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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS 1..022 HP mol /I. 1I..314Jrnol'K' . O,(Il2()5 l atm mol I K h "'(,2~~In"Js k U81 ,In Ll]K 1 r-9.!>l9xlO'Cmoi ' S 9.lI.Of,ms'

Aw,&adm's~umber

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Gasconstant Planck'. con.tant ll

H1'

""'&'

10"

kilo

10' 10' 10 I

1=10 dcl;" dod

Symbol

, , ,"

C M

~

MulhpliGlhon Foetor

," ' ,"'" ' ," "" '"

' >0' In"

Prdh

"'~,

e""li milli miem ~ano ,~

"mm a,to

CONCENTRATION

,,-

MOOnty

""'"

,.g/m'

molt.. . of ",IUlC'fl ",lull"" mgfl (m dllulo systems) - ,.g/l (in dilu'" svs""".) lOOJP -ppmvsMWs-(In air! RT

,

,,m

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Environmental Engineering: Fundamentals, Sustainability, Design Second Edition Authors and Editors James R. Mihelcic

Contributing Authors Julie Beth Zimmerman

IYIorti/\ 1. Auer Michigan rochnologlcal Um"",.i,>,

Do\Iid W. Hand Mied to manage and nnl'gale en"ironment.ll problems found ill la,'.d, wat~r, and .,ir. o

TII~re

is cont,"ued ~mpha'L' on problems impor!dnt 10 the Uniled Stoll"" and Ihe world, w,lh .l focus 0" pollution pr~,-~,,'im, and r"",urc~ rec",-~ry whil~ ,till pr", iding infontla'K'" 10 design lreat",~nt pr,lCeSSeS.

o Chapter I ",asrewrillen and is now I,tied ·'Sustarnable De;ign, En8'n""r"'g.and lnn,,,,a"on." 11 de-~mpha'i:>_; ,1M' wil be i"'p:>rlanl'o ,he sliCfgl\;zes ,ix dm""i", be)',.,"'" tr.,d,tinnal 'nundat",,,.ll kn,.,,, ledge, induding; foundation.al "',o",ledge; applicat,m, ,,( k"o",ledge; integralion of kno" ledge; hum.", dimen,ioll' of I~.",ling and caring; and learning hoI-\' 10 learn. \\"1lhoul much background "n Ihe !.'I.""",my, il i, d~ar from Ih""" """I-\'ledge doma,n I",adiogs alone 11"'1 Ihese M~a, recognized by Rnk are crilic-alto a" eogineer M,ked I-\',Ih d""'g'''''g ".-,lull.Igeof InlOr",at.,n a ,-aildbleat go,,~rnmenl and !longm-er",,,enl Web ,iles.

BOOKWEB SITE AJdilional resourc", ,or ,tu.:le,"s and inslruclor,; dt~ available Oil Ihe book ,il~, loc.ted ~I "'\\ w.wiley.mm/rollege/mihelck.

W~b

Cla .... ..,om M~leri3.l. fur In.trudor. n"oogh all NSF Co",,,,,, Curriculum, and ldboratory Improv~m~m grant a,,-ard...J I,~ th""" of thi, book', author,; (Qiollg Zhang, Juli" Beth Zimm~rman, and lam6 M,heleld ,,,,d 10 Linda Valla,up" (California Polytechnic Stale U ni "ersityl, we ha ,'e Je, eloped u,-d"l'lh t: l. Sy",~",s n'ink,ng

2. nnlrooucti"'1\ to) Sus"''''.lbiHly 3. Sy,tem, Thinking: Populalion 4. Sy,le",s Thillkmg: Ene,&v 5. Sy,le"" n,,"king: Material l>. Sy'I~Il\' n"nk,ng; Water

All materials a", a, ailable al the following .ubl; notaled guid"" for faculty u.ing Ihe ~,erd"", • A _ of as pro"ided high-qualil)" "",'iew and ul,ight through. del'elopn.. of Ih" fi"'l .....tuin",

,,,tl

Zuhdi Al"*,,,h, Vol!"",i", U,,;=>iIV

Rob."t W. Keri

Fu"",~

H"rnbucU~,

IJr.nng M"mber, and Bo...d T ru,let> " Ilh Ihe American Academ:- 01 I'll' ironm"nlal Ellgin"".... & Scientlsl' (AA EESI. H" i, le.ld auth"r fM Iwo other I"Xlboob, F,,,,,famelllaL, of [m'""",,,,,,,lol ["s;,"'o''''~ (John Wil"y & S.,n" 1999) (traIlsl.lted inlo Sp.lni,h) and Fid,j G,"do' i" [m'"""",,,,,lol ["si""'ri"s /lihood of succe;,ful impleme",ation of Ih""" nul generalion de;iglls, Dr. Zimmerman ,Iudj"" Ihe dfeclivene" and impeJlln"nts of current anu potential policit's dev'eloped 10 au vance ,usiainablilty. Togt'lher, Ihese effort, ref're;,,,,, a ,y,teltl.lhc and holi,tk appmach 10 addres.sing Ih" ch.•lIenge,; 01 suslamab,lily 10 enhance ,,·ater and r6mrc" quallly and quanlity. to impro,e elll'ironn",nl~1 protection, and 10 pro,'ide for a higher qualily ollif", Dr. Zimmerm~" previously ",,,'ed a, an Engin"",r and program coordinator in lile Office of Re>earch and De"elop"'''''' al Ihe L',,,ted SI~te; En\"ironment.\1 Prol",,1;0ll Ag~ncy where ,he managed su,t.linability research granb and created EPA's [') (['eople, P""'p"rity, and Ihe ['1",eO Award program. lo.13rtin T. A""r" a pmles.sor of ci,·,1 and em m",mental engUleering at Michigan TeclulOlngical U,u""",ity. He I~aches introductory couN>s in ",,,,iron,,,,,nt..l engin""ring and ad,'anced coulSewcrk In surface ,,·aler---taill,Ibilit)' 1m work il" sustainable urlMn d""igJ' t,) reduce air pollulion ""1X",ur"" resultant health effects, and en, i",nmental inequalily.

Aboul the Authors

R. Urb~n i, a prof"",,,,, of ~i\ j] .\lId em ironmenul engineering al Michigall Tech"ol"gic.;1 Unl ..e",il}. HL~ leaching inlere-b focus on e"nro"menl.;l chen",tr} and ,urf.lee ,,-al"'--l,,"'., "ater .1I,d en.e,gy ","'enlS, qua.ntify ill> Iheen ,irmmental i'''plicatio", of energ} 'y,lem, alld energy implicalim~s of waler and "a,lew.;ler ,y,lem" and "",kIng lechnical a"d nOnledmical ""Iu!ion, for ime-g",ted ",aler..,ne'gy mallag",n""1

Brief Table of Contents Chapter Eight Water Treatment

Chapter One Sustainable Design, Engileering, and Innovation 1

Chapler Nine Wastewater and Stormwater: Collection, Treatment, Resource Recovery 440

Chapter Two Environmental Measurements 37 Chapter Three Chemistry

68

Chapler Four Physical Processes ChaplcrFive Biology

115

Chapler Eleven Air Quality Engineeting 575

182

ChaplcrSix Environmental Risk

ChaplcrTcn Solid-Waste Management 523

246

Chapler Seven Water: Quantity and Quality 296

•

375

Detailed Table of Contents Chapler One Sustainable Design, Engi1eering, Md 1.1

~noyation

UnlS 40

1

Background: EvolUtIOn from Enwonmental Protection to SuSlanabll.y 2

The Path Forward: OpefatlOO3lizing Su5lailabilly 8

1.2

VoIumeNoIume and Mole!Mole Using the Ideal Gas Law to

2..2.1

Convert ppm. to I'-Wm3 42 2.3

Partial-Pressure UflItS 44

2.4

MolelVollnle UnItS 46

2.5

OtherTypesolUnlS 48

1.2.1

UfBCydilThnkng 11

:u. 1

Normality 48

1..2.2

Sysrerre Tlwlkng 17

2.5..2

Concentrauon as a Common CoffilllUEl1I 51

1.3

Englreemg lor Suslamability 21

ConcentratJonsof Carbon Dialude and Other GHGs 52

Frameworks lor Susta.nable

1.3.1

Desgn 22 1.3.2

The Importance of DesIgn am Irvw;)vatJOn in AdvanCIng Soslanabtity 24

2..5.4

Aepomng PartICle Concentrauons 11 All and Waer 58

2..5.5

RepresentltJOnbyEffea 60

1.4

Meas!f1ngSusminllbility 27

1.5

PolIcIes Drivng Green Engneenng and

Key Terms 61

SusranabJJ:y 30

C~ter

1.5.1

ReguialOlS 30

1.5.2

VoitnaryProgmms 31

1.6

Aeler5lCllS 67

o-gnngT(ltT'Offl)W 32

Chapler Three Chemistry 68

Key Terms 32

3.1

Approaches in EnvrormentaI Chernsl/y 69

3.2

ActJ>ity and Concentration 69

3.3

Reaction Slotdiiorretry 72

3.4

l1'IemDdynarmc Laws 72

3.5

VoiaUizallon

3.6

A1r-WatBf EqUlibrUm 80

Chapler One Problems 33 Relefenoes 36

ChaplerTwo Environmental Melliurements 37 2.1

Two Prkms 62

Mass Conc:efl\latlOO Units 38

2.1.1

Mass/Mass Unls 38

2.1.2

MassIVolume UOIlS; mgIL ancIlAWm 40 ;....,.~

3.6.1

76

Hervy's law Constant wIth Units for a Gas DissolvIng in a

lqlJd 80

3.6.2

3.1

Dimensionless Henry's law Constant for a Species Transferring from the liquid PhaseinlothlGasPhase 81

Acid-BaseChenistry 83

83

3.7.1

pH

3.7.2

Definition of Acids and Bases and their Equilibrium Conslarlts 84

3.7.3

Carbonate System, Alkalinity. and Buffering Capacity 86

3.8

Oxidalion-Redu::tion 89

3.9

Predpitaion-Dissdution

""

AdsorpHon, Absorption, and Sorption 94

3.11

Kinetics

4.1.3

Reactor Analysis: The CMFR 122

4.1.4

Batch Rea:tor 129

4.1.5

PIlJ;j·Aow Reactor 130

4.1.6

Retention nme and Other Expressions for VlQ 135

4.1.7

Materials Flow Analysis and Urban Metabdism 138 Energy Balances 140

'.2 4.2.1

Fonns of Energy 140

4.2.2

Conducting an Energy Balanee 142

4.2.3

Impact of GreenhouseGas Emissions on Earth·s Energy Balarlee 145

4.2.4

Energy Efficiency In Buildings: Insulation, Infiltration. and Thermal Wals 151

4.2.5

Urban Heat Island

91

101 101

3.11.1

TheRatelaw

3.11.2

Zero-Order and First·Order Reactions 103

157

3.11.3

Pseudo First·Order Reactions 104

'.3

Buildings: Right Sizing and Energy 160

3.11.4

Half·life and Its Relationshipto the Rate Constarlt 106

4.4

Mass Transport Processes 164

3.11.5

Effect of Temperature on Rate Constants 108

KeyTerfTti

4.4.1

Advection and Dispersion

4.4.2

Movement of a Particle in a Fluid: Stokes'lavv 173

109

Key Terms

ChapterThreB Problems 110 RelerBl"lcBS

175

Chapter Four Problems

114

ReferBflcBS

OJapterFive Biology 182

4.1

5.'

116

4.1.1

ContrdVolume

4.1.2

Terms of the Mass Balance Equation for a CMFR 117

IlYIlI Detailed Table or Contents

Ecosystem StruGlureand FlEIdion 183

117 5.1.1 5.2

176

181

Chapter Four Physical Processes 115 MassBalances

164

MajorOrgarismGroups Poptiatioo Dynanics 188

185

5.2.1

Units of Expression for POPJlatioo Size 188

5.2.2

Models of Population Growth 188

5.3

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

5.3.2 5.3.3

Chapter Five Problems 239 205

References

Trophic Structure in Ecosystems 208 Thermodynamics and Energy Tramfer 209

6.'

Risk and the Engineer 247

6.'

Risk Perceplim

6.3

Hazardous Waste and Toxic ChffTlicals 254

Definition of 800, CBOD. and NBOO 213

5.4.2 5.4.3

245

Chaplcr Six Environmental Risk 246

Oxygen Demand: 8iochemk:al, Chemical. and Theoretical 213 5.4.1

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Heatth 235

KeyTerms 238

Energy Capture and Use: Photosynthesis and Respiration 205

5.3.1

5.4

5.6.2

SOI....cesofBOD 214

251

6.3.1

HazardJus Waste 256

6.3.2

Toxicity 257

6.3.3

Pollution Preventim

6.'

Engineerl-1g Ethics and Risk

6.5

Risk Assessmerf

263 264

267

Theoretical Oxygen Demand 215

6.5.1

Hazard Assessment

5.4.4

BOD Kinetics 216

6.5.2

Dose-Response Assessment 270

5.4.5

CBODRateCoefficierf

6.5.3

Exposure Assessment 273

6.5.4

Risk Characterization 277

5.4.6 5.4.7 5.5

219

BOD: Measurement, Application, and liJTitatims 220

6.6

BOD Test: limitations and Alternatives 223

More Complicated Problems with at Least Two Exposure Routes 283

Material Flow in Ecosystems 224 5.5.1

Oxygen and Carbon Cycles

5.5.2

Nitrogen Cyde

5.5.3

PhoSp'lOnJS Cyde 230

5.5.4

SulflJ'" Cyde 230

5.6

6.6.1

Settin9 Water·Quality Standards Based on Exposure from Drinking Water and Eating Fish 283

6.6.2

How to Determine Allowable Soii Cleanup Standards That Protect Groundwater 284

225

227

Ecosystem Health and the Public Welfare 231 5.6.1

Toxic Substances and Ecosystem and Human Heatth 231

267

KeyTerms

289

Chapter Six Problems References

290

295

lIeWIed Table of Conteols

Chapter Seven Water: Quantity and Quality 296 7.1

7.6

Introduction to Water ResoUfces and WaterQuahty

7.2

298

Surface Watef, Groundwater, Walersheal 299

7.2.1

Surface Water and Groundwater 299

>.2.2

,.... 7.2."

7.6.2

Design Fkm Velocities and Pipe Siz.~g 333

7.6.3

Pumping Stations and

7.7

RiverWaterQuality

Esumatrog Surface Runoff ffom land Use 303

DrssoIved Oxygen and BOD 337

7.7.2

O~enSan.lralk:n

7.7.3

The OX}gen Deti::lt 34 1

7.7.4

0xyQfI1 Mass Balance 341

7.7.s

DssoIYed-Oxygen Sag Cl.ne and CritK:al Dista"lCe 342

Esumatrog PoIutant load~ In Roooff from Land

7A 1

Thermal SlrntIficauon of Lakes and ResenotlS 344

7.8.2

OrganIc;: Maner, Thermal SlrnuficaDon, and Oxygen

310

U.s. Water Usage 311

7 ....3

Public WatEl' Suppies 312

7......

WatefReclamation~

De~etlon

7.8.3

Watef ScarCIty and Water GG"lfict 316

Nutnenllinnation and TropNc State 346

7A4

EngIneered Lake Managf'fTlent 349

Cteatng Models to Estimate

Demlnd 319

7.5.3 7.5.4

7.9

Wetlards

7.10

Grourt:lwater Duality and Flow 355

EstJmalrog WalEI' (lRl WaSlewaIEl') Fkms 320

7.10.1

Tme,Varylng Flows and Seasonal Cydes 323

7.10.2

Fire Flow Demand and

7.10.3

Unaccounted·lor WWtlOfl 567

KeyTerITs

570

ChaplerTenProblems 571 Refeflnce;

574

lU.8

Odorous Aw: 607

1U.9

Indoor Au Poll\Aants 608

11.5

Ambient EmISSlOOS and EmlSSlOOS

Conlrcl 610

Oiapler ElC\'cn Air Ouality Engineering 575

11.5. 1

Types of EmIssions and Sources 610

11.1

IntrodJellon 577

11.5.2

EmlSSl)(tS TrfJlds 611

11.2

ScaleandCyclesofAirPoIUtion 579

11.5.3

EmissrlnsCortrcl 612

11.2.1

Scale of Air PoltstJon Issue; 579

11.6

Asse!Emert of EmISSionS 632

11.2.2

TheAlrPollUlionSystBTl 581

11.7

MeteorologfandTransport 635

11.3

Atmospheric Structure 585

11.7.1

FlowFurdamentals 635

11.3.1

Atmospheric Temperature Structure 586

11.7.2

Winds: Direction, Speed, and Turbulence 636

11.3.2

Atmospheric Pressure and Oensty Structure 586

11.7.3

Atmospheric Stability 636

11.7.4

Terram Effects on Atmospheric

11.3.3

Almosphere 587

11..

Stnit)' 642

CompoSllIOO of the

Chamct9istesofPolkJ:edlw 589

11."1

CnEnaAlrPoIt1ants 589

11 .•.2

Human Health Impacts and Defenses to Particulate Maner 593

11 .•.3

MaJOr Sources oj Air Polutarts 596

11 .•.•

Recent Trends In Concentrations of Air Polutants 598

t 1.8

Atmospheric 0IspersI0n and the

Gaus.saan Pk.me DispersIon Modelng 643 11 A 1

FlA"JdarnMtaIs of 0tsper.;I0n

Modelng 643 11.8.2

Model Parameters 645

11.8.3

Forms 01 the Gaussian Dispersion Equation 647

KeyTerm; 650 ChapterElev8r1 Probiems 651

11".5

Air Quality Inde", 598

11 .•.6

Haza-dous Air Po/Ii.fants 602

''''.7

AnswerstoSelecledProblems

GrOlnd-Level and Stratospheric

loolJ( 669

Ozone 603

References

656 657

llIIiiled 1_III CDnb!nIs

•

chapter!One Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation Julie

Beth Zimme Comn~wlS," and Ihe di'finiti"" of carry illg capacilY 10 _,~la mabie development. 3. DeHne s"stainabally, s"stainable develop"",n" and s"'tain"ble ,"'g~"",rir.g in your own word' and a",ording Olhe",.

'0

~.

5.

6.

7.

6.

Redefine enS',,,,,,rmg prrol""l> in a baL,,,cri],., """"ra! ft..m",work~ for ,""ainable dleS'sn and Under>lalld tl'" ''''p«la'lCe of dr.-ign and innovalion ,n a d ,'..nc1n& ,U'ita utabi lit~, D;"cu,.. 'he ",I" of regUI,ll."'. "nd other policy '00.. , ."d, as ,"o\."'lary program., in ad vandng e",;r""m"", (fir-.t publi,J,ed in 1%1), Si1dqw,"", a,e l(lm'm in Wa"'il1§lnn. D.C

IAd, Il1d iv ,du.l" bu,in"""",,, and ,lale, loc"I, and lrib.,l gm-ernmenlhuJ ,,, h"p the ind",,"y ali,,,, W~h()u, oo11

Chapler 1 SU_ _

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If ynu Go.K>gle II>< ",,,,,h ,lo,brl,ly. ,,"I"muM.. J",,t Gools (MDGsl MDG! me en ambit;o,,, ogenda embro=, by the wodd corm1Unry fat ",dLon I"-'Ople 1.>c~ ...""". to ... fe drinlang w.,ler dod 2.5 Ixl1ion people I.1c~ imf'T"'-ed ..,k 1if~ cycle Ilunk"'f> d'>.:! ~y~\>'nk- flunk"'g. \Vhi\< the'" I"''' frd "",,,,,r'.., ., '" related, II~", .. '" cle.. d ifr.,,,,,,,,es whe'" 1I1e cycle Ilunldllg 's focUioo 011 ",.,t....,1 d,ld ~""rgy flows ar>.:l the ,00"'qu""t impacl'i, w hilesY"e"", Ihhlking can dbo CdplU '" Ihe rel.'ll;;'nship of po~ticd~ cull"r,,!, social. a"d ""mon~ccOl>;,derali..", d"d polen~d1 f"oobacks bet"''''''' Ih",eco,>;ideralionsa nd "'dler"l and energy flo", .. Chapler 1 SU_ _

DesiIJ>. ~ anrl1rln;, ."""idled wlih lighllng. Tf-., Uniled St,le" and manv oth... cuunlritS, .'" c",,,,nllv ph'''ng out ,altS 01 inrandesa"nt lighl bub fnrge""r.llighting.Theaim i, t() fo"ce lhe ""e,nd t",hntil''P",l d",'ek'f'"""t of ml,'" e""'l>'~efficient lighting ab ...""h"" ,uch a, C~L, anJ lighl-"".:tbng di,,Je (LEU) 1."'1'" A 1III \V incand",,,,nt light bulb I"" I run.' 3 h , d,y eH'Ty day will u"" amund lW k\Vh • y""'- A higheifici"",')' light u"", ab"ut o",,-i,., rth "f lhe e",,"8Y 01 a co",'.".,b"",1 buhll."Placingthe 11111'1 bulb wilha 15 IV CH.. w,.,ld t 1-oJ."."., 75 k \Vh a yIDT. Thi, r.J ucth.n in electrici tv u.",wrrtSp"nJ, I", ""i,\;, "falx.,llSOlb of caTh"n dimn incandtSCenl bull>.. Frllll1 th .. di""'",i , Iii""" ,,,,c1,,,r oppmtuniti.,; In impr"''' lheen gy cu umpt~m,and ,u~enl carIxm emi"io"-,, ''' It'd w ilh n'" just u,,;ng e'lerg} {nr hghling bul p",j uring a>oJ di"P'-...illil of light bulbs. Th",e traJe-o/f, can be quantifiaJ t10mu gh., t.-..l !I;c CDR""'>!'.? At.""~~""",,I.r--------Iocal. "r..."., ai, ,n"",," at..orari' How do wo '"Y""'R'.a'-ic allyw. ~ I't. DR. pat- Cyde ,\,,,,,,",..,,enl (LCA) Framework.

• IVha. ;, the PUff' ""'" ""P ol all leA LS 10 develop a flow diagram fOl Ih" ~ being ",-ah... and rondu:1 an im elll,ry a, ....]}"'". Til.. in",~ves d"",rib.'g all of II... "'pul.:I hOl-\ many of .. ach "'wid be needed ,ocarl)' ll"" 'F"ofled ,,r Tt.'C'>gni,ing p"bl.,-m and ,... >leiul gmwth, , ..tting pTiurrlie', and i,mnubling 1",liey. h>r .. ~ample, a mat..rials ,1 I""di,,!>, mcr~~eJ by 56!",TC~nt. N il)"(>g"" d .. d>.,,-, "nd Ira ... pmlati"n infra-.lrudur" M' I"" ene');y "nd ""'Ieri"l, u'" (d"m,,-,bc co"-'ump!i,m), and h", highe' pmpmh",,-, ,>I 'p"O< d..Jic"l..J 10 parb and

,,,I,,,

"p'" 'I"'c"

n", I',orpc-.e of all "''''"to')' aIMIy"'~'lll«"r a full lif~ cyde or lun,lnl to nldLenal"-l" to qUdntif} "hat c"",,,,~ in and "Ildl 8'- out, mdudl118 11M< e'Mlnrtoo by ,,~,ghlin8 fadortenlS ll~nk"'g l1\al", it eXl",mely effect,,,e for ,01\; "8 II", ",,..,1 d ilr",u1l Iyp'" 01 problem" For e"-l mple. ,uslai,>abllily ch.,nenge' .• '" qUlle ampl"". d"l-",nd on interacti"", ard Inlerdel"'rd",,,,ifS. and are currently managoo or ",ilig.Hoo through d;'; para te m", ha IIi,""" I n I hi, "ay. pol"';", or lechnol"8;'" may be implemenled " ilh \\ e11-articulall!d g .....I,. bul can lead 10 unin..,nded c....""qu"'nces becau"" all of tho> potential sy'lem f""db",,"'-' "",.e nOl con,ide,ed. \\ay to beglll a sy,lems analy,i, i, thmogh a causal loop diagra", (ClD). elDs pro"id" a meal.S to ."lk'lllale Ihe dynan,ic. inl"''')J,,~ted nalUre of conpl"" 'y"' ..I.S. n",,,, di.lgranlS co's;'" of arrows crmnectitlg \'ariabl"" (Ihing, Ih.u change ""... Illne> in a way that ,how, how 0"" variable affect, allOlher. Each arro" ,n a ClD ;, l.iliel"d "i til a" s or 11. An s m...." Iha I " I",,, II", fi '" \·..,.;"b1e crn ng"", Ihe ,,,,ond 01'" chd ns"" ;n Ihe ,ame d irecti ..." (for e"""",Ie. i,,,,,,,a,,,":! pn)r~, I",d to h",,,,,,,oo i,,,,,,,,hn..,", in ,,,,,,,,rch and de"e1op", ..,tj An " mean, thaI Ihe firsl "ariable cau""" a change in Ihe opp"" ~e d ll"ecti,-", of the «'Cond ,.U"ia ~e. (for "xalnple, n,,',e g"'''' engineering ""'''' .Iion, "'''' lead I,~ rffiuced ",... ironmemal and hu"",,, heallh li.ilii~I",,,l I" ClDs. I I", a rro,,-, comelgetl",r 10 form loop', a nd each loop is lab"led ,,-ilh .H' R or B (Figure 1.9), R mean, rri"f",[",~~tllal U", cau,,",1 relallonsl"p' wilhin ll", loop c",ale e,pOl,,,,,tial growth or col~,~. for insta"ce, Figu,e 1.9 sho\\', ,1"" lho> more fffi.sil 1",,1based energy ronsu med. Ihe more carbon dioxide Ihal i, emilled, d.S Ihe gk)ba II"m I"'ra tu "'s I"c",,,,e, a ,ld tho> m .... e e''''rgy 111.'11 "eeds 10 De CO'lSU'" ed. B mean, j'"I""""'g----lhal i generaled b" a company. the mme re",arch and de,elopmenl inv""t",,,,,ls that can 0., ",ad". which will ]"ad 10

0.,,,

I,.

~ I lie Q'cle all! S~stems Thjnki~ AppRed 10 RVhm!s A recent e""mpl" whe", Ih" ",Ie,-a"..., 01 ~Ie "ycle

Ihinking .mJ 'y'km., Ihink"'g w." "",J" cle.'T w;" Ihe pn,I"'''' 110 U.'" biob.,,,,d f",," I" '''l'l"" a p'Th", 01 lhe U 5_ 1r.""p')r1alilln 1",,1 porlfnli". The", h~ been ,i~ificanl "mpha'" pi",,"" "n alle,-,,'ing d"p'nJ..n", "n f...,.1 fuel bv pn,Jucinl; f",,1 ""'''In f"." agri.. 0"" or lhe d"art=>l e"'~mpl", 01 I hi, ;s Ihe"mph;,xi, in the UnltoJ St,I", "n pmjucing"lh.m,~ In'm «Tn. Wheth", lhe """,..,miL'" "I pn.,duci"l; "than,. fmm ,,,.,, i, cn,,,iJ..,,,d by m",,,hLing life cycle emi",io,", 0' .lind en,'imn"..,nlal ;mpacl>. (induding wa"'r. rerti~,..",. and p""icid" appli"'lion), wm-ro,e.! e!h;",,' may '''lui '" (F'" u,,; I of f",,1 pn,.lu",J) m'Te fo"il f",,1 ani f",tili"", inpuh Ihal en~ liar/;" am",n!>. 01 g"",nl..>"-,,, 1;;"";, particul.J '" matter•.H,d nutri",,!>. than Ill" eurrenl pd""leum-b~"" p""Jucli"".

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJl. ~ 3IIll1o:lnd eh.,ice an..! pm.luc-lion I"c;,ti,m

~...J',e'Q'Q,tj'"'I!'",,,,!

_

ECOSYSTEMS

f'oa!>osood. IP CH Rapc........ D

••,-,

O"on'ie1oo ,,,th "n ","" r 3 n "0· . An. mm .... thot when the fi,.;t ,-.,-;"bI~ chans"'_ tho ",,:~d one ch.I"t:L'" in the sam~diT""bon. A~" mro", th.It lho firsl ,-ari.lbl~ c,u,,",s, ch.Inge in the 0pp"'il~ d'f;.-tion of !h~'CCDnd ,-,ri.,bI"" R m~.-.ns r~",f,,-c",g- ... d iagrd ms c. n develop a deep under.,ta,lI.llllg of th" dynamic,. Through this proc&~. opportunilies for impnW"n.,nh" ill be I"gl~ighled. For e""mpl.,",'Y for Iransmi""ion and dl"ribUli,alld 'ple"'"a ~ well a, on 'Mlu,al ,~'''e",s through maler",1 "",-lectin.., project SllJng. and Ihe end-of-hfe management 01 chemiclL~, material" and pmJud'. Engi,,,,,,rs playa ,ignificant and I'ital ,ole in n",,,ly all aspecls of ou, lives. They pm"ide b,,,ic .."vic"", SllCh .., ",.. Ier, ,",,,iU!lon, mobilily, energy, food, heahh care, and sh"it"r, '" aJdition 10 aJ "..nres ,udl ... ",al-li",e communicali",,, and 'pace e'plo",l,o... n", implement"lion of all 0/ Ih"""eng ",,,,,ing ..chie""me"tsCioln I"ad 10 benefil~a5 "dl~, problems III lerm, of th" "'''''''''"l''''''I, ec""omy, ~nd """i"'Y. TI,e ad"""" impacl~ ollradiliOrl~1e"g",,,,,,ing d""ign, often implemented wnhoul a ,u,uln.lbiiity p"rspective, call be lound all around u, in Ihe 10'''' of "ale, u""' ineffid""d.. The fields of green eh",n"I'Y and greell engllleering also u'*' Ihe I""""ns and pro"""",,, of tldlure 10 illspire design Ihrough blomimkry (Benyu•• 20l2). Biomimicry (fmm hi",. meaning life, alld mean"'g 10 imitale) i.s a design di""ipline Ihal ,Iudies nalure's """I idea, and Ihen innlal"" Ih""" d""ig'" and 10 -'ohe human problem,.Sludying a leal 10 invenl a !>elter -'Olar cell i, an e>.ampl" of Ihi, "innO\'.,I,on ",,,pired by ""lure" (Benyus, 2fXl2).

",i,,,,,,',.

1'''-'''''''''''''

o

~ The prj!J!iplesnf Grlf!n EngiJeering (fUID Anastas and ZimUl!rmif) 2D031 ring b ,1", ,I"";;,,, oJi,.",-""), ""d ""pf",,,,.,,I.M" "f r",,~, r",;; ... I"h'''b "'lIh 00' .IUI"'",;, Qf Ih,y /"In,I;.,1 1>cr1"~I., .,,,1 th''''':,:h..''rt Iii,. "M"I. ~ 3IIIl1llrl pmmt,,,, d ....."'rrhly and r""',,fion (minim,." mal..-;a1 di,,,f'iily).

,-a1""

10. u""ib"" of pr"c"""" "nd '1'1"",-' mmt i""IOO" i"tegr.. film "f inl..-"'''''''If",ay win a",;L,b/" ~""I);y and mal..-ia" fi,",·" 1 L J'~rloJ tn ,.,J """ i n t Ii n, ic

hilLard, ~J impm,,, mal"';a! and """'l':yeffici"nt,y thod i1hJ,trate the breadth ", ,'pplicability include:

• a dramaticany, more eifa:b,e fi", e'lingu;;hing "geld lhn! eliminales halon aI'Ll utili""" water in combination ",~h an advan""d surfactant,

• production or IMge--;r.. 1e pl",nn""euhrAI act""

thousands of pounds of toxic " ..sle per pound of product,

illS"'''''

• elimination of from ,,-ducI' t" ;ndo,h,1 'y""=-. U,o,g bimnimicry ..~ a h,!. ,me ",oull I,~>k fm mgani,Trto Ihal inhe"'nlly demm",,>te thi, d"";r~le tr.;t ~\lr e~.."p", m.J and 1>""" at;"" prud",,, llalog,~,aleJ mel,.bolt",. primarily u tilif.i'll bn>TniJe, Ihat havedemm,tra ted ant~ micn,b;,~ ani fica It! e n"in m"""'lal ;mf"ct> a"" ... ia~d wah d~, ink .. c,,,bn,,'" and painl.. l",ki"" 10 nOllurai '}",le"" f,..- ide... "f h,n,' l" creale el~''-, ",.., quickly fin:!, lhallldlure u'." ,true_ lure ratheT lhan pig""'nll" "ff..- lhe brilliant hue, "",n "n butterfli"" p.""""'].;", and hummi""bird" 'fheQJ~>r' "",n n,.u1l fmm lighl ,call..-ing "ff regularly 'F"ct"j mel."'Ilt mu. aoo interierence effects thmugh Ihin tare"""! ker.,lin. Qualc\I",m i, mimicking th .. ,I... tegv I:_",mple, a", b... tsl un Il,,,-,,,,,o, ry' J",,,,'\ll,,", J"'f',n:,1 by tbial, ,,-...,Jin a ran!l' "f.ppkah.,'" Cullin., l'ubl .. he",.

1.3 EnQjreero,g mr S,,"Iain.milily

Class Discussion

\.3.2

.I. Ar;, and 25 '0 n'lOr" lI... n 111l f(Jl" phannaceUlicais. This ,I~",,, 11",1 'N ay llll'n! is g",.lI (Jpp,Ylu nil)' 10 ra.:!""" w""'" product,m d ur"'g d","umi manuf"",uri ng. B" a ",an! a>;oll"',hi, Iypeof calcu Iabm iSOl~y a m""sun! of mas, effid.-n0' alld d""" not consider ll", ,oxicily of ,he mal..."'I, u,""" or generated (,,,,, Cha pcer 6 lor nllY" Inlormolieln on loxicily and haz.1ro).

1.4 Me.." ..... SUslainomilily

1.5

Policies Driving Green Engineering and Sustainability

There is d de"",,, dlbeil often unregram.' nd.bi'd bv ta", or ..... f,ln.:""bIe. but a .... m.... nt '" """",.ag.' .nd moIl"'lIi" d .... r.bIe b.h.l, "'.... The gm"mmenl, ,,'du,t ..... or .h"d·poony nong'" emlTWnt.1 ".gan'7.. bonscansp~.I""",,progr.m. \\1"1,, th...... • t>! man, d,fferenl ... net_ of ...>lun1.o1') prngranL'_ t I~I"'" that h.I, e ~ e-.l.ibilshai .. 'Ih ,ucee-, a,... "co-l.lbel"'g and pref....""t...l pureh.l,mg. En, '''","",''l.il '1.ondon!, .II"'" "" an "", ...",,,,,,,,tdl a,-.m"'11 of a pnld",!"_ im!,."1 on I""tor; su-labo.l. Eco-I..bek ,lIl""'pt ILl pro",d",," i"dic..lor to COILSUme,.-.; "f th" pr.-.Jud's "n,'1",-"",,,,",.11 perfnrmanc" l",g.. '""'-"'ydo:d pad"'gi,,S~ (>r '"nn to~ic emi"l"",·). Iml~I"'"J"l\t third p"'I1"" sudl ,1' (;r""n s.... I. Vnll&:! St,ll"" (;r""n BuiIJing.' Couneil, and E,,~rg)-'Slar. 1'''\\ iJ" n"nb~,-ed '~rifl,.It"," of "n\'ir"nm~nt..llabeb. and c-ertification' ,'nJ are th" m...t r"liabl~ Ilrlgi'ldWr< oi eco-llbel~. r"'l·p.lrly eco-Iabels .. r" self--a .. ard&:!. and ..... a,... Mt indepenoJenth '''rifled In th" Unll&:! SLlIiS, til""" .... ,rt' ollabek a,... sm "riled ~ lhe f'Oi'eJeral Trade COIllln;';';;On', (ITO gUIJef'lr the ,,,,,, of en,"rot>mental marl~ingm oificllo "",."..... In rnmpuler,; la) ",d""nal .rl.!tpLKi' " products and .-.en ioc~ '" ,th MJlK1!\lIlll~on hu....n heahh and lhe ' ,ron......... ''''Y p""'rrfull'..... lodn' "",rom alJO.1"d

(ErR)

p'OOLO:1 r"'l"",sibili,y

]jf"

Cyc 100

G,...,,, ling",,,,rmg

• lif.. cycloo .",nnium De,'elopn",m Goal' (MDC.s)

• "''''Point ther? Ho",? Why? Wb., malcope of yoo, LCA) lI1 P,rblem 1.11. o.,cu,.; "hich of lhe life cycle 5 g/molo

So!>"",,!

Tnl"""o

"uxil~lry

Tridh1.lmin"

"'"

~oc,

SoJlm".,!o ",teT

23.6g

'"

!>II'.' 101 g/molo

0119 moJo

1.18 Cl"""", three of the Pn nd?"" "f Gr ... n Eng;neen"g. For &l. 2. C,m,-ert ch"mical cunom".t",,, tmm mas> peT ,-"Ium" ur nn" per rn..." "nib 10 " £",cb per rnlllio" or pdrn per biIli'" emi"i,m, in cam", di""de "'Iu i"alent" U"" eCRlD I" cakuldtdhe g:reem."-,-,,, 1>'" ~'iu,,-, .........'ei.lled ..n th ele':lriClty b~.IK'" and In.,Cdrlx", f'.,(f'lint "I differenl inf,...,lruClu,-.,,; that "",Il.ll ,,~""

"'""""

T)'picaIUnns

mg/kg on ",il

mg/l& pl""m

M"". oI

Concentratial il SOil

A 1 kg sample of "'ilis all,dyzed for ,he chemical ",!I'ent 'rkhloroethyle,... (TCEl. n,e a"alysi, indica'e> 'hat 'he ... mplecol"ai,,,,S.O mg ()fTCE. Wha,l~ lhe TeE concentration i" ppm", and ppb",!

solution TCE'

5.0 mil TCE

fl,OOS g TCE

LOkg .nil

Hl' g "",I

5 x 10..... g TCE "" g Ideal gitS iaw (Equa~nn2.6) a nod Ihe lolal nUll,ber of mol~ to "olume. Then d,vid" Ihe Iwo ""pr",,-~iol~~' 0.001 mole

"

so, , p

(0.999..- 0.001) mnie total (1,000) mole t volum" lem~< for ppm"

0.001

"

""ieso, "'p

Ht

"

UWlO nUlie lotal x p

PI'''',·

~-:~~IXllt 1.ompf~n.

NOIe al«l Ihallhe mole ralio (mol"" i/mol.,,; IOUl) b «Imet;"'''' referr.,.) 10 as Ihe mole fraclion, X.

alld pressure, the "olume occupl"') by a g"-~ b pmportinnal to Ihe number of mnle>. TI,..... Equat;on 2.5 is equi,'alem to Equation 21l,

ef""',

ppm.

mole.< ;

\2.8'

The >el"een moles and ,'olume. Exampl" 2.5 allJ Equ.•tmll 2.9 shm, how 10 u'" Ih" id"al gas la" 1n

e.t>o

'_

IA.,,-__ oJc.cu,. ~,~-

~·Hf tilt' ..."tUtl' .. "tI' ~udd""l, n!""" I'd I'.rtial pt"f'SSUtI' is mnunl r''''~o.n> of { l ' ~"n ,n the atnli'-'p Po, IS O.2I.tm.

,

, , ,

Remember, the ideal g.... law ,I.ues 11Mt, al a given temperalure and "olu""" pr.",ure 1. direct!y p"l,ort,,,,,altolhe number of moles of ga, prewnt; the'efore, p'''''.u,e f,action. are identical to mole fractions (a nd volume fraction.). r~)f this ,ea"""" partial p",-",ure can be calculated as the product of the mole or ,olume Iraction and the toul p""",ure. For e""mple;

, , ",'lume fraction, or mole fraction, " p"o.']

X._OII1Jdo ....... Fl1Iurel Z. 1

C"~mi"J.I Strud~",

l(ppm./;

"f

(2.10)

IO-oXP""",]

Pol)'.-hk>ri""ted Biphenyk (PCB.f PC&; are" f.mJl~· 01 mrnp"......d
:ed ,t any or an 01 10 .:1 ,,,,-,,,, h' M"C a "ide .-.lnge "f U""', mcludi-lt: ",,,,,og.,. moL"", in 19i1; Toxic Sub",,,, C""trol Ad ITSCA) ron"ed the m,muf.\ffirc 01 PCII'< and Pel>ron"'mOl& pmducts. TSG\ .L",

.,-"lable ""'8'-""""

"h"""c.ll"'"

-m..... "-'guLlto",-, ",san:ling the ruture use.oo ",Ie 01 PCEk. res. 1>1"'b1",oo.J

mrnmool,· TefefTL'\l to.l.' ","",hiemplo. the ,\,,,,.hJor 12ill mhllJre a>n,,-," of 00 1"-';"luloo &-'I rnlcorine< P"'" biphm;i molecule. In mntr.;t,tulro chtc.me< P"'" torl"-'.wt rnolin.'" 11.71blin.' x 0.8 28.4 ill Hg The I"lrlial pres.s,,"'ofCO, "'ould be:

,01 fraction" p u...

391 ppm,. x

[

10-· '01. lradion x 28.4 ppm,.

,n.

Hg 'X

""" ~ .

29.9",. H

) ] " 10" .,tm

e x am pI e I 2.8

Concenlralilll as MDlarily

Thecm""enlralion of TCE 131.5 g/mole.

~~

5 ppm. Cmwert lhi, 10 uoit, of molaril)i. The molecular weighl of TCE is

solution Remember, in waler, ppm ,0 l, equi,· alelllin mgfL, "" Ihe ",,,,,entralion of TCE is 5.0 mg.. L Co", ~,."iOrl to "",Iarily unit' requ,re; only the ",ol"""lar ",eight 5.0 mg TCE

"'~T"'O L

Ig 1 mole ' 10= ,--~ mg 131.5 g

,

3.8" 10-' moles 3.8)( lO-'M

Dilen, c""""ntral'''', belo", 1 M a", exp"''''N in ulUl'< 01 malinnles 1'''' Iiler, or mmin~,lar (l mM 10" mol", L), or m micro",oles per !Iter, or micro",olar (I!'-M 10---" mol", ll. TI,u" the mncentrat,o" ofTCE muld be ... pr~ .-0.038 mM or381lM.

ex ampIe I 2,9

Corn;enlralilll as MDlarily

TI,e ron",nlrati< 1O~'eq,

M,;'+ 1

e

Na-

5"10-'''9''

K-

R5 >< 10-''''1'

e

,.. ,rt.

975 " 10-; "'Iv

'so',

" 0

e 4]3>< 10"'" "'I'

e 2.17" 10'" "9'

e

e

,.... '

,,-

.n'O... ,t of calms an",.. , "",ill. 9.S7" Hr'''9v L, "d h'tal an'O...,t 1.2 " 10'" "'I,'L TI,e analy,is l< not with", 5 ""rce"" TI,e analysIS """ulted in more th.an til"", tlllles more """"",,",,,,, ot carbon din"d.. and other GHGs.I" O:tobo>r 10. 2Ofl9, ErA publi,hed a rule III ,he '.....:I....al Reg!>Id (40 CrR ran 'lfll'ha' ""lu,..-d mandatory rO!f'lOl1Ul8 of GHG; fmon Ltrg~ ~O'H\.""" Tho.> "nplo-"_,a"o,, otlh", rule;" ref...."'" 10 as the G",mho_ G~ Reptwti ~ 1""8"",m II applie '0 a "Ide range of GHG enuttet>.lhal JJ>d~ "",,,I fu.>l rrh."'. "IdU!ltnoll g.os ...pp1m,.nd f.,d.]'"", "'JIl"I CO, ur.:li!fS" nd for "'""l"""","1 OI"tnd ot Columbi.a unart1Jt1oC"lUSl~ u pheWI he Ii"" '" '" pnv....-.J ~ulal."", to "'Sula lee'ml.'".or....>fGHc.. The Alob......rming potenti.IIG\\l'l". nlulllflUt'r u.-..d to romI'd'" Ihr eml~'ot d,ffo?r , sn"""hc>uw sa""'" to. rommon ronsbtuent, '" th" caiC , ... rb ~)aIoonIs. T.... !.~ f'OO''Kb glnhal ".lnnlJ'IS p-.ba\;. b 1Iw ..., ....".IV"""'""'"' ~ lhat..., "'l'-", ........ """'" ~oft>fbnn dJO\1d7"

"

IGg of methane gas) " 25" LlXXJ Gg

111" Gg of methane were emitted 1n 2010.

For ~,O:

"

(Gg of N,O lY's) " 29FI " 1.lXXJ Gg l.1IJ" 10' Gg of nitrogen oxide were emilled io 1010. II you go '0 the U.s. E,,,,irolllnenlal Proteclion Agen"} web _ite (",w,,",epa.gov), yo" can learn n,ore ..I>c".a emi";o,,," and ,inks of dilfe",nl greenhI1irngion mmc

co. (lb/MWIII

Cf4 (IbIGWhj

'1,0 ~I>'GWhj

CO""it>/WillI

WECCCahf~mia

72~.12

30.21

"~

727.2f,

SERC \"rginr./Caml",a

1,1.>t.R.!l

23.77

19.79

l)lISI

SERC Mol",,,,t

1,R3051

21 15

~~

I.fWlAI

fRCC.1I (FInrid,j

1"IR57

~5.92

lb.9~

1,,2U9

Uniloo St",,,,,

1.32935

27,27

20,1>0

l.J.,31\.J1

Do>o"","oGIOfl2007 _ _ I

exarnple/2.16

~

2001 dolo. s..~.// ......... ...,.go "'S"n1C in rom.,......lJon and ~ fi dNoOl. e.i CAl""'" .md an Fnr~P'"'. hard "'~"""aNlhighmd"-"'-...Js..'llki>. f";, TD5. "nd l$GlIn bot> furtt- brol,..., dolo" onlO" fi>-otan"" is not used al all, especiallv in inSlances where mixlures of ill-defined chemicals Me present (e.g., in unlrealed sewage). Instead, repre,en· lalion by efled is u'ed. \Vilh thi' apprry pllwid"" lhe loIklWllIg a""lysis obtai"ed fmm a SO mL !Nlmple of wa,ae,,,,I.,,.:

tolal solid, 200 mglL, 100ai ,uSf"'nd"" ",,1:,,1volalile su.pended solid' 1~ mglL

100 n'glL fixed

sus~",ndoo ,.,lids

10mg L, and

1. \Vhal i, the c""celllrali"n of Imal di.''''h'ed solid, of Ihi' 5day year (assume you ope,""le the lele""i"" 3 h per day). 2.47 A lat"ral"'y pr",idf.." Ih" foll"'"ng solids analy and Chap!erTwo F'mbIems

Ihen plac.-d in an ,wen al IO~ C unlil all moi,lUre b e,al"'raIN. The weight 01 Ihe dri....:! di-J, is recmd.-d as 11.5625 g. A similar 100 mL ,ample is filtered and Ihe 100 mL liquid """'pie Ihal p"sses IhrOlJgh the filler is eollo! for calculaling chemical inputs and outputs_

3.4 Thermooynamic LaM As Ihe roob of Ihe word imply {lhamo equals heal; dy,,~mo equals change}, lhermodynamics deals with con"ersions of energy from one form 10 allmher. T.lbie], I pro,'ides an overview of Ihe firsl law of thermodynamic< and second law of thermodynamic... Figure 3.2 illu,trates Ihe cha"ge in free el""gy (Ci during a reacti"n. In Figure 3.2, a process could pr(lCeed if il reduced Ihe free energy from its ,alue al point A in Ihe dir""llon of po"'l C, bul il could not proceed jf il raised Ihe "nergy in lhe d"eclion of poilll B. n,e process could proceed from A "' far as poinl C, but it c("Juld nlll go furl her 10hard poinl D, A reaclioncould also proceed frolll poinl D lo".lrd poill! C or poinl L Th" is because m", IIlg in either direction resulls in a decrease In free energy. POlIll [ i, called a local "'lu ilibn um. !l i, not Ihe minimuml"",sible energy point 0/ the syslem (I"'inl C lSl. bul lole.,.e 1"-'; "I E requlr"" an illpul of energy. Ilence, if the free energy oj a syslem under all ",nd,liOlLS could be quantified, W'e cnuld Ihen delermine Ihe changes 111.}1 could nccur sl"">lall""usl y ill Ihat sy;ont), ,,'.>Chon.' ,hat change the chenuc~1

poIl'n'",1

""hou,

ch.,nging the ;n"...,.,1 .nergy con'ent mu,t ,"",ul, in "'Iuiml,-",' chang'" in heo, coo'ent ,nd in the ,'olu"", work performed

p"",,,,re-

,."Ild '0 k...,

Secd, I~ a d~,-TI."a.Se in fn-'e""''''1W lilla, i •. I"," lhe ~ ..ward TL'aCtioo, illhe 'lope '" a tangont ~,'he cun"" ""l:a~Ye). Ihro lhe Te.>ctin can pl" and leoclia" quali en\< dim"",ionle".

Rule'

fodiquid, (fore""mple. wat"", I ill. "'IILII 10 the mole tr.ldion 01 the ... ,.",,~ In "'1UffiU. solubon.ther ab>nlule lempe,alure (T I. "hich is usually :m C or 23 0.

Equilibrium C.,.,.,.. I' I'

3.li ,,"...Wa'... Equilibrium

17Acld-BHaCheml0"Y _ _ ~ t e _ . H '

o 8a>o ~ C91

,..,., o>od "" .. po' In Ihe alm,"phere !the humidily) is a function of temperature. J\.k>led in I"" fond Ch.Jll\ where th'-'Y can cause lOlt "",·i,,,,,,,,,,,,!.>1 ch.JII-p-, ill Equat"'" 3.11 ",ould be the mnc.."ur~tion of Ihe individual liquid (A) in "'ole fraet"",s, X,,;

, Class Discussi mal mn,umplion by

ex am pI el 3.3

20lU. and th~ mig,ati"n of it> population lrom rural to urban "r~a' i, r""ulling in incT"'''..- ,-a,1 ,tme, "I cua!' The binU~ "fI,,,... 1i",," ,,,,-·h,,, Ird"".",carbim d i,,~ide a nd other gn.,""o"", ga "'" i 010 t he "I"..", ph"" e. II al", illCUr> oth..-r futu", "",,,,""ie, ,,>cia!, 'md em;mnm2 g/"'" ',and the molecular weight is 1f,(, gl m"le.

solution PeE l~ a "olalil.,ehemical. The problem a.,1;." hm, much of the I Lol ~p~led PeE remai"ed on the floor ".,,,,us holt ",urn "oIalilized into the air. It any PCE ",,,,... ined on the flnor, the partial pres",e of PeE in Ihe air \\'ould be 0.0"---3 attn. 11", ideal g'" la"' can be used 10 ",l)e for lhe numoo of ming" would ,"",ull bec-.>u'" Ihere would be no ''''lu;re",enl 10 pay Ihe clNnup c.ew for re",edial;rIO, rIO e"ergy ,lffdl'd for lhe .emediation pha..., I.".; pape.wo.k "-,,",,,Ialed Wilh regulal")]" lhal goven, Ihe handling and 'Iorage of Ihe PeE, and no futu.e liability a-.eialed with ~II\,lanl, KH, has ,mits r>f moles per ]jl~r of g.. divided by moles/hter of "·.te,, which car\c~l ""I. ll,~ref",e, Ihe II~nry", l.w collsl.lnt in Ihi, ~a,e l,le,med d""~",io"l",, by ""llIe. In rdcl, il really has unit_ of lite" of water per liI~rs or ai,. Other ullils or Ile"'y'._ la,,· conslanl include atm and L--.alm/mole. 11",,'}··s law con"an!> Ihat h.,·~ units .nd I~ " It hout u nil> ~.n be ,,,lated u,ing the id"al gas law. Se,·"ral unit con"""io", ror 11"",,,,..< law coII,tant .,re pro,·,ded in Table 3.3.

Unit Con..... 'sion of Henry'. taw COnl!an!.

K"'alm) ~"h m(~"H,O

K,,;alml ~5.h mol"H,O

xRTx55.b atrn·L

o i1l205 moIe-K

Chapler3 Cllemistry

moleH,O , ...w

e xant pie I 3.5

Conversion constants

between Dimensiol1ess and Nondimensionless Henry's Law

TI...llenry" law rol'-~lanl lor !he react,on tr.o,,,lerring o"ygen fmm air inlo ,,-ater i, 1 ,29, 10-' moles/ L-atm al 25 C. What L' the d,me,,-~ionl,,,,sK" for the tra,,-~fer 01 o"ygen fmm Woller ",to air al 25 C?

solution The problem ,s requesling a Ile"ry'~ law con,lalll lor Ihe reve,.,." reaction. Therefore. the Ilenr)'" b\\ ron,tant provided equals the inverse 01 1 29 . 10-' moles/L·alm, or m L-ah"/ mole for Ihe Iran,fer of aqueou,; o')'gen imo Ihe ga, plla",,- Soh'e using the ideal sa,; law: 775L-alm

KHIdi",en~i on less I (NIK)

3.7

Acid-Base Chemistry

Acid-base chemi..r)' is importalll in treatmenl 01 pollulion and '" unde"ta"d,ng Ihe fate Jnd In~icity 01 chemicals di,ch,"ged til the "''' ir"nme" ..

3.7.1

pH

By delinilion_ U,e pH of a ""Iulion i
. Table 3.3provjde, "alues 01 ""Iuilibrium constanls for some adds and ba""" 0/ en, iro o"IJ ,.. p""-'pll..1e ,nlo .. ",-.1>0.1 ~ II,~ ..ltffocull 10 d15tlngUbh .. n.oI~tcAlv lhe d,fl"~",n .. ppro.. ,rnat~ by CO ' b»c"LL"" lruo! 11•.('0, m.. ltoI up onl) "boul 0.11> "",""""1 of 11,('0,', Thu~, Ih" rono:Ii'nlralion of II,Co,' ,n ..... 1...... "'luilibrall!\l " ,th Iho! aln"",p"","" is

mrl_

'*""....

",co,

.. pp,.,,;m.\IIi'ly 10-' M. II,CO!' is in "'Iuilib"um with bica,b_ on ... "Ier, llte 10>1. ;""'P""K ""Ilm cont"nt ot: • "01.1........ mp"" L' d1.. 11....·, ..l""hnlt}' !>orates. ph. 01 ~ , ..,h .' .. mnUlfl;' IXII ,I, pl>c>!;pl\lt Ulro,:- ..-ve the folln,,;ng ""id~tinn le; OO",evel, the« numlJer., .hA""'''5-

Tlw re;ll(hnn rommon 10 all of ~ "rnal......' " t.... c.." """"" of a ....hd ....It ,nlo d~~",d romponenb In th" example, """ ...Iid '" calcium carbona"" c..co., _ c.' - _ Co,l_

lho> ,u~npt (.. ) d"""t~ lhat lho> 'f"K,.... " ,lId Tlw "'{ud,brlllm '~"'''tiInt lot J) mal"" Ka.... t groun.f.... b>r .oqu,f..... In the Vn't..... State-. no..... fomwbons .... unport.ont l'o...-au-"'" IIwy ."". nw.,.. .....rce of "'''\;!-r 'urr" Tlw h~..I~ of .. lU"'t f"rrnat .... I.,. ch.1l1eng.-1o nwnag.. broo

5.5

Mgl>:H,PO,'f>HA" Mg' Nt{, PO,'

Hard""", re""...al, ""Iiog, ","roo "-"l",-"tratioo "f carbon d,oxid~

10"

25,,10"

fmm unne,' w,,"~w,t'-'f """n"",t plant, stru"'Ie precip,tation in "',krk-"" un""ls

I>H,D

3.9

Slfu",,, precip'tabm iOT I\."O\·"",oi phosphorus

PrecipitaliOfl-lJissolutioo Equilibrium

Whal pll i, ""luil'.,. ei Ihe, ",rbIJIl

,'~

0 __

2.(J5.I2

,-

"'0 1.9018

Lf>239

"~~

example/3.10

(continued)

solution n... "alues of lhe MTBE ad,.,rbed for each isotherm pouu (q) and ,he l"8"rnh", "alues of C and q can be de,ernllned and inputted ",10 Table 3.10 (lh"", left columns). T() delerm",e ,he Freu ndllch i"'lherm ""ramelers, !i,lhe logs of ,he isotherm da'a. log q ,'ersu, log C, us"'g ,he linear form {)f Equa,ion 3.31 (Table 3.9), e~ pressed as lilSq

logK_

(~)logC

Graph log q "er,I.lS log C, "-s sh-d iLwin "en,orehlet}' ,n biL",ccumulale in Ihellpid poll''''''{)f h u 1m"sand ~ n ima is. COliversely,chem ieal, sud, a, ben"",,'O trichlo",",thylene (fCE), 'elrachlo",e,hyl",e (PeEl. and toluene are frequently ide,lli!ied a, groundwa,er ron,a",i"an" because ,hey are relati"ely ",Iuble a"d ea,i)y di,,.,l,·e in ground",ater recharge ,ha'Ls

3.11 Example. of log K..., for Some En"ironmenl"'ly SignjfieonIChemic....

0.73 2.17

Trichlomolh;'lone

H2

T"'T.ch Iorodhvlone

,~

Toluene 2,1. ,Dichloropheno'r=-~k .Kid r-i·rhth.llene 1,2,4>T oIT;xhloroberm..ne

l'h"""olh",ne

4.57

'U3

2,3,7.s-TotrMhloTod ibenza,p-d." in DL,okK.ll. c.t..>w..... n. ~ ·[vaIuo-.olh"_~., .. o.g.."", c..boo_ad So.pOnCoollicio'" ' w_r.............. '--';"09 136-141 1991.CapjoIlilule Ie 0.5 Co. into Equ.. ,ion 3.44, 13.52)

The half-life for a firsH'rder relat,onship then i, gi"en

b}

.b93

'" -• ~ e Xanl pie I :3. 16

U.53J

Corwertin!l a Rale Constall! 10 Half-Ule

Subsurface half-Ii,'", for benzene, TCE, alld loluen" a", ILsted a, 119, 2J I, and 12 days, """pecti...,ly. What are Ihe first-order rat;> oo"slanh fM alllh"'" chen'kal,;?

solution n... moo,,1 only ae:'"te, A becquerel i. a m~asure of radioaclh'ity; 1 becquerel equals 1 radioartive disinteg,."tlon per """ond.) Would regula I"'" alle", th .. f..h 10 be co"sumed in Japa n or the Umled Stal""?

y"'''''

solution Becau,", the haif-life equals:l ~'ea"" Ihe ,."Ie r"".tanl 1 ran be delemlined fmm Equation :1.53:

•

0.693 I, ,

0.(,93 3 year

O.2J.·year

Theref"re,

'". c.",,,,,,expl-lcI)

25,000 Bq.-l

"x p (-0.23 >< 5 year) year

7.916 Bq. L

This fish is nM ""fe I" eat acmrding to regulations", Japan and Ih" United Statelanl for the """ temperalur" The Anhen ius,,'l ualion 's u""d,menl' (unit~ of cm \ per gram dry weighl nf s...:hmenm

3.25 Civen th... following general r"""tion, A_lB_JC_P_'1Q Sho", ho" the change ill mncenlrati,,,, of C \\ ith lime b rel.ued 10 Ihe ch....ge in roncenlral,ru, nf A, 6, P, and Q ,dth time,

3.26 Which of Ihe follOl,'i"g Slaleme,,!.~ aoout the .,tudy of chemical kineti folio" mg reaction:

S,O.'- _ 25,0,'- _ 250/- ~ 5,°."(al Sho" how Ihe d"'nge in peridL~ulf"le co"""ntralion w,lh tllne i' relatro to Ihe dld"ge in mnce"lralion with time 01 Ihe '>lher Ih"'" 'peei",. (b) If the "'''''lion b deme'llary "nd irreversible. "hat i, Ihe OI'erall order of Ihe reacli"n?

3.28 A fil"l-order reaction thai rtrucllOn of .• pollula"t l",s a rale co""t""t of 0.1 Iday, (a) I If'" "'''''y days", m'tlake for 90 P"'"""nr. of lhe chemical 10 be d"'lroyro? /h) flo'" long "'ill it take for 99 percenl of lho> chemkallo be d"'troyeJ? (cl f [ow IOllg "ill il Idke for 99.9 perce"t of Ihe chemical 10 be deslroyro?

3.29 A bac1eria slraUI I"" \>eo,n bolaled Ihal call cometaoolize telr""hl,'n>etha"e (TCA). Thi, ~Irai" call be used fm Ihe bi"'emedi.llion of IldZ"tion lime would he r"'JU''''''' 10 reduce Ihem"""'llralion fro'" I mg/L "' Ihe ",fluent to 1 l'-g/l in the effluenl of a reaclor? Assume Ihe readnr L~ completely mixed. 3.30 A,,,,,,,e PO,'- i, rem,.",ed fm'" municipal w",I"','''lerlhr,ugh predl~l"lion w,th Fe'l-.- accordi"G Chapter 3 ClIemislry

ro:- _Fel-- _

to Ihe fono" "'g reaction, n,e rate lIw for Ihis ",actio" i, d'PO , '-j

- .

"

-1

F~'·

PO

FePO".

1-

'

(a) \\~l.ll i' Ihe ",act,on order ",jth r"'peel to PO:-? (b) WI"'I order i, lhis reachon ""eran?

3.Jl

Oblai" Ihe World II""hh Organizalion (W! [01 rel~"lon "Un ned i'''rsion: I I Yll'enk ",;ksand microbial guideh"es for re'-'-"hh....,-', (! [CCl) 1" ,oIulio" 10 fonn mOl.... chlom,"nine (K[ !,Cll a, follow" NIl,. _ [[OCI _ NI1 10 _ 11,0

""id

Th~

rate la" fM Ihi' r~acti"" is d'N[ [, -1 I lOCI NI h

"

("l Whal is the reaclion order ""lh respecl 10 NIl,? (b) Whal order is thi, readio" ","er"ll? (c) Ii Ihe 1lOCI co""entralio" i~ held COl"I""1 ""d eq""ls 1[)-. M, and the rale co,,~t"ltl "'"lual, 3.1 " 10" L, mole-s, calcul"le tI", lime required 10 reduce Ih.. conce,llralion of 1\[ [, to ,me-half it' origi""1 'alue.

3.34 1\ilro&,,, dim.ide (/(0,\ co""enl.ratims are me",ured in an air-.1.lrch I I, lOll, a mas,i, e earlhquake and ,su,,,,mi triggered a maf" disas,er al/apan', Fulushima nude.lrplant A plumee"endinglo Ihe rotthw",1 of the sile del""'iteJ sig",ficant amounts of iodine-I)l, "",ium-I:\4, and ces,um-1J7 up to JO miles a,,·ay. IOOine-131 has an B-:OAAI ESRL, hltp:II"''' ",.~ln.""'-g,wIgn,d/o:gg/tre,d,l, and Dr, Ralph Keeling. Scripps lt~,h,ution of o.,,,,,ngraphy, sen f'I"'ieiemiflcally linked to poor water qu~lity and degrad.,t,on of ec.....y'tem h.,b,tal. The "itrogen lo~ding '0 Narraga"setl llay "as estimated to be S,I·II,f>31 kg N/y~ar and to Ch""a!",a"" Bay is l,17,S39,-191 kg N/year. The "'al""hed are~ lor Narragan,eu llay i, 31O,~("1 ha and fer Cl""" ~..,ake Bay is fO,95 I ,W ~ ha. The nilrogen lood illg r.t", are ""'Iimaled for Gal"eston llay I be 1".5 kg I>: per ha per year, 2",9 kg I>: per ha per year for Tamp'" Bay, ·19.0 kg t" per ha per }'ear for Ma.,",",chu""u, llay,.\J,d 20,2 kg t" per ha per year for Dela",are Bay. Rank 'he loading ra,,,,, from I',"'''''t 10 highest for these si" esluaries.

3Al Exces, nilrogen input' '0 estuaries l""'e b""n "'ien'ificall" linked to poor waler quality and degradation of ec...ystem l",bit.~t. Perrorm a library "".Hd, for the 1'-'1""'" 'itle "I>:ilrogen inpu" to """"""y-four ,,'uthern Ne", Engla"d es'uaries: Applica,ion of a watershed nitmgen model" (latimer and Charpenlier, 20fO). Bas.ed on this Mticle, ",h.'t is 'he percent contribution 01 Ihe f,,110"'i"8 (our l 1....1 19M 1%1 1_ t%7 IO/'ll ,_ 1910 IQn 1971 t97\ 19,~ 1975 1971> Iq77 19711 t9;>1 I 0.9~ 0.5< 0.95 OM 0.71 filS ,m Il~ 0.7-1 till l.J' I Ilh 0'I,,,.1',,,, Y.~k ~.I", "·,le. '" So ..., 1"",,"

."k,~,h"

chapter/Four Physical Processes RichordE. Horvoth Jr., james R Mihek;ic, Julie Beth Zimmerman. QionsZhong

In lit. chaplet. rflOlhrs WI' /..an chad phYKcJ ptce Iht:w or. , ~ in /l,. 1IlO 01

m.

po/hIr:wJ Ihrouglt

m.

"",,>I """""'"

Chapter Contents

4.1

Mass Balances

4.2

Energy Balances

4.3

4.4

... _"

Botldngs: Right SWng

Mass Transpo1 Procl!!l68S

and proc.,.•• utMJ 10 control and "flO! poIulOnlemi".:JII. rhe,hap'.

begin. will> Q ,'udy of ,h.. uS" 0/ mOlt",rj and "".rgy bo!a>cft. and

Learnlng Objectives

IhflptOOt»4ll ofocJ..«_onddi."er.

I. U'" Ih" L", ,"If n"l"''''~hnn of "",So; to "nl" a mil>' hallnet'

fnetyybaSancflOfeappliebnn>. nf I....... fIo,,~ford""'gn. planning.. .. nd m..nagelllt'nL C"I,ul.lIe """I k..., fn)1l\ bUild,,~~ Ihrough Ihe bu'ldlllg ~"jn "nd fTllm ;nfi!lr,llinn R..-Lll........ 1 1.-- in !>uilding lake. Similarly. if reaetim~, produced the n",ss ;""rea", of thi, chen""al, they mu,t .11rm oi Equal,,", ~2 is lhe Nd rtIJ. .. of d'.....ical product,,", or I....... 1'1>;, "m"'" .. ",,",, t.. ~ """" nU>. .. lIh UIIII< f nu bm... Substltuung nw;;,. nu~. u... "'l......1lon for n..."" baLt....... can Iw .. n"en a!' k>lJo,. .;lmpl II nughl he rea""""bk> III ~",... ..... th.Il the chenucals dl...:hargoi'd ont.> I Lo.Lo ...... nu~..u thn"'sho."" the .... t>.... Lo.le. Sudt .. ~~ ,\em ,~alltoJ ~ ( pl_ly mind Aow ructodCMfRI. 0lM18n\S. n",,' ronun...n!. conlmliOl61)i 51,rm1I1lr1l .....IIM IOTJl ~ """ ill..... ..-I for 'lUch "'''I~m~. A diagram of ~ CMrR is sh..... n in I1gu .... 4.1

""""""Iilem ha,-e Chapter4 F'hysicaj Processes

dlolnged """,nlly, Ihen Ihe proolem i, prCllMbly a n,,,~qead) ,late. Cm",,,,,,,,ly, if rondilim~~ have rem,,">ed cm~~lanl for a ,"ery long li",e, il is pml"'bly a qeady-qate proble",. Trealing " ,leady-5late pwblem as "m~sleady ,tale w,ll alw,ly' r""ull in Ihe rorred aJ~swer, wh,le treat,ng a "m~~lead"--;lale proole", a, 't""dy sw Ie will "ot. TIli, d.- no! mean Ihal an pr,"'lem, ,hould]'" Ireated ,," non,leady '~lle. howe, er. Nmhteady--;Iale ,.,Iulion, ge"erally are moredifficult, '0 It is a,h ,"'Iageous 10 ide"llfy qead y ,tale" he"e,-er presenl, I" te",,-, of emi"lml' M Ihe e",'imn",elll, steady ,Wle i, often equaled wilh nalure', ab'lity 10 as,in"la Ie "aste~ .,1 Ihe rale at "hich Ihey are released. For e"ample. in Ihe ca"" of carh-on dlo,ide em'''''ons releaming ",ore ""ncentraled I" organ"m, further up Ihe /ood chain.

exarnple/4.1

Indoor Air in Large Buildings h'1")I""", _ep&_g""'iali_&r~e""'''''

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transportation co.~p") 1""",.ey&'9""iouo/oj;.,. ~...,

OeterninilY,l Whether a Problem is Steady State

For each ollhe follow"'8 ma...~ b.llance proolem" deter",,,,,, whelher a slead Y-5lale or n",,-"eady...,lale ",a,~ b.llance would be appropriate. 1. Vi,i"" a ",a'li b.lla"ce"" chlende (Cl 1dis,.,h-ed Ina lale. Two ri\'~rs bring chloride inlo lhe lake, and 0"" ri,'er remo'",; chloride. Nn ~igniflCilnt chemical reactl",,-~ occur, .J._ ddo ride I, soluble aM 'Illn",acti,'~. Whal i, th~ annual ",-erage ronee"tratinn of chloride In til" lake? 2. A degradalk,n r"action with", a well-mixed tank l~ used 10 d""troy a pollulanl. Inlet ron"entralim, and flow are held co"-~Ianl, and Ihe~y"lem ha, been operatUlg lor "",-eral day~. Whall~ Ihe pollul.,nl concentralion in Ihe e/fluent, g"-"" the inlet f1",,- and con",nlralim, and Ihe firsl-order decay rale con,lant? 3. TI,e source ill pollutanl In problem 2 l~ remm-ed, J"t'Sulting in an ins~lnwn""", decline mille Inlet """"""tralio" to 7-"m. H"" lnng would il lake u"m Ihe outlet ron"'''trall"" reaches 10 fX'rcent 01 il~ '''il,al value?

example/4.1

(continued)

solution 1. Over an annua! period, ",,,r fI..m" a nd concenlrati""s can be ",sumooto be .elati,'el], co,>;lant. Sine" condilion, are nill changmg, and 'ince a ,ingie ,alu" indep"ndenl of lime i' ""luesled for chloride con""ntrallon, th" problem is "eady Slale. 2. Again, conditions inlhe pn,b!em are c",,"'ant a ".1 have remai""d,o for a l""g time, s.o the p.eblem is sleady st"le. NOle Ihal Ihe p.esence or ,,!>sence or J chemical reaclion d()e_ For example, if Ihe fluid ,-elocity ,. and Ihe cros,,ee1i"".,1 area A of Ihe p'pe a.e known, Ihen Q "x A In 5O",e situation" nl.ls.s may enler the control volume Ihrough di.ect emission inlo the "olume, In IhLs ca"" Ihe emissio,,. are Irequently specified in ma5.S flux um" ",a5.s/lim". ,,-hid, can be u"'-'cesses

=_. fl,,'

1'MSS FLUX OUT lmo..ll In m",t Ih~H' i~ ""Iv'''''' e/fl,,""! 11 CfW>ImI I/unw '" ~ 10 n_~nt _ ," thfo, ."....trOI I/u........Ad

NET RATE Of CHEMICAl. REAOlON (,,",--I

*_.. ,. . . '" m.nch.;m..·.>.l,.... Iwl/ogical *.~ ~

The ""'"

tJw noel rale of product..", f'i .. cns. It .... ~un't;; f'i ", tu'rliI'. Thus. if

other'''"'J''lUAd~n>oct ,,~fonn thfo,rompound, 11I, ,II Ngreo"" than ........; 1fthi' cnmpnund ... acts In form ........ otlw1- ~~..."po",nd(,),,,,,,,, 11-

mg In lI),o,., III". ",D be negat" ... Although lh.> ch.;mocol-re.>cbOn Ierm In ~ n.......... blIllIn'" hlIs UIll!>. of m;K;o ·Im""'. cho!nuCllI-telICtion r"I"" ~r" usulIlly "'r~ In t"",,,, of ~nlrdt""" not ""'.... Thu~. I of m..... "'lh'" tl"'" cc.llml ...lI"n.e:

........

lsm about trle ClleIJiPUkl Bay

...

_~.....

-...".

'''-

Tampa Bay Estuary P~l1lIm "'-;po -~ -t

44.'1) "he,~

(oICldO...... ,.~

.~I, i~

"blallled f",,,, the ,.. Ie 1.1'" for II", ,e.,eli"n and i~ "'1,,,,1 hi th~ ,..te "f eh.."ge lt\ enncentMt,,)n th.'t ',",>\l1J occur If Ih" ....."i"n t"'-.l;. place in ilu""" .... 1t'mM'd conserv"i,ot compounds. C"""""·..ll' e ro.npound' ..... not .. If... t....t by CNonUc.o.I orbool.'lg;c-..I ~~. rm ""'c.""", tOOr """" '" lrU~ """"""'-.1\1: " ....1 &' complel"ly mixed flo" reacto,.,. (CMrRs) and plug-fb" reactor, (f'rRs~ CMFR5 are u,,,-I 10 mnJel wel-mix.,j envimr"n",,!.,l reser"OrlS. PFRs, describ&:! in Sedy,,"'to ..'(md"ion.< when a "",dori< Ce of • chomical-rea.ction 10 ---, "y

e x am pI e I

4.5

NGllsteady-state CMFA, CcJlservative Substaoce

The CMrR reaclordepkted in Figure4.1 l" filled" Ilh dean water prior In being Marted. Aller ~tarl-up, a wasle siream contaming 100 nlg/l 0/ a cOl~,ervali,·e pollulanl is added to Ihe reactor at a no" "lle or 50 m '{day. n"" volu nle of Ihe reactor i, 5IXJ m '. What is Ihe concentralion e'it"'g the reactor a, a funclion 0/ time aller illS .'ilolrt all am,,,,nt of lime equal to x/~ to Iravel a di,tance r do" n the reador. nlls obsen'ation C.lII b" u".",j wllh the nld'" billallce formul.lli",,, ju." g"'"'' to drl"rmine ho" chemical c",,,:e"lrallo,,~ "ary durmgflow through .• pm.

_. W • • "t"~fON

_.,.,

ORs hdn>g", omc""~,,,-•. Biofil,,,,,, con,;'" of a column packed ""h , ,upport medium, such .,. rocks_ pi,"", flng', or .>cH,-.,'ed mrron, on ",hieh a boohlm '-s grown, C""tomi""k,j ",ateT Of air is ra-......"j 'IuO flUId aheold or b.:lund ,t. A'tho> plugllo" ,doo" 'htream.d"""ical d«a ~ occurr 11.....1\ till"'" 'p"',t u, tJw I'FR. 11\ a T'FRof length l, ~h plug I.a,d, for a J""'i.(oJ& l r l· A Q,,,he.eA,,,thec~'~-..alarea(.tho>PrR and Q "'It.> fk,., rate. T1Iot' pro.:Il1C'I of It'ngth and noCenIr.atwln dru "' apnowrtlJ.a1lv ... cYCh plug p..-lhrot!5h the £'FR. ... w.....n ~ the §OIJd run .. ,n Ftgure 1.1. Tho! .l\ .....i~ ......... f1U\ d .... 10 reocbOn ,n ,"'" I'FR'" ... mplv 1""" ..' ...... &'1' \,11"",('/ th"o eun~ ,oll.... ,nJ>Cdted ~ d.ashrJ IJJ'lo! in Ftgun! l.7 In ~""tr_, '!IFR would be u.year.

r....r Loke Onlano, Hi).l x ](f' m' 2\2x IO"m'/year

Volume ond flows for tile Great lokes ~.

VoIumol0'm'

{)Y,now ,0" m'/yoa
Ii.ch,&,"

,~

~"-

...'''''

~

1~2

211

Scesses

w..,.&

example/4.8

(conlilllled)

Th...e values mea nlhaI La,,", M ir h iga n changes it. water v olu me Mmplete 1y o,,.,e e.."ry 1J6ye a I'< and l.J. ke Ontario on"" e, ery I> yeaI'0 include lllintli', Iowa, 100;;"''', ML'''''''ri, Ark.:m""-s. Kentucky, Tenn.";"",,,, Ohio, "nJ Mi"i"ippi. 11"",e,-"r, these nine ,tal"" onl}- rn""" up "ne-third 1>£ lhe L:md .rea Ihal drain' !I' the Mi"i."ippi Iti,-",- (,,-hieh enct>mp"""""" tiltal "f 31 ,l.:1les). I'igu'" ~.II ,how' the ""'re"" of ph'''phmu, ,,,,d nitr'>gen deh,,,,ed I" the Gulf of M",im. Thi., fib"'''' indimt"" tMt M perrenl "f nitrogen "riginat"" fTIlrn culti"alion 1>£ cTIlp"(pri"",rilyct,m,,,,d ""ybe.,n,J, with "nim,1 g",jnl; and m"nme ctmtributing "Ix",t 5 pet~m "nd much "I the texl obt.. ined by the Us. (',e"logical Sun,,}'.

"I

.,L",

~~I"'"""I!""","m"l)

1

_ _.11 Viokl

Yield DoIiwI,1Id to Gull

. .,

YioId (~g 1