DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (A Reference Text) Prof. Francis Anthony G. Llacuna Dr. Dante L. Silva 3rd Quarter SY 2004-2005
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (A Reference Text)
Prof. Francis Anthony G. Llacuna Dr. Dante L. Silva 3rd Quarter SY 2004-2005
TABLE OF CONTENTS Lesson 1
Classification of Differential Equations, Its Definition and Terminology
Page
4
2
Elimination of Arbitrary Constants by Differentiation
11
3
Families of Curves
13
4
Variable Separable
14
5
Homogeneous Function
16
6
Equations with Homogeneous Coefficients
17
7
Exact Differential Equations
19
8
Reducing to Linear equation of Order One Non-Exact Differential Equation
25
Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation Non-Exact Differential Equation
27
Integrating Factor Found by Inspection Non-Exact Differential Equation
29
Integrating Factor Found by Formula Non-Exact Differential Equation
31
Miscellaneous Substitution Non-Exact Differential Equation
33
13
Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
34
14
Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories
36
15
Law of Growth and Decay
38
16
Newton’s Law of Cooling
40
17
Continuous Compound Interest
18
Mixture Problem
19
Simple Electric Circuits
20
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
21
Higher-Order, First Degree Differential Equations
22
Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficient
9
10
11
12
23
24
25
26
27
42 43 45 47 49
52
The Method of Undetermined Coefficients Non-Homogeneous Equations
55
Variation of Parameters Non-Homogeneous Equations
58
R(x) is an Exponential Function Inverse Operator
59
R(x) is a Trigonometric Function Inverse Operator
61
R(x) is a Polynomial Function
Inverse Operator 28
63
R(x) is a Composite Function Inverse Operator
64
29
By Inspection
66
30
The Laplace Transform
67
31
The Inverse Laplace Transform
70
References
72
Lesson 1 Classification of Differential Equations, Its Definition and Terminology Specific Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to accomplish the following: define differential equations distinguish between dependent and independent variables define parameter and arbitrary constants classify differential equation according to properties, types, and kinds. Differential Equation A statement that two expressions are equal and an equation which contains derivatives or differentials. (Rainville, 2002)
Example 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation? 1. cos xdx + sin ydy = 0
2.
– 3x
+ x 2y = 0
3. dy/dx = y/x + tan y/x 4. xdx + ydy = 0 5. (x2 – y2) + 2xy y’ = 0 Exercise 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation? 1. (x + 3y)dx – (2x-y)dy = 0 2. x2y’ + (y-1) = 2(x-3y) 3. x2 – y2 = 9 4. (x –y)dx/dy + 3x = x(x+y) 5. sec x tan y – tan y = sec2 x – tan2 y
The Dependent and the Independent Variable Suppose y = f(x), which is read as “y is a function of x”, if y is differentiable with respect to x then y is the dependent variable while x is the independent variable. Example 1.2 Identify the dependent and the independent variable.
1.
2.
+ k2 x = 0
= a2
t – independent variable; x – dependent variable
t, x – independent variable; w – dependent variable
Exercise 1.2 From the following differential equations, determine which among the variables involved is the dependent variable and the independent variable: 1. dy/dx + 1 = x – 2y
2. (x-2y) 3. y’ – 2y = y” +2x
4. (2x + y) dx + (x + 2y) dy = 0 5. (cosx cosy) dx – (sinx siny) dy = 0
Parameter is a constant not to be eliminated while an Arbitrary Constant is a constant to be eliminated. Example 1.3 Identify the parameters.
1. 5
+6
+
= 100 cos :
is a parameter/fixed constant c is an arbitrary constant
Exercise 1.3 Identify the parameters. 1. ( d2i / dt2) + di/dt + i/c = cost
Classification of Differential Equations 1. According to Properties: Order and Degree Order of the Differential Equation The order of the differential equation is the order of the highest - ordered derivative appearing in the equation. (Rainville, 2002) Example 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations.
1.
+ k2x = 0
2nd order DE
Exercise 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations. 1. y”’ – 2(y”)2 = (y’–2y)3
2.
3.
3
Degree of the Differential Equation: The degree of the differential equation is the same as the exponent of the highest ordered derivative in the given equation after the equation has been rationalized or cleared of fractions with respect to all the derivatives. Example 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations
1.
+ k2x = 0
1st degree DE
2. Note; Square both sides of the equation to remove fractional exponent, hence the degree of the equation is 2.
the
Exercise 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations. 1. y”’ - 2(y”)3 = (y’)2 + 3y 2.
3. 2. According to Types: Ordinary and Partial DE
Ordinary Differential Equation An equation which contains total derivatives or differentials only and has only one independent variable is called an ordinary differential equation. Example 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equations.
1.
+ k2x = 0:
t – independent variable; x – dependent variable
Exercise 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equation? 1. xy’ – y = 3(x+1)
2. y’’-2y’+3y = 0 3. x – 3y = 4 Partial Differential Equation An equation which contains partial derivatives only and has one or more independent variables is called a partial differential equation.
Example 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation? 1. 2w/t2 = a2 (2w/x2 )
t, x - independent variable ; w - dependent variable
2. cosx dy + siny dx = 0 Exercise 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation? 1. ∂y/∂x – 3y∂y/∂z = (x- 2z) 2. (x-2y)dx – (3x+y)dy = 0 3. ∂f/∂t + ∂h/∂t = 0 3. According to Kind: Linear and Non-Linear Linearity of an Equation A differential equation is said to be linear if it satisfies the following conditions: 1. It should be linear in the dependent variable. 2. It should be linear in all the derivatives. 3. It should not contain a product of the dependent variable and its derivative or differential. 4. It should not contain any transcendental functions of the dependent variable Note: If one of these conditions is not satisfied then the equation is considered non-linear.
Example 1.8 Determine which of the following differential equation is linear: 1. (x + y - 2) dx – (x - 2y) dy = 0 2. x dy/dx – 3y = 3x - 2x + 1 3. (y’) - 2y = 3 (x+y) 4. y dx/dy – 3x = x – 4y
5. (y-1) dx – ( x+2) dy = 0
Exercise 1.8 Determine which of the following differential equation is linear: 1. (y’’)2 + 10 (y’)3 + 3y = 3x4 2. 7xy’’ + 13 x2y’ (cos x) y = 0 3. (x – 2y)dy + (5x2 – 5y3)dx = 0
4.
5.
–6
–5=0
–5
– 15
=0
Solution of a Differential Equation The solution of a differential equation is a non-derivative relation between the variables which satisfies the given differential equation. It can be a General/Primitive Solution, Particular Solution or Singular Solution. Exercise 1.9 Determine which of the following equations is a solution of the differential equation: 1. y = x - 2x + 3x – 4 2. y’ = 3x - 4x + 3 3. y = c1x -c x
1. General Solution or Primitive Solution The general solution of a differential equation or primitive is a type of solution which contains arbitrary constant/s which is/are usually represented by letters. Geometrically, this represents family of curves. Exercise 1.10 Determine which of the following equations is a general solution or primitive: 1. y = 2. y = Ax + Bx + C 3. y = c x – c e
2. Particular Solution The particular solution is obtained from the general solution by determining the value of the arbitrary constant and substituting it in the general solution. Exercise 1.11 Determine which of the following equations is a particular solution. 1. y = mx + b 2. y = 3. y = x - 2x + 2 3. Singular Solution A solution free of arbitrary constants, and which is not obtained from the general solution. Exercise 1.12 1. Verify that y = e2x is a solution of 2. Show that the differential equation (4x3 – y3)dx + (2y – 3xy2)dy = 0 has x4 – xy3 + y2 = c as its solution where c is a constant. Seatwork: Complete the following table:
Equation 1. xdy + ydx = 0 2. 3. y’’’ – 3y” + 3y’ + y = 0 4. 5. (y’’’)3 + (y”)4 + (y’)5 + y = 0 6. x (dy/dx) + x2 = 0 7. y (dy/dx) + x2 = 0
8.
Order
Degree
Kind
IV
DV
9. 10. ∂y/∂x – 3y(∂y/∂z) = (x- 2z)
Homework: For each of the following differential equations, identify its order, degree, kind, type, independent and dependent variables. Present in tabular form. 1. 5 (y”)2 + 10 (y’)3
+ 3y = 3x4
2. 7xy” + 13 x2y’ (cos x) y = 0 3. (x - 2y) dy + (5x2 - 5y3) dx = 0 4. 2y/x2 - 6y/x - 5 = 0 5. (3z/x3)2 - (52z/y2)5 - 15z/t = 0
Review: Differentiation Formula Lesson 2 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants by Differentiation Specific Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: be familiar with the method of eliminating the arbitrary constants from a given equation to obtain its differential equation and determine the differential equation from a given general solution or primitive. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants: To find the differential equation from the given general solution, the arbitrary constants involved in the given equation must be eliminated. Rules: 1. Differentiate the given equation as many times as the number of arbitrary constants. 2. The order of the resulting differential equation should be equal to the number of arbitrary constants. 3. The desired equation is free from arbitrary constants.
Example: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the arbitrary constants: 1. y = 3x2 + ce-2x 2. y = c1 sin4x + c2 cos4x + x 3. y = (x + c) e-x
4. x + y = tan (x + c)
Recall: tan-1u =
5. (x – a)2 + y2 = a2
Family of Circles with center at (a,0)
6. x = cos(t + ) be
Note:
7. y2 = cx
Parabola with Vertex at (0,0) - (Board Problem)
8. y = c1x + c2ex
(Board Problem)
Eliminate and , is a parameter not to eliminated, then differentiate with respect to t.
9. y = x + c1e-x + c2e-3x
Seatwork: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the arbitrary constants. 1. y = 2x + cex
ans: y’ - y + 2x - 2 = 0
2. y = c1ex + c2e2x + x
ans: y” - 3y’ - 2x + 2y + 3 = 0
Homework: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the arbitrary constants. 1. y = c1e-2x + c2e3x
ans: y” – y’ – 6y = 0
2. cxy + c2x + 4 = 0
ans: x3 (y’)2 + x2 yy’ + 4 = 0
3. y = c1 ex cos3x + c2 ex sin3x
ans: y” – 2y’ + 10y = 0
4. ln y = c1x + c2e 5. y = Ax + Bx + C
6. y = c1 sin wt + c2 cos wt
w is a parameter
7. (y – k)2 = 4a (x – h)
parabola with vertex at (h,k), and a as parameter
8. y = c1eaxcosbx + c2eaxsinbx are
c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants and a and b parameters
Review: Equation of family of curves (straight line, parabola, circle, and ellipse)
Lesson 3 Families of Curves Specific Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: formulate an equation based on the given condition apply the appropriate method of eliminating the arbitrary constants. A family of curves is usually defined by an equation containing one or more arbitrary constant and sometimes a parameter. The Differential Equation of the family of the curves may be obtained by eliminating the arbitrary constants. Example. Find the differential Equations of the following: 1. Family of parabolas with vertex at (1,3) and axis parallel to the x– axis. ans. 2y’(x - 1) = (y – 3) 2. All straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal. ans.
y’(x + 1) – y = 0
3. Family of circles with center on the x–axis. (Board Problem) ans. 1+yy” + (y’)2 = 0 4. Family of circles through the origin with center on the x-axis. ans. 2xyy’ + x2 – y2 = 0 5. Family of circles with fixed radius r and tangent to the x-axis. ans. (y - r)2 (y’)2 + y2 – 2ry = 0 Seatwork: 1. Find the DE in differential form the family of straight lines passing through the origin. (Board Problem) ans. y dx – x dy = 0 2. Find the DE in differential form the family of parabolas having vertices at the origin and then foci on the x axis. ans. y dx – 2xdy = 0 Homework: 1. Find the DE of the family of circles with center on the y-axis. ans. (y’)3 – xy” + y’ = 0 2. Find the DE of the family of lines passing through (h,k). ans. (y-k) dx – (x-h)dy = 0 3. Find the DE of the family of parabolas with axis parallel to the x-axis, the distance between the vertex and the focus being a. ans. 2ay” + (y’)3 = 0 Lesson 4 Variable Separable Solution of First Order, First Degree Differential Equations
Specific Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: perform the solution to a differential equation and find the differential equations from a given relation identify and distinguish differential equations whose coefficients are separable Variable Separable Differential Equation Given the general form of differential equation, M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0 Suppose M(x,y) and N(x,y) can be transformed to distinct functions of x and y as is
M (x)N (y) and M (x)N (y) respectively, then the equivalent equation
M (x)N (y)dx + M (x)N (y)dy = 0 Which can be transformed to: by means of separation of variables. The resulting equation can now be integrated to find the general solution, thus
Note: To separate the variables, divide the equation by the unnecessary factor(s) or multiply the equation by the reciprocal of the unwanted factor(s).
Example: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations. 1. 3x2y dx – x3dy = 0 2. cosx siny dx + sinx cosy dy = 0
ans:
x3 = yc
Recall: ans:
sinx siny = c
3. 2x(1-y2)dx – y(1+2x2)dy = 0
ans:
(1 + 2x2)(1 - y2) = c
4. (y2-1)dx – 2(2y + xy)dy = 0
ans:
(x + 2) = c (y2 – 1)
5. x siny dx + e-xdy = 0 Recall the following:
ans:
xex – ex + ln(cscy – coty) = c
1. Integration By Parts (IBP) 2. 6. 2y2 dx + (x2y – 2xy) dy = 0 ans: y = cx / (x -2) Recall: Integration By Partial Fraction (IPF) 7. y’ =
ans:
2ey =
Seatwork: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations 1. (xy2 + x) dx + (x2y – y) dy = 0
ans: (x2-1)(y2 + 1) = c
2. dx = t (1 + t2) sec2x dt
ans: 2x + sin2x = (1+ t2)2 + c
Homework: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations 1. y’ = y sec x (Board Problem)
ans: y = c(sec x + tan x)
2. xy’ (2y - 1) = y (x - 1) (Board Problem)
ans: x + 2y + c = ln (xy)
3. x (y - 1) dx + (x + 1) dy = 0; if y = 2 when x = 1, determine y when x = 2 (Board Problem) ans: y = 1.55 4. sin x sin y dx + cos x cos y dy = 0
ans: sin y = c cos x
5. sec 2x cos y dx + (cos 2x + cos 2x cot2 y) dy = 0 ans: tan 2x + 2 ln csc y - cot y = c ans: ln ( x2 + 1)/(y +1)4 – y2 + 2y = c
6. (xy + x) dx = (x2y2 + x2 + y2 + 1) dy 7. x (1-x2) dy = y dx
ans: y2 (1- x2) cx2
Review: Homogeneous Function
Lesson 5 Homogeneous Function
The function f(x,y) = 0 is called a homogeneous function of degree n if and only if f(kx,ky) = k f(x,y), of degree n.
Example: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then give the degree. 1. f(x,y) = 4x2 – 3xy + y2 2. f(x,y) = 2y + 3. f(x,y) = x sin (y/x) – y sin(x/y) 4. f(x,y) =
5. f(x,y) = x lnx – x lny 6. f(x,y) = x3 – xy + y3 7. f(x,y) = x lnx – y lny
Seatwork: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then give the degree: 1. f(x,y) = x + y - 2xy 2. f(x,y) = y tan Homework: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then give the degree: 1. f(x,y) = 2. f(x,y) = x + y + sinx + cosy
3. f(x,y) = x ey/x -
Lesson 6 Equations with Homogenous Coefficients Theorem:
If M(x,y) and N(x,y) are homogeneous and of the same degree then is homogeneous of degree zero. If M(x,y) and N(x,y) are homogeneous and of degree zero then the ratio
expressed as variable alone, say v.
a
function
can be of a single
Thus, the equation can be transformed to homogeneous type by replacing y = vx dy = v dx + x dv or x = vy dx = v dy + y dv If both M and N are homogeneous and are of the same degree, then the differential equation M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0 is homogeneous. Note: Change the variable whose differential has simpler coefficients. Example: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then find the general solution. 1.
+ y )dx + xydy = 0
2. xy dx + 2 (x2 + 2y2) dy = 0
3. ydx = (x + Recall:
) dy
ans: x2(x2 + 2y2) = c ans: (3x2 + 4y2)(y4) = c
ans:
4. x csx (y/x) – y dx + x dy = 0
ans: lnx – cos (y/x) = c
Recall: 5. (x - xy + y )dx – xydy = 0
ans: c(y - x) =
6. x dx + sin2(y/x) [ y dx – x dy] = 0
ans: lnx4 – 2(y/x) + sin2(y/x) = c
Recall: 7. x – y tan-1(y/x)dx + x tan-1(y/x) dy = 0 Recall: If we let u =
ans:
, then du =
Seatwork: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then find the general solution. 1. (x2 - y2) dx + 2xy dy = 0
ans: x2 + y2 = cx
Homework: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous then find the general solution. 1. xy(ydx +xdy) – 6y dy = 0 ; when y = 1 and x = 2 2.
- x dy = 0 (Board Problem) ans:
3.
ans: y2x2 – 3y4 = 1
+ y = c
Lesson 7 Exact Differential Equation
Specific Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: differentiate partially given functions of two variables test given equations for exactness solve equations using the four methods for exact equations
Consider the General Form of DE: M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 Suppose separation of variables does not hold, assume that there is a function F(x,y) such that M = respect to x. That is,
and N =
. Then differentiate M with respect to y and N with
but Therefore,
which is a necessary and sufficient condition to be an exact equation. Exact differential equations may be solved using any of the four methods:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Integrable Combination Partial Derivatives Line integral Alternative Solution
1. Integrable Combinations Integrable combinations consist of group of terms that forms an exact differential, thus it is readily integrable. It may be obtained by rearranging the terms in the given DE until a group of terms forms an integrable combination. Some of the integrable combinations are listed below: 1. xdy + ydx = d(xy) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. mxm – 1 yndx + nxm yn – 1dy = d(xmyn) 10. mxm – 1 yndx – nxm yn – 1dy/(yn)2 = Example 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0
ans: 6xy + 2x2 – 10x – y2 – 4y = c
2. (3x2y – 6x) dx + ( x3 + 2y) dy = 0
ans: x3y – 3x2 + y2 = c
3. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
ans: 4y2 + x3y – 3xy = c
4. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
ans: x4y3 + ln x/y = c
Seatwork 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1.
+3)dx + (3y
. ans:
2. 2 ans: Homework 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0 ans: x3y – 2x2y3 + 3x2 – y = c 2. (xy2 + x – 2y + 3) dx + x2y dy = 2(x+y)dy
when x = 1 and y = 1
ans: (xy – 2)2 + (x+3)2 = 2y2 + 15 3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0 ans: x2 + y2 + x - y + xy = c 4. (cos x cos y – cot x) dx + (– sinx sin y) dy = 0 ans: sin x cos y – ln sin x = c 5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0 ans: x4 - x2 y2 - 4xy + 6x = c 2. Partial Derivatives Consider the equation: M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
If
, then (1) is an exact equation. Therefore, its solution is F = c where
–––– (2) and
–––-– (3)
Determine F from (2) by integrating both sides with respect to x, treating y as constant where the usual arbitrary constant in indefinite integration is a function T(y) which is yet unknown. To determine T(y), obtain , equate it to (3) and integrate. This time, no arbitrary constant is needed in obtaining T(y) since one is being introduced on the right side in the solution F = c.
Example 7-2: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0
ans: 6xy + 2x2 – 10x – y2 – 4y = c
2. (3x2y – 6x) dx + ( x3 + 2y) dy = 0 3. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
ans: x3y – 3x2 + y2 = c ans: 4y2 + x3y – 3xy = c
4. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
ans: x4y3 + ln x/y = c
Seatwork 7-2: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0 2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0 Homework 7-2: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0 2. (xy2 + x – 2y + 3) dx + x2y dy = 2(x+y)dy when x = 1 and y = 1 3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0 4. (cos x cos y – cot x) dx + (– sinx sin y) dy = 0 5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0
3. Line Integrals
Consider
where a, b = arbitrary constants for which M and N are defined. If M and N are polynomial functions, set a = b = 0 since a polynomial function is always defined at the origin except when the functions become undefined. In this case, try substituting other values for a and b that will make the functions defined. Note: In the first integral, treat y as constant. In the second integral, replace x by the value of a. Applicable only when M and N are either polynomial functions or transcendental functions but never a combination of polynomial and transcendental functions.
Example 7-3: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0
ans: 6xy + 2x2 – 10x – y2 – 4y = c
2. (3x2y – 6x) dx + ( x3 + 2y) dy = 0 3. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
ans: x3y – 3x2 + y2 = c ans: 4y2 + x3y – 3xy = c
4. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
ans: x4y3 + ln x/y = c
Seatwork 7-3: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0 2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0 Homework 7-3: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0 2. (xy2 + x – 2y + 3) dx + x2y dy = 2(x+y)dy when x = 1 and y = 1 3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0 4. (cos x cos y – cot x) dx + (– sinx sin y) dy = 0 5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0
4. Alternative Solution Consider the equation: For
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0
M: integrate x and treat y as a constant N: set x = 0, then integrate y
Example 7-4: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0
ans: 6xy + 2x2 – 10x – y2 – 4y = c
2. (3x2y – 6x) dx + ( x3 + 2y) dy = 0
ans: x3y – 3x2 + y2 = c
3. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
ans: 4y2 + x3y – 3xy = c
4. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
ans: x4y3 + ln x/y = c
Seatwork 7-4: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0 2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0 Homework 7-4: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0 2. (xy2 + x – 2y + 3) dx + x2y dy = 2(x+y)dy
when x = 1 and y = 1
3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0 4. (cos x cos y – cot x) dx + (– sinx sin y) dy = 0 5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0
Lesson 8 Reducing to Linear Equation of Order One Non–Exact Differential Equations
Consider the General Form of DE M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
where
.
To transform (1) into an exact equation, multiply it by an integrating factor, (lambda). Non - Exact differential equations may be solved using any of the four methods: 1. Reducing it to Linear Equation of Order One 2. Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation 3. Integrating Factor by Inspection 4. Integrating Factor found by Formula (Partial Differentiation) 1. Reducing to Linear Equation of Order One Specific Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to : identify a first order linear differential equation find an integrating factor solve a linear equation of order one
If the given equation is not exact, reduce it to either form listed below and find an integrating factor, : Linear in y: dy + y P(x) dx = Q(x) dx G.S.: Linear in x: dx + x P(y) dy = S(y) dy
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (x5 + 3y) dx – x dy = 0
ans: 2y = x5 + cx3
2. dy = ( x- 2y cot 2x) dx
ans: 4ysin2x = c–2x cos2x+sin 2x
Recall: 3. 2y (y2 – x) dy = dx
ans:
4. e-y sec2y dy = dx + x dy
ans: xey = tan y + c
Recall: Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. dy +
= x2dx
ans: 4xy = x4 + c
2. yey dx = ( y3 + 2x ey) dy
ans: x + y2e-y = cy2
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x3 – y) dx + xdy = 0 2. (2y sin x – cos3 x) dx + cos xdy = 0 3. (3x2 + y + 3x3y) dx + xdy = 0
ans: x3 + y = cx ans: y sec2 x = x + c ans: ex (xy + 1) = c
Lesson 9 Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation Non–Exact Differential Equations 2. Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation Specific Objectives At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to : transform a particular equation into a Bernoulli’s form identify a Bernoulli’s Equation solve a Bernoulli’s Equation The standard form of the Bernoulli Equation takes a form similar to that of the linear differential equation of the first order. The main difference is on the factor yn and or xn contained at the right side of the Bernoulli equation: Standard Forms: dy + y P(x) dx = yn Q(x) dx ––––––– (1) dx + x P(y) dy = xn S(y) dy ––––––– (2) Consider (1) and multiply by y–n: y–n dy + y1–n P(x) dx = Q(x) dx ––––––– (1’) let u = y1–n
du = (1–n)y–n dy
Substitute in (1’):
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. dy + ydx = 2xy2ex dx
2. y +
ans: 1/yex = - x2 + c
ans: y = x2 y sin y + x2 cos
cx2 3.
ans: (x2/y2)= (-4/9) x3 - (2/3) x3 ln x + c
4. (3x2y2 – 3x2) dx + x3ydy – (y2 – 1) 3/2 dy = 0 ans: 3x3 (y2 - 1)1/2 = y3 - 3y + c Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. 2xyy’ = 4x2 + 3y2
ans. y2 = -4x2 + Cx3
2. xydx + (x2 – 3y)dy = 0
ans. x2y2 = 2y3 + C
3. 2yxdx + x(x2lny – 1)dy = 0
ans. y (1 + x2-x2lny) = cx2
4. 6y2dx – x(2x3 + y)dy = 0 5. dy/dx = y(xy3 – 1)
ans. y = x3(2 + Cy1/2) ans. 3 = xy3 + y3 + Ce3xy3
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. x dy/dx + y = 1/y2 2. t 2dy/dt + y2 = ty 3. 2x3y’ = y(y2 + 3x2)
ans. y3 = 1 + cx-3 ans. et/y – ct ans. y2(c – x) = x3
4. y’tanx sin2y = sin2x + cos2y
ans. (sin2x+ 3cos2y)sinx=c
5. (y4 –2xy)dx + 3x2dy = 0 , when x =2, y = 1
ans. x2 = y3(x + 2)
Lesson 10 Integrating Factor Found by Inspection Non–Exact Differential Equations
3. Integrating Factor Found by Inspection Specific Objectives At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to : identify the appropriate exact differentials in the equation use the exact differentials in solving the given equation solve a given differential equation observing the method
The achievement of a learner in finding the integrating factors by inspection depends largely upon his familiarity and creativity, but he might do well to keep in his mind the differentials of common functions, namely: 1. xdy + ydx = d(xy)
2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. mxm – 1 yndx + nxm yn – 1dy = d (xmyn) 10. mxm – 1 yndx – nxm yn – 1dy/(yn )2 =
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. 2xydx + (y2 – x2) dy = 0 2. 3x2y dx + (y4 – x3) dy = 0 3. ydx + (x + x3y2) dy = 0 4 y(x2 + y) dx + x(x2 – 2y) dy = 0
ans: x2 + y2 = cy ans: 3x3 + y4 = cy ans: -1/2(xy)2 + ln y = c ans: x2 y – y2 = cx
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. (x2 + y2 – y) dx + xdy = 0 2. y(2xy + 1) dx – xdy = 0
ans: ans: x2y + x = cy
3. y(x3 – y) dx – x(x3 + y) dy = 0
ans: x3 + 2y = cxy2
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (x2y2 + 1)dx + x4y2dy = 0
ans. lnx3 + x3y3 = C
2. y(x3+x5)dx – x(x3+ y5)dy = 0
ans. x4 – 4xy5 = Cy4
3. x4y’ = -x3y – csc(xy)
ans. 2x2cos(xy) – 1 = Cx2
4
y(x3exy – y)dx + x(y + x3exy)dy = 0
ans. x3yexy + y2 = Cx
5. y(y2 + 1) + x(y2 + 1)y’ = 0, when x = 2 , y = -1
ans. xy2 + x = -4y
Lesson 11 Integrating Factor Found by Formula (Partial Differentiation) Non–Exact Differential Equations
4. Integrating Factor found by Formula (Partial Differentiation) Specific Objectives At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to : identify the integrating factor using partial differentiation; solve the a particular differential equation using correct integrating factor solve a given differential equation observing the method Consider the General Form of DE M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
where
.
1.
2.
3.
If the given equation is a homogeneous equation, then provided that xM + yN 0.
4.
If the given equation can be transformed into the form y f(x,y) dx + x g(x,y) dy = 0, then provided that xM – yN 0.
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (x2 + y2 + x) dx + xydy = 0
ans: 3x4 + 6 x2 y2 + 4x3 = c
2. (x2 – y2) dx + xydy = 0
ans: 2x2 ln x + y2 = cx2
3. (xy2 + y) dx + (x2y – x) dy = 0
ans: xy + ln (x/y) = c
4. (2xy4ey + 2xy3 + y) dx + (x2y4ey – x2y2 – 3x) dy = 0 ans: x2 y3 ey + x2 y2 + x = cy3
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. y (4x + y) dx – 2(x2 – y)dy = 0 2. y(y + 2x – 2)dx – 2(x + y)dy = 0 3. (x2 + y2 + 1) + x(x – 2y)y’ = 0
ans. 2x2 + xy + 2ylnIyI = cy ans. x(2x + y) = cex ans. x2 – y2 + xy – 1= cx
Homework. Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. y(8x – 9y)dx + 2x(x – 3y)dy = 0 2. (2y2+3xy–2y +6x)dx + x(x +2y –1)dy = 0
ans. X3y (2x – 3y) = c ans. x2(y2 + xy –y + 2x) = c
More Exercises: Find the integrating factor of the following equations. 1. 2y(x2 – y + x )dx + (x2 – 2y)dy = 0
ans. e2x
2. y2dx + (3xy + y2 – 1)dy = 0
ans. y
3. y(2x – y + 1)dx + x(3x – 4y + 3)dy = 0
ans. y2
Lesson 12 Substitution Suggested by the Equation (Miscellaneous Substitution) Non–Exact Differential Equations
In this topic, a new variable is introduced to simplify the form of the given equation and the choice depends on the form of the given equation. Usually, we replace the repeated quantity or the transcendental function by a new variable.
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. dx – (x + y)2dy = 0
2.
ans: tan –1 (x + y) – y = c
ans: sin (y – x) = cx
ans: xy2 – x2 = c
3. 4. (x2 + y2)(xdy + ydx) – xy(xdx + ydy) = 0
ans: x2y2 = c (x2 + y2)
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
Lesson 13 Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
Consider the equation: (a1x + b1y + c1) dx + (a2x + b2y + c2) dy = 0 –––––––– (1)
1. If c1 = c2 = 0, then (1) is a Homogeneous DE 2. If c1 and c2 are not both zero, then two cases arise, namely:
Case I:
(intersecting lines)
To reduce (1) to a homogeneous DE, use the substitution
x = u + h, dx = du and y = v + k, dy = dv –––––––– (2) where h, k are the coordinates of the intersection point. – find h, k using the equations a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 and a2h + b2k + c2 = 0 – substitute h,k in (2) and in turn can be substituted in (1), making it a homogeneous DE Substitute v = uz, dv = u dz + z du
Case II.
(parallel lines)
Use the substitution: a1x + b1y = u a2x + b2y = u
hence a1 dx + b1 dy = du hence a2 dx + b2 dy = du
or
which ever of the two has smaller coefficients and the resulting DE variable separable.
becomes
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (x + y – 1)dx + (2x + 2y + 1)dy = 0
ans: x + 2y – 3ln ( x+ y+2) = c
2. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0
ans: 2x2 - 10x + 6xy – 4y – y2 = c
3. (6x – 3y + 2) dx – (2x – y – 1) dy = 0
ans: 3x – y – 5 ln (2x – y + 4) = c
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 1) dx – 4 (x + 1) dy = 0
ans: (2x – y + 3)4 = c (x + 1)3
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (2x + 3y – 1) dx + (2x + 3y + 2) dy = 0
ans: x + y + 3 ln (2x + 3y – 7) = c
2. (x + 2y – 4) dx – (2x + y – 5) dy = 0
ans: (x – y – 1)3 = c (x + y – 3)
Lesson 14 Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
Specific Objectives At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to: translate the rate of change into mathematical symbols, apply the appropriate technique in solving a particular rate equation, use the concept of slopes to solve a geometric applications, 1. Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories
Two families of curves such that every member of either family cuts each member of the other family at right angles are called orthogonal trajectories.
where
= slope of the original family of curves
= slope of the other family of curves
Example: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves ans: y = ce –x
1. y2 = 2x + c (Board Problem) 2. y = cx2 3. x2 + y2 = cx 4. y2 = 4cx
ans: ans: x2 + y2 = cy ans:
Seatwork: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves 1. x – 3y = C.
ans. y + 3x = C
2. Circles through the origin with centers on the x – axis. Homework: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves 1. y ( x2 + k ) + 2 = 0 2. x = C exp (-y2)
ans. y3 = -6 ln |cx | ans. y = C1 exp (x2)
3. Ellipses with centers at (0,0) and two vertices at (1,0) and (-1,0). ans. x2 + y2 = 2 ln |cx| 4. y = k ( csc x + cot x)
ans.
y2 = 2 (C – cos x )
Lesson 15 Law of Growth and Decay Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
2. Law of Growth and Decay The rate of growth/decay of a certain population is directly proportional to the amount present.
–––– (1)
where = rate of growth/decay of a certain population k = constant of proportionality x = number of population present t = time By separating the variables in (1), it yields to
Integrating both sides, we have
Example: 1. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount at any instant. In 100 years, 100 mg of radium decompose to 96 mg. How many mg will be left after 200 years? (Board Problem) ans: 92.13 mg 2. Initially, there are 250 bacteria and after seven hours, 800 bacteria are observed in the culture. Find: a) the approximate number of bacteria that will be present in the culture after 24 hours b) the time it will take the bacteria to increase to 2500. ans:
a) x = 13,433 bacteria b) t = 13.9 hrs. 3. If the population of the country doubles in 50 years, how many years it would triple? ans: 79.2 yrs. Seatwork: 1. Initially, there is 50 mg of a certain radioactive material present and after 2 hours, it is observed that the material has lost 10 % of its original mass. Find: a) the mass of the material after 4 hours b) the time at which the mass has decayed to one–half of its initial mass (half–life of the material) ans:
Homework:
a) x = 40.45 mg b) t = 13.10 hrs.
1. The population of a city doubles in 50 years. How many years will it be four times as much? Assume that the rate of change is proportional to the number of inhabitants. ans. 120 years 2. A certain substance decomposes at a rate proportional to the to the amount present. If one-third of it disappears after 1000 days, what is the percentage lost in 100 days? ans. 3.97% 3. Thirty percent of a radioactive substance disappears in 15 years. Find the half – life of the substance. ans. 29.12 years 4. Sugar decomposes in water at a rate proportional to the amount still unchanged. If there were 50 lb of sugar present initially and at the end of 5 hours this is reduced to 20 lb, how long will it take until 90% of the sugar is decomposed? 5. Water leaks from a cylinder at a rate proportional to the square root of the volume remaining at any time. If initially there are 64 gallons present and 15 gallons leak out on the first day, how much will be left after 4 days? When will there be 25 gallons? ans. 16 gal; 3 days
Lesson 16 Newton’s Law of Cooling Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
3. Newton’s Law of Cooling Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the time rate of change of the temperature of the body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surrounding medium.
––––- (1)
where
= time rate of change of the temperature of the body T = temperature of the body Tm = temperature of the medium k = constant of proportionality t = time By separating the variables in (1), it yields to
Integrating both sides, we have
Example: Solve the following 1. A body at a temperature of 50F is placed in an oven whose temperature is kept at 150 F. If after 10 minutes the temperature of the body is 75F, find the time required the body to reach a temperature of 100F ans: t = 24.10 mins. 2. A body with a temperature of 100C is immersed in a liquid that is kept at a constant temperature of 20C. After 15 minutes, the temperature of the body decreased to 60C. a) Find the time it will take for the temperature of the body to decrease to 40C. b) What will be the temperature of the body after 40 minutes? ans:
a) t = 30 mins. b) T = 32.6C
Seatwork: Solve the following: 1. If a thermometer is taken from a room in which the temperature is 75ºC into the open, where the temperature is 35ºC, and the thermometer reading is 65ºC after 30 sec, a) How long after the removal will the reading be 50ºC? b) What will be the thermometer reading 3 minutes after the removal? ans. a) 102 sec
b) 42.1°C Homework: Solve the following 1. At 1:00 pm, a thermometer reading 70º F is taken outside where the air temperature is - 10º F. At 1:02 pm, the reading is 26º F. at 1:05 pm, the thermometer is taken back indoors where the air is at 70º F. What is the thermometer reading at 1:09 pm? ans. 56° F 2. A body at a temperature of 50º F is placed in an oven whose temperature is kept at 150º F. If after 10 minutes the temperature of the body is 75º F, find the time required for the body to attain a temperature that is within a half degree of the oven temperature. ans. 184.16 min
Lesson 17 Continuous Compound Interest Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
4. Continuous Compound Interest
αP
Rate Equation: Let
or
= rP
P = amount of money at any time r = annual rate of interest t = time
By separating the variables, it yields to
Integrating both sides, we have
Example: Solve the following: 1. An annual interest of 4% is given on an account . What is the accumulated amount of Php 100,000 after 5 years? ans. Php 122,140.27 2. If Php 50,000 is borrowed at an interest of 12% per year compounded continuously, and the loan is to be repaid in one payment at the end of 2 years, how much must the borrower repay? ans. Php 63,562.05
Seatwork: Solve the following 1. If an amount of money doubles itself in 10 years at an interest compounded continuously, how long will it take for the original amount to triple itself? ans. 15.85 years
Lesson 18 Mixture Problem Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
5. Mixture Problem The mixing of two salt solutions of differing concentrations gives rise to a first– order differential equation for the amount of salt contained in the mixture. If x(t) denotes the amount of salt in the tank at time t, then the rate at which x(t) changes is a net rate:
Let
where and x = amount of substance present at any time qi = volumetric flow rate of the solution coming in
out
qo = volumetric flow rate of the solution going ci = concentration of the solution coming in co = concentration of the solution going out t = time = rate of change
Example: Solve the following 1. A tank initially contains 100 gal. of salt solution, where 50 lbs. of salt is added. Salt solution containing 1 lb/gal of salt goes into the tank at the rate of 2 gal/min and the solution thoroughly mixed goes out at the rate of 1 gal/min. Find the amount of pure salt after 100 minutes. ans: x = 175 lbs. 2. Find the amount of pure salt after 100 minutes described in the previous problem if the solution thoroughly mixed out goes at the rate of 2 gal/min. ans: x = 92.93 lbs. Seatwork: Solve the following 1. A tank initially contains 50 gal. of fresh water. Brine (water in which a certain number of pounds of salt have been dissolved), containing 2 lb/gal of salt, flows into the tank at the rate of 2 gal/min and the mixture kept uniform by stirring runs out at the same rate. How long will it take to increase from 40 lbs. to 80 lbs.? ans: t = 27’ 28” Homework: Solve the following 1. A tank contains 100 liters of fresh water and brine containing 2 kg of salt per liter, flows into the tank at the rate of 3 liters per min and the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, flows out at the same rate. How many kg of salt are there in the tank at the end of 30 minutes. ans. 118.7kg 2. Into a 100 - gal tank initially filled with brine containing 50 lb of salt flow 3 gal/min of brine containing 2 lb/gal of salt and the solution, kept uniform by stirring, flows out at the rate of 2 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank at the end of 100 minutes? ans. 350 lb 3. A sewage disposal plant has a big holding tank of 100,000-gal capacity. It is ¾ filled with liquid to start with and contains 60,000 lb of organic material in suspension. Fresh water runs into the tank at the rate of 20,000 gal/hr and the wellstirred mixture leaves at the rate of 15,000 gal/hr. How much organic material is in the tank at the end of 3 hours? ans. 34,722.2 lbs 4. A tank initially holds 80 gal of brine containing 1/8 lb of salt per gallon. Another brine solution, containing 1 lb/gal of salt, is poured into the tank at the rate of 4
gal/min and the well-stirred mixture leaves at the rate of 8 gal/min. Find the amount of salt in the tank a) at any time, b) after 3 minutes and c) the time when the tank will hold 40 gallons of solution.
Lesson 19 Simple Electric Circuits Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations
6. Simple Electric Circuits Only simple electric circuits containing a resistor and an inductor or a capacitor in series with an electromotive force is considered in this section. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law will be used to solve the problems. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in a simple closed electric circuit is zero.
Figure:
L
R
Let
t (seconds) = Q (coulombs) = i (amperes) = E (volts) = R (ohms) = L (henrys) = C (farads) =
time quantity of electricity; e.g. charge on a capacitor current, time rate of flow of electricity electromotive force or voltage resistance inductance capacitance
Thus, 1. If the circuit contains resistance and inductance only (R-L circuit), the differential equation will be
L
+ Ri = E
2. If the circuit contains resistance and capacitance (R–C circuit), the differential equation will be
R
+
Q=E
Example: Solve the following: 1. A resistance and inductance are connected in series in a circuit containing an impressed voltage of 100 V. If R = 10 ohms, L = 2 henries and i = 0 when t = 0, find i when t = .02second. ans. 0.95 amp 2. A resistance of 3 ohms and an inductance of 2 henries are connected in series with an electromotive force of 8e-.0001t volts. When will the current be 0.8 amperes if no current flows initially? ans. 0.237 sec
Seatwork: Solve the following
1. An inductance of 2 henries and a variable resistance r = ohms are connected in series with a constant emf of E volts. Ifi = 0 when t =0 and i = 50 amp when t = 5 seconds, find the emf , E . ans. 28.42 V
Homework: Solve the following 1. When a simple electric circuit, containing no condensers but having inductance and resistance, has the electromotive force removed, the rate of decrease of the current is proportional to the current. The current is i amperes t seconds after the cut-off,and i = 40 amperes when t = 0. If the current dies down to 15 amperes in 0.01 sec, find i in terms of time, t . ans. I =
Lesson 20 Newton’s Second Law of Motion Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree Ordinary Differential Equations 7. Newton’s Second Law of Motion The unbalanced force acting on the body is proportional to the product of the mass and its acceleration and is in the direction of the acceleration.
P f w Let F be the unbalanced force
F ma or F = kma where k = 1 based on experiment but F = P – f , m = w/g and a = dv/dt hence P – f = w/g ( dv/dt) Where:
F = force m = mass v = velocity a = acceleration t = time g = acceleration due to gravity 32 ft/ sec2 or 9.8
Example: Solve the Following 1. A wagon weighing 256 lbs is pulled by a constant force of 80 lbs along a smooth road. Friction between the wagon and the smooth road is negligible but there is a wind resistance equivalent to twice the instantaneous velocity of the wagon expressed in lbs. If the wagon starts from rest, find: a. Velocity of the wagon after 4 sec b. The distance traveled by the wagon after 4 sec. c. The limiting velocity (t = ∞ ) 2. A body weighing 1960 N is pulled by a constant force of 492 N along a horizontal plane where the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.20. There is a wind resistance equal to twice the instantaneous velocity. Determine the velocity after 20 seconds. ans. 9.06 m/sec
Seatwork: Solve the following 1. A body falls from rest against a resistance that varies directly as the velocity. If the limiting speed or terminal velocity is 160 ft/sec, find the speed after 5 seconds. Assume g = 32 . ans. 101. 14 ft/sec
Homework: Solve the following
1. A weight, W lb, slides down an inclined plane that makes an angle with the horizontal. Assume that no force other than gravity is acting on the body, that is, there is no friction, no air resistance etc. At time t = 0, let the distance traveled x be x0 and let the initial velocity be v0. Determine x for t 0. ans. x =
Lesson 21 Higher–Order, First Degree Differential Equations (Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients)
Standard Form:
where a0, a1, a2. . . an–1 are constants and R(x) is a function of x.
Preliminary Theory 1. Initial–Value and Boundary Value Problems For a linear differential equation, an nth–order initial–value problem is
Solve: Subject to: Another type of problem in which the dependent variable y or its derivatives are specified at different points is called a boundary–value problem.
Solve: Subject to: The prescribed values
and
are called boundary conditions.
2. Homogeneous Equations Standard Form:
––– (1) where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an – 1 are constants and R(x) = 0 (1) is a homogeneous linear differential equation since the degree of the derivatives of each term is of first degree. 3. Non–Homogeneous Equations Standard Form:
where a0, a1, a2. . . an–1 are constants and R(x) is a function of x.
4. Differential Operators, D–Operators D–Operator
An operator is a symbol indicating an operation to be performed. For D– operator, it means taking the derivative of a function with respect to x. Thus,
Algebraic Properties of D–Operator 1. Commutative with respect to Addition/Multiplication
2. Associative with respect to Addition/ Multiplication
3. Distributive with respect to Addition
4. where Q(D) is a polynomial in D
Example: Perform the indicated operations: 1. (D – 2) x3
ans: x2 (3 – 2x)
2. (D + 1)2 xe –x
ans: 0
3. (D2 – 36) sin 2x 4. D8 (D – m) emx
ans: –40sin 2x ans: 0
Seatwork: Perform the indicated operations:
1. D2(2x3) 2. (D2 – 4D + 3)(3x2 + 2 cosx)
ans: 12x ans: 9x2 – 24x + 6 + 8sinx + 4 cos x
Homework: Perform the indicated operations: 1. D(x lnx) 2. D(x2 + sin 4x – lnx) 3. (2D2 – 3D + 5)(x cosx – 3) 4. (D3 + 2D – 4) (e-xsinx + e2x)
ans: 1 + lnx ans: 2x + 4 cos 4x – 1/x ans: 3xsinx + 3xcosx –4sinx –3cosx - 15 ans: 4e-x(cosx - sinx) + 8e2x
Lesson 22 Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficient
To find its general solution, y = yc + yp where the complementary solution, yc, may be determined from the roots of the auxiliary solution, f(m) = 0 and the particular solution, yp, is zero since R(x) = 0. Therefore y = yc
Recall:
Using D–operators,
Standard Form: ––––––– (1) Suppose y = emx is a particular solution of (1). Substitute it in (1),
Recall:
For emx to be a particular solution of (1), it is necessary and sufficient that f (m) = 0. This relation is called the characteristic or auxiliary equation of (1). The roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0. Determine the general solution of (1) as follows: 1. The Auxiliary Equation with Real Roots 1.1 Distinct Roots Suppose the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, has m 1, m2, and m3 as its roots, then em1x, em2x and em3 x are the particular solution of (1) and the general solution is given by:
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 2D – 3) y = 0 2. (D2 + 5D + 4) y = 0 Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation
1. (D3 – 7D + 6) y = 0
2x
ans: y = C1ex + C2e2x + C3e-3x
2. (D5 – 9D4 + 13D3 + 57D2 – 86D – 120) y = 0 ans: y = C1e-x + C2e+ C3e3x + C4e4x + C5e5x
1.2 Repeated Roots Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m1 (taken twice as a root) and m2 (taken 4 times as a root) so that each term could be linearly independent, then the general solution is given by:
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 4D + 4) y = 0 2. (D3 + 3D2 + 3D + 1) y = 0 Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation 1. (D3 – 4D2 + 4D) y = 0
ans: y = C1 + (C2 + C3x) e2x
2. (D4 – 6D3 – 24D2 + 224D – 384) y = 0 ans: y = C1e-6x + (C2 + C3x + C4x2) e4x 2. The Auxiliary Equation with Complex/Imaginary Roots 2.1 Distinct Roots Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m 1 = a + bi and m2 = a – bi, then the general solution is given by:
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 6D + 13) y = 0 2. (D2 + 4D + 5) y = 0 Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation 1. (D4 + 10D2 + 16) y = 0
ans: y=(C1cos 22 x + C2sin 22 x)+(C3cos2 x +C4sin 2 x) 2.2 Repeated Roots Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m1 = a + bi (taken twice as a root) and m2 = a – bi (taken twice as a root), then the general solution is given by:
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 2D + 5)2 y = 0 2. (D4 + 18D2 + 81) y = 0 Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation 1. (D4 – 4D3 + 8D2 – 8D + 4) y = 0 ans: y = [(C1 + C2x) cos x + (C3 + C4x) sinx] ex 2. (D6 + 3D4 + 3D2 + 1) y = 0 ans: y = [(C1 + C2x + C3x2) cos x + (C4 + C5x + C6x2) sin x]
Lesson 23 The Method of Undetermined Coefficients Non–Homogeneous Equations
Methods to be used in solving non-homogeneous equations: 1. The Method of Undetermined Coefficients 2. Variation of Parameters 3. Inverse Operators 4. By Inspection
Standard Form:
To find its general solution, y = yc + yp. The complementary solution, yc, may be determined from the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, and the particular solution, yp, may be determined by:
1. The Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Step 1. its
Consider the right hand side of the equation, R(x) and determine roots.
Case 1. auxiliary
If there is no repetition of roots between the equation and R(x) such that
when R(x) is a a. constant like 2, 3, etc.
then yP is A
b. linear function like 3x, 2x + 5, etc.
Ax + B
c. quadratic function like x2, x2 – 3x, etc.
Ax2 + Bx + C
d. xn
Axn + Bxn – 1 +...+ Dx + F
e. eax
Aeax
f. sin ax, cos ax, sin ax + cos ax
Case 2. equation the under repetition of
A sin ax + B cos ax
If there is a repetition of roots between the auxiliary and R(x), follow the principles discussed in homogeneous linear differential equation roots.
Step 2.
Differentiate yP according to the order of the given equation.
Step 3. the
Substitute these equations in the given equation. Solve for literal constants by comparing/collecting their coefficients.
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – D – 2) y = 5
2. (D2 + 4) y = 4x + 3 3. (D2 + 2D + 2) y = 2x2 + 3x + 8 4. (D2 + 4D + 4) y = 2e2x 5. (D2 + 9) y = 10 sin 2x + 5 cos 2x
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 3D + 2) y = 2x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 3
ans.
2. (D2 – 9) y = x + e2x – sin 2x
ans.
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 2D – 3) y = x3 + sin x ans. 2. (D2 – 2D) y = ex sin x ans: 3. (D2 – 4D + 4) y = x3e2x + 2xe2x
ans.
4. (D2 – 9) y = 2x + 3e2x – sin x 5. (D2 + 1) y = –2 sin x + 4x cos x
Lesson 24 Variation of Parameters Non-Homogeneous Equations
Step 1. Change the constants in the yC to a function of the independent variable (parameters), say A, B, etc. where A, B are functions of x. Step 2. Differentiate yP according to the order of the given equation setting the sum of all functions of the derivatives of the independent variable to zero and the last nth derivative of the independent variable to R(x).
Step 3.
By solving simultaneously these equations, find the parameters.
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – D – 2) y = 5 2. (D2 – 1) y = ex + 1
x) -
3. (D3 + D) y = csc x ans: y = C1 + C2cos x + C3sinx + ln (csc x - cot cosx ln (sin x) - x sinx
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 6D + 9) y = ans: y = C1 + C2 cos x + C3 sin x + ln (csc x – cot x) – cos x ln (sin x) – x sin x Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 -4)y = 4x – 3ex
ans: y = ex – x + c1e2x + c2e-2x
2. (D3 – 2D2 + d)y = x
ans: x2/2 + 2x + 3 + c1xex + c2ex + c3
Lesson 25 R(x) is an Exponential Function Inverse Operator
Consider the equation, F(D) yP = R(x) ––––––– (1)
Applying the inverse operator
in (1),
yP =
R(x)
Note: yP depends on the type of function represented by R(x). R(x) may be: 1. Exponential Function 2. Trigonometric Function 3. Polynomial Function 4. Composite Function 4.1 Exponential Shift 4.2 X Shift
Properties of Inverse Operators:
Let
and
be inverse operators.
1.
=
2.
=
3.
1. R(x) is an Exponential Function 1. Given: F(D) yP = eax
Such that F(a) 0 2. Given: (D – a)m y = eax
Such that F(a) = 0
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – D – 2) yp = 5
ans: yp = -5/2
2. (D2 + 4D + 4) yp = 2e2x
ans: yp = 1/8 (e2x)
Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D3 – 2D2 – 5D + 6) yp = (e2x + 3)2 ans: yp = 1/18 (e4x) – 3/2 (e2x) + 3/2 2. (D3 – 5D2 + 8D – 4) yp = e2x + 2ex + 3e–x ans: yp = x2/2 (e2x) + 2xex – 1/6 (e-x)
Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 2D – 3) yp = e-2x + ex + 6 2. (D2 + 2D + 1) yp = 2 sinh 2x 3. (D2 – D – 2) yp = e2x + e-x
Lesson 26 R(x) is a Trigonometric Function Inverse Operator
2. R(x) is a Trigonometric Function 2.1 Given: F(D2) yP = sin ax or F(D2) yP = cos ax
a. b. Such that F(–a2) 0 2.2 Given: (D2 + a2) y = sin ax or (D2 + a2) y = cos ax
a.
b.
Such that F(–a2) = 0
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 9) yp = 10 sin2x + 5 cos 2x ans: yp = 2sin2x + 5 cos2x 2. (D2 + 3D – 4) yp = sin 2x
ans: yp = -1/50(3cos2x + 4sin2x)
3. (D2 + 4) yp = cos 2x + cos 4x
ans: yp =¼(x sin2x) – 1/12(cos4x)
Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (D2 + 4) yp = sin 3x 2. (D4 + 10D2 + 9) yp = cos (2x + 3)
ans: yP = ans: yP =
Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 16) yp = sin 2x + cos 2x 2. (D2 + 9) yp = 2 sin2x 3. (D – 6) yp = sin 2x
ans: yp = 1/12(sin2x) + 1/7(cos3x) ans: yp = 1/9 – 1/5(cos2x) ans: yp = -1/20(cos2x) -3/20(sin2x)
4. (D2 + D – 2) yp = sin 2x
Lesson 27 R(x) is a Polynomial Function Inverse Operator
3. R(x) is a Polynomial Function Given:
F(D) yP = xn
ans: yp = -1/20(cos2x + 3sin2x)
Note: is obtained by expanding in ascending powers of D m m n and suppressing all terms beyond D since D (x ) = 0 when m n.
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 4) yp = 4x + 3 2. (D2 + 2D + 2) yp = 2x2 + 3x + 8
ans: yp = x + 3/4 ans: yp = x2 – ½(x) + 3/2
Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (2D2 + 2D + 3) yp = x2 + 2x – 1
ans:
2. (D3 – 4D2 + 3D) yp = x2
ans:
Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 1) yp = x6
ans: yp = x6 - 30x4 + 360 x2 - 720
2. (D2 + D – 2) yp = x2
ans: yp = - ½ ( x2 + x + 3/2)
Lesson 28 R(x) is a Composite Function Inverse Operator
4. R(x) is a Composite Function
4.1 Given:
Using “exponential shift”
4.2 Given: Using “x–shift”
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 - 2D) yp = ex sin x
ans: yp = -1/2 (exsinx)
2. (D2 + 2D + 4) yp = ex sin 2x
ans: yp = -1/73(ex)(8cos2x - 3sin2x)
3. (D2 + 3D + 2) yp = x sin 2x
ans: yp1 = -1/20(x) (3cos2x + sin2x) yp2 = -1/200(24sin2x + 7cos2x)
Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 4) yp = x2e3x ans: 2. (D3 – 3D2 – 6D + 8) y = xe–3x ans:
Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (D – 2)2 yp = x e2x
ans: yp = 1/6 (x3e2x)
2. (D2 – 4D + 13) yp = e2x sinx
ans: yp = 1/8 (e2x sinx)
3. (D2 + 9) yp = x sin 2x
ans: yp = 1/25(5xsin2x – 4cos2x)
4. (D + 1) yp = x cosx
ans: yp = x/2(sinx + cosx) – ½(sinx)
Lesson 29 By Inspection It is easy to obtain a particular solution of a non–homogeneous linear differential equation by inspection if R(x) is a constant, R0.
Standard Form:
Case I.
Case II. Where:
R0 = constant found on the right side of the equation an = constant term an–k = coefficient of the lowest–ordered derivative k = lowest–ordered derivative
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 + 4) yp = 12 2. (D2 – D – 2) yp = 5 3. (D5 – 9D3) yp = 81 Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 2D + 8) yp = 16 2. (D3 + D2 – 2D) yp = 20 Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation. 1. (D2 – 9D - 3) yp = 27 2. (D4 – 2D3 - 5D2 + 6D) yp = 15
Lesson 30 The Laplace Transform
Let f(t) be a function of t defined for each positive values of t. Then the Laplace transform of f(t), donated by
, is defined by
––––––– (1) provided that the integral exists. s is a parameter, which may be a real or complex number.
being clearly a function of s is briefly written as F(s). That is,
where
or
– Laplace Transform of f(t).
Transforms of Elementary Functions The Laplace transforms of some exponential, trigonometric, polynomials and hyperbolic functions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Properties of Laplace Transforms 1. Linearity Property If a, b, c be any constants and f, g, h be any functions of t, then
2. First Shifting Property If
, then
Application of this property leads us to the following useful results:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. where in each case, s a. Example: Find the Laplace transform of the following: 1. f(t) = 2e2t – 3 sin 3t + 7 cos 3t + 5t3 2. f(t) = t3 e–3t 3. f(t) = e–2t sin 4t Seatwork: Find the Laplace transform of the following:
1. f(t) = e–3t(2 cos 5t – 3 sin 5t)
ans:
2. f(t) = sin 2t sin 3t
ans:
Homework: Find the Laplace transform of the following: 1. f(t) = te–4t sin 3t 2. f(t) = 2t2 + sint + 2e3t
Lesson 31 Inverse Laplace Transforms
If
represents the Laplace transform of a function
, that is,
then
, that is,
is the inverse Laplace transform of
.
Table of Inverse Laplace Transform 1.
2. 3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10.
11.
12. When evaluating inverse transforms, it often happens that a function of s under consideration does not match exactly the form of a Laplace transform
given in a
table. It may be necessary to “fix up” the function of s by multiplying and dividing by an appropriate constant. Linearity Property:
is a Linear Transform, that is, for constants
:
Partial fractions play an important role in finding Laplace transforms when the denominator of f(s) is factorable into distinct linear factors.
Example: Evaluate the following
1.
ans:
2.
ans:
3.
ans:
4.
Seatwork: Evaluate the following:
1.
Homework: Evaluate the following
1.
2.
ans:
References: Asin, Ricardo C. , Differential Equations, A Handy Reference Book for College, TruCopy Publishing House, Inc. 1997 Bautista, Lincoln et.al. Differential Equations. Philippines, 1999. De La Fuente, Ruben A. et al, Elementary Differential Equations, Reference Text, Merriam and Webster Bookstore, Inc, Manila, Philippines, 1999 Mateo, Rolando A. et al. Differential Equations, MRTTC Rainville, Earl D. and Bedient, Phillip E. Elementary Differential Equations. Macmillan Publishing Company. 8th ed. Richard Bronson, Ph.D., Schaum’s Solved Problems Series, Differential Equations, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, USA Zill, Dennis G; A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications; Brooks/Cole. 7th ed., 2000.