• Author / Uploaded
• Arimoshikatoka Sorana

Citation preview

UNIVERSITATEA GEORGE BACOVIA DIN BACĂU

CURS DE LIMBA ENGLEZĂ Lect. univ. drd. Nicoleta BOTEZ

AN UNIVERSITAR 2012/2013

3

4

CONTENTS UNIT I .................................................................................... 9 Vocabulary Practice I ....................................................... 11 Vocabulary Practice II ..................................................... 13 Groups of words expressing time: ................................... 15 Exercises .......................................................................... 16 Numbers ........................................................................... 21 The use of some prepositions. .......................................... 27 Accounting (2) ................................................................. 31 Focus on grammar. The Use of Articles in English ......... 32 UNIT II Market economy and the business cycle ............... 47 Vocabulary Practice ......................................................... 48 Collocations: .................................................................... 49 UNIT III Parts of a Company .............................................. 58 Vocabulary practice ......................................................... 59 UNIT IV Types of companies and company structure ........ 65 Vocabulary practice ......................................................... 67 Abbreviations ................................................................... 70 Focus on grammar. The Noun ......................................... 76 Quantifiers........................................................................ 82 UNIT V Work and jobs........................................................ 88 Vocabulary practice: ........................................................ 88 Focus on grammar. Present simple and present .............. 91 continuous tense ............................................................... 91 Present continuous tense .................................................. 92 UNIT VI The Manager’s Role ............................................. 97 Vocabulary practice ......................................................... 98 Focus on grammar (I). The past simple tense .................. 98 The past simple tense ................................................... 98 Focus on grammar (III). The present perfect continuous .................................................................................... 102 5

tense ........................................................................... 102 Focus on grammar (IV).Present perfect simple ......... 104 or continuous tense .................................................... 104 UNIT VII Motivation......................................................... 116 Vocabulary practice ....................................................... 117 Focus on grammar. Past tense continuous ..................... 117 Past tense continuous ..................................................... 117 Past tense simple or continuous ..................................... 118 Vocabulary practice ....................................................... 123 One word may be used more than once ......................... 125 The use of the preposition in trade vocabulary .............. 125 Offers. Negotiations. Trade............................................ 127 Greetings, phrases used in conversation ........................ 127 Focus on grammar. The past perfect tense..................... 128 The past perfect continuous ....................................... 129 UNIT IX Types of banks and their structure ..................... 136 Focus on grammar (I). Will - future............................... 139 Will - other uses ............................................................. 140 Focus on grammar (II). Shall ......................................... 142 Focus on grammar (III). Present forms for the future.... 143 Focus on grammar (IV). The Future - Going to ............ 144 Focus on grammar (V). Going to or will ....................... 145 UNIT IX The globalization of trade Major trading blocs today................................................................................... 152 Focus on grammar (I). The Passive ............................... 155 Focus on grammar (II). Modal verbs ............................. 156 UNIT X The Globalization of Financial Markets .............. 172 Vocabulary Practice ....................................................... 173 Focus on grammar. Sequence of tenses in the past: ...... 174 UNIT XI Business firms going global ............................... 179 Vocabulary Practice ....................................................... 180 Focus on grammar. The conditional mood .................... 181 6

UNIT XII New economic sectors ...................................... 194 Vocabulary Practice ....................................................... 196 UNIT XIII New trends in retailing .................................... 202 Vocabulary Practice ....................................................... 203 Focus on grammar. The subjunctive .............................. 203 The Synthetically Subjunctive ....................................... 204 UNIT XIV International trade The growth of international trade.................................................................................... 217 Vocabulary practice ....................................................... 220 Focus on grammar (I). The imperative .......................... 221 Focus on grammar(II). The infinitive ............................ 222 Focus on grammar (III). Accusative + Infinitive .......... 224 Focus on grammar (IV). Nominative + Infinitive .......... 224 Focus on grammar (V). The Gerund .............................. 225 Focus on grammar (VI). The -ing form ......................... 226 Asking questions 1 ......................................................... 229 Asking questions 2 ......................................................... 230 Question tags .................................................................. 232 UNIT XV Common law, equity and statue law ............. 241 Focus on grammar. Reported speech ............................. 244 Reported speech 2 .......................................................... 246 Annex 1. Common Phrases ................................................ 248 Annex 2. Phrasal verbs ...................................................... 251 Annex 3. Abbreviations ..................................................... 332 Abbreviations ..................................................................... 332 Choose the correct answer ............................................. 332 A. as soon as possible ................................................ 332 40. PTO .......................................................................... 340 Annex 4. Business expressions .......................................... 342 Business expressions 1. .............................................. 342 Choose the correct answer: ........................................ 342 Annex 5. Evaluation test .................................................... 351 7

Annex 6. IRREGULAR VERBS ....................................... 356 ENGLISH - ROMANIAN VOCABULARY .................... 361 References .......................................................................... 385

8

UNIT I Accounting (1) Whereas the French accounting was initially geared to administrative and fiscal requirements, Anglo-Saxon accounting, especially in the U.S., aims mainly at informing shareholders and investors about the economic situation of the firm. Another difference is that there does not exit in Britain or the U.S. a detailed “accounting plan” similar to the French one. This, however, should not be constructed as evidence that the Anglo-Saxon accounting is less precise and strict then French accounting itself. The prevailing norms and rules edited by official bodies or the profession (Institute of Chartered Accountants in Britain; American Institute of certified Public Accountants in the U.S.) are quite as stringent, and the practice of auditors quite as formal and reliable. All accounts and financial statements should be presented in conformity with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) which are as follows.  Going concern (continuarea exploatarii): the basic assumption is that the concern has no intention or obligation to liquidate or curtail operations.  True and fair view, or air presentation (fidelitatea conturilor sau corectitudinea conturilor; imagine fidela): the word “fair“ goes beyond the simple notion of accuracy, since accounts may be accurate while concealing some facts or failing to disclose some aspects of a firm’s economic and financial position. 9

 Prudence (prudenţă): caution and circumspection, so that there should not be any extrapolation, or over – or under – estimation of results. In particular, only profits realized at the date of financial statements should be included, and losses which have arisen, or are likely to arise in respect of the financial year concerned, should be mentioned.  Consistency (principiul consecvenţei; principiul permanentei metodelor): this implies that similar operations should be dealt with in the same manner (consistency) from fiscal year to fiscal year.  Matching principle (principiul armonizarii costurilor si veniturilor din aceeaşi perioadă): charges and revenues must be correctly matched with the accounting periods to which they belong.  Historical cost (costul istoric): recording assets in the books at their initial cost, at the time of acquisition, as opposed to replacement cost.  Accruals basis (principiul de anualitate; contabilitatea bazata pe angajamente): this means taking into account income and expenses when earned and incurred (commitments) regardless of cash is actually received or disbursed.  Materiality (importantţă relativa) An item should be regarded as material if there the reason to believe that knowledge of it would influence the decision of an informed investor. If the event of any departure from the above principles, the reasons for it and its effects on the accounts must be set out

10

clearly in the notes to the financial statement (there are often numerous notes to a balance sheet). Today, given the multiplication of international operations, mergers, takeovers and consolidations involving companies of different nationalities- and the interlocking structure of multinationals- there is a strong movement towards the homogenization of accounting practices, and the profession is active in promoting this trend through its international normand standard- setting institutes. The European Union is also issuing directives for the harmonization of Company Law. Vocabulary Practice I Accounts, accounting, accountancy (conturi, contabilitate) - The three words may sometimes be synonymous (Accounts Department, Accounting Department, Accountancy Department) but of course, accounts corresponds to the statements or book entries themselves, accounting to the methods and procedures and accountancy to the profession itself. Assets (active, e) - Is used in the plural to denote the assets (activele), in a balance sheet, in the singular to denote one specific item (un active). Bookkeeper ( functionar contabil ) - Clerk in charge recording business transactions and entering them in the accounts books, but nor a chartered or certified public accountant. Bottom line (linia de rezultat net) - The last line of an income statement, that indicates the net results (profit or loss)

11

of the firm. In ordinary parlance, it has come to mean the end result, the last word on something. Break- even point (prag de rentabilitate )- The break-even point is the point at which the margin from the sales is sufficient to cover a firm’s expenses without either profit or loss. Cash flow (flux de numerar ) - This term used in capital budgeting represents the cash coming in less cash going out during a given period. - Pre-tax cash flow is the sum of pre-tax profits (profits before tax) and depreciation allowances plus certain reserves. - Net cash flow is the sum of after- profit and depreciation allowances plus certain reserves. Earnings report: income statement ( declaratie de venituri ) - The British still use the phrase Profit and Loss accounts (P&L). Fixed cost (expenses)… variable costs (expenses) (costuri fixe ... costuri variabile) Gross profit (or Gross margin or margin ) ( profit brut , marja bruta ) Net profit or income (profit net) Notes to the account (anexa la bilant ) Overhead expenses ( or overhead) ( cheltuieli generale ) Price – earning ratio ( P.E.R.) (coefficient de capitalizare a rezultatelor) It is calculated as follows: Market price____ Earning per share Profit and revenues Profit and revenues (revenue = gains – venituri din schimb valutar; earnings: beneficiu net;Income si Profit sunt termini 12

generali ).Profit represents the income that a business has earned after certain deductions have been made from revenues. Revenue is one component that permits the recognition of profit. Provisions ( provizioane ) Turnover (cifra de afaceri ) Working capital / operating capital (fond de rulment) Vocabulary Practice II conturi de plăţi ( de încasat) dividente accumulate dobândă intermediară acumulată act as a acţiona pe cont principal propriu (to) plăţi advanced anticipate payment bilanţ balance sheet titlu la bearer purtător security de break-even prag rentabilitapoint te Imprumut call loan accounts payable (receivable) accrued dividends accrued interest

intangibles

active necorporale

a) stocuri; b)inventar irredeemable nerambursabil inventory

issue price

preţ de emisiune

ledger

registru contabil

liabilities

pasiv; datorii

lien merge (to)

drept sechestru a fuziona

nominee

candidat propus;

de

13

persoană propusă

rambursabil la cerere preţ de răscumpărare capital gains impozit de plus tax valoare taxe; collection recuperare; charges încasare Imprumut call loan rambursabil la cerere acţiune common ordinară stock CPA(Certifi ed Public expert Accountant) contabil (US) active current circulante; assets active curente data due date scadenţei active equity reale; capital resurse proprii a fi fall due call price

operating capital

fond de rulment

outflow

scurgere capital

overheads

cheltuieli generale

prepaid

plătit în avans

de

ready money bani lichizi

receivables

creanţe

redeemable

rambursabil

seed money

capital iniţial

statement

declaraţie

venture

intreprindere; 14

scadent; a ajunge la scadenţă

societate

Groups of words expressing time: Every two minutes - din două în două minute (days, months etc.) (zile, luni etc.) now and then - când si când from now on - de acum înainte in the same time - în acelaşi timp within this week - în limita acestei săptămâni (month, year etc) (lună, an, etc.) all of a sudden - dintr-odată all the year round - tot anul all day long - toată ziua plenty of time - o mulţime de timp spare time - timp liber (prin economisirea lui) free time - timp liber (prin ingaduinta cuiva) in due time - la timpul fixat for a while - pentru un răstimp for a long time - timp îndelungat short time after - puţin dupa aceea in the course of time - în cursul timpului all this time - în tot acest timp after some time - după oarecare timp from time to time - din când în când for the time being - deocamdată to spend one’s time - a-şi petrece timpul years ago - cu ani în urmă after some time - după oarecare timp the right time - ora exactă 15

at the last moment - în ultima clipă in no time, presently - imediat today a week - de azi într-o săptămână without delay - fără întârziere how many times? - de câte ori ? in the course of time - în cursul timpului Exercises Test your vocabulary 1. The generally accepted method of valuation of the… is cost of market. a) repertory b) inventory c) joint-stock d) warehouse 2. Mining and oil companies set up… reserves to compensate for the natural wealth the company no longer owns. a) depression b) repletion c) depletion d) completion 3. As it would not be reasonable to charge off the full expenditure in the present year, the cost incurred will gradually… over the next few years. a) written b) written in c) written away d) written off 4. Bondholders have a claim or… before other creditors on such assets as may be sold. a) lien 16

b) link c) proceed d) slip 5. A stock is said to have high leverage if the company that issued it has a large proportion of… outstanding in relation to the amount of common stock. a) ordinary shares b) bonds and preferred stock c)fixed assets d) blue chips 6. The decline in useful value of a fixed asset due to wear and tear from use and passage of time is called… a) dereliction b) disparagement c) redemption d) depreciation 7. Common stock is a synonym for… a) ordinary shares b) government bonds c) bearer shares d) inventories on hand 8. The first item on the liability side of a balance sheet is usually… a) immediate liabilities b) current liabilities c) current debts d) direct liabilities 9. The point at which volume of sales or production enables an enterprise to cover related costs and expenses without profit and without losses is the… a) breakdown point 17

b) dead-end c) breakaway point d) break-even point 10. The part of authorized capital already contributed by the company’s shareholders constitutes the… a) paid up capital b) called up capital c) issued capital d) registered capital 11. This entry should have been transferred from the day book to the…. a) directory b) wager c) ledger d) badger 12. Many firms draw up a … at the end of each month with a view to testing the accuracy of their accounting. a) control balance b) controlling balance c) trial balance d) checking balance 13. C.P.C. stands for… a) Certified Public Accountant (US) b) Certified Public Accountant (GB) c) Controller of Programs Achievements d) Costs Programming and Accounting 14.Accrued interest means… a) the interest is earned since last settlement date but not yet due or payable b) additional interest c) increased interest

18

d) an additional interest yielded by external sources to be paid separately Key to the test: 1.b; 2.c; 3.d; 4.a; 5.b; 6.d; 7.a; 8.b; 9.d; 10.a; 11.c; 12.c; 13a;14.a. Read and translate: 1. We draw up each invoice in triplicate. 2. It would be worth your while to have your tax-return drawn-up by a tax consultant (adviser). 3. I am not sure I can translate such expressions as single or double entry bookkeeping, straight line depreciation or on a reducing balance, fair wear and tear, balance brought forward, etc. 4. Ask the chief accountant whether he has received their transfer of funds. 5. We have checked all the entries without discovering a single error. 6. He has a lot of experience on bookkeeping and currently attends a course on corporate accounting. 7. What tax deductions are we entitled to? 8. The retiring (outgoing) auditors have been re-elected (reappointed). 9. The working capital is obtained by subtracting current liabilities from current assets. 10. The Profit and Loss Account (Income Statement, Earning Report) shows a net profit of $ 365,000. 11. Fixed assets (tied up capital) include(s) notably land, buildings, machinery and vehicles (trucks).

19

12. The parent company owns more than 60% of the assts of the subsidiary (of the subsidiary’s assets). 13. Net operating profit equals gross profit on sales minus total operating expenses. 14. Please find enclosed the statement of your account as of May 5 the, showing a credit balance of $ 86. 15. The balance sheet is a detailed statement at a given date giving information about the financial status and solvency of the firm. 16. I am familiar with both long-term and short-term financing operations. 17. There is not enough money coming in (revenue is insufficient) to cover expenses falling due at the end of the quarter. 18. I wonder how long they will manage to stave off the bankruptcy. 19. The error must have been made when the item was posted to the ledger. 20. These expenses will be written off over a period of several years. 21. How much working capital do they operate with? 22. How much do the loans from the parent company amount to? 23. Our junior accountant has erroneously entered this expense in the 2004 income statement. 24. The auditors had certified the accounts, although we know that they had been falsified. 25. In Anglo-Saxon balance sheet assets are listed in a decreasing order of liquidity / from the most liquid to the least liquid.

20

Numbers 1. Zero, oh and nought For the number 0 on its own, we say zero. Before a decimal point we say either zero or nought: 0.5 – zero point five or nought point five. After a decimal point we say oh: 0.01 – nought point oh oh one. We also say oh in telephone numbers, years, hotel room numbers, bus numbers etc. 0121 – 6020402 – Her number is oh one two one, six oh two, oh four oh five. 1805 – The Battle of Trafalgar was in eighteen oh five. Room 602 – I am on the top floor, in room six oh two. For football scores we say nil: Real Madrid three, Ajax Amsterdam nil (3 – 0); For tennis we say love: 15 – 0, fifteen – love. 2. Points and commas In English we use a point (.) and not only a comma (,) for decimals. We only use commas when writing numbers greater than 999: 15.001 – fifteen point oh oh one. 21

15,001 – fifteen thousand and one. 3. Decimals In English, we usually read all the numbers (digits) after a decimal point separately, especially if there are more than two decimal places: 0.125 – nought point one two five. 5.44 – five point four four. 3.14159 – three point one four one five nine. 0.001 – nought point oh oh one Another way of saying 0.001 is 10-3 ten to the power minus three. If you say 0.125 as zero point a hundred and twenty – five, an English speaker will instinctively hear 125, and ignore the zero point, thinking that you have made a mistake, or changed your mind while speaking. If you are doing deals on the telephone, you could quickly lose a lot of money by getting this wrong. But if the number after a decimal point represents a unit (of money, etc.) it is read like a normal number: £ 1.50 – one pound fifty $ 3.15 – three dollars fifteen 2 m 18 - two metres eighteen 4. Telephone and fax numbers We usually say telephone and fax numbers (and cars registration numbers, bank account numbers, and so on) as

22

individual digits: 010 41 01273 315052 – oh one oh, four one, oh one two seven three, three one five, oh five two. An exception is “doubles”: 0171 – 225 3466 – oh one seven one, double two five, three four double six. 5. Hundreds, thousands, millions and billions 100 – a hundred 200 – two hundred (not two hundreds) 1,000 – a thousand 100,000 – a hundred thousand (not thousands) 1,000,000 – a million (or 106, ten to the power six) 1,000,000,000 – a billion (or 109) One difference between British and American English is that Americans do not use an and between thousands and tens. For the British, 134,457 is: A hundred and thirty – four thousand, four hundred and fifty – seven. In the singular, the words hundred, thousand or million are preceded by a or one: We hired a hundred new workers. There are over one million potential customers. In imprecise numbers, hundreds, thousands or millions take the plural. We’re selling thousands a month. They are earning millions of pounds. In precise numbers, or after several and a few, hundred, thousand or million do not take the plural:

23

To be precise, we have sold eight thousand four hundred and twenty. Several thousand people have bought the new model. We expect to sell a few hundred a week from now on. 6. Years The number 1,996 is: One thousand nine hundred (and) ninety – six. The year 1996 is: Nineteen ninety – eight. 7. Square, cube and root 102 ten squared 103 ten cubed V 5 ten squared root of 5 8. Fractions Apart from ½ (a half), ¼ (a quarter) and 2/3 (three quarters, sometimes three – fourths in the US), fractions are mostly like ordinal numbers (fifth, sixth, seventh, twenty – first, thirty – second et.): 1/3, 1/5, 1/6 etc. a third, a fifth, a sixth etc. 3 ½ - three and a half 2 ¾ - two and three – quarters 9. Calculating 10 + 6 = 16 ten plus six is sixteen 10 – 4 = 6 ten minus six equals sixteen 24

10 x 6 = 60 ten times six is (or equals) sixty 10 : 6 = 1.666 ten divided by six is one points six recurring ! Remember to pronounce the –s in fact [z] in equals. It is singular: the total of everything on the left side equals everything on the right side. The verbs are to add, subtract (or deduct, but not deduce), multiply and divide. Other ways of saying divide are per: $ / £ dollar per pound 10 % p.a. ten percent per annum and over: (x – y) / z x-minus-y, over z X–y/z x minus y-over-z The per in percent is never stressed: we say per’ CENT. 10. Numbers as adjectives When a number is used before a noun, like an adjective, it is always singular: a fifty- minute lesson a twelve – week term a twenty – minute walk a ten thousand pound car a ninety – five dollar price cut a six- month waiting list a one and a half litter bottle a twenty degree fall in temperature

Exercise 1. Match the figures and the words on the right. 1. 2,400 2. -18C 3. 256

A two hundred and fifty six B eleven point five percent C fifteen square metres 25

4. 16th 5. 15m2

D twenty four point three six E between thirty four and thirty seven percent 6. 34 -37% F two thousand four hundred 7. 10.55am G three and a half million 8. 2.987 H sixteenth 9. 11.5% I forty seventh 10.3,500,000 J oh eight one three four seven two nine eight 11. tel. 081 347 298 K minus eighteen degrees centigrade 12. 15 m3 L fifteen cubic metres 13. 24.36 M twelve pounds fifty 14. 6 x 7 = 42 N five to eleven in the morning 15. £ 12.50 O six times seven equals forty two 16. 47th P two point nine eight seven 1 9

2 10

3 11

4 12

5 13

6 14

7 15

8 16

Exercise 2. Can you give the following answers in full: 1. The unemployment rate in your country. 2. Your country’s current inflation rate. 3. The number of people working in your company. 4. Interest rates in your country at the moment. 5. The average temperature in July. 6. The population of your town/city. 7. The cost of a kilo of coffee. 8. The average rent of a small flat in your country per month. 9. The population of your country. 10.The telephone number of the Fire Brigade in your country. 26

The use of some prepositions. In

At

On

the morning the afternoon the evening the summer the middle of the sky in the field the street the armchair January, ….. 1998 the dark the rain noon midnight dawn sunset 9 o’clock Christmas Easter the weekend Monday, …. June 26th Christmas Eve Easter Monday

27

Read and learn! Here are ten common business word partnerships and the accompanying preposition: 1. in the red 2. by courier 3. out of order 4. just in time 5. in trouble

6. on a trial period 7. in full 8. under a lot of pressure 9. out of stock 10. in perfect condition

Now use the phrases above to complete the following sentences: 1. When the goods left our warehouse they were …………………. 2. The bank has just rung to say that our no. 2 account is still…….. 3. Since she took over marketing, Sarah has been ………………… 4. I’m afraid the goods cannot be dispatched until payment ………has been received. 5. Don’t worry, I’ll send you the contract …….... You’ll have it in two hours. 6. We’ll let you have the software ………….of two weeks. 7. The photocopier has been …………… all day. 8. I thought I was going to be late for Tessa’s presentation, but I arrived ………….. 9. I’m afraid the parts you ordered are temporarily ……………… 10.The company is losing money fast. They really are …………… 28

(Source: John Morrison Milne, Business Language Practice, p.82) The Preposition (1): at, by, for 1. to ask for a glass of water 2. to be surprised / astonished / amazed at 3. to be a candidate for 4. to sell by the kilo 5. at the university 6. to laugh at 7. by plane 8. to be good at mathematics 9. (somebody's) support for somebody 10. at somebody's request 11. to marry for love 12. she is older than me by five years 13. to travel by night 14. medicine for a disease 15. to glance at somebody 16. I give you my fountain - pen for this watch 17. by the end of the month 18. for a joke 19. to buy / to sell at a certain price 20. to go by The Preposition (2): in, of, on: 1. to depend on 2. to make a fool of oneself 3. to approve of somebody's attitude 4. in the morning 29

5. to make a joke on somebody 6. to complain of something 7. in the middle of the house / road 8. a packet of cigarettes 9. written in ink 10. typical of somebody 11. on somebody's initiative 12. in the end 13. in the rain 14. in the dark 15. to remind somebody of something 16. on board of a ship 17. written in somebody's handwriting 18. to bite somebody in the leg 19. on the whole 20. to get rid of something 21. on the phone / the radio 22. in the first person 23. on the contrary 24. to be on good terms with somebody 25. in my opinion 26. on purpose 27. to congratulate somebody on something 28. in leather 29. on duty 30. he is in the committee The Preposition (3): over, to, with: 1. to explain to somebody 2. to meet with an accident 3. to be married to somebody 30

4. a dispute over something 5. to be polite to somebody 6. to stay with somebody 7. to apologize to somebody 8. advantage over somebody 9. to be angry with somebody 10.from place to place 11. duty / debt to somebody 12. over 100,000 13. the right to something 14.to help oneself to fruit 15. with all one's heart 16. to die with hunger 17. over the dinner 18. to my surprise 19. to reproach somebody with something 20. to fall to the ground Accounting (2) Regulating acts and bodies Great Britain * The Companies Acts of 1948 and 1985 * The Inland Revenue (fiscul) * The Securities and Investments Board (S.I.B.) * The profession: The Institute of chartered Accountants (I.C.A.) * The Financial Standards Board (F.S.B.) that issues statement of Standard Accounting Practice (SSAP) United States 31

* Federal and State Corporate Laws * The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) (fiscul) * The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) * The profession: The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) * The financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) that issues statements of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) ** An international committee representing the profession, the IASC (International Accounting Standards Committee) issues recommendations with a view to homogenizing international practices. Focus on grammar. The Use of Articles in English The Definite Article – the It is always used before a noun; It has the same form for the masculine or feminine, singular or plural; Use : 1. to refer to nouns that have already been mentioned: We visited a company in the UK. The company was based in Bath. 2. when it is obvious what particular thing is being referred to: The suggestion she made in her report were highly relevant. 3. to refer to organizations: The police; the army; the Fire Brigade. 4. to refer to unique organizations: The European Union; The World Bank; The Stock Exchange; The British Council. 32

5. with abbreviations that have to be pronounced as single letters: The BBC; The EU. The in geography: - chain of mountains not - hills - gorges - canyons - plains - valleys - rivers (but not lakes) Lake - seas and oceans Ocean; - channels (canals for those created by man) - bays Harbours:

e.g. the Carpathians; the Alps ( but peaks : Mount Everest) e.g. the Kentish Hills; e.g. the Bicaz Gorges; e.g. the Grand canyon; e.g. the Great Plains; e.g. the Sun Valley; e.g. the Danube; the Mississippi; Michigan e.g. the Black Sea; the Atlantic

e.g. the English Channel; the Suez Canal; the Panama Canal; e.g. the Bay of Biscay (but not

New York Harbour); - islands (only in the plural) e.g. the Hebrides; - deserts e.g. the Sahara; The is not used before: - continents - countries and states - counties - cities

e.g. Europe, Australia; e.g. Romania, Canada, France; e.g. Transylvania, Moldavia; e.g. Bucharest, Rome, Paris; 33

Excepts: the Argentina; the Congo; the Sudan; the United States; the UK; the Hague. The in different other situations: 1.before some proper nouns showing: - a family - The Browns are our new neighbours. - a ship - The Queen Mary was an old ship. - a newspaper - The Times was his favourite newspaper. - an important building - the British Museum; the Intercontinental Hotel. 2. before a unique noun - the sun ;the moon; the Earth; the public. 3. before a noun showing an idea - the good; the beautiful (Source: Mariana Ţăranu, Limba engleză, probleme de gramatică şi exerciţii pentru elevi p.25) The indefinite article: A /An Use : 1. before a singular noun which is countable; Example : I need a visa. 2. when the noun is mentioned for the first time; Example: He bought a computer. 3 . when the noun represents no particular person or thing; Example : They work in an office. 4. when the noun is used as an example of a class of things; Example : A car must be insured. 5. before a noun showing nationality ( used only for the singular ) ; Example : Thomas is an American pilot. 34

Sylvie is a French singer. Natalia is a Russian student. 6. before a noun showing a profession ( used only for the singular ); Example : I am a teacher. Nick is a driver. She is an accountant. A / An is always placed after: - such - atât de; e.g. Such a pretty girl! -what - ce (exclamativ); e.g.What a good car! - half - jumatate; e.g. half an hour; - quite - cât se poate de; e.g. quite a nice song; - rather - destul de; e.g. rather an expensive lunch - without - fără; e.g without a mistake - a noun accompanied by an adjective preceded by so ( atât de) ; as (tot atât de); too (prea); how( cât de): E.g. So witty a writer He has as clever a dog as you have. It’s too poor a market. How beautiful a photo (Source: Mariana Ţăranu, Limba engleză, probleme de gramatică şi exerciţii pentru elevi, p. 19) Groups of words including the indefinite article A / An : a lot of a little more a great many friends

- mult ,mulţi; - puţin mai mult; - mulţi prieteni; 35

of a size twice a day , a month etc. two hundred an hour seventy miles an hour to have a care to take a fancy at a blow to keep an eye on for a time two at a time all of a sudden it is a pity in a hurry at a loss for a change for a while at a speed of for a short / long time as a result as a matter of fact to have a good time to take a rest to go for a walk

- de aceeaşi măsură; - de două ori pe zi , pe lună etc. - două sute pe oră; - şaptezece de mile pe oră; - a se îngriji; - a urma o fantezie, un chef de ceva; - dintr-o lovitură; - a supraveghea; - pentru un timp; - doi în acelaşi timp; - deodată; - e păcat; - în grabă; - în încurcătură; - pentru schimbare; - pentru un răstimp; - la viteza de; - pentru scurt / lung timp; - ca rezultat; - de fapt; - a petrece bine; - a se odihni; - a se plimba.

(Source: Mariana Ţăranu, Limba engleză, probleme de gramatică şi exerciţii pentru elevi,p.19) Articles are not used in the following situations: 1. before plural countable nouns in general contexts; 36

e.g. Shareholders are invited to express their opinion. 2. before uncountable nouns; e.g. There is sugar on the table. 3. before names of meals; e.g. We have breakfast at nine. We were all invited to dinner. 4.before nouns denoting seasons, months of the year, days of the week; e.g. spring , March , Monday , etc. 5. before nouns denoting ideas , abstract nouns; e.g. We struggle for happiness. Life is wonderful. 6. before nouns denoting names of materials, substances ; e.g. Chalk is white. 7. before names given to languages and studying objects ; e.g. English is easy. I am learning Geography with much pleasure. This year they are studying German too. 8. before nouns denoting colours; e.g. Blue is my favourite colour. Notice that all these nouns use the before them if they are determined, there is a certain specification mentioned: i.e. Do you remember the Sunday we spent in the woods ? The happiness we struggle for is not to be found easily. The chalk I got is not hard enough. The blue I prefer is the light blue of the sky. The dinner he is looking forward to is going to be at 8 o’clock. The English you know is quite good. (Source: Mariana Ţăranu, Limba engleză, probleme de gramatică şi exerciţii pentru elevi)

37

Groups of words without article: at dawn at noon

în zori la prânz

by heart from morning till night la apusul from top to soarelui bottom la vreme de in bed noapte acasă in debt

pe de rost de dimineaţa până noaptea at sunset de sus şi până jos at night în pat (cu v. to lie) at home în situaţie de datornic at school la şcoală in doubt în stare de dubiu at table la masă in love îndrăgostit at liberty în stare de in memory în memoria libertate (of) by din întâmplare on business cu scopul de a accident (nefericită) face ceva by chance din întamplare to attend a a frecventa o (fericită) school şcoală by ear după ureche without doubt fara îndoială by good datorită side by side alături fortune norocului by din greşeală hand in hand de mână (a mistake ţine) by phone prin telefon arm in arm braţ la braţ by land pe uscat day after day zi după zi by air prin aer week after săptămână week după săptămână by sea pe mare year after an după an year 38

by train by coach by car by boat by plane by post by name by sight

cu trenul cu diligenta; cu But : autocarul cu masina at the table cu barca to the school cu avionul to the market prin poştă on the bed pe nume din vedere

(Source: Mariana Ţăranu, Limba engleză, probleme de gramatică şi exerciţii pentru elevi, p.25) Exercise 1. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the article used in the underlined phrases: 1. We were picnicking when all of a sudden big drops of rain began to fall down. 2. The news of her marriage did create a stir. 3. He took a fancy to my child; I’m afraid he’ll spoil her. 4. He takes a pride in his son’s success. 5. Don’t be so depressed, I’ll put in a good word for you. 6. It’s a pity you couldn’t attend the performance. 7. Their success was in a great measure/to a great extent the result of perseverance. 8. “A drowning man catching at a straw” is an expression meaning the same thing both in Romanian and in English. 9. I couldn’t sleep a wink all night. 10. She won’t tell a soul about it. 11. We don’t give a damn on what he says. 12. She went to them for help, but they refused to lift a finger.13. Why is she alone? Because she doesn’t know a single person in this town. 14. She’s singing all the time. I think she doesn’t have a care in the world. 39

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the indefinite article: 1. This child was … great comfort to her in her misfortune. 2. Our leader has … strong will.3. A coward is known to have … weak will. 4. It is ….great hardship to spend a night in inter in the open. 5. She seldom catches cold, but when she catches it, it is … bad cold. 6. It was … unexpected stroke of good luck. 7. We have never enjoyed such … spell of fine weather. 8. The man had … suspicion that the servant was unfaithful. 9. That was … unbearable illness. 10. We didn’t expect him to put in … appearance at the time. 11. It is … pretty sight to see children playing. Exercise 3. Fill in the article wherever necessary: No one in New York had so accomplished … cook, such smoothly running service, … dinner-table so softly yet brightly lit, or such skill in grouping about it persons not only eminent in wealth or fashion, but likely to find pleasure in each other’s society. … intimate reunion, of … not-morethan-the-Muses kind, was not Pauline’s affair. She was aware of this seldom made … attempt – though when she did, she was never able to discover why it was not … success. But in … organizing and … administering of … big dinner she was conscious of mastery. Not … stupid dinners of old days when … “crowned heads” used to be treated like … caste apart, and everlastingly invited to meet each other thorough … whole monotonous season: Pauline was too modern for that. She excelled in … judicious blending of Wall Street and Bohemia, and her particular art lay in the selection of … latter element. Of course there were Bohemians and 40

Bohemians: as she had once remarked to Nona, people weren’t always amusing just because they were clever, or dull just because they were rich – though at … last clause Nona had screwed up her nose incredulously. (Edith Wharton, Twilight Sleep) Exercise 4. Fill in the necessary article where necessary: They advanced into … hall, went from table to table, scooping each plate clean, gathering up cold chips, tasty codshells of yellow batter, or crusts of bread and butter. Neither spoke, and … whole operation went on in silence … man digging into … pile of steaming fish and chips stared at Bert, who was composed enough to take up … vinegar bottle and sprinkle it over what was in his hand, giving … impression either that he worked in … place collecting scraps like this, or that this was … form of supper-cheap meal served by … café to… unobtrusive waifs and tramps. Bert cleared another table, glancing now and again at … chatting waitresses nearby … blonde-dyed heavily painted woman passed Brian half … cup down, and … man who had seen him drink … tea covered his meal protectively. Brian had never done this before, might normally have been afraid to come into … café and play locust to its cast-off food, but he was too surprised at finding such edible nutriment set out plainly for … getting to worry about who was looking on. (Allan Sillitoe, Key to the Door) Exercise 5. Insert the definite article or the zero article: 1. He ran into … house and shut … door. 2. … milk is good for … children. 3. … food in … restaurant near me is very good. 41

4. Please, put … butter, … bread, and … eggs in … refrigerator. 5. … lions are … wild animals. 6. One of Mark Twain’s works is “Life on … Mississippi”. 7. In … Asia … elephants are used for carrying … goods. 8. … man on her right is … English. 9. We often go to … Manchester by … train. 10. How many rockets have been sent to … moon? 11. He came to his room late at … night and told … uncle Theo how he had spent … evening at … theatre. 12. We have … breakfast rather early. 13. Lizzie, … cook, left … Chapmans three weeks ago. 14. All the people in … village go to … church on … Sunday. 15. In some houses … dinner is … biggest meal of … day. Exercise 6. Insert the indefinite article or the zero article: 1. He made … mistake in his addition. 2. Would you do me … favour? 3. The electric light was … important invention. 4. Where there’s … smoke, there’s … fire. 5. Meeting you has been … great pleasure. 6. He is studying … religion. 7. They asked him … difficult question. 8. She wants to become … nurse. 9. The lawyer gave his client … very good advice. 10. She likes to eat … good food. 11. … honesty and … loyalty are … rare virtues. 12. Eggs are 50 p. … dozen. 13. What … bad weather we are having today! 14. She bought … yellow dress and … pair of … shoes. 15. … Glasgow is … city in Scotland. 42

Exercise 7. Supply the required articles: 1. He speaks with … great authority on the subject. He is consulting with… authority on urban development. 2. … water used in this beer comes from a special spring. In order to survive, we must have … water. 3. … bread has been called the staff of life. … bread you baked is delicious. 4. … silver in this ring is of inferior quality. … silver is used for money and jewellery. 5. … genius is 10% inspiration and 90% perspiration. … genius of Edison is universally recognized. 6. … fresh milk tastes good. … milk which I bought yesterday should still be good. 7. Everyone was impressed by … sincerity with which he spoke. We all admire … sincerity. 8. After several attempts, he lost … courage. He showed … courage that surprised me. Exercise 8. Fill in the blanks with the required articles: Last year I stayed in … little town in … England called … Stratford-on-Avon. I wanted to go to … theatre to see some of … plays of … Shakespeare. … theatre is near … River Avon, … beautiful river in which you can bathe and sail … boats. When I arrived in … Stratford, I was told to stay at … hotel called “… Dirty Duck”, but I couldn’t find it. I asked many people where it was, but no one knew it. I saw … policeman at … corner of … main street. I spoke to him and asked him if he knew “... Dirty Duck”. He laughed and told me that he knew it all 43

right. It was just at … bottom of … street near “… Plaza” cinema. I walked to … bottom of … street, saw … hotel and read … name above … door. It was called “… Black Swan”! Exercise 9. Fill in the blanks with the indefinite article a/an, before singular countable nouns, or the indefinite pronoun some, before uncountable nouns or plural nouns: 1. He needs … hammer and … nails to fix the table. 2. They have bought … furniture. 3. For breakfast I had only … bread and … cup of tea. 4. They are building … house in my street. 5. Could you give me … information about this school? 6. … people are fond of telling stories. 7. There was … snow on the high mountain. 8. That little town lies in … lovely valley. 9. I have … very severe headache. 10. … words are never used in the plural. 11. … passengers were in a hurry to catch … train. 12. I can give you … advice, but I can’t do the work for you. Exercise 10. Complete the spaces using the correct article: a, an, or the. a) Good morning. Let me introduce myself: My name is Tessa Lane, I’m ………… accountant and I work for …………. medium - sized industrial finance company in London. My company, Ajax Enterprises is one of ………… the most important manufacturers in …………country. We produce ………..wide range of goods including plastics for ………..automobile industry. I enjoy my job because it gives me the opportunity to meet lots of interesting people and to travel abroad. …………only thing I dislike about my job is having to work at …………weekend. 44

b) I got …………fax from Sigrid in Copenhagen this morning. She says she’d like to arrange ………..meeting with some us some time in ………..next two months. Would you like me to give her ………..ring and fix ……….time? c) I’m writing to ask if anyone in your company is interested in attending ………….marketing conference in July. …………conference will be held in a beautiful location near Paris. It will give your staff ………..excellent opportunity to look at …………current state of some key European markets. We need to have ………...firm decision by 30th March at ………..latest. d) …………Claymore is ………..luxury hotel located close to Edinburgh’s business centre. We provide everything you need for ……….comfortable and successful stay in Scotland’s capital. You need ………..fax machine? We can install one in your room. You need …………important document typed or copied? No problem. We have …………pool of trained secretaries ready to assist. You have ………….important meeting? Don’t worry. Our international conference centre is equipped with ………….luxury boardroom where business becomes pleasure. …………Claymore is Scotland’s premier business destination. Give us…………ring today. e) According to………..recent study, Swiss executives are still ……….highest paid in Europe. ……….report published by …………Simon Hartner Consultancy also puts Spanish executives among ………..top earners. However,

45

………….figures did not take into account perks* like company cars and free medical insurance. * perks = beneficii suplimentare (Source: John Practice,p.58,)

Morisson

Milne,

Business

Language

46

UNIT II Market economy and the business cycle A market economy is based on private ownership in contrast to planned economy where state ownership prevails. In a free market economy efficiency is the key word, while on the other hand command economy most likely leads to inefficiency. In a free market economy inefficient businesses go bankrupt, where as in a command economy businesses are subsidized, thus allowing them to survive in spite of their non-satisfactory economic performance. This enables the latter type of economy to resort to overstaffing that is employing more personnel than actually required. Market economy leads to high quality of goods and services, while on the other hand planned economy will not focus on offering high quality of goods and services to customers. This is due to the fact that in the latter type of economy there is actually no competition, as there are state monopolies and therefore the options of customers are severely restricted. On the other hand in market economy companies freely compete for a larger market share, and are thus forced to be efficient and employ staff according to real necessities and manage their resources with utmost care. A business cycle, also called a trade cycle is the fluctuating movement of a country’s economy. So if at the moment production has reached a peak, employment rates, wages and salaries are high, this stage of the cycle is called a boom. Sooner or later, sales of goods will decline, and so will output, as well as the rate of employment. This means a recession has set in. If the decline becomes very severe, the demand for goods reaches a minimum, unemployment rises 47

dramatically, while output is falling, the cycle has reached the moment of depression, also called a slump. This does not happen very often, as economies do not always reach the minimum level before starting up again. Depressions are usually accompanied by a general fall in the level of prices, a phenomenon termed deflation. When the increase in output and demand for commodities has started and unemployment goes down, we say we have reached the point in the cycle called recovery. (Source: Alexander Hollinger, Test your Business English Vocabulary,p.8, 10) Vocabulary Practice subsidy - a payment by a government to producers of certain goods to enable them to sell their products at a low price. overstaffing - employment of personnel in excess of the real necessities. unemployment - inability to find a job. supply - a component of the market forces which when it prevails makes prices of goods fall. demand - a component of the market which when it prevails makes prices of goods rise. ownership - rights over property. bankruptcy - the state of a company which enable to pay its debts and has to be wound up. boom - the point in the business cycle when prices and employment reach a peak. slump - the point in the business cycle when prices and employment are at lowest. recovery - an intermediate stage in the trade cycle when the upward movement has started but not reached its maximum. 48

recession - a slowdown in the growth rate during the trade cycle with falling levels of investment and employment. Inflation - a persistent rise in the level of prices and wages in a national economy. Collocations: 1. a bear market = a market in which a dealer is more likely to sell securities; foreign exchange; 2. a bull market = in which a dealer is more likely to be a buyer than a seller. 3. a falling market = where prices are expected to fall. 4. a rising market = where prices are expected to rise; 5. a firm market = where prices do not drop and possibly are about to rise; 6. a depressed market = a market where there are few transactions and prices go down; 7. a sluggish market = where there is a slow rate of activity. Focus on grammar. Adjectives. Degrees of comparison Antonyms: Good / bad; tall / short; fat / thin; long / short; large / small, little; wide / narrow; cold / hot; clean / dirty; cheap/ expensive; sweet/ bitter; fast / slow; thick / thin; happy / unhappy; merry / sad; easy / difficult; full / empty; beautiful / ugly; clever / stupid; dark / bright; heavy / light; kind / unkind, rude; high / low; hard / soft ; etc. Adjectives. Degrees of comparison A. Short adjectives

49

The positive

The comparative

The superlative

long large clean small etc.

longer (than) larger cleaner smaller

the longest the largest the cleanest the smallest

big fat thin hot

bigger (than) fatter thinner hotter

the biggest the fattest the thinnest the hottest

funny happy easy etc.

funnier (than) happier easier

the funniest the happiest the easiest

good bad

better (than) worse

the best the worst

B. Long adjectives The positive The comparative beautiful beautiful important important interesting interesting

The superlative

more beautiful (than)

the most

more important

the most

more interesting

the most

50

comfortable comfortable etc.

more comfortable

the most

The comparative of equality: as…as e.g. John is as tall as his brother. She is as beautiful as her mother. The comparative of inferiority: less… e.g. John is less tall than his father. The film is less interesting than the novel. Adjective intensifiers There are some words which can be used to 'intensify' many adjectives – 'very' 'really' 'totally' 'absolutely' 'completely' 'utterly' 'entirely'. o o o o o o o

It's very tall. We're really happy. She's totally exhausted. I'm absolutely horrified. He's completely hopeless. You look utterly miserable. I'm entirely satisfied.

Certain adjectives have their own 'special' intensifiers which are often used with them. Here are some common ones: blind drunk

51

o

He was blind drunk and behaved really badly.

o

I must have a drink. I'm bone dry.

o

I've just bought a brand new car.

bone dry

brand new

crystal clear o

The sea near Rhodes is crystal clear.

o

That exam was dead easy. I've certainly passed.

o

He's won three lottery prizes this year. He's dead lucky.

o

I agree entirely. You are dead right.

o

I bought my car for a dirt cheap price from an old lady who had hardly driven it.

dead easy

dead lucky

dead right

dirt cheap

52

fast asleep / sound asleep o o

I was in bed and fast asleep by nine. I was sound asleep and I didn't hear anything.

o

These office walls are paper thin. You can hear everything said in the next office.

paper thin

pitch black o

There's no moon. It's pitch black out there.

razor sharp o

Be careful with that knife- it's razor sharp.

o

It's impossible to dig this soil – it's rock hard.

rock hard

stark naked o

The hotel door slammed behind me and I was left standing stark naked in the middle of the corridor.

o

He can't hear a thing. He's stone deaf.

stone deaf

53

wide awake o

I was wide awake by six.

o

Who left the door wide open?

wide open

(Source: www.better-english.com) Read and learn (I) at the expense of - pe cheltuiala (cuiva); pe seama; in the nick of time - în ultima clipă; to stand the chance - a avea şansa; to take the bull by the horns - a lua taurul de coarne; to beat around the bush - a bate câmpii; a nu vorbi la subiect; on the other hand - pe de altă parte; to feel the pulse - a simţi pulsul; to be in the habit - a-i fi in obişnuinţă; to become the fashion - a fi la modă under the circumstances - în aceste împrejurări on the whole - în întregime; în general vorbind; în linii mari to give a cold shoulder - a face o primire rece; a fi distant to cost the earth - a costa o avere to be chicken - a fi laş to be in the blues - a fi prost dispus to get the upper hand - a obţine un avantaj; a câştiga (o intrecere) to give the creeps - a da fiori on the spur of the moment - sub impulsul momentului all to the good - odată pentru totdeauna 54

Exercise 1. Change the nouns in the sentences below, into adjectives according to the model: It has no taste – It is tasteless – a tasteless cake (cake) It has no life. ……………………………….. (body) It has no tree. ………………………………… (valley) It has no use. ………………………………… (rag) She has no job. She … ……………………. (woman) She has no mother. …………………………… (child) She has no hat. ………………………………… (girl) Exercise 2.Change the corresponding adjectives. Model: a. a matter of importance an important matter a program of length a problem of urgency a man of patience Model: b. the point of boiling the boiling point

underlined

phrases

into

a thing of beauty a man of honour a feeling of comfort a text long of two paragraphs a two-paragraph long text

55

the job of editing a pill for sleeping a place for parking Model: c. behaviour like that of a lady lady-like behaviour

a tree old of two centuries a child of three years old the rain of last week

an animal like a cat a pallor like that of death an atmosphere like that of home neck like that of a swan speed like that of a rocket smell like that of a forest Exercise3. Make up sentences with the adjectives derived from nouns. Model: A dusty road is a road that has much dust. A lucky man is a man who has good luck. a hairy dog a salty soup a watery beer

a stony road a windy day a foggy weather

Exercise 4. Attach the appropriate suffixes (b) to the following words to form adjectives: absorb beard beggar book

cost coward danger defence

doll dust dwarf fool

ink irk kitten leaf

night outrage power price 56

bother consist

defy desire

grace hill

lone mud

talent toil

b. –ant, -ent, -ish, - ous, -ly, -some, -less, -y, -ed Exercise 5. Underline the negative prefixes in the following list of derived adjectives: disagreeable dissimilar displeased disproportionate

unrestrictive un-compulsory unobtainable unreal

impassive incorrigible illegal irregular

Exercise 6. Form sentences with the compound adjectives in the list below Model: A short-skirted girl means a girl who wears short skirts. A paper-backed book means a book that has soft paper covers. An ill-tempered man is a man who gets angry easily. a fair-haired girl a broad-shouldered man a read-headed child a bald-headed person a three-cornered house a many-coloured vase a cloth-covered table a stony-headed master a narrow-minded partner

a fishy-eyed man an empty-headed girl a lion-hearted person a sharp-eyed person a wooden-headed chap a quick-minded child a dark-skinned person a straight-haired child an open-minded teacher

57

UNIT III Parts of a Company OK, let’s start here, in research and development, or R&D. This department is responsible for thinking of ideas for new products and finding ways to improve our existing products … This department looks after our computer equipment. They deal with any problems. This is information technology or IT… Purchasing buys all the things we need to make our products. They talk to our suppliers and try to get the best price … This is the main factory area, the production department. Here we make our products. It’s the biggest part of the company … Here in the finance department, they check how much the company is making and decide how much to spend. They also pay employees’ salaries … This department looks after the people who work here. Human resources is responsible for recruiting new employees, organizing training and helping with any problems … Sales and marketing is very important. The marketing people think up the ideas for selling our products. The sales people go out and sell our products to our customers …

58

Customer services processes orders from customers. It organizes transportation, checks that customers have received their orders and deals with complaints … Finally, distribution is responsible for transporting our products. They receive orders from customer services, and plan how and when to transport the products so the customers receive them at the right time … (Source: Neil Wood, Business and Commerce, Oxford University Press, 2003, p.4) Vocabulary practice Read and learn: Read what three people say about their jobs. Pay attention to the words written in italics! Anna, 18 “I work in a factory. My working hours are 8.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m., Monday to Friday. I have a one hour lunch break at 12.30. The routine is the same every day. My job is very boring but the pay is quite good. My colleagues and I don’t really talk to each other, but I have a lot of friends outside work. My job is just a way to earn money.” Tony, 23 “I’m a computer programmer. I work a 40 – hour week. We have flexible hours so I can start and finish when I want. If we are busy then I work overtime – I get paid extra for this. There are always problems to solve. This can be difficult, but it can also be quite creative. I earn a good salary, but my job 59

doesn’t rule my life. I like to do different things in my free time.” Erika, 25 “I’m a doctor in a large hospital. I work very long hours – 60 or 70 hours a week – often in the evenings and at weekends. The work is really interesting but it can also be quite stressful. I love my job and my colleagues are also my friends. I don’t have time for a social life. When I get home, I’m too tired to do anything except have dinner and watch TV.” Cindy, accountant “I work in the finance department of a large company. There are a lot of benefits. For example, if the company makes a profit, all the employees get a bonus. There’s also a profit share, but that’s only for managers. I have a company car and I also travel abroad quite a lot – always business class and on expenses, of course. We also get a pension and private health insurance. The company pays for its staff to go on training courses to develop their professional skills. And we get free membership of the local gym. There are also rewards: it’s hard work, but I get a lot of satisfaction from it. People recognize it if you do a good job, so there is good prospects for promotion.” Benjamin, physiotherapist “I work for the health service. There are a lot of rewards: the main one is the job satisfaction. I get a real sense of achievement when someone says ‘thank you’. You know you’re doing a worthwhile job. If you work hard, there are opportunities for promotion. I like the responsibility of 60

making the difference to people’s lives. There are some benefits. We don’t get bonuses or anything like that, but there’s a very good pension. The health service pays for us to go on training courses, and people with children get help with paying for childcare. If I visit patients at home, I get a travel allowance, but it’s not very much.” A. Match the underlined words in the quotes with the definitions (1 –8). 1. the people you work with __________ . 2. the number of hours in the week you spend doing your job____________ . 3. the money you receive every month for the work you have done___________ 4. the things you do, usually with other people, outside work___________ . 5. the time you have for eating in the middle of the working day____________ . 6. the time you spend at work after your normal working hours___________ 7. a system where you can choose when to start and finish work________ . 8. the usual order and the way that you regularly do things____________ . B. Complete the sentences (1-6) with one of the following adjectives: boring; busy; difficult; creative; interesting; stressful. 1. If we have too much work and not enough time, it can be quite ………. 2. In my job, I use my imagination and ideas a lot, so the work is ……… 61

3. I do the same thing every day – my job is ………… . 4. There is so much to do at work that I’m always ………… . 5. Sometimes my job is …………., but I would get bored if it was too easy. 6. My job is very …………. because I’m always learning new things. C. Complete with the missing words: overtime, promotion, well-paid, part-time, holiday, salary rise, car, hours, insurance. 1. I’ve got a good ………………….. 2. I get six weeks paid ……………………. 3. To earn more, I often work …………….. 4. I have to work long …………………….. 5. Every year, I get a pay …………………. 6. Now I have children, I work ……………. 7. This job isn’t very ……………………… 8. We get very good health ……………….. 9. He gets a company ……………………… (Source: www.better-english.com) D. Complete the sentences with the expressions below: Health insurance, well-paid, company car, holiday, parttime, long hours, good salary, overtime, promotion, pay rise. 1.This year, the company wants to cut costs so nobody is getting a …………… 2. One of the benefits of the job is a ……………but I do travel a lot. 3. I usually take three weeks …………….in the summer and a couple in the winter. 62

4. We work in a sector where everyone works …………….but gets paid very well. 5. He has a very demanding job but he gets paid a …………… 6. I’ve applied for a …………I want to become a manager. 7. Supermarkets employ a lot of women who want to work ………… 8. In general, it’s an unskilled sector which isn’t very …………. 9. When we are busy, I often choose to work ……………and take time off later. 10.I don’t pay for the doctor. The company provides very good ………………… (Source: www.better-english.com) E. Complete the sentences with the expressions below. Production, personnel, marketing, sales team, purchasing, logistics, research and development, quality control, accounts, planning. 1. I work in the …………department. I’m responsible for buying raw materials. 2. I’ve been in ………….for a few years. At the moment, I’m in charge of advertising. 3. I manage a team in …………. My staff is responsible for issuing invoices to our clients. 4. As head of ………… . I manage the distribution of our products meet our very high standards. 5. I am a technician in ……… . At the moment, we are in the final stages of developing a new product unit. 6. We have a large …………throughout the world selling our products. 63

7. I work in ……….dealing with the payroll of all our employees. 8. I manage a team in ………..where we manufacture plastic parts for the medical sector. 9. It is very challenging working in ………..working on the strategy for the company over the next ten to twenty years. (Source: www.better-english.com) F. Match the responsibilities with the department. 1.persuade people to buy the company’s products or services; 2. buys in products and services; 3. looks for and develops new products; 4. ensures that standards are met; 5. responsible for manufacturing goods; 6. recruits and looks after staff; 7.deals with invoicing and payments; 8.distributes goods to different places; 9.deals with advertising and product launches; 10.sets out future strategy

a. marketing b. sales team c. purchasing department d. production e. accounts f. planning g. personnel h. quality control i. research and development j. logistics

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

64

UNIT IV Types of companies and company structure Businesses are organized in different ways. When there is only one owner, the company is called a sole trader. If two or more people associate to form a company they make up a partnership. In both sole trader organizations and partnerships the owners supply the capital and as a rule they assume the management of the organization. In partnerships only the active partners take part in the management of the company, whereas the sleeping partners do not. Both forms of the business organizations discussed above have no legal obligation to make periodic statements of accounts available to the public. The owners in both types of companies under consideration have unlimited liability, that means they are liable to the full extent of their assets for the debts of the company. It is the owners who are entitled to take possession of all the profits the company makes and all losses are borne by them. On the other hand there are limited liability companies. Such are the parts into either private or public. The former type involves that the public has not access to company, the shares are sold to a restricted number of people. Shares are the parts into which the assets of a company are divided. The owners of the company are shareholders and they hold shares in proportion with the capital they invested in the company. Thus there are minority shareholders and majority shareholders. Public, limited companies (abbreviated plc) are accessible to the public, as they are as a rule quoted on the stock exchange. The management of limited liability companies is entrusted to a board of directors elected by the 65

shareholders in the Annual General Meeting (abbreviated AGM). The shareholders are entitled to the profit made by the company and therefore receive dividends. As for losses, they are borne by the shareholders, but only to the extent of the amount invested in the business, as this is the meaning of limited liability. The shareholders have the right to receive the annual financial statements of the company, accompanied by an independently- audited report. The capital of the company consists of shareholder’s capital ( equity capital) as well as of capital obtained from long- term loans, from banks or other financial institutions. Companies having a high proportion of loan capital are said to be highly geared. On the other hand, if loan capital represents a low proportion in the capital of business, this is said to be lowly geared. Companies are organized in a hierarchical or pyramidal structure. The chairman holds the highest proportion in a board of directors. Sometimes he is the chief executive officer (abbreviated CEO). The managing director is the next in rank. Senior managers head the different departments of a company such as: marketing, finance, public relations, human resources, research and development, etc. According to some sources, however, works managers and sales managers should be considered members of middle management. The middle management consists of assistant managers who report to the senior managers. If someone reports to somebody else, he is the subordinate of the latter. Big companies have central offices or headquarters and branches in the country or abroad. If decisions are taken at the headquarters they are said to have a centralized management. If decisions are left to the competence of

66

branch managers they are said to have a decentralized management. In presenting a company as a rule reference is made to the location of the headquarters and branches or subsidiaries, the amount of business done, or turnover, size of labour force, type of products or services offered. (Source: Alexander Hollinger, Test your Business English Vocabulary, p.18, 19) Vocabulary practice limited liability - this means that no shareholder of such a type of company can be asked to pay more than the nominal value of his shares or the amount of guarantee if the company goes bankrupt; sleeping partner - a person who has capital in a partnership but takes no part in its commercial and managerial activities; board of directors - the effective management committee of a limited liability company; financial statement - any presentation of the accounts of a company; chairman - the highest position on a company’s board of directors sole trader - a person who is the only owner of a business whose manager he also is; partnership - they are associations of persons; the relation which subsists between two or more people carrying on business in common with a view to profit- the number of partners must not exceed 20; 67

Private Limited Company - SRL (Societate cu raspundere limitata); Public Limited Company - SA ( Societate pe actiuni); The Articles of Association - (statutes, US: by-laws) are the internal regulations running the Company defining, among other things, the rights and responsibilities of the shareholders and directors, how directors are elected, how meetings are to be conducted; US Corporation - Companie/ Societate ( in SUA) ; Company - Companie/ Societate (in UK); a public corporation - is a corporation the shares of which are widely held and publicly traded, usually on a stock exchange; a private corporation - is one whose shares are not publicly traded, but may be held by a number of persons; a close corporation - has only a few shareholders and its stock is not normally traded; a domestic corporation- is one formed in that state; a foreign corporation - is a corporation organized in another state or country; winding-up - the winding-up of a company may be compulsory (or involuntary the company is wound up by court order, because it cannot meet its liabilities, or if it ceases to carry on business for more than a year; the winding-up may also be voluntary (or judicial): the company winds up because it has reached, through age, the end of its life fixed by the articles of association, or because a general meeting decides to appoint a liquidator who sells the firm’s real and personal property; when all debts have been met, the remaining assets are shared among the shareholders.

68

Job titles : Job titles matter, nowhere more than at the top of a big company. Maybe that is why such confusion, about what top managers call themselves. A short guide through the maze: Chairman: if he is, American and/ or of the executive variety, he/she is the boss. Non-executive chairmen are rare in America, but popular almost everywhere else. Their speciality is attending board meetings, and supervising the real boss. Many big companies in continental Europe have two chairmen, because they have two boards. One is the supervisory board, which includes outsiders and workers, and oversees the management board, which actually runs the company. In Japan chairmen are most renowned for their golf skills. Vice-chairman or deputy chairman. A title which can mean almost anything from heir to the throne to a former heir headed for retirement. President. In Japan he is the boss, and sometimes the chairman’s son-in-low. In America he is often number two, unless the chairman also wants to be called president. Sometimes the president is the chairman-elect. Sometimes he is being side-stepped. In Britain the title is virtually unknown. Chief executive office (CEO) . in America always the boss. That is why the chairman is often also the CEO. In theory, he is held in check by the board’s non-executive directors. In practice, many of these are CEOs of other companies and many also be friends of the chairman, so they are loathe ( a detesta, a nu fi dispus sa…) to upset the applecart. Chief operating officer (COO) . This is also used mostly in America, where the COO (often the president) runs the company on a “day to day” basis reports to the CEO. 69

Some big British Companies have recently begun adopting the title. Managing director. In Britain this is usually a synonym for CEO in other words, the boss. In Japan there is either the “managing director with usual responsibilities” (CEO) . Some Japanese firms have several managing directors. Abbreviations Bros. = brothers; often indicates a partnership; Ltd. = follows the name of the firm in case of a Private Limited Company (UK) P.L.C., plc = Public Limited Company (UK); Inc. = incorporated. Follows the name of a US business corporation; M.A = Memorandum of Association A.A. = articles of association A.G.M. = Annual General Meeting C.E.O. = Chief Executive Officer C.O.O. = Chief Operating Officer C.L.O. = Chief legal Officer C.F.O. = Chief Financial Officer Key sentences (read and learn). 1. This matter will have to be put on the agenda of our next meeting. 2. The minutes the General Secretary has red to us do not mention that incident. 3. The Articles of Association (US by-laws) list the internal regulations.

70

4. In Great Britain, two documents must be drawn up so that a joint stock company may be set up: the Memorandum of Association and the Articles of Association. 6. For their financing, Public Companies may appeal to the public which is invited to apply for their shares and bonds. 7. In a Private company, on the contrary, the company’s securities can only be exchanged with the consent of the directors. 8. In his address, the Chairman of the Board (Board Chairman) has emphasized the outstanding results of the new subsidiary. 9. Indeed, few shareholders attended the annual meeting, but all had been sent copies of the balance sheet. 10. Mr. Jones has just been appointed to the Board of Directors. 11. Let me introduce Mr. Dunn, our Chairman and Managing Director. 12. The holders of convertible bonds may have them converted into shares. 13. A merger with a Belgian group is being contemplated. 14. What are the registered office and the style of this company? 15. The Board of Directors contemplates an increase in (of) capital. 16. The meeting which was due to take place next Tuesday (scheduled for next Tuesday) has been postponed until 14 May. 17. Numerous small and medium-sized firms are on the verge of bankruptcy. 18. What is the amount of Directors’ fees ? 19. Have you read the minutes of the meeting (proceedings) ?

71

20. We are assisted by a tax consultant (adviser) who draws up our tax returns. 21. Their turnover is 5% down on last year. 22. He started his enterprise with $ x in seed money. 23. We wish to inform you that owing Mr. Taylor’s resignation, the meeting of the Board of Directors is put off to Monday 27th April. 24. A failing company cannot be wound up until all its assets have been liquidated. 25. Mr. Smith resigned his Board chairmanship because the shareholders challenged his policy. 26. In a general partnership, the partners are jointly and severally liable for the debts of the firm. 27. The style of the company has been modified. 28. Members of the Board who cannot attend the extraordinary meeting on June are requested to send proxies. 29. The results of the trading year/ financial year are disappointing. 30. He has been on the Board for two years and has just been re-elected at the Annual General Meeting. 31. The creditors have asked the receiver to put the company back on its feet as quickly as possible. Test. Find the correct word: 1 . The use of the word… should be restricted to non-profit making organizations. a) partnership; b) concern; c) society; d) corporation. 2 . Stockholder is a synonym for… a) shareholder; 72

b) stockbroker; c) bondholder; d) sleeping partner. 3 . Corporate tax is levied on… a) private persons; b) companies; c) personal property; d) professional organizations. 4 . The abbreviation “Inc.” , which follows the name of U.S…. corporations, stands for… a) included; b) inclusive; c) incorporated; d) incapacitated. 5 . Limited partners are liable…. a) only to the extent of the sum they have invested; b) for the whole of the debts of the firm; c) for the full extent of their real property; d) only to the extent of the value of their bonds. 6 . Most statutes require an annual meeting of shareholders to be… a) laid out; b) held; c) calling; d) pointed out. 7 . A Private Company is not allowed to appeal…. the public for the subscription of its shares. a) for; b) to; c) towards; d) into.

73

8 . The Memorandum of Association states the amount of the firm’s…. capital. a) regular; b) authorized; c) managing; d) working. 9 . The Annual General Meeting will be…. by the Chairman of the Board. a) presided; b) presided over; c) directed; d) managed. 10. The public is invited to apply… shares. a) to; b) for; c) over; d) at. 11. A company must be…, by court order if it stops trading for more than a year. a) sued; b) wound up; c) adjudicated bankrupt; d)sold out. Key to the test A: 1.c; 2.a; 3.b; 4.c; 5.a; 6.b; 7.b; 8.b; 9.b; 10.b; 11. b. Focus on grammar There is , there are constructions There is , there are constructions Rule: these constructions are placed before the logical subject of the sentence anticipating it; these constructions 74

have the same number and gender as the noun they anticipate. Affirmative Interrogative Negative Sing. There is … Is there … There isn’t … Pl. There are … Are there … There aren’t … Models: 1. There is a desk in the corner of the room. 2. There are many cars in this parking area. 3. There is a dictionary on the table. 4. There are many people in the corner shop.5. There are a lot of roses in this garden. 6. Is there a pen on the desk? 7. Are there a lot of paintings on the wall? 8. Are there many students in the classroom? 9. There aren’t many desks in this office. Read and learn! Personal pronouns I You He She It We You They

Possessive adjectives my your his her its our your their

Possessive pronouns mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs

Read the sentences below and pay attention to the use of the possessive adjectives and pronouns: 1. This is my car. It is mine. 2. That purse is yours, Mrs. White, isn’t it? Yes, it is. It is not hers.3. They have two children: a son and a daughter haven’t they? Yes, they have. 75

Those are their balls. His is brown, and hers is red. 4. Our office is large, theirs is small. 5. Her dress I new, mine is old. 6. This dog is very nice. Its fur is like brown velvet. 7. My neighbours are very rude, yours are so kind! 8. Where is your watch? Mine is on my desk. Focus on grammar. The Noun Besides other classifications, nouns can be: A. Countable nouns – they do have a plural form; B. Uncountable nouns – they do not have plural forms. A. Countable nouns - the plural: -

general rule: singular + -s = plural

book - books car - cars doll - dolls tree - trees horse - horses etc. 1) nouns ending in –tch, -sh, - ss, -s, -x, add –es for the plural watch – watches bush - bushes dress - dresses bus - buses box - boxes etc. 2) nouns ending in –o, add –es for the plural

76

potato – potatoes tomato - tomatoes hero - heroes echo - echoes etc.

but: piano – pianos photo – photos 3) nouns ending in – y preceded by a consonant change it into –i and add – es lady - ladies country - countries city - cities cherry - cherries berry - berries etc. but: boy - boys toy - toys key - keys play –plays etc. 4) 12 nouns ending in -f or -fe change it into – v and add – es life – lives elf – elves wife - wives half - halves leaf - leaves thief - thieves loaf - loaves calf - calves shelf -shelves self - selves wolf - wolves knife – knives but: roof - roofs staff - staffs 5) irregular plurals: man - men (or: policeman – policemen) woman - women child - children tooth - teeth foot - feet (but: footprint – footprints) 77

goose - geese mouse - mice die - dice 6) nouns having no plural forms: deer - deer (caprioară - căprioare) sheep - sheep (oaie – oi) trout - trout ( păstrăv- păstrăvi) series - series species - species but: fruit: a) fruit(only apples) b) fruits (apples, pears, etc.) fish: a) fish (only carps) b) fishes (carps, salmons, trout, etc.) 7) nouns having a singular form, a plural meaning, requiring a singular verb: information luggage advice knowledge + sing. Vb. furniture machinery jewellery (for the singular we use: a piece of…) i.e. The information is good. (Informaţiile sunt bune) But: I need a piece of information, please. (Am nevoie de o informaţie, te rog.) 8) nouns having a plural form, a singular meaning, requiring a singular verb: news mumps (oreion) measles (pojar) 78

mathematics physics + sing. Vb. economics statistics gymnastics phonetics etc. i.e. Mathematics is a difficult subject. What news is this? Measles is a catching disease. 9) nouns having a plural form in English, a singular meaning in Romanian, requiring a plural verb in English: trousers alms (pomană) pants pyjamas scales spectacles tongs glasses scissors goggles (ochelari de scafandru) surroundings outskirts (periferie) under-wears bellows etc. 10) nouns having two plural forms: cloth - cloths - clothes = pl. vb.

genius - geniuses - genii (duhuri)

die - dies (stampă, matriţă) penny - pennies - dice - pence 11) nouns having two or several meanings in the plural: custom – customs a) obiceiuri b) vama = pl. vb. colour –colours a) culori b) steaguri militare 79

ground – grounds a) terenuri b) motive (pentru care) c) zaţ (la cafea) spirit – spirits a) spirite, duhuri b) băuturi alcoolice B. Uncountable nouns: a) Names of materials: salt, sugar, water, wine, milk, coffee, tea, beer etc. but also: gold, silver, copper, coal, steel, aluminium etc. b) Abstract nouns: friendship humidity ownership (proprietate) draught (secetă) dictatorship sunshine craftsmanship (măiestrie, îndemânare) masterpiece mankind homeland (patrie) humanity carelessness traffic selfishness (egoism) love pride hate length cowardice etc. Note: Many uncountable nouns may become countable when they are used with the meaning ’’ a kind of..., different kinds of..., a variety of... Pluralia tantum and summation plurals colour = culoare; pl. colours colours (pl. tantum) = drapel 80

compass = busola; pl. compasses compasses (pl. tantum) = compas custom = obicei; pl. customs customs (pl. tantum) = vama damage = avarie; pl. damages damages (pl. tantum) = despagubiri effect = effect; pl. effects effects (pl. tantum) = efecte; haine glass = pahar; pl. glasses glasses (pl. tantum) = ochelari ground =teren, parc în jurul unei clădiri; pl. grounds grounds (pl. tantum) = motivele; zaţ de cafea, letter = scrisoare; pl. letters letters (pl. tantum) = literatură, litere minute = minut; pl. minutes minutes (pl. tantum) = process verbal manner = mod; pl. manners manners (pl. tantum) = maniere, purtare premise = premise; pl. premises premises (pl. tantum) = local; imobil pain = durere; pl. pains pains (pl. tantum) = osteneala quarter = sfert, cartier; pl. quarters quarters (pl. tantum) = locuinta; cantonament; sediu receipt = chitanta; pl. receipts receipts (pl. tantum) = incasari scale = gama muzicala; solz; pl. scales scales (pl. tantum) = cântar spectacle = spectacol; pl. spectacles spectacles (pl. tantum) = ochelari term = perioada; termen; trimestru; pl. terms terms (pl. tantum) = termeni; conditii; raporturi 81

Quantifiers Quantifiers express number (many, few, several) or quantity (much, little) in a non-defined way. Many … (mult, multă, mulţi, multe) + countable nouns; Much ... (mult, multă, mulţi, multe) + uncountable nouns. Many trees Many children Many buses Etc.

Much traffic Much rain Much wind Etc.

A few ... (puţin; ceva mai mult decât 0; sens pozitiv); .... few (foarte puţin / infim; sens negativ). + countable nouns A little ... (puţin; ceva mai mult decât 0; sens pozitiv); ... little (puţin / infim; sens negativ) + uncountable nouns Example: There are a few people gathered into the meeting room. You may go and speak to them. There are few people in the streets at this time of the night. “Will lend me some money, please?” “Yes, certainly. I have a little money left in my pocket. Or “No. I’m afraid I can’t. I have little money left in my pocket.” Remember! Money is an uncountable noun in English. We always use this noun only in the third person singular. 82

Example: Money has no value in itself. It serves as a means of exchange between commodities which do have a value to us. Exercise 1. Change the following model: a. He paints houses. b. He is a house painter. 1. He collects stamps. 2. He smokes cigarettes. 3. He goes to the theatre. 4. He makes trouble.

sentences according to the

5. He cleans streets. 6. It plays records. 7. It lights cigarettes. 8. It cuts paper.

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the plural of the underlined nouns: 1. When we say that the trees are in full leaf, we mean that they are covered with ……. 2. This library is useful. I think all …… are useful. 3. One half is not enough; give him both …….. 4. “Will a tomato do, mother?” “No, bring me more potatoes and more …… 5. “ May I have a penknife, father?” “All the boys have wonderful ……” 6. His story is more credible than your …… . Exercise 3. Use the nouns in the brackets in the singular or in the plural according to the meaning: 1.She longs for the bracing (air) of the mountain village. She is too intelligent to put on (air). 2. What is the (good) of staying so late? The ordered (good) have not been delivered yet. 3. So much (sand) makes driving difficult; I suppose the wind had blown it from the (sand). 4. Look at this manuscript; the (writing) shows an extremely delicate nature. 83

Yes, and the author’s (writing) show the same thing too. 5. The demonstration was a fine (spectacle). “Where have you put my (spectacles)?” 6. “Shall I put the (content) at the beginning or at the end of the book?” I appreciate the substantial (content) of your paper.7. As soon as you get through the (custom) you’ll find yourself in a country with the original and interesting (custom). 8. She is full of (grace). She has never been in his (grace). 9. The (pain) in his leg hindered his progress. She took great (pain) in doing this job. Exercise 3.Give collective nouns to the following wordgroups: a multitude of soldiers; a collection of ships; a group of animals; the soldiers and the officers on a ship; members who govern a country; political groups; people listening to a concert; students always working together. Exercise 4. Combine the words in capital letters with each word of the list below it, putting it either before or after according to the meaning: MAN SCHOOL HOUSE WORK work grammar work needle police boy hold day kind master wife shop SHOP LAND PAPER DAY book father bag birth window mark news break work lord money pay MASTER HORSE TABLE HEAD piece man time light school shoe tennis line head race cloth bridge 84

Exercise 5. Rewrite in the plural: 1. This is a box. 2. That’s a lorry. 3. Where’s the knife? 4. Is it your watch? 5. This is a new house. 6. That’s an old chimney. 7. That isn’t my dress. 8. That’s a shoe. 9. who’s this man? 10. He’s a farmer and this is his wife. 11. That’s a row of people. 12. Is it a new bridge? 13. There’s a match in the box. 14. There’s no child in their family. 15. Is there a dictionary on his desk? 16. Is there a desk in that room? 17. The face of that woman is attractive. 18. The house isn’t large but it’s comfortable. 19. who’s that person? 20. Which book is yours? Exercise 6 .Read the following sentences and pay attention to the quantitative value of the nouns in italics and state whether the noun has the corresponding singular or plural form: 1. Are these data correct? 2. The cattle were driven home. 3. The fruit isn’t yet ripe.4. Where are the scissors? 5. What is the news? 6. The surroundings of our town are very beautiful. 7. How much money have you got? 8. The radii of a circle are always equal. 9. He gave us some good advice. 10. Under the great oaks a flock of sheep was feeding, and behind a steel fence there was a herd of deer. 11. He will give you all the necessary information. 12. Abraham Lincoln spoke of “government of the people, by the people, for the people”.13. A series of English classics has recently been published. 14. Acoustics is a branch of physics. 15. How many fish have you caught? 16. The ellipses were carefully drawn. 17. He grows many kinds of fruits. 18. Such phenomena are rarely to be seen. 19. How many species of animals exist in Romania?20. Do many Chinese live here? 21. The police are investigating. 22. He hated the rich and 85

loved the poor. 23. His trousers are short. 24. Your spectacles are very dirty. 25. Where are your lodgings? 26. They live in a barracks. 27. We visited the glass-works. 28. Does the end always justify the means? 29. There are slums in the outskirts of the city. 30. Riches do not always bring happiness. Exercise 7. Read the following sentences containing pluralia tantum in –s and try to translate them: 1. The standard of living in the Middle Ages was very low. 2. She tried to make amends for her former behaviour. 3. All Dacians rose in arms when the Romans invaded Dacia. 4. The letter burnt to ashes. 5. He’s got good brains, he’ll manage. 6. Clothes do not make the man. 7. Have a look at the table of contents. 8. They couldn’t finish the project for lack of funds. Goods are usually transported in goods trains. 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. He has good looks. 12. You are forgetting your manners, young man! 13. He is a man of means, he can afford it. 14. You’ll find the information you need in the minutes of the meeting. 15. We are all at pains to please her. 16. The policeman is taking down the particulars of the witnesses. 17. There is a suspect on the premises. 18. Give her my best regards. 19. I’ve put all my savings in the savings bank. 20. She is always in good spirits. 21. I can’t drink spirits. 22. She is sitting on the stairs. 24. he earns high wages. Exercise 8. Select the correct forms of the verbs, paying special attention to the agreement between subject and predicate:

86

1. Mumps (is / are) contagious. 2. The outskirts of our town (has / have) been completely rebuilt. 3. Alms (does / do) not solve the poor's problem. 4. The trousers (is / are) well-cut. 5. Phonetics (deals / deal) with the sounds of a language. 6. The information (is / are) very important to us. 7. The furniture of the room (was / were) very modern, indeed. 8. Customs (is / are) very expensive for such products. 9. This piece of luggage (is / are) very heavy. 10. Your piece of advice (is / are) very important to me. 11. What news (is /are) published today? 12. Plastics (replaces /replace) more and more the traditional materials. Exercise 9. Change the following sentences into the plural where possible: 1. The furniture is old-fashioned. 2. Have you got an exercise to do? 3. This cupboard is new and modern. 4. Is the curtain white or yellow? 5. There is a lot of snow in winter. 6. A city is a big town. 7. This television-set costs a lot of money. 8. There is a lot of milk in the jug. 9. There is a tea-pot on the table. 10. There isn’t any ink in this fountain-pen. 11. A glass is made of glass. 12. This is a brilliant idea. 13. This girl is a real beauty. 14. It is made of iron. 15. Have you got an electric iron? 16. His hair is grey. 17. I’m having fish for lunch. 18. The tree is full of blossom. 19. Does he prefer duck to chicken? 20. Is this table made of oak? Has he little money? 21. He gave me some good advice. 22. Does she eat much bread? I don’t do much business with him. 23. She has three pieces of luggage. 24. Have you got much work to do?

87

UNIT V Work and jobs To find out what someone’s job is you say “What do you do?” Here Dorothy talks about her job: “I work for a large European car market. I work on car design. In fact, I run the design department and I manage a team designers: 25 people work under me. It’s very interesting. One of my main responsibilities is to make sure that new model designs are finished on time. I’m also in charge of design budgets. I deal with a lot of different people in the company. I’m responsible for co-ordination between design and production: I work with managers at our manufacturing plants.” Vocabulary practice: in charge of + noun responsible for verb + - ing responsibility + infinitive or – ing One of my responsibilities is to make sure … One of my responsibilities is making sure … Word combinations with “work” If you work or have work, you have a job. But you don’t say that someone has a work. Work is also the place where you do your job. Here are some phrases with “work”: “ Hi, I’m Edwin. I work in a bank in New York city. I leave for work at 7.30 every morning.” 88

“I go to work by bus and underground.” “I get to / arrive at work at about nine.” “I’m usually at work till six.” “Luckily, I don’t get ill very much so I’m not often off work.” Types of job and types of work A full-time job is for the whole of the normal working week; a part-time job Is for less time than that. You say that someone works full-time or part-time. A permanent job does not finish after a fixed period; a temporary job finishes after a fixed period. Reading, speaking: If you work … What do you do? What are you in charge of? What are your responsibilities? What time do you leave for work? How long does it take you to get to work? What time do you arrive at work? Do you take a lot of time off work? If you don’t work … What sort of job would you like to do? What routine would you like to have? Ways of working I’m an office worker in an insurance company. It’s a nine-tofive job with regular working hours. The work isn’t very 89

interesting, but I like to be able to go home at a reasonable time. We all have to clock in and clock out every day. In this company, even the mangers have to, which is unusual! Note: You also say clock on and clock off. I’m in computer programming. There’s a system of flexible in my company, which means we can work when we want, within certain limits. We can start at any time before eleven, and finish as early as three, as long as we do enough hours each month. It’s ideal for me as I have two young children. I work in a car plant. I work in shifts. I may be on the day shift one week and the night shift the next week. It’s difficult changing from one shift to another. When I change shifts, I have problems changing to a new routine for sleeping and eating. I’m a commercial artist in an advertising agency. I work in a big city, but I prefer living in the country, so I commute to work every day, like thousands of other commuters. Working from home using a computer and the Internet is becoming more and more popular, and the agency is introducing this: it’s called teleworking or telecommuting. But I like going into the office and working with other people around me. Words used in front of “job” and “work”: - satisfying, stimulating, fascinating, exciting, if the work is interesting and gives you positive feeling;- dull, boring, uninteresting, unstimulating, if the work is not interesting;

90

-

repetitive, routine, if the work involves doing the same things again and again; tiring, tough, hard, demanding, if the work is difficult and makes you tired.

Focus on grammar. Present simple and present continuous tense Present simple We use the present simple to talk about actions we see as long term or permanent. Here, we are talking about regular actions or events.  They drive to the office every day.  She doesn’t come here very often.  The news usually starts at 6.00 every evening.  Do you usually have bacon and eggs for breakfast? Here, we are talking about future facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart.  Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year.  The plane leaves at 5.00 tomorrow morning.  Ramadam doesn’t start for another 3 weeks.  Does the class begin at 10 or 11 this week. Here we are talking about thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Although these feelings can be short-term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous.  They don’t ever agree with us.  I think you are right.  She doesn’t want you to do it.  Do you understand what I am trying to say.

91

Present continuous tense We use the present continuous to talk about present situations which we see as short-term or temporary. In the following examples, the action is taking place at the time of speaking.  Oh, no. It’s raining.  Who is Kate talking to on the phone?  Look, somebody is trying to steal that man’s wallet.  Slow down, you’re driving too fast. In the next examples, the action is true at the present moment but we don’t think it will true in the long term.  We’re looking for a new house.  She’s thinking about leaving the company.  Are you doing enough revision for your exams?  They’re considering making an appeal against the judgment. In these examples, the action is at a definite time in the future and has already been arranged.  I’m seeing her at 6.30.  He’s coming next week.  We are having a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers.  They aren’t arriving until Wednesday.  Isn’t she coming to the dinner? Exercise 1.Complete the following sentences using the Present tense simple of the verbs below. Express a general truth or a permanent situation. point, hunt, make, freeze, move, fly, float, appear, sell, set, expand, take care. 92

1. Gravity … things fall to the ground. 2. The sun … in the west. 3. Lions … smaller animals. 4. Pilots … airplanes. 5. The Earth … round the sun. 6. A greengrocer … vegetables. 7. The new moon … every month. 8. Wood … on water. 9. A compass …. North. 10.Water … at 0 Celsius degrees 11.Heat … gas. 12.A vet … of sick animals Exercise 2. Read the following in the third person singular. 1. I think I am right. 2. Policemen often direct traffic. 3. They help their father. 4. Butchers sell meat 5. Secretaries often write letters. 6. We live in London 7. They worry too much. 8. You drive too quickly. 9.I always carry an umbrella. 10.Why do dogs bark? 11.Buses go every ten minutes. 12.I always read The Times. 13.Do you like hard-boiled eggs? 14.I go to church on Sundays. 15.Elephants never forget. 16.Do you like snails? 17.Good children always obey their parents. 93

18.His dog always attack strangers. 19.They do exercises every morning before breakfast. 20.These hotels don’t allow dogs. Exercise 3. Read the following, a) in the negative. b) in the interrogative. In Nos. 2 and 14, have is used as an ordinary verb and should be treated as one. 1. You know the answer. 2. He has breakfast at 8.00. 3. Jack loves Jill. 4. Some schoolgirls wear uniforms. 5. He trusts you. 6. It melts in the sun. 7. The bell rings at 8.00. 8. The flowers look fresh. 9. He thinks too much. 10.He lives besides the sea. 11.I remember the address. 12.She plays chess very well. 13.They always forget to pay. 14.Most men shave every day here. 15.Climbers often carry ropes. 16.They talk in their sleep. 17.She agrees with you. 18.Some girls enjoy dances. 19.This car breaks down frequently. 20.The star moves round the sun. Exercise 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the present continuous tense. 94

1. She (not work), she (swim) in the river. 2. He (teach) his boy to ride. 3. Why Ann (not wear) her new dress? 4. The airplane (fly) at 2,000 feet. 5. What Tom (do) now? He (clean) his shoes. 6. This fire (go) out. Somebody (bring) more coal? 7. It (rain)? Yes, it (rain) very hard. You can’t go out yet. 8. You (not tell) the truth. How do you know that I (not tell) the truth? 9. Who (make) that terrible noise? It is your uncle. He (practise) the violin. 10.Why you (type) so fast? You (make) a lot of mistakes. Exercise 5.Put the verbs in brackets into the simple present or the present continuous tense. 1. Cuckoos (not build) nests. They (use) the nests of other birds. 2. You can’t see Tom now: He (have) a bath. 3. He usually (drink) coffee but today he (drink) tea. 4. What she (do) in the evenings? She usually (play ) cards or (listen) to the wireless. 5. I won’t go out now as it (rain) and I (not have) an umbrella. 6. The last train (leave) the station at 11.30. 7. He usually (speak) so quickly that I (not understand) him. 8. In Spain women usually (not wear) hats. 9. I’m afraid I’ve broken one of your coffee cups. Don’t worry. It (not matter) a bit. I (not like) that set anyway. 10.I always (buy) lottery tickets but I never (win ) anything. 11.Who (make) that terrible noise ? 95

It is Mr. Pitt. He (blow) his nose. 12.How much you (owe) him? I (owe) him $5. You (intend) to pay him? 13.What Tom (think) of the Budget? He (think) it most unfair. I (agree) with him. Exercise 6. Mix and match: 1.Who’s she talking to? a) I’m just brushing my hair. 2.Shall we go for a walk? b) He’s smoking a cigarette outside. 3.I’m looking for my bag. c) No, it’s still raining. 4.What is she wearing? d) Have you seen it? 5.Is anyone sitting here? e) I don’t know but it doesn’t suit her! 6.Where is Tom? f) I think I’ll go to bed. 7.I’ll be ready in a few minutes g) Oh, that’s her brother. 8.I’m getting tired. h) No, no. Sit down. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

96

UNIT VI The Manager’s Role Managers have to identify and set the objectives for their company. They are involved in long-term, strategic planning, as well as in the drawing up of short term, tactical plans. Managers must organize the company, decide on allocation and use of the company’s resources. They select and train the staff that should be able to suitably carry out the task’s of the organization. In the implementation of their programme they must command, delegate, motivate and communicate effectively with all the levels of their company. It has been pointed out that good relations at work, among workers and between workers and management favourably influence output, the quality of work and motivation. The feeling of belonging to a group has a positive impact on the behaviour of employees. Successful managers always involve their staff in performing important tasks, delegating them some activities, this leading to improved results of the company. The control activity means measuring the performance of their staff, setting obtained results against objectives – the management by objectives technique is but one example in this respect. Managers also have to establish and make contacts with the outside world, they represent their organization in its relation with customers and suppliers, government and other parties. (Source: Alexander Hollinger, Test your Business English Vocabulary,p.18, 19)

97

Vocabulary practice 1. communicate 2. delegate 3. motivate 4. management by objectives

- to convey an idea or feeling to people - to give someone the duty to act on your behalf, make decisions - give/offer a stimulus to do something - a method of checking the performance of an employee by setting the results against the targets

Focus on grammar (I). The past simple tense The past simple tense The past simple tense is used to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. We use it to talk about a specific point in time. I saw her in the street yesterday. He came back last Thursday. We didn’t agree to the deal. We can also use it to talk about a period of time. We lived in Japan for five years. She was in London from Monday to Thursday last week. When he was living in New York, he went to all the bars and clubs he could. We will often find the past simple used with time expressions such as these:

98

Yesterday three weeks ago last year in 2002 from March to June for a long time for 6 weeks in the 1980s in the past Regular verbs:

V + -ed = Past simple tense

All new verbs in English are regular. I photocopied the report. She faxed it to me. They emailed everybody about it. I googled my name and got more than 20 000 responses. Irregular verbs

(see the list)

There are approximately 180 irregular verbs. You don’t need to learn all of them because some of these are very rare but many others are very useful and you do need to know them. What’s the easiest way to learn them? Some people think you should learn a list “by heart”. Others think you should not learn them at all – you will just gradually acquire them over time. One useful method is to note down new irregular verbs as you meet them. It is useful to write these verbs (or any vocabulary you want to learn) in sentences and learn those rather than the individual words. 99

Which is easier to learn? Stick – stuck – stuck I stuck the photo into my album. Another technique is to classify the irregular verbs into 4 categories. 1.All forms the same Cast – cast - cast Cost – cost - cost Let – let – let 2. Similar sound groups Beat – beat - beaten Eat - ate - eaten Blow - blew - blown Throw – threw - thrown Drink – drank - drunk Sing – sang - sung Speak - spoke - spoken Wake - woke – woken 3. The second and the third forms are the same. Bend – bent - bent Sleep – slept - slept Spend – spent - spent Bring - brought - brought Buy – bought – bought Teach - taught - taught 100

Have – had - had Pay - paid - paid Say - said – said 4. The “unclassifiable” Come - came - came Do - did - done Go - went - gone Show – showed - shown As you meet new irregular verbs, try to decide in which category they fall. Focus on grammar (II).The present perfect tense (Please note that British and American English have different rules for the use of this tense. The explanation and exercises here refer to British English. In American English, it is often acceptable to use the past simple in some of these examples.) We use the present perfect tense when we want to look back from the present to the past. We can use it to look back on the recent past. I have broken my watch so I don’t know what time it is. They have cancelled the meeting. She has taken my copy. I don’t have one. The sales team has doubled its turnover. When we look back on the recent past, we often use the words “just”, “already” or the word “yet” (in negatives and questions only).

101

We have already talked about that. She hasn’t arrived yet. I have just finished the translation. They have already met him. They haven’t known it yet. Have you spoken to him yet? Have they finished the report yet? It can also be used to look back on the more distant past. We have been to Singapore a lot over the last few years. She has done this type of project many times before. We have mentioned it to them on several occasions over the last six months. They have often talked about it in the past. When we look back on the more distant past, we often use the words “ever” (in questions) and “never”. Have you ever been to Argentina? Has he ever talked to you about the problem? Focus on grammar (III). The present perfect continuous tense This tense is used to talk about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future. We can use it to refer to an action that has finished but you can still see evidence. Oh, the kitchen is a mess. Who has been cooking? You look tired. Have you been sleeping properly? 102

I have got a stiff neck. I’ve been working too long on the computer. It can refer to an action that has not finished. I’ve been learning Spanish for 20 years and still don’t know it very much. I’ve been waiting for him for 30 minutes and he still hasn’t arrived. He’s been telling me about it for days. I wish he would stop. It can refer to a series of actions. She has been writing to her regularly for a couple of years. He has been phoning me all week for an answer. The university has been sending students here for over twenty years to do work experience. The present perfect continuous is often used with “since”, “for”, “all week”, “for days”, “lately”, “recently”, “over the last few months”. I have been waiting to do that for ten years. You haven’t been getting good results over the last few months. They haven’t been working all week. They’re on strike. He hasn’t been working hard on it for ages. I’ve been looking at other options recently. He has been working here since 2001.

103

Focus on grammar (IV).Present perfect simple or continuous tense Often there is very little difference between the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous. In many cases, both are equally acceptable. They’ve been working here for a long time but Andy has worked here for even longer. I’ve lived here for 10 years and she has been living here for 12 years. To emphasize the action, we use the continuous form. We’ve been working really hard for a couple of months. She’s been having a hard time. To emphasize the result of the action, we use the simple form. I’ve made fifteen phone calls this morning. He’s written a very good report. Look at the difference in these examples. I’ve been reading this book for two months but I’ve only read half of it. She’s been trying to convince him for 20 minutes but she hasn’t managed to yet. They’ve been talking about this for months and they still haven’t found a solution.

104

When an action is finished and you can see the results, use the continuous from. The phone bill is enormous. You’ve been calling your boyfriend in Australia, haven’t you? You’re red in the face. Have you been running? When you use the words “ever” or “never”, use the simple form. I don’t know them. I’ve never met them. Have you ever heard anything so strange in your life?

Exercise 1. Transform the following sentences into interrogative sentences and then negative sentences, paying attention to the forms of the irregular verbs. Model: I cut the bread. a. Did I cat the bread? b. I did not cut the bread. She made a cake. a. Did she make a cake? b. She did not make a cake. 1. She sent the letter yesterday. 2. the boy took a bath every morning. 3. The doctor wore a dark blue suit with a grey tie. 4. I forgave her at once. 5. The man went to bed late at night. 6. Mr. and Mrs. Smith slept at a hotel. 7. Susan brought her daughter a blue dress. 8. The Bartons caught the boat-train to London 9. The little boy ate all the chocolates. 10. He hurt her feelings by saying that. 105

11. Mr. Brown gave George a small present. 12. Margaret chose a book for a friend in hospital. 13. The sun rose at 5:20. 14. Jack fell into the river. 15. The thief lay still in the dark. 16. He meant his sun to succeed. 17. She beat the carpets yesterday. 18. The dog bit him in the leg. 19. My sun won the prize last year. 20. Mother laid the table in no time. Exercise 2. Read the following passage paying attention to the past tense used to express consecutive past actions as it is primarily the tense of narration: Oliver walked twenty miles that day, and all that time he ate nothing but his piece of bread. He stopped once or twice at a farm and asked for some water. When the night came he crept under a hayrick. He decided to lie there till morning. He felt frightened at first, but he was terribly tired and soon fell asleep. He felt very cold and hungry the next morning, but he bravely started on his way. In the next village he bought a little bread for his penny. But he got only a very small piece of bread and he had nothing else to eat the whole day. So when the evening came his legs were so weak that he could hardly walk. Again he slept under a haystack, but when he wanted to start the next morning he could hardly walk. He waited at the bottom of a steep hill till a stage coach came. When it came he asked for a penny from the passengers etc. (Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens)

106

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks with the past tense simple of the verbs in brackets to make a description of a past demonstration. 1.Last year we … (visit) a modern factory where they make window glass. 2.We first … (see) workmen mixing sand and other materials in the right amounts. 3.Then they … (add) some glass to the mixture. 4.Next they …(feed) the mixture into a big hot oven. 5.At the far end of the oven, a stream of liquid glass …(come out). 6.Here some men …(lower) a metal frame into the liquid. 7.As the frame …(come up), it … (pull away) a hot sheet of glass. 8.Special rollers … (take hold) of the sheet at either side and … (carry) it upwards. 9.At height of 30 feet the sheet of glass ... (become) cool and another machine …(cut) it into big pieces which workmen … (store away) together. 10.The glass … (be) now ready for use. Exercise 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the past continuous tense. 1.The children were afraid because it (get) dark. 2.It was a fine day and the roads were crowded because a lot of people (rush) to the seaside. 3.The plane in which the football team (travel) crashed soon after taking off. 4.Mr. Taylor usually wears sandals during the summer season but when I last saw him he (wear) thick boots. 5.The office was in great disorder because he (redecorate) it. 6.The car was empty but the engine (run). 107

7.Are you going to Rome? I thought that you (go) to Milan. 8.My partner and I (talk) about this business the other day. 9.When I first met him he (work) for a big company. 10.There was a strong smell and the sound of frying. Obviously Mrs. Jones (cook) fish. 11.Tom ate nothing for lunch because he (diet). He said that he (try) to lose 10 lb. 12.When I arrived at the meeting the first speaker had just finished speaking and the audience (clap). 13.Who you (talk) to on the telephone as I came in? I (talk) to Mr. Pitt. 14.Where he (live) when you saw him last? 15.There had an accident and men (carry) the injured people to the Ambulance. Exercise 5. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect tense, and fill the spaces by repeating the auxiliary. 1. Where you (be)? I (be) to the dentist. 2. You (have) breakfast? Yes, I …… 3. The post (come)? No, it …… 4. You (see) my watch anywhere? No, I’m afraid I…… 5. Someone (wind) the clock? Yes, Tom ….. 6. The phone (stop) ringing. 7. You (hear) of her lately? No, I ……. 8. There aren’t any buses because the drivers (go) on strike. 9. You (have) enough to eat? Yes, I (have) plenty, thank you. 10.Charles (pass) his exam? Yes, he ……

108

Exercise 2. Read the questions below and answer them according to the model. Use JUST with the present perfect simple to express an action completed recently. Model: Is Peter opening the window now? No, he’s just opened the window. Are the students listening to the tapes now? No, they’ve just listened to the tapes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Is Mr. Brown opening his office now? Are the students practising the tenses now? Is Alice cleaning the blackboard now? Is the secretary typing the report now? Is Barbara closing the door now? Are the boys playing tennis now? Are the new investors waiting in front of the building now? 8. Are the two men signing the agreements now? 9. Is Ted buying a new car for the company now? 10. Is the manager announcing the subject of the meeting now? Exercise 6. Read the following situation and put in Diana’s answers. Use the present perfect +ALREADY for an action completed at a time earlier than expected. Situation: Diana is having a party tonight. Her sister is worried as she thinks there are still a lot of things to do. But Diana has already done everything. Model: Sister: Now, Diana, you must clean your room. Diana: I’ve already cleaned it, mum.

109

Sister 1.And you must dust the furniture. 2.Don’t forget to make the beds 3.And the dishes – you must wash them. 4.And you must iron the tablecloth. 5.Then you must lay the table. 6.Don’t forget to make the sandwiches. 7.And the cake – you must bake it 8.You must also get some coffee. 9.And you must buy some fruit, too, you know. 10.Don’t forget to put the flowers on the table.

Diana ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. …….

Exercise 7. Answer the following questions in the negative. Use YET with the negative form of the present perfect simple to express an action which is still incomplete. Situation: Judy Stevens is a secretary in a big office. She has been away for a week as she has been ill. Now the manager is asking about her activity. Model: Manager: Well, has Judy typed the letters? Office worker: No, I’m afraid she hasn’t typed them yet. 110

Manager Office worker Has Judy typed the interview? Has Judy phoned Mr. Parker? Has Judy written the report? Has Judy written the report? Has Judy sent the letters? Has Judy arranged the conference? Has Judy paid the telephone bill? Has Judy bought pens and pencils? Exercise 8. Give true answers to the following questions to practise the use of EVER, NEVER, OFTEN, which are frequently associated with the present perfect.(These adverbs of frequency can be associated with other tenses as well, depending on the context and the temporal relations.) Model: Have you ever played tennis? Yes, I have. I’ve often played tennis./ No, I haven’t. I’ve never played tennis. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Have you ever read in a library? Have you ever missed the train? Have ever cooked? Have you ever travelled by cable car? Have you ever eaten caviar? Have you ever acted in a play? Have you ever visited Paris? 111

8. Have you ever met a famous person? 9. Have ever ridden a horse? 10. Have ever lost your wallet? Exercise 9. The Present Perfect and the Simple Past Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or the simple past tense. (In some sentences the present perfect continuous is also possible.) 1. This is my house. How long you (live) here? I (live) here since 1989. 2. He (live) in London for two years and then (go) to Edinburgh. 3. You (wear) your hair long when you were at school? Yes, my mother (insist) on it. 4. But when I (leave) school I (cut) my hair and (wear) it short ever since. 5. Shakespeare (write) several plays. 6. My brother (write) several Plays. He just (finish) his second tragedy. 7. I (fly) over Loch Ness last week. You (see) the Loch Ness monster? 8. I (not see) him for three years. I wonder where he is. 9. He (not smoke) for two weeks. He is trying to give it up. 10. Chopin (compose) some of his music in Majorca. 11. I can’t go out because I (not finish) my work. 12. You (see) the moon last night? 13. We (miss) the bus. Now we’ll have to walk. 14. He (break) his leg in a skiing accident last year. Exercise 10. Answer the questions

112

1. How long have you been living in this town? 2. How long have you known Michael? 3. How long have you had this hat? 4. How long have you been a student? 5. How long have you had a driving license? 6. How long have you had this car? 7. How long have you been studying English? 8. How long have you been doing this exercise? Exercise 11. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or the present perfect continuous tense. (In some cases either could be used.) 1. We (walk) ten miles. 2. We (walk) for three hours. 3. You (walk) too fast. That’s why you are tired. 4. He (not stop) eating since he arrived. 5. The driver (drink). I think someone else ought to drive. 6. He (sleep) since ten o’clock. It’s time he woke up. 7. What a lovely smell ! Mary (make) jam, 8. I (work) for him for ten years and he never once (say) “Good morning” to me. 9. He (teach) in this school for five years. 10.I (teach) hundreds of students but I never (meet) such a hopeless class as this. 11.I (try) to finish this letter for the half-hour. I wish you’d go away or stop talking. 12.It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the match (be) postponed. 113

Exercise 12.”For” and “Since” Fill the spaces in the following sentences by using for and since. 1. We’ve been fishing …….. two hours. 2. I’ve been working in this office ……. a month. 3. They’ve been living in France ……. 1995. 4. I’ve known that …….. a long time. 5. The man has been standing there …….. six o’clock. 6. Things have changed ……. I was a little boy. 7. I’ve been using this machine …….. twelve years. 8. We’ve been waiting …….. half an hour. 9. Mr. Pitt has been in hospital ……… his accident. 10.He hasn’t spoken to me ………… the last committee meeting. 11.He has been under water ……. Half an hour. 12.Thar tree has been there ……. 2,000 years. 13.He hasn’t eaten anything …….. twenty-four hours. 14.He has been Minister of Education …….2002. Exercise 2. Use the verbs in brackets in the present perfect simple or continuous. (Some of the verbs cannot be used in the continuous aspect). Model: Mary went to library at 8 o’clock in the morning. She is still there, reading. (be, read) Mary has been in the library since 8 o’clock. 1. Paul and Ann are waiting for the train. They walked onto the station platform half an hour ago. (wait, be) 2. My cousin bought a car in 2001. in the same year he learnt to drive. He still has the car. (have, drive) 114

3. I first met John five years ago. He was living in London at that time and he is still living there. (know, live) 4. My parents bought a house ten years ago. They are still living in it. (own, live) 5. The Taylors began making plans for their holiday two hours ago. Now they know where they are going to spend it. (talk, decide) 6. Cindy caught a bad cold three days ago. She immediately went to bed. She ‘s still there. She still coughs a lot. (be, cough)

115

UNIT VII Motivation In order to insure that employees work efficiently a manager must motivate his staff. The factors influencing motivation have been presented as a hierarchy of needs by Maslow. The first group are physiological needs such as food, water, air and sleep. Before these needs have been satisfied people will not think of other needs. The second place is held by security needs such as being safe, being free from danger, pain, unemployment and having a shelter where to stay. When these needs are satisfied people will have social needs which include the feeling of belonging to a group as well as being accepted and liked by the others. The next type of need is called esteem need, that is self-respect, the esteem of others, the desire to have power and status. The highest level in the hierarchy of needs is held by selfactualization needs i.e. the desire to develop, to maximize one’s potential, to achieve one’s goals. Another theory of motivation is that worked out by Herzberg. He has a twofactor theory motivators, i.e. factors bringing satisfaction, include challenging work, career prospects, responsibility and recognition, promotion. The second group of factors, hygiene factors, refer to conditions of work such as salary and fringe benefits, relationship with colleagues, job security, status. The second group does not give increased satisfaction. However, the absence of such factors is likely to lead to dissatisfaction. (Source: Alexander Hollinger, Test your Business English Vocabulary,p.18, 19)

116

Vocabulary practice 1. hierarchy - the position of somebody in society / how important others think you are 2. status - a system where ideas are arranged in a formal structure 3. self-actualization – self-development 4. security - protection from danger / harm Focus on grammar. Past tense continuous Past tense continuous We use the past continuous to talk about past events which went on for a period of time. We use it when we want to emphasize the continuing process of an activity or the period of that activity. (If we just want to talk about the past event as a simple fact, we use the past simple.)      

While I was driving home, Peter was trying desperately to contact me. Were you expecting any visitors? Sorry, were you sleeping? I was just making some coffee. I was thinking about him last night. In the 1990s few people were using mobile phones.

We often use it to describe a "background action" when something else happened.

117

     

I was walking in the street when I suddenly fell over. She was talking to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead. They were still waiting for the plane when I spoke to them. The company was declining rapidly before he took charge. We were just talking about it before you arrived. I was making a presentation in front of 500 people when the microphone stopped working.

Past tense simple or continuous Both the past simple and the past continuous refer to completed actions in the past. Most of the time when we are talking about such actions, we use the past simple. This is by far the most common way of talking about the past.    

I lived there for 6 years. I only found out a few moments ago. I asked her but she didn't know anything. The company made 100 people redundant last year.

Only use the past continuous when you want to emphasize the continuity of the action.    

Everybody was talking about it all evening. They were really trying hard but couldn't do it. I was thinking about you the other day. Were you expecting that to happen? 118

When we use these two forms in the same sentence, we use the past continuous to talk about the "background action" and the past simple to talk about the shorter completed action.    

It was raining hard when we left the building. I was reading the report when you rang. He was going out to lunch when I saw him. The company was doing well when I last visited

Exercise 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or the simple past tense. In some sentences the present perfect continuous is also possible. 1.This is my house. How long you (live) here? I (live) here since 1950. 2.He (live) in London for two years and then (go) to Edinburgh. 3.You (wear) your hair long when you were at school? Yes, my mother (insist) on it. 4.But when I (leave) school I (cut) my hair and (wear) it short ever since. 5.Shakespeare (write) several plays. 6.My brother (write) several plays. He just (finish) his second tragedy. 7.I (fly) over Loch Ness last week. You (see) the Loch Ness monster? 8.I (not see) him for three years. I wonder where he is. 9.He (not smoke) for two weeks. He is trying to give it up. 10.Chopin (compose) some of his music in Majorca. 11.When he (arrive)? He (arrive) at 2.00 p.m. 12.They (leave) home at 8.00 a.m. and (get) there at 12.00. 13.Jane (do) this sort of work when she (be) in the army. 119

14.Mr. Taylor just (go) out of the office ten minutes ago. 15.Ted (break) his leg in a skiing accident last year. 16.Mr. Pound is the bank manager. He (be ) here for five years. Exercise 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: present perfect or simple past. 1.I (buy) a new house last year , but I (not sell) my old house yet, so at the moment I have two houses. 2.When Ann (be) on her way to the station it (begin) to rain. Ann (run) back to her flat for her umbrella, but this (make) her late for her train. 3.She (catch) the next train but it (not get) in till 9.00, so she (arrive) at her office ten minutes late. 4.Her boss (look) up as she (come) in. ‘You (be) late every morning this week’, he (growl). 5.At 7 a.m. Charles (ring) peter and (say), ‘I’m going fishing, peter. Would you like to come?’ ‘But it’s so early,’ (say) peter. ‘I (not have) breakfast yet. Why you (not tell) me last night?’ 6.Ann (go) to Canada six months ago. She (work) in Canada for a while and then (go) to the United States. 7.Cindy (be) in Japan for two years. She is working there and she likes it very much. 8.How long have you(be) in your present job? I (be) there for six months. And what you (do) before that? Before that I (work) for Jones and Company. 9.When I (be) seventeen I (start) my university course. When you (get) your degree? Oh, I (not get) my degree yet; I’m still at the university. I only (be) there for three years. 120

10.You (ever, be) to France? Yes, I (spend) last July and August in Grenoble. I (go) to improve my French but everyone I (meet) (want) to improve his English so I (not get) much practice. 11.In the evenings I often play chess with my next door neighbour. I (play) chess with him ever since I (come) to live here ten years ago. 12.I hope you’re enjoying your visit to England. You (meet) any Englishmen yet? Yes, I (meet) a man called Smith at a party last night. What you (talk) about? We (talk) about the weather. Exercise 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the present continuous tense. 1.I (make) cakes. That is why my hands are all covered with flour. 2.Her phone (ring) for ten minutes. I wonder why she doesn’t answer it? 3.He (overwork). That is why he looks pale. 4.How long you (wear) glasses? 5.He (speak) for an hour now. I expect he’ll soon be finished. 6.I (shop) all day and I’m completely exhausted. 7.How long you(wait) for me? I (wait) about half an hour. 8.Have seen my briefcase anywhere? I (look) for it for ages. 9.I’m sorry for keeping you waiting. I (be) on a meeting. 10.He (speak) for an hour now. I expect he’ll soon be finished. 11.We (argue) about this for two hours now. Don’t you think we should stop? 12.We (live) here since 1982.

121

13.I’m on a diet. I (eat) nothing but bananas for the last month. 14.This pipe (leak) for ages. We must get it mended. 15.The trial (go) on for a long time. I wonder what the verdict will be. 16.It (rain) for three days now. The roads will be blocked if it doesn’t stop soon. 17.Your fingers are very brown. You (smoke) too much. 18.Ever since he came to us that man (try0 to make trouble. Exercise 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or present perfect continuous tense. In some cases either could be used. 1.We (walk) ten miles. 2.We (walk) for three hours. 3.You ( walk) too fast. That’s why you are tired. 4.He (not stop) eating since he arrived. 5.The driver (drink). I think someone else ought to drive. 6.He (sleep) since ten o’clock. It’s time he woke up. 7.What a lovely smell! Mary (make) jam. 8.I only (hear) from him twice since he went away. 9.I (hear) from her regularly. She is a very good correspondent. 10.I (work) for him for ten years and he never once (say0 ‘Good morning’ to me. 11.I (look) for mushrooms but I (not find) any. 12.You (hear) the news? Tom and Ann are engaged! That’s not new, I (know) it for ages! 13.I (try) to finish this letter for the last half-hour. I wish you’d go away or stop talking. 14.He (hope) for a rise in salary for six months but he (not dare) to ask for it yet. 122

UNIT VIII The management of time A manager should use his time in an efficient way. He should cut out all activities that do not contribute to the carrying out of his managerial tasks. In order to be aware of how he spends his time, he could resort to recording his activity all over the day, which is called logging time. Based on time logging, he can realize what can be left out. A manager should have a clear idea of priorities. A list of tasks in the order of their importance could be a useful device. He should concentrate on the most important tasks first, and avoid time-consuming and unproductive ways of doing things. A good manager will delegate the tasks he cannot afford the time to handle himself and in this way he will be able to meet deadlines even if this means others have been involved in settling matters. Among the things he can give up is writing long memos. He can handle matters faster by making phone calls. He can also turn down requests to join committees, give interviews, and contribute articles to magazines and so on. In this way he could make an efficient use of his time. (Source: Alexander Hollinger, Test your Business English Vocabulary,p.18, 19) Vocabulary practice 1. to log - to record facts/events in writing 2. to afford – to have enough of something for a purpose 3. to delegate – give someone a duty to act on your behalf, taking decisions 4. to turn down – reject / refuse 123

5. deadline - time / date before which a specified job must be finished Exercise 1. Fill in the missing words Telephoning When ………..(1) a telephone call abroad you must make sure you know, besides the called party’s number, the country and area………(2). If you want to reach someone who works with the company, you might …………(3) through to her/him using either a direct line or the switchboard. If the latter is the case, the operator will identify the company’s name and ask you what she/he can………(4) for you. You will mention either the department and the name of the person you’d like to speak to or the ………..(5) number. If that extension is …………(6), she/he cannot …………(7) you through at once. So you will be asked to ………….(8) the line or ………….(9) up and call again later. When you have finally been put through there is a chance that the person you are looking for is not …….(10). She/he may be ……….(11) for a while, or may be in ………(12), or even on a ………..(13) of absence. The secretary, who ………(14) the call, will offer to ………(15) a message if you wish to ……….(16) one. She/he will …………(17) you that the message will be …….(18) on her boss and she/he will call you back as soon as possible. If you have the chance to find your man from the first attempt, you will ……… (19) down to business and maybe ………..(20) an appointment or any other arrangements that are required.

124

One word may be used more than once Available , busy , code , conference , do , extension , get, (2 times) , hang , hold , leave (2 times) , make , making , out, passed , put , reassure , take , takes. Key to the text: 1 .making; 2. code; 3. get; 4. do; 5. extension; 6. busy; 7. put; 8. hold; 9. hang; 10. available; 11. out; 12. conference; 13. leave; 14. takes; 15. take; 16. leave; 17. reassure; 18. passed; 19. get; 20.make.

The use of the preposition in trade vocabulary 1. to abide by = a respecta (o lege) We must abide by the law. 2. to accommodate somebody with = a furniza ceva cuiva The firm accommodated the entire demand (Firma a onorat întreaga comandă) 3. to account for = a justifica They had to account for all the spent money. (Au fost siliti sa justifice toti banii cheltuiti) 4. to acquaint smb.with smth.= a familiariza pe cineva cu ceva We must acquaint with all the details of the transaction. 5. to come into= a moşteni 125

He has come into a big sum of money lately. 6. to come to = a se ridica la (o suma) The bill comes to 1000 pounds. 7. to deal in = a face comert cu Their firm deals in steel. 8. to deal with = a vea de-a face cu I have dealt with the firm for many years. (Am tratat cu firma lor multi ani) 9. to get off smth.= a se eschiva de la ceva No one should get off one’s duty. 10. to inform against= a denunta We have to inform authorities against their misdeeds. 11. to meet with = a intamoina; a se izbi de They meet with a lot of opposition every day. 12. to stand for = a reprezenta These initials stand for… 13. to succeed to smb = a succeda cuiva He succeed his father in the firm. 14. to manufacture from = a fabrica din The furniture should be manufactured from oak only.

126

Offers. Negotiations. Trade. 1. In reply to your inquiry of…(date), we are happy to inform you/let you know, that we are able to supply you the goods you solicited. 2. The price will be…, packing included. Delivery on the…Payment can be made by; Documentary Letter of Credit opened in our favour within…days of the delivery, and valid for…days. 3. The advance payment of…% of the total value of the contract should be made by: simple invoice/, irrevocable Letter of Credit. 4. The present offer is firm until…days of the mailing date. 5. Top quality products at competitive prices (samples enclosed), will, hopefully, arise your interest. 6. Subject to the delivery terms you require, we reserve the right to change the price within acceptable boundaries. 7. New prices will be applied due to increase in raw materials prices. The increase will represent…%. Greetings, phrases used in conversation 1. Good morning / afternoon,… 2. May I introduce myself? 3. I am from…/ represent the…enterprise. 4. May I introduce you to Mr./Mrs….our assistant. 5. Glad to meet you/Nice to meet you/How do you do. 6. You have met Mr./Mrs… haven’t you? 7. No. I’m afraid we haven’t met before. 8. We met last year/years ago. 9. Welcome to… 10.We’ve been expecting you. 127

11.How was your journey/trip/flight? 12.Are you for the first time in…? 13.We hope you’ll have a pleasant stay in… 14.I’m afraid I have to go/leave. I think it’s time to leave. 15.I’m sorry you’re leaving so soon. 16.I wish I could stay longer. 17.I wish we could meet again. 18.We hope you’ll have a pleasant journey back. 19.Thank you for your hospitality and we’re looking forward to your visit us/our country. 20.The meeting was/has been rewarding (useful, interesting). 21.I was delighted to make your acquaintance. Focus on grammar. The past perfect tense The past perfect tense We use the past perfect simple to talk about what happened before a point in the past. It looks back from a point in the past to further in the past.    

I hadn't known the bad news when I spoke to him. I checked with the supplier and they still hadn't received the contract. She had already told him before I got a chance to give him my version. The company has started the year well but was badly hit by the postal strike.

The past perfect simple is often used when we report what people had said/thought/believed.

128

  

He told me they had already paid the bill. He said he believed that John had moved to Italy. I thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

The past perfect continuous We use the past perfect continuous to look back at a situation in progress.   

It was a good time to invest. Inflation had been falling for several months. Before I changed jobs, I had been working on a plan to reduce production costs. We had been thinking about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here.

We use it to say what had been happening before something else happened.   

It had been snowing for a while before we left. We had been playing tennis for only a few minutes when it started raining. He was out of breath when he arrived because he had been running.

We use it when reporting things said in the past.   

She said she had been trying to call me all day. They said they had been shopping. I told you I had been looking for some new clothes.

129

Exercise 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: simple past or past continuous. 1. He (sit) on the bank fishing when he (see) a man’s hat floating down the river. It (seem) strangely familiar. 2. This used to be a station and all the London trains (stop) here. But two years ago they (close) the station and (give) us a bus service instead. 3. I (pick ) up the receiver and (dial) a number. To my surprise I (find) myself listening to an extraordinary conversation. Two men (plan) to kidnap the Minister of Justice. 4. I (meet) Paul at the university. We (be) both in the same year. He (study) law, but he (not be) very interested in it and (spend) most of his time practising the flute. 5. they (build) that bridge when I (be) here last year. They haven’t finished it yet. 6. The dentist’s waiting room was full of people. Some (read) magazines, others just (turn) over the pages. A woman (knit); a child (play) with a toy car. Suddenly the door (open) and the nurse (say), ‘Next, please.’ 7. My dog (attack) the postman as he (put) the letters into the letterbox. The man (thrust) a large envelope into the dog’s mouth and of courses he (tear) it. Unfortunately, the letter (contain) my diploma. I (patch) the diploma up with sellotape but it still looks a bit odd. 8. We (not get) much sleep last night because the people next door (have ) a noisy party. I (ring) up the landlord and (say) that his tenants (make) too much noise. He (point out) that it (be) Saturday and that people often (have) parties on

130

Saturday nights. I (say) that the people in his house always (have) parties. 9. The curtain just (rise) when somebody at the back of the theatre (shout) ‘Fire!’ The audience (look) round nervously. 10. As it (rain) the children (play) in the sitting room. Tom was there too. He (try) to write a letter but he (not get on) very well because the children (keep) asking him questions. Exercise 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: simple past or past continuous. 1.I (walk) along Piccadilly when I (realise) that a man with a ginger beard, whom I had seen three times already that afternoon, (follow) me. 2. To make quite sure, I (walk) on quickly, (turn) right, then left and (stop) suddenly at a shop window. 3. In a few minutes the man with the beard (appear) and (stop) at another shop window. 4. I (go) on. 5. Whenever I (stop) he (stop), and whenever I (look) round he (be) still there. 6. He (look) a very respectable type and (wear) very conventional clothes and I (wonder) if he was a policeman or a private detective. 7. I (decide) to try and shake him off. 8. A 74 bus (stand) at the bus stop just beside me. 9. Then the conductor (come) downstairs and (ring) the bell; just as the bus (move) off, I (jump) on it. 10. The man with the beard (miss) the bus but (get) into another 74, which (follow) the first. 11. Both buses (crawl) very slowly along Knightsbridge. 12. Every time the buses (pull) up at a stop, the man (look) out anxiously to see if I (get) off. 13. Finally, at some traffic lights, he (change) buses and (get) into mine. 14. At Gloucester Road underground, I (leave) the bus and (buy) a ticket at a ticket machine. 15. As I (stand) on the platform waiting for a Circle Line train, my pursuer (come) down the stairs. 16. He (carry) a newspaper and when we 131

(get) into the same compartment, he (sit) in one corner reading it, and I (read) the advertisements. 17. He (look) over the top of the newspaper at every station to see if I (get) out. 18. I (become) rather tired of being shadowed like this, so finally I (go) and (sit) beside the man and (ask) him why he (follow) me. 19. At first he (say) he (not follow) me at all but when I (threaten) to knock him down, he (admit) that he was. 20. Then he (tell) me he (be) a writer of detective stories and (try) to see if it was difficult to follow someone unseen. 21. I (tell) him he hadn’t been unseen because I had noticed him in Piccadilly and I (advise) him to shave off his ginger beard if he (not want) his victim to know he (be) followed. Exercise 3. Read the following sentences paying attention to the use of Hardly/No sooner + past perfect tense. Hardly/No sooner + had + S + V (past participle)… when … 1. Hardly had she arrived home when the phone rang. 2. No sooner had I gone to bed when someone knocked at the front door. 3. Hardly had they got out of the house when it started raining very hard. 4. Hardly had the secretary entered the office when the manager asked for her. 5. Hardly had they got to the station when the train arrived. 6. No sooner had Alice sung a song when she began another. 7. Hardly had Jim posted the letter when he remembered he hadn’t stamped it. 132

8. No sooner had Mr. Taylor taken the medicine when he felt better. 9. No sooner had Mr. Faulkner smoked a cigarette when he lit another. 10.No sooner had Sally drunk a cup of coffee when she asked for another. Exercise 4. Read the sentences below paying attention to the use of the past perfect tense. 1. The secretary had just got into the office when the telephone rang. 2. Doris turned the radio on as soon as she had entered the office. 3. Mr White had worked for this company for thirty years when he retired. 4. Tom had already had breakfast when his wife got up. 5. Until the manager had explained the business again, the investors did not Understand. 6. By the time the guests arrived, the maid had prepared all the rooms. 7. After the plane had touched the ground, the engines stopped. 8. After she had watched the serial for twenty minutes, Cindy fell asleep. 9. The passengers had fastened their seat belts before the plane landed. 10. When the concert began, Michael hadn’t bought his ticket.

133

Exercise 5. Re-express the following sentences to indicate what activity had already been completed when / by the time / before the event took place, and what activity had been continuing to that time. Model: a) I finished studying the lesson. By the time you rang me up … By the time you rang me up I had finished studying the lesson. b) Tom waited for half an hour. When the train arrived … When the train arrived, Tom had been waiting for half an hour. 1.They looked for the child for an hour. When they found the child. 2. I finished reading the letter. By the time you came … 3. The farmers harvested their crops. Before the first snow came … 4. The Spaniards explored California. By the time the English colonists came … 5. I travelled for two hours. When I arrived at Pitesti … 6. All the pupils in this class studied English for several years. When they came to this class … 7. Many of the people guest left. Before the conference began … 8. It rained a lot in the mountains. When we went on holiday in the mountains … Exercise 6. Put the verbs in brackets in the past tense simple, past perfect simple or continuous, as appropriate. 134

1. By the time Helen (reach) the store, she (forget) what she wanted to buy. 2. The ground (be) wet because it (rain) for five days. 3. First the weather (be) fine. Later it (start) to rain. Then we (decide) to go back home. 4. Michael (feel) rather unwell for a few days so he (go) to see his doctor. 5. By the end of the last year they (study) Accounting for three years. 6. When the investors (phone ) us, we (not finish) our annual general meeting yet. 7. Sally was still practicing the piano at noon yesterday. She (sing) all morning. 8. The engineer (design) the new wing of the plant last week. He (never, design) such an interesting project before. 9. I (meet) my boss yesterday afternoon. He (tell) me he (just, come) back from his holiday. 10. The telephone (ring) again a few minutes ago. It (ring) several times during the day. 11. By the time I (get) to the office, the meeting (already, begin). 12. The brass band (play) ever since the first people (get) into the park. 13. We (wait) for more than half an hour but there was still no sign of out new partners. 14. The party was a great success. Tom (feel) happier than he (ever, feel) before.

135

UNIT IX Types of banks and their structure 1. Central banks (bănci centrale). Main functions: to implement the country ‘s monetary policy. Ex: The Bank of England, the Banque de France (in Romania, Banca Nationala a Roamaniei). Central Banks are the only banks to be allowed to issue banknotes.  A central Banks is the Government’s banker: when short of money, the government may borrow from the Bank.  A Central Banks is in charge of the keeping of the country’s gold reserves.  A Central Banks is a “Bankers’bank”, and all other banks have large sums deposited there. They use these to settle accounts among themselves.  A Central bank regulates the flow of capital into and aut of the country.  A Central Bank regulates the amount of credit available in the country; one of the instruments used is the Bank Rate, which is the rate of interest the Central Bank will apply to depositors and borrowers. This will obviously influence the lending rate used by all the other financial and commercial institutions and organisations. In the United States, the Federal reserve system plays much the same part as a Central Bank. 2. Commercial banks or retail banks (bănci comerciale). Commercial banks fill the short-term needs of companies and individuals. They provide small business with loans, 136

consumer and instalment credit, mortgage loans, and other more personalized kinds of services. 3. Investment banks (US) or Merchant banks(GB) (bănci de investiţii).These banks are concerned with sophisticated, often innovative transactions that most often involve large corporate customers. They participate in large pools of capital (resources) and financial syndications and they often work together to provide their clients with large-scale (extensive) financing, which may include international credit facilities. They provide corporate finance services to companies: mergers and acquisitions, take over bids, floatation on the Stock Exchange, medium-term loans, export, leasing. In recent years, these types of banks have greatly reduced the services they once provided to small companies and to individuals. Investment banks specialize in complicated, one-time transactions often involving hundreds of millions of dollars or more. They strive to develop banking relationships that grow and change with the needs of their clients. 4. Savings banks (bănci /case de economii).They receive savings accounts and pay interest to the depositors. Generally, the rates of interest vary in relation to the length of the notice of withdrawal. Term-deposits for which the notice of withdrawal required is longer, have higher rates of interest. 5. Building Societies (UK) (societăţi de credit imobiliar) obtain funds from private investors by issuing shares and taking deposits, and lend money for house purchase (or the purchase of commercial premises). The loan is secured by 137

mortgage. They are a relatively minor factor in long-term industrial finance, but have provide many small businesses with capital. 6. Savings and Loan Associations (US) (cooperative de credit). Cooperative associations formed under federal or state law in the U.S., that solicit savings in the form of shares, invest their funds in mortgages and permit deposits in and withdrawals from shareholders accounts similar to those allowed for savings accounts in banks. 7. Hybrid Financial Institutions (instituţii financiare mixte). Finance companies or credit corporations are often created as subsidiaries of large companies which manufacture and sell heavy machinery, farm equipment and automobiles. A customer that wishes to purchase goods from such a manufacturer may arrange financing directly with the finance company or credit corp. instead of with a bank. It is often easier (but more expensive) to borrow in this way, thus facilitating (making, easier, simplifying) business transactions between buyer and seller. Finance companies may operate both nationally and internationally (export business) and with companies and individuals. Hybrid Financial institutions provide certain financial services but they are not banks. 8. Credit Unions (uniuni de credit). These are associations formed by trade groups which manage and invest large pools of capital contributed by its members. People belonging to a credit union may also save there for their retirement and take out loans at competitive interest rates.

138

9. Financial services Companies (firme care oferă servicii fianciare). Financial services companies exist in various forms and offer a wide range of services that may include insurance programs, investment and brokerage services, mutual funds, tax-shelters and IRA’s (Individual retirement Accounts cont de pensii individual). 10. The GIRO (U.K). It operates along the same lines as the “Chèques Postaux” (cecuri poştale) in France. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Focus on grammar (I). Will - future Will - future Some people have been taught that 'will' is 'the future' in English. This is not correct. Sometimes when we talk about the future we cannot use 'will'. Sometimes when we use 'will' we are not talking about the future. We can use 'will' to talk about future events we believe to be certain.    

The sun will rise over there tomorrow morning. Next year, I'll be 50. That plane will be late. It always is. There won't be any snow. I'm certain. It's too warm.

139

Often we add 'perhaps', 'maybe', 'probably', 'possibly' to make the belief less certain.    

I'll probably come back later. He'll possibly find out when he sees Jenny. Maybe it will be OK. Perhaps we'll meet again some day.

We often use 'will' with 'I think' or 'I hope'.    

I think I'll go to bed now. I think she'll do well in the job. I hope you'll enjoy your stay. I hope you won't make too much noise.

We use 'will' at the moment we make a new decision or plan. The thought has just come into our head.    

Bye. I'll phone you when I get there. I'll answer that. I'll go. I won't tell him. I promise.

Will - other uses Older textbooks often refer to 'will' as 'the future tense' and this has confused a lot of learners. It is important to remember that when we talk about the future we cannot always use 'will' and that when we use 'will' we are not always talking about the future.

140

Here 'will' is clearly referring to the future.   

If I speak to her, I'll tell her about it. I'll probably visit Sue when I go to Oxford. Next birthday she'll be 32. Or so she says.

In these examples, however, 'will' is referring to events happening at the present.   

The car won't start. If that's the phone, I'll get it. Will you have another cup of coffee?

When we use 'will' referring to the present, the idea being expressed is usually one of 'showing willingness' or 'will power'.   

My baby won't stop crying. I've tried everything and I'm really exhausted. I am the boss. You will do as I say. I need quiet to write this but he will keep on talking to me. I wish he would leave me alone.

We use 'will' for requests, orders, invitations and offers.    

Will you give me a hand? Will you please take a seat? Will you have some cake? I'll help you.

We use 'will' to make promises or threats.

141

   

I'll do it at once. I'll phone him back immediately. I won't forget this. I'll get my own back some day.

We use 'will' for habit.  

A cat will always find a warm place to sleep. My car won't go any faster than this.

We use 'will' for deduction.  

I expect he'll want us to get on with it. The phone's ringing. That will be Mark.

Look again at all of these examples of 'will'. They are all to do with the present or are 'timeless'. Focus on grammar (II). Shall We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English. It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.    

What time shall we meet? Shall we vote on it now? What dress shall I wear? Shall I open the window?

142

You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest of this only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall'. Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'. Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more personal, subjective future. 

I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision.

Notice that the negative of 'shall' can be 'shall not' or 'shan't' – though the second one is now very rare in American English.  

I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party. I shan't object if you go without me.

Focus on grammar (III). Present forms for the future We use the present continuous to talk about things that we have already arranged to do in the future.    

I've got my ticket. I'm leaving on Thursday. I'm seeing Julie at 5 and then I'm having dinner with Simon. He's picking me up at the airport. The company is giving everyone a bonus for Christmas.

143

In many situations when we talk about future plans we can use either the present continuous or the 'going to' future. However, when we use the present continuous, there is more of a suggestion that an arrangement has already been made.  

I'm going to see him./I'm seeing him. I'm going to do it./I'm doing it.

We use the present simple to talk about events in the future which are 'timetabled'. We can also use the present continuous to talk about these.      

My plane leaves at 6 in the morning. The shop opens at 9.30. The sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow. My plane is leaving at 8.30. The shop is closing at 7.00. The sun is rising at 6.32 tomorrow.

Focus on grammar (IV). The Future - Going to There is no one 'future tense' in English. There are 4 future forms. The one which is used most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'. We use 'going to' when we want to talk about a plan for the future.    

I'm going to see him later today. They're going to launch it next month. We're going to have lunch first. She's going to see what she can do. 144



I'm not going to talk for very long.

Notice that this plan does not have to be for the near future.  

When I retire I'm going to go back to Barbados to live. In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of my own successful company.

We use 'going to' when we want to make a prediction based on evidence we can see now.    

Look out! That cup is going to fall off. Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain soon. These figures are really bad. We're going to make a loss. You look very tired. You're going to need to stop soon.

We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'.  

I'm going out later. She's going to the exhibition tomorrow.

Focus on grammar (V). Going to or will When we want to talk about future facts or things we believe to be true about the future, we use 'will'.   

The President will serve for four years. The boss won't be very happy. I'm sure you'll like her. 145



I'm certain he'll do a good job.

If we are not so certain about the future, we use 'will' with expressions such as 'probably', 'possibly', 'I think', 'I hope'.    

I hope you'll visit me in my home one day. She'll probably be a great success. I'll possibly come but I may not get back in time. I think we'll get on well.

If you are making a future prediction based on evidence in the present situation, you can use 'going to'.    

Not a cloud in the sky. It's going to be another warm day. Look at the queue. We're not going to get in for hours. The traffic is terrible. We're going to miss our flight. Be careful! You're going to spill your coffee.

At the moment of making a decision, use 'will'. Once you have made the decision, talk about it using 'going to'.  

I'll call Jenny to let her know. Sarah, I need Jenny's number. I'm going to call her about the meeting. I'll come and have a drink with you but I must let Harry know. Harry, I'm going to have a drink with Simon.

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with the simple future forms of the verbs in brackets. 1. (go) We … to the Danube Delta next summer. 146

2. (wear) 3. (send) 4. (hold) 5. (come) 6. (study) 7. (leave) morning. 8. (buy) 9. decorate) 10.(give) 11. (visit) 12. (type)

Cindy … her new dress at the party. The secretary … the documents tomorrow. They … the meeting the day after tomorrow. The new investors … next Monday. Sally … Economics next year. The sportsmen … the town tomorrow My friends … themselves a house next year. My parents … the house next summer. The Bartons … a party next Saturday. We … Paris next summer. The secretary … the invitations next morning.

Exercise 2. Ten students are talking about their intentions for the future. Finish their statements in different ways, using after, when, while, until or as soon as. 1. I’m going to write a novel about my life experience … 2. I’m going to work hard at learning English … 3. I’m going to enjoy myself … 4. I’m going to do research … 5. I’m going to get married … 6. I’m going to get my doctorate … 7. I’m going to buy myself a car … 8. I’m going to travel abroad … 9. I’m going to find myself a well-paid job … 10. I’m going to leave my native town … Exercise 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the going to form. 1. You (miss) the train. 2. The pressure cooker (explode). 3. When the gardener (cut) the grass? 4. She (dye) her hair black. 147

5. We ( make) this whisky bottle into a lamp. 6. What you (do) with this room? 7. It (rain). Look at those clouds. 8. The men in the helicopter (try) to rescue the man in the water. 9. I (not sleep) in this room. It is haunted. 10. I (plant) an oak tree here. 11. We (make) a lot of money out of this. 12. I’ve read the novel. Now I (see) the film. 13. The Lord Mayor is standing up. He (make) a speech. 14. I’ve lent you my car once. I (not do it again. Exercise 4. Planned future actions can be expressed by the present continuous tense with a time expression or by the going to form with or without a time expression. The present continuous is mainly used for definite arrangements in the near future. The going to form can be used more widely. Use the present continuous where possible in the following sentences and put the remaining verbs into the going to form. 1. I (play) bridge tonight with Tom and Ann. 2. He (have) an operation next week. 3. It’s very cold. I (light) a fire. 4. We (have) some friends to lunch tomorrow. 5. I’ve bought a piano; it (be) delivered this afternoon. Where you (put) it? I (put) it in the dining room. 6. I’ve reminded you once; I (not do) it again. 7. The Queen (open) the Parliament next month. 8. This shop (close) down next week. 9. We (take) the children at the seaside this summer. 10. She (see) a specialist next month. 148

11. She (sing) in her first big concert next month. 12. They (launch) a ship this afternoon. You (come) to see it? Exercise 5. Put the verbs in brackets into the future tense. 1. I (know) the result in a week. 2. You (be) in Rome tonight. 3. You (have) time to help me tomorrow? 4. Unless he runs he (not catch) the train. 5. If these men go on strike we (not have) any petrol. 6. I wonder how many of us (survive) the next war. 7. I’m sure that you (like) our new house. 8. You (need) a visa if you are going to Spain. 9. I wonder if he (succeed). 10. Papers (not be) delivered on the Bank Holiday. 11. He (be) offended if you don’t invite him. 12. If you think it over you (see) that I am right. 13. Newspaper announcement: The President (drive) along the High Street in open carriage. 14. He (mind) if I bring my dog? Exercise 6. Use the future continuous tense in the following sentences. This tense can be used: a) With a point in time to indicate that the action will begin before this time and continue after it. b) With or without a time to express a future without intention. In this way it is very like the present continuous, but it is not, like the present continuous, restricted in time and is a more detached and casual way of expressing the future. It often implies that action will occur in the ordinary course of events or as a matter of routine. 149

1. This time next month I (sit) on a beach. 2. When you arrive I probably (pick) fruit. 3. When we reach England it probably (rain). 4. When I get home my dog (sit) at the door waiting for me. 5. You’d better go back now, your boss (wonder) where you are. 6. In a hundred year’s time people (go) to Mars for their holidays. 7. I’ll give Jack your message. I can do it easily because I (see) him tomorrow. We go to work on the same train. 8. It’s a serious injury but he (walk) again in six weeks. 9. He’s just remembered that he left the bathroom taps on. He expects the water (flow) down the stairs by now. 10. That football club has lost some of its best players. They (look out) for new men. 11. Don’t ring her up now, she(put) the children to bed. Ring later. 12. We are making a house-to-house collection for the refugees. We (come) to your house next week. Exercise 7. Time clauses. The future tense is not used in time clauses, the present tense being used instead. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (present or future). 1. When he (return) I’ll give him the letter. 2. Cindy will be ready as soon as you (be). 3. The lift (not stop) until you press that button. 4. When it (get) cold we’ll light the fire. 5. They won’t come to London till the bus strike (be) over. 6. The manager will be astonished when he’ll (see) how slowly he works. 150

7. I’ll pay you when I (get) my cheque. 8. Sally will be delighted When she (hear) this. 9. As soon as Tom (attend) university he’ll get a better job. 10. As soon as Michael (arrive) at the office I’ll tell him the news. 11. The new investors (ring) us up when they arrive in town. 12. As soon as the holidays begin this beach (become) very crowded. Exercise 8. Put the verbs in brackets into the future perfect tense. 1. In a fortnight's time we (take) our exam. 2. I (finish) this book by tomorrow evening. 3. By this time we (have) our first seminar. 4. In 2008 he (be) twenty-five years old. 5. I'll still be here next summer but Tom (leave). 6. I (finish) this job in twenty minutes. 7. By next winter they (build) four houses in that field. 8. At the rate he is going he (spend) all his money by the time he is twenty-one. 9. By the time we get to the party everything (be)be eaten. 10. By the end of my university years I (attend) 120 lectures. 11. By the end of the term I (read) all the twelve volumes. 12. If you don't hurry the sun (rise) before we reach the top. 13. On 25 October they (be) married for twenty years. 14. When you come back I (finish) all the housework. 15. When we reach Valparaiso we (sail) all around the world. 16. By the end of the year all our debts (be paid) off.

151

UNIT IX The globalization of trade Major trading blocs today One should first distinguish between Free Trade Areas (FTA’s) and Customs Unions: partners in an FTA agree to scrap tariffs on trade among themselves whereas in a customs union, members decide on a common tariff policy towards non-member countries. Customs unions (Uniuni vamale) The European Union (Uniunea europeana) formerly known as the European (Economic) Community (Uniunea economica europeana) is the world’s largest trading bloc today. Officially set up by the Treaty of Rome in 1958, it originally comprised Belgium, France, West Germany, Republic and Denmark joined the Community in 1973, Greece in 1981, Spain and Portugal in 1986. Sweden, Finland and Austria have been the latest countries to join (January 1, 1995). The ratification of the Single European Act (Actul unic european) in 1987 and its final implementation on December 31, 1992, have firmly established the Community as a single domestic market; the aims at enhancing the financial and political integration of the Union. The European Union has closed preferential trade deals with North African Countries, with Turkey (implementation of a customs union as of January 1, 1996) and has signed agreements (the Europe agreements) with several central and Eastern European States. 152

Mercosur (Mercosur) is a customs union that was formerly set up on January 1, 1995, between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. The Andean Pact (Pactul andin) was established in 1969 and includes Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela; this association, by gradually abolishing internal trade barriers, is close to becoming a common Andean Market. Free-trade areas (zone de liber-schimb) The European Free-Trade association (EFTA), (Asociatia europeana a liberului schimb - AELS) was set up in 1960 in response to the initial Common market between the countries that had signed the Treaty of rome. It now includes the Western European countries that do not belong to the European Union, such as Norway, Switzerland or Iceland; those having joined the European economic Area (EEA) (Spatiul economic european) fall within the jurisdiction of the European Single Act. The North American Free-Trade Agreement (NAFTA), (Asociatia nord-americana de liber-schimb), is a free-trade area including the United States, Canada and Mexico which was officially set up in 1993. The ultimate objective seems to be the creation of a Pan-American free-trade area that would stretch from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego; in this respect, Chile is most likely to become the fourth NAFTA member since negotiations are well underway. Two FTAs are currently in the making in the Pacific zone:

153



The ten members of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asociatia natiunilor Asiei de Sud-Est, created in 1967, have agreed to set up an FTA by the year 2003. This association originally composed of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, now includes, as of July 1997, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Vietnam.  The Asian-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) forum has pledged itself to internal free trade by 2020, with the richer countries reaching this objective by 2010. Today it comprises 18 countries with Pacific shorelines, among which the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, China, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia. APEC is not a formal FTA yet but its plans look ambitious. It remain to be seen whether the organization will overcome the difficulties inherent to its cultural and economic make up (diversity of culture and economic development levels), its geographical specificity (based on three continents) and the leadership battles looming ahead, with such giants as China, Japan and the United States. Other free-trade areas are being established through the world: the Central European Free-Trade Area (CEFTA) was formally set up in 1995 between the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. This FTA, whose primary goal is to increase trade among its member-states, may also be viewed as a step towards a future EU enlargement. FTAs are also in the making in the Caribbean and in the Middle East. 154

(Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary Practice 1.to scrap – a da la rebut, a arunca la gunoi 2.implementation – punere in aplicare 3.to enhance- a spori, a mari, a imbunatati 4. to be likely – a fi susceptibil de 5. to pledge – a se angaja 6.shorelines – coasta, litoral, zona de coasta 7.to overcome – a invinge, a depasi 8.make up – alcatuire, structura, constructie 9.to loom – a ameninta, a se contura, a se intrevedea Focus on grammar (I). The Passive The Passive We use the active form to say what the subject does. For example:  

I speak English every day at work. I repaired the flat tire on the car.

We use the passive form to say what happens to people and things, to say what is done to them. For example:  

English is spoken here. The car is being repaired.

155

We use the passive form when we don't know who did the action. For example:  

The car was damaged while it was parked on the street. The shirts were made in Turkey.

We use the passive form when what was done is more important than who did it. For example:  

It was approved by Gerry last week. I was informed by the Human Resources Manager only two days ago.

Focus on grammar (II). Modal verbs Can We use 'can' to talk about 'possibility'.    

Can you do that? I can't manage to do that. You can leave your car in that parking space. You cannot smoke in here.

Notice that there are two negative forms: 'can't' and 'cannot'. These mean exactly the same thing. When we are speaking, we usually say 'can't'. We use 'can' to talk about 'ability'. 

I can speak French. 156



I can't drive.

We use 'can' to ask for and give permission. (We also use 'may' for this but is more formal and much less common.)   

Can I speak to you or are you too busy? You can use my phone. You can't come in.

We use 'can' in offers, requests and instructions.   

Can I help? Can you give me a hand? When you finish that, you can take out the garbage.

We use 'can' with 'see' 'hear' 'feel' 'smell' 'taste' to talk about something which is happening now .   

I can smell something burning. Can you hear that noise? I can't see anything.

We can use 'can't' for deduction. The opposite of 'can't' in this context is 'must'.   

You can't be hungry. You've just eaten. You must be hungry. You haven't eaten anything all day. He was in London one hour ago when I spoke to him. He can't be here yet.

157

Could 'Could' can be used to talk about the past, the present or the future. 'Could' is a past form of 'can'   

When I was living in Boston, I could walk to work. He phoned to say he couldn't come. I could see him clearly but I couldn't hear him and then the videoconference line went dead.

'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.    

Could you help me, please? Could you lend me some money? Could I have a lift? Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.    

Of course I can. I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now. I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail. I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

158

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.    

It could rain later. Take an umbrella. He could be there by now. Could he be any happier? It could be Sarah's.

May / might We can use 'may' to ask for permission. However this is rather formal and not used very often in modern spoken English   

May I borrow your pen? May we think about it? May I go now?

We use 'may' to suggest something is possible   

It may rain later today. I may not have time to do it today. Pete may come with us.

Might We use 'might' to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might' suggests a smaller possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is more usual than 'may' in spoken English. 

She might be at home by now but it's not sure at all. 159

  

It might rain this afternoon. I might not have time to go to the shops for you. I might not go.

For the past, we use 'might have'.  

He might have tried to call while I was out. I might have dropped it in the street.

Must or have to We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason.    

There's no heating on. You must be freezing. You must be worried that she is so late coming home. I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old. It must be nice to live in Florida.

We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost certainly agrees with the obligation.)    

I must go to bed earlier. They must do something about it. You must come and see us some time. I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him.

160

We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.    

I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict. We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract. You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you. I have to send a report to Head Office every week.

In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'.  

I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine. We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.

We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that 'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.)    

I'll have to speak to him. We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip. They'll have to do something about it. I'll have to get back to you on that.

161

As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.     

We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something. We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential. I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me. You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls. They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something.

We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO obligation or necessity.     

We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today. I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving. You don't have to come if you don't want to. He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage. I haven't got to go. Only if I want to

Modal verbs are divided into two large classes: PURE or SYNTATIC modals and MODAL PARAPHRASES. See the table below: PURE / SYNTACTIC MODAL PARAPHRASES MODAL VERBS Can, could Be able to May, might Be allowed / permitted to 162

Will, would Shall, should Ought to Must Dare Need

Be to Have to Used to

Characteristic features of PURE MODAL VERBS: CHARACTERISTICS 1. they are DEFECTIVE verbs, i.e. some of their forms are missing (the infinitive, the participle) 2. they are UNINFLECTED, i.e. all the persons have the same form: 3. they are ANOMALOUS verbs, i.e. the NEGATIVE is formed by putting NOT after the modal and the INTERROGATIVE by inverting subject and modal verb: 4. they are followed by the INFINITIVE in any of its forms:

EXAMPLES I can swim. My brother can swim, too. Cars must not be parked in front of the entrance. May I have the salt, please? You shouldn’t laugh at his mistakes.

We must have taken a wrong turning.

Can/could Meanings:

163

1. Ability (can - be able to): Present Simple I can sing. I am able to sing.

Present perfect I have been able to sing since I was five. Past Simple Past Perfect I could sing when I had been able to I was sing before I five. could read. I was able to sing when I was five.

Present participle Being able to sing at five is not extraordinary. Future I'll be able to sing before your birthday.

2. Permission: Can I come in? Could I have your pen for a minute, please/ 3. Possibility: He can/could be right. 4. Impossibility (can't/couldn't): He can't/couldn't be right. 5. With verbs of perception it loses its meaning: Can you hear me? Do you hear me? I can see a car in the street. = I see a car in the street. May/ Might Meanings: 1. Permission (may = to be allowed to/to be permitted to):

164

Present Simple

Present perfect

Present Participle

I may come with I have been you. allowed/permitted I am allowed / to come permitted to come with you. Past Simple Past Perfect

Being allowed/ permitted to come.

I was allowed / permitted to come.

I'll be allowed / permitted to come.

I had been allowed / permitted to come.

Future

Might is not the past form of may when the modal verb expresses permission, but a more reduced possibility. Might is a more polite way of asking for permission. Might is used instead of may. 2. Possibility: He may/might come tomorrow. Need Not Meaning: 1. Lack of obligation: You needn't pay cash. Needn't have (done) compared to Didn't have/didn't Need (to do) Meanings: 1. Useless but performed action: You needn't have taken your umbrella. It's such a sunny day! 2. Useless, but not performed action:

165

You didn't need/have to translate it for he understands English. Must Not Meaning: 1. Negative obligation: You mustn't smoke in this restaurant. Ought to/ Should Meanings: 1. Duty: You ought to/ should pay your taxes. 2. Correct, rational action: You ought to/should practices more if you want to succeed. 3. Advice: You ought to/should read this book. It's very good. Must Meanings: 1. Strong obligation: I must go now. 2. Probability/logical deduction: He must be good at maths if he solved this problem. Not Have to Meanings: 1. the absence of obligation: I don't have to go to school on Sunday. Shall Meanings: 1. Asking for advice: Shall (should) I buy this book? 166

2. Offers: Shall I help you? 3. Suggestions: Shall we meet at the station? Will Meanings: 1. Habits/repeated actions: Children will always destroy their toys. 2. Will, obstinacy, persistence: An Englishman will usually show you the way in the street. He will do what he wants, no matter what you say. 3. Polite request: Will you sign here, please? Would Meanings: 1. Repeated habits/events in the past: He would always come to school late when he was a child. 2. Will, obstinacy, persistence in the past: He would always object to my ideas. 3. Polite request (more conventional than will): Would you sign here, please? Used to Meanings: 1. Repeated actions in the past would + infinitive expresses the same idea. When I was a baby I used to cry all day long. Exercise 1. Put the sentences into the singular. 1. They must come again. 167

He must come again. 2. They have to cross the street here. He has to cross the street here. 3. They can come tomorrow. 4. The older students were able to finish their work. 5. They ought to listen more carefully. 6. Soldiers must obey orders without question. 7. People have to go to work five days a week. 8. The big boys might jump over this stream. 9. If they started at eight, they should be here by three. 10. They are always to knock before they enter his room. Exercise 2. Make these statements interrogative. 1. They can leave now. Can they leave now? 2. He comes here every day. Does he come here every day? 3. They can wait here. 4. You should give the baby scissors to play with. 5. They play football. 6. He believes you. 7. She could understand everything. 8. Mr. Barton works in this office. 9. They will have another meeting tomorrow. 10. Mrs. Carlton, the secretary, can send the invitations. Exercise 3. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. Ann: Should you go to the conference? Bob: Yes, I should. 2. Can you come earlier tomorrow? 3. Could you buy me some flowers? 4. Must I return the invitation next Sunday? 168

5. Will Mr. Jones answer this questions? 6. Should Bob report to the manager immediately? 7. Can Susan invite some more guests? 8. May I use this phone? 9. Could Alice have already phoned? 10. May I have some more coffee, please? Exercise 4. Read the following sentences paying attention to the meaning of meaning of the modal verbs. 1. You may not go now. (I do not permit you to go ) 2. He can’t swim under water. (He is not able to swim under water) 3. You don’t have to stay any longer. (You are not obliged to stay any longer) 4. I needn’t always be my fault. (It is not necessary for it to be always my fault. Exercise 5. read the following sentences paying attention to the use of the modal verbs. 1. Tom can ski now but he couldn’t last year. 2. She is able to speak English, French, Italian and Spanish but she can’t speak German. 3. “Mum, may I go to a disco tonight?” “ I’m afraid you may not. You’ll have a busy day tomorrow and you must to go to bed early tonight.” 4. The patient must stay in hospital for several days. 5. You are not allowed to smoke in this room. 169

6. You must do your duty. 7. They will have to leave tomorrow morning if they want to be in Paris on Friday afternoon. 8. “Where is Tom?” “I don’t know. He may be at the university.” 9. “May I borrow your pen for a minute?” “Yes, you may.” 10. “Can you play tennis?” “Yes, I can.” Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with one of the corresponding forms of the modal verbs below: be, have, can/could, may/might, must, shall/should, will/would, need, ought to, used to, dare. 1. You … have this book if you want it. 2. … you give me a helping hand? 3. … he play the piano when he was five? 4. … you see I'm busy? 5. … you go home so soon? 6. He … arrive on the next train. 7. They … to tell him the truth. 8. The examination … to take place tomorrow. 9. … you accuse him of such a thing? 10. Last summer the old man … to go fishing every morning. 11. Nothing … be done: he … to go. 12. He doesn’t want to help? I tell you he … 13. … you sit down? 14. “Well”, mother said, “you … go and play in the garden.” 15. Tomorrow I haven’t much work to do, so you (not) … come to help me.

170

16. Tomorrow I have much work to do, so you … come to help me. 17. … you kindly pass the salt? 18. I tried in vain; the door … (not) open. 19. He … be at home by now if he started at three. 20. … I ring him up to tell him to come? No, you (not) … He knows he … come. Yes, you … He doesn’t know he … come. 21. Where … he be now? 22. You … not come into the house with dirty shoes.

171

UNIT X The Globalization of Financial Markets International financial flow have been multiplied and accelerated by the globalization of trade, the increased speed of round-the-clock communication, the computerization of stock and currency markets which now operate round the clock. Multinational companies, which continually transfer funds from one subsidiary to the other in different regions of the globe have also played an important part in bringing about the interconnection of capital markets. So have nation and business firms in general, as they compete for foreign capital. States, for instance, will cut interest rates or provide tax holiday to attract investors from all over the planet. Capital flows, the necessary lifeblood of economic activity, make it possible to transfer funds when they are more needed, more productive or more profitable. Profitability of course involves speculation, as business firms and privates persons tend to take advantage of the highest returns, and more funds around with a view to short-term profits. Finance executive are more often prompted by the need to spread their and to hedge their transactions in the face of currency fluctuations than by a taste for gambling or speculation, their operation may nevertheless tip the scales in favour of short-term financial gain or against long-term industrial investment.

172

Securization, the development of numerous new financial instruments, such as derivatives, have made the market more and more complex, and operators have to be more and more sophisticated. If the free circulation of money is in itself a positive factor for global economic growth and international development, the multiplication of offshore funds and tax havens is more ambiguous as the purpose served may be flexibility or tax evasion. More disturbing is the laundering of money from drug trafficking, or criminal activities, and its subsequent penetration of financial networks. Individual states are more and more hard put to it to control this influx which can only be restricted through international cooperation. The degree of control of governments over their own economic and budgetary policy is further weakened by the “tyranny of the market” which passes judgments on their decisions and prompts investors to move in or out accordingly. But economists will point out that this tends to make governments more realistic and responsible. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary Practice 1. flow – flux 2. round-the-clock – 24 ore din 24, non-stop 3. subsidiary – filială 4. tax holidays – avantaj fiscal 5. lifeblood – element vital 173

6 .return – randament 7. to prompt – a îndemna, a determina 8. to hedge – a pune la adăpost 9. to gamble – a) (aici) a-şi asuma riscul b) a practica jocuri de noroc 10.to tip the scales- a face să se încline balanta 11.securization – înlocuirea unui imprumut cu titluri negociabile 12.derivatives- instrumente derivate 13.offshore funds – fonduri extrateritoriale 14.tax havens – paradis fiscal 15.laundering – spălare (a banilor) 16.to be hard put – a fi pus la grea încercare 17.accordingly – în consecinţă Focus on grammar. Sequence of tenses in the past: Sequence of tenses in the past: MAIN CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE 1.ANTERIORITY: Past perfect tense

PAST TENSE 2.SIMULTANEITY:Past continuous tense or Simple past tense 3.POSTERIORITY: Future in the past 174

Exercise 1.Read the following sentences paying attention to the use of tenses 1. They said they would build the bridge next year. 2. Our new buyers admitted that they would send the order next week. 3. Michael promised that he would help me next Monday. 4. Sally told us that she had visited London last summer. 5. The secretary told me that she was typing some letters and she couldn't leave the office. 6. I remembered that I had forgotten to lock the front door. 7. Yesterday evening I heard that someone was playing the piano next door. 8. They admitted that they saw the accident yesterday afternoon. 9. I told my boss that the invitation had arrived the day before. 10. They promised that they would visit us next Sunday. Exercise 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect, the future in the past): 1. When I (come in) the boy (sleep). 2. What (do) you yesterday? 3. Mr. Brown (talk) to his son while they (have) breakfast. 4. John (say) he (come) tomorrow. 5. He (tell) us what he (do0 the day before. 6. They (say) I (can) go out when I (finish) my homework. 7. They (arrive) at the airport after the plane (leave). 8. By the time the doctor (arrive) the sick man (feel) better.

175

9. Why you (not tell) him yesterday you (can) lend him the money. 10. When I last (talk) with her she (go) to the country. 11. Mrs. Jones (say) she (not want) to see that play, as she (hear) it (be) not as good as you (tell) her. 12. The man thought he (wish) he (be able) to speak to the manager before he (leave). Exercise 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect, the past perfect continuous, the future in the past): Lily (jump out) of the bed and the next moment she (open) the front door. The sound of the door bell (wake) her, and her heart (begin) to beat so fast. It (be) the postman. She (be) sure. Nobody (ring) the bell the way he (do). He used to press his forefinger on the bell and keep it there till he (hear) somebody moving in the flat. And Lily (be) sure of something else: the postman (come) to bring her the letter. The letter she (look forward to) since Monday. It (be) on Monday that John (leave) so that he (can write) the same day. But when he (leave) he (promise) he (write) to her as soon as he (can) and the young girl (think0 of nothing else. Well, here it (be), in the hand of the old postman. Her eyes (shine), her cheeks (be) flushed. She (stretch) out her arm shyly and (grasp) it, while the man (smile) at her. Exercise 4. Transform the following sentences using passive constructions. MODEL: a. They saw the boy leaving the building. b. The boy was seen leaving the building. 176

a. Sally gave John an apple pie. b. John was given an apple pie. c. An apple pie was given to John. 1. They must finish the work by seven o'clock. 2. People will soon forgive him. 3. The police arrested the thief a week ago. 4. Fred has written a letter to Dick. 5. Miss Ashley asked Peter a difficult question. 6. Columbus discovered America in 1492. 7. Dickens wrote "Hard Times" in the 19th century. 8. We had to send for the doctor. 9. One must not laugh at children. 10. We must build more blocks-of-flats next year. 11. They could have discovered his secret sooner. 12. You should ask the secretary's advice. 13. Do you know that somebody is waiting for you? 14. We haven't heard anything about him since he left. 15. You should handle this parcel with care. Exercise 5. Transform the following active constructions from "Tortilla Flat" by John Steinbeck into passive constructions: 1. He heard the bell ringing sweetly off China Point. 2. Some people had seen the Pirate early in the morning on Alvado Street. 3. Some had seen him cutting pitch wood. 4. Pylon knew everybody and everything about everybody. 5. Something had distracted his attention. 6. His words upset Danny. 7. We gave our lives for our country. 8. Some day an automobile will run over you. 177

9. And I will tell him the two gallons cost five dollars. 10. They took him to their house. 11. They rented the use of their house to Jesus for fifteen dollars a month. 12. And then I bought a pint of whisky for Arabella. 13. I have brought you a present to take to the lady. 14. The peasants paid no attention to him.

178

UNIT XI Business firms going global As world competition heats up, and as customs barriers are lowered or dismantled, large firms which used to be dominant on their home market have to face onslaught of foreign companies. To maintain their position and status, they have to grow and reach a size comparable to their competitors, so as to allow economies of scale. This can only be effecting by making inroads into foreign markets. In other words, for such firms, going global is a necessary strategy. Some companies will concentrate on their core business and try to expand it at home and develop it abroad, by setting up foreign operations. But economic circumstances do not always make this easy. Growth may also be achieved through diversification and through combinations and alliances, acquisitions, take-overs, joint-ventures, mergers or through franchising. This implies one does not run afoul of anti-trust laws, as enforced by regional or international watchdogs (regulatory agencies). One thing is certain: to remain or become a key player in today’s business world implies operating abroad and dealing with foreign partners. Many small and medium-sized firms also have to face world competitions and adjust to it if they want to stay afloat. They may have to relocate a production unit abroad to take advantage of lower labour costs, or they may resort to outsourcing and order components from foreign manufacturers rather than make them or have them made on the domestic market. 179

In any case, business firms, as they try to improve their competitiveness or to stave off bankruptcy, have to achieve productivity gains through robotization, restructuring, reengineering or downsizing, so as to becoming more aggressive, leaner and meaner. Such moves will of course result in local jobs being shed, and the assumption that this will eventually be compensated for by job creations as the company grows and its market widens is cold comfort to the workers who have been laid off. The more so as large concerns are often accused of optimizing quick financial and speculative gains as against long term investments and stable employment. Business managers will argue that they have no choice and that this is the price to pay to save the remaining jobs and be in a position to grow again when the economy brightens up. Globalization is here to stay and firms large and small must gear their strategy to a changing world market, or fall by the wayside. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary Practice 1. to heat up – a se incinge 2. to expand – a se dezvolta, a se extinde 3. to achieve – a obtine, a realiza 4. to run a foul – a intra in conflict 5. to enforce – a aplica (o lege), a pune in practica 6. to operate – a lucra, a opera 180

7. to stay afloat – a se mentine la suprafata (pe linia de plutire) 8. to resort – a recurge 9. to stave off bankruptcy – a evita falimentul 10.assumption – presupunere, supozitie 11.eventually – pana la urma 12.to widen – a (se) largi, a (se) mari 13. comfort – consolare 14.to lay off – a disponibiliza; a concedia 15.concern – concern (intreprindere) 16.to gear – a adapta 17.to fall by the wayside – a fi marginalizat Focus on grammar. The conditional mood THE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE TYPE TYPE I (open/probable condition) TYPE II (improbable/ hypothetical/ unreal condition)

TYPE III ( impossible condition)

MAIN CLAUSE Future I'll go on a trip

"IF" CLAUSE Present if I have money.

Present Conditional I would go on a trip I would accept the invitation Past conditional I would have gone on a trip

Past tense if I had money. if I were you.

Past Perfect if I had had money.

181

A conditional clause may be also introduced by : unless (dacă nu), in case, on condition that, so long as, provided/providing (that), suppose/supposing (that). Zero conditional When we talk about things that are generally or always true, we can use: If / When / Unless plus a present form PLUS present simple or imperative   

If he gets there before me, ask him to wait. When you fly budget airline, you have to pay for your drinks and snacks. Unless you need more space, a small car is big enough for one person.

Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which is generally true. In the condition clause, we can use a variety of present forms. In the result clause, there can only be the present simple or imperative.    

If you visit London, go on the London Eye. If unemployment is rising, people tend to stay in their present jobs. If you've done that, go and have a coffee. When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun cream. It'll be very hot.

182

 

When I'm concentrating, please don't make so much noise. When I've finished an article, I always ask Kate to read it through.

Notice that 'unless' means the same as 'if not'.   

Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any more work on the project. Unless prices are rising, it's not a good investment. Unless you've been there yourself, you don't really understand how fantastic it is.

The first conditional We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen.    

If we take John, he'll be really pleased. If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow. If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them. If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.

The 'if' clause can be used with different present forms.   

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building. If he's feeling better, he'll come. If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

183

The "future clause" can contain 'going to' or the future perfect as well as 'will'.  

If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am. If we don't get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.

The "future clause" can also contain other modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.  

If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's. If he comes, you can get a lift home with him.

Second conditional The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations.    

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park. If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity. If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place. If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'. (Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is equally 'correct' .) 184

  

If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one. If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every day. If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.

Note the form 'If I were you' which is often used to give advice.  

If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live. If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about 'unlikely' situations.   

If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall. If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes. If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of the speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these things are possible, Peter doesn't. Otto – If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house. Peter – If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house. Otto – If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party. Peter – If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party. 185

Otto – If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody. Peter – If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody. Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous.   

If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train. If she were coming, she would be here by now. If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.   

If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently. If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant. If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.   

What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here") Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one") He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

186

Third conditional We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.    

If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades. If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time. If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen. If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.

Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.   



If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. ( But he wasn't there so it wasn't possible.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.) If I had paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson.

Also notice that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

187

  

I'd have done it. ("if you had asked me but you didn't.") I wouldn't have said that. ("if I'd been there.") He wouldn't have let him get away with that. ("if he had tried that with me.")

Exercise 1. Change the verbs in the following sentences into the present conditional and then into the past conditional. MODEL: I went to a party. I should go to a party. I should have gone to a party. 1. He liked very much to see the girl. 2. I'll come to see you. 3. Were you happy to meet him? 4. They're going to the seaside on Monday. 5. Dick won't stop. 6. Wasn't the boy eating the cake? 7. He'll come to see his friend. 8. She helped him with his homework. 9. Are you not calling him? 10. Lily isn't going to finish the paper today. 11. Did you ask him? 12. They have managed it all right. Exercise 2. Use the verb to wish and change the following sentences into affirmative ones, according to the model: a. I don't think I'm free this afternoon. b. I wish I were free this afternoon. a. Susan did not know that you were coming. 188

b. Susan wished she had known that you were coming. 1. We don't live near the lake. 2. I'm not going to spend my holidays in England. 3. I didn't drive very carefully. 4. Sissy has not enough money to buy that red dress. 5. The teacher did not think the exercise was difficult. 6. I can't get the book you told me about. 7. I don't think your brother could speak Italian. Continue the exercise using negative sentences after to wish. MODEL: He supposed the girl spoke English. He wished the girl did not speak English. 1. Mrs. Smith noticed that the man was impolite. 2. I understand that your boss is busy in the meeting room. 3. They went to Paris instead of London. 4. I heard that Nick failed in his examination. 5. They think Michael has a bad cold. 6. He remembered the woman's name when she saw her. 7. This man drinks a little bit too much. Exercise 3. Conditional sentences Type I; put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses. 1. If I see him I (give) him a lift. 2. If he goes into that field the bull (chase) him. 3. If you eat all that you (be) ill. 4. If I find your passport I (telephone) you at once. 5. If you read in bad light you (ruin) your eyes. 6. I (lend) you my car if you promise to take care of it. 7. If you come late they (not let) you in. 8. If he (work) hard today can he have a holiday tomorrow? 9. If you like the house you (buy)it? 189

10. Unless you pay him regularly he (not work) for you at all. 11. Should you require anything else please (ring) the bell for the attendant. 12. Unless you work very hard you (not be) successful. 13. If he (be) late we'll go without him. 14. Unless you are more careful you (have) an accident. 15. If you (not believe) what I say, ask Michael. 16. If you (not like) this house I'll show you another. 17 If you put on the kettle I (make) the tea. 18. If you (meet) him tell him to ring me up. Exercise 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form. 1. I'll look for your notebook and if I (find) it I (give) you a ring. 2. If you (see) Tom, ask him to ring me. 3. If you (fee) too hot during the night, turn down the central heating. 4. I shan't wake if the alarm clock (not go) off. 5. I shan't wake unless I (hear) the alarm. 6. If you (not feel) well tomorrow you'd better take the day off. 7. If you (care) to see some of his drawings I (send) them round to your office. 8. If Tom helps us the job only (take) half an hour. 9. If you (wait) a moment I'll come with you. 10. Unless Mr. Jones (park) his car correctly he (have) to pay a fine. 11. Tom: "I hate my job". Peter: "If you (hate) it, why you (not change) it? 12. If Michael (refuse) to help we'll have to manage without him. 13. If your phone (not work) you can use mine. 190

14. If you (not know) the meaning of a word you may use a dictionary. 15. I expect it will freeze tonight. If it (freeze) tonight the roads (be) very slippery tomorrow. Exercise 1. Conditional sentences Type II; put the verbs in brackets in the correct tenses. 1. If I had a car I (travel) there all by myself. 2. If I (know) his address I (give) it to you. 3. More tourists (come) to this town if it had a better climate. 4. If I had more money I (buy) shares in that company. 5. If everyone (say) exactly what he thought, conversation would become impossible. 6. If he knew that it was dangerous he ( not come). 7. If you see somebody drowning, what you (do)? 8. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I'd give up my job. 9. If I bought her everything she asked for I (be) ruined. 10. If you (have) a degree You could get a job easily. 11. We'd ask him to dinner more often if he (be) more amusing. 12. If I thought that I'd be any use I (offer) to help. 13. I (not go) there if I were you. 14. If you remove that screw the whole machine (fall) to pieces. Exercise 2. Conditional sentences Type III; put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses. 1. If I had known that you were in hospital I (visit) you. 2. I shouldn't have come if they (not invite) me. 191

3. If he had asked you, you (accept)? 4. If you had shut the door the dog (not get) into the house. 5. If you had obeyed my instructions. 6. If she had listened to my directions she (not turn) down the wrong street. 7. If you (speak) more slowly he might have understood you. 8. If he had known the whole story he (not be) so angry. 9. If he had tried again I think that he (succeed). 10. If I realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop). 11. If you (be) here last week you would have seen my garden at its best. 12. If you had arrived ten minutes earlier you (get) a seat. 13. If ha had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim across it. 14. He would have been invited to the meeting if they (know) his address. 15. If I had realized that it was such a long way I (take) a taxi. 16. If they all had agreed, the Conference (take) place in Paris. Exercise 3. Conditional sentences, mixed types; put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses. 1. If you (find) a skeleton in the cellar don't mention it to anyone. 2. If you pass the examination we (have) a celebration. 3. If I press this button what (happen)? 4. I should have voted for him if I (have) a vote then. 5. If you go to Paris where you (stay)? 6. If someone offered to buy you one of these rings, which you (choose)? 192

7. If the fog (get) thick) the flight may be cancelled. 8. If I hear the burglar alarm what I (do)? 9. If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn't have answered the wrong questions. 10. I could make the report myself if I (have) all the necessary information. 11. Unless they leave a lamp beside that hole in the road somebody (fall) into it. 12. If he were in he (answer) the phone. 13. Unless she finish university she (find) a better-paid job. 14. The meeting would have been successful if all the members of the Board of Directors (be) present. Exercise 4. Finish these sentences, taking care to use the correct tenses. 1. If he had taken my advice ...... 2. If the weather is fine tomorrow ..... 3. He would have given him the news ..... 4. I should have ordered the goods if ..... 5. If the storm becomes worse .... 6. I would have bought myself a new car if ..... 7. They would have got there in time if .... 8. If the volcano starts erupting .... 9. If he cut the grass more often .... 10. If you don't put enough stamps on this letter, the person who gets it .... 11. If you leave the gate open .... 12. He wouldn't have been angry if .... 13. She would buy that dress if .... 14. They would catch the 8 o'clock train if .... 15. If the phone rings when I'm out, my secretary .... 193

UNIT XII New economic sectors All economic sectors have been influenced by the death of distance. But special mention has to be made of several areas that have benefited most. One of the greatest beneficiaries, in terms of revenue, power and job-creation, is the field of “infotainment” (information and entertainment). The information explosion and its consequences on the printed press, radio, TV and telecommunications has resulted in the creation of vast commercial empires. Articles can be read simultaneously in various countries, films can be seen and music heard by millions of people, sports events can be followed as and when they occur by a large part of the world population. The economic and financial interests involved are such that cultural wars actually became commercial or trade wars. The multi-media industry, which thrives on such developments, constitutes at the same time the underlying technology and the resulting field of activity, with huge revenues in terms of hardware and software. No field of human endeavour, form advanced research and intellectual pursuits to entertainment and leisure, form data bases and CD ROMs to video games is beyond its reach. One of most spectacular booms is that in sports, which have now become big business.

194

Thanks to extensive media-coverage, they generate huge advertising potential; thanks to sponsoring, they are a favourite ground for corporate image building. A significant part of the advertising expenditure of automobile and sportswear firms goes into billboards on tracks and stadiums, and into TV ads related to sports events. Brands which have nothing to do with sports are also attracted by the exposure granted to advertisements during matches and races that are beamed to audiences of several million people. In such a context, it is of course difficult to maintain the Olympic ideal of amateur sports… However spots like jogging, hang-gliding, windsurfing, biking and games like tennis or soccer are being practised just for fun, as hobbies or spare time activities, by countless kids and adults. They provide a huge market for the manufacturers and distributors of sportswear and sporting equipment…not to mention the contractors who are awarded construction contracts for marinas, ski-lifts etc. Tourism and travel have also enjoyed tremendous growth since World War II. Tour operators, travel agencies and hotel chains offer a wide range of services from luxury cruise and five-star hotels to low-prices charters and cheap accommodations for more adventurous youths. In air travel, there is cut-throat competition: airlines try to attract young travellers with no-frills economy flights, and business people

195

by offering frequent-flyer schemes which award regular clients additional mileage. Also to be mentioned is the sector of health maintenance and pharmaceuticals, with the advances in medicine and surgery, the rise in life expectancy and the prevailing concern with health care and fitness, together with the extensive medical coverage provided by states and private firms in developed countries, even though “cradle to grave” or “womb to tomb” welfare systems are being criticized for their ever-increasing costs. This field has grown tremendously, and appeals strongly to investors and private operators. No wonder that pharmaceutical firms wage fierce battles to file new patents whose worldwide exploitation may spell fortune for this or that research lab. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary Practice 1.to thrive – a prospera 2.endeavour – stradanie, efort 3.expenditure – cheltuiala 4.bilboard – panou publicitar 5.exposure- prezentare 6.to beam – a difuza 7.hang-gliding – deltaplan 8.contractor – antreprenor 9.to award – a acorda/a decerna un premiu (aici, cu sens ironic) 10.cut-throat competition – concurenţă pe viaţă şi pe moarte 196

11.no-frills – redus la esential 12.scheme – plan, sistem 13.mileage – kilometraj Focus on grammar. Wish Wish Let's start off with the easy part. ' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want to' but it is much, much more formal and much, much less common.  

I wish to make a complaint. I wish to see the manager.

You can also use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good wishes'.  

I wish you all the best in your new job. We wish you a merry Christmas.

Notice that when you want to offer good wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope ' and not 'wish'.    

We wish you the best of luck. We hope you have the best of luck. I wish you a safe and pleasant journey. I hope you have a safe and pleasant journey.

However, the main use of 'wish' is to say that we would like things to be different from what they are, that we have regrets about the present situation.

197

  

I wish I was rich. He wishes he lived in Paris. They wish they'd chosen a different leader.

Notice that the verb tense which follows 'I wish' is 'more in the past' than the tense corresponding to its meaning.      

I'm too fat. I wish I was thin. I never get invited to parties. I wish I got invited to parties. It's raining. I wish it wasn't raining. I went to see the latest Star Wars film. I wish I hadn't gone. I've eaten too much. I wish I hadn't eaten so much. I'm going to visit her later. I wish I wasn't going to visit her later.

In the case of 'will' , where 'will' means 'show willingness' we use 'would'.   

He won't help me. I wish he would help me. You're making too much noise. I wish you would be quiet. You keep interrupting me. I wish you wouldn't do that.

Where 'will' means a future event, we cannot use 'wish' and must use 'hope'.  

There's a strike tomorrow. I hope some buses will still be running. I hope everything will be fine in your new job. 198

In more formal English, we use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was' after 'wish'.   

I wish I were taller. I wish it were Saturday today. I wish he were here.

Had better We use “had better” plus the infinitive without “to” to give advice. Although “had” is the past form of “have”, we use “had better” to give advice about the present or future.   

You'd better tell her everything. I'd better get back to work. We'd better meet early.

The negative form is “had better not”.   

You'd better not say anything. I'd better not come. We'd better not miss the start of his presentation.

We use “had better” to give advice about specific situations, not general ones. If you want to talk about general situations, you must use “should”.   

You should brush your teeth before you go to bed. I shouldn't listen to negative people. He should dress more appropriately for the office.

199

When we give advice about specific situations, it is also possible to use “should”.   

You shouldn't say anything. I should get back to work. We should meet early.

However, when we use “had better” there is a suggestion that if the advice is not followed, that something bad will happen.   

You'd better do what I say or else you will get into trouble. I'd better get back to work or my boss will be angry with me. We'd better get to the airport by five or else we may miss the flight.

Used to We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.   

I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago. Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't. I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is. 

There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't. 200

 

She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off. I didn't use to like him but now I do.

'Used to do' is different from 'to be used to doing' and 'to get used to doing' to be used to doing We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.   

I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time. Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now. They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.

to get used to doing We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming normal for us.   

I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it. She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day. I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.

201

UNIT XIII New trends in retailing Among recent developments, let us mention: increased emphasis on customer loyalty. In order to generate customer loyalty, stores offer frequent-shopper programmes which may take the form of discounts, couponing, loyalty cards a titling to rebates, charge accounts allowing refunds. Hard discounting: discount retailers (store discounters) undercut competition with low-priced items (generic or noname, no-brand, own-label, own-name, own-brand products, and distributor’s brand). Hard discounters (maxi-discounters) practice harddiscounting and maintain low overheads thanks to their nofrills service. Some specialized chains (category killers) have managed to almost eliminate competitors thanks to the know-how of their salespeople, and the economies of scale they can achieve while offering a wide range of products at competitive prices. Many stores have to attract customers advertising the day’s bargain selecting each day an article to be sold at bargain prices, or “everyday low prices”. The appeal of low prices accounts for the success of factory outlets, where buyers can benefit from discounts of up to 50%, and warehouse clubs in which members (card-holders) can buy goods at approximately wholesale prices. Direct marketing. 202

It consists in targeting specific individuals identified as potential buyers because of their age, income bracket or social status. The use of this technique is made easier in the U.S. by the relative lack of restrictions or the constitution of data-bases and customer files complete with the addresses and phonenumbers of those belonging to the selected target group. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary Practice 1.loyalty – fidelitate, loialitate (a clientelei) 2.couponing – promovare (a unui produs) prin cupoane de reducere 3.to entitle – a da dreptul 4.charge account (US) – cont al unui client într-un magazin 5.overheads – cheltuieli generale 6.category killer – firme specializate care elimină concurenţa în domeniu 7.bargain – afacere bună, chilipir 8.income bracket – categoria de salariu 9.target group – grup ţintă Focus on grammar. The subjunctive The subjunctive expresses a possible action, or unreality, improbability.

203

The Synthetically Subjunctive - The Present Subjunctive It is used: 1. to express wishes or set expressions: God save the Queen! Damn you! God bless you! Long live peace! Suffice it to say that ... 2. in subordinate "that" clauses: It is advisable that you come back soon. - The Past Subjunctive It is used: 1. in conditional clauses: If I were you, I wouldn't borrow money from the bank. 2. after wish, it's (high) time, as if/though, even if/though, would rather/sooner/better. I wish I were back home. It's (high) time you finish writing. He is looking at me as if he knew me. He would rather go to the mountains than stay at home. He would rather I stayed home. -The Past Perfect Subjunctive It is used: 1. in conditional clauses to express a Past Conditional: I would have sold the car if I had found a client. 2. after wish or even if/though: I wish you hadn't done this. Mike was speaking Spanish as if/though he had been a Spaniard. 204

Even if/though I had seen him, I wouldn't have informed you. The Analytical Subjunctive Shall + Infinitive Shall I compare you with a champion? Should + Infinitive Why shouldn't you come earlier? It is necessary that you should arrive in time. If he should come, just tell me. (= happened to come) We ran away lest he should catch us up. May all your dreams come true! No matter how difficult the task might be he still wants to do it. They wish she would pass the exam. She practiced a lot so that she could win the contest. Should We use 'should' for giving advice.   

You should speak to him about it. He should see a doctor. We should ask a lawyer.

We use 'should' to give an opinion or a recommendation.  

He should resign now. We should invest more in Asia. 205



They should do something about this terrible train service.

'Should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more personal than 'must' or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'.   

I think they should replace him. I don't think they should keep the contract. Do you think we should tell her.

Should have We can use 'should have' to talk about past events that did not happen.   

I should have let her know what was happening but I forgot. He should have sent everybody a reminder by email. They should have remembered that their guests don't eat pork.

We can also use 'should have' to speculate about events that may or may not have happened.   

She should have got the letter this morning. I expect she'll give us a call about it later. He should have arrived at his office by now. Let's try ringing him. They should have all read that first email by this stage. It's time to send the next one.

206

We can use ' should not have' to speculate negatively about what may or may not have happened.   

She shouldn't have left work yet. I'll call her office. He shouldn't have boarded his plane yet. We can probably still get hold of him. They shouldn't have sent the report off for printing yet. There is still time to make changes.

We can also use 'should not have' to regret past actions.   

I shouldn't have shouted at you. I apologise. We shouldn't have left the office so late. We should have anticipated this bad traffic. They shouldn't have sacked him. He was the most creative person on their team.

Can have / Could have We can use 'could have' to talk about something somebody was capable of doing but didn't do.   

I could have gone to Oxford University but I preferred Harvard. She could have married him but she didn't want to. They could have bought a house here 20 years ago but chose not to.

Often, there is a sense of criticism. 

You could have phoned me to let me know.

207

 

They could have helped me instead of just sitting there. I could have done more to help you. Sorry.

We can use 'couldn't have' to talk about something we were not capable of doing.   

I couldn't have managed without you. I couldn't have got the job. He was always going to appoint his nephew. I couldn't have enjoyed myself more. Thank you for a lovely day.

We can use 'could have' to speculate about what has happened. (We can also use 'may have' or 'might have' in these situations.)   

She could have taken the earlier train. Simon could have told her. They could have overheard what we said.

We can also use 'can have' to speculate about what has happened but only in questions and negative sentences and with words such as 'hardly', 'never' and 'only'.   

Can she have forgotten about our meeting? He can't have seen us. They can hardly have thought that I was not interested in the job.

We can also use 'could have' to speculate about something that didn't happen. 208

  

You could have broken your neck, jumping out the window like that. He could have hurt somebody, throwing a bottle out of the window like that. I could have done well in my exam if I'd worked harder.

You can also use 'could have' to talk about possible present situations that have not happened.   

I could have been earning a lot as an accountant but the work was just too boring. He could have been Prime Minister now but he got involved in a big financial scandal. They could have been the market leaders now if they had taken his advice.

Exercise 1. Unreal past and subjunctives; put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms. 1. It's just strike midnight. It's high time we (leave). 2.You (have) better take off your wet clothes. 3. I I (not have) rubber gloves on I would have been electrocuted. 4. He looks as though he never (get) a square meal, but in fact his wife feeds him very well. 5. When an English person say something to me, I translate it into my native language, and then I think of a reply in Romanian, and then translate it into English and say it.

209

It's high time you (stop) doing all this translation and (start) thinking in English. 6. It's high time the police (do) something to stop road accidents. 7. I hate driving. I would much rather you (drive). 8. Wife: "I'd like to get a job." Husband: "I'd much rather you (stay) at home and (look) after the house." 9. It looks like rain; you (have) better take a coat. 10. You talk as though it (be) a small thing to leave your country for ever. 11. I'll pay by cheque monthly. I'd rather you (pay) me cash weekly. 12. You (have) better take off your wet clothes. 13. I wish I know) what is wrong with my car. 14. He talks as if he (do) all the work himself, but in fact Tom and I did most of it. Exercise 2.The Present Subjunctive is identical in form with the Past Tense indicative. Replace the verbs in brackets by the appropriate form of the Present Subjunctive (simple/continuous, active/passive). 1. It's time you (get down) to business. It's time you got down to business. 2. It's about time we (be leaving). It's about time we were leaving. 3. It is high time the team (start) training for the competition. 4. It's high time he (express) his own point of view. 5. It's about time we (put) an end to this pointless talk. 210

6. It's time you (read) books in the original. 7. It's time you (be reading) books in the original. 8. Isn't it time he (be given) his medicine? 9. It's time you (realize) the importance of the matter. 10. It's time we (close) some unproductive sectors. Exercise 3. The Present Subjunctive form of the verb BE is WERE for all persons. Give advice in the following situations. Use If I were you, I'd .... 1. Alice: I want to lose weight. Helen: If I were you, I'd eat fewer sweets. Alice: Helen: 2. I think it's going to rain. ............ 3. I think I've got a temperature. ............ 4. I find it difficult to get up in the morning. ............ 5. I've got the hiccoughs. ............ 6. I've lost my purse. ........... 7. I've been working too hard. ............ 8. I can't see properly. It's too dark in here. ............ Exercise 4. The Past Subjunctive is identical in form with the Past Perfect indicative. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Subjunctive form. 1. I wish it (happen) to anyone but you. I wish it had happened to anyone but you. 2. She almost wished she (not invite) them to the party. 3. I wish you (bring) the dictionary with you. 4. Henry would have missed his train if he (not hurry). 5. I wouldn't have phoned her if I (know) she was so busy. 6. I wish you (see) the play. 7. My friend wish I (not buy) this expensive car. 8. They wish their boss (be) more understanding. 211

9. Michael would have never go there alone if he (think) of the dangerous. 10. Suppose they (do) what you asked! What would have become of them? Exercise 5. Unreality can also be expressed by a variety of modal auxiliaries + infinitives (Analytical or Periphrastic Subjunctive). Read the following sentences paying attention to the use of the subjunctive. Shall/should + infinitive The committee have decided that no one shall be admitted without a ticket. It is not necessary that every one should be first-rate - either actresses or singers. May/might + infinitive May you be happy in the life you have chosen! We put the files into the drawers, for fear someone might get them. Would + infinitive I wish they would forget this unhappy story. Exercise 6. Read the following sentences paying attention to the subjunctive constructions. Translate the sentences into Romanian. 1. Our intention is that the new wing of the plant will be built by the end of the year. 2. Try as you will, you won't manage it. 3. I wish they wouldn't held the meeting while I'm trying to finish the final reports. 4. May you have a long and happy life! 212

5. Should you need help, please let me know at once. 6. The manager decided that the goods be sent immediately. 7. My partner began to wish he had not come to the party. 8. I would not think another moment if I were to choose. 9. I feared lest I should be deceived. 10. I locked all the doors for fear a burglar might enter the office. The old form of the present subjunctive is used in imperative sentences when the subject is expressed: 1. Oh! You leave that to me. Don't you, any of you , worry yourselves about that. 2. Somebody come with me, and then I'll show you the new project. 3. You take my advice: invite them to dinner before you start talking business! 4. The manager said, "Now the first thing to settle is what to close. Now you get a sheet of paper and write down, George, and you get the plan of the plant, Michael". Exercise 7. Read the following sentences paying attention to the use of the Present Subjunctive indicating present unreality (action contrary to present fact). 1. It's about time the new investor arrived. 2. It's about time the meeting started. 3. He wish he had a brother. If only he were his brother. 4. If I had a plan of the city, I could show you the way to the Town Hall. 5. Even though he were present, they would not change their minds. 6. He hated secrets and he doesn't like to be treated as if he were a child

213

Exercise 8. Make a choice. Use Would rather. This evening you can: 1. stay at home or go out I think I'd rather stay at home than go out this evening 2. eat at home or eat down town 3. read your favourite magazine or watch a talk show on TV 4. go dancing in a club or go swimming 5. date your girl-friend or meet your friends 6. do more homework or read a book 7. go for a walk or listen to some music 8. play chess or play tennis 9. go to the theatre or to a concert hall 10. give a party or go to a party Exercise 9. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form. MODEL: If Garret (look) in the drawer, he (find) the file. If Garret looked in the drawer, he would find the file. 1. This report would be better if it (have) more information in it. 2. Do you think he (lend) me his car if I ask him nicely? 3. The secretary would hear you better if you (speak) louder. 4. If he were not so impatient he (be) better understood. 5. He would play tennis if he (have) time. 6. He (visit) Spain if he had more money. Exercise 10. Put the verbs in brackets into the right form. Use the Past Subjunctive after Even if to express action contrary to past fact. MODEL: Even if he (work) twice difficult I (not refuse) to do it. 214

Even if the work had been twice as difficult I wouldn't have refuse it. 1. Even if you (send) him a special invitation, he (not come) to the meeting. 2. Even though the Browns (have) much money, they (not buy) this extremely expensive car. 3. Even if I (write) to Dave , he (not get) the letter. 4. You hardly (believe) it even though you (see) it with your own Eyes. 5. We (come) back by all means even if it (be) late as midnight. 6. Even though the way (be) twice short we (miss) the train all the same, for I got the schedule mixed up. Exercise 11. Replace the verbs in brackets by the correct form: present or past subjunctive. 1. Mrs. Brown wishes her husband (come) back earlier from his office. He's always late for dinner. 2. It's high time the meeting (be) over. 3. Supposing he never (come). What would happen then? 4. He'd rather they (not mention) it to them just yet. 5. We all wished we (not close) these two sectors. 6. It's high time you (open) a current account to a bank. 7. I would have sent you a postcard from London if I (know) your address. 8. They (help) you if you had asked them to. 9. She behaved as if she (be) the richest woman in the world. 10. I'd rather you (leave) the party immediately. Exercise 12. Read the following sentences paying attention to the use of the Analytical Subjunctive after : a) it is/was 215

necessary, advisable, essential, better, vital, important, right, fair, natural, etc. b) it is/was strange, odd, surprising, amazing, annoying, ridiculous, absurd, etc. c) suggest, propose, insist, recommend, command, demand, etc. d) intention, idea, wish, desire, suggestion, proposal, demand, request, arrangement, agreement, etc .e) lest, in case - in expressions of fear; f) in conditional sentences instead of the present tense (when the action in the "if" clause is unlikely to occur);e) in (negative) purpose clauses as an alternative to would/could. 1. It is important they should be present at the meeting. 2. It is essential that he should know the truth. 3. It is only fair that you should accompany the manager. 4. It is amazing that the Leaning Tower of Pisa should have stood for so long. 5. The president proposed that we should postpone our departure. 6. My desire was that he should leave off his office and go on a holiday. 7. Her desire is that her friend should accompany her during the trip. 8. The road was icy and the driver was terrified lest the car should slip and have an accident. 9. If the phone should ring, please say that I'll be back at noon. 10. Should he come back, tell him I am out. 11. He wore a mask so that nobody should recognize him.

216

UNIT XIV International trade The growth of international trade The majority of economists believe in the comparative cost principle, which proposes that all nations will raise their living standards and real income if they specialize in the production of those goods and services in which they have the highest relative productivity. Nations may have an absolute or a comparative advantage in producing goods and services because of factors of production (notably raw materials), climate, division of labour, economies of scale, and so forth. This theory explains why there is international trade between North and South, e.g. semiconductors going from the USA to Brazil, and coffee going in the opposite direction. But it does not explain the fact that over 75% of the exports of the advanced industrial countries go to the similar advanced nations, with similar resources, wage rates and levels of technology, education, and capital. It is more a historical accident than a result of natural resources that the US leads in building aircrafts, semiconductors, computers and software, while Germany makes luxury automobiles, machine tools and cameras. However the economists who recommend free trade do not face elections every four or five years. Democratic governments do, which often encourages them to impose tariffs and quotas in order to protect what they see as tragic industries - notably agriculture - without which the country would be in danger if there was a war, as well as other jobs. 217

Abandoning all sectors in which a country does not have a comparative advantage is likely to lead to structural unemployment in the short (and sometimes medium and long) term. Other reasons for imposing tariffs include the following:  to make imports more expensive than home produced substitutes, and thereby reduce a balance of payments deficit;  as a protection against dumping (the selling of goods abroad at below cost price in order to destroy or weaken competitors or to earn foreign currency to pay for necessary imports);  to relate against restrictions imposed by other countries;  to protect 'infant industry' until they are large enough to achieve economies of scale and strong enough to compete internationally. With tariffs, it is impossible to know the quantity that will be imported, because prices might be elastic. With quotas, governments can set a limit to imports. Yet unlike some countries use include so-called safety norms, and the deliberate creation of customs difficulties and delays. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), an international organization set up in 1947, had the objectives of encouraging international trade, of making tariffs the only form of protectionism, and of reducing these as much as possible. The most favoured nation clause of the GATT agreement specified that countries could not have favoured trading partners, but had to grant equally favourable 218

conditions to all trading partners. The final GATT agreement - including services, copyright, and investment, as well as trade in goods - was signed in Marrakesh in 1994, and the organization was superseded by the World Trade Organization. It took nearly 50 years to arrive at the final GATT agreement because until the 1980's, most developing countries opposed free trade. They wanted to industrialize in order to counteract what they rightly saw as an inevitable fall in commodity prices. They practised import substitution (producing and protecting goods that cost more than those made abroad), and imposed high tariff barriers to protect their infant industries. Nowadays, however, many developing countries have huge debts with Western commercial banks on which they are unable to pay the interest, let alone repay the principal. Thus they need to rollover (or renew) the loans, to reschedule (or postpone) repayments, or to borrow further money from the International Monetary Fund, often just to pay the interest on existing loans. Under these circumstances, IMF opposes severe conditions, usually including the obligation to export as much as possible. Quite apart from IMF pressure, Third World governments are aware of the export successes of the East Asian 'Tiger' economies (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan), and of the collapse of the Soviet economic model. They were afraid of being excluded from the world trading system by the development of trading blocks such as the European Union, finalized by the Maastricht Treaty, and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), both 219

signed in the early 1990's. So they tended to liberalize their economies, lowering trade barriers and opening up the international trade. Vocabulary practice autarky - the (impossible) situation in which a country is completely self- sufficient and has no foreign trade; balance of payments - the difference between the amount of money coming into a country from the goods and services it exports, and the amount of money going out for the goods and services it imports; balance of trade - the difference in value between the visible exports (goods and services) and visible imports of a country; barter or counter-trade - direct exchange of goods, without the use of money deficit - the amount by which expenditure is greater than income over a particular period; dumping - selling goods abroad at (or below) cost price; invisible exports - services such as banking, insurance and tourism that are sent from one country to another; invisible imports - services such as banking, insurance and tourism that are brought from other countries; protectionism - imposing trade barriers in order to restrict imports; quotas - quantitative limits on the import of particular products or commodities; surplus - an amount that is more than is needed; tariffs - taxes charged on imports; visible trade(GB) or merchandise trade (US) - trade in goods 220

Reading Read the text and answer the following questions. 1. Why do most economists oppose protectionism? 2. Why do most governments impose import tariffs and/or quotas? 3. Why were many developing countries for a long time opposed to GATT? 4. Why have many developing countries recently reduced protectionism and increased their international trade? Focus on grammar (I). The imperative The imperative We can use the imperative to give a direct order. 1. Take that chewing gum out of your mouth. 2. Stand up straight. 3. Give me the details. We can use the imperative to give instructions. 1. Open your book. 2. Take two tablets every evening. 3. Take a left and then a right. We can use the imperative to make an invitation. 1. Come in and sit down. Make yourself at home. 2. Please start without me. I'll be there shortly. 3. Have a piece of this cake. It's delicious.

221

We can use the imperative on signs and notices. 1. Push. 2. Do not use. 3. Insert one dollar. We can use the imperative to give friendly informal advice. 1. Speak to him. Tell him how you feel. 2. Have a quiet word with her about it. 3. Don't go. Stay at home and rest up. Get some sleep and recover. We can make the imperative 'more polite' by adding 'do'.   

Do be quiet. Do come. Do sit down.

Focus on grammar(II). The infinitive I. Forms: Active Voice Simple Aspect/Continuous Aspect Present to offer/to be offering

Form

Passive Voice

The to be Infinitive offered The Perfect to have offered/to have to have been Infinitive been offering offered Negative: not to offer 222

be offered be offering have offered have been offering have been offered II. Uses: 1. after certain verbs: to agree to appear to attempt to decide to expect to help e.g. I refuse to see him

to manage to offer to promise to refuse to seem to learn

2. after certain verbs followed by direct objects: to advise somebody to to invite somebody to e.g. The teacher invited him to read more. 3. after certain adjectives: e.g. It is difficult to state this. 4. after the verbs make and let we use short infinitive: e.g. Let me go home. You make me laugh. 5. to show the purpose: e.g. I come to see my friend. I need a lot of money to buy that house. 6. after certain verbs followed by interrogative words: what, where, who. Such verbs are: to ask, to wonder, to find, to understand. e.g. I didn't know what to say.

223

Focus on grammar (III). Accusative + Infinitive 1. It is used without to a) after verbs of perception: to see, to hear, to feel, to notice etc. e.g. I saw him come. He heard her sing. b) after verbs expressing determination, obligation to make: He made me laugh. 2. It is used with to a) after verbs expressing mental activities: to think, to suppose, to imagine, to consider, to expect, to know, to understand: e.g. I expect him to ring me up. b) after verbs expressing desire: to want, to like, to hate: e.g. I want him to work better. Focus on grammar (IV). Nominative + Infinitive It is used: 1. with the following verbs at the passive voice: to know, to say, to consider, to believe, to think, to suppose, to expect, to hear. e.g. Coleridge is considered to be a great poet. 2. with the following verbs at the Active Voice: to seem, to appear, to happen, to prove, to turn out: e.g. He proved to be a coward. He seems to know her. 3. with the verb to be + one of the adjectives: sure, certain, likely, unlikely: e.g. They are sure to come in time. 224

She is likely to be late. Focus on grammar (V). The Gerund Uses: 1. after verbs which describe the stages of the action: to begin, to start, to continue, to keep, to cease, to stop: e.g. He kept laughing. Stop talking! 2. after verbs which express mental activities: to forget, to remember, to fancy, to imagine: e.g. I remember posting the letter. She forgot sending the invitations. 3. after verbs of attitude: to like, to dislike, to enjoy, to prefer, to hate: e.g. I enjoyed meeting you. 4. after the verb mind, especially at the interrogative or negative form: e.g. Would you mind opening the window? I wouldn't mind walking. The verb mind can be followed by a noun/pronoun/possessive adjective + gerund: e.g. Do you mind my smoking here? I didn't mind Jim leaving home. 5. after transitive verbs: to admit, to deny, to avoid, to postpone, to delay, to suggest, to prevent, to involve: e.g. He admitted being wrong. I suggested telling the truth. 6. after personal expressions: I can't help (nu pot să nu / nu mă pot abtine), I can't hear/stand (nu pot suporta) e.g. I can't stand visiting the museum all day long. 7. after impersonal expressions: 225

it's no good = nu are rost să ... it's no use = nu are rost să ... it's useless = nu merită să ... it's worth = merită să ... e.g. It's no use waiting money on trifles. The book is worth reading. 8. after the verb need/want when the subject is a thing (not a person): e.g. The window are dirty. They need/want cleaning. Focus on grammar (VI). The -ing form The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.   

Smoking is forbidden. I have a long working day. I don't like dancing.

When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it.  

Marketing is a very inexact science. The marketing of the product will continue for a few months yet.

It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'.  

Speaking to an audience is always stressful. Swimming after work is very relaxing.

226

In formal English, we would use a possessive with the –ing form. In informal English, many people do not.  

I'm angry about his missing the meeting. Do you mind my coming?

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.  

I was met by a welcoming party at the airport. Let's go to the meeting room.

The –ing form is used after prepositions.   

Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah. After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind. Instead of feeling sorry for you, do some work for charity.

Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.   

I don't object to working this Sunday. I'm looking forward to seeing him again. I'm used to working long hours.

There are many verb + -ing combinations. Here are some common ones:    

I admit telling her. I appreciate having the raise. I avoid speaking to him. I consider blowing your nose in public to be wrong. 227

           

I delayed coming until the last possible moment. He denied telling her. I detest going to parties. I enjoy dancing. I feel like having a party. I've finished writing the report. I've given up going to the gym. I can't help thinking about it. I can't imagine ever leaving this company. I don't mind doing that. He put off talking to her as long as he could. I can't stand drinking beer.

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with different meanings. Here are some common ones:      

I stopped smoking last month. (I no longer smoke.) I stopped to smoke a cigarette. (I stopped what I was doing and had a cigarette.) I remember telling him. (A memory of the past.) I must remember to tell him. (Something to remember for the future.) I'm interested in finding out more details. (Interested about the future.) I was interested to read his report. (Interested in the past.)

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with the same meaning. Here are some common ones:

228

     

I love to go shopping. I love going shopping. I'm afraid to fly. I'm afraid of flying. I started to learn English 5 years ago. I started learning English 5 years ago.

Asking questions 1 The basic rule for asking questions in English is straightforward: Invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.      

It is snowing. = Is it snowing? He can speak German. = Can he speak German? They have lived here a long time. = Have they lived here a long time? She will arrive at ten o'clock. = Will she arrive at ten o'clock? He was driving fast. = Was he driving fast? You have been smoking. = Have you been smoking?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'.    

You speak fluent French. = Do you speak fluent French? She lives in Brussels. = Does she live in Brussels? They lived in Manchester. = Did they live in Manchester? He had an accident. = Did he have an accident?

229

Most questions with question words are made in the same way:       

How often does she use it? Why don't you come? Where do you work? How many did you buy? What time did you go? Which one do you like? Whose car were you driving?

Note who, what and which can be the subject. Compare:    

Who is coming to lunch? (who is the subject of the verb) Who do you want to invite to lunch? (you is the subject of the verb) What happened? (what is the subject of the verb) What did you do? (you is the subject of the verb)

Note the position of the prepositions in these questions:   

Who did you speak to? What are you looking at? Where does he come from?

Asking questions 2 In the section Questions 1, we looked at how to ask direct questions. To make a question, we invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.

230

 

Where is Johnny? Has he found it yet?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'. For example:  

What time did he arrive? How often do you play tennis?

However, when we ask for information, we often say 'Do you know…?' or 'Could you tell me….?' These are indirect questions and more polite. Note that the word order is different. For example:  

Do you know where Johnny is? Have you any idea if he has found it?

Note that we don’t use do, does or did. For example:  

Could you tell me what time he arrived? Would you mind telling me how often you play tennis?

Use if or whether when there is no question word.  

Has he done it? = Do you know if he has done it? Is it ready? = Can you tell me if it is ready?

The same changes in word order happen when we report questions. Note that in reported questions, the verb changes to the past: 231

  

What are you doing? = He asked me what I was doing. What have you done about it? = He asked me what I had done about it. Do you work with Pamela? = He asked me if I worked with Pamela.

Question tags We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English. They are not really questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the conversation open. Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.       

It's beautiful, isn't it? He has been, hasn't he? You can, can't you? It must be, mustn't it? You know him, don’t you? He finished it, didn't he? He will come, won't he?

  

It isn't very good, is it? It hasn't rained, has it? It can't be, can it? 232

  

Jenny doesn't know James, does she? They didn't leave, did they? He won’t do it, will he?

Notice these:  

There isn't an ATM here, is there? Let's have a cup of coffee, shall we?

To reply, use the same auxiliary:  

It's beautiful, isn't it? ~ Yes, it is. I think it's fabulous. It isn't very good, is it? ~ No, it isn't. In fact, it's terrible.

Although, the rules are very simple and mechanical, in order to use them easily in conversation, they have to be automatic. So you need to hear and practice them very often. Exercise 1. Read the following sentences and pay attention to the use of the infinitive. 1. She's going to go to a party tonight. 2. They intend to send the order tomorrow morning. 3. He wants to become an economist. 4. I asked to speak to the manager. 5. This man likes to read history books. 6. The manger agreed to listen to me. Exercise 2. After defective modal verbs and after some modal phrases we use the infinitive without TO (the short infinitive). 1. They can speak German. 2. We would like a cup of coffee. 233

3. You should go now. 4. You may leave now. 5. He must work hard. 6. He would rather go fishing. 7. You had better tell him to get down to work. 8. I dare not interfere. 9. You needn't say anything. I understand. Exercise 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the right form: the infinitive with TO or without TO. MODEL: Would you (like) (win) the first prize? Would you like to win the first prize? 1. They would (like) (visit) London on the journey back home. 2. I (meet) my friends there. 3. They would (laugh) (see) you with that funny hat on. 4. I would rather (wait) a few days; they might (phone) us. 5. Will you (have) enough money (buy) the album. 6. Do you really think he used (live) here? 7. Need you (leave) your papers lying all over the floor? 8. This must (be) the hotel they were talking about. 9. They are (arrive) at eight o'clock, but I ought (get) there earlier. 10. She made us (work) all morning. Then she let us (go). 11. Were you able (finish) your work? 12. I mean (have) another try if I can (participate) in the competition. Exercise 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the active or passive infinitive as appropriate. MODEL: I expect (see) him soon.

234

I expect to see him soon. He ought (punish) for what he did. He ought to be punished for what he did. 1. They are preparing (go) on holiday. 2. We expect (receive) his letter in a few days. 3. The final examination has (take) by all students. 4. The statistics in the report ought (check) very carefully. 5. The letters which need (answer) immediately are usually put in a special folder. 6. The money has (return) to the bank. 7. The flower died because she neglected (water) it. Exercise 5. Give the perfect forms infinitives (active voice). 1. to see 5. to sleep 9. to sing 2. to eat 6. to be 10. to stay 3. to stop 7. to cry 11. to get 4. to offer 8. to have 12. to grow

of the following 13. to believe 14. to know 15. to say

Exercise 6. What is the continuous form of these infinitives (indefinite, perfect, active voice)? 1. to travel 4. to run 7. to write 2. to listen 5. to study 8. to play 3. to dance 6. to swim 9. to rain Exercise 7. Give the passive forms of the following infinitives (indefinite and perfect): 1. to give 4. to write 7. to appoint 2. to introduce 5. to choose 8. to prove 3. to forget 6. to elect 9. to notice

235

Exercise 8. Use the appropriate form of the infinitive, in the active or passive voice. 1. I hate ( bother) you, but the man is still waiting (get) a definite answer. 2. The man seemed (study) me, and I felt uneasy in his presence. 3. The strength of the metal proved ( overestimate) by the designer. 4. The engineer claimed (warn) us against its use as he had always been sure it was likely (deform). 5. She would never miss a chance (show) her efficiency; she was so anxious (like) and (praise). 6. We seem (fly) over the sea for quite a time and there is yet no land (see). 7. The file was believed (lose) until the secretary happened (find) it during the inventory. It turned out (misplace). 8. The only sound (hear) was the ticking of old clock in the hall. Exercise 9. Look at the main function of the infinitive: Function

Example To be a student is a difficult job. Direct object I have always liked to study accountancy. (Prepositional) object of a Would you care to go for a verb, adjective walk? I'm afraid to leave her alone. Predicative My goal is to get good marks. Attribute The thing to do is to work Subject

236

Adverbial

hard. To be honest, I hate cold weather. We came here to work. The pudding is delicious to eat.

Exercise 9. Verbs of LIKING and DISLIKING, besides taking an infinitive alone as an object, may also take the ACCUSATIVE with the INFINITIVE as a DIRECT OBJECT: Choose; (would) hate; love; prefer; desire; intend; mean; want; expect; like; need; wish. Add the noun or the pronoun in the Accusative to each sentence below so that it becomes the subject of the infinitive clause. MODEL: The Phonetics teacher expects to work hard. (his students) The Phonetics teacher expects his students to work hard. 1. Last week, he expected to visit the Science Museum. (them) 2. He wants to describe the visit now.(all of them) 3. We'd have liked to speak first. (Tom) 4. I expect to be in hospital for a week. (my friend) 5. I prefer to have an older doctor.(her) 6. I don't wish to know this. (anyone) Exercise 10. Use the prompts to make sentences on the pattern VERB + ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE. MODEL: teacher/choose/a composition 237

I can't go out tonight. My teacher has chosen me to write a composition for tomorrow. 1. my partner/expect/to a meeting 2. my friend/ask/his car 3. my manager/would like/letters 4. my boss/give/a list of guests 5. my colleague/intend/his reports Exercise 11. Read the following ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE construction in the following sentences. 1. We believe him to be the best expert of all. 2. Do you suppose this subject to be too easy for them? 3. They reckoned Albert to be the most capable economist among them. 4. We know him to be a man of sense. 5. We understand her to be a woman of about fifty. 6. The experts declared the business to be out of danger. Exercise 12. A gerund may have all the syntactic properties of a noun or of a verb; it may also take a subject of its own; it may be used in the perfect form and in the passive voice. Read the sentences below paying attention to the use of the gerund. 1. His handling of the situation was masterly. 2. He was suspected of having lent large sums of money. 3. What's the use of his going there? 4. The investors coming tomorrow will make all the difference. 5. The young woman educated herself by reading widely. 6. He detests all this arguing about points of no importance. 238

7. We object to being treated like children. 8. There's no accounting for tastes. Exrcise 13. Combine the words below into a sentence containing a short or a long infinitive, or a gerund. MODEL: Mr. Brown enjoys in the garden work Mr. Brown enjoys working in the garden. The children hoped to their cousins visit The children hoped to visit their cousins. I made him the papers sign I made him sign the papers. 1. They have started chess play 2. They kept on about the weather talk 3. He aimed at his brother heart 4. It has started rain 5. I don't like him rudely answer 6. The Taylors agreed on Saturday come 7. We expect them there be 8. The secretary forgot the letter post 9. She will need accountancy study 10. We wanted the next day leave Exercise 14. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form (long infinitive, short infinitive or gerund): 1. They can't help (wonder) where he's gone. 2. I didn't remember (see) this man before. 3. Mrs. Brown saw the young woman (leave) the house early in the morning. 4. Dick helped me (put) Jane's luggage in the car. 5. Nothing can make us (accept) his proposal. 6. They watched him (leave) the room quickly. 239

7. He did not intend (go) there by air. 8. Have heard him (open) the door? 9. Do you mind (open) the window, please? 10. What do you like better, (ski) or (skate). 11. I'm sorry I didn't remember (post) the letter . 12. The manager recommended them (visit) us again next month.

240

UNIT XV Common law, equity and statue law Common law, equity and statute law Common law Drept cutumiar There are three basic uses of this complex idea:  When considering European law systems, one usually distinguishes between "common law", i.e. the general system of law that originates from England, and "civil law"; the term "common law" characterizes the legal systems prevailing in Anglo-Saxon countries (the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, etc.).  "Common Law" also refers to the development in the Middle Ages of a system of law "common" to all England (i.e. the extension of the jurisdiction of the King's courts) as opposed to local laws and customs which varied from area to area.  Lastly, this term is used today in opposition to the notions of "equity" and ..statute law" (see below); common law then refers to a set of rules based on judicial decisions and customs. The overriding principle is the -rule of precedent-, i.e. the obligation for a judge to consider the existing set of rules and principles in making his/her decision. This principle is reinforced by the rule of stare decisis (keep to what has been decided previously) and clearly shows that English law is largely based on "case law". Equity Echitate; drept natural The system of "equity" was originally inspired by ideas of natural justice (''equitable treatment and judgment"). Indeed, common law courts in the Middle Ages sometimes failed to give redress in certain cases where it was needed; litigants then petitioned the King for extraordinary relief. The latter, 241

through his Chancellor, eventually set up a special court to deal with these petitions. The rules applied by this Court turned into law and became a regular part of English law. Therefore, equity today refers to a branch of the law (derived from the set of rules developed by the Courts of Chancery) that "naturally supplements" common law; lastly, in case of a conflict between the rules of equity and of a common law, the rules of equity should prevail. Statute law Drept scris In opposition to common law and equity, statute law refers to the whole body of legislation enacted by Parliament (in England) or by Congress and the federal agencies (in the USA) which theoretically prevails over common law and equity. In the U.S., statute law has become predominant in the field of business law for instance. Thus, interstate commerce is ruled by statutory law. (Source: M Marcheteau, J.P. Berman, M. Savio, J.P. Daube, O. Ddlbard, B. Demazet, Engleza pentru economie, Teora, , Bucureşti, 2002) Vocabulary practice AMICABLE STATEMENT, OUT-OF-COURT SETTLEMENT REGLEMENTARE AMIABILĂ This implies that an agreement to a dispute is reached between the two parties either prior to the start of legal action (amicable settlement) or by interrupting legal proceedings and settling out of court. ATTORNEY AVOCAT, JURIST 1) synonym with lawyer or counsel: one who is legally appointed by another to transact business for him/her, and

242

specifically a legal agent qualified to act for claimants and defendants in legal proceedings. 2) attorney general US: a) procuror general (al unui stat) b) Ministrul Justiţiei (stat federal). GB: principalul avocat al Coroanei (cf. procurorul general de pe lângă Curtea de casaţie). CASE-LAW (OR RULES OF PRECEDENT) JURISPRUDENŢĂ A legal system - such as the British or U.S. ones - based on rules and principles acted on by judges in giving decisions in previous cases, and thus distinct from a detailed written code of law - like the French one. CRIME, MISDEMEANO(U)R, FELONY DELICT, INFRACŢIUNE Crime is a general term indicating non-compliance with the law, but should not be confused with manslaughter (omucidere fără premeditare) or (willful) murder, omor cu premeditare. Used collectively, it means "criminalitate". A misdemeanor(u)r refers to an offense (US: delict, infracţiune) or offence (GB: infracţiune, delict penal) or crime that is not punishable by death or imprisonment in a state penitentiary. A felony is a grave crime (US infracţiune majoră, GB atentat la siguranţa statului), such as murder, manslaughter, rape {viol), robbery, burglary, arson etc. DEFAMATION, LIBEL, SLANDER DEFĂIMARE, CALOMNIE, INSULTĂ Defamation is a general term, libel technically refers to written defamation, slander to verbal defamation. In ordinary English, libel is the most frequent term (a libel suit). DERIVATIVE SUIT A suit by one or several shareholders against a third party to enforce a right of the corporation/company.

243

DUE PROCESS OF LAW/DUE COURSE OF LAW CLAUZĂ DE SALVGARDARE A LIBERTĂŢILOR INDIVIDUALE; PREZUMŢIE DE NEVINOVĂŢIE Course of proceedings that must comply with the law of the land and allow the defendant to benefit from all the legal procedures and protection aimed at providing a fair trial. Focus on grammar. Reported speech Reported speech We use reported speech when we are saying what other people say, think or believe.       

He says he wants it. We think you are right. I believe he loves her. Yesterday you said you didn't like it but now you do! She told me he had asked her to marry him. I told you she was ill. We thought he was in Australia.

When we are reporting things in the present, future or present perfect we don't change the tense.   

He thinks he loves her. I'll tell her you are coming. He has said he'll do it.

When we tell people what someone has said in the past, we generally make the tense 'more in the past'.

244

     

You look very nice. = I told him he looked very nice. He's working in Siberia now. = She told me he was working in Siberia now. Polly has bought a new car. = She said Polly had bought a new car. Jo can't come for the weekend. = She said Jo couldn't come for the weekend. Paul called and left a message. = He told me Paul had called and had left me a message. I'll give you a hand. = He said he would give me a hand.

However, when we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true, it is not obligatory to make the tense 'more in the past'. The choice is up to the speaker. For example: "The train doesn't stop here."  

He said the train doesn't stop here. He said the train didn't stop here.

"I like Sarah."  

She said she likes Sarah. She said she liked Sarah.

When we are reporting what was said, we sometimes have to change other words in the sentence.

245

We have to change the pronoun if we are reporting what someone else said. Compare these two sentences. In each case the person actually said "I don't want to go."  

I said I didn't want to go. Bill said he didn't want to go.

We have to change words referring to 'here and now' if we are reporting what was said in a different place or time. Compare these two sentences. In each case the person actually said "I'll be there at ten tomorrow."  

(If it is later the same day) He said he would be there at ten tomorrow. (If it is the next day) He said he would be there at ten today.

Now compare these two sentences.  

(If we are in a different place) He said he would be there tomorrow at ten. (If we are in the place he is coming to) He said he would be here at ten tomorrow.

Reported speech 2 We also use reported speech when we are saying what other people asked or wanted to know. We do not use do or question marks in indirect questions. 

"What time is it?" = He asked me what time it was.

246

  

"Why hasn't he come? = She wondered why he hadn't come. "When will you be arriving?" = He wanted to know when we would be arriving. "What were you doing?" = They questioned him about what he had been doing.

We use the same structure when we report answers.    

"147 Oak Street." = I told him what my address was. "I didn't have time to do it." = She explained why she hadn't done it. "Look at this dress and bag." = She showed me what she had bought. "Put the paper here and press this button." = He demonstrated how the scanner worked.

Yes/no questions are reported with if or whether.   

Do you want a ride? = Mike asked me if I wanted a ride. Are you coming? = They wanted to know if I was coming. Will you be here later? = She asked me whether I would be here later.

247

Annex 1. Common Phrases Common Phrases 1.Many thanks for your enquiry of .................... (solicitarea dvs. din ......) 2.We are pleased to have your enquiry about ............ (Am primit cu placere solicitarea dvs. in legatura cu ........) 3.We thank you for your letter of ..., in which you enquire about ... ). 4.Replying to your enquire of ... we are pleased to inform you that .... 5.In reply to your enquire of ... we are enclosing .... a) the brochures you requested b) full particulars of our export models c) our revised price-list 6.We thank you for your letter of ... and we have sent you today, by separate post .... a) samples of all our wax polish b) patterns of our cotton fabrics (panzeturi) c) specimens of our latest ballpoint pens (exemplare) d) a full range of samples 7.With regards/respect to your letter of .... a) we quote you ... (specificam preturile noastre) b) we can quote you for ... as follows:/as below: c) we have forwarded to you today a few samples of the goods we have in stock 8.We thank you for the business you intend to place with us, and offer you .... 9.You will receive, under separate cover, all our new export models, which we hope will interest you. 248

10.In order to acquaint you with our goods, we are sending you today our pattern-book. 11.Your name has been given to us by the Romanian Chamber of Commerce in Bacau. 12.The Romanian Embassy in .... has advised us to get in touch with you concerning .... 13.We saw your products demonstrated at the International Fair in Budapest earlier this year and would like to know whether .... 14.We have seen you advertisement in "Electronic Product News" and would be very grateful if you would let us have details of .... 15.Your advertisement in this month's issue of "Systems" states that you can offer ... (issue = număr de revistă) 16.These fancy goods are in demand during the tourist season. (fancy goods = articole de modă) 17.Demand for this type of machine is not high, but sales this year will probably exceed 50%. 18.There is no market here for articles of this type in the higher price ranges, but less expensive models sell very well throughout the year. 19.Will you please send us your catalogue and price list for.... 20.Will you please quote prices for the following item in the quantities stated. 21.We are also interested in your terms of payment and in discounts offered for regular purchases and large orders. (regular purchases = cumpărări constante) 22.If we place orders with you we will have to insist on prompt delivery. Can you guarantee delivery within three weeks of receiving orders?

249

23.We would appreciate a sample of each of the items listed above. 24.Kindly let me know/have your lowest price. 25.Please inform/tell us what/how much you would charge .... 26.Kindly let me have a description of .... 27.On what terms are you ready/willing to send us ...? 28.We are looking forward to hearing from you. 29.We would appreciate a prompt answer. 30.We hope you will be able to make us an offer within a fortnight from today's date. 31.In reply to your enquiry of... (date), we are happy to inform you/let you know, that we are able to supply you the goods you solicited. 32.The price will be ..., packing included. Delivery on the .... Payment can be made by: Documentary Letter of Credit opened in you favour within .... days of the delivery, and valid for ... days. 33. The advance payment of ... % of the total value of the contract should be made by simple invoice. 34. The present offer is firm until ... days of the mailing date. 35. Top quality products at competitive prices (samples enclosed), will, hopefully, arise your interest. 36. Subject to the delivery terms you require, we reserve the right to change the price within acceptable boundaries. 37. New prices will be applied due to increase in raw materials prices. The increase will represent ...%.

250

Annex 2. Phrasal verbs A set of phrasal verbs 'to ask after' someone means to ask for information about how they are and what they are doing.  

Sue was asking after you. I told her you were fine. He asked after my mother. He wanted to know how she was doing.

'to ask around' means to ask several people for help or information.  

I asked around to see if anyone knew someone who could rent me a room. When I needed to buy a new car, I asked around and someone offered me this one.

'to ask for' means to say that you want something.  

I asked for the chicken but you have brought me the beef. I must remember to ask for a receipt so that I can get reimbursed.

'to ask for' can also mean to do something which is likely to lead to trouble or problems. 

Walking around the streets alone at night was asking for trouble.

251



If you go to that part of town, you're asking for trouble. It's very dangerous there.

'to ask for someone' means to ask to speak to them.  

He asked for Carol but there is no one working here called Carol. If you need anything, ask for Henry. He'll be able to help you.

'to ask someone in' means to invite them into the room or your home.  

If someone comes to the door, don’t ask them in. Sometimes when I'm out in the garden, the neighbours ask me in for a drink.

'to ask someone out' means to invite them to go somewhere with you.  

He asked me out so I expected him to pay for dinner. We often invite our friends out for a drink in the pub.

'to ask someone over' means to invite them to come visit you in your home.  

I've asked Diane from across the road over for a cup of coffee later. He asked me over to see what they had done in the garden. * 252

‘to back away from’ something or someone means to retreat or move backwards from something, usually slowly, because you are frightened of them.  

When I saw the snake, I slowly backed away from it and called for help. He tried to back away from the man with the knife but was trapped.

‘to back away from’ an idea or suggestion means to disassociate yourself from it and not support it.  

He was going to say yes to the proposal but then backed away from it and didn’t. He backed away from plans for a vote of no confidence.

‘to back down’ means to admit that you were wrong or that you have been defeated.  

When he was confronted with the facts, he quickly backed down. He wouldn’t back down. He maintained his position in spite of all the evidence.

‘to back off’ means avoiding a difficult situation by not becoming involved in it.  

Let me deal with this. Just back off . At first she was very aggressive but then she backed off.

253

‘to back onto’ describes how the back of a house or building faces in a specific direction.  

The house backs onto the river. We have a lovely view. The building backs onto the car park in the city centre.

‘to back out’ means to withdraw from an agreement that has been made.  

He is no longer going to pay the amount we agreed. He has backed out of our agreement. We were going to go on holiday together but then he backed out at the last minute.

‘to back out’ your car means to reverse it from a place or position.  

I broke the mirror backing out of the parking lot. It is illegal to back out of your garden on to the road.

‘to back up’ means to give an idea support or to prove it.  

He had figures from some very reliable sources to back up his arguments. He didn’t have any receipts to back up his insurance claim after the burglary.

‘to back up’ also means to make a copy of something in case the original is damaged, especially on the computer.

254

 

Before you start installing new software, back up your files. I have to back up my work regularly so that I don’t lose it if the computer goes down.

‘to back someone up’ means to support or to help them.  

That’s exactly what happened. The others will back me up. Nobody backed me up. I was left alone to defend myself against the criticism. *

'to be away' means to have gone to another place.  

Sandra won't be back until next month, she is away in China at the moment. I'm sorry but Martin is away on holiday this week. Can I help you?

'to be down' means to be unhappy or depressed.  

Until I found a new job, I was down for a long time. Sue has been down since she turned 50.

'to be down' can also mean the opposite of 'to be up', to have fallen or got smaller.  

The dollar is down one cent against the euro. Profits are down this quarter due to bad sales in Europe. 255

'to be in' means to be at home.  

I tried to phone Donna last night but she wasn't in so I couldn't speak to her. I'll be in this afternoon if you'd like to come for tea.

'to be off' means to leave or to start on a journey.  

I'll see you tomorrow morning, I'm off now. Have a nice evening. We're off to Florida on Tuesday. The flight leaves at ten o'clock.

'to be off' can also mean that food is old and has gone bad.  

Don't eat that yoghurt, I think it's off. It's been in the fridge for ages. Smell the milk, I think it's off.

'to be on' means that something is taking place  

That documentary is on TV tonight but I don't know which channel it is on. Let's go shopping on Saturday. The sales are on at the moment.

'to be on' can also mean to be working or switched on.  

I think he must be deaf, the TV was on very loud. When I arrived, the lights were on but nobody was at home.

256

'to be out' is the opposite of 'to be in' so means to not be at home or to be absent.  

I'm sorry but Jack's out. Can I take a message? Marie is out until lunchtime. She's got an appointment at the dentist this morning.

'to be up' means to have risen, got higher.  

Prices are up more than ten per cent. Unfortunately our costs are up more than twenty per cent because of the increase in the cost of petrol.

'to blow about' means that the wind moves something in different directions.  

After the concert, there was a lot of litter blowing about in the park. We tried to collect up all the rubbish and plastic bags that were blowing about in the wind.

'to blow away' means that the wind blows something from the place it was in to another.  

We fixed the tent securely so that it wouldn't be blown away in the strong wind. The wind blew all the labels away so I didn’t know what I had planted in the garden.

'to blow back' means that the wind blows something in the direction it came from.

257

 

When I turned the corner, the wind was so strong I just got blown back. The wind blew the smoke back down the chimney into the room.

'to blow down' means that the wind makes something fall to the ground.  

A tree was blocking the road. It had been blown down in the storm. The hurricane had blown down the traffic signals and electricity cables all over town.

'to blow off' means that the winds removes something from a position on something.  

I was trying to pick up my hat that had been blown off in the wind. The wind was so strong, I got blown off my bicycle.

'to blow out' means to extinguish a fire or flame.  

I couldn't light the campfire. The wind kept blowing it out. Happy Birthday! Blow out the candles on your cake.

'to blow over' means that an argument or some trouble has come to an end.  

I thought that the argument would quickly blow over but it didn't. All that has blown over now. We've forgotten about it. 258

'to blow up' means to destroy something by an explosion.  

The vehicle was blown up when it drove over a landmine. They were carrying homemade bombs to blow up the plane mid-flight.

'to blow up' also means to lose your temper, to become very angry.  

He was furious. He just blew up and started shouting at everyone. My parents blew up when they found me smoking. They were so angry.

'to blow up' also means to put air into something.  

That tire looks flat. I must go blow it up. I spent the afternoon blowing up balloons for the party.

'to break away' means to stop being part of a group because you disagree with them.  

Several members broke away and formed their own group. Some of the members of the party disagreed with their policy and broke away to form their own party.

'to break away' also means to separate or move away from someone who is holding you.

259

 

She broke away from her mother and ran out of the room. Although he was holding her by the arms, she managed to break away.

'to break down' is used when a machine or vehicle stops working.  

We broke down about two kilometres out of town and had to walk home. This machine is very old and is always breaking down. We need to change it.

'to break down' is also used when a discussion or arrangement fails due to disagreement.  

Talks have broken down. They are unable to reach an agreement. Negotiations broke down when the unions turned down the company's latest offer.

'to break down' an idea or work means to separate it into small pieces in order to deal with it more easily.  

If you break down the big jobs into individual tasks, they are much more manageable. We have broken the costs down by area so we can see what regions are less profitable.

260

'to break down' also is used when someone starts crying uncontrollably or becomes very ill when they cannot cope with their problems.  

When we told her what had happened she broke down and cried. When she broke down after a long period of stress and was hospitalized for several months.

'to break in' means to enter a property by force or illegally.  

Burglars have broken into several properties in the area recently. They broke in through the window and stole jewellers, cash and my laptop.

'to break in' also means to interrupt someone when they are speaking.  

As usual, when I was talking, she broke in and didn't let me finish my story. We were talking about Ralph when Sue broke in and said we didn't know anything about him. *

'to come across' means to find something by chance.  

Here is an old photo of me. I came across it when I was looking for my passport. I love this painting. I came across it in the attic when I was cleaning up. 261

'to come apart' means to break into separate pieces.  

It broke when I picked it up. Everything just came apart. It's quite big but you can pack it into a small box. It comes apart very easily.

'to come down' means to fall, to decrease.  

The price of petrol has come down since the beginning of the year. It's much cheaper now. She has taken some aspirin so her temperature has come down.

'to come from' = to have as your country or place of origin.  

You know by his accent that he comes from South Africa. I come from York, a beautiful city in the north of England.

'to come out' = to be released, to be available to the public  

His new book comes out next month. I'm sure it will be a bestseller. Their new CD came out only a few weeks ago and has already sold millions.

'to come out' can also mean to leave a room or a building 

He stayed in his office until he had finished the report. He didn't come out all day. 262



He was waiting for me when I came out of work.

'to come up' = to arise unexpectedly  

I'm sorry but I'll be late. Something has come up. A great opportunity has just come up for a job in the marketing department.

'to come up' = to be mentioned, talked about  

We were talking about different people we knew and his name came up in the conversation. I don't want to talk about it so I hope it doesn't come up.

'to come up with' = to think of, imagine a solution or idea  

I asked Larry for some suggestions and he came up with a lot of very good ideas. I'm sorry but I haven't come up with any solution yet. I don't know what we can do.

'to come off' = to become unstuck  

I don't know what is in the box, the label has come off. When I tried to open the door, the handle came off in my hand!

'to cut across' means to take a shortcut over an area instead of going around the edge.

263

o o

It'll be quicker to cut across the field. She quickly cut across the car park to where he was standing.

'to cut back' means to reduce the amount of money being spent. o o

The government has cut back on education with less teachers. I've had to cut back on my spending as I'm not making any money at the moment.

'to cut down' means to remove a tree or plant by cutting it near the base. o o

To make bigger fields, the farmer has cut down a lot of the hedges. We cut down the old tree in the garden as it blocked all the light.

'to cut down' also means to reduce the number or quantity of something. o o

The article was too long and so I had to cut it down to fit the space. I have cut down the number of hours I work to only thirty a week now.

'to cut in' = to interrupt someone when they are speaking. o

I was trying to explain it when she cut in and started talking. 264

o

He really annoys me. He's always cutting in and never lets me speak.

'to cut off' = to stop supplies of something like electricity or water o o

They didn't pay the bills and the electricity was cut off. The water was cut off while they repaired the leaking pipes.

'to cut off' can also mean to stop a telephone connection. o o

I'll ring him back. We got cut off in the middle of the conversation. I'm sorry but I pressed the wrong button and cut you off.

'to cut out' = when an engine or piece of machinery suddenly stops working o o

There's a problem with my car. The engine keeps cutting out. When I stopped at the lights, the engine cut out.

'to cut through' difficulty means to be able to deal with the problems or bureaucracy quickly o

To get the permits in time, we had to find a way to cut through all the bureaucracy.

265

o

She can cut through the complex legal language and get to the point.

'to cut up' = to divide something into smaller pieces o o

It was too big to go into the bin so I cut it up. At the end, there was a cake left so we cut it up and each took a piece home. *

'to do away with' means to get rid of something or to stop using something.  

We did away with all the old equipment and invested in some new. Let's do away with formality and use first names.

'to be done in' is used to mean you are very tired, totally exhausted.  

When I got home, I collapsed into bed. I was completely done in. Working in the garden really did me in. I'm going to have an early night.

'to do out' means to clean and tidy a place thoroughly. 

I've done my wardrobes out and given away all my old clothes.

266



I can't get the car in the garage anymore. I'm going to have to do it out and make some space.

'to do out in' means to decorate a place in a certain colour or style.  

The bedroom was done out in blue and looked very cold. The whole house was done out in a country style with lots of wood and flowers everywhere.

'to do over' means to do something again.  

I don't like it, so I have decided to do it over and paint it another colour. I had to do it over because my computer crashed and I hadn't saved it.

'to do up' means to fasten something.  

Can you do the zip up for me, please? I can't do it myself. Do up your laces before you trip over them.

'to do up' also means to renovate an old building or house.  

They bought an old house in France and spent a few years doing it up. Old warehouses along the river have been done up and made into beautiful flats. 267

'to do with' is used to explain there is a connection from one thing to another.  

It's got nothing to do with me. I'm not responsible for that. He's something to do with health but I don't think he is a doctor.

'to do with' is also used to say that you would like to have something.  

I could do with something to eat. I haven't eaten since breakfast. I could do with a good night's sleep. I haven't had one for weeks.

'to do without' means you manage to live despite not having something.  

I forgot to buy milk so we'll just have to do without. I don't need your help. I can do without it. *

'to fall in with' means to become friendly with a group.  

He stopped going to school when he fell in with a bad crowd. At university, she fell in with a group that introduced her to the theatre.

268

'to fall into' a category or group means that it belongs to that group.  

It isn't a romantic comedy or a drama. It doesn't really fall into either category. The work falls into three distinct parts; administrative, planning and financial.

'to fall off' means to separate from something it was attached to.  

When I got home I was surprised to see that picture had fallen off the wall. I still haven't picked up the apples that fell off during the strong winds last week.

'to fall off' also means to become less or lower.  

Demand for our products is falling off in Europe although it remains high in America. The number of tourists falls off during the wet season but quickly goes back up as soon as it is over.

'to fall out' means to have an argument and no longer be friendly with that person.  

It's not that important. I don't want to fall out over it. They fell out over money when they started a business together and haven't spoken since.

'to fall out' also means something drops to the ground from the container it was in. 269

 

When I opened the cupboard, it fell out and broke on the floor. I held on very tightly to the side of the boat. I couldn't swim so I didn't want to fall out.

'to fall over' means to become unbalanced and end up lying on the ground.  

I tripped on the edge of the sidewalk and fell over into the road. During the play, some of the stage set fell over and hit one of the actors on the head.

'to fall through' is used about a plan or arrangement that goes wrong and cannot be completed.  

I'm not doing anything this weekend. Our plans have fallen through. The deal fell through when the seller started demanding too much money.

'to fall apart' means to break into pieces because it is badly made.  

It was a cheap dress. The first time I wore it, it fell apart. I had terrible problems assembling the shelves, then they fell apart as soon as I put something on them.

'to fall apart' also means to stop working properly or efficiently.

270

 

The group fell apart when two or three members left and no one replaced them. Without Joe's leadership, the department just fell apart and was unable to work as it had before.

'to fall back on something' means to use something when everything else has failed, to use something reliable.  

If I don't get this job, I don't have any savings to fall back on. They don't have very much capital to fall back on if this venture fails.

'to fall behind' means to do something more slowly than others so that you are behind.  

I couldn't walk as fast as everyone else and soon fell behind. When she fell behind the other runners, no one thought she would catch up and win the race.

'to fall behind' also means to not be on schedule.  

We didn't want to fall behind so we worked late into the night. The problems we have had mean that we have fallen behind and won't meet the deadline.

'to fall down' means to go from a vertical position to the ground. 

The old oak tree in the garden fell down in the storm. 271



I slipped on the sidewalk and fell down and hurt my back.

'to fall down' means an argument or an idea is not complete or doesn't work.  

That's where your argument falls down. What you say isn't logical. This is the difficult part where everyone falls down. Nobody knows how to do it.

'to fall for' means to fall in love with.  

He is besotted. He has really fallen for her in a big way. He fell for her the first time he saw her and asked her to marry him the second time!

'to fall for' also means to be taken in by a trick or something that is not true.  

That is such an obvious lie. Nobody is going to fall for that. He told me he was going to invest the money for me and I fell for it. *

'to get across' means to communicate, make people understand.

272

 

I'm not sure I got that across very well. I don't think they really understood. He's an excellent speaker. He can get across even the most complicated ideas.

'to get away' means to go on holiday.  

We had a lovely holiday. We got away for a few days on the beach. I don't think we can get away until the end of the month. We're too busy.

'to get back' means to return from a trip or a journey.  

She's still in Taiwan. She doesn't get back until next week. I get back on Friday afternoon. I'll call you then.

'to get back' can also mean to have returned something you lent to someone.  

I lent him some money last year and I never got it back. We have only got back fifty percent of the questionnaires we gave out.

'to get back to' = to speak again with someone or to return a phone call  

When I have more information, I'll get back to you. He got back to me yesterday afternoon with his answer. 273

'to get by' means to just have enough money or to just manage financially  

At the end of the month, I have no money left. It is difficult to get by on my salary. If we are careful, we can get by on less than $20 a day.

'to get down to' means to start some work or a task  

If everybody is here, let's get down to business. I didn't start it until the last moment. I just couldn't get down to it.

'to get in' means to arrive home or at the office  

I'm really tired this morning. I didn't get in until after midnight last night. He's always the last to arrive. He never gets in before 9.30.

'to get in' can also mean to enter  

He opened the door so I could get in the car. You need to have some photo id to get in the company.

'to get off' means to leave a bus, train or plane 

Take the 23 bus and get off at the last stop. I live very near there.

274



To go to the National Gallery, take the underground and get off at Trafalgar Square.

'to get behind' means to be late or behind schedule.  

I'll stay late and finish it today. I don't want to get behind with my work. We don't want to get behind schedule on this project.

'to get into' means to become involved in, for example trouble or debt.  

I thought he'd get into trouble after the problems he caused. We got into debt when we had a lot of unexpected bills to pay.

'to get on' means to have a good relationship.  

I like working with him. We get on really well. He's not an easy person. I don't get on with him very well.

'to get on' can also mean to continue an activity.  

I must get on or I will never get this report finished. I can't get on. He is always interrupting and asking me to jobs for him.

'to get out' means to leave a car or building 

I often don't get out of work until after seven pm. 275



After the accident, the door was stuck and I couldn't get out of the car.

'to get out of' means to avoid doing something.  

I don't want to do it. How can I get out of it? He is always getting out of the difficult jobs and I have to do them!

'to get over' means to communicate, to make people understand.  

They are not convinced. I didn't get my ideas over very well. I just can't get over the idea we need to be more careful. They just don't want to understand.

'to get over' can also mean to recover from something.  

I still don't feel very well. I haven't got over that bad cold. She has not got over Richard. He broke her heart.

'to get round to' means to finally do something after a time  

Two months later, he finally got round to finishing that report. I'm sorry but I haven't done it yet. I haven't got round to it.

'to get through' means to contact by phone

276

 

I've been trying all day. I can't get through to her. I rang her ten times. I didn't get through until almost seven in the evening.

'to give away' means to give something for free, for no payment.  

In this issue of the magazine, they are giving away a free CD I gave away all my old clothes that were too small for me.

'to give back' means to return something borrowed.  

I still have your book at home. I must remember to give you it back. Every time he borrows money from me, he never gives it back.

'to give in' means to stop making an effort.  

You're doing really well. Don't give in now. Keep going. He has refused again and again. He's not going to give in and change his mind.

'to give out' means to distribute.  

As people arrive, can you give out these questionnaires for them to fill in. He was giving out leaflets on the street.

277

'to give out' means to break down or stop working from tiredness or overuse  

It was a very old machine. It's not surprising it has given out. My car finally gave out last week. I will have to buy a new one.

'to give up' means to stop doing something permanently.  

I haven't had a cigarette for over a month. I have given up smoking. I have given up playing football. I'm too old for it.

'to give up' means to abandon or end, a search for example.  

The key is nowhere to be found. We have given up looking for it. I've given up waiting for him. He is not going to come so I'm going home.

to go about' means to deal with or tackle a task or job.  

Do you know how to enroll on the course? I don't know how to go about it. How can I go about getting a copy of my birth certificate?

'to go after' means to try to get. 

I sent in my application today. I'm going after that job. 278



He went after a very well paid job but didn't get it.

'to go after' can also mean to follow or chase.  

Michelle left suddenly then Pierre went after her. I didn't go after her when she left. I think she needed to be on her own.

'to go ahead' means to begin or proceed with something.  

Even though the risks were high, we decided to go ahead with the project. It went ahead without any problems. We're very happy.

'to go along with' means to agree with a person or idea.  

I said it wouldn't work. I didn't go along with it from the beginning. In the end, he went along with Jack even though he had said he agreed with me.

'to go away' means to leave a place or a person's company.  

Did you stay at home or did you go away over the holidays? Please go away. I'd like to be alone for a while.

'to go back' means to return to a place. 

We had a great holiday in Spain last year. We are going back this year. 279



I had forgotten my passport and had to go back to get it.

'to go back on' means to change your position on a promise or agreement.  

I said I would do it. I can't go back on it now. He went back on his promise and didn't help me out.

'to go by' for time means to pass  

A couple of hours went by before he phoned me back. Twenty years went by before I saw him again.

'to go by' can also mean to go past or pass  

I love sitting at a street café watching the world go by. He didn't see me. He just went by without saying a word

'to go down' means to get smaller or decrease.  

They are much cheaper than before. The price has gone down by at least ten percent. The price of laptop computers has gone down considerably over the last five years.

'to go down' can also mean be received or be reacted to. 

Everybody laughed. I think my speech went down well. 280



The news didn't go down well. Everyone is now worried about their jobs.

'to go for' means to choose.  

He doesn't like spending money so he went for the cheapest option. We have decided to go for the house in Dunbar Street. It's lovely.

'to go in' means to enter.  

He went in his office and closed the door. She didn't knock on the door, she just went in.

'to go in' can also mean to fit in something.  

I've got too many clothes. They won't go in my suitcase. The sofa is too big. It won't go in the sitting room.

'to go into' means to describe something in detail.  

We can talk about the problem later. I don't want to go ;into it now. We don't have time to go into all the details.

'to go into' can also mean to enter a place. 

She often goes into that shop and tries on lots of clothes but never buys anything.

281



We'll go into the sitting room. We'll be more comfortable there.

'to go off' means to stop functioning (of a light, electricity or heating).  

I was only half way up the stairs when the light went off. The heating goes off at midnight and comes back on before we get up.

'to go off' can also mean to stop liking someone or something.  

I used to love this café but I've gone off it since the waiter changed. I don't want to do it now. I've gone off the idea.

'to go off' can also mean to decay or go bad.  

I think the milk has gone off. It smells. Don't eat it, it has gone off.

'to go on doing something' means to continue doing something.  

He didn't even look at me. He just went on working. I can't go on working so hard. I'm going to make myself ill.

'to go on to do something' means to move on to something after you have finished. 282

 

First he told us about the present situation, then he went on to tell us about the future. If you have no further questions, I'd like to go on to the next part of my talk.

'to go on' means to happen.  

What's going on outside? There's a lot of noise. There's not much going on this afternoon. It's very quiet.

'to go out' means to leave home to go to the cinema or the pub for example.  

I won't be home tonight. I'm going out with Kelly. We're going out for a beer tonight. Would you like to come?

'to go over' means to review something to check it.  

I'm not sure my figures are accurate. Can we go over them again? He went over the main points again to be sure we had understood.

'to go through' means to experience an unpleasant or difficult time.  

It was terrible. I don't want to go through that again. He's going through a very difficult time what with his divorce etc.

283

'to go through' also means to examine something carefully.  

The customs officer went through their bags looking for drugs. I've been through his papers but I can't find the one I'm looking for.

'to go under' means to fail or go bankrupt.  

Three thousand companies have gone under so far this year. Cash flow is the reason that most companies go under.

'to go up' means to increase or rise.  

The number of jobless went up 0.5 percent last month. It's very expensive now. The price has gone up by ten percent since January.

'to go with' means to support an idea or the people proposing a plan. 

I think Jack's right. I have to go with him.



We should go with Sue's idea. It's the best idea yet. *

'to hold back' means to restrain or stop something working. 

High rates of tax are holding back economic growth. 284



He could easily get promotion if he were more a team player. His attitude is holding him back.

'to hold back' can also mean to not say or do something.  

I wanted to tell him but something held me back. Although she didn't agree, she held back and didn't say anything.

'to hold down' means to stop something increasing.  

Government is trying to hold down public spending. We have to hold down costs if we want to increase our margins.

'to hold down' also means to keep a job even if it is difficult.  

There are lots of women who hold down high powered jobs and have children. She was holding down a very responsible position when she was only twenty-three.

'to hold off' means to delay doing something or delay making a decision about it.  

That house won't be on the market very long. Don't hold ;off making an offer. You can't hold off much longer, you have to give him an answer.

'to hold on' means to wait for a short time.

285

 

Let's see if he arrives. We can hold on a couple of minutes. We can't hold on much longer, we're going to miss the train. We'll have to go without him.

'to hold on' is used frequently on the phone to ask people to wait a few moments.  

I'll just check that for you if you'd like to hold on. Could you hold on please while I see if he's available?

'to hold out' means to put something in front of you.  

He was very formal. He held out his hand for me to shake it. She held out her glass so that I could refill it.

'to hold out for' means to wait for what you want and not accept less.  

They were on strike for a long time. Holding out for a 10% increase in salary. I think we should hold out for a better price. House prices are beginning to rise again.

'to hold up' means to delay something.  

The construction was held up by bad weather. Jim was late again. He got held up in heavy traffic on the motorway.

286

* 'to keep at' something means to continue doing something even if it is hard or unpleasant.  

Learning phrasal verbs is hard so you have to keep at it every day. I had to finish so I kept at it for an hour before I took a break.

'to keep back' means to not use or give away all of something.  

Keep back some of the cream to put on top of the dessert. We kept back some of the money for emergencies.

'to keep down' means to stop the number or level of something from rising.  

If we want to make a profit this year, we have to keep costs down as much as possible. I try to eat well and exercise regularly to keep my weight down.

'to keep off' = means to not go onto an area.  

Please keep off the grass. Keep off the motorway in the morning, there are always traffic jams at that time.

287

'to keep off' can also mean to not talk about a particular subject.  

He started talking about it. I tried to keep off the subject. He can't keep off the question of climate change, he never stops talking about.

'to keep on' means to continue with something.  

All night long he kept on asking me questions about it. I asked him to stop but he just kept on.

'to keep out of' means to not get involved in something.  

It's not my business. I keep out of their arguments. It's got nothing to do with me. I'm keeping out of it.

'to keep to' means stay on a subject when talking.  

We don't have much time so can we keep to the agenda, please? Can you keep to the point, please?

'to keep up' means to go at the same speed as someone or something.  

She was walking so fast that I couldn't keep up with her. I've got too much to do at the moment. I can't keep up with my work. 288

* 'to let down' means to disappoint someone.  

I promised to do it, I can't let her down. They let us down badly by not completing the work on time.

'to let in' means to allow someone to enter.  

I have a front door key. I can let myself in. They're at the door. Can you let them in?

'to let in' can also mean to allow water, light or air into something which is normally sealed.  

I opened the curtains to let in the sunshine. I need some new boots for winter. These let water in.

'to let in for' means to be involved in something difficult or unpleasant.  

This job is very hard. I didn't realize what I was letting myself in for. She didn't realize how much work she was letting herself in for doing this course.

'to let in on' means to tell someone about something which is secret. 

I don't know what they're doing. They wouldn't let me in on their plans. 289



She let me in on her secret. She's getting married!

'to let off' means to not punish someone when they have done something wrong.  

He was caught smoking in the office but they let him off because it was the first time. I'll let you off this time but if you do it again, you'll be severely punished.

'to let off' can also mean to allow someone to not do something they should do.  

I owed him some money but he let me off. I didn't have to pay him back. I was supposed to work until 10 pm but my boss let me off at 9.

'to let out' means to allow someone to leave a place, usually by opening a door.  

He stopped at the traffic lights to let me out. Let me out at the end of the road. I can walk the rest of the way.

'to let out' means to make a particular sound.  

When she heard the news, she let out a huge sigh of relief. They all let out a groan when they heard the bad news.

290

'to let up' means to cease or to decrease in intensity.  

We'll go out for a walk if the rain lets up. The pressure at work is non-stop. It never lets up.

'to look after' means to take care of someone or something.  

When I have to travel on business, my parents usually look after my children. I look after the office when my colleagues are away on business.

'to look ahead' means to think about and plan the future.  

We have to look ahead and try to estimate our needs for the next few years. In this business, it's very difficult to look ahead and predict what will happen.

'to look at' means to read something quickly and not very thoroughly.  

Could you look at my report and tell me if you think it's OK? I looked at your figures and they seem fine to me.

'to look at' can also mean to investigate or think carefully about a problem or situation. 

Costs are getting out of control. We need to look at them closely.

291



John looked at renting cars but it would be too expensive.

'to look back' means to think about something that happened in the past.  

I realize I was very naive when I look back. If we look back over the last three years, we can see many times when we were very successful.

'to look down on' means to think something or someone is inferior.  

The people who work in Headquarters always look down on the people in the branches. Don't look down on him just because he left school at 16. He has been very successful.

'to look for' means to try to find something lost or that you need.  

My assistant is leaving at the end of the month. I'm looking for a new one. He has been looking for a job for ages now.

'to look forward to' means to feel excited and happy about something that is going to happen.  

I'm seeing him on Tuesday. I'm really looking forward to it. We're looking forward to our holidays. It will be wonderful to get away. 292

'to look in' means to visit someone for a short time.  

I'll look in on my way home and we can have a cup of tea. Look in on Jenny and check that she is still working.

'to look into' means to examine a problem or situation.  

My boss asked me to look into ways to do it more efficiently. We have set up a working group to look into the problem.

'to look on' means to watch something happen.  

The Police just looked on as the demonstrators marched peacefully through the streets. Nobody helped me. They just looked on as I struggled to get up off the street.

'to look on' also means to consider someone or something in a special way.  

We are very close. I look on him as my brother. Don't look on not getting the job as a failure. It's not.

'to look out' means be careful. It is always an order.  

Look out! The boss is coming. Look out! You're going to fall.

293

'to look out for' means to watch carefully around you so you will notice something or someone in particular.  

When you go to the conference, look out for Anna. She will be there. Janet is twenty next week. Can you look out for a present when you are in the shops?

'to look out for' can also mean to take care of someone.  

Will is a great brother. He always looks out for his sisters. She's very selfish. She just looks out for herself.

'to look over' means to quickly examine something.  

At the end of the exam, I only had a few minutes to look over what I had written. The doctor quickly looked him over before sending him for an x-ray.

'to look round' means to walk through a building or place to have a look at it.  

When you travel on business, you don't have time to look round the places you visit. The first time we looked round the house, we knew it was the house for us.

'to look through' means to quickly examine a text or some things.

294

 

I decided to give half my clothes away when I had looked through them. We looked through the list of applicants and made a shortlist of the six best qualified.

'to look up' means to find a piece of information in a book or other source of information.  

I didn't know the word so I looked it up in the dictionary. I looked their address up in the Yellow Pages.

'to look up to' means to respect and admire someone.  

My father's wonderful. He's the person I most look up to. All his employees look up to him and admire him. *

'to make for' means to go on the direction of.  

He got up and made for the exit. When he came into the room, he made straight for me.

'to make of' means think of, have an opinion about.  

He's a complete mystery to me. I don't know what to make of him. What do you make of his new girlfriend?

295

'to make off' means to leave somewhere very quickly, often to escape.  

The car didn't stop after the accident but made off at speed towards the town centre. He snatched her bag and made off down the street through the crowd.

'to make off with' means to steal and escape with something.  

The thieves made off with over one million dollars in cash. They broke into the house and made off with jewellery and silver.

'to make out' means to manage to be able to see or hear something.  

He was speaking very quietly. I couldn't make out what he was saying. It was too dark to see. I couldn't make him out clearly.

'to make out' can also mean to pretend that something is true.  

He made out he was very rich when, in fact, he wasn't. She often makes out she is the boss when, really, she is only an assistant.

296

'to make up your mind' means to decide.  

I bought them both because I couldn't make up my mind which one to buy. Make your mind up! Which one do you want?

'to make up' means to say or write something that is not true, to invent a story.  

It wasn't true at all. They just made it up. I told him I couldn't go and made up an excuse.

'to make up' can also mean to forgive someone and become friendly with again after an argument.  

We had a huge argument and but made up later. Half the fun of arguing is making up afterwards!

'to make up for' means to compensate for something bad that they have done or that has happened.  

He bought me some flowers to make up for being late. What can I do to make up for forgetting your birthday? *

'to pull apart' means to separate two or more things. 

I didn't like the dress when I had finished, so I pulled it apart and started again.

297



The teacher had to pull the two boys apart to stop them fighting.

'to pull apart' can also mean to criticize an idea or something written.  

She pulled my argument apart in about thirty seconds. The newspaper critics pulled his latest novel apart saying it wasn't as good as his last.

'to pull away' is when a vehicle starts moving .  

He knocked the cyclist over as he was pulling away from the junction. The bus pulled away just as I arrived at the stop.

'to pull back' means to move something in a backwards direction.  

He thought I was standing too close to the edge so he pulled me back. When I pulled back the covers, I found a little kitten hidden in the bed.

'to pull down' means to demolish a building or other structure.  

The old theatre was pulled down and replaced by a block of flats. They pulled down a lot of houses when they built the new ring road around the city. 298

'to pull down' can also mean to move something from a higher position to a lower one.  

The sun was shining in my eyes so I pulled down the blinds. Her T-shirt was too short. She had to keep pulling it down to cover her stomach.

'to pull in' is when a vehicle is driven to a place to stop.  

The bank's over there. Stop and pull in behind that car. I'll get out here. We have very little petrol left. We'll have to pull in at the next service station and get some.

'to pull in' can also mean to attract.  

He's a very popular singer at the moment. He can pull in an enormous crowd. The music festival pulls in huge numbers of tourists every year.

'to pull off' means to succeed in doing something.  

We'll make a lot of money if we can pull off this deal. I don't know how good she is. Do you think she can pull it off?

'to pull on' means to put on clothes quickly. 

Come on, get dressed. Pull on a sweater and let's go.

299



When I arrived he was almost ready. He was just pulling on his hat and gloves.

'to pull out' means to extract something.  

It was very painful. The dentist pulled out two of my teeth. Somebody had pulled some pages out of the book.

'to pull out of' means decide not to continue with an activity or agreement.  

We signed a contract. We can't pull out of the deal. They pulled out of the negotiations after only two hours.

'to pull out' is used when a vehicle driven out of a place into the road.  

I didn't see the man on the bicycle as I was pulling out of the car park. The car pulled out in front of the bus.

'to pull over' means to drive a car to the side of the road.  

The car was making a strange noise so I pulled over to have a look at it. I pulled over to ask someone the way.

'to pull through' means recover after a serious illness.

300

 

The doctor came to tell me that John would pull through. Nobody thought he'd pull through after the accident.

'to pull yourself together' means to regain control of your emotions.  

Stop crying. It's time to pull yourself together. He took a long time to pull himself together.

'to pull together' means to cooperate and work as a group to achieve something.  

We can do this, if we all pull together. We have to pull together during difficult times.

'to pull up' is used when a car slows down and stops.  

It started to rain just as we pulled up in front of the restaurant. A taxi pulled up just as I came out of the airport.

'to pull up' a chair means you move it in order to sit down.  

Come and join us. Pull up a chair. He pulled up a chair and sat down.

'to pull up' also means to criticize someone when they make a mistake. 

If you make a mistake, they will pull you up on it every time. 301



He's always pulling me up on my grammar.

'to put across' means to explain or to express something.  

We have to put the message across a little bit more clearly. Not a very good presentation. He didn't put his ideas across very well at all.

'to put aside' means to save money  

He's got enough money. He has put some aside. I've put aside £100 a month for over a year.

'to put at' means to roughly calculate a cost or figure.  

The first estimate put the damage at about £10 000. I think he's the same age as my father. I would put him at 50.

'to put away' means to replace something in the place it is normally kept.  

Can you put all your toys away please, darling? I've put the clean clothes away except your shirts. I don't know where to put them.

'to put back' means to return something to its original place. 

I put the books back on the shelf after I had looked at them.

302



When you have finished, can you put everything back, please?

'to put back' can also mean to change the time of an event until a later time.  

I can't make it on Thursday. Can we put it back until Friday? My appointment has been put back until next month.

'to put behind' means to try to forget about something unpleasant.  

I've forgotten all about it. I've put it behind me. You have to put everything behind you and move on with your life.

'to put down' means to stop carrying or holding something.  

My bag was heavy so I put it down on the floor. Don't put your cup down there. It will leave a mark on the table.

'to put down' can also mean to criticize someone or their ideas.  

He's always criticizing, always putting people down. You never support me. You are always putting me down.

'to put down' the phone means to end a phone call.

303

 

I was so angry, I just put the phone down on him. After I put the phone down, I remembered why I'd called you.

'to put forward' an idea or opinion means to suggest something for discussion.  

A few suggestions have been put forward for consideration. Jan put forward a few ideas for raising money for the charity.

'to put forward' a person or a name means to suggest someone for a job or position.  

He put his name forward as a candidate for election. I've put Peter's name forward for the post in accounts.

'to put in' means to install new equipment or a new system.  

We have put in a more powerful engine in the new version. We've just had a new bathroom put in.

'to put in' money means to invest.  

I've put a lot of money in this project. I hope to make a good profit. I've put all my money in government bonds.

304

'to put in for' means to request a transfer or to apply for a job.  

I hope I get the job in Toronto. I've put in for a transfer there. She's put in for the job in the Export department but I don't think she's qualified for it.

'to put into' If you put time, money or energy into something, it means that you invest a lot in it.  

I'm not happy with the result even though I've put a lot of time into it. She put a lot of effort into getting it right.

'to put off' an event means to postpone it to a later time.  

Tomorrow will be too late. Don't put it off. She's put the wedding off until her father has recovered from his illness.

'to put someone off' means to stop them doing something by disturbing them.  

I wish he would let me work quietly. His talking puts me off my work. All the people watching put him off his game. He didn't play very well at all.

'to put someone off' another person means to make them dislike someone.

305

 

His arrogant attitude puts people off him very quickly. The stories I heard about him really put me off him.

'to put off' the light means to switch it off.  

I couldn't sleep. I finally put the light off at two in the morning. Can you put the light off, please? It'll be easier to see the screen.

'to put on' a piece of clothing means to place it over a part of the body to wear it.  

It's cold in here. I'm going to put a sweater on. Before going out, he put his boots, coat and hat on.

'to put on' the light means to turn it on.  

It's dark in here. Can you put the light on, please? I didn't put the light on because I didn't want to disturb you.

'to put on' weight means to gain a few kilos.  

I must go on a diet, I've put five kilos on since the holidays. He was looking a little fatter. I think he has put some weight on.

'to put out' a light means to turn it off.

306

 

We don't need the light now. Could you put it out? We put out the light and sat in the dark.

'to put out' something burning means to extinguish it.  

You can't smoke in here. Please put that cigarette out. It took only a few minutes for the fire-fighters to put the fire out.

'to put out' somebody means to cause them extra trouble.  

Please don't go to any trouble. I don't want to put you out. I'd be happy to do it. You're not putting me out at all.

'to put over' an idea or opinion means to express it.  

He expresses himself very well and puts his ideas over very clearly. I don't think I put my point of view over very well.

'to put someone through' something means you make them do something unpleasant or to suffer it.  

I'm sorry, we have to do it. But believe me, I really don't want to put you through it. We can't put him through the ordeal of more surgery. He isn't strong enough.

'to put someone through' on the phone means to connect the caller to another person.

307

 

Please hold the line, I'm putting you through. Good morning. Could you put me through to Mr. Davies, please?

'to put something together' means to assemble it.  

This modern flat pack furniture is very easy to put together. We've put together an excellent team to work on this project.

'to put money towards' something means to use a sum of money to pay a part of the cost of something.  

When he died, he left me some money which I am going to put towards a house. I'm going to put my Christmas bonus towards my summer holiday.

'to put up' a building or structure means to erect.  

Where the old theatre used to be, they have put up a new apartment block. They're putting up a new sports stadium just outside the town.

'to put up' something which is folded means to open it.  

She hit me with her umbrella as she was putting it up. It only took fifteen minutes to put up the tent.

'to put up' money means to provide money for a project. 308

 

Without guarantees, the bank won't put up any money for the project. The people in the city put up most of the money for the restoration of the theatre.

'to put up' a price means to increase it.  

We're not making a profit. We need to put up our prices. Their prices are really high now because they have put them up by ten per cent.

'to put someone up' means to let them stay in your home for a short time.  

If you go to Australia, I'm sure some of the family will put you up during your stay. I can put you up for a few days while the painters finish your flat.

'to put someone up to' If you put someone up to something you encourage them to do something wrong or silly.  

I don't think it was his idea. I think someone put him up to it. I wonder if John put him up to it. He wouldn't have done it alone.

'to put up with' something means to tolerate it 

He's impossible to work with. I don't know how you put up with him. 309



I really don't like it but I know I'm going to have to put up with it. *

'to run across someone' means to meet them by accident.  

I hadn't seen Gloria for ages when I ran across her in the supermarket. I ran across an old friend in town today. I hadn't seen him for ages.

'to run around' means to be very busy doing lots of things.  

I'm always running around trying to get everything done on time. I spent all morning running around trying to find the things you needed.

'to run away' means to leave, often secretly, because you're unhappy.  

He was very unhappy in boarding school and ran away twice. She ran away from home at sixteen and went to live with a friend in London.

'to run down' means to move quickly to a place in a lower position. 

When I called her, she ran down so fast she nearly fell. 310



When I heard the news I ran down the street to tell Lily who lives at the bottom.

'to run down' also means to deliberately reduce the size of something, for example stock.  

Stock is very expensive. We're trying to run it down to a minimum. They are running the company down by not replacing people who leave.

'to run someone down' means to hit a person when driving your car.  

I was crossing the road when a car nearly ran me down. She's in hospital after being run down by a car on Market Street.

'to run into' problems means to meet or encounter difficulties.  

We ran into huge financial difficulties when the construction went over budget. The company has run into difficulties since the introduction of the euro.

'to run into' something when you're driving means to hit something. 

When I was parking, I ran into a post.

311



I didn't brake quickly enough and ran into the car in front.

'to run off' means to escape or leave a place quickly.  

The boys took some sweets from the shop and ran off laughing. She waved goodbye and ran off to play with her friends.

'to run off with' something is to steal it.  

They hit the man and ran off with his wallet and mobile phone. The financial manager ran off with half a million of the company's money.

to run into' someone means to meet them unexpectedly.  

I ran into Jane in reception. I hadn't seen her for ages. Sara ran into her ex-boyfriend in the supermarket. She said it was very embarrassing.

'to run on' diesel or electricity means to use them for power in order to function.  

The motor runs on electricity so it's very quiet. We have a generator that runs on diesel which we use during power cuts.

'to run out of' something means to have no more left.

312

 

I can't make a cake, we've run out of eggs. When I was a student and my money ran out, I lived on pasta.

'to run out' means to pass the time limit or expire.  

I need to get a new passport. It runs out next month. I hope they will give me a new contract when my present one runs out at the end of he month.

'to run over' means to hit with a vehicle.  

He's in hospital. He was run over by a car last night. You need to know where everything is in case I'm run over by a bus!

'to run through' means to repeat or rehearse something to practice or check  

We quickly ran through the program to check that everything was OK. Can we run through it again just to be sure we haven't forgotten anything.

'to run to' means to go to someone for help.  

She always runs to me when she needs some help. I'm too old to go running to my parents every time I need some money.

'to run up' debts or bills means to owe money.

313

 

He very quickly ran up an enormous debt on his credit card. We ran up a big bill in the hotel drinking in the bar.

'to run up against' problems means to meet difficulties unexpectedly.  

We had no idea about the difficulties we would run up against. We ran up against a few problems at the beginning but now it's fine.

'to send away for' something means to write to an organization to have something delivered to you.  

I couldn't find it in the local shops. I had to send away for it. I don't know what they are like. I'm going to send away for some samples.

'to send back' means to return something because it is not right or damaged.  

The food was cold when it was served so we sent it back. When it arrived, I didn't like the colour so I sent it back.

'to send for' means to send a message asking someone to come to see you 

The baby was very ill so she sent for the doctor. 314



I knew I was in trouble when the boss sent for me.

'to send in' means to send something to an organization.  

Please send in the completed forms before January 31st. The TV show is funny family videos that viewers send in.

'to send someone in' means to tell a person to enter a room or office.  

I'd like to speak to James. Can you send him in, please? I'm ready now. Can you send in the first patient?

'to send off' means to post a letter or parcel.  

You should have got it by now. I sent it off two days ago. I packed everything up and sent it off last week.

'to send on' means to forward a document or mail.  

Here is my new address. Can you send my mail on to me? My colleague is dealing with this. I'll send a copy of your email on so she can deal with it.

'to send out' means to send to a lot of people at the same time.

315

 

The wedding is in two months. We need to send out the invitations. We sent out copies of the new brochure to all our existing clients.

'to send out' also means to emit a sound or light.  

This tiny transmitter sends out a signal strong enough to be picked up a kilometre away. The phone mast sends out radio waves that some people think are dangerous.

'to send out for' means to phone an order to a restaurant for food to be delivered  

I don't want to cook. Let's send out for a pizza. It's almost lunchtime. Shall we send out for some sandwiches or snack.

'to set about' is to dealing with something in a particular way.  

I need to find a new flat but I'm not sure how to set about looking for one. I don't think you are setting about it the right way.

'to set against' means balance one thing against another.  

The advantages are not so big when set against the disadvantages. We can set our expenses against the tax.

316

'to be set against' something means to be opposed to doing it.  

He won't change his mind. He is absolutely set against it. His parents were set against him becoming a musician and made him study engineering.

'to set aside' means to use something, often time or money, for a specific purpose.  

I have enough money for the deposit set aside. I've set aside Monday and Tuesday to work on it.

'to set back' is to cause a delay.  

Bad weather was the reason that the launch of the rocket was set back until Monday. The whole project has been set back by the late delivery of some of the parts.

'to set down' something you are holding means to put it down.  

She lifted up the teapot but set it down again without pouring any tea. The waitress set down an enormous plate of steak and salad in front of me.

'to set down' your ideas or some facts means to record by writing them.

317

 

Here is the leaflet where we have set down guidelines for our employees. We were all asked to set down our views on what had happened.

'to set in' is when something unpleasant starts and seems likely to continue.  

It looks as if the rain has set in for the afternoon. Panic didn't really set in until just before I was due to give my presentation.

'to set off' means to start on a journey.  

Sorry we're late. We didn't set off until half past eight. The weather was perfect when we set off but it was raining when we got back.

'to set something off' means to cause it to start or happen.  

The smoke form my cooking set the smoke alarm off. The proposals for a new shopping centre have set off a very heated debate in the town.

'to set someone off' means to start them laughing, crying or talking.  

Every time Jake used that silly voice, it started me off laughing. Kelly started crying and that set everybody off too.

'to set on' means to begin a physical attack. 318

 

If I went into the garden, she said she would set the dog on me. Coming out of the pub, he was set on by a gang of boys and his money stolen.

'to set out' is to start on a journey.  

We wanted to get there before lunch so we had to set out just before dawn. They packed their bags and set out early as they had a long walk.

'to set out' to do something means that you have a clear idea of what you intend to achieve.  

We didn't achieve what we'd set out to do. He didn't set out to invent the microwave oven. He discovered it while doing other research.

'to set out' facts or opinions is to explain them clearly in writing or in speech.  

All the terms and conditions are set out in this document. Your terms of employment are set out in your contract.

'to set something out' is to organize it so that it is ready to use. 

When I arrived all the materials and equipment were set out ready for use. 319



The chairs were set out in a circle ready for the class to begin.

'to set up' means to start a company or organization.  

After a few years developing the products, they needed to set up a company to sell them. The UN was set up when representatives of fifty countries signed the charter in 1945.

'to set up' also means to make arrangements for a meeting, a committee, or an investigation.  

I'd like to discuss that in more detail. Can we set up a meeting with everyone concerned? The government has set up a committee to investigate possible fraud.

'to set up' a structure or building means to erect it.  

It took almost an hour to set up the tent in the rain. The Police set up road blocks throughout the county to try to find the thieves. *

'to take after' means to resemble a parent or family member.  

She's blond with blue eyes. She takes after her father. He is good at maths. He doesn't take after me!

320

'to take along' means you take someone or something with you when you go somewhere.  

I took Sue along to the party. She really enjoyed it. Shall we take a bottle along? That is always appreciated.

'to take apart' means to separate something into the parts it is made up of.  

He took the machine apart and couldn't reassemble it. The machine needs taking apart and cleaning and oiling then it'll work.

'to take back' means to return something you have bought or borrowed.  

When I got home I discovered it didn't work so I took it back to the shop. When you've finished using it, can you take it back to the kitchen and put it away, please?

'to take down' means to go to a lower level or place with something.  

I took them down to the beach for the day as the weather was beautiful. Can you take that down, please? It shouldn't be up here in your bedroom.

'to take down' also means to remove something that is attached to a wall or other object. 321

 

When I went into the sitting room, I noticed that he had taken down all the pictures. Now the election is over, all the posters have been taken down.

'to turn against' means to change opinion to not liking or agreeing with someone or something.  

Since they declared war, the country has turned against the government. He is always spreading nasty stories in an attempt to turn everyone against me.

'to turn around' means to turn so that you are facing the opposite direction.  

When I'm speaking to you, turn around and look at me. I recognized him even from behind. He didn't need to turn around so I could see his face.

'to turn someone away' means to refuse them entry to a place.  

We only have fifty places so we have to turn people away every day. The restaurant has a strict dress code. It turns away anyone in shorts and T-shirt.

'to turn away' also means to refuse to help someone.

322

 

Nobody is turned away. We help everyone who comes to us. He's my nephew, I can't turn him away without giving him some money.

'to turn back' means to fold a part of something so that it covers another part.  

She marked her place in the book by turning back the page. When we arrived in the room, the maid had turned back the bedcovers.

'to turn back' also means to return to the place you came from.  

The road was impassable after the snow so we had to turn back. I forgot to pick up the street map and guide book so we had to turn back and go get them.

'to turn back' also means to change your plans.  

There was no turning back once she had said she was going to do it. We have invested a lot of time and money in this project, there's no turning back now.

'to turn down' means to refuse something. 

He was offered a job there but he turned it down as it was too far from home. 323



I turned down an invitation to dinner to come and spend the evening with you.

'to turn down' also means to reduce the amount of heat or sound produced.  

Turn the TV down. It is far too loud. It's rather hot in here. Shall I turn the heating down now?

'to turn in' means to give something to someone in authority to deal with it.  

To get a new driver's license, I had to turn in my old one. There was an amnesty and you could turn in guns and knives without any consequence.

'to turn in' means to go to bed.  

It's very late, I'm going to turn in. Come on, let's turn in and get a good night's sleep.

'to turn in' also means to produce results, usually very good results.  

The company turned in it's best results yet. Turnover is up 20% on last quarter. All of the students turned in excellent work this term.

'to turn into' means to change and become something different. 324

 

If we are not careful, this little setback could turn into a major problem. The old warehouses along the river have been turned into very expensive flats.

'to turn off' means to use a switch to stop something working.  

Before you go up to bed, remember to turn the TV off. Don't turn off the light in the hall. I usually leave it on all night.

'to turn off' also means to leave a road to travel on a different one.  

After a couple of miles, you turn off the main road and go down a little lane. You turn off the motorway at junction 6 and follow the signs to the airport.

'to turn on' means to use a switch to start something working.  

First thing I do in the morning, is turn on my computer and the coffee machine. It was dark in the house when I went in. Nobody had turned the lights on.

'to turn on' also means to attack or criticize someone.

325

 

They had always supported the Prime Minister but now they have turned on him. That race of dog is very unpredictable, they can suddenly turn on you.

'to turn out' means to have a particular result.  

We had a very good afternoon. The weather turned out well. I was so pleased with the food. Even the cakes turned out perfectly.

'to turn out' also means to produce, often in big quantities.  

They turn out hundreds every day which they sell all over the country. The new machines in production mean we can turn out twice as many at half the price.

'to turn out' also means people go and participate at or watch an event.  

Thousands turned out to see the Queen when she opened the new hospital. A very high percentage of voters turned out to vote at the last elections.

'to turn over' means to move yourself or something so that you or it are facing in the opposite direction. 

I'd like to see the other side. Can you turn it over, please? 326



Turn over and lie on your back.

'to turn over' means to give something to someone in authority.  

During the investigation all the documents were turned over to the police. They were turned over to the immigration authorities as soon as they landed at the airport.

'to turn round' means to make a business profitable after an unsuccessful period.  

It lost a lot of money last year but the new management have turned it round. All political parties promise to turn the economy round if elected but they never do!

'to turn round' also means to change the way something is expressed or considered.  

Let's turn that question round and look at it from a different point of view. He always turns what I say round to make me look stupid.

'to turn to' someone means to ask them for help or sympathy.  

I need help and I don't know who to turn to. She doesn't seem to have any friends to turn to when she needs help. 327

'to turn to' can also mean to focus on something.  

Let's turn our attention to the question of finance next. Let's move on and turn to an important problem we are facing – drop in sales.

'to turn up' means to increase the amount of something, especially heat or volume.  

It is cold in here. Can you turn up the heating, please? I can't hear it. Can you turn it up, please?

'to turn up' also means to arrive at a place.  

He finally turned up at my house half an hour late. You don't need to book. You can just turn up and buy a ticket at the door.

'to turn up' can also mean that someone or something arrives when not expected.  

You'll find a job. I'm sure something will turn up quite soon. Jane didn't call to ask if she could come, she just turned up and stayed the weekend. *

'to write away for' something means to send a letter or form asking for something.

328

 

I want a free copy so I'll write away for one. She has written away for a brochure with details of the course.

'to write back' means to reply.  

I sent him a letter but he didn't write back. I wrote back saying that we would be happy to accept their invitation.

'to write down' means to record something on paper.  

So I don’t forget, can you write that down, please? I wrote down his phone number on a piece of paper but I can't find it now.

'to write in' to an organization means to send a letter to them.  

To give us your comments on today's show, write in to the usual address. The first one hundred people who write in will receive a free copy.

'to write off' means that you decide someone or something is unimportant or not to be considered further.  

Children who are not academic are often written off by schools instead of being helped. Most companies write off any employee over fiftyfive as they assume they are profitable.

329

'to write off' a car means to crash it so that it cannot be repaired.  

She has had only one accident but she did write the car off. There really isn't much damage to the car. It won't be written off by the insurance.

'to write off' a debt means to cancel it.  

The rich countries in the West should write off the debts of the Third World. We had to write off quite a lot of bad debts at the end of the year.

'to write out' means to note all the necessary information on a cheque or prescription.  

Can you write me out a receipt for my accounts, please? The doctor wrote out a prescription for the drugs and handed it to me.

'to write up' your notes means to record them on paper in a neat form.  

After every class, I always write up my notes straight away. She wrote up the minutes of the meeting and distributed them the next day.

330

'to write up' means to note something on a notice or board on a wall.  

The teacher wrote her name up on the board. If you want to join, just write your name up on the notice board.

331

Annex 3. Abbreviations Abbreviations Choose the correct answer 1. R.S.V.P. A. as soon as possible B. please reply C. per week D. value added tax paid E. paid 2. qty A. as soon as possible B. please reply C. please D. quantity E. paid 3. thx A. thanks B. please reply C. please D. quantity E. with reference to 4. E.T.A.

332

A. thanks B. for the attention of C. estimated time of arrival D. quantity E. with reference to 5. pls. cfm. A. thanks B. for the attention of C. estimated time of arrival D. number E. please confirm 6. @ A. at B. for the attention of C. estimated time of arrival D. number E. please confirm 7. a/c A. at B. account C. estimated time of arrival D. number E. please confirm 8. A.G.M. A. at B. account C. annual general meeting D. number 333

E. please confirm 9. A.O.B. A. at B. account C. annual general meeting D. any other business E. please confirm 10. attn A. thanks B. for the attention of C. please D. quantity E. with reference to 11.I.P.O. A. copies to B. Chief Executive Officer C. initial public offer D. any other business E. approximately 12. ASAP A. as soon as possible B. please turn over C. per week D. value added tax E. paid 13. re A. as soon as possible 334

B. please reply C. please D. quantity E. with reference to 14. C.O.D. A. copies to B. Chief Executive Officer C. initial purchase offer D .cash on delivery E .approximately 15. approx A. at B. account C. annual general meeting D. any other business E. approximately 16. E.G.M. A. copies to B. Chief Executive Officer C. initial purchase offer D. cash an delivery E. extraordinary general meeting 17. G.D.P. A. gross domestic product B. Chief Executive Officer C. initial purchase offer D. cash an delivery E. extraordinary general meeting 335

18 G.N.P. A. gross domestic product B. gross national product C. initial purchase offer D. cash an delivery E. extraordinary general meeting 19. pls. A. as soon as possible B. please reply C. please D. value added tax E. paid 20. no. A. thanks B. for the attention of C. estimated time of arrival D. number E. with reference to 21. lb A. public limited company B. gross national product C. pound (weight) D. incorporated E. limited company 22. C.E.O. A. copies to B. Chief Executive Officer 336

C. annual general meeting D. any other business E. approximately 23. I.O.U. A. public limited company B. I owe you C. pound (weight) D. incorporated E. limited company 24. Jr. A. public limited company B.I owe you C. pound (weight) D. Junior E. limited company 25. mo. A. public limited company B.I owe you C. pound (weight) D. junior E .month 26. mth A. public limited company B.I owe you C. pound (weight) D. junior E. month

337

27. Inc. A. gross domestic product B. gross national product C. hire purchase D incorporated E. extraordinary general meeting 28. H.P. A. gross domestic product B. gross national product C. hire purchase D. cash on delivery E. extraordinary general meeting 29.VAT A. public relations B. please turn over C. per week D. value added tax E. paid 30. N/A A. not applicable B. I owe you C. pound (weight) D. junior E. month 31. p.w. A .public relations B. please turn over C. per week 338

D. per annum E. paid 32.Nb A. not applicable B. pay attention to this C. pound (weight) D. junior E. month 33. plc A. public limited company B. gross national product C. hire purchase D. incorporated E. limited company 34. PA A. not applicable B .pay attention to this C .personal assistant D. junior E. month 35. p.a. A. not applicable B. pay attention to this C. personal assistant D. per annum E. month

339

36. Ltd. A. gross domestic product B. gross national product C. hire purchase D. incorporated E. limited company 37. pd. A. not applicable B. pay attention to this C. personal assistant D. per annum E. paid 38.PR A. public relations B. pay attention to this C. personal assistant D. per annum E. paid 39. cc A. copies to B. account C. annual general meeting D. any other business E. approximately 40. PTO A. public relations B. please turn over C. personal assistant 340

D. per annum E. paid Key to the test: 1. B; 2. D; 3.A; 4. C; 5. E; 6. A; 7. B; 8. C; 9. D; 10. B; 11. C; 12. A; 13. E; 14. D; 15. E; 16. E; 17. A; 18. B; 19. C; 20. D; 21. C; 22. B; 23. B; 24. D; 25. E; 26. E; 27. D; 28. C; 29. D; 30. A; 31. C; 32. B; 33. A; 34. C; 35. D; 36. E; 37. E; 38. A; 39. A; 40. B. (Source :www.better-english.com)

341

Annex 4. Business expressions Business expressions 1. Choose the correct answer: 1. I've got to learn English fast. I need a real __________to get me up to speed quickly. a) crash course b) closing a deal c) coining it in d) chew this over 2. The genuine results for the year were pretty bad but thanks to ___________we made them look OK! a) copped out b) cog in the machine c) keep a cool head d) creative accounting 3. You did it too fast. You always make mistakes when you try to____________. a) cut corners b)closing a deal c)coining it in d) chew this over 4. I'm sure a lot of our future income is going to come from the Internet and other __________ activities. a) copped out b) cyberspace c) keep a cool head 342

.

d) chew this over 5. I'm not an important person in this company. I'm just a lowly__________. a) keep a cool head b) closing a deal c) coining it in d) cog in the machine 6. Their products are really selling well. They must be______________. a) copped out b) closing a deal c) coining it in d) chew this over 7. Stop getting so angry. You really need to ___________and control your temper. a) closing a deal b) chew this over c)copped out d) keep a cool head 8.I cannot decide straight away. I’ll need to _________with my colleagues. a) cog in the machine b)chew this over c)copped out d) closing a deal 9. He isn’t a very good salesman. He has a lot of problem when it comes to_________. 343

a)cog in the machine b) copped out c) cyberspace d) closing a deal 10. She didn’t even try to raise the matter at the meeting. She just ________ completely. a) crash course b)copped out c)cut corners d)creative accounting Key to the test: 1.a; 2.d; 3.a; 4.b; 5.d; 6.c; 7.d; 8.b; 9.d; 10.b. (Source: www.better-english.com) Business expressions 2 Choose the correct answer: 1. I imagine their company jet was very expensive indeed. It probably_________. a) cost the earth b) clear the decks c) cut it fine d) cut-throat 2. Our Silicone Valley site is right at the __________of the new technology. a) cut our losses b) cutting edge c) cut it fine 344

d) cut-throat 3. There's lots of unfair competition in our sector from __________outfits which don't respect the law. a) crocodile tears b) crashed c)cowboy d) cough up 4. We did badly in the Japanese market so eventually we decided to _________and stop. a)cut our losses b) cough up c) clear the decks d) cut-throat 5. We had to threaten them with legal action before they agreed to___________ the money they owed us. a) crocodile tears b) cough up c) cut our losses d) clear the decks 6. We'll have to drop everything else. We'll have to___________ concentrate on this. A )clear the decks B )crashed c) cut it fine d) cut-throat

7. Competition is really fierce. In fact, it's ______________. 345

a) crocodile tears b) crashed c) cut it fine d) cut-throat 8. Bids had to be in by 6.00 and we put ours in ten minutes before the deadline. We really____________. a) crocodile tears b) cut it fine c) cut out losses d) crashed 9. We can't access the computer files. system________this morning and we cannot fix it. a) crocodile tears b) cutting edge c) cut our losses d) crashed

The

10. He said he was sorry about letting me go but I'm sure they were only _________he was shedding. a) crocodile tears b) cutting edge c) cut our losses d) cost the earth Key to the test: 1.a; 2.b; 3.c; 4.a; 5.b; 6.a; 7.d; 8.b; 9.d; 10.a. (Source: www.better-english.com)

346

Business Expressions 3 Choose the correct answer: 1. I reckon we owe you about the same as you owe us. Why don’t we just___________? a. call his bluff b. called it a day c. calls the shots d. chicken e. call it quits 2. We've been working on this for fourteen hours now. Isn't it time___________? a. called it a day b. call it quits c. calls the shots d. chicken e. call his bluff 3. Let's face it, he decides. He's the boss so he's the one that______________. a. called it a day b. calls the shots c. call it quits d. chicken e. call his bluff

347

4. He says he will go elsewhere if we don't lower our price but I don't think he will. I think we should_____________. a. call his bluff b. call it quits c. called it a day d. calls the shots e. chicken 5. I'm sure that there is a lot of corruption in that country. If we order an internal audit we may be opening____________. a. carry the can b. chicken c. can't win d. chicken and egg e. a can of worms 6. Someone is going to have to take responsibility for this disaster. Who is going to______________. a. can't win b. carry the can c. chicken d. a can of worms e. chicken and egg 7. Whatever we do, we are going to come out badly. It's a __________ situation. 348

a. a can of worms b. carry the can c. chicken d. can't win e. chicken and egg 8. She always like to think things through very carefully. She likes to__________. a. chicken and egg b. chicken c. chew things over d. call his bluff e. call it quits 9. We need a loan to start the company and we need a company to get the loan. It’s a ____________situation. a. calls the shots b. chew things over c. chicken d. call his bluff e. chicken and egg 10. We wanted to expand into Asia but we were a bit frightened. We were soon sorry for being so________________. 349

a. chicken and egg b. chicken c. calls the shots d. chew things over e. call it quits Key to the test: 1.e; 2.a; 3.b; 4.a; 5.e; 6.b; 7.d; 8.c; 9.e; 10.b. (Source: www.better-english.com)

350

Annex 5. Evaluation test I. Translate into English: 1. Cenzorii au verificat documentele contabile şi au redactat procesul verbal al controlului financiar. 2. Serviciul contabilitate lucrează la un raport privind cheltuielile curente ale companiei. 3. Dacă costurile serviciilor ar fi fost determinate corect, afacerea ar fi fost reuşită. 4. Profitul a fost nesatisfăcător anul trecut. 5. De obicei, trebuie să decidem foarte atent cum ne cheltuim veniturile. 6. Supraproducţia poate duce la un excedent de piaţă. 7. Dacă utilajele ar fi de calitate bună şi nu foarte scumpe leam putea cumpăra pentru noua secţie de producţie. 8. Dacă ar fi vrut să evite falimentul ar fi trebuit să închidă câteva sectoare neproductive. 9. Experţii contabili au participat la un curs de pregătire recent. 10. Directorul de vânzări şi câţiva potenţiali cumpărători efectuează o tranzacţie chiar acum. 11. Aceste produse sunt depozitate de mai bine de trei săptămâni şi trebuie vandute rapid pentru ca sunt perisabile. 12. Firma noastră tocmai a câştigat o importantă sumă de bani din vânzarea unor utilaje. 13. Documentele au fost expediate fără acordul angajatorului. 14. Comisia ar trebui să analizeze politica de stabilizare. 15. Solicitanţii au venit la interviu fără să ştie ceva despre cerinţele slujbei pe care o solicitau. 16. Puteţi retrage până la $ 1,500 pe săptămână cu condiţia ca soldul dvs. să rămână creditor. 17. Caut dosarul cu balanţe de zece minute. 351

18. Fiind valoroase, documentele fuseseră păstrate într- un seif înainte de a fi expediate. 19. Aceste articole de modă sunt cerute în timpul sezonului turistic. 20. Am aprecia daca ne-aţi trimite câte o mostră din fiecare dintre articolele înscrise mai sus . 21. Pentru a vă familiariza cu produsele noastre, vă trimitem astăzi catalogul nostru cu modele. 22. Livrarea nu s-a ridicat la nivelul aşteptărilor lor acum o săptămână. 23. Condiţiile de muncă sunt mai bune acum şi încă se mai îmbunătăţesc. 24. Baza noastră de date este reactualizată în permanenţă. 25. Ţările în curs de aderare devin competitive chiar şi în domeniul tehnologiei de vârf. 26. Şedinţa Consiliului de administraţie va avea loc la sfârşitul lunii. 27. Acţiunile sale sunt acum cotate la bursă. 28. Multe societăţi mici, afectate de criză, au dat faliment. 29. Numele dumneavoastr ne-a fost dat de Camera Romana de comert din Bucuresti. 30. Cu ce banca lucrati ? 31. Sunt necesare bune calficări pentru a obţine această slujbă. 32. Vanzarile implica in general multa munca în ture. 33. Raportul statisticienilor nu se bazează pe cifre reale , aşa că noi nu avem o imagine clară a situaţiei. 34. Acest om este membru al Consiulului de administratie de trei ani. 35. Doriţi să deschideţi un cont curent la banca noatră ? Atunci vă rugăm să completaţi această cerere tip.

352

36. Dacă ţi-ai deschide un cont curent la o bancă ai primi un carnet de cecuri. 37. Aceste articole de modă se cer în timpul sezonului turistic. 38. Am văzut produsele dumneavoastră expuse la Târgul Internaţional de la Paris acum două luni. 39. Vă rugăm să ne trimiteţi câte o mostră din fiecare articol pe care l-aţi produs anul acesta. 40. Sunteti amabil sa ne trimiteti catalogul şi lista de preţuri pentru articolele înscrise mai jos. 41. Cererea pentru acest tip de maşină nu este mare, dar vânzările anul acesta vor depăşi 70%. 42. Ambasada Română din Londra ne-a sfătuit să luăm legătura cu dumneavoastră. 43. Vă mulţumim pentru afacerea pe care intentionati sa o derulati cu noi si va trimitem o lista cu noile preturi. 44. Pentru a vă familariza cu bunurile noastre , vă trimitem astăzi catalogul nostru. 45. Contul dumnneavoastră este descoperit cu suma de 1200 de dolari. 46. Banii nu au valoare în sine, ei folosesc ca mijloc de schimb. 47. De obicei trebuie să decidem foarte atent cum ne cheltuim veniturile. 48. Cele mai bune soluţii apar uneori sub impulsul momentului. .49. Pentru a fi un bun economist trebuie sa simţi pulsul pieţii. 50 Ţările est – europene sunt în atenţia Consiliului Europei. 51. Cu mintea ta şi cu puţină hărnicie, poti să reuşeşti. 52. Pe de altă parte, nu doresc să fac nimic în detrimentul prietenilor noştri. 353

53. Ceasurile elveţiene sunt renumite în toată lumea. II. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form . 1. He ………(work) for the company for 20 years before leaving to set up his own business. 2. She……..(be) abroad on business. 3. I ……….(write) to complain about the late delivery. 4. W.O. Bentley…….(found) Bentley Cars. 5. This candidate …….(have) a lot of experience with computers. 6. The marketer ……..(work) on a market research, when the manager invited him in his office. 7. The delivery ………..(not come up) to their expectations a week ago and they………(send) the products back. 8. They ……….(work) on a method of calculating costs, but they ……..(not come) to a satisfactory result yet. 9. A survey……….(be done) recently on the consequences of unemployment. 10. Labour conditions are better now, and……… (still improve). 11. The auditor …….(go over) our ledgers regularly each month. 12. I wish that the report………(be)simpler and less technical. 13. If I ………(be) you, I would not have applied for this position. 14. The auditors …..(check) the documents for two days and they (not finish) yet. 15. The workers ……(not get) their wages since April. 16. You……(estimate) the total value of the financial deficit? 17. The firm ………(report) the sales figure before talking to the General Manager. 354

18. We agreed that we …….(leave) the next morning. 19. We …….(receive) your order for Excello pens yesterday and they will be sent at once. 20. The firm ………(expend) its productive sectors next year. 21. He ……….(just be fired) because of being late for work. 22. This month the price of this material ……….. (increase) 50 %. 23. They ………….. (work) on a method of calculating costs, but they (not come) to a satisfactory result yet. 24. They …………. (send) the letters before the German investors came. 25. If I had known you were in trouble I …………(help) you. 26. Production ………… (increase) in the last few months and this ………… (lead) to salary rises. 27. You ………… (ever travel) to foreign countries? No, I ………… (never travel) abroad. 28. I would have sent you the invitation if I ……….. (know) you new address. 29. The bridge ……….. (be built) next year. They ……… (not manage) to build it this year. 30 They …………(not admit) that the responsibility was entirely theirs.

355

Annex 6. IRREGULAR VERBS infinitive

simple past

past participle

be

was/were

been

beat

beat

beaten

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

bet*

bet

bet

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

build

built

built

burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

come

came

come

cost

cost

cost

cut

cut

cut

deal

dealt

dealt

do

did

done

draw

drew

drawn 356

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

fly

flew

flown

forget

forgot

forgotten

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

got, gotten (AE)

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung

hung

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit

hit

hold

held

held

357

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

leave

left

left

lend

lent

lent

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

light*

lit

lit

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

pay

paid

paid

put

put

put

read

read

read

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

358

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

set

set

set

shake

shook

shaken

steal

stole

stolen

shine

shone

shone

shoot

shot

shot

show*

showed

shown

shut

shut

shut

sing

sang

sung

sink

sank

sunk

sit

sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

slide

slid

slid

speak

spoke

spoken

spend

spent

spent

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

stick

stuck

stuck

359

swear

swore

sworn

sweep

swept

swept

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

understand

understood

understood

wake*

woke

woken

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove

woven

win

won

won

write

wrote

written

360

ENGLISH - ROMANIAN VOCABULARY A abide vb. – a consimti, a permite, a respecta, a se supune abiding adj. – permanent, insistent, stabil ability n. – abilitate, capacitate abrogate vb. – a aboli, a abroga, a anula,a nega, a interzice accelerated depreciation s. – amortizare accelerata accept vb.- a accepta acceptance n – 1. accept (la cambie) 2. acceptarea de depozite ale clientilor acceptance bill n. – cambie acceptata accounts n. – cont accountancy n. – profesiunea de contabil accountant n. – contabil account book n. – registru contabil accounting n. – contabilitate accounting period n. – exercitiu financiar accounts payable n .pl.– conturi de creditor accounts receivable n.pl. – conturi debitoare – de creante active partner n. – asociat activ (care participa la managementul firmei) actuary n. actuar – specialist in calcularea riscului de asigurare, pe baza statisticii advance n – anticipat; payment in advance – plata anticipat advice of dispatch n.- aviz de expeditie advising bank n.- banca ce avizeaza deschiderea unui acreditiv adviser n. – consultant advisory adj. – consultativ aegis n. - egida 361

afford v. – a-si permite agency n. – agentie agent n. – agent, comisionar, mandatar aggregate vb. – a se acumula, a grupa, a conglomera; s– total general, agregare, acumulare; adj.- global, total, general agreed adj. – convenit, agreat agreement s. - acord A.G.M. n. adunarea generala anuala a actionarilor alimony n. – pensie alimentara allocation n. – distribuire, alocare, repartitie allowance n. 1. indemnizatie 2. alocatie amendment n.- modificare a conditiilor unui acreditiv documentar amicable adj. – amiabil amicably adv. - in mod amiabil amount n. – suma, cantitate analysis n. – analiza analytical accounts n. pl. – contabilitate analitica a societatii anchorage n. - 1. loc de ancorare 2. taxa pentru ancorare apologize vb. – a prezenta scuze apology n. – scuza applicant n. – solicitant, candidat application n. – cerere, solicitare appointment n. – numire, ora rezervata, intrevedere appraisal n. – evaluare, apreciere appraisal fee n. – comision de evaluare appraise vb. – a evalua appraised value - valoare de estimare appreciation n. – cresterea valorii appropriation n. – alocare ; individualizare area n. – spatiu, suprafata, loc, arie argument n. – conflict verbal, controversa, altercatie 362

array n. – aranjament, clasificare, colocare ascertain vb. – a constata ; a stabili as per expr. – conform cu assert vb. – a atesta, a declara, a pleda in favoarea cuiva assertion n.- afirmatie, exprimare, profesiune, dclaratie assertive adj. – asertiv, autoritar, influent,potent assess vb.- a asuma responsibilitatea, a-si asuma riscul assessment s. – evaluare, estimare, rating, calculare, alocare a unor fonduri assessor n. – evaluator asset n. – element, pozitie de activ assign vb. – a aloca, a atribui, a distribui assignable adj. consignabil, transferabil, atribuibil assigned adj. – transferat, cedat, numit assignee n. – cesionar, beneficiar assets n.pl. - 1.activ 2.fond (life) assurance s. – asigurare pe viata attorn vb. – a ceda, a conferi, a consemna attorny n. – consilier, avocat pledant at a discount – la un pret mai mic at a premium – cu un pret mai mare decat valoarea nominala auction n. – licitatie auctioneer n. – agent insarcinat cu efectuarea licitatiilor audit n.- audit, revizie contabila auditor n. – auditor,revizie contabila average n. – avarie (in asigurari) B bachelor of law - licentiat in drept bachelor of sciences - licentiat in stiinte backdate vb. – a avea efect retroactiv 363

backdating n. – antedatare backed n.- garantat, persoana pentru care s-a garantat backer n. – sustinator, suporter, ajutor, complice back-up line of credit - linie de credit de sustinere backward economy - economie subdezvoltata bad debt n.- credit neperformant bail n.- garantie; cautiune bailee n.- primitor al garantiei, cautiunii bailor n.- deponent de cautiune balance n - sold balance of payment n. – balanta de plati balance of trade n. – balanta comerciala balance sheet n.- bilant contabil bale n.- balot bank n. – banca bank account n. – cont bancar bank run n. – retragere masiva si rapida a depunerilor de la o banca bankrupt adj. – falit bankruptcy s. – faliment bear n.- operator la bursa care vinde anticipand scaderea pretului vb. – 1. a suporta (cheltuieli) 2. a purta (dobanda) bearer n. – purtator bear market n. – piata unde valorile se vand anticipandu-se scaderea pretului beneficiary n.- beneficiar bid n. – curs, oferta de cumparare bidder n.- ofertant pentru a cumpara bid price n. – pretul oferit pentru a cumpara bill of exchange n. – cambie, trata bill of lading n. – conosament 364

binding adj. – care angajeaza din punct de vedere juridic blue chip s.- actiune cu capitalizare bursiera foarte mare board of directors s. – consiliu de administratie bond n. – obligatiune bonus n. – prima bonus issue n. – actiuni distribuite actionarilor in locul dividendului cuvenit bookkeeping n. – evidenta contabila book of prime entry n. – registru contabil de evidenta primara boom n. – perioada de avant; inviorare boost vb. – a spori bottom line n. – marja finala a profitului bottom out vb. – a atinge punctul cel mai scazut bounce back vb. – a-si reveni bracket n. – categorie, interval (cu referire la venituri in vederea stabilirii transelor, procentelor de impozitare) breakage s. – riscul de spargere a obiectelor din sticla, portelan etc. budget n. – buget budgetary adj.- bugetar budgeting control - control bugetar building society n.- tip de institutie financiara in Marea Britanie, specializata in acordarea de credite pentru constructii bulk n. – gramada, vrac; incarcatura bulky adj. – voluminos bull n. – operator care cumpara actiuni, anticipand cresterea preturilor bull market n. – piata de valori unde se cumpara anticipanduse cresterea preturilor burglary n. – riscul de furt prin efractie busy adj. – ocupat (depsre linii telefonice) 365

buy out n. – achizitionare de firme in vederea obtinerii controlului lor

C cabinet n. - cabinet, comisie restransa calculation n.- calcul, calculare call n. – convorbire telefonica cancel vb. – a anula cancellation n. – anulare capital market n. – piata de capital cardboard n. – carton cargo n. – incarcatura, caric; marfa in timpul transportului cargo boat n– cargou carriage n. – transport carrier n. – caraus carton n. – cutie din carton cash n. – numerar cash book n. – registru de casa, de incasari cash card n. – card bancar cash discount n. – rabat pentru plata in numerar cash dispenser n. – bancomat cash flow n. – flux de numerar cash with order n. – plata in numerar la darea comenzii casual adj. – fortuit, hazardat incidental cease vb. – a anula, a abroga ceiling n. – plafon, limita superioara central bank n. – banca centrala certified accountant n. – contabil autorizat, membru al unei asociatii a contabililor autorizati

366

certified public accountant n. – (in S.U.A) contabil autorizat; revizor contabil chairman n.- presedinte al unei companii chartered accountant n. – expert contabil, membru al unei asociatii oficiale din Anglia clause adj. – cu rezerve (despre documente) clean adj. – curat (despre documente) colateral n. – garantie pentru un imprumut bancar collecting bank n. – banca ce incaseaza o cambie collection n. – incasare commercial bank n. – banca comerciala commodity market n. – piata de materii prime; piata de marfuri common stock n. – (in S.U.A) actiune ordinara confirming bank n. – banca ce confirma un acreditiv consign vb. – a expedia marfuri consignee n. – destinatar consignment n. – lot de marfuri expediate consignor n. – expeditor contingency n. – situatie neprevazuta contingency clause n. – (in cadrul unui contract) clauza de forta majora correspondent bank n. – banca corespondenta corrugated carton n. – carton ondulat cost accounting n. – contabilitatea costurilor crane n. – macara credit n. – credit credit vb. – a credita credit card n. – carte de credit credit entry n. – inregistrare la rubrica de credite credit worthiness n. – bonitate current account n. – cont curent 367

current assets n. – active curente, capital circulant current liabilities n.pl. – datorii curente (cu scadenta in perioada contabila prezenta) current price n.- pretul curent cut out vb. – a stopa D damage n. – paguba, deteriorare damage vb. – a deteriora damages n.pl. – despagubiri deadline n. – termen limita debenture n. – recunoastere de datorie, act de gaj, scrisoare de gaj debit n. – intrari in cont, debit debit card n. – card de debit debit entry n. – inregistrare in coloana de debite debt n.- datorie debtor n. - debitor decrease n. – scadere, reducere vb. – a scadea, a se reduce decree n. – decret, hotarare, hotarare judecatoreasca, sentinta deduct vb. – a deduce(dintr-o suma), a scadea, a ajunge la o concluzie deductible adj. – deductibil prezumabil deduction n. - deducere, bonificatie, scazamant, reducere deed n. – act, document, titlu, inscris, act notarial deffer vb. – a amana, a opri a intrerupe deffered adj. – amanat, esalonat, reportat, intarziat deferred share n. – actiune la care o plata a dividendelor se face cu intarziere deffering of sentence – amanarea pronuntarii sentintei 368

deliver vb. – a livra delivery n.– livrare demand n. – cerere demurrage n.- contrastalii deposit account n. – cont de depozit facut pe termen depreciation s. – 1. amortizare 2. devalorizare derivative instrument n. – instrument derivat, de tipul contractului de optiuni la bursa development n. – dezvoltare – planificarea producerii de noi produse direct adj. – direct direct costs n. – costuri directe direct labour n.. - munca ce se calculeaza ca fiind cheltuieli directe de productie direct materials n.pl. – materiale ce intra la cheltuieli directe de productie discount n. – rabat, reducere de prêt discrepancy n. – neconcordanta dishonour vb. – a nu achita (o cambie, un cec) dispatch n. – expediere distribution n. – distributie distribution costs s.pl. – cheltuieli, costuri de distributie dividend n. – dividend documentary collection n. – incaso documentar documentary credit n. – acreditiv documentar documents against paymen – documente contra plata (metoda de plata) donation n. – donatie donee n. – donatar donor n. – donator double-entry bookkeeping n. –contabilitate in partida dubla draft n. – trata 369

drawee n. – tras, persoana care achita o polita drawer n. – tragator due adj. – datorat, cuvenit due date n– scadenta E earn vb. – a castiga, a primi (salariu), a realiza venituri earned adj.- castigat efficiency n. – eficienta employ vb. – a angaja employee n. – angajat employer n. – angajator, patron employer’s liability n. – raspunderea angajatorului (in caz de accident de munca) employment n. – 1. folosire a fortei de munca 2. serviciu, post endorse vb. – a andosa, a gira endorsee n. – andosant, giratar endorsement n. – gir, andosare endorser n. – girant end user n. – utilizator final, consumator engagement s. – angajament entitle to vb. – a indritui entity n. – entitate entry n. – inregistrare intr-un registru contabil equities n.pl. – actiuni obisnuite equity n. – valoarea capitalului aflat in proprietatea actionarilor exchange n. – 1. bursa 2. schimb exchange rate n. – curs de schimb excise duty n. – acciza expenditure n. – cheltuiala 370

expense n.pl. – cheltuieli expiration n. – expirare expire vb. – a expira extend the validity of a document. – a prelungi valabilitatea unui document extension n. – prelungire external adj. – extern external auditor n. – auditor din afara firmei F face value n. – valoare nominala fail vb. – a nu reusi fair adj. – corect fall vb. – a scadea fall due. – a ajunge la scadenta falling market n. – o piata pe care preturile sunt in scadere favourable adj. – excedentar, favorabil favourable balance of trade s. – balanta comerciala excedentara Fed, presc. de la Federal reserve System - sistemul bancilor federale de rezerva fee s. – onorariu, comision file vb. – 1. a face o cerere 2. a indosaria fill a demand expr. – a satisface o cerere financial adj. – financiar financial accounting s. – contabilitate fianciara financial statement s. – situatii, rapoarte financiare fixed assets s.pl. – active fixe floating adj. – fluctuant; floor n. – limita minima 371

flotation n. – deschiderea, prin vanzarea de actiuni, a unei noi firme flow n. – flux foreign exchange n. – devize foreign exchange market n. – piata valutara format n. – prezentare forward adj. – la termen forward marketn n. – piata tranzactiilor la termen forward rate n. – curs pentru tranzactii la termen free adj. – liber free market n. – piata libera freight n. - 1. navlu 2. pretul transportului 3. marfa transportata freight charges n..pl. – cheltuieli de transport freight train n.. – tren de marfa fringe benefit n. – beneficiu suplimentar full-time (job) adj. – cu norma intreaga funds n.pl. – fonduri futures n. - contracte la termen futures market n. – piata la termen G gearing n. – raportul dintre capitalul imprumutat de o firma, cu o dobanda fixa, si capitalul propriu get out of debt vb. – a scapa de datorii get through to vb – a obtine legatura telefonica gilt-edged securities n.pl. – titluri de valoare sigure, obligatiuni de stat gilts n.pl.- vezi gilt-edged securities glut n. – supraabundenta; saturatie vb.- a satura, a inunda piata 372

grade vb.- a sorta gross adj. – brut ; gross weight – greutate bruta H hang on vb. – a ramane la aparat/telefon hang up vb. – a pune receptorul in furca; a intrerupe legatura hard currency – valuta forte hedging n. – protejare impotriva riscului unor pierderi datorate cresterii de preturi prin contracte la termen hold on vb. – a ramane la telefon hold steady .- a ramane constant hold the line vb . – a ramane la telefon hostile takeover bid n. – oferta de cumparare a unei alte firme, primita I impair vb. – a avea o influenta negativa/nefavorabila in bulk . – in vrac, in cantitati mari in cash- in numerar income tax n.- impozit pe venit incur vb.- a(-si) face, a-si crea; to great expense- a se baga la mare cheltuiala , a suporta mari cheltuieli ; to debts- a face datorii; a suferi (pierderi) indelible adj. – care nu se sterge, indelebil inland revenue service n.- serviciul de incasari impozite pe venit insolvent adj. – insolvabil intangible assets n.pl.- active necorporale interview n.- 1. intrevedere 2. interviu; examinare a unui candidat 373

interviewee n.- candidat; examinat interviewer n. – cel care examineaza un candidat pentru evaluarea calificarii investment bank n.- banca de investitii invisible trade n. – comert invizibil invoice amount n.- suma facturata issue n.- emitere; emisiune (de actiuni, de moneda) issue vb. – a emite (actiuni, bani) issuing bank n.- banca emitenta a unui acreditiv J jettison n. – incarcatura aruncata in mare (in caz de pericol de scufundare a navei) job sharing n.- ocuparea unui post de catre doua persoane, fiecare cu jumatate de norma joint account n. – cont comun jump vb. – a creste brusc (despre preturi) junk bond n. – obligatiune cu risc mare K knock down vb. – a adjudeca (la licitatie) L landowner n.- proprietar de pamant; mosier lay days n.- stalii leak vb. – a se scurge (din butoaie, rezervoare) leakage n.- (riscul de) scurgere a unui lichid ledger n. – carte mare ; registru contabil lender n.- imprumutator, creditor 374

lender of last resort n.- imprumutator in ultima instanta level off vb.- a se nivela; a se stabiliza leveraged buy out expr.- cumpararea actiunilor unei firme, garantand cu activul acesteia imprumuturile necesare acoperirii platii. levy vb.- a percepe (impozite) liabilities n..pl. – datorii, pasiv (la bilant) liability n.- raspundere lien n. – drept de retentie asupra marfurilor (unui datornic) life assurance n.- asigurare pe viata lighter n. – slep, salanda, mahona limited liability n. – raspundere limitata lined adj.- captusit liquid assets n.pl. – active lichide liquidation n. – lichidare lodge vb.- a depune/a face o reclamatie ; a ridicapretentii (la despagubiri) long-term liabilities n.pl.- datorii cu scadenta indepartata M made out to bearer expr. – emis la purtator (despre cecuri, cambii) maintenance n. – intretinere make a call . – a efectua o convorbire telefonica make an appointment – a stabili o intrevedere managed adj. – dirijat, controlat (despre cursul de schimb) managed exchange rate n.- curs de schimb dirijat management n. – conducere management by objectives . – metoda de conducere bazata pe evaluarea atingerii obiectivelor propuse

375

management/ managerial accounting n.- contabilitate pentru uzul conducerii managerial accounting n. – contabilitate manageriala man-made adj. – facut de om; artificial market n. – piata marketing n.- marketing marketing mix s. – combinatie referitoare la strategiile de pret; produs, promovare si distributie marketer n.- formator de piata; agent bursiei specializat in hartii de valoare comercializabile market price n. – pretul pietei market value n. – valoare de piata mature vb. – a ajunge la scadenta maturity n. – scadenta meet a deadline. – a se incadra intr-un termen limita meet a demand. – a satisface o cerere merchant bank n.- banca de afaceri/ de investitii miss a dealine. – a nu se incadra in termen moisture n. – umiditate money supply n. – masa monetara mortgage n. – credit ipotecar, ipoteca N national bank n. – banca nationala negotiable adj. – negociabil (despre trate, conosamente etc.) net adj. net; weight – greutate neta ; current assets-active nete curente; debt –datorie neta nominal value n. – valoare nominala non-contributory adj. – care nu presupune contributia angajatului (la fondul de pensii) non-payment n. – neplata 376

notice account/deposit n. – depozit/cont bancar la vedere, cu preaviz de ridicare de zile notice of readiness n. – notificarea capitanului in sensul ca vasul e gata de incarcare/descarcare O offer without engagement n. – oferta fara angajament option n. – optiune order n. – comanda vb. – a comanda ore carrier n. – vas mineralier outlays n .pl. – cheltuieli outstanding adj. – neachitat; debt – datorie neachitata overdraft n. – aranjamente intre banca si client privind plati efectuate cu depasirea sumelor existente in cont overdraw vb. – a depasi la retrageri suma existenta in cont overdue adj. – intarziat; neplatit la scadenta overhead(s) n. – cheltueili de regie; cheltueli indirecte overshipment n. – expediere de marfa peste cantitatea constractata overstaffed adj. – cu personal ce depaseste necesitatile, din punct de vedere al numarului overstaffing n. – incarcarea unei firme cu personal peste necesitatile reale over-the-counter market n. – piata secundara (a actiunilor) overtime n. – ore suplimentare prestate owner n – proprietar ownership n. – drept de proprietate

377

P par/nominal/face value n. – valoare nominala particular average n. – avarie particulara (in asigurari) partner n. – asociat partnership n.- parteneriat; asociere part-time (job) adj. – cu program de lucru partial pass on vb. – a transmite; a message- a transmite un mesaj pay vb. – a plati, a onora payee n. – beneficiar (al unei cambii) payment n – plata payroll n. – stat de plata peak n. – varf vb. – a atinge un maximum peak hour n. – ora de varf; ora de maxima aglomeratie pegged adj. – fix (cu referire la cursul de schimb) perishables n.pl. – marfuri perisabile pick up vb. – a creste piecework n – lucru in acord; lucru platit la bucata pier n. – 1.picior de pod 2. debarcader ; dig ; chei ; dana plummet vb.- a scadea vertiginos plunge vb. – a scadea policy n. – polita (de asigurare) portfolio n. – portofoliu post vb. – a trece dintr-un registru contabil in cartea mare preference share n. – actiune privilegiata premises n pl. – sediu ; incinta premium n.– prima de asigurare price n.– pret price list n.. – lista de preturi progressive tax n. – impozit progresiv

378

public liability n. – raspunderea proprietarului (in cazul unui accident suferit de cineva in magazinul acestuia ) put through to vb. – a da legatura la telefon Q qualifications(s) n .pl.-1.competenta, calificare 2. rezerva;indoiala qualified adj. – cu rezerve (despre conosament; raportul de audit) quantity discount n.- rabat pentru cumpararea unor cantitati mari quotation n. – cotatie quote vb.- a cota R raise vb. – a procura, a coleta, a strange (fonduri, capital) rally vb. – a-si reveni ; a se inviora raw material n. – materie prima receipt n. – 1.chitanta 2.primire receiver n. – 1.destinatar, primitor ;2.lichidator receivership n. – institutia lichidatorului recession n. – recesiune recover vb. – 1. a recupera 2. a-si reveni; a se redresa recovery n. – redresare relocation n. – mutare remitting bank n. – banca ce remite o cambie spre plata repeat order n. – comanda repetata report to somb.. – a fi in subordinea cuiva research and development.– cercetare si dezvoltare (departament in cadrul companiilor) 379

reserve price n. – pret de rezerva (minim) (la licitatie) retail bank n. – banca ce ofera servicii persoanelor fizice retail banking n. – servicii bancare pentru clienti persoane fizice retailer n.– vanzator cu amanuntul retail price n. – pret cu amanuntul retrieval n. – regasire/recuperare (a informatiei stocate in calculator) (tax) return s. – declaratie de venituri/impunere revenue n. – venit rights issue n. – acordarea catre actionari a dreptului de a cumpara noi actiuni la un pret avantajos rocket vb. – a urca vertiginos run up a debt expr. – a acumula o datorie S scrip issue n. – emitere de actiuni catre actionarii existenti, pentru marirea capitalului seaworthiness n. – in stare de navigabilitate seaworthy adj. – in buna stare de navigabilitate securities n.pl. – titluri de valoare security n. – garantie (pentru un imprumut bancar) set vb. – a stabili (un obiectiv, un termen) set a deadline. – a stabili un termen limita settle a debt – a achita o datorie share n. – actiune shareholder n – actionar ship owner n. – armator shoot up vb. – a urca vertiginos short shipment n. – expediere de marfa cu minus in ceea ce priveste cantitatea

380

short-shipped adj. – (despre un transport de marfa) cu lipsa din punct de vedere cantitativ shrink vb. – a se contracta shrinkage s. – contractare (risc ce priveste marfa in timpul transportului) sight draft s. – trata la vedere sleeping partner s. – partener care are actiuni, dar nu participa la managementul firmei slump s.– scadere brusca a preturilor (la bursa); perioada de declin economic soft currency .s. – valuta slaba, instabila sole trader s.– comerciant in nume propriu solvent adj. – solvabil spot market s. – piata tranzactiilor la vedere spread s. – ecart spread out vb. – a esalona staff s. – personal standing order s. – serviciu bancar constand in plata la date regulate a unor facturi ale titularilor de cont status n. – statut, loc in ierarhia sociala storage n. – inmagazinare, depozitare stowage n. – arhivare, stivuire straight line depreciation n. – amortizare liniara subsidiary n. – filiala subsidy n. – subventie supplier n. - furnizor supply n. – 1.oferta 2. aprovizionare, provizie T take a call - a primi un apel telefonic take n% off . – a scadea n% din pret 381

takeover n. – preluare, cumparare a peste 50% din actiunile unei firme takeover bid n. – oferta de preluare tallyman n. – pontator tangible assets n .pl. – active corporale tank n. – rezervor tank car n. – vagon cisterna tanker n. – vas cisterna tare n. – tara (greutatea ambalajului) target customer n. – client-tinta tax accounting n – contabilitatea pentru impozite tax heaven n. – paradis fiscal tax shelter n. – intelegere financiara tenor (of a bill of exchange) n. – perioada de timp pana la ajungerea la scadenta a unei cambii third party liability n. – raspundere fata de terte parti (in asigurari) tied up adj. – ocupat(a) (despre o linie telefonica) time draft n. – trata la termen time policy n. – polita pe o perioada definita time-saving adj. – care economiseste timpul time-sharing n. –1.folosinta exclusiva a unei proprietati comune, pe intervale de timp stabilite prin rotatie intre proprietari 2. folosire (a unui computer ) de catre mai multi parteneri (simultan) time wasting adj. – care iroseste timpul tipping lorry n. – camion basculanta trade n. – comert trade discount n. – rabat comercial transhipment n. – transbordare treasury bill n. – bon de tezaur trial order n. – comanda de proba 382

U under shipment n. – transport de marfuri cu cantitate in minus fata de cea contractata underwrite vb. – 1. a garanta o emisiune de actiuni 2. a emite polite de asigurare underwriter n. – emitent de polite de asigurare unlimited liability n. – raspundere nelimitata unlisted securities market n. – piata secundara (a actiunilor) unwarehoused adj. – neinmagazinat(a) V vacancy n. – post neocupat/vacant validity n. – valabilitate value n. – valoare value-added tax n. – taxa pe valoare adaugata valued policy n. – polita cu valoare stabilita visible trade n. – comertul vizibil void adj. – nul voucher n. – document justificativ ; dovada efectuarii unei plati voyage policy n. – polita pentru o calatorie W wage(s) n.(pl.) – salariu (platit saptamanal) warehouse n. – magazie, depozit warehouse vb. – a depozita warning n. – avertisment wasting assets n.pl. – active epuizabile 383

weak currency n. – valuta slaba, instabila wear out vb. – a se uza wholesale bank n. – banca ce ofera servicii exclusiv marilor firme wholesale banking n. – servicii bancare exclusiv pentru companii wholesale price n. – pret cu ridicata; pret en gros wholesaler n. – angrosist wind up (a company) vb.- a lichida, a inchide o firma write off vb. – a sterge, a anula; a debt – a anula o datorie

384

References 1. Adam, J. H., Longman Dictionary of Business English, Harlow, Essex, Longman 1982. 2. Adcock, D., Halborg, Al., Ross, C., Marketing , Principle & Practice, Prentice Hall, 2001. 3. Andrei, L. et al., Episodes in Business English, Sedcom Libris, Iasi, 2003. 4. Barghiel, V. et al., Practice in English Grammar, ASE, 1998. 5. Chiriacescu, A. et al., Corespondenta de afaceri in limbile romana si Engleza, Teora, 1994. 6. Cotton, D., Keys to Management, Nelson, 1991. 7. Cotton, D., International Business topics, Nelson, 1989 8. Cozma, Marcel, Business English, Oradea, CIB Press, 1992. 9. Drucker, Peter, F., Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, New York: Harper and Row, 1973. 10. Eckersley, C.E. & Kaufman, W., English Commercial Practice and Correspondence, Harlow, Essex, Longman, 1975. 11. Galateanu-Farnoaga, Georgiana, Exercitii de Gramatica Engleza, Omegapres, Bucuresti, 1994. 12. Galateanu-Farnoaga, Georgiana, Sinteze de gramatica engleza, exercitii si teste de evaluare, Editura Cruso, Bucuresti, 1995. 13. Georgescu-Roegen, N., Analytical Economics, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts, 1966. 14. Graver, B. D., Advanced English Practice, Oxford University Press, 1963. 15. Harisson , Mark, Use of English (With a Key),Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004. 385

16. Hollinger, Al. et al., Ghid de corespondenta comerciala, ASE, 1990 17. Jones, L. & Alexander, A., International Business English, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989. 18. Kerridge, D., Presenting facts and figures, Longman, 1991. 19. Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Principles of Marketing, Prentice Hall, 2001 20. Lapin, L., Statistics for Modern Business Decisions, Hatcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., New York, 1973. 21. Lesikar, R.V., Basic Business Communication, Irwin, 1991 22. Levitchi, L., Bantas, A., English-Romanian Dictionary, Bucuresti, Editura Stiintifica si Enciclopedica, 1984. 23. Littlejohn A., Company to Company, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990. 24. Mackenzie, I., Management & Marketing, Prentice Hall, 2001. 25. Marcheteau, J.P. et al., Engleza pentru economie.Bisines & Economics, Teora, Bucuresti, 2003. 26. Mathews, C., Business Interactions, Hemel Hempstead, Prentice-Hall, 1987. 27. Milea, Constantin, Commercial, Financial and Accounting English, Editura All, Bucuresti, 2002. 28. Side, R, Wellman, G., Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency, Longman, 1999. 29. Stanton, A. & Wood, L., Longman Commercial Communication, Harlow, Essex, Longman, 1988. 30. Strutt, P., Business English Usage, Longman, 1993. 31. Thill, J.V., Courtland, L.B., Excellence in Business Communication, International Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1993.

386

32. Thomson A.J., Martinet A.V., A Practical English Grammar, London, Oxford University Press, 1974. 33.Tuck, A., Oxford Dictionary of Business English, Oxford, Oxford

387