is generally method it ; and the musical ideas they express are in a great measure proportioned to their characters and style of utterance. Haydn was rather fond of long passages for wind alone, as in the slow movement of the Oxford Symphony, the opening passage of the first allegro of the Military Symphony, and the working out of the Symphony in C, No. 1 of the Salomon set. Solos in a tune-form for wind instruments are also rather more common than in Mozart'sworks, and in many respects the various elements which go to make up the whole are less assimilated than they are by Mozart. The tunes are generally more definite in their outlines, and stand in less close relation with their context. is

in

'

It appears as if last a strong

tunes

and

;

Haydn always

'

retained to the

sympathy with simple

people's-

the character of his minuets and

especially

of

his

finales,

is

trios,

sometimes

strongly defined in this respect ; but his way of expressing them within the limits he chose ia extraordinarily finished and acute. It is possible that, as before suggested, he got his taste for surprises in harmonic progression from 0. P. E.

Bach. His instinct for such things, considering the age he lived in, was very remarkable. The passage on the next page, from his Symphony in C, just referred to, illustrates several of the above points at once. The period of Haydn and Mozart is in every respect the principal crisis in the history of the Symphony. When they came upon the scene, it was not regarded as a very important form of art. In the good musical centres of those times and there were many there was a great demand for .symphonies but the bands for which they were written were small, and appear from the most natural inferences not to have

—

—

^

;

SYMPHONY been very efficient or well organised. The standard of performance was evidently rough, and composers could neither expect much attention to pianos and fortes, nor any ability to grapple with technical difficulties among the players of Hass instruments or violas. The audiences were critical in the one sense of requiring good healthy workmanship in the writing of the pieces in fact much better than they would demand in the present day but with regard to deep meaning, refinement, poetical

—

;

775

intention, or originality, they appear to have

oared very little. They wanted to be healthily pleased and entertained, not stirred with deep

emotion and the purposes of composers in those days were consequently not exalted to any high pitch, but were limited to a simple and unpretentious supply, in accordance with demand and ;

opportunity. Haydn was influenced by these considerations till the last. There is always more fun and gaiety in his music than pensiveness or serious reflection. But in developing

ilg=^^^^1^^ii^li -^

^

A

J,

-F-^W Violins 1

&

2.

Imo.

Celli e Bassl.

^E=^

l^

:t=S

m^^mmm^n^m

the technical part of expression, in proportionthe ing the means to the end, and in organising was of the forces of the orchestra, what he did utmost importance. It is, however, impossible the two to apportion the value of the work of Haydn did a great deal of important masters.

and substantial work before Mozart came into But after the prominence in the same field. the Paris first great mark had been made by Symphony, Mozart seemed to rush to his culminreached ation ; and in the last four of his works a style which appears richer, more sympathetic, and more complete than anything Haydn could Then, again, when he had passed attain to.

away, Haydn produced his greatest works. Each composer had his distinctive characteristics, and each is delightful in his own way but Haydn would probably not have reached his highest development without the influence of his more and Mozart for his richly gifted contemporary part was undoubtedly very much under the influence of Haydn at an important part of his The best that can be said by way of career. ;

;

distinguishing their respective shares in the result is that Mozart's last sympjionies introduced an intrinsically musical element which

had before been wanting, and showed a supreme perfection of actual art in their structure ; while

— SYMPHONY

776

Haydn

in the long series of his works cultivated

relined his own powers to such an extent that when his last symphonies had made their

and

appearance, the status of the symphony was beyond the possibility of a return to the In fact he gave this branch of art a old level. stability and breadth which served as the basis upon which the art of succeeding generations appears to rest ; and the simplicity and clearness of his style and structural principles supplied an intelligible model for his successors raised

to follow.

One

most important of the contem-

of the

Haydn and Mozart in this department He was born in 1733, of art was F. J. Gossec. one year after Haydn, and lived like him to a poi'ariesof

good old age. His chief claim to remembrance is the good work which he did in improving the standard of taste for instrumental music in According to Fetis such things as inFrance. strumental symphonies were absolutely unknown in Paris before 1754, in which year Gossec published his first, five years before Haydn's first Gossec's work was carried on most attempt.

by his founding, in 1770, the 'Oonoert des Amateurs, for whom he wrote his most important works. He also took the management of the famous Concerts Spirituels, with Gavini& and Leduc, in 1773, and furthered the cause of good instrumental music there as well. The efifeotually

'

few symphonies of his to be found in this country are of the same calibre, and for the same groups of instruments, as those of J. 0. Hach, Abel, etc., already described; but F^tia attributes importance to him chiefly because of the way in which he extended the dimenHis sions and resources of the orchestra. Symphony in D, No. 21, written soon after the founding of the Concert des Amateurs, was

Gossec had a strong idea of expression and style in performance, and did not find his bands very The movements easily led in these respects. themselves are on the same small scale as those of J. C. Bach, Abel, and Stamitz ; and very rarely have the double bar and repeat in the first movements, though these often make their appearance in the finales. The style is to a certain extent individual not so robust or so ;

that of Bach or Stamitz, but not without attractiveness. As his works are very diflicult to get sight of, the following quotation from the last movement of a symphony in Bb will serve to give some idea of his style and manner of scoring : full as

Allegro balldbUe.

aa^g^ Violini 1

m n

*^=

&

2.

i^jaSp^-^^pa^S

=*-F*

^^1

^

Cello e Basso.

^=^i^^m

for a full set of strings, flutes, oboes, clarinets,

bassoons,

horns, trumpets,

and drums

;

and

was doubtless an astonishing force to the Parisians) accustomed as they had been to regard the compositions of LuUy and Rameau as the But It best specimens of instrumental music. is clear from other indications that Gossec had considerable ideas about the ways in which instrumental music might be improved, analogous on a much smaller scale to the aspirations and attempts of Berlioz at a later date. Not only are his works carefully marked with pianos and fortes, but in some (as the Symphonies' of op. this

.

there are elaborate directions as to how Some of the movements are to be played. For instance, over the first these are curious. violin part of the slow movement of the second symphony is printed the following : La difference du Fort au Doux dans ce morceau doit 6tre excessive, et le mouvement modere, k I'aise, qu'il semble se jouer avec la plus grande facility.' Nearly all the separate movements of this set have some such directions, either longer or shorter ; the inference from which is that xii.)

'

t:t:

P^B^ii ti

t:

etc.

Another composer of symphonies, who is often heard of in juxtaposition with Haydn and Mozart, and sometimes as being preferred to them by the audiences of the time, is Gyrowetz. His symphonies appear to be on a larger scale than those of the prior generation of composers of second rank like himself. A few of them are occasionally to be met with in collections of 'Periodical overtures,' 'symphonies,' etc., published in separate orchestral parts. One in C, scored for small orchestra, has an introductory

SYMPHONY Adagio, an Allegro of about the dimensions of Haydn's earlier first movements, with double bar in the middle then an Andante cmi sordini (the latter a favourite device in central slow movements) then a Minuet and Trio, and, to end with, a Rondo in 2-4 time, Allegro non troppo. Others, in E(? and Bb, have much the same distribution of movements, but without the introductory Adagio. The style of them is rather mild and complacent, and not approaching in any way the interest or breadth of the works of his gi-eat contemporaries but the subjects are clear and vivacious, and the movements seem fairly developed. Other symphony writers, who had vogue and even celebrity about this time and a little later, such as Kromnier (beloved by Schubert), the Rombergs, and Eberl (at one time preferred to ^eethoven), require no more than They certainly furthered passing mention. the branch of art very little, and were so completely extinguished by the exceptionally great writers who came close upon one another at that time, that it is even difficult to find traces of them. The greatest of all masters of the Symphony followed so close upon Haydn, that there is less ;

;

;

of a gap between the last of Haydn's Symphonies and his first than there was later between some Haydn's last was probably written of his own.

"When Beethoven wrote his first 1795. cannot be ascertained sketches for the Finale are found as early as the year last mentioned but it was not actually produced in pixblic till Like Schumann and Brahms April 2, 1800. in later days, he did not turn his attention to this branch of composition till comparatively The opus-number of his first symphony is late.' in

;

;

eleven pianoforte sonatas, pianoforte combined with other instruments, the well-known Septuor in compositions for strings. Eif, and several chamber So that by the time he came to attacking he had had considerable practice in 21.

It is preceded

several

works

by

for

Symphony

The only dealing with structural matters. works in which he had tried his strength with concertos— the orchestra were the two piano or about the Bb, op. 19, which was written in

major, op. 15, which was 1795, and the He showed himself at written about 1796. but it is evident once a master of the orchestra ; in expressing that at first he stepped cautiously

himself with such resources. The

first

Symphony

in expression, and has more several works on a elements of formality, than This is explicit. smaller scale which preceded

is less free

and rich

that the orchestra able on the general ground not a fit exponent especially in those days, was things which could be of the same kind of or the Fanoforte expressed by solo violins larger and broader The scale must necessarily be and delicate or subtle the intricate development appropriate and insentiment which is quite domestic circle, is telligible in the intimacy of a

out of place in the more public conditions of orchestral performance. This Beethoven must have instinctively felt, and heappears nottohave found the style for full expression of his personality in either of the first symphonies. The second is even more curious in that respect than the first, as it comes after one of the richest and most interesting, and another of the most perfectly charming and original of the works of his early period, namely the Sonatas in D minor and Eb of op. 31. However, even in these two symphonies there is a massiveness and breadth

and seriousness of purpose, which mark them as products of a different and more powerfully constituted nature than anything of the kind produced before. At the time when the first Symphony appeared, the opening with the chord of the minor 7th of 0, when the key of the piece was C major, was looked upon as extremely daring and the narrow-minded pedants of the day felt their sensitive delicacy so outraged that some of them are said never to have forgiven it. The case is very similar to the famous introduction to Mozart's C major String Quartet, about which the pedants were little less than insulting. Beethoven had to fight for his right to express what he felt to he true and he did it without flinching sometimes with an appareijt relish. But at the same time, in these early orchestral works he seems to have experimented with caution, and was content to follow his predecesThere sors in a great deal that he put down. are characteristic things in both symphonies ;

;

;

;

for instance, in the first the transitional passage

which begins at the 65th bar of the Allegro, passing from G to G minor and then to Bb and back again, and the corresponding passage in The working the second half of the movement. out of the Andante cantabile and the persistent

drum rhythm are also striking points. In the second Symphony the dimensions of the Introduction are unusual, and the character of all the latter part and the freedom of the transitions

marks of his tendencies. The Slow Movement has also a warmth and sense of genuine sympathy which is new the Scherzo, though as yet short, has a totally new character about it, and the abrupt sforzandos, and short striking figures and still more the coda, In the orof the Finale, are quite his own. chestra it is worth noting that he adopted clarinets from the first, apparently as a matter in the first two symphonies he of course in it are decisive

;

;

continued to use only the one pair of horns, as his predecessoi-s had done; in the third he In the fourth expanded the gi-oup to three. he went back to two, and did not use four till The disposition of his forces even the ninth. in the first two is more independent and varied The treatment of the than his predecessors. several groups of instruments tends to be more distinct and appropriate, and at the same time more perfectly assimilated in the total effect of

3d

SYMPHONY

778 The step

the muaic.

to the third

Symphony is

however immense, and at last shows this branch of composition on a level with his other works It is surrounded on both of the same period. sides by some of his noblest achievements. Op. 47 was the Sonata in A for violin and

known as the ' Kreutzer.' Op. the Sonata in C major, dedicated, to Count Waldstein. Op. 54 is the admirable little Sonata in F major. Op. 55 is the Symphony, and op. 57 the Sonata known as the 'Appassionata. It appears that Beethoven had the idea of writing this symphony as early as 1798, but the actual work was probably done in the summer and autumn of 1 803. There seems to be no doubt that it was written under the influence of his admiration for Napoleon. His own titlepage had on it Sinfonia grande. Napoleon Bona^ parte, and, as is well known, the name ' Eroica was not added till Napoleon became Emperor ; after which event Beethoven's feelings about him naturally underwent a change. To call a great work by the name of a great man was quite a different thing from calling it by the name of a crowned ruler. However, the point remains the same, that the work was written with a definite purpose and under the inspiration of a special subject, and one upon which Beethoven himself assuredly had a very decided opinion. The result was the richest and noblest and by far the biggest symphony that had ever yet appeared in the world. It is very possible that Beethoven meant it to be so but the fact does not make the step from the previous symphonies any the less remarkable. The scoring throughout is most freely distributed. In the first movement especially there is hardly any one of the numerous subjects and characteristic figures which has not properties demanding different departments of theorchestra toexpress them. Theyare obviously conceived with reference to the whole forces at command, not to a predominant central force and appendages. The strings must necessarily have the greater part of the work to do, but the symphony is not written for them with wind as a species of afterthought. But it is still to be noticed that the balance is obtained chiefly by definite propositions and answers between one group and another, and though the effect is delightful, the principle is rendered a little obvious from the regularity of its occurrence. The second movement is specially noticeable as reaching the strongest pitch of sentiment as yet shown in an orchestral slow movement. In the earliest symphonies these movements were nearly always remarkably short, and scored for fewer instruments than the first and last. Frequently they were little better than intermezzi, attached on both sides to the more important allegros. Even Mozart's and Haydn's latest examples had more grace and sweetness than deep feeling, and frequently showed a tendency to formalism in the expression of the ideas and in the ways in which

'

pianoforte,

53

is

'

'

'

;

'

'

In the ornamental Jioriture were introduced. the Eroica the name ' Marcia funebre at once defines the object ; and though the form of a march is to a certain extent maintained, it is obvious that it is of secondary importance, since the attention is more drawn to the rich and noble expression of the finest feelings of humanity over the poetically imagined death of one of the world's heroes, than to the traditional march form. The music seems in fact to take almost the definlteness of speech of the highest order ; or rather, to express the emotions which belong to the imagined situation with more fulness and comprehensiveness, butwith scarcely lessdefiniteiiess, than speech could achieve. In the third movement appears the first of Beethoven's large orchestral scherzos. Any connection between it and the typical Minuet and Trio it is hard to see. The time is quicker and more bustlmg ; and the character utterly distinct from the suave grace and somewhat measured paces of most of the previous third movements. The main points of connection with them are firstly the general outlines of form (that is, the principal portion of the Scherzo corresponding to the Minuet comes first and last, and the Trio in the middle)and secondly the humorous element. In this latter particular there is very great difference between the 'iiaif and spontaneous fun of Haydn and the grim humour of Beethoven, sometimes verging upon irony, and sometimes, with evident purpose, upon the grotesque. The scherzo of the Eroica is not alloyed with so much grimness as some later ones, but it has traits of melancholy and seriousness here and there. The effect in its place is chiefly that of portraying the fickle crowd who soon forget their hero, and chatter and bustle cheerfully about their business or pleasure as before ; which has its humorous or at least laughter-making ironical side to any one largeminded enough to avoid thinking of all such traits of humanity with reprobation and disgust. The last movement is on a scale more than equal to that of all the others, and, like them, strikes an almost entirely new note in symphonic finales. The light and simple character of Haydn's final rondos is familiar to every one ; and he was consistent in aiming at gaiety for conclusion. Mozart in most cases did the same ; but in the G minor Symphony there is a touch of rather vehement regretfulness, and in the C major of strength and seriousness. But the Finale of the Eroica first introduces qualities of massivencss and broad earnest dignity to that position in the symphony. The object is evidently to crown the work in a totally different sense from the light cheerful endings of most previous symphonies, and to appeal to fine feelings in the audience instead of aiming at putting them in a cheerful humour. It is all the difference between an audience before the revolutionary epoch and after. The starting-point of the movement is the same theme from the Pro-

.

;

SYMPHONY metheus music a3 that of the pianoforte variations in E[> (op. 35). The basis of the whole movement is mainly the variation-fonn, interspersed with fugal episodes and a remarkable feature is the long Andante variation immediately before the finale Presto a somewhat unusual feature in such a position, though Haydn introduced a long passage of Adagio in the middle of ;

—

the last movement of a symphony in F written about 1777, but of course in a very different spirit. The Finale of the Eroioa as a whole is so unusual in form, that it is not wonderful that opinions have varied much concerning it. As a piece of art it is neither so perfect nor so convincing as the other movements but it has very noble and wonderful traits, and, as a grand experiment in an almost totally new direction, has a decided historical importance. It is not necessary to go through the whole series of Beethoven's Symphonies in detail, for one reason because they are so generally familiar to musicians and are likely to become more and more so and for another because they have been ;

V79

of every kind. It was probably written very nearly about the same time as the B|). Notte-

bohm

says the first two movements were written 1805 and, if this is the fact, his work on theB|> and on the C minor must have overlapped. Nothing, however, could be much §tron^r than the contrast between the two. .'The C minor^ is, in the first and most striking inoveroehT, in

;

rugged,

with

terrible

in force

a sort of struggle

;

one of the most thoroughly characteristic of Beethoven's productions. The second is a contrast peaceful, though strong and earnest. The Scherzo again is one of his most original movements in its musical spirit as utterly unlike anything that had been produced fate,

:

;

so fully discussed from different points of view in

possible. Full of fancy, fun, and humour, and, notwithstanding the pauses and changes of time, wonderful in swing and containing some devices of orchestration quite magical in their clearness, and their fitness to the ideas. The last movement, which follows without break after the Scherzo, is triumphant seeming to express the mastery in the wrestling and striving of the first movement. It is

Some short simple particulars

historically interesting as the first appearance

;

this Dictionary.

about each may, however, be useful and

interest-

The

order of composition of the works which succeeded the Eroica Symphony is almost impossible to unravel. By opus-number the 4th Symphony in Bb, comes very soon, being op. 60; but the sketches for the last movement are in the same sketch-book as parts of 'Fidelio,' which is op. 72, and the Concerto in G, which is op. 58, was begun after ' Fidelio was finished. It can only be seen clearly that his works were crowded close together in this part of his life, and interest attaches to the fact that they represent the warmest and most popular group of Close to the Bi> Symphony come the Overall. ture to 'Coriolan,' the three Sti-ing Quartets, op. 59, the Violin Concerto, the PF. ditto in ing.

'

major, the Symphony in C minor, and the The B|> is on a smaller 'Sinfonia Pastorale.'

G

scale

than

its

predecessor,

and of lighter and

The opening bars of the Introducgayer cast. tion are almost the only part which has a trace and this is probably meant to of sadness in it ;

throw the brightness of the rest of the work into Even the Slow Movement constronger relief. The tains more serenity than deep emotion. Scherzo is peculiar for having the Trio repeated —altogether a new point in symphony-wntmg, unand one which was not left unrepeated or What the symphony was meant to imitated. certainly is as express cannot be kno^vn, but it complete and consistent as any. said to The C minor which followed has been expressed himbe the first in which Beethoven

all and absolutely, and threw away expression or development traces of formalism in perfect utterance of his •to give vent to the most It certainly is so far the musical feeling.

self freely

forcible,

and most remote from conventionalism

before as

;

trombones and contrafagotto in modern and the most powerful in sound time. The next symphony, which is also the next opus-number, is the popular Pastoral,' probably written in 1808, the second of Beethoven's which has a definitely stated idea as the basis of its inspiration, and the of

symphony up to that

;

'

in which a programme is suggested for each individual movement though Beethoven is careful to explain that it is mehr Empfindung Any account of this happy inals Malerei.' first

;

'

spiration

is

clearly superfluous.

The

situations

brings to the mind are likely to be less beloved as The style is again in the world glows older. great contrast to that of the C minor, being characterised rather by serenity and contentment which, as Beethoven had not heard of all the troubles of the land question, might naturally be his feelings about country life. He used two trombones in the last two movements, but otherwise contented himself with the same group of instruments as in his earliest

and scenes which familiar, and not

it

;

symphonies. After this there was a pause for some years, during which time appeared many noble and delightful works on other lines, including the pianoforte trios in D and Efcr, the Mass in C minor, op. 86, the music to 'Egmont,' op. 84, and several sonatas. Then in one year, 1812, The first of the two symphonies appeared. two, in A major, numbered op. 92, is looked upon by many as the most romantic of all of them and certainly has qualities which increase in attractiveness the better it is known and ;

Among specially noticeable points understood. are the unusual proportions and great interest of the Introduction (foco sostenuto) ; the singular

;

SYMPHONY

780

and fascinating wilfulness of the first movement, which is enhanced by some very characteristic the noble calm of the slow orchestration movement the merry humour of the. Scherzo, which has again the same peculiarity as the fourth Symphony, that the trio is repeated (for which the world has every reason to be thankful, as it is one of the most completely enjoyable and finally things in all symphonic literature) the wild headlong abandonment of the last movement, which might be an idealised national or r-ather barbaric dance-movement, and which seta the crown fitly upon one of the most characteristic of Beethoven's works. The Symphony in F, which follows immediately as ;

;

;

op. 93, is again of a totally different character.

It is of specially small proportions, and has rather the character of a return to the old conditions of the Symphony, with all the advantages of Beethoven's mature powers both in the developrhent and choice of ideas, and in the treatment of the orchestra. Beethoven himself, in a letter to Salomon, described it as ' eine kleine Symphonie in F,' as distinguished from the previous one, which he called 'Grosse Symphonie in A, eine meiner vorzuglichsten.' It has more fun and light-heartedness in it than any of the others, but no other specially distinctive external characteristics, except the substitution of the graceful and humorous ' Allegretto scherzando in the place of the slow movement, and a return to the Tempo di MenuAfter this came again a etto for the scherzo. long pause, as the greatest of all symphonies did During that not make its appearance till 1 824. time, however, itis probable that symphonic work was not out of his mind, for it is certain that the preparations for putting this symphony down on paper spread over several years. Of the introduction of voices into this form of composition, which is its strongest external characteristic, Beethoven had made a previous experiment in the Choral Fantasia ; and he himself spoke of the symphony as in the style of the Choral '

'

Fantasia, but on a far larger scale.'

The

scale

indeed immensely larger, not only in length but in style, and the increase in this respect applies to it equally in comparison with all the symphonies that went before. The first movement is throughout the most concentrated example of the qualities which distinguish Beethoven, and the new phase upon which music entered with him, from all the composers of the previous half-century. The other movements are not less characteristic of him in their The second is the largest particular ways. example of the typical scherzo which first made its appearance for the orchestra in the Eroica ; and the supreme slow movement (the Theme with variations) is the finest orchestral example of that special type of slow movement though in other departments of art he had previously illustrated it in a manner little less noble and is

'

;

deeply expressive in the slow movements of the These Bl? Trio and the Bl> Sonata (op. 106).

have reference, more or

less

intelligible according to the organisation

and

movements

all

sympathies of the hearer, to the Finale of the Symphony, which consists of a settingof Schiller's ode 'An die Freude.' Its development into such enormous proportions is of a piece with the tendency shown in Beethoven's previous symphonies, and in some of his sonatas also, to

supplant the conventional type of gay last movement by something which shall be a logical or poetical outcome of the preceding movements, and shall in some way clench them, or crown them with its weight and power. The introduction of words, moreover, gives a new force to the definite interpretation of the whole as a single organism, developed as a poem might be in relation to definite and coherent ideas. The dramatic and human elements which Beethoven introduced into his instrumental music to a degree before undreamed of, find here their fullest expression and most of the forms of music are called in to convey his ideas. The first movement of the symphony is in binary form the second in scherzo, or idealised minuet and trio form the third in the form of theme and variations. Then follows the curious passage of instrumental recitative, of which so many people guessed the meaning even before it was defined by the publication of the extracts from the MS. sketch-books in the Berlin Library then the entry of the noble tune, the theme of the entire Finale, introduced contrapuntally in a manner which has a clear analogy to fugal treatment and followed by the choral part, which treats the theme in the form of variations apportioned to the several verses of the poem, and carries the sentiment to the extremest pitch of exultation expressible by the human voice. The instrumental forces employed are the fullest; including, with the usual complement, four horns, three trombones in the scherzo and finale, and contrafagotto, triangle, cymbals, and big drum in the finale. The choral forces include four solo voices and full chorus, and the sentiment expressed is proportionate to the forces employed. In Beethoven's hands the Symphony has again undergone a change of status. Haydn and Mozart, as above pointed out, ennobled and enriched the form in the structural sense. They took up the work when there was little more expected of the orchestra than would have been expected of a harpsichord, and when the object of the piece was slight and almost momentary entertainment. They left it one of the most important branches of instrumental music, thoughstill to a great extent dependent on formal perfection andsomewhat obvious artistic management for its interest. Their office was in fact' to perfect the form, and Beethoven's to use it. But the very use of it brought about a new ;

;

;

;

— SYMPHONY In his work its various elements. appears a proportion between the forces employed and the nobility and depth and In general importance of the musical ideas. his hands the greatest and most pliable means available for the composer could be no longer fit for lightness and triviality, but only for ideal emotions of an adequate standard. It is true that earlier composers saw the advantage of adopting a breadth of style and largeness of sentiment when writing for the orchestra ; but

ratio

between

first clearly

this mostly resulted

seems as

if it

in positive dulness.

could only be

when the

It

circum-

stancesof history had undergone a violent change that human sentiment could reach that pitch of compi-ehensiveness which in Beethoven's work raised the Symphony to the highest pitch of earnest poetic feeling and the history of his development is chiefly the co-ordination of all the component elements ; the proportioning of the the expression and style to the means expansion of the form to the requirements of the expression the making of the orchestration perfectly free, but perfectly just in every detail of expression, and perfectly balanced in itself and the eradication of all traces of conventionalism both in the details and in the principal outlines, and also to a great extent in the treat:

;

;

;

It is chiefly through instruments. Beethoven's work that the symphony now stands and at the head of all musical forms whatever though other composers may hereafter misuse and degrade it as they have degraded the opera, the cantata, the oratorio, the mass, and such other forms as have equal possibilities with the symphony, his works of this kind stand at

ment of the

;

such an elevation of human sympathy and emotion, and at such a pitch of individuality and power, in expression and technical mastery, of that it is scarcely likely that any branch musical art will ever show anything to surpass them. to trace the It might seem almost superfluous Beethoven. history of Symphony further after the since his time has shown, nor in

Nothing

race is changing conditions of the history of the show, any approach should anything likely it But it his work. to the vitality and depth of conditions that leave a is just these changing composers to tread the same little opening for In the millions of the human path with him. varieties of mental and species there are endless different mdiemotional qualities grouped in and or sets of men viduals, and diff'erent bands of artistic work, even the many-sided qualities standard, find then far below the highest in the various groups explanation and excuse artistic desires they and types of mind whose highly organised most are who Those satisfy most perfect and such respects find their in Beethoven s ™ost sustained gratification less deeply, or are works but othert who feel or have fewer or less wide in their sympathies, ;

f

;

781

different opportunities of cultivating theii' tastes

in such a musical direction, need musical food

more

in accordance with their mental and emotional organisation. Moreover, there is always room to treat an accepted form in the mode characteristic of the period. Beethoven's period was much more like ours than that of Haydn and Mozart, but yet it is not so like that a work expressed entirely in his manner would not be an anachronism. Each successive generation takes some colour from the combination of work and changes in aU previous generations in unequal quantities proportioned to its amount By the of sympathy with particular periods. side of Beethoven there were other composers, working either on parallel lines or in a different manner on the same lines. The succeeding generations were influenced by them as well as by him ; and they have introducedsome elements into symphony which are at least not prominent in his. One of the contemporary composers who had most influence on the later generation was Weber ; but his influence is derived from other dejiartments, and in that of Symphony two only, his contribution is next to nothing so slight and unimportant, as probably to have ;

—

had no

influence at

all.

Another composer's symphonies did not have much immediate influence, chiefly because they were not performed what they will have in the In delightfulness, future remains to be seen. Schubert's two best works in this department and their qualities are stand almost alone unique. In his earlier works of the kind there is an analogy to Beethoven's early works. Writing for the orchestra seemed to paralyse his parand for some time after ticular individuality he had written some of his finest and most original' songs, he continued to write symphonies which were chiefly a mild reflex of Haydn and Mozart, or at most of the early style of BeetHis first attempt was made in 1813, hoven. the last page being dated October 28 of that year, when he was yet only sixteen years old one year after Beethoven's Symphonies in A and F, and more than ten years before the great D In the five following years he wrote minor. five more, the best of which is No. 4, the Tragic, minor the Andante especially being very in containing many fine and interesting, and But none characteristic traits of the master. of the early works approach in interest or original beauty to the unfinished one in B minor, major and the very long and vigorous one in the first composed in 1822, before Beethoven's In No. 9, and the second in 1828, after it. these two he seems to have stiiick out a real independent symphony -style for himself, ;

;

;

;

;

thoroughly individual in every respect, both of

They show form, and orchestration. singularly little of the influence of Beethoven, or Mozart, or Haydn, or any of the composers he must have been familiar with in his early idea,

;

SYMPHONY

782

days at the Convict but the same spirit as is met with in his songs and pianoforte pieces, and The the best specimens of his chamber music.

while in all respects in which his style is characteristic it represents quite a later generation. His first Symphony (in Eb) was

movement of the B minor is entirely unlike any other symphonic first movement that ever It seems to come direct was composed before. from tlie heart, and to have the personality of the composer in it to a most unusual degree. The orchestral forces used are the usual ones,

composed in 1811, before Beethoven's 7th, 8th, and 9th, and when he himself was twenty-seven years old. This was followed by several others, which are not without merit, though not of

[excepting only that he uses three trombones, an unusual thing ill first movements at the date,] but in the management of them there are numbers of effects which are perfectly new in this department of art, indicating the tendency of the time towards direct consideration of what is called colour ' in orchestral combinations, and its employment with the view of enhancing the degree of actual sensuous enjoyment of a refined kind, to some extent independent Schubert's mature of the subjects and figures. orchestral works are, however, too few to give any strong indication of this in his own person ; and what is commonly felt is the supreme attractiveness of the ideas and general style. As classical models of form none of Schubert's instrumental works take the highest rank and it follows that no compositions by any writer which have taken such hold upon the musicians of the present time, depend so much upon their They are intrinsic musical qualities as his do. therefore in a sense the extremest examples that can be given of the degree in which the status of such music altered in about thirty years. In the epoch of Mozart and Haydn, the formal elements absolutely predominated in This was the case in 1795. importance. The balance was so completely altered in the oourae of Beethoven's lifetime, that by 1824 the phenomenon is presented of works in the highest line of musical composition depending on the predominating element of the actual musical sentiment. It must be confessed that Schubert's position in art is unique ; but at the same time no man of mark can be quite unrepresentative of his time, and Schubert in this way represents the extraordinary degree in which the attention of musical people and the intention of composers in the early years of the 19th century were directed to the actual material of music in its expressive sense as distinguished from the external or structural aspect. The relation of the dates at which more

best

;

iirst

'

;

or

less

well-known symphonies made their

appearance about this time is curious and not uninsti'uotive. Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony was produced only two years after Schubert's great

Symphony

in G,

namely

in

His Italian Symphony followed in the 1830. next year ; and Sterndale Bennett's, in G minor, in 1834. The dates and history of Spohr's productions are even more striking, as he was actually a contemporary of Beethoven's and senior to

Schubert,

sufficient historical

consideration.

known

importance to require special

The symphony day

of his

which

is

that called the ' Weihe der Tone,' which at one time enjoyed great celebrity. The history of this work is as follows. He intended first to set a poem of the at the present

same name by

is

He began

his friend Pfeiffer.

the setting in 1832, but finding it unsatisfactory he abandoned the idea of using the words except as a programme ; in which form they are appended to the score. The full description and purpose of the work as expressed on the title is ' Characteristisches Tongemiilde in Form einer Sinfonie, naeh einen Gedicht von Carl Pfeiffer and a printed notice from the composer is appended to the score directing that the poem is to be either printed or recited aloud whenever the symphony is to be performed. Each movement also has its title, like the Pastoral of Beethoven ; but it differs from that work not only in its less substantial interest, but also in a much more marked departure from the ordinary principles of form, and the style of the '

successive movements. The earlier part of the

work corresponds fairly well with the usual principles of structure. It opens with a short Largo of vague character, passing into the AUegi-o, which is a continuous movement of the usual description, in a sweet but rather tame style. The next movement might be taken to stand for the usual slow movement, as it begins Andantino but the ;

development is original, as it is broken up by several changes of tempo and time-signatures, and is evidently based upon a programme, for which its title supplies an explanation. The next movement again might be taken as an alternative to the Minuet and Trio, being marked Tempo di Mareia,' which would suggest the same general outline of form. But the development is again independent, and must be supposed to follow its title. , From this point all connection with the usual outlines ceases. There is an Andante maestoso, based upon the plain-song of the Te Deum, a Larghetto containing a second hymn-tune, and a short Allegretto in simple primary form to conclude with. From '

this description it will be obvious that the

work

an example of thoroughgoing programme music' It is clearly based rather on the musical portrayal of a succession of ideas in themselves independent of music, than upon the is

'

treatment of principles of abstract form, and ideas intrinsically musical. It derives from this fact a historical importanoewhioh itsmusioal qualities taken alone

would not warrant,

as it

—

.

SYMPHONY

783

is one of the very first German examples of its kind possessing any high artistic excellences of treatment, expression, and orchestration. It contains a plentiful supply of Spohr's character-

and is for the most part superficial, and deficient in warmth of feeling and nobility of thought but it has also a fair share of his good traits delicacy and clearness of orchestration, and a certain amount of poetical sentiment. Its success was considerable, and this, rather than any abstract theorising upon the tendencies of

ff*,»=lt*=

^J.

istic faults,

modern music, led him to several further experiments in the same line. The symphoiiy (in C minor) which followed the Weihe der Tone w|s on the old lines, and does not require much '

'

notice.

It contains experiments in unifying the

work by unusual references to subjects, as in the first movement, where conspicuous reference is

made

in the middle part of the Allegro to the

characteristic feature of the slow introduction

;

and in the last, where the same subject is somewhat transformed, and reappears in a diiferent time as a prominent feature of the second section. In the next symphony, and in the 7th and 9th, Spolir again tried experiments in programme. Two of these are such curiosities as to deserve

The 6th, op. 116, in G is called Historische Symphonie,' and the four movements are supposed to be illustrations of four distinct musical periods. The first is called the description. '

Period of Handel and Bach, and dated 1720 the second, the Period of Haydn and Mozart, and dated 1780 (i.e. before any of the greatest instrumental works of either Haydn or Mozart the third is the Period of were produced) ;

;

and the fourth, ; This Allerneueste Periode,' and dated 1840. last title seems to imply that Spohr regarded himself as belonging to a different generation from Beethoven. The first period is represented Beethoven, and dated 1810 '

by an introductory Largo in contrapuntal style, and an Allegro movement, part after the manner of the old Canzonas, duced for contrast.

and part a Pastorale,

intro-

The style has scarcely the charleast affinity to Bach, but the Handelian hence acter is extremely easy to imitate, and some respects it justifies its title, fairly well. good slow movement which follows has

m

The

qualities

and graceful

points.

It

has more the

and this is enflavour of Mozart than Haydn, which hanced by the Mozartian turns and figures are introduced. is

One which

is

very conspicuous

^-J—

^^E^^^E^^ is

found in several places

The second

in

D

:

Nevertheless, the whole effect of the moveis not what its title implies. The scoring

ment

and the inner parts richer and freer in motion than in the prototypes, and the harmonisation is more chromatic, after Spohr's manner. The Scherzo professes to be in Beethoven's style, and some of his characteristic devices of harmony and rhythm and treatment is fuller,

their

of instruments

are fairly well imitated (e.g. the drums in G, D, and Eb), though in a manner which shows they were but half understood. The last movement, representing the then 'latest period,' has of course no names appended. Spohr probably did not intend to imitate any one, but was satisfied to write in his own manner, of which the movement is not a highly satisfactory example. It is perhaps rather to the composer's credit that his own characteristics should peep out at all corners in all the movements, but the result can hardly However, the be called an artistic success. experiment deserves to be recorded and de-

unique among works by composers and ability as Spohr and the more so as it is not likely to be often heard in major, future. His next Symphony (No. 7, in op. 121) is in many respecte as gi-eat a curiosity It is called of a totally different description. Irdisches und Gottliohes in Menschenleben,' and is a double symphony in three movements scribed, as

of such standing

;

'

for

two

orchestras.

The

movement

first

is

called

the second ' Zeit der Leidenschaften,' and the last (Presto) Endlicher Sieg In the first two the second des Gottlichen.' orchestra, which is the fuller of the two, is little more than an accompaniment to the first. In the last it has a good deal of work to do, uttering chiefly vehement and hustling passages in contrast with quiet and sober passages by the first orchestra ; until near the end, when it appears to be subdued into consonance with the The idea seems to be to dejjict first orchestra. the divine and the worldly qualities more or the divine being less by the two orchestras given to the smaller orchestra of solo instruments, and the worldly to the fuller orchestra. The treatment of the instrumental forces is and no very on the whole very simple '

Kinderwelt,

'

'

m

;

Mozart s

subject, moreover, is only

works. of the second subject an ingenious alteration Mozarf s Prague Symthe slow movement of

phony

^

f^

;

the short figure—

which

>J-

T

;

—

gl^^

m

extraordinary effects seem to be aimed at. Spohr wrote yet another programme symphony after this (No. 9, in B, op. 143) called

Die Jahreszeiten, Spring are joined '

Summer and

'

in

which

Winter

and

make Part I., and Autumn to make Part II. to

SYMPHONY

784

The work approaches more nearly to the ordinary outlines of the Symphony than his previous experiments in programme, and does not seem to demand so much detailed description. In fact, but for his having been so early in the field as a writer of thoroughgoing programme-music, Spohr's position in the history of the Symphony would not be an important one ; and it is worthy of remark that his being so at all appears to have been an accident. The Weihe der Tone would not have been a programme symphony but for the fact that Pfeiffer's poem did not turn out to be very suitable for a musical setting. It is not likely that the work would have attained such popularity as it did but for its programme ; but after so good a result in relation to the public, it was natural that Spohr should try further experiments on the same lines ; and hence he became one of the earliest representatives of artistic speculation in a direction which has become one of the most conspicuous subjects of discussion among modern musical philosophers. As far as intrinsic qualities are concerned it is remarkable how very little influence he has had upon the subsequent history of the Symphony, considering the reputation he enjoyed in his lifetime. His greatest excellence was his treatment of his '

orchestra,

'

which

was

delicate,

and

refined,

extremely clear but it must be confessed that he erred on the side natural to the virtuoso violinist, and was too fond of bringing his first violins into prominence. His ideas and style generally were not robust or noble enough to stand the test of time. His melodies are not broad or strong his harmonisation, though very chromatic to look at, is not radically free and vigorous and his rhythm, though sometimes complicated and ingenious, is neither forcible nor rich in variety. None of his works, however, can be said to be without their good points, and the singularity of his attempts at programme-music give them an interest which the unlikelihood of many performances in the future does not by any ;

;

;

means diminish.

Au interesting fact in connection with Spohr and the history of the Symphony is that he was the first to conduct an orchestra in England with a baton the practice having previously been to conduct at the pianoforte. The occasion was one of the Philharmonic Concerts in [See Baton, Conducting, Spohk.] 1820. The habit of conducting at the pianoforte was evidently a tradition continued from the days when the Symphony was an appendage of the Opera, when the principal authority, often the composer in person, sat at the principal clavier in the middle of the orchestra giving the time ;

'

'

his instrument, and filling in the harmonies under the guidance of a figured bass. Almost all the earlier independent symphonies,

at

including those of Philip Emanuel Bach of 1776, and some of Haydn's earlier ones, have such a figured bass for the olaviel'player, and an extra bass part is commonly found in the sets of parts which may be reasonably surmised to be for his use.' The practice was at last abrogated in England by Spohr, possibly because he was not a clavier but a violin player. In Germany it was evidently discontinued some time earlier. The most distinguished composers of symphonies who wrote at the same time as Spohr, were entirely independent of him. The first of

Mendelssohn, whose earliest symphonies even overlap Beethoven, and whose better-known works of the kind, as before mentioned, begin about the same time as Spohr's best examples, and extend over nearly the, same period as his tjjese is

later ones.

print

is

The

that in

which survives in dedicated to the LonSociety. This work was

earliest

C minor

don Philharmonic

symphony, and was finished on March 31, 1824, when he was only fifteen

really his thirteenth

years old, in the very year that Beethoven's Choral Symphony was first performed. The work is more historically than musically interesting. It, shows, as might be expected, how much stronger the mechanical side of Mendelssohn's artistic nature was, even as a boy, than his poetical side. Technically the work is extraordinarily mature. It evinces not only a perfect and complete facility in laying the outline and carrying out the details of form, but also the acutest sense of the balance and proportion of tone of the orchestra. The limits of the attempt are not extensive, and the absence of strong feeling or aspiration in the boy facilitated the execution. The predominant influence is clearly that of Mozart. Not only the treatment of the lower and subordinate parts of the harmony, but the distribution and management of the different sections and even the ideas are like. There is scarcely a trace of the influence of Beethoven, and not much of the features afterwards characteristic of the composer himself. The most individual movements are the slow movement and the trio.. The former is tolerably free from the influence of the artificial and mannered slow movements of the Haydn and Mozart style, and at the same time does not derive its inspiration

from Beethoven it contains some very free experiments in modulation, enharmonic and otherwise, a few characteristic figures similar to some which he made use of later in his career, :

and passages of melody clearly predicting the composer of the Lieder ohne Worte and the short slow movements of the organ sonatas. The Trio is long and very original in intention, the chief feature being ingenious treatment of arpeggios for the strings in many parts. The other movements are for the most part formal. 1

Mendelaflohn'B early Symphonies are [See vol. iii. p. il4a, notel.]

Baase.'

marked

'

Kl.ivier

mit dem

SYMPHONY The Minuet

785

that of Mozart's G minor Symphony, not only in accent and style, but in the manner in which the strings and the wind are grouped and balanced, especially in the short passage for wind alone which occurs towards the end of each half of the movement. It was possibly owing to this circumstance that Mendelssohn substituted for it the orchestral arrangement of the Scherzo of his Octet when the work was performed later in his life. In the last movement the most characteristic passage is the second subject, with the short chords of pizzicato strings, and the tune for the clarinet which comes after the completion of the first period by strings alone. He used the same device more than once later,

the old church still holds its own : while in the latter portion of the work the typical hymn-

and managed

obvious trace either in the ideas themselves, or in the manner of expression of the Mozartian influence which is so noticeable in the symphony of six years earlier. And considering that the composer was still but twenty-one, the maturity of style and judgment is relatively quite as remarkable as the facility and mastery shown in the work of his fifteenth year. The orchestration is quite characteristic and free ; and in some cases, as in part of the second movement,

exti-aordinarily

is

it

more

like

satisfactorily.

But

it is

just such suggestions of the working of the musical spirit in the man which make an early

work

interesting.

His next symphony happened to illustrate the supposed tendency of the age towards programme. It was intended for the tercentenary festival of the Augsburg Protestant Confession in 1830, though owing to political circumstances He its performance was deferred till later. evidently had not made up his mind what to call it till some time after it was finished, as he wrote to his sister and suggested Confession Symphony, or Symphony for a Church Festival,

But

as alternative names.

it is

quite evident

nevertheless that he must have had some sort of programme in his mind, and a, purpose to illustrate the conflict betwee;i the old and new forms of the faith, and the circumstances and attributes which belonged to them. The actual

form of the work

is

as nearly as possible

what

The slow inperfectly orthodox. troduction, the regular legitimate allegro, the simple pretty scherzo and trio, the short but is

called

completely balanced slow movement, and the regular last movement preceded by a second slow introduction, present very little that is out of the way in point of structure ; and hence the

work is less dependent upon its programme than some of the examples by Spohr above described. But nevertheless the programme can be clearly

much

seen to have suggested

of the detail of

treatment and development in a perfectly contraits sistent and natural manner. The external which obviously strike attention are two first, which is used the now well-known passage Dresden for the in the Catholic Church at which Wagner has since adopted ;

Amen, and

religious one of the most conspicuous secondly, the use of and Parsifal' of motives the Ein' feste Burg, Luther's famous hymn,

as

'

;

'

m

Amen makes

The latter part of the work. of the opening appearance in the latter part to typify the old Andante, and is clearly meant and its recurrence at the end of the church working out in the

its

;

recapitulation,

VOL. IV

is

movement, before the possibly meant to imply that first

tune, introduced softly by the flute and by degrees taking possession of the whole orchestra, may be taken to represent the successful spread of the Protestant ideas, just as its final utterance fortissimo at the end of all, does the establishof men's right to work out their own salva-

ment

own way. There are various other which clearly have purpose in relation to the programme, and show clearly that the composer was keeping the possible succession of events and circumstances in his mind throughout. The actual treatment is a very considerable advance upon the Symphony in C minor. The whole work is thoroughly Mendelssohnian. There is no tion in their

details

The

singularly happy.

principle of

programme

here assumed seems to have been maintained by him thenceforward for his other symphonies, though it is not so stated in the published scores, are known to have been recognised by him as the results of his impressions of Italy and Scotland. The first of them followed very In the soon after the Reformation Symphony. next year after the completion of that work he mentioned the new symphony in a letter to his the sister as far advanced ; and said it was gayest thing he had ever done.' He was in Rome at the time, and it appears most probable that the first and last movements were written Of the slow movement he wrote that there; he had not found anything exactly right, and would put it off till he went to Naples, hoping ;

'

'

to find

something to inspire him

there.'

But

to imagine

that Of the Naples can have had much share. third movement there is a tradition that it was

in

the result

it

is

difficult

imported from an earlier work and it certainly has a considerable flavour of Mozart, though coupled with traits characteristic of Mendelssohn ;

and is at least well worthy and even if parts of it, as is possible, appeared in an earlier work, the excellences of the Trio, and the admirable effect of the final Coda which is based on it, point to considerable rewriting and reconstrucThe actual structure tion at a mature period. of the movements is based upon familiar principles, though not without certain idioin perfect maturity, of its position

syncrasies

;

;

as for instance the appearance of a

new prominent

feature

in

the working-out

and the freedom of the recapitulation In the last movement, in the first movement. portion,

3e

—

:

SYMPHONY

786

called Saltarello, he seems to have given a, more free rein to his fancy in portraying some scene of unconstrained Italian gaiety of which

are frequently noticeable in the slow movement and again in the coda of the last movement. As in the previous symphony, the structure is

and though there is an unn, witness ; derlying consistency in the usual distribution of keys, the external balance of subjects is not so obvious. The last movement is hence the only one which seems to depend to any extent upon the programme idea ; in all other respects the symphony belongs to the ' classical order. Indeed such a programme as the purpose to reproduce impressions of particular countries is far too vague to lend itself to exact and definite musical portrayal of external ideas, such as might take the place of the usual outlines of structure. In fact it could lead to little more than consistency of style, which would be equally helpful to the composer and the audience ; and it may well have served as an excuse for a certain laxity and profusion in the succession of the ideas, instead of that difficult process of concentrating and making relevant the whole of each movement upon th§ basis of a few definite and typical subjects. The characteristics of the work are for the most part fresh and genial spontaneity. The scoring is of course admirable and clear, without presenting any very marked features and it is at the same time independent and well proportioned in distribution of the various qualities of sound, and in fitness to the subject-matter. In orchestral effects the later symphony the Scotch, in A minor is more remarkable. The impressions which Mendelssohn received in Scotland may naturally have suggested more and the manner striking points of local colour in which it is distributed from first page to last serves to very good purpose in unifying The effects are the impression of the whole. almost invariably obtained either by using close harmonies low in the scale of the respective instruments, or by extensively doubling tunes and figures in a similar manner, and in a sombre part of the scale of the instruments giving an effect of heaviness and darkness which were possibly Mendelssohn's principal feelings about the grandeur and uncertain Thus in the opening climate of Scotland. phrase for wind instruments they are crowded in the harmonies almost as thick as they will endure. In the statement of the first principal subject again the clarinet in its darkest region doubles the tune of the violins an bctave lower. The use of the whole mass of the* strings in three octaves, with the wind filling the harmonies in rhythmic chords, which has so fine and striking an effect at the beginning of the working out and in the coda, has the same basis ; and the same effect is obtained by similar means here and there in the Scherzo ; as for instance where the slightly transformed version of the principal subject is introduced by the wind in the Coda. The same qualities

quite in accordance with familiar principles. If anything,, the work errs rather on the side of squareness and obviousness in the outlines both of ideas and structure ; as may be readily perceived by comparing the construction of the opening tune of the introduction with any of Beethoven's introductions (either that of the or Bi> or Symphonies, or his overtures) or even the introduction to Mozart's Prague Symphony. And the impression is not lessened by the obviousness of the manner in which the succeeding recitative passages for violins are introduced ; nor by the squareness and tune-like qualities of the first subject of the first movement, nor by the way in which the square tune pattern of the Scherzo is reiterated. In the manipulation of the familiar

he was

'

;

—

;

,

;

'

'

D

A

distribution of periods and phrases, however, he used a certain amount of consideration.

For example, the persistence of the rhythmic figure of the first subject of the first allegro,

in the inner parts of the second section of that movement, serves very good purpose ; and the

concludingof the movement w^ith the melancholy tune of the introduction helps both the sentiment and the structural effect. The scherzo is far the best and most characteristic movement of the whole. In no department of his work was Mendelssohn so thoroughly at home and the obviousness of the formal 'outlines is less objectionable in a movement where levity and abandonment to gaiety are quite the order of The present Scherzo has also certain the day. It is a very definite individualities of its own. departure from the Minuet and Trio form, as it has no break or strong contrasting portion in the middle, and is continuous bustle and gaiety from beginning to end. In technical details it is also exceptionally admirable. The orchestral means are perfectly suited to the end, and the utterances are as neat and effective as they could well be while the perfect way in which the movement finishes off is delightful to almost every one who has any sense for art. The slow movement takes up the sentimental side of the matter, and is in its way a good example of his orchestral style in that respect. The last movement, Allegro vivaoissimo, is restless and impetuous, and the tempo-mark given for it in the Preface to the work, 'Allegro guerriero,' affords a clue to its meaning. But it evidently does not vitally depend upon any ideal programme in the least neither does it directly suggest much, except in the curious independent passage with which it concludes, which has more of the savour of programme about it than any other portion of the work, and is scarcely explicable on any other ground, It is to be noticed that directions are given at the beginning of the work to have the movements played as quickly ;

'

'

;

;

SYMPHONY as possible after one another, so that it

may have

more or

less the effect "of being one piece, Mendelssohn's only other symphonic work was the Lobgesang, a sort of ecclesiastical counterpart of

Beethoven's ninth Symphony. In this of course the programme element is important, and is illustrated by the calls of the brass instruments

and

their reiteration with

much

effect in

the

The external form, as in Beethoven's ninth Symphony, is that of the three usual earlier movements (1) Introduction and

choral part of the work.

Minuet and Trio, and Slow Movement (which in the present case have purposely a pietistic flavour), with the Finale or last movement supplanted by the long Allegro, (2) Scherzo, or (3)

vocal part. The consideration of these works shows that though Mendelssohn often adopted the appearance of programme, and gained some advantages by it, he never, in order to express his external ideas with more poetical consistency, relaxed any of the familiar principles of structure which are regarded as orthodox. He was in fact a thoroughgoing classicist. He accepted formulas with perfect equanimity, and aimed at resting the value of his works upon the vivacity of his ideasand the greatmastery which he hadattained in technical expression, and clearness and cerIt was not in his distainty of orchestration. position to strike out a new path for himself. The perfection of his art in many respects necessarily appeals to all who have an appreciation for first-rate craftsmanship ; butthe standard of his ideas israther fitted'for average musical intelligences, and it seems natural enough that these two circumstances should have combined successfully to obtain for him an extraordinaiy He may fairly be said to present popularity. that which appeals to high and pure sentiments in men, and calls upon the average of them to But he leads them neither feel at their best. into the depths nor the heights which are beyond them ; and is hence more fitted in the end His work in the to please than to elevate.

department of Symphony is historically slight. In comparison with his great predecessors he established positively nothing new and if he had been the only successor to Beethoven and Schubert it would certainly have to be confessed ;

represented by the that the department of art Symphony was at a standstill. The excellence clearness of his form, of his orchestration, the

with which he and the accuracy and cleverness subjects and his balanced and disposed his unmistakable modulations, are all certain and attained by great but all these things had been himself attained them masters before him, and he genuine vital force only by the sacrifice of the dom of and power of harmonic motion ;

and

^f

of which his form in the ideas themselves, manifestation predecessors had made a richer

different orders of It is of course obvious that food, different kinds of artistic

minds require

787

and the world would not be well served without many grades and standards of work. Mendelssohn did good service in supplying a form of symphony of such a degree of freshness and lightness as to appeal at once to a class of people for whom the sternness and power of Beethoven in the same branch of art would often be too severe a test. He spoke also in the spirit of his time, and in harmony with it and as illustrations of the work of the period in one aspect his symphonies will be among the safest to refer to. Among his contemporaries the one most natural to bracket with him is Sterndale Bennett, whose views of art were extraordinarily similar, ;

and who was actuated inmany respects by similar impulses. His published contribution to the department we are considering is extremely slight. The symphony which he produced in 1834 was practically withdrawn by him, and the only other work of the kind which he allowed to be published was the one which was written for the Philharmonic Society, and first played in 1864. The work is slight, and it is recorded that he did not at first put it forward as a symphony. It had originally but three movements, one of which, the charming minuet and trio, was imported from the Cambridge Installation Ode of 1862. A slow movement called Eomanze was added afterwards. Sterndale Bennett was a severe classicist in his views about form in music, and the present symphony does not show anything sufficiently marked to call for record in that respect. It is singularly quiet and unpretentious, and characteristic of the composer, showing his taste and delicacy of sentiment together with his admirable sense of symmetry and his feeling for tone and refined orchestral effect. The contemporary of Mendelssohn and Stemdale Bennett who shows in most marked contrast vrith them is Robert Schumann. He seems to represent the opposite pole of music ; for as they depended upon art and made clear technical workmanship their highest aim, Schumann was in

many

respects positively dependent

Wot only was

emotion.

upon

his

his natural disposition

utterly different from theirs, but so was his education. Mendelssohn and Sterndale Bennett went through severe technical drilling in their early days.

Schumann seems

to

have developed

by the force of his feelings, and was always more dependent upon them in the making of his works than upon general principles and external stock rules, such as his two contemporaries were satisfied with. The case his technique

an excellent musical parallel to the Mendelssohn and Sterndale Bennett were satisfied to accept certain rules because they knew that they were generally whereas Schumann was of the nature accepted that had to prove all things, and find for himThe result was, as self that which was good. often happens, that Schumann affords examples affords

common circumstances of life

;

:

— SYMPHONy

788

of technical deficiencies, and not a few things which his contemporaries had reason to compare unfavourably with the works of Mendelssohn and Sterndale Bennett ; but in the end his best work is far more interesting, far more deeply felt, and far more really earnest through and through than theirs. It is worth observing also that his feelings towards them were disinterested admiration and enthusiasm, while they thought very slightly of him. They were also the successful composers of their time, and at the head of their profession, while he was looked upon as a sort of half amateur, part mystic and part incompetent. Such circumstances as these have no

upon a man's artistic development, and drive him in upon his own resources. Up little effect

to a certain point the result for the world in

was advantageous. Schumann developed altogether his own method of education. He began with songs and more or less small pianofortepieoes. By workinghard in these departments he developed his own emotional language, and in course of time, but relatively late in life as compared with most other composers, he seemed to arrive at the point when experiment on the scale of the Symphony was possible. In a letter to a friend he expressed his feeling that the pianoforte was becoming too narrow for his thoughts, and that he must try this instance

orchestral composition.

The

fruit of this resolve

was the Bl) Symphony (op. 38), which was produced at Leipzig in 1841, and was probably his iu'st important orchestral work. It is quite extraordinary how successfully he grappled with the difficulties of the greatest style of composition at the first attempt. The manner is thoroughly symphonic, impressive and broad, and the ideas are more genuinely instrumental both in form and expression than Mendelssohn's, and far more incisive in detail, which in instrumental music is a most vital matter. Mendelssohn had great readiness for making a tune, and it is as clear as possible that when he went about to make a large instrumental work his first thought was to find a good tune to begin upon. Schumann seems to have aimed rather at a definite and strongly marked idea, and to have allowed it to govern the form of period or phrase in which it was presented. In this he was radically in accord with both Mozart and Beethoven. The former in his instrumental works very commonly made what is called the principal subject out of two distinct items, which seem contrasted externally in certain characteristics and yet are inevitable to one another. Beethoven frequently satisfied himself with one principal one, as in the first movements of the Eroica and the C minor and even where there are two more or less distinct figures, they are joined very closely into one phrase, as in the Pastoral, the No. 8, and the first movement of the Choral. The first movement of Schumann's Bb Symphony shows the

almost to depend upon the simple but very definite first figure quoted on p. 375a which is given out in slow time in the Introduction, and worked up as by a mind pondering over its possibilities, finally breaking away with vigorous freshness and confidence in the Allegro niolto Vivace.' The whole first section depends upon the development of this figure and even the horns, which have the last utterances before the second subject appears, continue to repeat its rhythm with diminishing force. The second subject necessarily presents a different aspect altogether, and is in marked contrast to the first, but it similarly depends upon the clear character of the short figures of which it is composed, and its gradual work up from the quiet beginning to the loud climax, ends in the reappearance of the rhythmic form belonging to the The whole principal figure of the movement. of the working-out portion depends upon the '

;

same figure, which is presented in various aspects and with the addition of new features and ends in a climax which introduces the same figure in a slow form, very emphatically, corresponding To this to the sta,tement in the Introduction. climax the recapitulation is duly welded on. The coda again makes the most of the same The latter part is figure, in yet fresh aspects. to all intents independent, apparently a sort of reflection on what has gone before, and is so far The in definite contrast as to explain itself. whole movement is direct and simple in style, and, for Schumann, singularly bright and cheerful. The principles upon which he constructed and used his principal subjects in this movement are followed in the first movements of the other symphonies most of all in the D minor clearly in the C major and least in the EI7, which belongs to the later period of his life. But even in this last he aims at gaining the same result, though by different means ; and the subject is as free as any from the tune-qualities which destroy the complete individuality of an instru;

mental subject in its most perfect and positive sense. In the first movement of the D minor he even went so far as to make some important departures from the usual outlines of form, which are rendered possible chiefly

characteristic.

The movement seems

by the manner

which he used the characteristic

in

figure of his

It is first introduced softly in the latter part of the Introduction, and gains force quickly, so that in a few bars it breaks away in the vigorous and passionate allegro in the following form

principal subject.

P^m

;

same

;

;

which

varies in the course of the

:s3 and

movement

to

;

SYMPHONY In one or other of these forms it continues almost ceaselessly throughout the whole movement, either as actual subject or accompaniment in the second section it serves in the latter capacity. lu the latter part of the working-out section a fresh subject of gentler character is introduced, seeming to stem and mitigate the vehemence expressed by the principal figures of the first subject from the time this new subject makes its appearance there continues a sort of conflict between the two the vehement subject constantly breaking in with apparently xmdiminished fire, and seeming at times to have the upper hand, till just at the end the major of the original key (D minor) ;

;

;

is

taken,

in a firm

and the more genial subject appears and more determined form, as if

asserting its rights over the wild

first

subject

and thereupon, when the latter reappears, it is in a much more gonial character, and its reiteration at the end of the movement gives the impression of the triumph of hope and trust in good, over the seeds of passion and despair. The result of the method upon which the move-

ment

is developed is to give the impression of both external and spiritual form. The require-

ments of key, modulation, and

subject

are

though, from the point of view of orthodoxy, with unusual freedom. The spiritual form, the expression in musical terms of a type of mental conflict, so depicted that thinking beings can perceive the sequence is also veryprominent, to be true of themselves and is the most important element in the work,

fulfilled,

classical

—

—

as is the case in all Schumann's best works moreover in this movement everythingis strongly individual, and warm with real musical life in his own style ; which was not altogether the In case with the first movement. of the Bb. the C major Symphony (op. 61) the first allegro is ushered in by a slow introduction of important ;

striking character, containing, like those of the two just mentioned, anticipations of its In the allegro the two principal figures. principal subjects are extremely strong in character, and the consistent way in which the whole movement is developed upon the basis

and

of their constituent figures, with allusions to those of the introduction, is most remarkable. Here again there is a sort of conflict between the

The first subject is just stated principal ideas. appropriate twice (the second time with certain instantly made in changes), and then a start is Dominant key, with new figures characthe

of the second section ; transition is an allusion to to flat keys and back, and first half ; but all is the first subject ends the and concise. The closely consistent, vigorous, portion is also most closely worked teristic

made

development upon the principal

subjects,

which are

trea,ted,

presenting especially as it seems, exhaustively, all sorts of the figures of the second subject in and with freshness and warmth of lights,

789

imagination, and variety of tone and character. recapitulation is preceded by allusions to the characteristic features of the introduction, considerably transformed, but still sufiiciently recognisable to tell their tale. The coda is made by fresh treatment of the figures of the principal subjects in vigorous and brilliant

The

development.

The Symphony in El> has no introduction, and Schumann seems to have aimed at getting his strong effects of subject in this case by means other than the vigorous and clear rhythmic forms which characterise the firat movements of the earlier symphonies. The effect is obtained by syncopations and cross rhythms, which alternately obscure and strengthen the principal beats of the bar, and produce an effect of wild and passionate ett'ort, which is certainly striking, though not so immediately intelligible as the rhythmic forms of the previous sym-

The second

phonies.

subject

is

in strong con-

having a more gentle and appealing character but it is almost overwhelmed by the trast,

;

recurrence of the syncopations of the principal subject, which make their appearance with persistency in the second as in the

first

section,

having in that respect » very clear poetical or spiritual meaning. The whole development of the movement is again consistent and impressive, though not so fresh as in the other symphonies. As a point characteristic of Schumann, the extreme conciseness of the first section of the first movement in the B[), D minor, and C major Symphonies is to be noticed, as it bears strongly

upon the cultivated judgment and intelligence which mark his treatment of this great instrumental form. The first half is treated almost as pure exposition the working-out having logically the greater part of interesting development of the ideas. The recapitulation is generally free, and in the D minor Symphony is practically supplanted by novel methods of balancing the stmcture of the movement. The coda either ;

presents new features, or takes fresh aspects of the principal ones, enhanced by new turns of modulation, and ending with the insistence on the primary harmonies of the principal key,

which

necessary to the stability of the moveall these respects Schumann is a most worthy successor to Beethoven. He represents his intellectual side in the consistency with which he develops the whole movement from a few principal features, and the freshness and individuality with which he treats the form ; and he shows plenty of tlie emotional and spiritual side in the passionate or tender qualities of his subjects, and the way in which they are distributed relatively to one another.

ment.

is

In

Schumann's symphonic slow movements have also a distinctive character of their own.

extremely concise, they are

all at

Though

the same time

and full of feeling. They are somewhat in the fashion of a Romanz'e,' that in the D minor

rich

'

;

SYMPHONY

790 Symphony being

definitely ao called

;

and

their

development depends rather upon an emotional than an intellectual basis as it seems most just His object that a slow movement should. appears to have been to find some noble and aspiring strain of melody, and to contrast it with episodes of similar character, which carry on and bear upon the principal idea without diverting the chain of thought into a different ;

Hence the basis of the movements is and this afibrds an important element of 'contrast to the first movement, in which there is always an antithetical element in the contrast of the two principal subjects. The romanze of the D minor is constructed on a different principle the sections and musical channel.

radically lyrical

;

;

material being strongly contrasted ; this may be partly owing to the closeness of its connection with other parts of the symphony, as will be noticed farther on. The scherzos, including that in the 'Overture, Scherzo, and Finale' (op. 52), have a family likeness to one another,

they all though their outlines are different illustrate a phase of musical and poetical development in their earnest character and the The vein of sadness which pervades them. light and graceful gaiety of most of the minuets of Haydn and Mozart is scarcely to be traced in them but its place is taken by a certain wild rush of animal spirits, mixed up in a strange and picturesque way with expressions of tenderness and regret. These scherzos are in a sense unique for though following in the same direction as Beethoven's in some respects, they have but little of his sense of fun and grotesque, while the vein of genuine melancholy which ;

;

;

pervades them certainly finds no. counterpart Spohr or Mendelssohn and, if it may be traced in Schubert, it is still in comparison far less prominent. In fact Schumann's scherzos are specially curious and interesting, even apart from the ordinary standpoint of a musician, as illustrating a phase of the intellectual progress Schumann belonged to the order of the race. of men with large and at the same time delicate sympathies, whose disposition becomes so deeply impressed with the misfortunes and unsolvable difficulties which beset his own lot and that of his fellow-men, that pure unmixed lightheartedThe poetical uess becomes almost impossible. and thoughtful side of his disposition, which supplied most vital ingredients to his music, was deeply tinged with sadness and from this he was hardly ever entirely free. He could wear an aspect of cheerfulness, but the sadness was sure to peep out, and in this, among thoughtful and poetically disposed beings, he cannot be looked upon as singular. Hence the position of the scherzo in modem instrumental either in

;

;

music presents certain inevitable difficulties. The lively, almost childish, merriment of early examples cannot be attained without jarring

upon the

feelings of earnest

men

;

at least in

works on such a scale as the symphony, where the dignity and importance of the form inevitably produce a certain sense of responsibility to loftiness of purpose in the carrying out of movement corresponding to the the ideas.

A

the other movemore complicated conditions. The essential point in which Schumann followed his predecessors was the definition of the balancing and contrasting sections. The outlines of certain gi'oups of bars are nearly always very strongly marked, and the movement as a whole is based rather upon effects attainable by the juxtaposition of such contrasting sections than upon the continuous logical or emotional development which is found in the other movements. The structural outline of the old dance-forms is still recognisable in this respect, but the style and rhythm bear little trace of the dance origin or at least the dance quality has been so far idealised as to apply rather to thought and feeling than to expressive rhythmic play of In Schumann's first Symphony the limbs. scherzo has some qualities of style which connect it with the minuets of earlier times, even of Mozart but with these there are genuine characteristic traits of expression. In the later scherzos the poetical meaning seems more apparent. In fact the scherzo and the slow movement are linked together as the two sections of the work most closely representative of human emotion and circumstance the first and last movements having more evident dependence upoif what are called abstract qualities of form. In its structural outlines Schumann's scherzo presents certain features. In the Symphonies in B|> and C he adopts the device of two trios. Beethoven had repeated the trio in two symphonies (4th and 7th), and Schumann advanced in the same direction by writing a second trio instead of repeating the first, and by making the two trios contrast not only with the scherzo, but also with each other and as a further result the trios stand centrally in relation to the first and last statement of the scherzo, while it in its turn stands centrally between them, and thus the whole structm'e of the movement gains in interest. It is worthy of note that the codas to all Schumann's scherzos old scherzo in

its relation to

ments had to be formed upon

fer

;

;

;

are specially interesting and full ; and some of them are singular in the fact that they form an independent little section conveying its own

ideas apart from those of the principal subjects. His finales are less remarkable on general

grounds, and on the whole less interesting than his other movements. The difficulty of conforming to the old type of light movements was even more severe for him than it was for Beethoven, and hence he was the more constrained to follow the example set by Beethoven of concluding with something weighty and forcible, which should make a fitting crown

SYMPHONY the work in those respects, rather than on the principle of sending the audience away In the Bb Symphony in a good humour. only does the last movement aim at gaiety and lightness in the other three symphonies and the Overture, Scherzo, and Finale the finales are all of the same type, with broad and simple subjects and strongly emphasised rhythms. The rondo form is only obscurely hinted at in one in the others the development is very free, but based on binary form and the style of expression and development is purposely devoid to

;

;

;

of elaboration.

Besides the points which have been already mentioned in the development of the individual movements, Schumann's work is conspicuous for his attempts to bind the whole together in

Not only did he make

various ways.

movements run

the

into each other, but in several

places he connects

ideas of one

them by reproducing the movement in others, and even by

using the same important features in different guises as the essential basis of different movements. In the Symphony in C there are some interesting examples of this but the Symphony in D minor is the most remarkable experiment of the kind yet produced, and may be taken as of the highest order. In the first a. fit type place all the movements run into each other except the fu-st and second and even there the first movement is purposely so ended as to give a sense of incompleteness unless the next movement is proceeded with at once. The first subject of the first movement and the first of the last are connected by a strong characteristic The figure, which is common to both of them. persistent way in which this figure is used in the first movement has already been described. It is not maintained to the same extent in the but it makes a strong impreslast movement ;

;

;

sion in its place there, partly by its appearing conspicuously in the accompaniment, and partly by the way it is led up to in the sort of intermezzo which connects the scherzo and the

movement, where it seems to be introduced at first as a sort of reminder of the beginning its of the work, and as if suggesting the clue to meaning and purpose ; and is made to increase till the start is in force with each repetition made with the finale. In the same manner with the slow the introduction is connected movement or romanze, by the use of its musical material for the second division of that movement ; and the figure which is most conspicuous runs all through in the middle of the romanze So that movement. the trio of the succeeding last

as the series of movements are

it

were interlaced

result is that their subject-matter ; and the of a smgle and the whole gives the impression The way in which consistent musical poem.

by

exthe subjects recur may suggest different planations to different people, and hence it is dangerous to try and fix one in definite terms

791

describing particular circumstances. But the important fact is that the work can be felt to represent in its entirety the history of a series of mental or emotional conditions such as may

be grouped round one centre in other words, the group of impressions which go to make the innermost core of a given story seems to be faithfully expressed in musical terms and in accordance with the laws which are indispensable to a work of art. The conflict of impulses and desires, the different phases of thought and emotion, and the triumph or failure of the different forces which seem to be represented, all give the impression of belonging to one personality, and of being perfectly consistent in their relation to one another and by this means a very high example of all that most rightly belongs to programme music is presented. Schumann, however, wisely gave no definite clue to fix the story in terms. The original autograph has the title Symphonisehe Fantaisie fur grosses Orchester, skizzirt im Jahre 1841 neu instrumentirt 1851.' In the published ;

;

'

;

score it

called

is

as the fourth,

'

Symphony,

though

it

'

really

numbered came second.

aiid

Schumann

left several similar examples in other departments of instrumental music, but

none so fully and carefully earned out. In Symphony he never again made so elaborate an experiment. In his last, however, that in Eb, he avowedly worked on impressions which supplied him with something of a poetical basis, though he does not make the department of

use of characteristic figures and subjects to connect the movements with one another. The impressive fourth movement is one of the most singular in the range of symphonic music, and is meant to express the feelings produced in him by the ceremonial at the enthronement of a Cardinal in Cologne Cathedral. The last movement has been said to embody the bustle and flow of Khenish holiday life, on coming out into the town after the conclusion of the ceremony in the Cathedral.' ' Of the intention of the scherzo nothing special is recorded, but the principal subject has much of the 'local colour ' of the German national dances. As a whole, Schumann's contributions to the department of Symphony are by far the most important since Beethoven. As a master of orchestration he is less certain than his fellows There are passages which of equal standing. '

the highest points of beauty and effectivemovement of the C major Symphony and his aim to balance his end and his means was of the highest, and the way in which he works it out is original ; but both the bent of his mind and his ednca,tion inclined him to be occasionally less pellucid than his predecessors, and to give his instruments things to do which are not perfectly adapted to their rise to

ness, as in the slow ;

1

an.

For Schumann's intention see Waaielewalci, 3rd

ed., pp. 269,

SYMPHONY

792

On

idiosyncrasies.

the other hand, in vigour,

and earnestness, as well as in the balance which he was able to maintain between originality and justness of art, his works stand at the highest point among the moderns whose work is done and have had great and lasting effect upon his successors. The advanced point to which the history of the Symphony has arrived is shown by the way in which composers have become divided into two camps, whose characteristics are most easily richness, poetry,

;

understood in their extremest representatives. to attach positive meaning to music, as music, has in course of time brought about a new position of affairs in the instrumental branch of art. We have already pointed out how the strict outlines of form in instrumental works came to be modified by the growing individuality of the subject. As long as subjects were produced upon very simple lines, which in most cases resembled one another in all but very trifling external particulars, there was no reason why the structure of the whole movement should grow either complex or individual. But as the subject (which stands in many oases as a sort of text) came to expand its harmonic outlines and to gain force and meaning, it reacted more and more upon the form of the whole movement and at the same time the musical spirit of the whole, as distinguished from the' technical aspectsof structure, wasconcentrated and unified, and became more prominent as an important constituent of the artistic enseirible. In many cises, such as small movements of a lyrical character for single instruments, the so-called classicil principles of form were almost lost sight of,

The growing tendency

;

and the movement was left to depend altogether upon the consistency of the musical expression throughout. Sometimes these movements had names suggesting more or less of a programme but this was not byanymeans invariable or necessary. For in such cases as Chopin's Preludes, and some of Schumann's little movements, there is no programme given, and none required by the listener. The movement depends successfully upon the meaning which the music has sufficient ;

character of

its

own to convey. In such cases

the

art form is still thoroughly pure, and depends upon the development of music as music. But in pro-

new position beyond this has been assumed. Supposing the subjects and iignres of music to be capable of expressing something which is definite enough to be put into words, it is argued that the classical principles of structure may be altogether abandoned, even in their broadest outlines, and a new starting-point for instrumental music attained, on the principle of following the circumstances of a story, or the succession of emotions connected with a given idea, or the flow of thought suggested by the memory of a place or person or event of history, or some such means ; and that this would serve as a basis of consistency and a means of unifycess of time a

ing the whole, vrithout tlie common resources of tonal or harmonic distribution. The story or event must be supposed to have impressed the composer deeply, and the reaction to be an outflow of music expressing the poetical imaginings of the author better than words would do. In

some senses

this

may

still

be pure art

;

where

the musical idea has really sufficient vigour and vitality in itself to be appreciated without the help of the external excitement of the imagination wliich is attained by giving it a local habitation and a name. For then the musical idea may still have its full share in the development of the work, and may pervade it intrinsically as music, and not solely as representing a story or series of emotions which are, primarily, external to the music. But when the element of realism creeps in, or the ideas depend for their interest upon their connection with a given programme, the case is different. The test seems to lie in the attitude of mind of the composer. If the story or programme of any sort is merely a secondary matter which exerts a general influence upon the music, while the attention is concentrated upon the musical material itself and its legitimate artistic development, the advantages gained can hardly be questioned. The principle not only conforms to what is known of the practice of the gi-eatest masters, but is on abstract grounds perfectly unassailable ; on the other hand, if the programme is the primary element, upon whicli the mind of the composer is principallly fixed, and by means of which the work attains a specious excuse for abnoiTnal development, independent of the actual musical sequence of ideas, then the principle is open to question, and may lead to most unsatisfactory results. The greatest of modem programme composers came to a certain extent into this position. The development of pure abstract instrumental music seems to have been almost the monopoly of the German race ; French and Italians have had a readier disposition for theatrical and at best dramatic music. Berlioz had an extraordinary perception of the possibilities of instrumental music, and appreciated the greatest works of the kind by other composers as fully as the best of his contemporaries ; but it was not his own natural way of expressing His natural bent was always towards himself.

the dramatic elements of effect and dramatic principles of treatment. It seems to have been necessary to him to find some moving circumstance to guide and intensify his inspiration. When his mind was excited in such a manner he produced the most extraordinary and original effects ; and the fluency and clearness with which he expressed himself was of the highest order. His genius for orchestration, his vigorous rhythms, and the enormous volumes of sound of which he was as much master as of the most delicate subtleties of small combinations of instruments, have the most powerful efT'eot

:'

SYMPHONY upon the hearer

while his vivid dramatic per; ception goes very far to supply the place of the intrinsically musical development which characterises the works of the greatest masters of abstract music. But on the other hand, as is inevitable from the position he adopted, he was forced at times to assume a theatrical manner, and a style which savours ratlier of the stage than of the true dramatic essence of the situations he deals with. In the Symphonie Fantastique, for instance, which he '

'

'Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste,' his management of the programme principle is thorough and well-devised. The notion of the ideal object of the artist's atfections being represented by a definite musical figure, called the 'idee fixe,' unifying the work throughout by its constant reappearance in various aspects and surroundings, is very happy and the way in which he treats it in several parts of the first movement has some of the characteristic qualities of the best kind of development of also called

;

ideas and figures, in the purely musical sense ; while at the same time he has obtained most successfully the expression of the implied sequence of emotions, and the absorption con-

sequent upon the contemplation of the beloved In the general laying out of the work he maintains certain vague resemblances to the usual symphonic type. The slow introduction, and the succeeding Allegro agitato representing his passion, and therefore based to a very are equivalent great extent on the id& fixe to the familiar opening movements of the and moreover there is classical symphonies even a vague resemblance in the inner structure The second of the Allegro to the binary form. object.

—

'

'

—

;

movement,

called

'Un

bal,'

corresponds in posi-

tion to the time-honoured minuet and trio ; and though tlie broad outlines are very free there is a certain suggestion of the old inner form in the relative disposition of the valse section and that devoted

to the

'idee fixe.'

In the same way the 'Scene aux Champs' In corresponds to the usual slow movement. programme the remaining movements the element is more conspicuous. A 'Marche au and a Songe d'une nuit de Sabbat them as fit as possible to excite the composer's love of picturesque and terrible

supplice

"

'

are both of

and to lead him to attempt realistic scenepresentation, or even a sort of musical characteristics painting, in which some of the present, though they of instrumental music are impression by are submerged in the general The eflect procharacteristics of the opera. that of duced is of much the same nature as of without passages selected from operas played effects,

m

his In fact, action in the concert - room. imply that this little preface, Berlioz seems to would be a just way to consider the work, and the condensed statement of his view of programme music there given is worth quoting

793

Le compositeur a eu pour but de developper, dans ce qu'elles out de musical, difl&entes situations de la vie d'un artiste. Le plan du drame instrumental, priv6 du secours de la parole, a besoin d'etre expos^ d'avance. Le programme (qui est indispensable k I'iutelligence complete du plan dramatique de I'onvrage) doit done etre considere comme le texte parl^ d'un Op6ra, servant a amener des morceaux de musique, dont il motive le caractfce et I'expression. ' This is a very important and clear statement of the position, and marks sufliciently the essential difference between the principles of the most advanced writers of programme music and those adopted by Beethoven. The results are in fact different forms of art. An '

'

instrumental drama is a fascinating idea, and might be carried out perfectly within the limits used even by Mozart and Haydn but if the programme is indispensable to its comprehension those limits have been passed. This does not necessarily make the form of art an illegitimate one but it is most important to realise that it is on quite a diff'erent basis from the type of the instrumental symphony and this will be better understood by comparing Berlioz's statement with those Symphonies of Beethoven and Mendelssohn, or even of Raff' and Eubinstein, where the adoption of a general and vague title ;

;

;

the semblance of a similar use of proBeethoven liked to have a picture or scene or circumstance in his mind ^ but it makes all the difference to the form of art gives

gramme.

;

whether the picture or story is the guiding principle in the development of the piece, or whether the development follows the natural implication of the positively musical idea. The mere occurrence, in one of these forms, of a feature which is characteristic of the other, is not suflicient to bridge over the distance between them and hence the instrumental drama or poem, of which Berlioz has given the world its finest examples, must be regarded as distinct from the regular type of the pure instrumental symphony. It might perhaps be fairly regarded as the Celtic counterpart of the essentially Teutonic form of art, and as an expression of the Italo-Gallic ideas of instrumental music on lines parallel to the German symphony but in reality it is scarcely even an off'shoot of the old '

'

;

;

symphonic stem and it will be far better for the understanding of the subject if the two forms of art are kept as distinct in name as they are in principle. 'The earliest and most eminent follower of Ber;

lioz, 1

life

working on similar

lines to his in

modern

The composer lias aimed at developlnf; various situations in the of an artist, so for as seemed muaicall; possible. The plan of

'

an instrumental drama, being without words, requires to be explained beforehand. The programme (which is indispensable to the perfect comprehension of the dramatic plan of the worii) ought therefore to be considered In the light of the spoken text of an Operu, serving to lead up to the pieces of music, and indicate the character and expression.' 3 This important admission was made by Beethoven to Neate; 1 have always a picture in my thoughts when 1 am composing, and work to it.' (Thayer, iii. S43 '

)

3e

—

;';

''

SYMPHONY

794

and his adoption of the name Symphonic poem for such compositions suffi-

times, is Liszt '

;

'

ciently defines their nature without bringing exactly under the head of symphonies. Of

them

these there are many, constructed on absolutely independent lines, so as to appear as musical poems or counterparts of actual existing poems, on such subjects as Mazeppa, Prometheus, Orpheus, the battle of the Huns, the Preludes of Lamartine, Hamlet, and so forth. work which, in name at least, trenches upon the old lines is the Faust Symphony, in which the connection with the programme-principle of Berlioz is emphasised by the dedication of the piece to him. In this work \he connection with the old form of symphony is perhaps even less than in the examples, of Berlioz. Subjects and figures are used not for the purposes of defining the artistic form, but to describe individuals, ideas, or circumstances. The main divisions of the work are ostensibly three, which are called 'character -pictures' of Faust, Margaret, and Mephistopheles severally ; and the whole concludes with a setting of the ' Chorus mysticus. Figures are used after the manner of Wagner's ' Leit-motiven 'toportraygraphically such things as bewildered inquiry, anxious agitation, love, and mockery, besides the special figure or melody given for each individual as a whole. These are so interwoven and developed by modifications and transformations suited to express the circumstances, as to present the speculations of the composer on the character and the philosophy of the poem in various interesting lights ; and his great mastery of orchestral expression and fluency of style contribute to its artistic importance on its own basis ; while in general the treatment of the subject is more psychological and less piotorially realistic than the prominent portions of Berlioz's work, and therefore slightly nearer in spirit to the classical models. But with all its striking characteristics and successful points the music does not approach Berlioz in vitality or breadth of musical idea. The few remaining modern composers of symphonies belong essentially to the German school, even when adopting the general advantage of a vague title. Prominent among these are Raff and Rubinstein, whose methods of dealing with instrumental music are at bottom closely related. Raff almost invariably adopted a title for his instrumental works ; but those which he selected admit of the same kind of general interpretationas those of Mendelssohn, and serve rather as a means of unifying the general tone and style of the work than of pointing out the lines of actual '

A

'

'

development. The several Seasons, for instance, serve as the general idea for a symphony each. Another is called Im Walde. In another several conditions in the progress of the life of a man serve as a vague basis for giving a certain '

'

consistency of character to the style of expression, in a way quite consonant with the pure type. In

one case Raff comes nearer to the Berlioz ideal, namely in the Lenore Symphony, in some parts of which he clearly attempts to depict a sucBut even when this is most cession of events. pronounced, as in the latter part of the work, there is very little that is not perfectly intelligible and appreciable as music without reference to the poem. As a matter of fact Raff is always rather free and relaxed in his form ; but that is not owing to his adoption of pro-

gramme, since the same characteristic is observable in works that have no name as in those that have. The ease and speed with which he wrote, and the readiness with which he could call up a certain kind of genial, and often very attractive both interfered with the concentration necessary for developing a closely-knit and compact work of art. His ideas are clearly defined ideas,

and very

intelligible,

and have much poetical

sentiment and these facts, together with a very notable mastery of orchestral resource and feeling for colour, have ensured his works great success but there is too little self-restraint and concentration both in the general outline and in the statement of details, and too little self-criticism in the choice of subject-matter, to admit the works to the highest rank among symphonies. In the broadest outlines he generally conformed to the ;

principles of the earlier masters, distributing his allegros, slow

movements,

scherzos,

and

finales,

according to precedent. And, allowing for the laxity above referred to, the models which he followed in the internal structure of the movements are the familiar types of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. His finales are usually the most irregular, attimesamounting almost to fantasias but even this, as already described, is in conformity with tendencies which are noticeable even in the golden age of symphonic art. Taken as a whole, Raff's work in the department of symphony is the best representative of a characteristic class of composition of modem times the class in which the actual ideas and general colour and sentiment are nearly everything, while their development and the value of the artistic side of structure are reduced to a

minimum. Rubinstein's works are conspicuous examples same class ; but the absence of concentration, self-criticism in the choice of subjects, and care in statement of details, is even more conspicuous in him than in Kaff. His most imof the

pox-tant

—the

symphonic work

is

called

'

The Ocean

general title serving, as in Raff's symphonies, to give unity to the sentiment and tone of the whole, rather than as a definite programme to work to. In this, as in Raff, there is much spontaneity in the invention of subjects, and in some cases a higher point of real beauty and force is reached than in that composer's works ; and there is also a good deal of striking interest The most noticeable external in the details. feature is the fact that the symphony is in six

SYMPHONY

795

movements. There was originally the familiar group of four, and to these were added, some years later, an additional slow movement, which stands second, and a further genuine scherzo, which stands fifth, both movements being de-

variation,

vised in contrast to the previously written adagio and scherzo. Another symphony of Rubinstein's, showing much vigour and origin-

tion of the first part of the movement is so welded on to the working-out portion that the hearer is only happily conscious that this point

and some

and intelligent treatment 'Dramatic' This is in the usual four movements, with well-devised introductions to the first and last. The work as a whole is hampered by excessive and mmecessary length, which is not the result of the possiality,

careful

of subject, is the

bilities

of the subjects or the necessities of

development and might be reduced with nothing but absolute advantage. their

;

The greatest representative of the highest art in the department of Symphony is Johannes Brahms. His four examples ' have that mark of intensity, loftiness of purpose, and artistic mastery which sets them above all other contemporary work of the kind. Like Beethoven and Schumann he did not produce a symphony till a late period in his career, when his judgment was matured by much practice in other kindred forms of instrumental composition, such as pianoforte quartets, string sextets and quartets, sonatas, and such forms of orchestral composition as variations and two serenades. He seems to have set himself to prove that the old principles of form are still capable of serving as the basis of works which should be thoroughly original both in general character and in detail and development, without either falling back on the device of programme, or abrogating or making any positive change in the principles, or abandoning the loftiness of style which befits the highest form of art ; but by legitimate

expansion, and application of careful thought and musical contrivance to the development. In all these respects he is a thorough descendant of Beethoven, and illustrates the highest and best way in which the tendencies of the age in He instrumental music may yet be expressed. differs most markedly fi:om the class of composers represented by Raff, in the fact that his treatment of form is an essential and important element The care with which he in the artistic effect. develops it is not more remarkable than the insight shown in all the possible ways of enrich-

ing it without weakening appearance it is extremely

its consistency. free,

In

and at available

points all possible use is made of novel effects subtleties ; of transition and ingenious harmonic but these are used in such a way as not to dislead either turb the balance of the whole, or to In the laying discursiveness or tautology. to

much freedom out of the principal sections as with the possibility of is used as is consistent Thus understood. being readily followed and a movement in the recapitulatory portion of 1

[See below a« to the third

and fourth.]

the subjects which characterise the sections are not only subjected to considerable andinteresting

but are often much condensed and transformed. In the first movement of the second symphony, for instance, the recapitula-

has been arrived at without the usual insistence to call his attention to it. Again, the subjects are so ingeniously varied and transformed in restatement that they seem almost new, though the broad melodic outlines give sufiicient assurance of their representing the recapitulation. The same effect is obtained in parts of the allegrettos which occupy the place of scherzos in both symphonies. "The old type of minuet and trio form is felt to imderHe the well-woven texture of the whole, but the way in which the joints and seams are made often escapes observation. Thus in the final return to the principal section in the Allegretto of the second Symphony, which is in G major, the subject seems to make its appearance in Fj major, which serves as dominant to B minor, and going that way roimd the subject glides into the principal key almost insensibly. ^ In the Allegretto of the Symphony in G minor the outline of a characteristic featm-e is all that is retained in the final return of the principal subject near the end, and new effect is gained by giving a fresh turn to the harmony. Similar closeness of texture is found iu the slow movement of the same symphony, at the point where the principal subject returns, and the richness of the variation to which it is subjected enhances The effect of these the musical impression. devices is to give additional unity and consistency to the movements. Enough is given to enable the intelligent hearer to understand the form without its appearing in aspects with which Similar thoroughhe is already too familiar. ness is to be found on the other sides of the matter. In the development of the sections, padding are done for instance, all signs of away with as much as possible, and the interest is sustained by developing at once such figures of the principal subjects as will serve most Even such points as necessary equivasuitably. lents to cadeuces, or pauses on the dominant, are by this means infused with positive musical '

'

'

interest in just propoiition to their subordinate

relations to the actual subjects.

Similarly, iu

the treatment of the orchestra, such a thing as and filling up is avoided to the utmost possible in order to escape the over-complexity of detail so unsuitable to the symphonic form of art, the forces of the orchestra are grouped in masses in the principal characteristic figures, in such a way that the whole texture is endowed with vitaKty. The impression so conveyed to some is that the orchestration is not at such a high level of ;

s For a counterpart to this see the fljst pianoforte Sonata in F, op, 10, No, 2,

moTemeut of Beethoven's

SYMPHONY

796

perfection as the other elements of art ; and certainly the composer does not aim at subtle combinations of tone and captivating effects of

illustrates the highest manifestations of actual

a sensual kind so much as many other great composers of modern times ; and if too much attention is concentrated upon the special element of his orchestration it may doubtless seem at times rough and coarse. But this element must only be considered in its relation to all the others, since the composer may reasonably dispense with some orchestral fascinations in order to get broad masses of harmony and strong outlines and if he seeks to express his nmsioal ideas by means of sound, rather than to disguise the absence of them by seductive misuse of it, the world is a gainer. In the putting forward and management of actual subjects, he is guided by what appears to be inherentfitness to the occasion. In the first movement of the Symphony in C minor, attention is mainly concentrated upon one strong subject figure, which appears in both the principal sections and acts as a centre upon which the rest of the musical materials are grouped and the result is to unify the impression of the whole movement, and to give it a special sentiment in an unusual degree. In the first movement of the Symphony in D there are even several subjects in each section, but they are so interwoven with one another, and seem so to fit and illustrate one another, that for the most part there appears to be but little loss of direct continuity. In several cases we meet with the devices of transforming and transfiguring an idea. The most obvious instance is in the Allegretto of the symphony in D, in which the first Trio in 2-4 time (a) is radically the same subject as that of the principal section in 3-4 time (6), but very differently stated. Then a very important item in the second Trio is a version in 3-8 time (e) of a figure of the first Trio in '2-4 time (d).

And it

;

;

^^^ etc.

'4-

m3

-tji

-w-

Of similar nature,

in the

H

Symphony in

minor,

are the suggestions of important features of subjects and figures of the first Allegro in the

opening introduction, and the connection of the last movement with its own introduction by In all these respects Brahms the same means.

art as art attaining his end by extraordinary mastery of both development and expression. ;

is most notable that the great impression which his larger works produce is gained more by the effect of the entire movements than by

the attractiveness of the subjects.

He

does not

seem to aim at making his subjects the test of They are hardly seen to have their full success. meaning till they are developed and expatiated upon in the course of the movement, and the musical impression does not depend upon them to anything like the proportionate degree that it did in the works of the earlier masters. This is in conformity with the principles of progress which have been indicated above. The various elements of which the art-foi-m consists seem to have been brought more and more to a fair balance of functions, and this has necessitated a certain amount of give and take between them. '

If too

much

stress is laid

'

upon one element

at

the expense of others, the perfection of the artform as a whole is diminished thereby. If the effects of orchestration are emphasised at the expense of the ideas and vitality of the figures, the work may gain in immediate attractiveness, The same but must lose in substantial worth. may be said of over-predominance of subjectmatter. The subjects need to be noble and well marked, but if the movement is to be perfectly complete,and to express somethingin its entirety and not as a string of tunes, it will be a drawback if the mere faculty for inventing a striking figure or passage of melody preponderates excessively over the power of development ; and the proportion in which they are both earned upwards together to the highest limit of musical effect is a great test of the artistic perfection of the work. In these respects Brahms's Symphonies are extraordinarily successful. They represent the austerest and noblest form of art in the strongest and healthiest way ; and his manner and methods have already had some influence upon the younger and more serious composers of the day. [The third and fourth symphonies of Brahms more than fulfil the expectations raised by the first two, here reviewed. The third, in F, op. 90, is given remarkable unity by the use, before the first subject of the opening movement, of a kind of motto-theme which reappears in the finale unaltered, and plays no insignificant part in the slow movement. The first subject of the opening section, too, recurs at the very end in the form of a subtle allusion in the violins as their treniolando passages descend to the last chords. The poco allegretto of this symphony is one of Brahms's most individual inspirations, one which for plaintive grace and delicate expression has not its fellow in music. The fourth symphony in E minor, op. 98, is a masterpiece of thematic development, and is remarkable for the adoption of the Passacaglia form for the finale.]

; ;

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

It would be invidious, however, to endeavour to point out as yet those in whose works his influence is most strongly shown. It must suf-

the attempt here made must be understood to deal only with more or less permanent insti-

record that there are still many younger composers who are able to pass the symphonic ordeal with some success. Among the most successful are the Bohemian composer Dvorak, and the Italians Sgambati and Martucci and fice to

;

among English works may be mentioned with much satisfaction the Scandinavian Symphony of Cowen, which was original and picturesque in thought and treatment ; the Elegiac Symphony of Stanford, in which excellent workmanship, vivacity of ideas, and fluency of development

combine to establish it as an admirable example of its class and an early symphony by Sullivan, which had such marks of excellence as to show how much art might have gained if circumstances had not drawn him to more lucrative ;

branches of composition. It is obvious that composers have not given up hopes of developing something individual and complete in this form of art. It is not likely that many will be able to follow

Brahms

and uncombut he himself has shown

in

his severe

promising methods more than any one how elastic the old ;

principles

may

yet be made without departing from the genuine type of abstract instrumental music ;

and thatwhen there is room for individual expression there is still good work to be done, though

we can hardly hope

that even the greatest composers of the future will surpass the symphonic triumphs of the past, whatever they may do in [Among modern other fields of composition.

very few whose fame rests mainly on their symphonies, apart from the composers of symphonic poems. Anton Bruckner's eight complete symphonies, Gustav Mahler's six, and Weingartner's two, have achieved great success in Germany at diiferent dates but among those that have attained universal acceptance all over the cultivated world, none are more remarkable than the three later works of Tchaikovsky, and the seven of Glazounov. The last composition of the former reached an astounding degree of popularity in London owing to the writers there are

'

'

;

circumstances of the composer's death just at the time of its introduction into England ; in the matter of form it differs from his other symphonies, which are on

strict classical lines, in

certain particulars, such as ending with the slow movement, and giving to the second subject of the first movement a rate of speed as well as a character in sharp contrast with those of the c-

first subject.]

h. h. p.

Under this title some of the are grouped the descriptions of most famous organisations in Great Britain and of symAmerica, at which the performance The phonic works is the main object in view. symphony at a occasional performance of a enough miscellaneous or choral concert is not Concert, and to justify the title of Symphony

SYMPHONY CONCERTS.

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797

tutions. There is little hope that it can be complete, even for the countries already named ; in Germany, where every small town has its orchestral concerts as a matter of course, and in France, where there is much less centralisation

than among ourselves, the task of cataloguing even the names of the various bodies which are foundedforthe performance of symphonic works would be impracticable.

London The

English organisation of the kind is the Philhakmonic Society, founded 1813, for which see vol. iii. pp. 698-703. The New first

Philhakmonic Society (see vol. iii. p. 366) was the next, founded in 1852. In 1855 the famous Crystal Palace Saturday Concerts began their long and useful career, which was carried on until 1901, being for all that time under the able direction of August Manns. (See vol. iii.

The

p. 42, for their early history.)

con-

began with the first Saturday in October, and lasted, with an interval at Christmas, till the end of April. The orchestra consisted of 16 first and 14 second violins, 11 violas, 10 violoncellos, and 10 double basses, with single wind, etc. The programmes usually contained two overtures, a symphony, a concerto, or some minor piece of orchestral music, and four songs. The distinguishing feature of the concerts was their choice and performance of orchestral music. Not to mention the great works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Spohr, Weber, and other time-honoured classics, the audience were familiar with Schumann's symphonies and overtures, and with Schubert's symphonies and Eosamunde music, at a time when those works were all but unknown in the concert-rooms of the metropolis. Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony was first played here Brahms's so was his overture to Camacho Symphonies, Pianoforte Concertos, Variations on a theme of Haydn and Song of Destiny Liszt's Ideale Raff"s various Symphonies Goetz's Symphony, Rubinstein's Symphonies Smetana's Vltava Concerto, and Overtures Schubert's Symphonies in chronological order Wagner's Faust Overture Sullivan's TemBenedict's pest Music and Symphony in E Symphony in 6 minor, and many other works were obtained (often in MS.) and performed before they were heard in any other place in Bennett's Parisina was first the metropolis. played there after an interval of a quarter of a A very great influence was exercised century. in the renaissance of English musie by the frequent performance of new works of importance by Mackenzie, Parry, Stanford, Cowen, and certs

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'

'

;

'

'

;

;

'

;

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;

'

'

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;

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;

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others.

A

disposition

was apparent

in the

managers

of the concerts to present the audience with

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

798

pieces of special interest

of Schubert,

such as

;

and of Mendelssohn

tlie

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

MS. works

Beethoven's arrangement of his Violin Concerto for the piano, and his Overture, Leonora No. 2 an alternative Andante written by Mozart for his Parisian Symphony the first version of Mendelssohn's Hebrides Overture, and other rare treasures of the same nature. The performances were of that exceptional quality which might be inferred from the ability, energy, and devotion of the conductor, and from the fact that owing to the wind and a portion of the strings of the orchestra being the permanent band of the Crystal Palace, Mantis had opportunities for rehearsal which were at that time enjoyed by no other conductor in '

;

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;

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regular conductor in the third season, 1897-98 ; in Nov. 1898 a dispute as to the legality of Sunday concerts, and licensing questions, made it imperative to close the hall on Sunday, Nov. 27, 1898, and led to the formation of a Sunday

Concert Society, by means of which it was found possible to continue the concerts without The Sunday, transgressing the existing laws. as well as the Promenade Concerts, and the Saturday Afternoon Symphony Concerts, are still

flourishing.

in 1879 was the next event in the history of

In 1902 a large number of the orchestra, who had acquired under Mr. Wood a very remarkable degree of excellence, particularly in accompaniment, refused to re-engage themselves to the Queen's Hall managers, owing to differences of opinion as to the right to employ deputies, and other points into which it is not necessary to enter. In course of time a new

symphony

body of players was formed by Mr. Wood, and

London.

a.

The establishment

of the

RiOHTEE OoNOBRTS

concerts in London.

For these see

ante, pp. 93-94.

the malcontents organised themselves into the

history of the first series called London Symphony Concerts has been related under

London Symphony Orchestra, an

The

the heading Henschbl, vol. ii. p. 381. The concerts were founded in 1886, and brought to an end with a notable performance of the Matthew- Passion on April 1, 1897. The opening of the Queen's Hall in 1893 was followed by the formation of the Queen's Hall Choral Society, and in 1895 the experiment was tried of reviving public interest in '

'

Concerts, which had for some seasons languished in London. Mr. Henry J. Wood tried the bold experiment of giving the public at large an opportunity of hearing the great masterpieces of music, and the result showed that the attempt was surprisingly Although symphonies were given successful. regularly at these concerts, not at first on every occasion, the regular series of Saturday Symphony Concerts began on Jan. 30, 1897, and have been carried on ever since. They were at first given weekly (subsequently fortnightly) up to the end of May, and their influence was less important on British music than on that of the contemporary Russian school, the chief representatives of which obtained frequent hearings for their works. The Pathetic ' symphony of Tchaikovsky, though introduced at a Philharmonic Concert, acquired its great popularity under Mr. Wood, and for some years its continual performances stood in the way ot more inter-

Promenade

'

work being done

but in due time the views of the authorities have become broader, and the programmes have shown a more esting

whose internal economy

institution

from that of It is run other English bodies of the kind. at the joint risk of the members, who share in the profits and have a voice in the direction of the affairs. No permanent conductor is engaged, but various distinguished English conductors have appeared from time to time, and certain illustrious foreign conductors have also directed them. The Richter Concerts have been differs

virtually transferred to this orchestra, a great

part of whose concerts are now directed by that great conductor. Excellent work has been done in regard to performances and programmes by this body, so that the breach with the older institution has

brought

about

nothing but

artistic good.

Of Mr. Thomas Beecham's New Symphony Orchestra it is perhaps rather early to speak, as its organisation is scarcely as

yet finally

In several seasons very interesting programmes have been given, the conductor being a man of wide musical reading, who has adopted the wise plan of reviving the older works written for a small orchestra under the original conditions. Eor the Symphony Concerts given in London by the various, amateur settled.

Royal Amateur Orchestral Society (ante, p. 172) Stock Exchange Orchestral and Choral Society bodies of players' societies, see

;

{ante,

p.

698)

;

and

Orchestral Society

Strolling Players'

{ante, p. 728).

m.

;

catholic taste, as well as giving opportunities, more or less frequent, to the younger English It must not be forgotten that the composers. question of Sunday concerts was importantly affected by the series of Sunday Afternoon Orchestral Concerts founded in Oct. 1895, with Mr. Randegger as conductor. Mr. Wood became the

Bournemouth. In 1893 Mr. Dan Godfrey was engaged to provide a military band of thirty performers for the summer season ; gradually, as in the case of the Crystal Palace Concerts, tlje authorities ventured upon classical concerts, and in 1895 a series of Symphony Concerts was organised and given in the Winter Gardens with full orchestra. These were so successful

,

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

that tlie Municipality decided to make the undertaking a permanent one, and the annual series of concerts have attained great importance, being given on Monday and Thursday afternoons Many centenaries and other during the season. anniversaries in musical history have been observed more carefiilly than has usually been the case in London, and very frequently composers have conducted their own works at the concerts, Mr. Godfrey filling the post of regular conductor with great distinction. M.

Beadfokd.

The

Bradford Permanent Orchestra was founded in 1892, and is partly professional, The band is about eighty partly amateur. strong, and the post of conductor has been held successively by Mr. W. B. Sewell, Mr. A. E. Bartle, Dr. Cowen, and Mr. Allen Gill, the last of whom has been in office five years. The season 1907-8 included five concerts, at which works by most of the classical composers, and of modern musicians like Sibelius, Humperdinck, German, and York Bowen, were The orchestra is a private and performed. It is now usually self-supporting institution. engaged for the concerts of the Bradford Festival

Among the conductors who Choral Society. have directed their own works have been Sir Arthur SuUivan, Sir Hubert Parry, Sir C. V. Stanford, Sir Edward Elgar, and Mr.

,

chestral pieces

by Mozart, Weber, Mendelssohn,

Brahms, Svendsen, Smetana, Debussy, Elgar, German, were given. Among the composers who have conducted their own works are Sir C. V. Stanford, Mr. E. German, Dr. Vaughan Williams, Mr. York Bowen, Mr. J. W. NichoU, Mr. F. Cliffe, Mr. Havergal Brian, Dr. Bairstow, Mr. William Wallace, Mr. Joseph Holbrooke, Mr. Percy H. T. Godfrey, and Mr. F. K. Hattersley.

Liszt, Saint-Saens,

Sibelius,

Liverpool. For the Liverpool Philharmonic Society, see vol.

ii.

p. 754.

Manchester. For the Gentleman's Concerts iii.

pp. 36-37.

New

Brighton.

Concerts, see vol.

Scotland. See Scottish Orchestra, amte, p. 402.

UNITED STATES.

permanent Municipal Orchestra has lately been formed and is now under the also a

direction of Mr. Julian Clifford. On Wednesday afternoons, during a great part of the year,^ symphony concerts are given, and ' composers' M. afternoons take place frequently. '

and HaUe

For the excellent series of concerts organised at the Tower, New Brighton, by Mr. Granville Bantock, in 1897-1901, see vol. i. p. 181.

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

Hakkooatb. Here

the small charges made for admission (2d. 6d. and Is.) have hitherto just sufficed to maintain the institution. The scheme for the season of 1907-8 consisted of ten concerts, at which symphonies by Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, Tchaikovsky, and Dvofak, together with or-

h. t.

E. German.

U.S. 799

IN THE

Throughout the

18th

century the concert life of America, so far as it existed in the principal cities of the Atlantic coast (such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and Charleston), was in every particular a reffex of the concert life of London. Practically all the influences were English, and

English they remained for a full century the colonists, as soon as they were in a position to enjoy the embellishments of civilisation, sought As an them in their English manifestations. illustration it may be pointed out that 'Eanelagh Gardens were opened in 1765, at which a complete band of music was engaged, and Vaux Hall Gardens in Charleston in 1767, and New York in 1769. As to the vigour with ;

Hull.

The Hull Symphony Orchestra consists of who are engaged at theatres and

local players

music-halls, so that the concerts are given always in the afternoon. They were estabof lished in 1906, and under the conductorship Arthur Wallerstein have done good work.

Leeds.

The Leeds Municipal Orchestra was organised H. Pricker, in the autumn of 1903 by Mr. A. Hall the first concert The 17 of that year. of the best proorchestra at first consisted of fifty musicians in the immediate neighbour-

organist of the

was given on

Town

;

Oct.

fessional

hood and the number has It has no to over sixty.

since been increased

direct subsidy from but as the conductor receives no than his stipend as

public money, further remuneration the place ot organist, and as the concerts take recitals the customary Saturday evening organ there

is

no expense

for hall, lighting, etc.,

and

'

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'

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'

which instrumental music, still subordinate to vocal the world over, was cultivated in America under the auspices of organisations of amateurs and professionals corresponding to the Collegia musica of Germany, it may suffice here to say that concerts in which solos on the harpsichord, violin, oboe, bassoon, ffute, and horn were played date back to the fourth decade of the and that the symphonies of 18th century Haydn, Pleyel, Stamitz, Gyrowetz, and their fellows, the overtures of Handel, Gretry, Gossec, and others, as well as the amcerti grossi ot Corelli, figured largely on the programmes of the conin certs given in New York and Philadelphia ;

800

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

the latter half of the same century.

Charleston,

maintainsa Caeoilia Society, organised in 1762, which gave fortnightly concerts from the beginning of its career with a band of amateurs, helped out by professionals, and in 1771 advertised in the newspapers of New York, Philadelphia, and Boston for a first and second violin, 2 hautboys, and a bassoon with whom the Society was wUling to enter into a contract for one, two, or three years. There is little evidence to be found concerning the size and constitution of the bands of this period, though the intimaIn tions of the programmes are suggestive. 1786, at a 'Grand Concert of Sacred Music' in Philadelphia, which had been inspired by the Handel Commemoration in Westminster Abbey, It the chorus numbered 230 and the band 50. is worthy of note in this connection that a number of musicians who eat in the band at the Commemoration were large factors in the development of instrumental music in America afterwards among them were Gillingham, Reinagle, Gehot, Pick, Phillips, Mallet, and R. Shaw. (Readers desirous of pursuing this branch of the subject further are recommended to read Mr. 0. G. Sonneck's Early Concert-IAfe in America (1731-1800), published by Breitkopf & Hartel, 1907.) German influences began to make themselves felt in the second quarter of the 19th century, and to them is largely due the present status of symphonic culture in the United States, with one phase of which this article is particularly concerned. The intermediate stage between the instrumental elements of the concerts of the 1 8th century and the symphony concerts maintained in the musical centres of the country is still disclosed in a large number of cities where the theatre has a, sufficient patronage to justify the employment of a considerable number of In these cities^Cleveorchestral musicians. land, Detroit, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Denver, New Orleans, New Haven, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and San Francisco may be taken as examples the local orchestral musicians are brought together a few times in each season, and concerts given at the instance of either an enthusiastic or ambitious local leader or of a body of citizens S. C. , still

;

—

whoare prompted to make the inevitable financial sacrifice by a mixture of musical love and civic Each of the larger and more firmly pride. grounded institutions, whose stories are to be told presently, moreover carries on a propagandism within a large radius of its home and there is, therefore, wide familiarity with orchestral music of the highest class, at least in the larger towns and cities of the northern tier of states. It is the custom to speak of all the orchestras (except one) which come in for discussion below ;

The purpose of this is to disas ' permanent. tinguish them as organisations whose members play only at symphony concerts during the regular season and under a single conductor. '

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

U.S.

U.S.

from the bands which are assembled for occasions, and whose members otherwise play as they list. It may be well to remember that the term is loosely applied ; for no orchestra in the country is so firmly groimded as the Philharmonic Society of New York which, through sixty-five years of good and evil fortune, has never failed to give a series of symphony concerts every season, and has maintained the loftiest standard in programme and performance yet its members are variously employed in theatre and other concert bands, when not called on for duty by their own corporation. ;

Permanency would seem to call for an endowment in perpetuity, since no orchestra in the country

has yet succeeded in making receipts and expenses cover each other except the New York Philharmonic, which lives on the co-operative plan. The Chicago Orchestra has an endowment in its hall built by popular subscription the Boston Orchestra is the philanthropic enterprise of an individual the others depend, year after year, on the generosity and public spirit of their guarantors, and may, therefore, be said to be just as permanent, or impermanent as the moods and motives of the patrons. H. E. K. ;

;

Boston.

The Boston Stmphont Orchestra owes endowment Henry Lee Higginson, a well-known citizen of Boston, and affords a good instance of the munificent way its existence

and

in

large perpetual taste of Mr.

its

to the generosity

and

which the Americans apply their great riches

for the public benefit in the service of education art. Mr. Higginson had for long cherished the idea of having an orchestra which should play the best music in the best way, and give concerts to all who could pay a small price.' At length, on March 30, 1881, he made his intention public in the Boston newspapers as follows The orchestra to number sixty, and their remuneration to include the concerts and ' careful training. ' Concerts to be twenty in number, on Saturday evenings, in the Music Hall, from middle of October to middle of March. Single tickets from 75 to 25 cents (3s. to Is.) ; season tickets (concerts only) 10 to 5 dollars ; one public rehearsal. Is. entrance. Mr. Georg Henschel was appointed conductor, and Mr. B. Listemann leader and solo violin. A full musical library was purchased, and the first concert took place on Oct. 22, 1881. There were twenty concerts in all, and the last ended with the Choral Symphony. o.

and

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Mr. Henschel remained as conductor of the He was succeeded at the beginning of the season of 1884-85 by Wilhelm Gerioke of Vienna. Mr. Gericke's advent led to important improvements in the orchestra, many changes in the personnel by the importation of young and ambitious musicians from Europe, especially from Vienna, and the orchestra for three years.

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

U.S.

establishment of a higher standard of effieienoy in performance. One of his most important steps was the engagement, as leader, of Franz Knt'isel, beginning with the season of 1885-86, who occupied that highly important post until the end of the season 1902-3. After five years, during which Mr. Gericke had raised the standard of the orchestra to a plane approximating the founder's ideal, he was succeeded by Arthur Nikisch, who remained conductor for four years. After him came Emil Paur for five years, when, in the autumn of 1898, Gericke was recalled. He continued as conductor until the end of the season of 1905-6, when Dr. Karl Muck, of Berlin, was engaged

SYMPHONY CONCEETS IN

U.S. 801

members, chosen annually from which a government is appointed. Membership is secured by

payment of the subscription annually designated by the directors, who also prescribe the number of these subscriptions, limited, for several years, to 1200. Beginning in the autumn of 1857, five or more concerts have been given in each season,

The orchestra has been considerably enlarged since its establishment. Itnow(1908) numbers

that at the close of the twenty-first season. May 10, 1879, being the 108th each preceded by three public rehearsals. During the first five seasons the concerts were given at the Brooklyn Athenaeum. Since 1862 the Brooklyn Academy of Music, a large theatre holding nearly 3000 people, has been made use of. The orchestral conductors have been— Theodore Eisfeld, 1857-62 Theodore Thomas, part of 1862 Mr. Eisfeld again, imtil the election of Carl Bergmann, Sept. 5, 1865 ; Mr. Thomas,

an

re-elected Sept. 4,

for

two

years.

;

about ninety-seven men. Boston is loyaland enthusiastic the concerts are crowded, and a system of premiums for choice of seats at the regular subscription sale each season greatly increases the normal receipts. Only in one season, however, have the receipts equalled the expenditures. In the other seasons the deficits met by Mr. Higginson have ranged from $2000 to $40,000. The annual seriesof concerts nownumbers twenty-four, given on Saturday evenings, with public rehearsals (which are to all intents and purposes the same as the concerts) on the preceding Friday afternoons. For twenty years the concerts were given in the old Music Hall, lu the autumn of 1901, however, the orchestra took possession of a fine new Symphony Hall, A built especially for its accommodation. series of nightly popular concerts, extending over a period of two months, is given every effective force of

The support given

to the orchestra in ;

summer.

An important element of its work which has reached a firmly established basis in recent years Besides is that accomplished outside of Boston. appearing frequently in New England cities near Boston the orchestra makes five trips a and York, giving one concert on each visit to the first two cities and three in New York (two in the Borough of Manhattan and one in the year, in season, to Baltimore, Philadelphia,

New

Borough of Brooklyn).

The

concerts in

New

have- been given uninterruptedly since 1887. In 1903 the orchestra took an important step in establishing a pension fund, formed by the self- assessment of the members, the proceeds

York

of two special concerts given annually, and cona. A. tributions of friends of the organisation,

Brooklyn. Society, incorporated declared object 'the advancement of music in the city of Brooklyn, by procuring the public performance of the best

The Philharmonic

1857, has for

its

works in this department of art.' Its affairs are controlled by a directorate of twenty-five VOL. IV

—

;

1866

;

Mr. Bergmann again,

succeeded May 26, 1873, by Mr. Thomas, who retained the position until his departure for Chicago (see below), assisted by William G. Dietrich, who had charge of the orchestra at the firet two rehearsals of each concert. The concerts have always been of a high order the orchestra large and composed of the best musicians procurable the programmes of a catholic nature, no especial school of music having undue prominence. Important works have been produced for the first time in America, including several by native composers. Large choral works have occasionally figured on the Society's programmes, as well as solos The Society's and instrumental concertos. Library contains the scores and parts of over F. H. J. 100 orchestral works. What was formerly the city of Brooklyn, N.Y., is now a borough of the American Nevertheless the Philharmonic metropolis. Society retains the corporate name by which it has been known since 1857. Theodore Thomas, with his orchestra, gave its concerts from 1873 On his departure for Chicago an till 1891. arrangement was made by which the concerts by the Boston Symphony (five annually, Orchestra) were continued under the joint auspices of the Philharmonic Society and the After the Institute of Arts and Sciences. destruction of the Academy of Music, Nov. 29, 1903, the concerts were transferred to the

1870-73

;

;

;

Baptist Temple.

H. E. k.

Chicago.

The Theodore Thomas

Orchestra

of

Chicago is in several things unique amongst the concert institutions of the United States, but in none so much as its history, which illustrates achievement through the persistence of a man of dominant ambition and iron will, the courage and steadfastness of a coterie of friends and music-lovers, and the public spirit of a

young

city

domitable energy.

of amazing resource and inThe orchestra is the only

3p

802

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

U.S.

one iu the United States which bears ofEoially the name of its creator it is also the only one of its kind which occupies its own hall. This ;

endowment, an endowment which may fairly be said to be more enduring than that of any other concert institution in the country, inasmuch as it does not depend upon the wealth and inclination of an individual, a body of guarantors or the interests of the players hall

is

its

themselves as is the case of one or the other of the Societies discussed in this article. The management of the Theodore Thomas Orchestra is in the hands of the Orchestral Association of Chicago, and for fifteen years it was known as the Chicago Orchestra, though popularly spoken of by the name by which it is now officially known. It had its origin primai-ily in the admiration excited by Mr. Thomas (q.v.) in the metropolis of the Middle West in the course of a long series of concerts given by him when he was still the leader of an itinerant orchestra which went out from New York, and a series which he gave every summer for a number of years in a building erected for exposition purposes on the Lake Front. The first Thomas concert was given in Chicago in 1869, when the city was only thirty-four 3'ears old as a municipal corporation, and when it was surpassed in population by Cincinnati and St. Louis. But the love of good music which Mr. Thomas implanted in the city would not have yielded its present fruit had it not been for the disasters which overwhelmed Mr. Thomas's private enterprises during the last few years of his sojourn in

New York

City.

The

chief causes;

which

operated against his efforts to maintain his own orchestra in the American metropolis may be looked for in the variety and number of interests developed by the growth of musical culture in New York. In 1890, when he ended his labours in the city which had been his home since childhood, orchestral concerts were regularly given by the Philharmonic and Symphony Societies, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and the band conducted by Anton Seidl. Mr. Thomas had himself helped to raise the Philharmonic Society to a proud position, and many circumstances conspired to prevent him from commanding the large allegiance which his ambition and ideals exacted. Moreover, Grand Opera, which hitherto had been an exotic, had taken firm root in the Metropolitan Opera- House (see Opera in the United Stater, vol. iii. pp. 466-472) and gathered unto itself a munificent public patronage. In a sense, Mr. Thomas's missionary labours were done in New York, and it was for the good of music that he transferred his work to Chicago. It waa in the summer of 1890, when Mr. Thomas had abandoned all of his individual enterprises in New York, that he was met by C. Norman Fay, his brother-in-law, of Chicago, and from him received the suggestion that he

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN come there.

U.S.

to that city and organise an orchestra He agreed, provided that a guarantee

fund of 150,000 a year for three years should be Fifty -two citizens of Chicago were found who subscribed $1000 a year for three years, an official invitation was extended and accepted, and Mr. Thomas took a habitation in the city in 1891, spending the intermediate time Meanwhile the in organising his new band. Orchestral Association, which was conceived as a self - perpetuating body, was organised by N. K. Fairbank, C. Norman Fay, E. B. M'Cagg, This associaA. C. Bartlett, and C. D. Hamill. tion entered into an agreement with Mr. Thomas raised.

and the guarantors

to give two concerts a week, on Friday afternoons and Saturday evenings, for twenty weeks each season for three years. The musicians were engaged for twenty-eight weeks, eight of which were devoted to concerts outside Chicago. The Chicago concerts were given in the Auditorium, a new theatre- with a seating capacity of between 4000 and 5000. At the end of the contract period the losses entailed by the concerts amounted to |153,000, which fact, together with certain unpleasant experiences in which Mr. Thomas had become involved as Musical iDirector of the World's

Fair held in 1893, had a discouraging effect upon the guarantors. Originally there were fifty-two two of them failed to pay their assessments, and twenty declined to renew their subscriptions. The Orchestral Association was now reorganised, and new subscriptions were asked on a basis of a unit of $50, each unit to ;

entitle the subscriber to a vote for the trustees

who were tion.

to take over the financial administra-

An

eflfort

to create another three years'

and the guarantee fund for the fourth season amounted to only $30,000, which proved to be $4000 less than the cost of the concerts. The fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons created deficits of $27,000 and $39,000 respectively, the last largely due to injudicious travelling.

term

failed,

The guarantee

for these seasons being only each year a debt of $30,000 accumulated, for which a special subscription was raised. This was done, the debts paid, and a contingent fund of $30,000 was created, which soon disappeared under the flood of losses. On guarantees raised from year to year the orchestra continued the concerts until the final phase of the enterprise was reached. On Feb. 13,1903, the patrons of the concerts were asked by the trustees of the Association to subscribe to a fund for the purpose of building a hall which should be a permanent home of the organisation, the theory of the trustees being that a hall with a seating capacity of 2500 would secure better support than one with so many seats that there was little if any inducement to subscribe for the It was argued, besides, that the saving season. in rentals and an income from the same source would put the orchestra on a self-supporting

122,000

for

SYMPHONY CONCERTS basis.

A

IN

SYMPHONY CONCBETS IN

U.S.

system was adopted which appealed

for subscriptions to all classes of the population, and 8000 subscriptions were secured, ranging

amount from 10 cents to $25,000, and amounting to $650,000. Building operations were begun in May 1904, and the hall which cost §7 50, 000 was dedicated on Dec. 14 of the same year. Up to this time the losses on each season had been as follows ; 1st season 853,000 2nd, $51,000 3rd, $49,000 4th, $34,000; 5th, $27,000; 6th, $27,000; 7th, $39,000 8th, $16,000 9th, $16,000 10th, $26,000 11th, $30,000-; 12th, $20,000 13th, $21,000 14th, $19,000 15th, $15,000. In March 1907 the treasurer, Frederick J.

in

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

wrote touching the result of the new the Orchestral Association The theory of the Trustees has proved correct. The ticketsales have increased every year, thedemand for seats being suffipient to induce the Trustees to lengthen the season of 24 weeks (48 concerts) to 28 weeks (56 concerts). The present patronage, together with the building rentals ^ud hiring of the hall for outside attractions is sufficient to keep the orchestra on a no-loss basis, notwithstanding the large interest and tax expenditures to be met.' Mr. Thomas Uvedto conduct only five concerts in the new hall, the last on Dec. 24, 1904. He died on Jan. 4, 1905, and was succeeded by JFrederiok A. Stock (g.'i).), who had been his assistant. H^ E. K. "Wessels,

policy

of

:

'

Cincinnati.

The Cincinnati Symphony Oechestea. Concerts of symphonic music were given by this organisation from Jan. 1895 to April 1907, under the auspices of the Cincinnati Orchestra Association, whose affairs are administered by a Board of Directors composed of women, and supported financially by bodies of shareholders, stockholders, and subscribers to a guarantee The Association was organised in 1895 fund. for the purpose of promoting the culture of highclass orchestral music, which for fifteen years had been dependent upon the somewhat desultory and sporadic efforts of the College of Music of Cincinnati. The concerts of the first season, given between January and April of 1895, were divided into three series of three concerts each, preceded by afternoon public rehearsals, and were conducted by Frank Van der Stucken, Anton Seidl, and Henry Schradieck.

Mr. Van der Stucken was then engaged as sole conductor, and remained such for twelve years, during which period ten afternoon and ten evening concerts were given annually. At the the close of the thirteenth season (1906-7), Orchestra Association, rather than submit to of the dictation of the American Federation Musicians, disbanded the orchestra and reeastern solved to invite the orchestras of the under its cities and Chicago to give concerts auspices.

h. e. k.

New

U.S. 803

York.

The Philharmonic Society of New York is the oldest orchestral body in continuous service in the United States devoted to the perfoi-mance of instrumental music. Incidentally it also extends help to its superannuated members, and to that end maintains a pension fund created by gifts from its friends, one half of the initiation fees paid by new

members on their election, fines assessed against members and a share of the earnings of the concerts. It is a communistic body of professional musicians, with three classes of members, viz. Actual, Honorary, and Honorai-y Associate.

In the first class there are none but professional players upon orchestral instruments. The title of Honorary Member is bestowed by vote

upon musicians whose emiaence entitles them to that distinction in the eyes of the members that of Honorary Associate upon laymen for the same reason. Election to membei'ship in the three classes requii'es a unanimous Vote. Active devotion to the Society's interests is enforced on the part of the Actual Members by a system of fines. At the concerts of the Society, which take place only in the regular musical season the actual members constitute a little less than two-thirds of the performers, generally numbering from 90 to 110. The additional players are engaged by the Directors in the ordinary way, and paid the ruling rate of wage. At the end of each season the money in the hands of the Treasurer,save a small sum withheld for contingent expenses, is divided equally among the members who have participated in All the oflScers of the Society are the concerts. musicians except the President, who as a rule, is a citizen of New York distinguished by love of music and devotion to its interests. The conductor need not be a member of the Society, but must be elected like the other officers. His of the Society

;

salary is fixed

by agreement between him and

the Board of Directors. The regular subscription concerts of the Philharmonic Society now (in 1908) number sixteen in each season, and are given in pail's on Friday afternoons and Saturday evenings from November to April, the programmes of each pah- of concerts being identical. Until 1906 it was a rule of the Society that its name should not be used for any concerts except those given under its own auspices but the advent of 'star conductors led to a modification of the rule in the hope that the Society might participate in other concerts than its own, thus adding to its income and recouping it for the large salaries demanded by the 'stars.' The results of the first season did not justify Among the Honorary Members the change. of the Society since its foundation have ;

'

Vieuxtemps (the first one, elected in 1843), Spohr, Mendelssohn, Jenny Lind, Sontag,

been

;

;

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

£04

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

U.S.

U.S.

Alboni, 'William Vincent Wallace, Thalberg, Mme. Parepa-Rosa, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Joachim Raff, Anton Rubinstein, and

heretofore made, that now the Society gives It was sixteen subscription concerts annually. the custom during the early years of the Society,

Dvordk.

when the

The history of the Philharmonic Society of New York had Its beginning at a meeting of professional musicians called by Ureli Corelli Hill (an American musician, violinist, and conductor, pupil of Spohr in Cassel) held on April The impulse to organise such a 2, 1842.

come from the artistic Musical Solemnity given in June 1839, in honour of the memory of Daniel Sohlesinger, one of the first thoroughly trained musicians to make his home in New York. The most prominent musicians in the city were present at this meeting and the meetings which followed, at which the organisation of the Among them were Mr. Society was perfected. Hill A. P. Heinrioh, an eccentric Bohemian composer who presided at the first meeting, but took no further interest in the affair Charles William Vincent Wallace, who E. Horn {q.v.) was a member during the first two years ; Alfred Boucher, a connection of Alexandre Jean Boucher {q.v.) ; Dr. Edward Hodges, an English Cathedral musician, afterwards H. C. Tiram and organist of Trinity Church Society seems to have

success achieved at a

'

'

;

;

;

;

William Seharfenberg, pianists of German birth and training George Loder, a member of the English family of musicians of that name and D. G. Etienne, a French pianist who could play To Loder, who was the horn when required. connected with the Society throughout the first decade, fell the honour of conducting the first performance in the United States of Beethoven's Choral Symphony at a concert of the Society on May 20, 1846. Thi-ee concerts were given in the first season (1842-43), and the first programme is such excellent testimony to the seriousness of the founders' aims that it deserves ;

;

publication here. Plrgt Concert. Dec. 7, 1842— Symphony No. 5, in C minor, Beethoven (conducted by U. C. Hill) ; Scena from Oberon,' Weber '

D

(Madame

minor, for pianoforte, violin, viola, Otto) ; Quintet in violoncello, and double-bass. Hummel (Messrs. Seharfenberg, Hill, rierwort, Boucher, and Rosier) ; Overture ' Oberon,' Weber, (con-

ducted by Mr. Etienne) Duet from Armida,' Rossini (Madame otto and Mr. C. B.Hoto); Sceniifrom'Fidelio,' Beethoven (Mr.C.E, Horn); Aria Bravura, from 'The Seraglio,' Mozart (Madame Otto) New Overture In D, Kalliwoda, (conducted by Mr. Tlmra). The orchestra during the vocal music was directed by H. C. Timm. '

;

For the next sixteen years four regular concerts were given each season, then for ten In the twenty-seventh season the years five.

number was

increased to six,

the rule until the

number was

and

this remained

fifty -sixth season,

increased

to

eight.

when the Out of a

custom of admitting amateurs to the rehearsals of the Society which was inaugurated in the second season there gi'ew the so-called public rehearsals, which for several decades differed in nothing but name and the time of performance In 1906 the title from the regular concerts. '

public rehearsals

noon Concerts.'

'

was abandoned

for

'

After-

This explains the statement,

president was a professional musician member of the Society, to leave the conducting of the concerts in his hands, though for a number of years that ofiicial found it expedient to share the duty with the leading members of the Society, especially such as were at the head of singing and other musical societies. Thus in the first season, though only three concerts were given, five members ofliciated at the conductor's desk,

and

necessarily a

viz: U.

Hill,

C.

H.

C.

Timm, W.

Alpers,

Boucher, and George Loder. D. G. Etienne aided Hill, Loder, and Alpers in the second season. Two new men, one of whom was destined to play an important rSle in the history of the Society, appeared in the seventh They were Theodore Eisfeld, who season. came from Europe with experience gained in conducting concerts in Paris and elsewhere and Max Martezek, whose real activities belonged in the field of opera. In Eisfeld 's second season the directors changed their policy and elected Eisfeld sole director for the season. In 1854 Carl Bbegmann was associated with him and H. C. Timm, who was then president, and thereafter for ten years, save the fifteenth and sixteenth seasons conducted solely by Eisfeld and the fourteenth and seventeenth conducted by Bergmann, these two men conducted alternately. Bergmann was sole conductor from 1865 to 1876. Then came an interregnum of three years with Dr. Leopold Damrosch, Theodore Thomas, and Adolph Neuendorff as conductors. Mr. Thomas was conductor for the next twelve years, Anton Seidl for the next seven (holding the position at the time of his death on March 28, 1898) and Emil Paur Under the artistic administration of for four. Messrs. Thomas and Seidl, the Society giew steadily in prosperity and reached its zenith. A falling oflT in popular interest during the Paur regimeandtheoneseason, the sixty-first, inwhich Walter Damrosch was conductor, led to the adoption of the custom, wliioh had gained a foothold in some of the European capitals, of engaging a different conductor for each concert, instead of one for the entire season. These guests in the sixty - second season were Edouard Colonne of Paris, Gustav F. Kegel of Frankfort, Henry J. Wood of London, Victor Herbert of Pittsburgh, Felix Weingartner of Munich, and Richard Strauss of Berlin. In the sixty- third season the conductors were Gustav F. Kogel, Edouard Colonne, Wassili Safonoffof Moscow, Felix Weingartner, and Karl Panzner Alfred

;

'

of

"

Bremen

;

Theodore Thomas, who had also

accepted the invitation of the directors, died before the concert which he was to conduct, and Herr Kogel was called back from Frankfort to In the sixty-fourth season the take his place.

'

SYMPHONY CONCEKTS IN

U.S.

was accepted by "Willem Mengelberg of Amsterdam, Victor Herbert,

Society'3 invitation

Max

Fiedler

of

Hamburg, M.

Safonoff,

Dr.

Ernst Kunwald of Frankfort, and Fritz Steinbach of Cologne. At the end of this season an engagement was made with M. Safonoff as sole conductor for three years. To carry out these new policies a number of public-spu-ited citizens placed a considerable fund at the service of the Society.

(For a history of the Society see The PhUharNew York, a memorial by Henry Edward Krehbiel published on the occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the founding of the Society, April 1892, London, Novello, Ewer & Co.) h. e, k. The New York Symphony Society. This organisation is a successor, dejure if not de facto, of a Society of like name, which was founded in 1878 by Ur. Leopold Damrosoh. During the early years of its existence the New York Symphony Society maintained an exceedingly active competition with the orchestraof Theodore Thomas, and the rivalry of the organisations had much to do with famiKarising the New York public with the works of the German, French, and Russian composers as fast as they were published, and even before, since Dr. Damrosch and Mr. Thomas were both in the habit of securing manuscript copies of their compositions from the leading authors of Europe. After the death of Dr. Damrosch in 1885 his son Walter succeeded to the conductorship of the Society, and has remained its administrative The Society as well as artistic head ever since. has passed through many vicissitudes, and has several times appeared to be moribund, only to

monic Society of

by its energetic and indefatigable conductor. The concerts were permitted to lapse in 1899, when Mr. Damrosch

be awakened to renewed

life

devoted a year to composition again when he travelled with his own opera company, and still again when he became conductor for a season (1902-3) of the Philharmonic Society of New York (?.».). Retiring from that post Mr. Damrosch organised what for four years was called the New York Sjrmphony Orchestra, on a cooperative basis, profit and loss being shared by the members of the organisation and a committee The plan proved to be unsatisof guarantors. guarantors factory, and in the spring of 1907 the back to Kfe, called the old Symphony Society and and resolved to proceed under the old style players weekly in the old manner, paying the all wages throughout the season, and assuming At the same tame it re-sponsibiHties. ;

financial

to increase the number of to twenty-eight, concerts in New York City Sunday afternoons. half of them to be given on Weingartner alterIn the season 1905-6 Felix conducting concerts nated with Mr. Damrosch in for, unlike the in New York and other cities this band makes tours

was determined

;

Philharmonic Society,

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN to

many

U.S. 805

and towns in the United States. during the summermonths, and provides music for large and fashionable resorts near Philadelphia and Chicago. H. B. K. People's Symphony Concerts of New York. Under this title a series of concerts are annually given in the chief American city by an orchestoa of excellent proportions and artistic character, and with progi-amnies of a high class, for which there is little more than a nominal cities

It also remainsintact

charge for admission, the prices varying from ten cents to fifty. The concerts are also given in pairs, iirst in the large hall of Cooper Union, situated in the densely populated district known as the East Side ; then in Carnegie Hall, the homeof all the fashionable concerts, the purpose being; to reach all classes of the people whose tastes: the concerts are designed to educate. Under the title The People's Symphony Concerts auxiliary chamber concerts are also given by local combinations of players. All the concerts, which were called into being by Franz Xavier '

Arens in 1902 and have been directed by him ever since, are given under the auspices of an organisation incorporated under the laws of the State of New York, and are maintained largely by the contributions of philanthropic persons interested in musical culture. These contributions range from $2500, which sum entitles the donor to be a founder, to a dollar a year. Receipts and expenses are about $12,000 a year, and at the end of 1905 the organisation had a permanently invested fund of the same h. E. K. amount. Young People's Symphony Concerts of New York. For the purpose of giving children

and young people an opportunity not only to hear standard symphonic works but also to become familiar with their structure and contents Frank Damrosch organised an annual under the above title in 1898. Appreciation of the compositions is helped by explanatory remarks made by the conductor, in which the forms are briefly analysed and the poetic contents suggested, themes and phrases being played in illustration by the orchestra. The concerts are given at popular prices, and teachers and pupils of the public schools of the Inasmuch as city receive tickets at half price. the orchestral has full symphonic dimensions, that of the New York Symphony Society being employed and solo artists are frequently engaged, the expenses are not always covered, though for years all the seats in Carnegie Hall have been subscribed for, and the resulting deficit is usually met by private subscription of publicThe management of the spirited music-lovers. concerts is in the hands of a small committee of ladies ; there is no ofiicial organisation. H. B. k. series of concerts

Philadelphia.

The Philadelphia Orchestra, whose affairs are administered

by the Philadelphia Orchestra

806

SYMPHONY CONCERTS

IN

U.S.

SYMPHONY CONCERTS IN

U.S.

aided by committees of ladies from towns and cities contiguous to PhilaThe Orchestra delphia, was organised in 1900. Association is composed of about 300 men and women, prominent in social and artistic afi'airs,

a well-known violinist. The concerts Germania continued for two years, whereupon Henry Gordon Thunder, director of the Philadelphia Choral Society, took up the work and out of the same material organised a Phila-

who

delphia Orchestra ; his concerts, Uke those of Mr. Stoll, however, were tentative in character, and served chiefly to disclose the inadequacy of the players. After five years of these praiseworthy but futile efibrts a number of the most prominent men and women in social and musical circles formed the Orchestral Association. Some of the foremost workers in the new enterprise were the cultivated amateurs who had formed a 'Symphony Society of Philadelphia' in 1893, with Dr. W. W. Gilchrist as conductor this Society gave concerts from time to time until the new orchestra, a brief forerunner of the present organisation, appeared on the field. This new orchestra gave two concerts in the spring of 1900 with Fritz Scheel as conductor. Mr. Scheel had been an assistant to Dr. von Biilo w in Hamburg, and was a man of fine musical parts and splendid energy. The success of the two concerts was such as to induce the Association to send him abroad to recruit the orchestra, and make of it a first-class symphonic organisation. The first regular season of the newly recruited orchestra was given in 1900-1, and from that time till his death in February 1907, Mr. Scheel remained conductor of the band ; he was succeeded in the season of 1907-8 by Karl Pohlig. The Philadelphia Orchestra does not confine its ministrations to Philadelphia, but besides twenty afternoon and twenty evening concerts there, gives concerts each year in other

Association,

annually guarantee the cost of the enterUntil now (1908) the yearly losses have ranged from$50, 000 to 170,000, butPhiladelphia has repeated the story of Chicago in its selfsacrificing devotion to the ideal which it has set prise.

The for itself in respect of orchestral music. history of the Philadelphia Orchestra does not differ essentially from that of a number of the other institutions discussed in this article ; though the desire of the city's society element have adequate performances of opera as a feature of the social season was largely instrumental in its formation. Readers of the article in this Dictionary on Opera in the U.S. (vol. iii. pp. 466-472) will have observed that for a long time in the latter part of the 18th and the first decades of the 19th centuries Philadelphia was a vigorous rival of New York in operatic activity, but that in the course of time supremacy went to the latter city. So long as Theodore Thomas was a factor in the orchestral music of the eastern cities, his orchestra gave concerts with greater or less regularity in Philadelphia but the abandonment of his individual enterprises in 1891 left the music-lovers of the to

;

old Federal capital without regular concerts of The Boston Orhigh-class orchestral music. chestra, on its travels, supplied the want for several years, but could not satisfy the ambitions of a city properly proud of the part which it

had played m the political, commercial, social, and artistic history of the country. In the season of 1894-95 there was something like an awakening of thedormantmusical interests of the city. In 1895-96 a committee was formed to promote an opera season, and a season of opera in English of forty performances was given under a guarantee with Mr. Gustav Hinrichs as In the next season Mr. Walter director. Damrosch supplied local operatic needs ; in 1897-98 Messrs. Damrosch and EUis, and in 1898-99 Mr. Charles Ellis alone with Mr.

Damrosch as conductor and

Thereafter, the local committee of opera guarantors made annual arrangements for opera from year to year with Maurice Grau and Heinrioh director.

Conried.

During this period of operatic interest orWhile chestral matters were also in a ferment. Mr. Hinrichs was director of the opera he gave orchestral concerts, and tried to develop a symphonic band out of the material which he found In the same season the Musical Fund at hand. Society, an old foundation, created conditions which made it possible for a local concert orchestra, the Germania, to increase the number of its members and to give a series of Friday afternoon concerts under the direction of William

Stoll, Jr.

,

of the

;

neighbouring towns and cities, such as Wilmington, Del., Harrisburg, Pa., Trenton, N.J., Easton, Pa., Beading, Pa., Baltimore and Washington. H. E. K.

Pittsburgh.

PiTTSBUKGH SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. The incentive to organise a permanent concert orchestra in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, came with Andrew Carnegie's gift to the city of a building that should contain a library, art museum, and music hall. The building was dedicated in 1895, and the Art Society undertook to raise fimds to support an orchestra for three years. The first season of the Orchestra was begun on Feb. 27, 1896. Frederic Archer was conductor. Twenty concerts were given that year in Pittsburgh, and in the two years following, twenty in Pittsburgh and in other towns, seven in the season 1896-97, Mr. Archer was chiefly and five in 1897-98. gallery,

known

as an organist, but he had had some experience in the English provinces as a conductor. He was succeeded as conductor by Victor Herbert in 1898. In the season of 1898-99 the concerts given numbered twenty in Pittsburgh and ninein other places. The next season the number

—

;

:

SYMPSON in the regular series

and

SYEEN

was increased

to thirty -six,

so it remained for the next five years.

At

the same time the Orchestra entered upon a much greater activity in giving concerts outside of Pittsburgh. Tours were undertaken, and the concerts varied in number from twenty-seven to forty-five. In 1904 Mr. Herbert was succeeded by Emil Patjr, who for five years, from 1893 to 1898, had been conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The number of concerts in the Pittsburgh season was reduced to thirty ; but in that season forty-three concerts were given in other cities and towns and eighty-five in the sesison of 1905-6. From the beginning the Art Society of Pittsburgh has been responsible for the Orchestra but it has asked of the public guarantees of a fixed sum in periods of three years, each representing the term for which the conductor is The first year the total guarantee engaged. was ^25,000. Each year the sum has been increased, until for the three-year teim beginning with the season of 1904-5 the amount was At no time in the history 840,000 a year. of the organisation has it been necessary to ask the guarantors to pay the maximum of their subscriptions, but the deficit in the first It is not eleven years was over §250,000. expected that the Orchestra shall pay expenses ; in fact, the Committee of the Art Society has declared that its maintenance ought to be regarded as an obligation upon the publicspirited

and well-to-do

citizens

807

'""^^^C^ and then repeats this instance

it

in

may be

common

time, which in

taken as an extreme form

of syncopation.

Schumann was fonder of syncopation than any other composer. His works supply many instances of whole short movements so syncopated throughout that the ear loses its reckoning, and the impression of contra-tempo is lost e.g. Kinderscenen, No. 10 ; Faschingsschwank, No. 1, and, most noticeable of all, the opening bar of the ' Manfred ' Overture.

Wagner has one

or

two examples of exceed-

an accompaniment ingly complex syncopation Tristan und Isolde,' which figure in Act 2 of :

'

runs thus throughout

of Pittsburgh.

concerts have formed an increasingly important part of the activities of the Orchestra, and through them its iufluenoe has been great in Cleveland, Buffalo, Toledo,

and a somewhat similar figure in Act 1 of Gbtterdammerung (the scene known as Hagen's watch '), where the quavers of a 12-8 bar are

and particularly in Toronto and As at preother Canadian cities and towns. sent (1908) constituted, the Orchestra numbers

The prelude

The out-of-town

and

Detroit,

sixty-five players.

SYMPSON,

Cheistopheb.

'

'

'

so

tied as

to convey the impression of 6-4.

to Act 2 of the same work presents more curious specimen, no two bars having at all the same accent.

a

still

K. A.

Molto Moderato.

See SiiirsoN,

ante, pp. 455-456.

SYNCOPATION. [An alteration of regular rhythm, produced by placing the strongest emphasis on part of the bar not usually accented. form of In a bar of common time, the simplest notes syncopation is produced by giving three and a crotchet of the value of a crotchet, a minim, This last crotchet is often tied respectively.

[The figure at the beginning of Tchaikovsky's string quartet in D, op. 11, is an interesting instance of syncopation carried out for many bars at a time.

^

i_t^_J_dfcJ=JbdE5

next bar, so to the first crotchet of the accentuation that for several bars the displaced The fourth species of mastery.

on

obtains the

m

is Stktct Counterpoint (see ante, p. 724) In the Coda of the great 3' Beethoven has a Overture 'Leonora No. on the wind passage given out syncopated then ctc. -mrsa. and naturally on the strings, always sufiicient tor It was not, however,

in syncopation.]

may be seen Beethoven's requirements, as Scherzo of from a well-known place in the in a, passage the Eroica, where he first gives syncopation

Brahms's favourite device of crossing rhythms in triple time is not usually called syncopation, though it belongs to the same class of F- c.

devices.]

SYNTAGMA MUSICUM. vol.

iii.

See Praetokius,

pp. 805-808. [See Siren, anie, p. 471.]

SYREN.

'

SZYMANOWSKA

SYEINX

808

SYRINX.

[See

Pandean

Pipe, vol.

ui.

pp. 611, 612.]

SYSTEM.

The collection

of staves necessary

—

complete score of a piece in a string quartet, or an ordinary vocal score, four a PF. trio, four a PF. quartet, five and so on. Two or more of these will go on a page, and then we speak of the upper or lower system, for the

;

;

;

etc.

a.

SZARVADY, Madame.

See Olatjss-SzarVADT, vol. i. p. 548, and add date of death, in Paris, Sept. 1, 1907.

SZYMANOWSKA, pianist of her day,

'

Makie, a distinguished

who would, however, hardly

have been remembered but for Goethe's infatuation for her. She was born about 1790, of Polish parents named Wolowski, and was a pupil of John Field's at Moscow. She ti-avelled much in Germany, France, and England, and died at St. Petersburg of cholera in August 1831. One of her daughters married the famous Polish poet Miokiewicz, whom she had introduced to Goethe in July 1829. Goethe knew her as

END OF

and even then overpraised her, setting her above Hummel ; ' but those who do so,' says Felix Mendelssohn, who was then at Weimar,^ ' think more of her pretty face early as 1821,

than her not pretty playing.' Goethe renewed the acquaintance in August 1823, at Eger, where she and Anna Milder were both staying, calls her 'an incredible player,' and expresses his excitement at hearing music after an interval of over two years in a remarkable letter to Zelter of August 24, 1823, again comparing her with Hummel, to the latter's disadvantage. Mme. Szymanowska appears to have helped to

and the third of its three poems, called ' Aussbhnung, In 1824 she was in is a direct allusion to her. Berlin. 'She is furiously in love (rasend verliebt) with you,' says Zelter to the poet, inspire the 'Trilogie der Leidensohaft,'

'and has given

me

a hundred kisses on

mouth for you. Her compositions were

chiefly for the PF.,

with a few songs. 1

VOIi.

IV

Ooethe

my G.

and

3fendelM0lvn, p. 25.

'

''

'

'

ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA FOE MacDOWELL,

p. 6, art.

New

at

P.

line

add that he died

P. 181, art. MERSENNUS, line 16, add that his most important work is Hannmiie

second column, read 'P. B.

Vniverselle (1636), as mentioned at the end of the article. Line 6 from end, dele ' TraictA de Vorgue (1635),' as that is pai-t of the Harmonie

York, Jan. 24, 1907.

9,

MACKENZIE,

art.

31, /or

N. Jewson

'F.

'

Jewson.' P.

MACPHERSON,

art.

12,

for 'Charles

Universelle.

Stewart' read 'Stewart.'

MADRIGAL,

P. 16, art.

column, /or

first

line 7

merchant

'

read

'

'

P. 200, art. MIDAS, line 9, add that it was played privately at Lurgan in 1760, and brought out at the Crow Street Theatre, Dublin, Jan. 22, 1762. w. H. G. F. P. 201, art. MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM, last line but two, for Sunday ' read Saturday. P. 243, art. MONK, E. G., line 15, for Collins' read Calkin.' P. 258, art. MOOREHEAD, line 16, for •ISSO' read '1800.'

from end of choirman of

St. Paul's.'

P. 17, same article, lines 2-3 of first column, ' Sacred Harmonic Society read ' Royal College of Music. P. 18, art. SOCIETY, hne 5,

for

'

'

'

MADRIGAL

for Europe Catch Club '

'

read

'

The Hibernian

London.

'

said to be the oldest society in

is

Europe. P. 19,

same

article, line 8

P.

'

graf's skill.

P. 278, art. MOUNTAIN, add that in 1751 he was one of the Rotunda Band in Dublin, and in 1765-85 was leader of the Dublin City Music. He was appointed to Covent Garden in 1794 insucoession to Baumgarten. w. H. G. F.

'

MUHLFELD, add date of death, 1907. P. 318, art. MUFFAT, the date of Componimenti musicali is shown by Mr. P. Robinson, of Rusholme, Manchester, to be a good deal later than 1727. The Grand Duke of Tuscany referred to in the title did not become Grand Duke till July 1737, and was not even selected (provisionally) till Oct. 1735. As the Emperor died in 1740, we get 1735 and 1740 as the extreme limits. P. 325, art. MUSIC-PRINTING, line 19 P. 315, art.

'

June

'

P. 58, art. MARIO, as to the date of birth, the register of his baptism in the cathedral of Santa Cecilia at Cagliari, Oct. 18, 1810, supports the date given by Baker.

59,

same

line 4

article,

from end, add

that his farewell appearance took place at Co vent Garden in 1871, in 'La Favorita.' P. 62, art. MARSCHNER, line 35 of first column, add that Hans Heiling was produced '

from end of first column, for to' read 'was followed by.'

'

at Berlin, not Hanover,

P. 102, art. MEIBOM, last line but t^vo, for Jais ' read Jan. line 16 of P. 152, art.

;

'

MENDELSSOHN,

first

column, for

'

146J

'

read

'

146a.'

'

changed his name

P. 327, same article, lines 4-8 from end of second column, the sentence in square brackets refers to the first use of lithography in English music-printing Alois Senefelder, the inventor of lithography, printed music from the first, i.e. he was connected with the firm about 1796

P. 65, art. MARTIN, Sir G. C, line 19, dele the first words 'and Evening.' '

1,

'

died in Paris, Feb. 20, 1908.

P.

262,

Cassel, for

P. 35, art. MALIBRAN, lines 3-4 of first column, for ' The Morley Arms, Matlock,' read ' The Mosley Hotel, Manchester. P. 38, art. MANCINELLI, last line but one, for oratorio cantata,' and add read that his opera, 'Paolo e Francesca,' was produced at Bologna, Nov. 11, 1907. P. 43, art. MANNS, line 25 of first column, At end add date of /or ' 1847 read 1857.' death, March 1, 1907. P. 53, art. MARCHESI, add at end that he '

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art. MORITZ, Landgraf of Hessean account of Dowland's visit, see vol. i. p. 725a, and Peacham's Compleat Gentkman (1634), p. 99, for a tribute to the Land-

from end of second

column, /or 'Mr.' read 'Dr.'

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VOL. HI

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ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA FOR See the notice of of Andre at Offenbach. Senefelder in the Allgem. Deutsche Biographie. P. 337, art. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, COLLECTIONS OF, in the liatin second column,

Leyden, now in section 6, under Germany, should be placed in section 7, under Holland. P. 347, art. NS6ELI, in the second line of the musical illustration in first column, add a bass clef before the last chord. P. 349, art. NANINI, G. M., add that a, bibliography of big works, is in the Kirehensee the same musikalisches Jahrbuch for 1891 publication for 1898, p. 29. P. 352, art. NAPRAVNIK, line 2, for 12/26 read '12/24.' P. 363, art. NERUDA, line 11 of second column, add that Ludwig Norman died in 1885. P. 387, art. NOEL, line 13 from end of article, for J. L. Hotton read J. C. Hotton. P. 392, art. NORWICH FESTIVAL, add that a reference to Annals of the Norfolk and Norwich Triennial Musical Festivals by R. H. Legge and W. E. Hansell, 1896. P. 412, art. NOVELLO, add that Clara Novello (Countess Gigliuoci) diedatRome,Maroli 12, 1908. P. 416, art. OAKELEY, add that he died at Eastbourne. P. 421, art. OBOE D'AMORE, add that it Heldenleben. is used in the score of Strauss's P. 443, art. OPERA, line 26 of second column, though he was by birth an dele the words ;

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Italian.

P. 483, art. ORATORIO, line 29 from end of second c6bimn,ftyr Friedmann read Friede'

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mann.

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P. 595, art. PAGANINI, line 5 from end of T. B. Cramer read second column, for 'J. B. Cramer.' P. 620, art. PARISIAN SYMPHONY, line 1788 read 9 from end of second column, for '

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1778.' P. 625, art. PARRY, line 4 from end of second column, for 1866 read ' 1886.' Add that Parry was compelled, through ill-health, to resign the Oxford Professorship in 1908. '

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P.

630,

art.

PART-BOOKS,

line

27

of

second column, for '1560' read '1567,' and three lines below, fm- 1606 read 1614.' P. 643, art. PASSACAGLIA, add that Rheinberger wrote an example in which the theme appears on successive degrees of the scale, and Arensky devised one of six crotchets in 5-4 time, so that each note in turn receives '

the accent. P.. 654,

art.

'

PATRICK,

service referred to in lines

3-5

'

Riohakd, the by Nathaniel

is

Cathedral

in

1597.. P.

read

'

PEDAL,

663, art. 1772.'

11, /or

line

'

1785

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P. 677, art. PERGOLESI, in list of works. Section III., add another 'Laudate pueri' for canto solo, vocal quartet, strings and wind, the MS. of which is in the Santini Library.

P. 679, art. PERI, line 22 from end of article, add that Peri died in 1633. Two lines below, add that some numbers of Dafne were dis'

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covered at Brussels. P. 680, art. PERIODICALS, MUSICAL, line 4 of article, dele ' small. Line 1 8 of second column, for March 10 read ' March 18.' P. 681, same article, line 5 of first column, read '1852.' Line 30 of second for column, for 8vo ' read ' quarto. P. 683, same article, line 7 of second column, for 'monthly' read 'weekly.' P. 684, same article, line 7 of first column, add that the Irish Musical Monthly existed from March 1902 to Feb. 1903. P. 696, art. PFEIFFER, G. J., add that he died in Paris, Feb. 14, 1908. P. 707, art. PHILIPS, line 22 from end of second column, add that another arrangement of the same pavan, entitled ' Engelen gret,' is in W. Swarfs Den Lust-Hof der nieuwe Musycke '

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(Amsterdam, 1603), p. 38. P. 709, at end of same article, add that a volume of masses was published posthumously, (see the Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrhuch, 1899,

This is identical with a book entered in a list of the musical Library of John IV., King of Portugal (1649), as No. 599 :— 'Missas p. 89).

a 8 & 9 Obras postu. After this comes a volume of ' Mottetes ... a 8, 2 partes,' also described as posthumous works, though it seems doubtful whether an eight-part ' Cantiones sacrae of 1613 be not intended. Of the Masses and Psalms no copy is at present known to exist. P. 723, art. PIANOFORTE, line 21 of second column, add that J. C. Bach published a Sonata for the Battle of Rosbach, 'pour le Clavecin ou Forte-Piano,' about 1757-58, not later than the latter year.

y Salmos mas.

P. 572, art. O'SULLIVAN, add that he died at Columbus, Ohio, Feb. 1, 1908. P. 577, art. OUSELEY, first line of second column, for ' Church read ' College.'

VOL. Ill

organist of Worcester

Patrick,

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P. 732, same article, lines 16-17 of second column, for the title of C. P. E. Bach's treatise, read Versuch ilber die wah/re Art das Clavier '

len.

796, art. PORTMAN, Richard, add that he taught the virginals in 1651, and that in P.

1656 he

is

mentioned as having recently died.

(Quellen-Lexikon. )

PROFESSOR, line 3 from end column, for 1847 read 1845. Line 13-19 of second column, this sentence refers to the condition of the professorship in former times, the present Professor not being expected to live in Dublin, or to conduct the Choral P.

of

816, art.

first

Society.

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ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA FOR P. 827, art. PROSKE, add a reference to the bibliography in KirchenmusilcaKselies Jdhrbuch for 1894, with a diary kept by Proske while in Italy.

P. 832, art.

PSALTER,

line

26 from end of

column, /or 'psalms' read 'compositions.' 833, line 6 of second column, add that between 1550 and 1553 six editions of Sternhold were printed. P. 833, footnote 3, far The unique copy read The copy consulted. P. 834, line 9 from end of second column, /or two interesting attempts read a most iateresting attempt. Line 6 from end, for One read It.' Line 5 from end, dele the other to the 68th.' For In both read Here.' P. 835, col. 1, after the title of the 1560 first

P.

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edition add the reference to footnote

The same

1,

word

and add

word, appears in the English edition of 1561, the only known copy of which is in the library of the Society of Antiquaries,' etc. Line 6 from end of column remove the footnote reference after the word 'afterwards.' Line 4 from end, /or ' this work read the edition of 1660.' P. 835, second column, Unes 3-4,/or fortyfour, of which twenty- three read forty-two, Line 7, /or 'five' read of which twenty-four.' Line 10, after '130th' add '50th, 'six.' Omit 127th, 129th, and " Commandaments. " Line 8 before lines 13-19 of same paragraph. the musical example, for sixty-three read Same line, for twenty -two read sixty- two. '

practically

title,

for

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The harmonised version of 'twenty-four.' 100 in the same column is from Claudin le Jeune's coUeotion, Leyden, 1633. P. 836,eolumn 1, lines 3-4, omit the sentence beginning 'The 145th,' and add the footnote Ps.

P. 837, second column, line 18, after ' 1561 Line' 24, after 'and' add 'those

add '1662.*

of 1570, 1573, 1583, 1584, 1588, 1590.' P. 839, second column, in the title

1579 psalter, for 'Damon' read Daman and for unseemly read unseemely.' P. 840, first column, line 23, omit 'four.' Omit also note 1 on same page. '

P.

the

in

for 'differing

title of from the

former in respect that ' read in which Sett. After the title, line 7, for 'Twelve' read 'Fourteen,' line 8, for one' read 'five,' and for ' in single common measure read ' among them the tune,' etc. Line 10 from end of same column, for twenty-nine read ' thirty-one.' Line 9 from end, for twenty-seven ' read ' twenty-six. Line 3 from end, fm' ' Five read '

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Four.'

P. 841, lines 2 and 3 of first column, omit Same the words ' two ' and ' London and.' column, line 16, for ' two read ' three.' P. 842, second column, line 25, for 'five' Line 26, for 'three' read read 'four.' '

'two.' P. 843, line 5 after title in first column, omit Line 15 from end of same column, for '100' read '105,' and for '38' read '28.' '

forty.

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Line 12 from end, for 31 read a large proportion.' Line 11 from end, for Douland and Hooper have each read Douland has.' Second column after musical example, line 7, foi' Crauford, 2,' read 'Cranford, 1,' and a line below, for Ravenscroft, 48,' read 'Martin Pierson, 1, '

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and Ravenscroft,

51.' '

P. 844, line 10 of second column, /or 1636 read ' 1638,' and for the first words of the title, '

read

title,

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second column,

840,

Daman's second book,

Same line, /or 'including a few duplicates.' ' 14' read '10,' and in the next luie,/or 'Seven' read ' Nine.' Lines 6-12, below the same title, '

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etc.

omit the sentences from 'Nothing more has been taken down to set to similar words.'

of

Daman's

reference at the end of the paragi-aph. P. 837, line 13 of first column, for 'the unique copy is in the John Ryland read ' a copy is in the John Ry lands.' Line 2 below the title of 1562 edition, after 'sixty-five' add '

VOL. Ill

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A

paraphrase upon the Divine Poems,'

P. 845, after title of Playford's psalms, in first column, line 2, for ' thirty-five read Line 6 after title, after Church thirty-four.' '

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one from Wither.' Line 27 after for one other, not a Church tune, read For the 'Southwell, and the Lamentations.' first line after the title in the second column, read Apart from the reasons given by Playford for setting the times.' tunes' add '

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