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CHEMISTRY © 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This content is not yet final and Cengage Learning does not guarantee this page will contain current material or match the published product.

in

A Molecular View of Our World nivaldo J. Tro Westmont College With special contributions by

Don neu St. Cloud State University

Australia

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Focus

• Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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Chemistry in Focus: A Molecular View of Our World, Sixth Edition Nivaldo J. Tro Product Director: Mary Finch Product Manager: Krista Mastroianni Content/Media Developer: Elizabeth Woods Content Coordinator: Karolina Kiwak Product Assistant: Morgan Carney

© 2016, 2012, Cengage Learning WCN: 01-100-101 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Marketing Manager: Julie Shuster Art Director: Maria Epes Manufacturing Planner: Judy Inouye Production Service: MPS Limited Photo Researcher: PreMedia Global Text Researcher: PreMedia Global Copy Editor: MPS Limited

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to [email protected]

Unless otherwise noted, all items © Cengage Learning®

Text Designer: Parallelogram Graphics

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014947007

Cover Designer: Bartay Studio

ISBN-13: 978-1-305-08447-6

Cover Image: Janice Lin/Flickr/Getty Images; Sergey Chushkin/E+/Getty Images; © Cengage Learning Compositor: MPS Limited

Cengage Learning 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com

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Content Project Manager: Teresa L. Trego

Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2014

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To Annie

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About the Author Nivaldo J. Tro received his BA degree from Westmont College and his PhD degree from Stanford University. He went on to a postdoctoral research position at the University of California at Berkeley. In 1990, he joined the chemistry faculty at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California. Professor Tro has been times (1994, 2001, and 2008). He was named Westmont’s outstanding researcher of the year in 1996. Professor Tro lives in the foothills of Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Alicia, Kyle, and Kaden. In his leisure time, Professor Tro likes to spend time with his family in the outdoors. He enjoys running, biking, surfing, and snowboarding.

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honored as Westmont’s outstanding teacher of the year three

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Brief Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Molecular Reasons 1

11 12 13

The Air Around Us 283

14 15 16 17 18

Oxidation and Reduction 363

The Chemist’s Toolbox

26

Atoms and Elements 50 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Reactions

82

Chemical Bonding 109 Organic Chemistry 137 Light and Color 176 Nuclear Chemistry 200 Energy for Today 231 Energy for Tomorrow: Solar and Other Renewable Energy Sources 262

The Liquids and Solids Around Us: Especially Water

311

Acids and Bases: The Molecules Responsible for Sour and Bitter 343

The Chemistry of Household Products

383

Biochemistry and Biotechnology 410 Drugs and Medicine: Healing, Helping, and Hurting 454 The Chemistry of Food 487

To access the following online-only material, enter ISBN 9781305084476 at www.cengagebrain.com and visit this book’s companion website.

19

Nanotechnology 519

Appendix 1: Significant Figures A-1 Appendix 2: Answers to Selected Exercises

A-5

Appendix 3: Answers to Your Turn Questions A-29 Glossary G-1 Index I-1 v

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vi

Preface

Contents

What if . . . Why Should Nonscience Majors Study Science? 5

What if . . . Observation and Reason 9

The Molecular Revolution Seeing Atoms 19

Molecular Reasons 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10

1

Firesticks 2 Molecular Reasons 3 The Scientist and the Artist 4 The First People to Wonder About Molecular Reasons 7 Immortality and Endless Riches 8 The Beginning of Modern Science 8 The Classification of Matter 9 The Properties of Matter 13 The Development of the Atomic Theory 14 The Nuclear Atom 16 SUMMARY 20 KEY TERMS 20 CHAPTER 1 SELF-TEST 21 ExERCISES 22 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 24 CHAPTER 1 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 25

C H A PTE R 2 Molecular Thinking Feynman’s Ants 29

The Molecular Revolution Measuring Average Global Temperatures 30

The Chemist’s Toolbox

26

2.1 Curious About Oranges 27 2.2 Measurement 28 2.3 Scientific Notation 31 2.4 Units in Measurement 33 2.5 Converting Between Units 35 2.6 Reading Graphs 37 2.7 Problem Solving 41 2.8 Density: A Measure of Compactness 42 SUMMARY 44

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C H A PTE R 1

KEY TERMS 45 CHAPTER 2 SELF-TEST 45 ExERCISES 46 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 48 CHAPTER 2 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 49

C H A PTE R 3 What if . . . Complexity Out of Simplicity 61

Atoms and Elements

50

3.1 A Walk on the Beach 51 3.2 Protons Determine the Element 53 3.3 Electrons 56

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Contents

What if . . . Philosophy, Determinism, and Quantum Mechanics 67

The Molecular Revolution The Reactivity of Chlorine and the Depletion of the Ozone Layer 68

3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11

Molecular Thinking

Neutrons 57 Specifying an Atom 58 Atomic Mass 59 The Periodic Law 61 A Theory That Explains the Periodic Law: The Bohr Model 62 The Quantum Mechanical Model for the Atom 66 Families of Elements 68 A Dozen Nails and a Mole of Atoms 71 SUMMARY 74

Is Breathing Helium Dangerous? 69

KEY TERMS 75

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CHAPTER 3 SELF-TEST 75 ExERCISES 76 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 80 CHAPTER 3 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 81

C H APTE R 4 What if . . . Problem Molecules 89

Molecular Focus Calcium Carbonate 91

The Molecular Revolution Engineering Animals to Do Chemistry 100

Molecular Thinking Campfires 103

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Reactions 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

82

Molecules Cause the Behavior of Matter 83 Chemical Compounds and Chemical Formulas 84 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 86 Naming Compounds 89 Formula Mass and Molar Mass of Compounds 93 Composition of Compounds: Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors 94 Forming and Transforming Compounds: Chemical Reactions 97 Reaction Stoichiometry: Chemical Equations as Conversion Factors 99 SUMMARY 103 KEY TERMS 104 CHAPTER 4 SELF-TEST 104 ExERCISES 105 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 107 CHAPTER 4 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 108

C H APTE R 5 Molecular Thinking Fluoride 113

Molecular Focus Ammonia 120

The Molecular Revolution AIDS Drugs 128

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Chemical Bonding 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

109

From Poison to Seasoning 110 Chemical Bonding and Professor G. N. Lewis 112 Ionic Lewis Structures 113 Covalent Lewis Structures 115 Chemical Bonding in Ozone 121 The Shapes of Molecules 122 Water: Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules 126

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Contents SUMMARY 131 KEY TERMS 132 CHAPTER 5 SELF-TEST 132 ExERCISES 133 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 135 CHAPTER 5 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 136

The Molecular Revolution The Origin of Life 141

The Molecular Revolution Determining Organic Chemical Structures 155

What if . . . Alcohol and Society 161

Molecular Focus Carvone 163

Molecular Thinking What Happens When We Smell Something 168

Organic Chemistry 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14

137

Carbon 138 A Vital Force 140 The Simplest Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons 141 Isomers 149 Naming Hydrocarbons 152 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Kekule’s Dream 154 Functionalized Hydrocarbons 156 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Pesticides and Solvents 158 Alcohols: To Drink and to Disinfect 159 Aldehydes and Ketones: Smoke and Raspberries 161 Carboxylic Acids: Vinegar and Bee Stings 164 Esters and Ethers: Fruit and Anesthesia 165 Amines: The Smell of Rotten Fish 167 A Look at a Label 168 SUMMARY 169 KEY TERMS 170 CHAPTER 6 SELF-TEST 170 ExERCISES 171 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 174 CHAPTER 6 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 175

C H A PTE R 7 Molecular Thinking Changing Colors 179

What if . . . x-Rays—Dangerous or Helpful? 185

What if . . . The Cost of Technology 189

What if . . . The Mind–Body Problem 190

Light and Color 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

176

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C H A PTE R 6

A New England Fall 177 Light 180 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 182 Excited Electrons 184 Identifying Molecules and Atoms with Light 186 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Spectroscopy of the Human Body 187 Lasers 191 Lasers in Medicine 194 SUMMARY 195 KEY TERMS 196 CHAPTER 7 SELF-TEST 196

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Contents

The Molecular Revolution

ExERCISES 197

Watching Molecules Dance 193

FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 198

Molecular Focus

CHAPTER 7 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 199

Retinal 194

C H APTE R 8 What if . . . The Ethics of Science 214

The Molecular Revolution

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Fusion Research 219

Molecular Thinking Radiation and Smoke Detectors 222

What if . . . Radiation—Killer or Healer? 225

Nuclear Chemistry 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13

200

A Tragedy 201 An Accidental Discovery 202 Radioactivity 204 Half-Life 207 Nuclear Fission 210 The Manhattan Project 212 Nuclear Power 214 Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy 217 Fusion 218 The Effect of Radiation on Human Life 219 Carbon Dating and the Shroud of Turin 222 Uranium and the Age of the Earth 224 Nuclear Medicine 225 SUMMARY 226 KEY TERMS 226 CHAPTER 8 SELF-TEST 227 ExERCISES 228 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 230 CHAPTER 8 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 230

C H APTE R 9 Molecular Thinking Campfire Smoke 246

Molecular Focus Sulfur Dioxide 251

Molecular Thinking Are Some Fossil Fuels Better Than Others? 254

The Molecular Revolution Taking Carbon Captive 255

Energy for Today 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12

231

Molecules in Motion 232 Our Absolute Reliance on Energy 233 Energy and Its Transformations: You Cannot Get Something for Nothing 235 Nature’s Heat Tax: Energy Must Be Dispersed 237 Units of Energy 239 Temperature and Heat Capacity 242 Chemistry and Energy 244 Energy for Our Society 245 Electricity from Fossil Fuels 248 Smog 248 Acid Rain 250 Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil-Fuel Use: Global Warming 252 SUMMARY 256 KEY TERMS 257 CHAPTER 9 SELF-TEST 257

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x

Contents ExERCISES 258 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 260 CHAPTER 9 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 261

Molecular Thinking Hydrogen 272

What if . . . Legislating Renewable Energy 273

The Molecular Revolution Fuel Cell and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 277

What if . . . Future Energy Scenarios 277

Energy for Tomorrow: Solar and Other Renewable Energy Sources

262

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

Earth’s Ultimate Energy Source: The Sun 263 Hydroelectric Power: The World’s Most Used Solar Energy Source 264 Wind Power 266 Solar Thermal Energy: Focusing and Storing the Sun 266 Photovoltaic Energy: From Light to Electricity with No Moving Parts 269 10.6 Energy Storage: The Plague of Solar Sources 271 10.7 Biomass: Energy from Plants 272 10.8 Geothermal Power 273 10.9 Nuclear Power 274 10.10 Efficiency and Conservation 274 10.11 2050 World: A Speculative Glimpse into the Future 276 SUMMARY 278 KEY TERMS 279 CHAPTER 10 SELF-TEST 279 ExERCISES 280 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 282 CHAPTER 10 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 282

C H A PTE R 1 1 Molecular Thinking Drinking from a Straw 288

Molecular Focus Ozone 302

The Molecular Revolution Measuring Ozone 302

The Air Around Us 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11

283

Air Bags 284 A Gas Is a Swarm of Particles 285 Pressure 286 The Relationships Between Gas Properties 288 The Atmosphere: What Is in It? 293 The Atmosphere: A Layered Structure 295 Air Pollution: An Environmental Problem in the Troposphere 296 Cleaning Up Air Pollution: The Clean Air Act 298 Ozone Depletion: An Environmental Problem in the Stratosphere 300 The Montreal Protocol: The End of Chlorofluorocarbons 304 Myths Concerning Ozone Depletion 305

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C H A PTE R 1 0

SUMMARY 306 KEY TERMS 307 CHAPTER 11 SELF-TEST 307 ExERCISES 308 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 309 CHAPTER 11 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 310

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Contents

C H APTE R 1 2 Molecular Thinking Making Ice Cream 316

Molecular Thinking Soap—A Molecular Liaison 321

Molecular Thinking Flat Gasoline 324

Molecular Focus © 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This content is not yet final and Cengage Learning does not guarantee this page will contain current material or match the published product.

Trichloroethylene (TCE) 332

What if . . . Criticizing the EPA 336

The Liquids and Solids Around Us: Especially Water

311

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7

No Gravity, No Spills 312 Liquids and Solids 313 Separating Molecules: Melting and Boiling 315 The Forces That Hold Us—and Everything Else—Together 317 Smelling Molecules: The Chemistry of Perfume 322 Chemists Have Solutions 324 Water: An Oddity Among Molecules 326

12.8

Water: Where Is It and How Did It Get There? 327

12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15

Water: Pure or Polluted? 328 Hard Water: Good for Our Health, Bad for Our Pipes 329 Biological Contaminants 330 Chemical Contaminants 330 Ensuring Good Water Quality: The Safe Drinking Water Act 333 Public Water Treatment 334 Home Water Treatment 335 SUMMARY 337 KEY TERMS 338 CHAPTER 12 SELF-TEST 338 ExERCISES 339 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 341 CHAPTER 12 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 342

C H APTE R 1 3 Molecular Focus Cocaine 347

What if . . . Practical Environmental Protection 358

The Molecular Revolution Neutralizing the Effects of Acid Rain 358

Acids and Bases: The Molecules Responsible for Sour and Bitter 343 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11

If It Is Sour, It Is Probably an Acid 344 The Properties of Acids: Tasting Sour and Dissolving Metals 344 The Properties of Bases: Tasting Bitter and Feeling Slippery 346 Acids and Bases: Molecular Definitions 348 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 349 Specifying the Concentration of Acids and Bases: The pH Scale 351 Some Common Acids 352 Some Common Bases 354 Acid Rain: Extra Acidity from the Combustion of Fossil Fuels 355 Acid Rain: The Effects 356 Cleaning Up Acid Rain: The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 357 SUMMARY 359 KEY TERMS 359 CHAPTER 13 SELF-TEST 359 ExERCISES 360 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 362 CHAPTER 13 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 362

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Contents

C H A PTE R 1 4 Molecular Thinking The Dulling of Automobile Paint 368

Molecular Focus Hydrogen Peroxide 369

The Molecular Revolution Fuel Cell Vehicles 375

What if . . .

Oxidation and Reduction 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8

363

Rust 364 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions 365 Some Common Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 368 Respiration and Photosynthesis 369 Batteries: Making Electricity with Chemistry 370 Fuel Cells 373 Corrosion: The Chemistry of Rust 375 Oxidation, Aging, and Antioxidants 377 SUMMARY 378

The Economics of New Technologies and Corporate Handouts 376

KEY TERMS 378 CHAPTER 14 SELF-TEST 379 ExERCISES 379 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 381 CHAPTER 14 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 382

C H A PTE R 1 5 Molecular Focus Polyoxyethylene 389

Molecular Thinking Weather, Furnaces, and Dry Skin 393

What if . . . Consumer Chemistry and Consumerism 397

The Molecular Revolution Conducting Polymers 402

The Chemistry of Household Products

383

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9

Cleaning Clothes with Molecules 384 Soap: A Surfactant 385 Synthetic Detergents: Surfactants for Hard Water 387 Laundry-Cleaning Formulations 388 Corrosive Cleaners 390 Hair Products 390 Skin Products 392 Facial Cosmetics 394 Perfumes and Deodorants: Producing Pleasant Odors and Eliminating Unpleasant Ones 394 15.10 Polymers and Plastics 398 15.11 Copolymers: Nylon, Polyethylene Terephthalate, and Polycarbonate 401 15.12 Rubber 403 SUMMARY 404

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KEY TERMS 405 CHAPTER 15 SELF-TEST 406 ExERCISES 406 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 408 CHAPTER 15 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 409

C H A PTE R 1 6 Molecular Focus Raffinose 423

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Biochemistry and Biotechnology 16.1 16.2

410

Brown Hair, Blue Eyes, and Big Mice 411 Lipids and Fats 412

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Contents

Molecular Thinking Wool 432

The Molecular Revolution The Human Genome Project 441

What if . . . The Ethics of Therapeutic Cloning and Stem Cell Research 444

16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9

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Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Sawdust 417 Proteins: More Than Muscle 423 Protein Structure 428 Some Common Proteins 431 Nucleic Acids: The Blueprint for Proteins 433 Recombinant DNA Technology 439 Cloning 442 SUMMARY 444 KEY TERMS 445 CHAPTER 16 SELF-TEST 445 ExERCISES 447

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FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 452 CHAPTER 16 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 453

C H APTE R 1 7 Molecular Thinking Generic or Name Brands?

460

Molecular Focus Azidothymidine (AZT)

463

What if . . . The Controversy of Abortion 465

What if . . . Alcoholism 469

What if . . . The Danger of Street Drugs 474

What if . . . Prescription Drug Abuse 480

Drugs and Medicine: Healing, Helping, and Hurting 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14

454

Love and Depression 455 Relieving Pain, Reducing Fever, and Lowering Inflammation 456 Killing Microscopic Bugs: Antibiotics 458 Antiviral Drugs and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 460 Sex Hormones and the Pill 464 Steroids 465 Chemicals to Fight Cancer 466 Depressants: Drugs That Dull the Mind 468 Narcotics: Drugs That Diminish Pain 471 Stimulants: Cocaine and Amphetamine 473 Legal Stimulants: Caffeine and Nicotine 475 Hallucinogenic Drugs: Mescaline and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide 477 Marijuana 478 Prozac and Zoloft: SSRIs 479

The Molecular Revolution

SUMMARY 481

Consciousness 480

KEY TERMS 482 CHAPTER 17 SELF-TEST 483 ExERCISES 483 FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 485 CHAPTER 17 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 486

C H APTE R 1 8 Molecular Thinking Sugar Versus Honey 491

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The Chemistry of Food 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4

487

You Are What You Eat, Literally 488 Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches, and Fibers 489 Proteins 493 Fats, Oils, and Cholesterol 495

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Contents

The Molecular Revolution Does Sugar Make Children Hyperactive? 493

What if . . . The Second Law and Food Energy 494

18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10

Caloric Intake and the First Law: Extra Calories Lead to Fat 498 Vitamins 500 Minerals 503 Food Additives 507 The Molecules Used to Grow Crops: Fertilizers and Nutrients 510 The Molecules Used to Protect Crops: Insecticides and Herbicides 511

Molecular Focus

SUMMARY 514

Ammonium Nitrate 510

KEY TERMS 515 CHAPTER 18 SELF-TEST 515

What if . . .

ExERCISES 516

Pesticide Residues in Food—A Cause for Concern? 513

FEATURE PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 518 CHAPTER 18 SELF-CHECK AND SELF-TEST ANSWERS 518

To access the following online-only material, enter ISBN 9781305084476 at www.cengagebrain .com and visit this book’s companion website.

C H A PTE R 1 9 Molecular Focus Buckminsterfullerene 525

What if . . . Value-Free Science 530

The Molecular Revolution The Dark Side of Nanotechnology 532

Nanotechnology 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10

Extreme Miniaturization 520 Really Small: What’s the Big Deal? 521 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 523 Atomic Force Microscope 524 Buckyballs—A New Form of Carbon 525 Carbon Nanotubes 526 Graphene—One-Atom-Thick Material 528 Nanomedicine 529 Today’s Nanoproducts 531 Nanoproblems 533 SUMMARY 533 ExERCISES 534

Appendix 1: Significant Figures A-1

519

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Appendix 2: Answers to Selected Exercises A-5 Appendix 3: Answers to Your Turn Questions A-29 Glossary G-1 Index I-1

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Preface To the Instructor The two main goals of this book are for students to understand the molecular world and to understand the scientific issues that face society.

A MoLEcuLAR Focus The first goal is essential. Students should leave this course understanding that the world is composed of atoms and molecules and that everyday processes—water boiling, pencils writing, soap cleaning—are caused by atoms and molecules. After taking this course, a student should look at water droplets, salt crystals, and even the paper and ink of their texts in a different way. They should know, for example, that beneath the surface of a water droplet or a grain of salt lie profound reasons for each of their properties. From the opening example to the closing chapter, this text maintains this theme through a consistent focus on explaining the macroscopic world in terms of the molecular world. The art program, a unique component of this text, emphasizes the connection between what we see—the macroscopic world—and what we cannot see—the molecular world. Throughout the text, photographs of everyday objects or processes are magnified to show the molecules and atoms responsible for them. The molecules within these magnifications are depicted using space-filling models to help students develop the most accurate picture of the molecular world. Similarly, many molecular formulas are portrayed not only with structural formulas but with space-filling drawings as well. Students are not meant to understand every detail of these formulas—because they are not scientists, they do not need to. Rather, they should begin to appreciate the beauty and form of the molecular world. Such an appreciation will enrich their lives as it has enriched the lives of those of us who have chosen science and science education as our career paths.

cHEMisTRY in A sociETAL AnD EnViRonMEnTAL conTEXT

2 1

2

1 2

1 2 2

© eyedear/Shutterstock.com

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Chemistry in Focus is a text designed for a one-semester college chemistry course for students not majoring in the sciences. This book has two main goals: the first is to develop in students an appreciation for the molecular world and the fundamental role it plays in daily life; the second is to develop in students an understanding of the major scientific and technological issues affecting our society.

The other primary goal of this text is to develop in students an understanding of the scientific, technological, and environmental issues facing them as citizens and consumers. They should leave this course with an understanding of the impact of chemistry on society and on humankind’s view of itself. Topics such as global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain, drugs, medical technology, and consumer products are covered in detail. In the early chapters, which focus primarily

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Preface

on chemical and molecular concepts, many of the box features introduce these applications and environmental concerns. The later chapters focus on these topics directly and in more detail.

Throughout the text, I have made extensive efforts to help students make connections, both between the molecular and macroscopic world and between principles and applications. The chapter summaries are designed to reinforce those connections, particularly between chemical concepts and societal impact. The chapter summaries consist of two columns, one summarizing the major molecular concepts of the chapter and the other, the impacts of those concepts on society. By putting these summaries side by side, the student can clearly see the connections.

A Tour of the Text GEnERAL cHAPTER sTRucTuRE Each chapter introduces the material with Questions for Thought.

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Each chapter opens with a brief paragraph introducing the chapter’s main topics and explaining to students why these topics are relevant to their lives. These openers pose questions to help students understand the importance of the topics. For example, the opening paragraphs to Chapter 1 state, “As you read these pages, think about the scientific method—its inception just a few hundred years ago has changed

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NOAA

MAKinG connEcTions

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human civilization. What are some of those changes? How has the scientific method directly impacted the way you and I live?” The opening paragraphs of each chapter are followed by Questions for Thought directly related to chapter content. These questions are answered in the main body of each chapter; presenting them early provides a context for the chapter material. Most chapters, as appropriate, follow with a description or thought experiment about an everyday experience. The observations of the thought experiment are then explained in molecular terms. For example, a familiar experience may be washing a greasy dish with soapy water. Why does plain water not dissolve the grease? The molecular reason is then given, enhanced by artwork that shows a picture of a soapy dish and a magnification showing what happens with the molecules. Continuing this theme, the main body of each chapter introduces chemical principles in the context of discovering the molecular causes behind everyday observations. What is it about helium atoms that makes it possible to breathe small amounts of helium gas—as in a helium balloon—without adverse side effects? What is it about chlorine atoms that makes breathing chlorine gas dangerous? What happens to water molecules when water boils? These questions have molecular answers that teach and illustrate chemical principles. The text develops the chemical principles and concepts involved in a molecular understanding of the macroscopic observations. Once the student is introduced to basic concepts, consumer applications and environmental problems follow. The text, however, does not separate principles and applications. Early chapters involving basic principles also contain applications, and later chapters with more emphasis on applications build on and expand basic principles.

Progressive Information Technologies

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Preface

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2 electrons

Helium nucleus 2 protons Z52

EXAMPLEs AnD YouR TuRn EXERcisEs Example problems are included throughout the text, followed by related Your Turn exercises for student practice. In designing the text, I made allowances for different instructor preferences on quantitative material. Although a course for nonmajors is not usually highly quantitative, some instructors prefer more quantitative material than others. To accommodate individual preferences, many quantitative sections, including some Examples and Your Turn exercises, can be easily omitted. These are often placed toward the end of chapters for easy omission. Similarly, exercises in the back of each chapter that rely on quantitative material can also be easily omitted. Instructors desiring a more quantitative course should include these sections, whereas those wanting a more qualitative course can skip them. The answers to the Your Turn exercises can be found in Appendix 3.

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BoXED FEATuREs

Boxed features show relevance and ask students to interact with the material.

Molecular Thinking boxes describe an everyday observation related to the chapter material. The student is then asked to explain the observation based on what the molecules are doing. For example, in Chapter 4, when chemical equations and combustion are discussed, the Molecular Thinking box describes how a fire will burn hotter in the presence of wind. The student is then asked to give a molecular reason— based on what was just learned about chemical equations and combustion— to explain this observation.

Molecular Focus Molecular Focus boxes highlight a “celebrity” compound related to the chapter’s material. The physical properties and structure of the compound are given and its use(s) described. Featured compounds include calcium carbonate, hydrogen peroxide, ammonia, AZT, retinal, sulfur dioxide, ammonium nitrate, and others.

Celebrity compounds are highlighted.

The Molecular Revolution Molecular Revolution boxes highlight topics of modern research and recent technology related to the chapter’s material. Examples include measuring global temperatures, imaging atoms with scanning tunneling microscopy, and the development of fuel cell and hybrid electric vehicles.

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What if . . .

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What if . . . boxes discuss topics with societal, political, or ethical implications. At the end of the discussion there are one or more open-ended questions for group discussion. Topics include the Manhattan Project, government subsidies for the development of alternative fuels, stem cell research, and others.

Self-Check The Self-Check boxes consist of questions that allow students to periodically check their comprehension. The questions reinforce the key concepts in the text, develop students’ critical thinking skills, and help them relate the material to the world around them.

Self-Test At the end of Chapters 1–18 a SelfTest is provided to allow students to further test their comprehension of the entire chapter's material. The questions are designed to complement the SelfCheck boxes the student has already encountered within the chapter.

Chapter summaries review main molecular concepts and their societal impacts.

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cHAPTER suMMARiEs

KEY TERMs Each chapter has a set of key terms from within that chapter for review and study. Each of the key terms is defined in the Glossary at the end of the text.

sTuDEnT EXERcisEs All chapters contain exercises of four types: Questions, Problems, Points to Ponder, and Feature Problems and Projects. The Questions ask students to recall many of the key concepts from the chapter. The Problems ask students to apply what they have learned to solve problems similar to those in the chapter Examples and Your Turn boxes. The Points to Ponder consist primarily of open-ended short-essay questions in which students are asked about the ethical, societal, and political implications of scientific issues. The Feature Problems and Projects contain problems with graphics and short projects, often involving Web-based inquiry.

nEW To THis EDiTion The sixth edition of Chemistry in Focus contains several changes from the previous edition. Each chapter now has a Self-Test that consists of 10–15 multiple choice questions. Students can use these Self-Tests to assess their knowledge of the chapter material and to help them prepare for exams. ●

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Chapters end with a two-column summary of the ideas presented in the main body of the chapter. In this summary, students get a side-by-side review of the chapter, with molecular concepts in one column and the coinciding societal impact in the other. The chapter summary allows the student to get an overall picture of the chapter and strengthens the connection between principles and applications.

Interest boxes have been updated or revised to reflect progress and current issues. See, for example, the Molecular Thinking box in Section 10.6, What If . . . box in Section 10.7, and The Molecular Revolution boxes in Sections 10.11 and 14.6. All real-world information in figures and tables has been updated to the latest possible data. See, for example, Figures 2-7, 3-15, 9-2, 9-6, 9-7, 9-13, 9-14, 10-2, 11-7, 11-8, 11-14, 13-6, and 13-7; Tables 9-1, 9-7, 10-1, 10-2, 11-3, 11-4; and Example 2-4. Selected end-of-chapter problems have been modified, and some new problems have been added. See, for example, problems 3.46, 3.48, 4.25, 4.26, 6.49, and 6.50. All photos have been analyzed and updated as needed.

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Placement of margin notes has been evaluated, and pointers have been added throughout to better connect the basal text to the margin notes. The placement of figures has been evaluated and adjusted for ease of reference. Some previously numbered figures and existing numbered figures have been renumbered. The flow chart style has been revised and updated. See, for example, Figures 1-3, 1-4, 1-8, 6-4 and 12-19. The data in end-of-chapter problems has been updated. See, for example, the problems 2.37, 9.57, 9.58, 10.43, 17-75, and 17-76.

Below is a list of some of the specific changes in the book.

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In Chapter 9, the section on nuclear waste disposal was updated to reflect the latest recommendations of the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future. The section on the future of nuclear power has also been updated to reflect changes in international attitudes toward nuclear power since the Fukushima accident. The unit of radiation exposure has been changed from the REM to the SI unit, Sievert. This change is reflected throughout the basal text, the tables, and the end-of-chapter problems (see Section 8.10). Section 9.2 has been updated to reflect changes in world energy consumption. Section 10.9 has been updated to reflect changes in nuclear power.

Supporting Materials Please visit http://www.cengage.com/chemistry/tro/cheminfocus6e for information about student and instructor resources for this text.

Acknowledgments I am grateful to my colleagues at Westmont College, who have given me the space to write this book. I am especially grateful to Mark Sargent, Allan Nishimura, David Marten, Kristi Lazar, Michael Everest, and Steven Contakes for their support. Thanks to Don Neu for his great help with the nanotechnology chapter. I am grateful to my editor, Elizabeth Woods, who has been incredibly gracious and helpful to me throughout this revision, and to Karolina Kiwak, who handled the creation of the supplementary material. I am also grateful to Teresa Trego, the production manager at Cengage Learning, and the team she worked with at MPS Limited. Thanks also to those who supported me personally while writing this book. I am particularly grateful to my wife, Ann, whose love healed a broken man. Thanks to my children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden—they are my raison d’être. I come from a large and close extended Cuban family who have stuck by me through all manner of difficult circumstances. I thank my parents, Nivaldo and Sara, and my siblings, Sarita, Mary, and Jorge. Thanks also to Pam—may her spirit rest in peace. I am greatly indebted to the reviewers of each of the editions of this book, who are listed below. They have all left marks on the work you are now holding. Lastly, I thank my students, whose lives energize me and whose eyes continually provide a new way for me to see the world. —Nivaldo J. Tro Westmont College “Apple, iPhone, iPod touch, and iTunes are trademarks of Apple Inc., registered in the United States and other countries.”

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siXTH EDiTion REViEWERs Gene Wubbels, University of Nebraska at Kearney Greg Oswald, North Dakota State University Kaiguo Chang, New Mexico Highland University Clarke Earley, Kent State University at Stark Anne Marie Sokol, SUNY Buffalo State Dion Armstrong, Rowan University Bonnie Martinez, Marietta College Megan Tichy, Santa Clara University

Christine Seppanen, Riverland Community College Gail Buckenmeyer, SUNY College at Cortland Alton Hassel, Baylor University James Marshall, University of North Texas Matthew Wise, University of Colorado, Boulder David Maynard, California State University, San Bernadino Marilyn Hurst, University of Southern Indiana Gregory Oswald, North Dakota State University Katina Hall-Patrick, Norfolk State University Rafael Alicea-Maldonado, Genesee Community College David Smith, New Mexico State University

FouRTH EDiTion REViEWERs Holly Bevsek, The Citadel Michael J. Dorko, The Citadel Jeannine Eddleton, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Konstantinos Kavallieratos, Florida International University Swadeshmukul Santra, University of Central Florida James Schreck, University of Northern Colorado Joseph W. Shane, Shippensburg University Christopher L Truitt, Texas Tech University

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FiFTH EDiTion REViEWERs

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