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Aspects of the flute in the twentieth century Pierre-Yves Artaud & Catherine Dale Published online: 21 Aug 2009.

To cite this article: Pierre-Yves Artaud & Catherine Dale (1993) Aspects of the flute in the twentieth century, Contemporary Music Review, 8:2, 131-216, DOI: 10.1080/07494469400640101 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07494469400640101

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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Pierre-Yves A r t a u d Translated b y Catherine Dale

Introduction An instrument of culture which more than likely originates in the very first stammerings of musical expression, the flute has always attracted respect, even devotion. Its origins are divine: Krishna, Pan and Tityrus are the earliest known virtuosi. Plutarch observes that "the flute calms the spirits and penetrates the ears with a sound so gracious that it brings peace and tranquility to every movement, even down to the very soul". Captain Cook reports that at the time of his voyage to Tahiti on 22 April 1769, he was extremely surprised to find an unknown type of flute: "22 April 1769, Tootahah provided us with a sample of his country's music; four people played a type of flute which had only two holes and which, as a result, could play only two notes a semitone apart; they played these instruments rather as one would play the transverse flute, with the single exception that the musician, instead of using his mouth, blew into one of the holes with his nostril, while stopping the other with his t h u m b . . . " . Nose flutes of this type are found equally among the pygmy tribes of Africa and in the Phillipines. The explanation which was provided later relies on a high degree of spirituality; primitive peoples believed that there were two kinds of air: the first, exhaled through the mouth, was considered impure since it originated in the viscera. The second was exhaled through the nose and arose in the head, the repository of the soul. This second kind constituted a pure breath which was capable of being heard by the gods and the dead only when it was amplified by the flute, the sole wind instrument in which the air is not soiled by the instrument since it does not pass through its tube. The shakuhachi, for its part, was introduced into Japan from China and became an instrument of Zen spiritual meditation; indeed, examples of this type may be multiplied almost ad infinitum. It is interesting but fundamentally quite natural to meet the flute again and again throughout the history of humanity and to observe that its role in creation in the twentieth century is a decisive one. In this respect, there has been an undeniable infatuation for the shakuhachi flute in the West for several decades. Performances on the shakuhachi have fascinated composers both in terms of the instrument's virtuosity and in particular of its fluidity of sound, and have facilitated a reconsideration of the manner of 131

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132 P.-Y. Artaud writing for the Boehm flute at a time w h e n the historical need to liberate the Boehm instrument from certain aesthetic criteria was becoming urgent. For m y own part, ever since my encounter with Yoshihisa Taira shortly after his arrival in Paris (1966), I began to become increasingly aware of and enthusiastic towards traditional types of music, particularly that of the Japanese tradition and the shakuhachi. At the A u t u m n Festival (in 1970, if m y m e m o r y serves me correctly) I attended the recital given by Yokoyama and Tsuruta, w h o had been invited to Paris by Maurice Fleuret. This was a revelation, one of the most important musical experiences of m y life, which enabled me among other things to penetrate more fully the universe of m y friend Taira and to reconsider in large part m y own technique and sensibilities. In 1986 1 met Yoshikazu Iwamoto at the Almeida Festival in London. I attended the rehearsal for his forthcoming recital and was dazzled not only by the presence but also by the instrumental and physical control of this great master. I cannot remember exactly h o w the idea of playing together arose, but naturally it could only delight and fascinate me, as well as cause me some anxiety. The fascination of anyone w h o regards this instrument and his art with such passion and veneration may easily be understood; the anxiety to which it gave rise stemmed, I believe, from the challenges it posed: 1. 2. 3.

H o w would one construct a convincing programme from traditional and contemporary music for the two solo instruments? H o w would one integrate the two sonorities in a duet? H o w would one avoid falling into the simplistic notion of superimposing two different worlds or, worse, of caricaturing a culture either through naivety or through the adoption of a sort of cultural colonialism (in the m a n n e r of Ravel: "Laideronnette, Empress of the Pagodas"!)?

As far as the first point is concerned, it was fascinating for me to observe the ease with which one m a y pass without any transition whatsoever from the Japanese Middle Ages to the present day. The progression from this period to Takemitsu or Berio is unquestionably more apparent than the progression from Bach to Berio. I attribute this fact to a common concern for the treatment of the sound which overrides that for structure, for although the latter concern exists in both periods it is not essential to an immediate perception of the music. I would simply like to state that even in the case of a hyper-structural work such as Unity Capsule by Ferneyhough, the concern to elaborate a very strict form recedes into the background w h e n the piece is heard, for the listener is confronted with the concept of a sound fantasy. In reality, of course, this structure is not effaced; it is absorbed by our unconscious perception, and is clearly indispensable to our long-term memorization of the piece. A closed structure is as indispensable to musical architecture as it is to monumental architecture. Once the building itself is out of sight we are left with an impression of its spaciousness, the strength of its lines and its general aspect. In the same way, after hearing a musical work, its structures, intensities (orchestral colours, dynamics) and general form associated with its duration remain in our memory. A musical work should therefore associate both aspects, and it may be observed that these two repertoires do indeed unite them.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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With regard to the second point, I confess that my little knowledge of the shakuhachi together with my years of working with Taira have taught me a thing or two. It is true that the difference in the nature of the two sounds could make their combination in a duet a delicate procedure. However, the considerable degree of freedom exercised by the flutes enables them to approach one another in a satisfactory way. But duet playing also allows the differences between the two instruments to be emphasized and therefore for one part to distance itself as far as possible from the other. The first three duets that were composed for us illustrate, completely by chance, three typical cases:

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High Song by Jo Kondo provides an example of strict, "abstract" writing in which the shakuhachi must renounce all cultural identity in favour of a sound which is stable in both pitch and tone; this quest for stability constitutes ultimately the original reason for the existence of the Boehm flute. Synchrony by Yoshihisa Taira seems as though it is written for two shakuhachis. Moreover, the composer has retained deep cultural associations throughout and his highly gestural music imposes on the Western flute a phrasing and sound which remain very Japanese. It was for this reason that I asked Taira for permission to perform this work which was originally written for two flutes in a version for flute and shakuhachi. Nada by Mike Vaughan offers a very interesting synthesis of these two cases in that the two flutes are required to alternate constantly between Eastern and Western attitudes; moreover, the work, which is composed according to very elaborate structures in terms of its notes and metrical scheme, is none the less very gestural, and such an effusive sound fantasy permits a highly successful osmosis between the two flutes. The selection of the bass flute in partnership with the shakuhachi constitutes an important aspect of this osmosis.

The final point concerns the perilous situation which must be avoided at all costs. Clearly, the choice of repertoire is crucial and, from this perspective, one must know exactly which composers one wishes to address. The second condition depends first of all on the performer having thoroughly assimilated the culture of his partner. Iwamoto has a very solid "Western" technique and, at the time of our first concert (August 1987 in Dartington), I for my own part had behind me twenty years of knowledge of the Japanese tradition which proved sufficient for me to have absorbed "physiologically" certain technical and cultural principles. Without this kind of approach such a duet combination would prove as musically sterile as the performances of those Baroque music ensembles which play original instruments and believe that by merely purchasing a Baroque flute or a viola da gamba they will achieve the desired result. It is indeed naive to limit musical expression to a single technique while severing it from its culture. The prevailing sentiment of the time, and ideas concerning vibrato or modes of attack must be completely modified, therefore, in the progression from Taira to Jo Kondo. This may only be achieved if the condition of cultural assimilation is fulfilled, and the latter requires years of study. If the technique itself can be learnt fairly rapidly, the rest takes time, time without which nothing of any depth or truth may be achieved.

134 P.-Y. Artaud For me, the formation of this duo constituted an important step in my career, first and foremost because it represented a challenge, secondly because it enabled me to realize a musical quest which had concerned me for over two decades, and finally because it allowed me to work with Iwamoto, a man for whom I have much friendship and musical esteem, and a disciple of Yokoyama to whom, without his knowing it, I am equally indebted.

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1. Some Characteristics of the Modern Repertoire The real golden age of the transverse flute coincided with the beginning of the present century. Far from disregarding the considerable contribution made by Baroque music or even the importance of the technical research carried out at the beginning of the nineteenth century, we are obliged to recognize that the flute achieved its birthright (in written music at least) only with the advent of atonality. The current enthusiasm for the flute is proportional to the lack of trust certain Romantic composers had of the instrument, considering it incapable of expression (Berlioz) or vulgar and colourless in sound (Wagner). It is true that the technological discoveries characteristic of the industrial age have given birth during the last sixty years or so to a number of illegitimate instruments of which neither the sonority nor the playing technique could pretend to the least attempt at unified characterization. What better way to perplex any well-intentioned composer! In 1830, while Theobald Boehm (1794-1881) was taking the initial steps in the research which would produce, less than two decades later, the invention which would revolutionize the conception not only of the flute but also of the oboe and the clarinet, the Baroque flute and several mechanisms ranging from five- to thirteen-keyed systems were still in use. The French were following in a line of aesthetic descent from the great artists Hotteterre the Roman or Michel Blavet, which was characterized by delicacy of sound and diversity of tone colours; at the same time, Boehm himself was recognized as a great virtuoso, and Nicholson in England seemed closer to the present conception with his remarkable fullness of sound. It took Boehm's discovery, therefore, to finally recapture the imagination of the great composers and to impose a new instrument, the sound possibilities and techniques of which had been completely renewed. Theobald Boehm

Boehm was born in Munich and was educated individually, attending school between the ages of nine and eleven only. He learnt Latin, French and English. While he was apprenticed to his father's trade of goldsmith, the young Theobald began to study the transverse flute, and one of his neighbours, Johann Capeller, the flautist at the Royal Court, decided to help him by giving him free lessons. His curiosity in and liking for the flute simply grew and, when he was only sixteen years of age, he constructed his first instrument, a four-keyed model. In 1812 Boehm entered the Isartor Theatre as first flautist. During 1815 he spent some time in Geneva where he learnt to make musical boxes. His taste for travel led him to France, Switzerland and Germany, and he visited Strasbourg, Frankfurt,

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W~rzburg, Nuremberg and Hanau, studying and establishing himself as a flautist. On 1 June 1818 he became a flautist at the Munich Court and began to take composition lessons. His opus 1, the Concerto in G major for flute, dedicated to Anton B. F~rstenau, received its first performance by Boehm himself in 1820. Numerous tours as a soloist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy brought him great renown. During the course of these journeys he frequently worked with Paganini and the singer Catalani. : In 1828 Boehm set up his own workshop for the manufacture of flutes and employed Rudolph Greve, son of the famous Mannheim manufacturer, Andreas Greve. The first Boehm flutes remained the eight- or nine-keyed conical models, based on the Tromlitz flute. It was not until several years later that Boehm, after following quite naturally in the tradition inherited from his predecessors, began to call the old principles of construction into question: this was brought about, no doubt, by the shock he received during a tour of England in 1831. The English were full of praise for his technical qualities and pleasing sound, ibut they expressed reservations concerning his power and capacity for expression. It was at this same time that Boehm heard the famous Nicholson who dazzled him with the fullness of his tone. Nicholson's flute was bored with much larger Holes, and Boehm decided to apply this principle to his own instruments. During the same year he finally perfected a new system of keywork. The new flute was extremely well received in Paris due to the efforts of Coche, Dorus and Camus in particular. In Germany, it was frowned upon. Boehm continued to study ways in which he might perfect the flute and, in 1846-1847, he took a course in acoustics with Carl von Schafthautl, a professor at the University of Munich. These studies resulted in a decisive improvement which consisted of making the foot joint and body of the flute cylindrical and its head joint conical. It was thus in 1847 that Boehm realized his definitive model based on scientific principles. Much technical and scientific research followed, and at the London Exhibition of 1862 Boehm presented a diagram which he called his schema and which aimed to

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Figure I Schema for determiningthe positions of the tone holes of wind instruments at various pitches simplify or dispense altogether with the calculations concerning the length of the flute and the position of the holes in relation to the chosen range. It did indeed appear that Boehm had followed these principles scrupulously in the construction of his instruments. The realization of this schema is inspired in its simplicity. t Boehm,T. (1964) The Flute and Flute Playing, New York: Dover Publications.

136 P.-Y.Artaud 1.

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First, plot the line B on the selected scale: since the length of this line is 670mm it may be easier to select a scale of 1/2, 1/3 or 1/4, but the actual scale chosen is not important. To the right of B, mark the thirteen points of intersection which represent the thirteen notes of the first octave: C 3, C sharp 3, D 3, D sharp 3, E3, F~ F sharp 3, G 3, G sharp 3, A 3, A sharp 3, B3, C 4. These thirteen points will extend over half of the length of B. The distance between them is determined by a geometrical relationship of 1.0595. From these thirteen points, plot thirteen perpendiculars to the line B (above and below the line). Draw a line A parallel to B any distance from B. It is advisable to regulate this distance carefully (if it is too small, it will not permit any intermediate calculations; if it is too large, it will not produce an adequate gradient for the diagonals and will allow imprecise statements of distances only). Try to calculate the distance AB so that the diagonals are at an angle of approximately 45 ~ about 1.5 times the distance from the point of intersection of C 3 to that of C sharp 3 should be sufficient. Next, plot the diagonals: first take C 3 on the line B and join it to A with a line which ends at the point of intersection of C sharp 3 on A. Extend these lines above and below B. Repeat the operation for each of the thirteen points. All the diagonals drawn in this way will therefore re-intersect the perpendiculars under the line B. If the schema is realized correctly, all these new points of intersection will be aligned and will determine the position of C. The relationship between the distances AB and BC will be identical, 1.0595.

A renaissance of the flute Such definitive modifications of the instrument facilitated a radical enrichment of the repertoire in every domain. In the orchestral sphere it achieved a remarkable degree of independence. Claude Debussy's symphonic poem, Prelude to "Fhe Afternoon of a Faun", begins with the famous solo which exploits the sensuality of the low register to marvellous effect. Maurice Ravel showed more interest in the brilliance of the upper register (except in Bolero, of course). Igor Stravinsky mastered the virtuosic aspect of the flute in Petrushka, The Firebird, The Song of the Nightingale and the Concerto, for example. Naturally, chamber music also took possession of the flute and gave it an unrivalled position in increasingly varied instrumental combinations. Thus, within a short space of time, Arnold Schoenberg produced Pierrot Lunaire and the Wind Quintet, opus 21, his first important serial work. Simultaneously with the production of this repertoire a second, solo repertoire began to develop to completely unique proportions and experience a degree of growth which had never been known before. Announced somewhat timidly by Debussy's Syrinx (1913) followed by Sigfrid Karg-Elert's Sonata Appassionata, opus 140 (1917) and Hindemith's Eight Pieces (1927), the age of the solo piece was confirmed by the two masterpieces of 1936: Density 21.5 and Five Incantations by Var6se and Jolivet respectively. From the end of the 1950s, a constant stream of composition produced such remarkable works

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as those by Takemitsu, Matsudaira, Yuasa, Ferneyhough, Taira, Berio, Donatoni, Yun, Nono, Huber, Hosokawa, L6vinas, etc . . . . The reasons for this passion for the transverse flute must no doubt be sought in the nature of its sound. It is indeed a flexible instrument and one which permits both a high degree of virtuosity and a wide range of colours. The flute is not very demonstrative in the domain of nuance even though the modern instrument enables greater freedom. A type of music composed of sound "effects" would be out of the question (although with the possibility of amplification everything may be reconsidered); the composer tempted by the flute must concentrate on notated music. The very limitations of the instrument lead to its use as a compositional laboratory in the way that the string quartet and pianoforte were used previously. Various solutions to the problem of the monodic instrument (of which J. S. Bach was already aware in the Baroque period) may be proposed. It is possible, in fact, to work almost without constraint on the combination of sound parameters. The flexibility of the embouchure facilitates all sorts of "gymnastics'" and the most recent techniques are themselves highly malleable. For example, a multiphonic sound on the flute only rarely contains more than two perceptible frequencies. On the other hand, it is practically always possible to imagine a contrapuntal treatment of these two components. This procedure is radically opposed to the treatment of the bassoon or the oboe in which the richness of the chords allows monolithic use only. Thus, the solo repertoire consists for the most part of polyphonic works which use numerous techniques of performance. In this respect, it is convenient to distinguish two periods separated by the year 1967 which saw the publication of Bruno Bartolozzi's treatise New Sounds for Woodwind. 2 This treatise precipitated (albeit in a rather disordered way) the movement towards these techniques of performance. The need for such new techniques had become urgent; compositional resources had to be renewed if complete disinterest were to be avoided. I was aware of this problem myself and, with my friend, the composer G4rard Geay, had instigated the writing of a treatise which was completed shortly after Bartolozzi's work, but which, unfortunately, remained unpublished until 1980. 3 These two compendia are distinguished in numerous ways: Bartolozzi reveals a concern for all the woodwind instruments and, in particular for their polyphonic possibilities, while Geay and myself concentrated on the flute family currently in vogue (piccolo, concert, alto and bass flutes). These two treatises each sanction in their own way a reconsideration of the concept of the solo flute piece.

Works composed after 1970 The principal characteristic of the works of the 1970s is without doubt the provision of a vast testing ground for all the newly available material. The temptation to exploit all this material is great, but the historical need not to seek to avoid this new exploratory period is equally so: one must learn to recognize, 2 Translated and edited by Reginald Smith Brindle (Oxford University Press, London), 1967. 3 Artaud, P.Y. and Geay, G. (1980) Present-Day Flutes, Paris: Jobert-Transatlantiques.

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138 P.-K Artaud understand and assimilate the physical and expressive properties of these new possibilities. Numerous attempts were made in the domain of narrative or gestural composition (Taira, L6vinas, Yun, Huber, Richard, Mefano...) as much as in that of the abstract or structural treatment of the material (Malherbe, Ferneyhough, Dillon...). If the results of these attempts often seem rather poor on a purely numerical count, one need only note the appearance of certain masterpieces among which the works of Ferneyhough, Takemitsu, Taira, Radulescu, Nunes or Dillon may be ranked, to name but a few. At the same time, the whole family of flutes developed. In so doing it was reverting to a former notion, for the instrumental family had found itself curtailed by the development of the symphony orchestra and by its technical corollary, instrumental specification. As early as the first decades of the twentieth century, Ravel and Stravinsky rediscovered the mysterious charm of the alto flute and incorporated it in a significant way into Daphnis and Chlod and The Rite of Spring. The bass flute appeared later (at the beginning of the 1960s) without ever really having asserted itself in former times. The works, inspired by Charles Koechlin,4 in which this change in the conception of the flute occurred became increasingly numerous; similarly, the regrouping of these instruments as a flute quartet took on a new dimension. In this respect the role played by the Arcadie Quartet 5 should be mentioned. Some years later flute ensembles rose to a degree of prominence which was comparable to, and often surpassed that which they had experienced in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, until orchestras consisting of between twenty and twenty-five flutes were formed in Yugoslavia, America and Japan, and of as many as forty in Paris with the formation of the French Flute Orchestra by myself in 1988. The flute family With the increased possibilities made available by the application of precise technological developments to flute construction, the instrumental family advanced considerably, and from the four instruments which constituted it during the 1960s, it has increased to more than ten. Figure 2 indicates the ranges of the most frequently used flutes (the most common Ones are underlined). It excludes some of the rarer instruments such as the piccoletto in E flat, the bass in F or the slide flute of Greta Vermeulen. Certain frequencies may or may not be sounded depending on the make and quality of the instrument: these frequencies are shown in brackets, as in the case of the low B on the C flute which requires an additional B key, the use of which is uncommon in Europe. It may perhaps be necessary to specify that although the Boehm system is a generalized one, certain differences in the details of construction exist, however, and these may involve certain technical limitations in performance. These limitations are summarized in Figure 3 below.

4 FuneralSteles (1950) for piccolo, concert flute and alto flute. s The Arcadie Quartet was establishedin 1965 by Pierre-Yves Artaud, Pierre-Alain Biget,Arlette Leroyand Jean-Pierre Lebocq.

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The advent of electronic techniques From an early stage, the field of investigation of the repertoire incorporated -techniques which were derived from electronics. In 1961, four years after the composition of Var6se's Po~me Electronique, Bruno Maderna wrote Musica su due dimensioni in which the recorded material consists principally of the electronic manipulation of pre-recorded flute sounds (which are taken from the piece itself). Unfortunately, the composer offers no further indications concerning either the treatment of the material or its performance directives. Any conclusion reached may be done so only on the strength of a rather imprecise hearing of Severino Gazzelloni's old recording which is, of course, unavailable at present. Thus one cannot be certain of the composer's intention to amplify the flute or not. In my opinion, amplification is not desirable since the two dimensions implied by the title acquire more poetic force through the innovative superimposition~ of the acoustic instrumental sounds with those of the electro-acoustic tape. Since 1961 there has been a succession of pieces which have proposed a tape consisting of concrete or electronic sounds either with or without the amplification of the soloist. Mefano, L6vinas, Risset, Reynolds have all contributed to the expansion of this repertoire which, in spite of its inherent interest, could serve only as a stopgap until the advent of the computer and interfaces such as the flute 4X enabled the instrumentalist both to control the machine and to operate within a relationship which was liberated from the anti-instrumental constraint of an objective beat imposed by the tape recorder. On the other hand, if the same drawbacks are presented by the kind of tape on which the flautist is superimposed on other material which he has pre-recorded himself (Reich, Radulescu, Mefano, Nunes), this does at least allow an interesting multiplication of personality: in performing with himself, the spatialization of the flautist's own personality creates a completely new type of sound space while enabling him to minimize the problems of temporal integration (or intonation) since he has proposed the material himself. The new virtuosity This immensely rich repertoire may give the impression of a vast experimental terrain laboured by numerous creators who have each exploited and continue to exploit the flute as a laboratory for the exploration of their own predilections. This 6 Ddserts, composed seven years earlier, did not propose a superimposition of this kind.

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indeed seems to be the case the more one considers that the flexibility of the instrument lends itself admirably to the most daring experimentation in terms of both its sound and its sheer virtuosity. One important consequence of all this has been to encourage performers to launch into the conquest of unexplored territories in order to exercise greater control over all these fringe techniques which were considered curiosities or nuisances by the traditional school, and to classify and rationalize these to the point at which they m a y become elements of a new instrumental language. The control of all these elements may be defined as the concept of a new virtuosity which requires that the sound be considered as a structural entity in the same way as the parameter of polyphony. Thus the n e w virtuoso cannot be content with aligning the maximum number of notes possible while leaving aside those articulatory elements which are determined automatically by a cultural definition of the musical phrase. Nuance, attack, vibrato, colour, intonation, all are determined by a logical relation between the notes and their function within the phrase. The new virtuosity implies first and foremost a firm control of traditional technique. It exceeds this in requiring the assimilation of a further 140-150 fingerings to the forty-two currently in use in order to produce micro-intervals, glissandi and multiphonics. In addition, it demands an ability to combine attacks, timbres, vibratos and intonations in new and infinite ways. In reality the question extends beyond that of a new technique and its pedagogy to a complete reassessment of the concept of the instrument and its relationship with the score, in short, of the state of mind of the instrumentalist. This greatest possible degree of facility demanded of the instrumentalist has forced him to rise compulsorily and progressively to the level of a researcher (a role which he assumed occasionally in the past), then to participate very closely in the act of creation itself, to such an extent that he often acquires a creative function in the compositional process. It has become frequent practice to link the name of a composer with that of his performer, as in the case of Severino Gazzelloni and Luciano Berio, Aur61e Nicolet and Heinz Holliger, Jean-Pierre Drouet and Georges Aperghis or Sylvio Gualda and Yannis Xenakis. This stimulating interaction is often responsible for the emergence of positive and powerful creations. Indeed, h o w could one dispense with it if one has the imperious desire to go beyond admissible limits, to violate comfortable territory, to shatter this into pieces in order to recreate the instrument and its language completely? In this conquest, the flute has indeed proved the driving instrument of this century and has brought in its wake an enormous resurgence of interest in all the wind instruments which has conferred a new social status on their performers.

2. Works Composed Before 1970 1 Density 21.5 by Edgard Var~se 7 In just three minutes three centuries of tradition in which the flute was perceived as a garrulous, pastoral instrument, avowedly its principal distinguishing

7 Recordedby Pierre-Yves Artaud: CD Neuma 470 76.

142 P.-Y.Artaud

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features from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, are called into question. In just three minutes a n e w instrument is revealed and an unprecedented trend a m o n g composers in which the flute is rapidly raised to the privileged rank of leader in musical creation is set. In just three minutes the overriding course of flute writing which w o u l d engulf every future composer is laid bare.

A cry in the desert The circumstances in which Density 21.5 was c o m p o s e d are quite paradoxical and merit some discussion here. From the outset Var6se's works stand apart from this brief solo: his sound world is rather one of elevated decibels, powerful forces, concrete sounds which explode into a space which Var6se himself imagined on a planetary, even cosmic scale. In his works, the first percussion orchestras (Ionisation, 1931) a n d the first electronic sounds in dialogue with the orchestra (Ddserts, 1954) appear, while the Po~me Electronique (1957) issued forth from every part of the i m m e n s e French Pavilion designed by Le Corbusier for the Brussels Universal Exhibition of 1958. A n d it was Var6se, moreover, w h o worked for a n u m b e r of years on an e n o r m o u s project, Espace, which was a work intended to be played simultaneously in several towns on the earth, and transmitted live across the whole world b y radio. Given this situation, a solo for flute lasting three minutes m a y come as a surprise, so greatly does it seem at odds with the creative aspirations of its composer; a n d the observation that Density 21.5 was the only piece that Var6se produced during a twelve-year silence (1934-1946) can only serve a priori to deepen the mystery. This paradox itself will, however, provide the solution to the enigma. If Var6se ceased composing for such an extended period, it was, of course, on account of an aesthetic crisis which p r e v e n t e d h i m from continuing to create the music which he heard inwardly, a n d which was fundamentally free from the unwieldiness of instruments and the technical limitations of performers. He aimed to create music of an extreme rigour in which sounds flowed through space in an infinite variety of colours and intensities. Only the electro-acoustic universe could offer a solution to this problem, but the technique was in an extremely rudimentary state at this time. The possibility of continuing seemed so remote to Var~se that he fell silent and preferred to wait. In the midst of his passage through the desert, Density 21.5 a p p e a r e d therefore as a cry of revolt, a desperate chant, an impossible stake. H a v i n g been urged for several years b y Georges Barr6re to write a piece for him, 8 Var6se s u c c u m b e d at the height of the crisis p e r h a p s because he saw in this gesture the m e a n s of increasing the impact of his cry of alarm on the musical world: w h a t could be done 8 This fact is not generally known and was confirmed by Louise Var6se in a letter dated 1982 which she wrote to me in reply to some questions I had asked regarding the composition of Density 21.5. She writes: Var~se's friend, the eminent flautist Georges Barr6re, had long been begging Var6se to write him something for his instrument. He became even more pressing when he acquired a new and unique flute made of platinum, which he was to inaugurate at a benefit concert for the Lyc~e Francais in New York. A month before the concert, Barr~re received that long-solicited score, which Var~se had given the esoteric title of Density 21.5 - obvious, of course, to those who knew the density of platinum.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century 143

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hereafter with these frail instruments, limited in every respect like musical cripples, powerless to escape from their narrow cage? Var6se tortures the flute and the flautist, demanding of them feats of embouchure which were inconceivable at the time and which remain just as problematic fifty years later.

Density 21.5, a piece inspired by electronic characteristics The work is cast in an overall ternary form which is characterized rhythmically by a mixture of ternary and binary structures. The first section is composed of twenty-three bars. It reveals a crescendo of fluctuating intensity which culminates in bars 14, 17 and 21, and closes rapidly into the following section. The first three bars may be considered an exposition of all the material which is subsequently developed later in the piece.

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The most~significant rhythmic and intervallic motives are stated at the outset, ., ~ together with the major and minor seconds which also constitute the pnncipal thematic material of Syrinx, a piece on which Var6se resolutely turned his back after this mischievous glance in its direction. The second bar introduces the ternary idea and is subdivided into unequal lengths of one, three and two units respectively. At the end of this bar an intervallic expansion gives rise to the second held n o t e G 3, which, following F sharp 3, presents the minor second motive. This sequence concludes with a rest which will provide the principal material of the second section at its opening. The two long notes (F sharp and G) also form the basis of an important use of dynamics which exposes the principle of manipulating the sound, since a dynamic change does not merely imply a variation of expressive nuance as in classical music; it underlies a constant variation in timbre. One has only to listen to the clarinet solo "The Abyss of the Birds" from Olivier Messiaen's Quartet for the End of Time to be convinced of this. The relative neutrality of the mf rhythmic motives which surround these two long notes throws into relief this procedure which occurs continually throughout the piece. A high point in its usage may be seen in bar 11 in which the fff D 4 requires the overblowing of the instrument to such an extent that the harmonics of the note are reinforced and become audible: we thus find ourselves at the brink of polyphony. Throughout the whole of this first section the treatment of the material is highly systematic; the initial motives recur either in their original form or in intervallic transformations as in bars 3, 9, 10 and 11, 13, 15, 16 and 17, 20 and 21, 22 and 23, thus spanning the entire range of the instrument.

144 P.-Y. Artaud

Figure 5

Bars 9-11

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 6 Bars 16 and 17

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Two other important observations m a y be made which apply furthermore to the whole piece. The degree of control exercised over timbre is paralleled by an equal precision in the mode of attack (slurred, detached, ordinary staccato, accented) and in the termination of the sound: crescendos, diminuendos, straight sounds or shortened ones. Finally, on two occasions (bars 14 and 17), (Figures 8 and 9), Var6se projects the sound towards the rest by means of an immense crescendo, as he does in O c t a n d r e also. These sonorities originate in one of the earliest types of electro-acoustic manipulations, that of playing a sound backwards. Thus, an electronic model has served to inspire purely instrumental writing. The opening of the second section (bars 24-28) presents one of the greatest peculiarities of the work: a five-bar rest punctuated by a few very discrete attacks. This is in fact a premonition of what Karlheinz Stockhausen would later term "'coloured silence". These few seconds of silence must not be considered as a breathing space, a musical "interval" in the Western sense of the use of silence. On the contrary, silence is representative of negative music and, like the Yin and Yang, the one depends on the other for its meaning.

145

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In bar 24 all the positive, explosive energy released in an enormous crescendo hurls itself like a contained explosion into this long silence charged with negative sound energy. This section creates a rare degree of tension, almost as if it is lying in wait like the birds in the forest which become immobile at the slightest unfamiliar sound. The genius of the composer is apparent in the simple idea of emphasizing the silence and increasing its expressive tension by introducing a few very small sounds into it. A house at night is never completely silent; the creaking of a floorboard or the dripping of water into the wash-basin occasionally make the ensuing silence unbearable. Such is the role of these staccato notes, the majority of which are linked to key clicks which break the silence and extirpate its immensity like stars piercing the sky.

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146 P.-Y. Artaud This first example of the use of key clicks against the tube leads once again to the limits of playing technique. The calm is followed by a storm. Bars 28 and 30 explode abruptly, exposing the principle of this second section which, while using the same material as the opening, will distort it in every sense, sweeping ceaselessly over the entire range of the instrument.

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The three notes used at the beginning of this section form transpositions of the opening semitone-tone idea. The third section, beginning in bar 41, and the coda retain the same character: abrupt changes of register, nuance and rhythm, and variety of phrasing and attack. The climax of the work, a rhythmic development of the minor third interval BS-D 6 written in the flute's fourth octave, occurs between bars 46 and 50. If the flautists of today, assisted by their highly capable instruments, execute this passage with comparative ease (and this is still not always the case), one must nevertheless restore it to the context of 1936 in order to realize the risks involved in such a performance, risks as great as those which had been taken in the bassoon solo of The Rite of Spring twenty-three years earlier. These four bars demonstrate clearly Var6se's desire to exceed the narrow limitations of the flute which constrained him; for example the fff dynamic which follows on the low A flat should sound more powerfully than the high D: of course, Var6se knows that this is possible only in the mind, but he rebels and tries to ignore it. The coda of Density 21.5 for its part introduces another example of writing inspired by an electro-acoustic model: the filtering of a sound spectrum. The C ~ may be considered as the fourth harmonic of a C 1, and the succession of frequencies which follow it as the successive components of a complex sound which are supposed to be inaudible. There is a remarkable recording 9 of this piece by the French flautist Ren4 Leroy, made in the presence of the composer. Throughout this final sequence Var6se kept his foot on the sustaining pedal of a piano causing the sympathetic vibration of the

9 EMS 401 (1950), New York, published in France by Boite a Musique, BAM LDO24 (1956).

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

147

strings, and thus creating a sense of filtering while restoring at the same time an increased sound space. The projection of sound in space was a major preoccupation of this composer, moreover, which is apparent in almost all his pieces, including Density 21.5. The systematic usage of the extreme registers corresponds to a fairly wide diffusion of the lower ones, while the upper ones, on the contrary, are projected in a highly directional way. I myself created a spatial version of Density 21.5 at the Darmstadt Festival in July 1986 in conjunction with the Freiburg im Breisgau studio and its director at that time, Peter Haller, which provides a totally new and convincing interpretation of the work. The piece is, therefore, essentially one which works on the parameters of the sound. 1. Attacks: these are of various types and are used in every register.

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Nuances: these operate independently of register and should be considered as absolute. They range from pp to fff. Dynamics: these occur in defiance of the possibilities of the instrument, often going against traditional reactions. Terminations of sounds: the sounds are curtailed in a rigorously codified way:

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148

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Timbres: the extreme nuances and variety of the parameters previously listed may be seen as together contributing to th~ formation of sound objects of varied timbres. Rests: rests are incorporated for their expressive value and constitute a tangible, structural element. Intervals: the structural unity of the work is achieved among other means by the presence of certain privileged intervals, minor seconds, major seconds, minor thirds and octaves, which saturate the entire piece. Rhythms: these contribute equally to this unity and proceed principally by means of diminution and augmentation:

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

149

This rigorous treatment of the parameters of the highly economical opening material is clearly representative of electro-acoustic compositional procedure. It is inspired by the spirit of the latter, exploits its models, and creates a remarkable degree of tension in the work through the almost absolute impossibility of retaining for the performer the total objectivity which is required to execute it. Density 21.5 provides the first example in the history of the flute of a piece which treats the instrument for its intrinsic, objective qualities. In attempting to sublimate these qualities, Var~se forces the flute and the flautist to a historic questioning which sounds the death-bell on three centuries of ornamental, elegant writing. From this moment on, the future appears wide open to those who are able to recognize it. The elegant flute, the shepherd's reed pipe, the carefree caperings of previous centuries are all over. The curtain has fallen on the old concept of the flute, dominated by Syrinx. Density cries out, Density makes the instrument explode with a degree of intensity never before attained. Var~se does not write for the flute, he wrestles with it. Out of this fierce struggle- emerge unsuspected sonorities; little by little the walls seem to tumble down leaving a new and hitherto undiscovered flute to flourish. 2 Five Incantations by Andrd Jolivet 1~ While Edgard Var6se was working on Density 21.5 in America, his friend and disciple Andr6 Jolivet in France was undertaking the composition of a cycle of five pieces, five incantations for solo flute which I consider to be the other important event in the development of flute repertoire at the beginning of the present century. It is important for diametrically opposed reasons, however, for if Var6se writes almost "against the flute", imposing on it performance techniques which we have already discussed, Jolivet, on the other hand, endeavours to restore to this instrument its primitive spiritual and incantatory dimension. Andr6 Jolivet's fascination for African civilizations is well known. It was during the course of a journey in North Africa, where, in the summer of 1936, he heard a flautist in Blida (Algeria) improvising on the ancestral nay, that he decided to set to work on this composition. It is without doubt the first time in the history of music that a work of such dimensions has been dedicated to the solo flute (sixteen minutes minimum, since two of the pieces are of aleatoric duration). The five pieces, or rather prayers, are entitled: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

For the welcome of the negotiators and the peaceful conduct of the interview. That the child which is to be born will be a son. That the crop which will grow in the furrows dug by the labourer will be rich. For a serene communion of the being with the world. For the protection of the soul of the chief on his death.

In these titles one aspect of Andr6 Jolivet's originality may be found, for, taking the opposite stance to his contemporaries or immediate predecessors who sought a relationship with the Romantic or Baroque periods, Jolivet attempts to reestablish a direct link with the prehistoric origins of music; and, for the first time,

10 Recordedby Pierre-Yves Artaud: CD ADDA 581 055.

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150 P.-Y. Artaud the sound palette which is used by Jolivet anticipates the works of Takemitsu, Taira, Hosokawa or even Ahmed Essyad. The reference to popular flutes, with their crude sonorities clouded by breath tone, asserts itself at the first hearing. The range of expression of Five Incantations is so wide that it seems almost infinite. In the first incantation, the flute may be considered to be orchestrated in polyphony resulting from the alternation of two types of music, the one located in the highest register in unsteady rhythms (triplets, quintuplets, sextuplets) and mixed with flutter tonguing, the other occurring in the low octave in a binary march rhythm. The second incantation exploits the full range of attacks available on the instrument. Its form is a simple ABA and the more restless, unstable and agitated the A section appears to be (it evolves around a pivot note E flat3), the more the B section contrasts with it through its irregular stature and its concentration on the exclusively rhythmic aspect of the instrument. The central piece consists simply of a modal melody which repeats itself untiringly an indeterminate number of times. Its simplicity contrasts fiercely with the essential activity of the four other pieces (like the eye of a typhoon?). The fourth piece, which is cyclical in form, is presented as a huge m o n o d y - a meditation in sound - the range of which takes as its point of departure the interval of a seventh, C3-B 3, and continues to expand until it encompasses almost all three octaves with a degree of lyricism that recalls the spatial projections of the sound which occur in Density 21.5. But whereas Density concludes on a shrill, questioning fortissimo also, this fourth incantation returns to its primitive state w h e n all is said and done, a journey in space rather than in time - or perhaps one should say in space-time? - which derives nevertheless from a notion of temporality inspired by Asia rather than by Western sensibilities. The final incantation, like the first, orchestrates the flute through the use of two principal themes. The first is a cry of despair, a mournful lamentation, the heart-rending nature of which is entrusted to the upper register of the flute (A4-G sharpS). The second theme returns to the march with its regular phrasing and treatment of the flute as a percussion instrument. On the whole, this fifth incantation calls for large amounts of stamina and virtuosity.

3 Sequenza by Luciano Berio (1958)11 Initial contact with the work reveals a high level of sonic invention which asserts itself unquestionably at the expense of the syntactic and structural rigour of the piece. The use of widely separated registers and extreme nuances, the supple volubility of the discourse, the incessant hesitation of the material as it evolves in sudden leaps and bounds from pointillism to melodic shape indeed constitute Berio's response to the eternal problem of the monodic instrument and establish the work in the line of descent from such pieces as Johann Sebastian Bach's solos for transverse flute. But Sequenza is equally prophetic of the future investigations of timbre which characterize the following decades and which include multiphonics, flutter tonguing, harmonics and key clicks.

11 Recordedby Pierre-Yves Artaud: Fontec FOCD 3252.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

151

Rhythmic notation Proportional notation, although now familiar, was a complete innovation at the time. A regular beat (M.M. 70) is symbolized by a small vertical line attached to the fifth line of the stave. The spatial distribution of the notes in time and space determines the rhythm (and the length of the rests); the duration of each note is presented graphically also:

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: very short F

: the duration is proportional to the length of the beam

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: aleatoric duration

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This notation clearly permits a very precise approach to rhythms which would have been impossible to quantify in the traditional system, or which would at all events have proved a stumbling-block to an initial reading. It enables us to conclude, on the other hand, that in the most virtuosic sections of the work, gestural activity prevails over strict temporal control. Sequenza oscillates constantly between these two requirements.

Figure 13 Metronomic m o v e m e n t s

Form and content In its formal design Sequenza may be related to a circular form which should not, however, be confused with the classical ABA form. Rather, the continual discursive flux, segmented constantly by the recall of the initial thematic intervals either literally or allusively by means of their syntactic presentation and articulation should be observed. The coda thus confirms the exhaustion of the possibilities for the development/variation of the material as it proceeds towards silence. Sequenza begins with a serial idea which is treated freely, however, and the ensuing elaboration demonstrates that it would be pointless to enclose the work within a serial schema at all costs. The series may, however, be found stated without repetition at the end of the seventh line and at the beginning of the

152

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eighth. If the analysis were pursued, it would reveal a continuous variation treatment of the material.

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The ideas determined by Luciano Berio recur throughout Sequenza, but they are altered continually either by contraction or expansion. This phenomenon of memory is an important element in the unitary perception of the piece and may be observed on the structural level as much as on the formal one. The sound material includes several specific techniques which may be conveniently singled out. 1. 2.

The use of rapid tremolandi which are interrupted abruptly (Figure 17). Flutter tonguing around a narrow chromatic interval (Figure 18).

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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Clusters of rapid ornamental sounds sweeping across the full range of the instrument:

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Figure 20 These four methods of performance place so m a n y innovations at the disposal of the attempted transformation of the flute into a polyphonic instrument. For the first time, moreover, two multiphonic sounds obtained by the fingerings for the low C and D flat appear, and these enable, not without some degree of difficulty, the third and fourth partials to sound together (Figure 21). The concern to interject the staccatissimo notes into different registers together with the abrupt opposition of extreme nuances belong to this attempt also (Figure 22). This concern is clearly reminiscent of that of Var~se in Density 21.5. Silence must likewise be taken into account as a structural dimension. It serves to separate two ideas or sections from one another. The work falls silent on two

154

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occasions, the first of which occurs at the end of the opening section (line 8) where static notes of an extreme ppp assume the function of a rest. Following the climax (lines 34-35), the swirling sound hastens towards extinction by means of key clicks and leads once again to a feeling of silence coloured by an almost inaudible harmonic before it sinks finally into silence:

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Silence m a y also emphasize the entry of an idea by reinforcing it through isolation; in short, it serves to break the continuity of a phrase. The originality of Sequenza I by Berio embodies a significant dialectic of the time in which it was conceived (1958). On the one hand, it refers to gesture and its corollary, chance, while on the other, it demonstrates allegiance to a strict manner of writing, the precepts of which are enshrined in the current thought of the Darmstadt school of which Berio was one of the leading figures. Finally, if the dominant style appears to be that of pointillism, the vocal, even lyrical aspect of the work was undoubtedly inspired by his collaboration with Cathy Berberian who was a tremendous inspiration to Luciano Berio throughout her life.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

155

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4 Mei" by Kazuo Fukushima

The composer provides an epigraph which specifies the precise meaning of the Chinese ideograph at the head of the piece: pale, intangible, transparent: - ~ . The work was written in memory of Dr W. Heinecke, founder of the Darmstadt Summer School, who died suddenly in a car accident in December 1961. As in the case of Kazuo Fukushima's entire output, moreover, the work is conceived as a requiem, since the act of composition is, for him, inseparable from that of prayer. Works such as Kahda Karuna (meaning compassion, a bond with other beings) or Kadha Hi-Haku (the spirit of flight) bear witness to this fact. Met unfolds very clearly as a classical ABA form. It begins with a note which emerges out of silence only to return there after a few seconds. The following two notes grow out of this initial sound and, by a process of dovetailing, each idea is determined by the preceding one until the culminating point of the introductory section (bar 11) is reached; the coda to this section consists of a descending quarter-tone motive and its consequent which is obtained by rhythmic augmentation. The two extremes of this introduction, C 3 and B4, provide the point of departure for the following section and demonstrate once again the use of the generative inverted chromaticism of Density 21.5 as structural material:

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The second section is shorter and begins in bar 16 after the slow liquidation of a C8 which fades as the breath of the instrumentalist expires. This section is more animated rhythmically and deliberately exploits reminiscences of Western styles of composition which Fukushima willingly admits to having borrowed from Berio's Sequenza or Le marteau sans maitre by Boulez (Figure 25). Its mode of expression is more striking, contrasted, and these movements contribute to a dramatization of the discourse which concludes at length on Bs. This pitch constitutes the climax of the work and prepares the coda which is a reprise of the opening material. Clearly, the effectiveness of Mei does not lie in its formal or syntactic innovation. Its considerable transparency at this level exists only in order to allow the listener to concentrate more fully on other parameters, and essentially that of timbral evolution, which are basic to all compositional design. The material In terms of rhythm, Met" is principally a gestural work in which the determination of a beat could achieve only a secondary role, except in bars 36-43 at the start of the second section. In this respect, the opening is particularly significant since it

156 P.-Y. Artaud

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specifies the direction lent et rubato after the time signature while its first note is simply a sustained fermata (as in the case of many other indications, this has been omitted by the editor) which destroys any attempt at rhythmic recognition before this may be even remotely perceived. In reality, it is the heartbeat, the respiration of the performer and his relationship with the notion of time which determine the length of each melodic idea. The opening bars thus imply the ensuing ones and the whole piece is built progressively in this way. The concepts of phrasing and rhythm are therefore organically connected. In the same way, the nuances are entirely determined or implied by this evolution of phrase and form. Syntax, form and nuance become physiologically inseparable concepts. With regard to pitch, Mei" may be related to a chromatic system, but the composer's desire to free himself from this restrictive yoke is apparent on a number of counts. Three phenomena may be cited: 1.

The use of quarter-tones. The use of micro-intervals, chiefly as acciaccaturas, testifies not to the desire to extend the system of twelve semitones, but to a more subtle means of expression in which micro-intervallic ornamentation occurs merely in order to increase the tension of the phrase and to confer the vocal dimension of the work to a far greater degree:

f

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. The use of glissandi. The desire to create a sound continuum is expressed in these glissandi which are exploited to three different ends: (i) Ornamentation: in this context the glissando may be considered as Schleifer or portamento (Figure 27). (ii) Tension building/reducing element: the long ascending glissando leads the phrase to the climax of its intensity (Figure 28).

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Conversely, the long descending glissando reduces the tension:

a tempo

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Mode of attack: this case occurs twice in bars 16 and 17. These glissandi are technically impossible to realize, but their suggestion is reminiscent of the shakuhachi with its powerful breath attacks (breath attacks which m a y be introduced in this very case, moreover):

/

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.

The use of the flute as a percussion instrument. The flute refers explicitly to oriental percussion instruments on three occasions: (i) At the end of the first section the accelerando punctuated by vigorous accents evokes a series of temple blocks proceeding to a gong stroke, the resonance of which is left to die away (Figure 31).

158 P.-Y. Artaud ::,.

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Figure 31

(ii) At the beginning of the second section, attacks mixed with key clicks, then low accents further on (see Figure 25) imitate the "tsuzumi" drum of NO theatre. The way in which the attack of a note is expressed will, therefore, eventually take precedence over its exact pitch. At this precise moment how can one avoid recalling Density 21.5? When I put this question to Fukushima in August 1989, he replied in a very interesting way, declaring to my great surprise that, in 1962, he had never heard Var6se's piece. He added that, by contrast, the famous inverted chromaticism, an undisputed characteristic of 70% of flute repertoire, was in fact a traditional melodic figure of the NO flute (as indeed are the long, sustained, high notes such as those which occur at the end of Density, or in the coda of the central section of Met'). He concluded by affirming that he had assumed this legacy completely, and added mischievously that perhaps I ought to reverse my initial comment and consider whether Var~se might have been influenced by NO theatre! In 1962 Met opened up an important new direction in music which achieved a perfect synthesis between two cultures. This synthesis was not a naive imitation, a type of "neo-colonialist" mimicry, but a true integration of two types of material, the alchemy of which created a new means of expression which proved indispensable to the development of the repertoire of the instrument. At this moment everything was poised for a complete renewal of the instrumental language. Density and Andr~ Jolivet's Incantations together with Sequenza and Met many years later, had prepared people's minds for such a degree of expansion that one might speak of an explosion. What was missing finally? Simply that a systematic exploration of the technical possibilities which allowed a composer to write freely or almost freely required an exposition of the tools of the trade. This would arrive in the late 1960s with Bartolozzi's treatise.

3. Works C o m p o s e d After 1970

1 Voice by Toru Takemitsu 12 This work is an exemplary illustration of the second generation of pieces, the advent of which was made possible by the publication of Bartolozzi's work and the efforts of various performers. Clearly, the composer's imagination may assume free rein in the treatment of the sound due to the material (multiphonics in particular) which is newly available to him. In addition, the role played by Aur61e Nicolet, one of this century's greatest 12 Recordedby Pierre-Yves Artaud: Fontec FOCD 3255.

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

159

flautists as well as one of its most remarkable musical personalities, for whom the piece was written, must not be ignored. The encounter between two personalities of this dimension can often be a more creative force than all the treatises in the world! The title of the work is indicative of an interesting intention since it reveals a concern which would reappear in L4vinas, twenty years Takemitsu's junior, to regard the musical instrument as an extension of the human body, the amplifier of the voice or indeed voices, both physical and interior. Voice consists of two sections separated by a rest and is presented as a commentary on a poem by Shuzo Takiguchi taken from "Hand-made Proverbs". In the first section, the poem is presented in French: "Qui va la? Qui que tu sois, parle, transparence", while in the second section it occurs in English: "Who goes there? Whoever you are, speak, transparence". The distinct phonemes and curt attacks of the French language imply a parallel treatment of the musical material: ppp or fff dynamics, a lively and strongly contrasting section. The second section, which provides an echo of the first in the clearer, less brusque tones of the English language, is set to breath sounds, whistle tones or pure sonorities which revolve in a more flexible, ethereal tempo. The diminuendo at the close of the work mingles the voice in whispered tones ("whoever you are!") with the breath in a final exhalation of the sound which fades away to nothing. From a technical point of view, three essential considerations arise: 1.

The importance of the use of multiphonic sounds. We have come a long way since Berio's cautious attempt. Multiphonics bestow upon the flute the status of a polyphonic instrument. Several multiphonic trills are used (lines 4, 11, 15) and an embryonic contrapuntal treatment may be detected (line 14). Multiphonics are used not only for their timbre therefore but also for their pitches.

2.

The treatment of the voice. Toru Takemitsu leaves the choice of speaking, whispering or shouting to the performer. Naturally, the organic requirements of the poem and the music often seem to impose irrefutable solutions. Nevertheless, one may distinguish between: (i) the amplification of the voice by the tube of the flute: speaking while covering the embouchure plate completely. Symbol: (9. (ii) the reverberation of the voice in the tube of the flute: speaking while remaining in the normal playing position. Symbol: kJ (see the beginning of the work). (iii) the transformation of the voice into flute sound: the sound of the voice is transformed into instrumental sound in the manner of additive synthesis. This occurs at the very end of the work. (iv) the polyphonic treatment of the voice with the sound of the flute: singing any pitch at random while fingering and playing the one that is written (see lines 2, 3, 4, 6 etc...). Symbol: ~ . . (v) growl: a technique employed by jazzmen involving the raucous singing of a melodic line which follows that of the instrument as closely as possible (see line 11). Symbol: as in (iv) + "growl".

3.

References to the shakuhachi. These occur constantly throughout the work. Toru Takemitsu's familiarity with the instrument is apparent, moreover, from his Eclipse for biwa and shakuhachi. These references are expressed not only

160

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by the ff or pp breath attacks (symbol: ~ ) on lines 3 or 6, for example, but also by the numerous sounds which are coloured by the breath (symbol: ~") and which frequently fade into imperceptible hissing noises decorated by whistle tones. The path was n o w marked out for numerous generations of creators w h o had been seeking for some time already to effect this synthesis between East and West. Two Japanese composers became engulfed by polycultural creation in the wake of Toru Takemitsu: for twenty years Yoshihisa Taira devoted the major part of his activity as a composer to writing for solo or concertante flute; Toshio Hosokawa, twenty-five years Takemitsu's junior, enriched the flute repertoire considerably and asserted this style of writing which is closely b o u n d up with cultural sensibility once and for all as one of the most important trends in contemporary music.

2 Arsis and Thesis or The Song of the Breath (1979)13 by Michael Ldvinas Composer's text: "The composition of this piece for amplified bass flute oriented m y research in the following works in a most decisive way. 14 My concern was to define a musical direction based on the mutation of instruments either electronically or by means of amplification. The instrument would be understood as a "'speaking-trumpet", an extension of the h u m a n body. It would be heir to those ancient masks in which the actors spoke and sang. Thus the works that I composed between 1971 and 1982 (Calls, Overture for a Strange F~te, Rustling of Wings, Concerto No. 2 for Space Piano, Unreal Counterpoints) all took their point of departure in one way or another from Arsis and Thesis or The Song of the Breath. The flute plays a leading role in each of these works, and they have in common, firstly, an extensive use of the breath and of white noise in general, secondly, the presence of specific melodic lines which issue from the respiratory r h y t h m of the instrumentalist, and, thirdly, a treatment of instrumental timbre which is perceived as fundamentally different to the electronic sounds already current and in musical use as sounds in their o w n right at this time. is In m y music, technology was never used to transform the instrument, but to reveal its hidden dimensions. The specific parameters of the instrumental world which were brought to light and developed by electro-acoustic techniques and the amplification of space, were able to develop an order and a language which were at once post-serial and free of the new academicism which had established itself in the electronic sound models of the 1970s. It seemed to me that the sound world of the instrument and its properties of a "speaking-trumpet" which the new technology had revealed, possessed the powers of true post-serial expressivity. The flute and its direct relationship with h u m a n respiration provided an important anchorage for m y work as a composer during the years 1971-1972. The sound of the breath and of h u m a n respiration had most certainly been exploited in the contemporary music of the 1970s. Composers had used this timbre 13 Recorded by Pierre-Yves Artaud: INA GRM AM 821 10 in the collection French Music of Today. 14 Micha@l L6vinas, "'What is instrumental?", a paper read at Darmstadt in 1982, published by Schott. 15 See "Sound and Music", an article by Michael L~vinas, Entretemps, 1987, Paris.

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century 161 in a number of different pieces for flute, and indeed it might even be considered as one more hackneyed device arising out of tape-recorded music. In Arsis and Thesis, the use of this timbre achieves a new perspective while referring back to the most ancient and original element of music: the movement of the breath with its rise and fall (arsis and thesis) engenders and legitimizes the melodic movement. Arsis and Thesis proclaims the rebirth of pre- and post-serial melody with a timbre which is the very essence of melody itself: the breath. Only a flute could lend tone quality to this breath by imbuing it with the colours of the tempered frequencies! Only a flute could impart a melodic curve to this extraordinary and privileged moment of respiration: the inhalation of the breath (arsis). In reality, the amplification of the flute enables this timbre of the inhalation and exhalation of the flautist in the air column of his instrument - increased in volume beyond all proportion by the microphone - to be heard from the very beginning of Arsis and Thesis. This breath with its natural rising and falling movement (see the episode of the grandmother's death in Proust) monopolizes the melodic phrase of the piece. The structural element of arsis and thesis, with its possibilities for modification through acceleration and deceleration, and transformation into raucous rattling sounds, will provide the formal framework for the entire piece until its final exhalation" (Micha61 L6vinas, April 1990). 3 Capricorn's Nostalgic Crickets by Horatio Radulescu This composer of Rumanian origin who has been a naturalized French citizen since 1974, is one of the most remarkable representatives of a school of composition which developed in France in the 1970s around the group "Itinerary", the so-called school of "spectral music". By reorganizing the obsolete notion of tonality as a result of the observation that a monodic instrumental sound is, in fact, an intrinsically tonal phenomenon due to the superimposition of its harmonics, this school succeeded in realigning tonality with the micro-intervallic system, and opened up a whole new direction or culture: contemporaneity, electro-acoustics and instrumental writing may at last be reconciled. If harmonic richness is not the principal characteristic of the flute, its fragile, supple sound and timbral virtuosity are elements which could only serve to excite the sound poet in Horatio Radulescu. From an important output of works for flute, I have chosen to discuss Capricorn's Nostalgic Crickets, opus 16H (1972), a piece for seven flutes or seven groups of seven flutes. The work may be performed by a single performer playing with a tape (which he should preferably pre-record himself) or by seven live flautists. Horatio Radulescu writes the following with regard to his piece: "A series of twenty-four quarter tones, selected for its melodic beauty, creates a square matrix of ninety-six sounds from the succession of its four forms, original, inversion, retrograde and retrograde inversion. Each of the seven instruments sets out from a different point and plays all ninety-six sounds in the prescribed order, as in a circular canon. But that is merely the narrative.., the discourse.., the following of a logical process... Let us turn the page in order to discover the inner life of these timbral phenomena.

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Each sound (written note) consists of a frequency plateau which lasts for approximately nine seconds (the beat is measured in objective time). This frequency plateau becomes the fundamental tone or predominant function of a micro-"timbre life", a "spectral existence" which demands a particular register from which these ninety-six spinal columns of timbral phenomena are transposed to different octaves. Thus the concept of melody becomes ideal and may no longer be regarded as absolute; it will be just one of the secrets therefore of the fusion of frequential functions. There are four types of timbral existence, four methods of producing and activating the sound:

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1.

2. 3. 4.

[ ~ yellow tremolo, a single pitch, a horizontal tremolo, is played (generally in the upper register of the instruments) using different fingerings which vary the depth of timbre, like a flickering star or an irregular morse code signal, accompanied by the reinforced components of the second spectral formant; faint whistling noises are produced by the harmonics especially when the fundamental is rather low. L ~ stable multiphonics, homophonic micro-tonal structures with aleatoric lacunae due to variations in dynamic intensity. ~ unstable multiphonics, varied illumination of the formants of a single multiphonic. [ - ~ flutter tonguing and singing in unison, generally in the low register.

Identical frequential functions receive different types of timbral existence according to the side of the matrix on which they occur. But the progression of each of the seven instruments to this same function (note) at different times characterizes this same frequency plateau in variable ways. Thus the complete score deploys a myriad of 672 timbral types within a chorale consisting of ninety-six quasi-macro-homophonic emanations/situations. A statistical reading of the four timbral types, distributed between (or taken up by) seven sources more or less simultaneously, gives rise to the effect of a random but controlled operation in which ninety-six situations lying between the poles "regulated random operation ~-- - ---* pure accident" pass through the subconscious. Perceived on the macro level, this is similar to a natural phenomenon such as the chirping of crickets or cicadas, but at a speed at least fifteen times slower. Perceived on the micro level, the type of timbral existence, with its own rhythmic and dynamic micro-life, produces an extension of the sound source (cause) and the parameters of the sound (effect) which at times serves to disguise the seven woodwind instruments. An attempt is made to simulate or assume the characteristics of other, wider sound sources such as: natural phenomena (N), articulated language (L), synthesized electronic sounds (E), abstract human sources (H), and instruments or objects (I/O) other than the woodwind instruments concerned. From a technical point of view, these types of performance enrich the cause, while aesthetically a radical filtering ensures that there is no compromise in the creation of the desired effect. The musical language seeks to go beyond its own conceptual boundaries, for a leap is taken into another semantic orbit which engenders a phenomenological sound world".

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

163

4 Unity Capsule by Brian Ferneyhough If Ferneyhough's interest in the flute became apparent as early as 1966 with the

Four Miniatures for flute and piano, and grew steadily until 1986 with the Carceri d'invenzione, a cycle in which the different representatives of the flute family from the piccolo to the bass flute constitute the principal thread, it is Unity Capsule (1975-1976) above all which continues to attract attention.

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A symphony for solo flute

The musicologist Harry Halbreich defines Unity Capsule as "a symphony for solo flute". It must, of course, be understood that Unity Capsule is organized in terms of a parametric stratification which stretches the notion of polyphony to its absolute limit. All Brian Ferneyhough's music is organized around the concept of the rapid perception of sound events. Ferneyhough himself likens his work to a film in which the succession of images into which an arm movement, for example, may be broken down (twenty-four frames per second), creating, in its proper place, a slow, logical movement, would be replaced by as many unpredictable images: an aeroplane taking off, a car race, a game of tennis, a ski run, etc . . . . The projection of such a film would have a profoundly disturbing effect on the observer who would find himself unable to determine the proposed discourse in an intelligible, analytical way. He must remain in a state of watchfulness, of alert concentration in order to grasp as much as he can. Precisely where does the boundary between analytical and global perception lie, at what moment does the message appear to lose its meaning, and what produces such apparent disorganization in the subconscious? Brian Ferneyhough certainly demands a high degree of virtuosity of both the performer and the listener. For the latter, active listening is required at every moment (in a musical situation, the problem is heightened still further by the fact that the displacement of sound at a rate slower than that of light blurs the signals to a much greater extent when they occur in rapid succession). It goes without saying, moreover, that the performer must exercise the highest level of digital and sound control over his instrument, but it is equally indispensable that he master virtuosity in score reading so that he may quickly disentangle the amalgam of signals which pass before him at great speed. The situation is analogous to that of a motorist arriving at a change of command on the road in which all the road signs are jumbled together. He must locate the correct one in a fraction of a second. Similarly, the flautist finds himself thrown into a state of tension which determines certain choices as well as a playing technique and type of sound, in short, an entirely personal creation since it is impossible to master all the signals. Forty years after Var~se, Ferneyhough also explores the unattainable and makes the flute perform hitherto unimaginable feats.

Polyphony If in the past, different solutions to the problem of polyphony were proposed by J. S. Bach, T. Boehm and E. Var6se. Brian Femeyhough integrates all these solutions. The composer thus organizes ideas concerning notation, virtuosity and timbral manipulation (extending to the use of the voice) in closely-knit counterpoint. In the latter area, the technical achievements of the last forty years clearly sanction the most daring procedures.

164

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Artaud

The method of effecting a polyphonic reading of the score is demonstrated in the extract below. The main stave is used for the notation of fixed pitches as in a traditional piece, while the lower line indicates vocal sounds, phonemes, key noises, exhalations or inhalations; in summary, all operations concerned with noise production. Superimposed on these are indications showing special fingerings, qualities of attack, modifications of embouchure position, specifications of different types of vibrato, etc . . . . Each note thus forms the basis of a symbolized polyphony which comprises between three and six or seven levels.

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Indeed, Brian Ferneyhough has at his disposal a whole domain of which Var~se could only catch a brief glimpse. The use to which Ferneyhough proposes this domain be put is most spectacular, as may be judged from Figure 33 which documents the different performance techniques extended to the intervallic scales, more as an aspect of notation than a true playing technique. The mere enumeration of these sonorities does not, of course, take full account of their complexity for two reasons: 1.

2.

Certain techniques have ramifications, as in the case of harmonics which may occur at the octave, the twelfth or the seventeenth, and qualities of attack which may incorporatKe all the subtleties lying between unattacked notes (_L) and accented notes (T(~), or the different types of vibrato which may occur at infinitely variable speeds! The raw sounds presented here may be combined with one, two or three other sounds, creating sound objects of innumerable varieties.

The interaction of these playing techniques and their superimposition on more traditional frequential and rhythmic writing make it easy to understand the ways in which the polyphonization of the flute may be pushed to its ultimate limit. Figure 34 will doubtless serve to clarify the dual notion of polyphony and complexity by analyzing the use of these different techniques and intervallic scales throughout the work. The table in Figure 34 gives rise to the following comments: 1.

Timbral complexity remains constant throughout the work, and may be considered on equal terms, moreover, as structural and grammatical complexity.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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165

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3.

A slight reduction in complexity may be observed towards the end of the second section, however, and this reduction coincides, in fact, with a rhythmic acceleration. The density of events thus remains the same in statistical terms, but one form of complexity replaces another. The end of the work, on the other hand, presents maximum acceleration and accumulation of the parameters; it leads to a paroxysmal climax in the senza misura postlude in which the material overrides structural considerations and stifles the flautist himself, who "expires" in one last exhalation after a silence of nine seconds.

We must note, nevertheless, the limitations of an inventory of this sort which photographs and freezes in time what amounts simply to perpetual molecular movement, and takes account only of the presence or absence of phenomena without indicating their importance. The rhythmic and structural treatment contributes also to the most efficient ordering of the combination of operations. Through the progressive transformation of degrees of emphasis and density, the general schema of the work is intended to propose the ideological experience peculiar to this work which serves to liberate the listener by offering him the possibility of totally subjective perception. This remains valid at the level of both the macro- and the micro-structure which are conceived with reference to a matrix which determines proportionally the general dimensions of the work. The point of departure (from which Ferneyhough has partially and consciously deviated slightly) consisted of nine subdivisions set out in three larger groups. All the operations must obey an initial proportional series: 4 / 3 / 2 . Thus the proportion of the first three bars complies with this rule, for example, as does the number of subdivisions in their three large sections respectively. The rhythmic organization is similarly the object of a type of generation, the principle of which may be clarified by the opening of the work. Ferneyhough writes: "the length of a figure is determined by its duration in relation to one or several elements which belong to a sequence produced in the following way: the length of each bar (calculated in quavers) creates an identical number of bars in which a certain number of equidistant impulses are distributed . . . . The individual units are then either separated or grouped together at will (always in the correct order and without repetition)" (Figure 35). The close of the work presents a small-scale reflection of the large form of Unity Capsule. The eighth section may thus be shown to correspond to the first. The essentially rhythmic material of the opening appears in polyphony, while the element of silence is offset by new events, preparing the frenzied coda in which the irrational element of virtuosity pervades the entire work and continues beyond the point of silence at which the instrumentalist himself runs out of breath (Figure 36). The extreme imbrication, the spatio-temporal organization of the parameters, leads to a total fragmentation, a loss of continuous discourse, a virtuoso caricaturization of the language comparable in these respects to the literary work of James Joyce. The musical tension is carried beyond the realms of the possible, the perceptible, and out of the ultimate fragmentation of this non-discourse arises a degree of tension which is conveyed and sublimated by the relationship between the composer (the score), the performer and the audience; as the creator of sensory perception, this tension is responsible therefore for the creation of the music itself.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

1

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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Density 21.5 and Unity Capsule: two works, one question for the future There can be no doubt whatsoever that Femeyhough succeeds in completing a quest embarked upon by Var6se four decades earlier. The exploration of material begun by Density 21.5 in 1936 achieves its purest form of expression in 1976 with

Unity Capsule. The two outcries are identical in their intensity and in the message they bear, even though they are separated by two generations. Both composers explore the

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impossible, compelling the flautist to surpass himself, and to struggle against his own limitations as much as against those of his instrument. With Unity Capsule, Brian Ferneyhough is to Var6se and Density 21.5 what Debussy and Syrinx are to Couperin and his Concerts royaux: a jewel, a miraculous gem which will never be surpassed. From this m o m e n t on, the quest must proceed in other directions. What might one expect in reality? Surely not that a flautist might play even more rapidly at some point in the distant future, or that he might prove capable of mastering more parameters than his senses m a y grasp at any one time. At the most, one might reasonably hope that, with some improvement in the analytical perception of sound phenomena, the listener might become increasingly virtuosic. This is the case with sportsmen w h o n o w measure their performance to o n e - h u n d r e d t h rather than one-tenth of a second. There is little doubt that the division of the second into one thousand parts will soon be used. This sharpening of auditory acuteness will in turn produce a slight improvement in performance since, according to Professor Tomatis, one m a y play only what one is able to hear. It may be asserted without fear that these improvements will constitute only a minimal advance, however: it is difficult to see h o w a flautist might execute more than sixteen notes per second, while at the same time assigning three or four different playing techniques to each one.

Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

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Figure 36 The speed of performance and degree of control required by Unity Capsule return us to the electronic universe. A computer performs infinitely better than a human being at high speeds, and while reference to the second as a unit of measurement is, for the latter, a normal premise which allows the control of quantifiable events from this temporal basis, it must be transposed to onehundredth of a second on the computer, for which the second constitutes a long duration. The electronic universe is characterized firstly by the mobility and infinite diversity of material created by an extreme polyphonic treatment within a context of wilful virtuosity, and secondly by the systematization of this treatment. Density 21.5 desperately invokes the electro-acoustic universe which was scarcely in existence at that time. The piece anticipates the premises of this universe and prophetically announces certain of its principles. Var6se declares the aesthetic impossibility of moving forward for the creator who uses only a totally outmoded tool. Ferneyhough was born into the electronic age, however, and has grown up with its techniques; his thinking is, moreover, attuned to them. His life began

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172 P.-Y.Artaud almost as Var6se's came to an end, and from that moment on, his culture became linked to the artistic revolution which saw the spectacular emergence of electroacoustic music. In reality, the question is indeed one of a culture rather than of a simple technique to be mastered. This culture modifies thought, technique and sensibility, and gives rise to an instrumental creation imbued with this new aesthetic. Far from reaching a hopeless conclusion, Unity Capsule invites us to embark on a new journey; it demonstrates that the universe of imaginative thought remains wider open than ever before, and that the instrumental domain may be understood in new ways. Once again the limits of a purely acoustic world are illustrated in Unity Capsule. Unlike Density 21.5 which opened the door that its composer wished to close, Unity Capsule closes this door by bringing instrumental virtuosity to its apotheosis. One may go no further, the road has come to an end; after Brian Ferneyhough new directions must be explored. Perhaps the solution would be found in part at least in the techniques of live electronics which would reconcile acoustic with electro-acoustic music. In 1936 VarOse pressed for this solution. In 1976 Ferneyhough confirmed it.

5 Grund by Emmanuel Nunes 16 Grund by Emmanuel Nunes is for nine flutes (one live and eight pre-recorded instruments) which are exclusively alto flutes in G and bass flutes in C. The work is indeed concerned with the treatment of the new concept of virtuosity which imposes on the performer the perfect control of all current playing techniques within the framework of a language which derives its principal material from these very playing techniques. According to this hypothesis, Emmanuel Nunes organizes these techniques in a veritable orchestration which is dependent upon their innate qualities, sound constraints and flexibility. Grund was composed in 1982 and constitutes the eleventh in a series of works begun in 1978 entitled The Creation. With regard to his piece, Emmanuel Nunes writes:

"'The score for eight pre-recorded flutes Ten sequences (a,b,c, etc...) form the basis of the work. Each one uses the following eight notes only: A, B flat, B natural, C sharp, D sharp, F natural, F sharp, G, or their transposition a fifth lower. The "original" and its transposition are superimposed from time to time, thus attenuating the exclusivity of the eight notes. The occasional introduction of the remaining four frequencies, especially by means of "tongue rams" (sounding a major seventh lower) or multiphonics, which are never used simply to create contrast, must also be pointed out. An eleventh sequence (K) is merely a combination of different elements of the other two sequences. Within a given sequence, the register of each note remains unchanged, and for all ten sequences eight different "registrations" exist. Each sequence is presented in eight forms which are more or less directly derived from one another; in fact, these eight forms constitute merely as many 16 Recordedby Pierre-Yves Artaud: CD ADDA581 110.

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F i g u r e 37

voices in a heterophonic texture which, although "rudimentary" in terms of pitch, serves to support a complex contrapuntal texture amidst, or even between the other dimensions of the sound. Each of the eight forms is prolonged until the return of its exact starting point; its beginning and e n d thus ~function as quasi-"nodal points" between which this counterpoint is developed. This situation corresponds to that in section XVI of the piece. In order to provide a schematic characterization of the transformations to which each sequence is subjected, both diachronically and simultaneously (that is, the occurrence of several forms of a single sequence at the same time), the "sequential content" of the seventeen sections of the piece may be summarized in the following way, taking account also of the ninth voice, the solo alto flute. Section I (duration: approximately 5'38"). Tape: eight alto flutes. Recomposition of section XVI (without K ) b a s e d on the superimposition of periodicities which embody the maximum degree of contrast in their metrical values as much as in the pluralism of their playing techniques (organized superficially here rather than exactly). Solo flute: 2K - 4K - 6K. Section II (duration: approximately 1'06"). Tape: eight alto flutes. Eight loops which change systematically from one loudspeaker to another at each repetition, and which are composed of the six forms of sequence i only; wide diversity of playing techniques, but a strong fixation on a single type of melodic contour. Solo flute: 7K. Section III (duration: approximately 3'35"). Tape: eight alto flutes. Eight loops which change systematically from one loudspeaker to another at each repetition, and which are constructed from the division of the single form 5K into eight segments composed of very close or very widely separated durations. Solo flute: 8K-3K (without tape). Section IV (duration: 2'45"). Tape: eight alto flutes. The eight forms of sequence a. Extreme systematization of the loop process of sections II and III, which is a priori a "mechanical" and "uninventive" process,

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P.-Y. Artaud

Wide diversity of playing techniques. Solo flute: 1K - maximum discretion.

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Section V (duration: 2'45"). Tape: four alto flutes and four bass flutes. Development of section II. Clarification of the overall texture by the intermittent rarefication of the flow, and the strong characterization of the former by the spatial distribution of rests emphasized by a certain predominance of pizzicati and key clicks. Solo flute: 5k. Section VI (duration: approximately 0'08"). Tape: two alto flutes. Maximum reduction, both of the duration and the sounds; a single interval of a major third forms a kind of line of demarcation between the first group of sections (I-V) and those that follow. The two pre-recorded flutes, in addition to the solo flute, present the forms 8h and 4d. Section VII (duration: approximately 1'03"). Tape: four alto flutes. This section witnesses a number of increasing and/or decreasing processes of dovetailing which are delineated by changes in playing techniques, their localization in space and, in part, by the speed of evolution from one repetition to the next. Solo flute: 3c-6f-7g-5e-2b. Section VIII (duration: approximately 1' 11"). Tape: six alto flutes. Development of section VII, based on the same forms of the solo flute, namely: lb (without tape) - 5f - 2c - 4e - 7h - 6g - 3d. Section IX (duration: approximately 0'58"). Tape: eight alto and two bass flutes. Contrary to the preceding two sections, the order in which the solo flute presents the different forms remains practically unchanged on the eight tracks. Changes in tempo and performance technique again play a decisive role in the overall profile of this section, and allow the degrees of recognition of the repetitions to be judged correctly. Section X (duration: approximately 0'21"). Tape: eight alto flutes. Sequences i and j in the form in which they were stated in section XVI, that is, the eight forms of a single sequence recur in their initial position, as eight "voices'" synchronized vertically from the moment of their composition (see above). Solo flute: 4f. Sections XI, XII, xIIi, XIV and XV are spread evenly throughout a duration of approximately 1'05" (13" x 5); in addition, there is a general pause of five seconds, at the end of which the solo flute attacks a sound (5h) in the extreme upper register which sets in motion the six bass flutes of section XVI. During section XVI the maximum degree of vertical structuring occurs on the tape. By way of an interlude, a monody composed of eight fairly short ideas, distributed differently by the eight

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loudspeakers, makes way for the seventeenth and final section. Solo flute: 2a - 4a - la - 6a - 5a - 3a - 8a - 7a. Tape: multiphonic chord. A relatively large n u m b e r of "rhythmic modules", centred upon the predominance of a particular proportion, was composed at the outset. Nevertheless, these modules were almost never employed directly as prefabricated elements; on the contrary, they have served as the basis of support for a series of diverse derivations and transformations, effected according to the demands of each sequence, or with the aim of "modulating" one particular form in a given direction in order to arrange it contrapuntally in time in relation to the others. The term sequence is applied to each of the ten eight-voiced fragments, the principal compositional characteristics of which may be summarized as follows: 1. 2.

3.

Each "voice" is emitted by a loudspeaker (taking its position (in front, behind, right, left) into account). The fixed octave registration of a note within a sequence does not change. This registration does not determine the melodic unfolding of each "voice" but is nevertheless its only "vehicle". The fact that all the sequences have only the same eight sounds at their disposal makes the possibility of a "'distinct harmonic content" for one sequence in relation to the others virtually non-existent. This forces the expression of any distinguishing features onto the other parameters, and in this way justifies such restriction. This very restriction acts as a catalyst to the transfer of important formative functions to dimensions of the sound which normally demonstrate these functions only to the smallest degree.

Each voice (form) is intended to exist outside its original context also, in relation to the vertical as much as to the horizontal dimension." The rather large disparity between playing techniques and types of articulation, together with the fact that these may be separated in time, and the conjugation of all these effects, have led Emmanuel Nunes to develop "harmonic models" of playing techniques, in the sense that the most diverse methods of sound production may be superimposed or even synchronous. 6. 5.4.88 by Drake Mabry 17 "'5.4.88 for amplified flute was commissioned by the Canadian mathematician

H e n r y Crapo for Pierre-Yves Artaud and was produced in Hiroshima, Japan, on 21 May 1988. The work is published by Editions Transatlantiques and has been recorded on compact disc for Neuma. The title refers to the date on which the work was finished. The work is of ten minutes' duration. The origin of the piece dates back to 1984, the year of m y first visit to Paris. Pierre-Yves Artaud was director of the studio for instrumental research at IRCAM, and I took part in his workshops in m y capacity as a composer. While attending his masterclasses, I was deeply impressed by the poetic character of his playing, his devotion to contemporary music and his superb technique. I hoped at that time that I might have the opportunity to dedicate a piece to him. However, it was not 17 Textby Drake Mabry. The work is recorded by Pierre-Yves Artaud: CD Neuma 470 76.

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until several years later when I finally settled in Paris that my idea was able to become a reality. 5.4.88 for amplified solo flute was written in April and May 1988. It embodies the results of my research into contemporary performance techniques. The techniques that I chose for this work include: souffle (a sound which combines both breath and tone in equal measure), pizzicato (a technique of sound production which is similar to a string pizzicato), tongue rams (a percussive technique which results from the possibility of obtaining pitches below those of the normal range of the flute), whistle tones (harmonics) combined with the souffle described above, and finally key clicks. Although the majority of the sounds obtained by these techniques are quite easy to produce, I have introduced a very slight amount of amplification. I have not used any other electronic procedures in order that I might concentrate entirely upon the natural sonorities of these unusual flute techniques.

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Aspects of the Flute in the Twentieth Century

177

qualities had never before been employed in such a thorough way as I employed them. Usually, whistle tones are produced in such a way that the fundamental note of the flute is more or less completely obliterated, allowing only the very high whistling noises to come through. I asked Pierre-Yves Artaud if it might be possible to regulate the playing of whistle tones in relation to the fundamental of the flute. Moreover, I wanted the fundamental to be a balanced mixture of sound and breath (as in the souffle sonority mentioned above). The result was a combination of whistle tones, fundamental and breath which, although technically fragile, was so astonishing that I decided to incorporate it into the work. We experimented with several technical variations in an attempt to find a balance of variables which would determine the subordination or independence of each voice. When this process was complete, Pierre-Yves was able to produce examples of parallel motion in which the fundamental and the whistle tone proceeded in the same direction, oblique motion in which one voice remained static while the other moved, and contrary motion which produced the striking effect of two voices capable of proceeding in opposite directions. This use of whistle-tone technique produced a sound which was both melancholic and beautiful, and it is on this sound that the work is brought to a close. I have spoken principally of technical considerations until now. For me, it is these technical considerations which support the musical palette enabling me to communicate with my audience and my performer. In the period in which I wrote this piece, I had no fixed musical or inner project or system. I felt that I had something inside me that I wanted to say, but I did not know exactly how to express it. Thus, as is the case in all my music, both the piece and myself had to pass through periods of struggle, frustration, exaltation and bewilderment. Reflecting on the period in which I composed this work, I realize that I was attempting to develop, trying to find my way, passing through various psychological stages which led me towards calmer times. I believe that this state of mind is entirely apparent in the structure of the work. 5.4.88 comprises five s~ctions which are played without a break. The introduction presents the point of departure (a psychological state) from which the piece develops, the second section is a scherzo (a psychological transition) which rapidly reaches saturation point, the third is composed of multiple periodic phrases (the rearrangement and reorganization of the ideas), the fourth is another scherzo (a more difficult psychological stage) which reaches a further point of saturation but by a shorter and less difficult route, and finally the closing section denotes the arrival of a more serene world by a combination of whistle tone and souffle. Section I: Introduction (bars 1-37, ~" = 84). Serving essentially as an introduction, this section presents the fundamental musical elements of the piece (Figure 39). These appear, for the most part, in the first four bars in the order: souffle, pizzicato, tongue rams and flutter tonguing. Whistle tones appear a little later in bar 13, while key clicks, the only elements which do not occur in the introduction, appear in the third section. The musical fragments of this section supply the material of the development. For example, the passage of flutter tonguing from bar 4 provides the basic material of the following two scherzos (sections II and IV). The introduction itself may be divided into two sections. The second of these (bars 15-22) is a condensed variation of the phrases in bars 1-15.

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