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FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA

NADSEGMENTNE ZNAČILNOSTI ANGLEŠKEGA GLASOSLOVJA ODDELEK ZA ANGLISTIKO 2011/2012

ZAPISKI S PREDAVANJ DR. SMILJANE KOMAR IN IZPISKI IZ PREDPISANE ŠTUDIJSKE LITERATURE

INTONATION Intonation is the melody of speech. This means that the study of intonation is mainly concerned with the rising and falling of the pitch of the voice. The prosodic characteristics of speech are:  PITCH (height of voice)  LOUDNESS/VOLUME  TEMPO/SPEECH RATE/SPEED

RHYTHM

Intonation is concerned only with the pitch changes within an utterance and is thus a narrower than prosody or suprasegmentals. Speech without intonation does not exist (language without intonation sound literally inhuman – giving a robot-like effect). Intonation is an integral part of any language therefore part of the linguistic study. Intonation helps convey linguistic and pragmatic meaning – it is a bridge between grammar and meaning. It is important in communication because it provides additional meaning to what is supplied by the words themselves (It wasn’t so much what they said, but how they said it’’). Intonation varies considerably from one language to another. Intonation roughly performs 4 functions (has 4 different meanings):  Emotional colouring, attitude (pragmatic) - tone  Conveys grammatical/syntactic structure of an utterance (e.g. statements vs. questions)  Textual function / discourse function (how text, either written or spoken, are structured coherence, cohesion. In speech (especially spontaneous speech) intonation adds to the organisation of a text)  Socio-linguistic structure (shows you the origin of the speaker – dialects) Intonation has two important functions in the organization of the information in an utterance:  TONALITY  division into intonation units  TONICITY  the placement of nucleus in an intonation unit

TONALITY

CHUNKING OR DIVISION INTO INTONATION PHRASES (IP’s) TONALITY IS THE SYSTEM THAT DIVIDES SPOKEN DISCOURSE INTO SMALLER UNITS. In order to make themselves understood, speakers organize the flow of speech into smaller, meaningful chunks, called intonation phrases (IP’s). Each unit contains one piece of information. Tonality largely reflects and depends on the grammatical structure of a language, but it is also very much conditioned by the speaker’s perception of the context of interaction. Intonation phrases are also referred to as ‘word groups’, ‘tone units’, ‘intonation units’. The boundary between two successive intonation phrases is an intonation break. We regularly place an intonation break between successive sentences, usually between successive clauses, sometimes between successive phrases, and occasionally between successive words. We can even break within a word – though this is unusual and only used for special emphasis. Tonality basically signals to the hearer the syntactic as well as the information structure of the sentence.

1. SIGNALLING THE STRUCTURE  NEUTRAL TONALITY : When one IP is realized by one clause (sentence): 2

Milk comes from cows. || Wool comes from sheep. Milk comes from cows, | and wool comes from sheep.

two pieces of information = two IP’s

 MARKED TONALITY : When IP’s occur within a clause, phrase, word, or even syllable boundaries, or one IP covers more than 1 clause or sentence (division into IP’s does not follow the division of clauses): Milk | comes from cows. Delicious, | cool | milk.

I don't | like it. Abso | lutely | de | licious!

Bor | ing!

 Marked tonality requires some sort of context.

1.1 Ambiguous syntactic structures In certain cases the division into IP’s can disambiguate the grammatical structure (the presence or absence of intonation breaks signals the syntactic structure of a sentence).     

Help keep the dog off!  Help! | Keep the dog off! What's that in the road ahead?  What's that in the road? || A head? Do you like pawpaw? -I'm sorry, || I don't know.  I'm sorry, || I don't, || no. You can have cheese, | salad | or quiche.  You can have cheese salad | or quiche. This will give teachers time | to prepare and mark work.  This will give teachers time to prepare | and mark work.  I was talking to a chap I met in the pub.  I was talking to a chap I met | in the pub.  The competitors who finished | first received a goody bag.  The competitors who finished first | received a goody bag.

1.2 Tonality & Punctuation Although tonality in speech plays a role similar to punctuation in writing, there are numerous cases where the comma in writing does not correspond to a boundary between IP’s.      

Oh, I quite understand. Well, I'm not sure. No, I love it. We'll see you on Tuesday, then. It hasn't stopped him smoking, though. Her health's pretty poor, you know.

˝Oh˝, ˝well˝, ˝you know˝ etc. have little meaning – the utterance makes complete sense without them.

EXERCISE Locate suitable intonation breaks in the following passage. Put double marks  at the end of each sentence, and single marks  where appropriate within each sentence. When we got to the top  we paused for a rest.  Fortunately  we had some chocolate with us  and some bottles of water,  and Nell had some raisins,  which were very welcome.  After we’d rested there for a few minutes  we were ready to continue our journey,  which we did  with a new spring in our steps.

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2. CHUNKING & GRAMMAR Tonality varies considerably according to the style of speech. Speakers can insert intonation breaks almost anywhere they want in order to make their message as clear as possible. However, there are some strong tendencies exerted by the grammar over tonality. Some components of syntactic structure are more likely than others to be made into separate IP’s, set off by intonation breaks.  General rule 1: intonation break after each sentence || or clause |  When I cough, | it hurts my throat.  First take the lid off, | and then unscrew the base.  I'll tell you, | but you must keep it a secret.  General rule 2: intonation break anywhere to make the grammatical structure clear  He was looking up the street. (possibly ambiguous)  He was looking | up the street. (direction)  He was looking up | the street. (searching)

2.1 Vocatives Vocatives are not an essential part of the clause structure (the clause would be grammatically complete even without them). This explains why under some circumstances they are given their own IP. Vocatives are treated differently depending on the position they’re in:  Vocatives in initial position (their function is to draw attention): separate IP Linda, | could I have a word?

Jenny and Peter, | I want you to take the left side.

 Vocatives in middle or final position (the function of drawing attention is less important/not really there): no separate IP This, Mr. Robinson, | is the young man I was telling you about. Have you got your passport, Mother?

2.2 Adverbials Adverbials, too, often stand apart from the basic clause structure (the clause would be grammatically correct without them). This explains why they, too, are frequently given their own IP. Their behaviour varied depending on their relationship to the rest of the clause:  Adverbials modifying the verb or an adjective: not their own IP She quickly picked up the pencil. We were really pleased with it.

EXERCISE Insert intonation breaks as necessary:

 In the beginning of a clause: separate IP On Thursday evening | I'm having dinner at Patsy's. 4

We’d better consider them individually. They’ve all vanished, | unfortunately.

We’ll finish them tomorrow, | hopefully. The water evaporated naturally. The water evaporated, | naturally.

Under the circumstances | we've got no choice. Technically | we have to reject it.  In the middle of a clause: may have their own IP Well we could | this year | do something different. The rest of us, | unfortunately, | will have to accept it.  At the end of a clause:  Adverbs of manner: integrated into the clause structure She dances beautifully. I just can't take him seriously. I'll pay you back soon.  Sentence adverbials (adjuncts) that modify the whole clause or sentence: their own IP Apparently, | she's getting divorced. I'm rather disappointed, | frankly.  Ambiguous She talked to me honestly. (honestly modifying talked = How did she talk to me?) She talked to me, | honestly. (honestly modifying She talked to me = She DID talk to me, I assure you)

2.3 Defining and non-defining items In writing the distinction between defining and non-defining relative clauses is marked by commas, whereas in speech the distinction is achieved by intonation breaks. There are two kinds of relative clause:  Defining: no IP She's my sister who lives in Canada. (= I have more sisters) Look at that house near the bus stop. (= not the other houses)  Non-defining: separate IP Look at that house, | near the bus stop. (= which is near the bus stop) She's my sister, | who lives in Canada. (= my only sister)

 The same rule applies to appositions*: This is my colleague Charles. (= a particular one of my various colleagues) This is my colleague, | Charles. (= 2 pieces of information: colleague, name) This is my colleague, Charles. 2 interpretations:  

*The relationship between two usually consecutive

nouns or noun phrases that refer to the same person or thing and have the same relationship to other sentence elements. In the sentence ‘My son, an actor, lives with me,’ the phrase ‘My son, an actor’ is an example of apposition.

Charles is a vocative; I mentioned several people named Charles, and this one is my colleague rather than my cousin

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2.4 Parallel structures With parallel words or phrases, there is likely to be an intonation break after each component if there are more than two components or if the components are heavy. The decision whether to treat each enumerated item on a list as a separate IP is to a large extent left to the speaker’s perception of the context of interaction. If the parallel words or phrases are placed in contrast by the speaker, then they too are likely to be separated by an intonation break.  Parallel words and phrases: separate IP if emphasized I come on Mondays, | Wednesdays | and Fridays. (emphasis) I want to buy some fruit | some milk | and some bread. (emphasis) I can see a sort of tree | and the outline of a person. (emphasis) I’m not going to repeat the mistake I made last time | this time. (contrast)  Ambiguous; some coordinated structures are potentially ambiguous, and can optionally be disambiguated by the insertion of an intonation break: old men and women (ambiguous: who is old?) old | men and women (= both are old) old men | and women (= men are old)  Strings of letters or numbers: one IP unless explicit/very clear A: How do you spell to seize? With a string of letters or numbers there are equally two possibilities. If we think they will be B: S, E, I, Z, E. familiar with the hearer, or if there is no need to be particularly explicit, we run them together in the same IP. If we think they may be unfamiliar to the hearer or need to be made especially A: What was that again? clear, we can make the message easier for the hearer to process by placing an intonation break B: S, | E, | I, | Z, | E. after each item,

2.5 Tag questions Not all tag question have their own IP. Speakers usually make a distinction between reverse-polarity tag, where the tag is negative if the main clause is positive and positive if the main clause is negative, and constant polarity tags, where both the tag and the main clause are either positive or negative.  Reverse polarity (checking) tags : own IP We could do it tomorrow, | couldn’t we? It wasn’t a disaster, | was it?  Constant-polarity (copy) tags: no IP Close the window, would you, please. You’re ready to go, are you?

2.6 Heavy noun phrases A noun phrase (NP) is particularly likely to have its own IP if it is heavy (=long, consisting of several words, important lexical items). Since the grammatical subject of a sentence is often just such a NP, there if often an intonation break between the subject and the rest of the clause or sentence.  Heavy noun phrases (=long, consisting of several important lexical items) when a grammatical subject: own IP The people I’ve been talking to | were quite definite about it. 6

London and the southeast | will have showers. || The rest of the country | will be dry.

2.7 Topics English has a fixed SVO (subject, verb, object) order of sentence elements. In this sequence the subject is the topic or theme, while the rest of the clause is the comment or rheme. Sometimes the context of interaction requires topicalization of other sentence elements, such as objects ot complements, which means that they occur in the initial position of the clause preceding the grammatical subject. All such instances require their own IP. In other words, a marked theme is always followed by an intonation break. Topical status of the subject & other sentence elements is signalled:    

In various syntactic ways By choosing an appropriate tone By giving it a separate IP Cleft & pseudo cleft structures

As for Jeremy, | he can do what he likes. (subject) Martha | will have to wait. (subject) His rudeness | I shall ignore. || But his actions | I cannot forgive. (objects) More important | is the question of what we do next. (complement) I chose Veronica. (not cleft) It was Veronica that I chose. (cleft) It was Veronica | that I chose. (cleft, with focus on I for contrast between my and someone else’s choice) What they didn’t like | was the noise. (pseudo–cleft) Getting caught | is exactly what I’m trying to avoid. (pseudo–cleft) A: I suppose you’ll criticize his callousness? B: No his callousness | is what I shall ignore.

TONICITY

NUCLEUS-PLACEMENT TONICITY IS THE SYSTEM WHICH GOVERNS A RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES FOR THE PLACEMENT OF THE MOST PROMINENT SYLLABLE (THE NUCLEUS) IN AN INTONATION UNIT. If tonality is a system by means of which speakers organize their messages into intonation phrases, then tonicity is a system by means of which speakers decide on the focus of information. Thus, in every IP speakers have to select one word which they find most important for the meaning, i.e. the focus of information. The stressed syllable between that word becomes the nucleus or nuclear syllable of that particular IP and bears the tone.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES  Each IP contains ONE item which is particularly important for the MEANING  The STRESSED syllable in that item is called NUCLEUS  The NUCLEUS bears the nuclear TONE 7

Within each intonation break, we select one word as particularly important for the meaning. This is where we place the nucleus (or nuclear accent), the syllable that is more prominent than others and bear the nuclear tone. The syllable is made prominent though pitch change, extra length and loudness. The nucleus is the syllable where one of five English tones is realized. The most important decision the speaker makes in selecting an intonation pattern is to decide where the nucleus goes: which is the word to be accented. In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the intonation phrase. In an IP there may be other accents besides the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the last accent in the IP. Any other accents come earlier in the IP and are called prenuclear.

Tonicity can be either:  NEUTRAL tonicity means that the nucleus is places within the last lexical item in an intonation unit. This also implies, that the information of the whole intonation unit is in focus (=broad focus)  MARKED tonicity means that the nucleus is not placed within the last lexical item but within an item which comes earlier in the intonation focus. In this case, only the section up to the nucleus is in focus (=narrow focus).

2. NEUTRAL TONICITY In order for an IP to be neutral in tonicity, the nucleus should occur on the last lexical item.  Content words: adjectives, lexical verbs, nouns, adverbs  Function words: pronouns, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs  Neutral tonicity: N is located on the LAST CONTENT WORD

2.1 On or near the last word The nucleus is usually located on or near the last word of the intonation phrase. By definition, the nuclear accent is the last accent in the IP, so the general tendency is for the nucleus to be towards the end of the IP, provided that the last word in an IP is important for the Initials, names of letters and numerals are treated like meaning. I want to buy a lemon. The bridge is about to collapse.

She just started a new relationship. Could you tell me the time?

It is only if the words towards the end of the IP are for some reason not accented that the nucleus will go on an earlier word.

separate word. In a string of several letters or numerals, the nucleus generally goes on the last one: In the exam, she got a C. My room number is 506. (=five oh six)

2.2 Content words and function words  Content words: N typically on the last content word in an IP Content words are words that have meaning that can be defined in a dictionary: nouns, adjective, most verbs and most adverbs. I can’t hear you. 8

I’m very annoyed with her. Ask her what that noise is.  Function words: no N (=generally speaking, we accent content words but not function words) Function words are words whose meaning may need to be explained in a grammar rather than a dictionary, and which may not have exact equivalents in other languages: pronouns, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs

2.3 Compounds  Single-stressed compounds: N on the first element Most compounds in English are single-stressed (=front-stressed), i.e. the main lexical stress goes on the first element. It’s well past your bedtime. Put the grass in the wheelbarrow. Where’s your grandmother? 



Open compounds (two-word compounds) Is that my library book? They were playing video games. I’ve lost my credit cards. I need some new running shoes. Are you still at high school? At ten we have a physics class. Nested compounds (one of the elements of the compound may itself consist of more than one element. If the outer compound is single-stressed, the nucleus will still go on the first element: Credit card bill ["["credit card] bill]

It does not matter whether a single-stressed compound is written as one word, or hyphenated, or as two words. All single-stressed compounds behave as if they were single words.  Double-stressed compounds: N on the second element Also called end-stressed or late-stressed. The first element may also be accented: It was Christmas Eve. There are some ham sandwiches. 5 GROUPS: 1. proper names of people: ,James Mc’Gregor; De,nise ‘Harris 2. proper names of roads and public places (except those ending in street: ‘Oxford Street): Vic,toria ‘Road; ,Oxford ‘Avenue; ,Leicester ‘Square 3. names of institutions such as hotels and schools: the ,Festival ‘Hall; ,Goldsmith’s ‘College; ,Bailey’s ‘Restaurant; the ,Marlborough Ho’tel 4. compounds in which the first element names the place or time: ,Town ‘Hall; ,kitchen ‘window; ,Christmas ‘Eve (BUT: ‘Christmas present; ‘Christmas card) 5. compounds in which the first element names the material or ingredient (except those ending in juice or cake: ‘orange juice; ‘carrot cake): ,leather ‘jacket; ,cheese ‘sandwich: ,pork ‘chop;

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3. THE OLD AND THE NEW 3.1

Information status

The location of the nucleus is strongly affected by whether the words in the utterance contain old or new information. Information status is the status of how we want to express our ideas, pieces of information. In addition to syntax, it represents additional help in conveying the information structure.  The nucleus is always located on new information. When all pieces of information are new information, the N is on the last lexical item: Yes madam? -I’d like a gin and tonic.  If the last lexical item contains old information, the N moves to the left and is placed on the first lexical item which does contain new information How about a gin and tonic? -I’d prefer a vodka and tonic.  Repeated words, even if they contain new information, do not become N. A green chair and a blue curtain.  BUT: A green chair and a blue chair. Tina Rodman and Jane Stuart.  BUT: Tina Rodman and Jane Rodman.

3.2 Synonyms, hypernims, hyponyms  Old information can also be repeated using synonyms: no N Shall we wash the clothes? Oh I hate doing the laundry. (wash the clothes = doing the laundry) Shall we walk there? Yes I like going on foot. (walk = going on foot)  Hypernyms: no N Malaria | and other tropical diseases. Do you like whist? - Oh I like most card games.  Hyponyms: because you narrow down the meaning of a word or phrase already mention by using a hyponym, it is accented and attracts the nucleus. Do you like ball games? -I’m quite fond of football.

4. BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS Another way of analysing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of focus: the concentration of attention on a particular part of the message. The opposition between neutral and marked tonicity is closely related to the opposition between broad and narrow focus. The focus is dynamic – the speakers constantly shift the place of the nucleus around, though always in agreement with the development of the interaction and their perception of given, implied and new information.  Broad focus: the whole IP is in focus To give a stretch of utterance broad focus, we use neutral tonicity. The nucleus goes on the last lexical item: What happened next? -Everyone burst out laughing. What’s going on here? -Selena’s had a heart attack. 10

 Narrow focus: only part of the IP is in focus The nucleus shows where the focus domain ends. In bellow examples the focus domain is just the item Mary, and the intonation indicated that we are concentrating attention on the relevant part (Mary): Who brought the wine? - Mary. -Mary did. -Mary brought the wine. -I think it was Mary that brought the wine.

5. Contrastive focus

A particular kind of narrow focus. It is used to put two items in contrast; these two items can be either grammatical or lexical. Any following material within the same IP is unaccented: You may have started your essay, | but have you finished your essay? (contrast between started and finished) Philip | can run faster than Jim can. I know what Peter wants, | but what do you want? I can send a fax to him, | but I can’t receive one from him. The speaker can make an explicit or implicit contrast between two pieces of information. The above examples are all examples of explicit contrast; they presuppose a previous context in which these sentences are uttered. If the contrast is implicit, the hearer is left to infer the other term in the contrast: I don’t know what you’re complaining about. (implicit contrast between the addressee (you) and some other possible complainant who may have better grounds for complaint than the addressee).

 Pronouns & demonstratives: acquire N if they are placed in contrastive focus: I’m as surprised as you are. I know how she feels, | but how do you feel? If you ask me, | … If you ask me, | … The contrast between me and As far as I’m concerned | … others is not explicitly expressed In my opinion | … implicit contrast and is therefore implicit. From his point of view |… If you want to know what I think |… 



Idioms or set expression with fixed tonicity Good for you! Blow me! (=I am very surprised) Search me! (=I don’t know, I’ve no idea) Final demonstratives tend to convey new information and attract the nucleus: Look at this! Who’s that? I’d like some of those, please.

 Reflexive, reciprocal & indefinite pronouns 

True reflexive pronouns (myself etc.): do not attract N She feels rather pleased with herself. Have you hurt yourself? 11

Emphatic: may attract N I’ll write to him myself. She’s not very enthusiastic herself. 

Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another): do not attract N I think we all ought to help one another. At least Phil and Sue are talking to each other.



Indefinite pronouns (someone, anything etc.): do not attract N Can you see anyone? Can I get you anything? I’ve just read something  really funny.

6. Nucleus on function words

In some cases the nucleus always falls on a function word even when the focus is broad.

 Polarity questions & tags 

Yes, no, sure, definitely, no way as direct answers to yes-no questions take N A: Have you finished? B: Yes. / Definitely. / Oh sure. / No. / Not really.



A sentence fragment without yes or no: N on the auxiliary A: Have you finished? B: I have.



preceded by yes or no: o 2 IP’s A: Have you finished? B: Yes,  I have. o



De-accent the initial yes or no A: Have you finished? B: Yes, I have.

N goes on the polarity word in tag questions A: We’re nearly ready. B: Are you? A: You’re quite wrong, you know. B: Am I? It’s a beautiful day,  isn’t it? Wayne didn’t call,  did he?

 Prepositions 

Usually do not attract N unless brought into contrastive focus Look at this button. What’s it for? 12

That’s Mary. Who’s she with? A: You know my essay? B: Yes,  what about it?  Wh + to be 

Direct or indirect wh-questions with the pattern: wh-word + be + pronoun: N on be How are you? Tell me how you are. Who is it? Tell me who it is. How would it be  if we met for lunch? The man over there  who is he? When was it  that you came back from Canada?

 Function words with N  Function words which regularly attract N: too, as well, either, anyway, anyhow A: I’m going to the library. B: Oh, I’ll come, too. We’re going to the beach. Why don’t you come along  as well? I don’t like Jim,  and I don’t like Tammy,  either. This idea may not work,  but let’s try it anyway. Anyway, why were you looking at my letters? She doesn’t smoke -  not nowadays,  anyhow. Anyhow,  I’ve got to be going  now.

6. FINAL, BUT NOT NUCLEAR

Some categories of lexical items may occur in the final position in the IP with broad focus, but nevertheless do not receive the nucleus.  Empty words & pro-forms 

General nouns with vague meanings: things, people, places, the man, that woman etc. I keep seeing things. (= I keep hallucinating) What are you going to tell people? (= What are you going to say?) They’re really going places. (= They’re really successful.) Have a word with the guy! (= Have a word with him) I can’t stand that woman! (= I can’t stand her.)



Plural or mass nouns, the pro-form does not attract N A: Could I borrow some sugar? B: I haven’t got any. We need some cards. Can you see any? I’ve got lots of milk left -  would you like some?

 Reporting clauses Reporting clause follows quoted words: N on the appropriate item among the quoted words “How are you doing?” he asked. 13

“I don’t believe it,” she explained.  Adverbs of time & place  In final position (although they contain new information) do not attract N I had an unexpected visitor yesterday. Does a Mr. Pomfrey live here? Did you see Big Brother on television last night? There’s a fly in my soup. 

In final position when they are obligatory: they attract N Put it on the table. Write the details in the book.

7. PHRASAL VERBS  Phrasal verb: verb + particle (adverb or preposition) = primary stress on the particle → N on the particle How are you getting on ? The prisoner broke down. The next month  she passed away. I’ll leave you to carry on, then.  Phrasal verb: verb + adverb + preposition → N on the adverb She felt that her mother-in-law  always looked down on her.  Prepositional verb: verb + preposition = primary stress on the verb → N on the verb A: Here are the photos. B: May I look at them? Are these the books I sent for? Which of them can you really rely on?

TONES AND MEANINGS

THE PITCH MOVEMENT REALIZED ON THE NUCLEUS IS CALLED THE TONE. Intonation plays a crucial role in the expression of the grammatical and the attitudinal meaning of an utterance. Longer utterances are divided into shorter, grammatically relevant intonation phrases which have a particular and complete intonation structure or a tune. These tunes carry attitudinal and emotional meaning. The structure of an intonation phrase is composed of maximum four elements, of which only the nucleus or the tonic syllable is obligatory. The pitch movement realised on the nuclear syllable is called the nuclear tone. However, an IP may contain more than just one (obligatory) accent. In that case, the first accented syllable in the IP constitutes the beginning of the head of the IP. In other words, the head extends from the first accent to the last syllable before the nucleus. The pitch movement realized on the nucleus is called the tone. The syllables which follow the nucleus are called the tail, whereas those preceding the head are referred to as the pre-head.

IP = (PRE-HEAD) + (HEAD) + TONE + (TAIL)

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Various intonation models of the English language recognize different number of nuclear tones. However, regardless of the intonation model, it seems that the English language uses five different pitch movements or tones. Anything else is just a variation of these tones1: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(low/high) FALL () (low/high) RISE () FALL-RISE () RISE-FALL () LEVEL ()

The high/low fall, the high/low rise and the level tone are all simple tones (include one pitch movement). The fall rise and rise-fall tones are complex tones (include two pitch movements).

`wonderful

_wonderful

'wonderful?

7wonderful?

ˇwonderful

^wonderful

>wonderful

high fall

low fall

high rise

low rise

fall-rise

rise-fall

level

pitch range

FALLING TONES

For the simple fall () the pitch of the voice starts relatively high, i.e. between the mid and the high part of the pitch range, and then moves downwards, almost to the bottom of the pitch range. If there are any syllables following the nuclear tone, they form the tail and are always low and level in pitch.

1. HIGH FALL ( ` ) The voice falls during the word from a high to a very low pitch. EXAMPLE:

`lovely

`Then we’ll see what happens.

2. LOW FALL ( _ ) The voice falls during the word from a medium to very low pitch. EXAMPLE:

_lovely

_Then we’ll see what happens.

1

Arnold and O'Connor distinguish 7 different tones, but the additional two do not vary in pitch movement, but pitch height.

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RISING TONES For the simple rise () the pitch of the voice starts relatively low, i.e. between the low and the mid part of the pitch range, and then moves upwards to the mid to high part of the pitch range. The difference between the fall and the rise is that the latter has a rising tail, the former a low level one. 3. LOW RISE ( 7 ) The voice rises during the word from a low to a medium pitch or a little above. EXAMPLE:

7All of us?

7Chicken?

4. HIGH RISE ( ' ) The voice rises during the word from a medium to a high pitch. EXAMPLE:

'All of us?

'Chicken?

COMPLEX TONES 5. FALL RISE ( ˇ ) The pitch of the voice starts as high as for the simple fall, moves downwards almost to the bottom of the pitch range, and then moves upwards again reaching the mid part of the pitch range. If the IP consists only of the nuclear syllable, then the two pitch movements have to be realized on that syllable. If, on the contrary, the nucleus is followed by a tail, then the realization of the fallrise is spread over the tail. In other words, the falling part of the tone is realized on the nucleus, whereas the rising part begins towards the end of the tail and extends to the last syllable of the IP. EXAMPLE:

ˇMine.

ˇMine, you mean.

6. RISE FALL ( ^ ) The rising part starts at a mid pitch, rises to a high pitch and then falls to the bottom of the pitch range. As with the fall-rise, the realization of the rise-fall is spread over the nucleus and the first one or two syllables of the tail. The low level pitch is usually not reached until the second syllable of the tail.

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EXAMPLE:

^ Wonderful.

^Take physics then.

MID-LEVEL 7. LEVEL ( > ) The voice maintains a pitch between high and low, neither rising nor falling.

EXAMPLE:

>Actually.

DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF ENGLISH TONES

Intonation is multi-functional. It is difficult to discuss the grammatical meanings of tones separately from the attitudinal and discourse meanings – when discussing the grammatical meaning of tones, we have to presuppose the use of tones is unmarked or neutral. Default tones occur in unmarked contexts of interaction; if the context is marked, some other tone is used. According to Wells there are two generalizations regarding the uses of default tones. The first one claims that the default tone in statements, exclamations, wh-questions and commands is a fall, whereas a rise is a default tone in yes-no questions. The second generalization claims that the default tone of utterances consisting of two IP’s has a fall on the main part and a non-fall on the subordinate or dependant part.

1. STATEMENTS default: FALL marked: RISE, FALL RISE The default tone in statements is a FALL which signals syntactic and semantic finality. It can be either the simple fall or the complex rise-fall; the difference between them is of attitudinal nature. She won "two thousand pounds. "John adores her. If a statement is said with a non-fall, this means that the speaker has not said everything yet. Typically, the simple rise is used in declarative questions which have the syntactic structure of a statement but have the function of polarity or yes-no questions: She "speaks Swahili?

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When the fall-rise is used in statements it means that the IP which bears this tone is part of a larger syntactic structure. In addition to this non-finality, the fall-rise often expresses semantic non-finality where the remaining part of the message is implied in the context of interaction. The implication is usually a contract or a reservation. Sometimes the implied message is explicitly pronounced in the following IP: No matter "what you say, | I’m "going to buy it. Well I "like his acting. (But not his singing) Daddy thinks | it’s "too expensive. (But Mummy may not agree.) We "could meet on Monday | but "later I’m away. 2. QUESTIONS The default tones used in various questions are different.  WH-QUESTIONS default: fall "Which way is the Covent Garden?  YES-NO QUESTIONS default: rise Have you "ever been to Slovenia?  TAG QUESTIONS default: rise (asks for information; suggests) marked: fall (appeals for approval) "Dame Judi Dench played Lady Bracknel, | didn’t she? "Dame Judi Dench is a magnificent actress, | isn’t she?

(Am I right?) (I’m sure you agree)

 INDEPENDENT ELLIPTICAL QUESTIONS default: rise (keeps the conversation going) I’m "thinking of taking a break.

Are you?

3. EXCLAMATIONS, COMMANDS, INTERJECTIONS, GREETINGS, FAREWELLS  EXCLAMATIONS default: fall "What a pity! How "very nice of him! I "don’t believe it! "Welcome to Brighton!  COMMANDS default: fall marked: rise (soothing, encouraging)

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"Stop that noise! "Come to Daddy! "Don’t worry. "Blow your nose, dear.  INTERJECTIONS default: fall marked: rise (encouraging) Thank you. My goodness! A: Oh mary! B: Yes?  GREETINGS default: fall (formal, businesslike) rise (personal, encouraging) Good morning. Good morning.  FAREWELLS default: rise "Good night. || "See you tomorrow.

PRE-NUCLEAR PITCH PATTERNS

The part of the tune preceding the nucleus is called the pre-nuclear pattern. It can be divided into two parts:  the PRE-HEAD  the HEAD THE PRE-HEAD .The pre-head consists of any syllables before the stress syllable of the first accented word, whether the latter syllable is the nucleus or the beginning of the head. It was an unusually dark night. pre- head

head

I could have kicked myself.

nucleus

pre-head nucleus tail

There are two types of pre-head, the low pre-head and the high pre-head:  the low pre-head  the high pre-head

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THE HEAD The first pitch-prominent pre-nuclear segment is called the head = the head begins with the stressed syllable of the first accented word (before the nucleus). Where’s John? head nucleus

The pre-head and head may occur together or separately, or they may not be present at all if the nucleus is the first syllable of a word group. There are four different types of head: 1. THE HIGH HEAD All syllables are said on the same rather high pitch. The high head is always level (the high level head). It was" easier than I ex`pected.

The high head is symbolized by placing the mark ["] before it. If there are other accented words in the head they have [º] before their stressed syllables: "Why did you ºtell me you ºcouldn’t `come? 2. THE LOW HEAD All the syllables are said on the same low pitch. It !ought to be ∑perfectly 'clear.

The low head is symbolised by placing the mark [ ! ] before its first stressed syllable. If there are other accented words in the head, their stressed syllables are preceded by [ ]. !Don’t’ be 7silly.

!Someone’s ∑bound to ∑come a∑long 7soon.

3. THE FALLING HEAD The first syllable of the falling head is rather high in pitch and any following syllables gradually carry the pitch lower. It always precedes the fall-rise tone. I can’t be ˇcertain.

The symbol for the falling head is [] placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word in the head. If there are other accented words, the mark [º] is placed before the stressed syllables of each of them: 20

Everyone’s ºbound to ºsee it ˇsometime.

Don’t ˇfall.





4. THE RISING HEAD Its first syllable is low in pitch and any following syllables gradually carry the pitch higher. It only occurs before the high-fall tone. It’s absolutely in`tolerable.

The symbol for the rising head [] is placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word in the head. The stressed syllable of any other accented word in the head is marked with [º]: How did you ºmanage to do `that?

Don’t `pay him.





THE TAIL All syllables following the nucleus are called the tail. The seven nuclear tones correspond to the seven tune endings:  high fall ending  rise-fall ending  low rise ending  high rise ending  fall-rise ending  mid-level ending

TUNES AND TONE GROUPS

A simple tune may have a low pre-head, a high pre-head or no pre-head at all; it may have one of the four different kinds of head or no head at all; and it will have one of the seven nuclear tones (with or without the appropriate tail). If every one of these parts of a tune can be combined with every other part, the total number of basic pitch patterns will be 105. But it is not necessary to deal with 105 or more different units for two reasons: 1. some of the patterns occur very much more frequently than others 2. some patterns which are different have differences of meaning so slight that they would be very difficult to define in any very helpful way Any tune which means substantially the same can be usefully grouped together. Such a grouping of tunes all conveying the same attitude on the part of the speaker is called a tone group. Besides expressing the same attitude, the tunes in a tone group also have one or more pitch features in common, as the following specification makes clear. So a tone groups is unified and distinguished from all other tone groups both by the attitude it conveys and by the pitch features of its tunes. In Arnold’s and O’Connor’s Intonation of colloquial English ten tunes are described: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

THE LOW DROP THE HIGH DROP THE TAKE-OFF THE LOW BOUNCE THE SWITCHBACK

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 21

THE LONG JUMO THE HIGH BOUNCE THE JACKNIFE THE HIGH DIVE THE TERRACE

PRE-HEAD HEAD TONE

STATEMENT

WH-QUESTION

YES-NO QUESTION

COMMAND

INTERJECTIONS

THE LOW DROP

THE HIGH DROP

THE TAKE-OFF

THE LOW BOUNCE

THE SWITCHBACK

THE LONG JUMP

THE HIGH BOUNCE

THE JACKKNIFE

THE HIGH DIVE

THE TERRACE

(low) (high) low fall

(low) (high) high fall

(low) (low) low rise

(low) / (high) (high) low rise

(low) (falling) fall-rise

(low) (rising) high fall

(low) (high) high rise

(low) (high) rise-fall

(low) (high) high fall + low rise

(low) (high) mid-level

no head: detached, cool, reserved, full, grim with head: categoric, weighty, judicial

conveying a sense of involvement, light, airy

encouraging further conversation, guarded, reserving judgement, deprecatory

soothing, reassuring, hint of great selfconfidence; in echoes: questioning

grudgingly, admitting, reluctantly or defensively dissenting, concerned, reproachful, hurt, reserved; echoes: astonished

protesting, as if suffering under a sense of injustice

impressed, awed, complacent, selfsatisfied, challenging, censorious, disclaiming responsibility

no head: detached, flat, unsympathetic with head: searching, serious, intense, urgent

brisk, businesslike, considerate, not unfriendly, lively, interested

n on the interrogative word: wondering, puzzled otherwise: very calm but resentful

n on the interrogative word: puzzled; echoes: disapproving; otherwise: sympathetically interested

echoes: greatly astonished; otherwise: interested and concerned as well as surprised

protesting, somewhat unpleasantly surprised

appealing to the listener to continue with the topic of conversation; expressing gladness regret, surprise very emotive, expressing plaintiveness, despair, gushing warmth

in non final word groups: marking non-finality, without conveying any impression of expectancy; calling out to someone as from a distance in non final word groups: marking non-finality, without conveying any impression of expectancy

no head: uninterested, hostile with head: serious, urgent

willing to discuss but not urgently, sometimes sceptical

disapproving, sceptical

genuinely interested

echoes: greatly astonished; otherwise: interested and concerned as well as surprised

willing to discuss but protesting the need for settling a crucial point

questioning, trying to elicit a repetition, but lacking any suggestion of disapproval or puzzlement; nonfinal: casual n on the interrogative word: calling for a repetition; n on the following int. word: echoing; non-echo questions: tentative, casual either echoing the listener’s question or light and casual

impressed, challenging, antagonistic

very emotive, expressing plaintiveness, despair, gushing warmth

no head: unemotional, calm, controlled with head: very serious, very strong

suggesting a course of action and not worrying about being obeyed

beginning with don’t: appealing to the listener to change his mind; calmly warning, exhortative

soothing, encouraging, calmly patronising

urgently warning with a note of reproach or concern

recommending a course of action but with a note of critical surprise

disclaiming responsibility, sometimes hostile

pleasing, persuading

no head: calm, unsurprised, reserved with head: very strong

mildly surprised, not so reserved or self-possessed as with the low-drop

sometimes reserving judgement, sometimes calm

airy, causal, yet encouraging, often friendly, brighter than when said with the take-off

scornful

protesting, surprised

querying all or part of the listener’s command or interjection, but with no critical intention querying all or part of the listener’s command or interjection, but with no critical intention

in non final word groups: marking non-finality, without conveying any impression of expectancy in non final word groups: marking non-finality, without conveying any impression of expectancy

impressed, sometimes a hint of accusation

intensely encouraging, protesting

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challenging, antagonistic, disclaiming responsibility

in non final word groups: marking non-finality, without conveying any impression of expectancy; calling out to someone as from a distance