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BRICK ARCHITECTURE •

In

Ancient Egypt A. J. SPENCER

ARIS & PHILLIPS Ltd. WARMINSTER, WILTS, ENGLAND.

CONTENTS Abbreviations Preface Introduction

iv v

I

Part I Chapter One: BRICK MANUFACTURE Chapter Two: THE EARLIEST USE OF BRICK IN EGYPT Chapter Thr ee: THE BONDING CORPUS

3

5 7

Part II Chapter Four : FUNE~RY ARCIDTECTURE Chapter Five: RELIGIOUS ARCIDT ECTURE Chapter Six: ADMINISTRATIVE AND OFFICIAL BUILDINGS Chapter Seven: DOMESTIC ARCHITE CTURE Chapter Eight : FORTRESSES AND DEF ENSIVE TOWN WALLS

10

59 83 94 104

Part III Chapter Nine: BRICK WALLS Chapter Ten: FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS Chapter Eleven: ARCHES, VAULTS, DOMES AND CORBELS Chapter Twelve: SOLID BRICK CONSTRUCTION IN MASTABAS AND PYRAMIDS Chapter Thi rt een : SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS IN BRICK CONSTRUCTION

112 119

Chapter Fourteen: BONDING Chapter Fifteen: SPECIAL BRICKS Chapter Sixteen: BRICK SIZES

123 128 130 136 140 147

Appendix I: Metrology of Egyptian Brickwork

149

Indexes

152

Plates

162

ABBREVIATIONS I. Literary ASAE BIFAO

BMMA Bresciani, Medin et MOOi BSFE CdE CRAIBL

De Bock, Materiaux . . . Arch chret. Gabra, Hermopolis Ouest. E.M H. JARCE JEA

Jequier , G., Con tem porains de Pepi II. JNES

Annales du Service des Antiquites de L 'Egypte. Bulletin de l'In stitut fran cais D'Archeologie Orientale. Bulletin of th e Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N ew York. Bresciani, E., Missioni di Scavo aMedin et Madi [Fayu m -Egitto] . Rapporto Preliminare delle Campagn e di Scavo 1966 e 1 96 7. Bulletin de la Societe franco ise d 'Egyptologie. Chronique d 'Egypte. Com p tes rendus de L 'Academie des In scription es et B elles Lettres. De Bock, W., Materiaux po ur servir iI l'archeologie de l'Egypte chretienne. Gabra, 5., Fouilles de l'Universite Foua d el-A wal iI Hermop olis Ouest [To una el-Gebe l). HOlscher, U., Th e Excavatio n of Medin et Habu , vols. 1- V. Journal of the American R esearch Center in Egy pt. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Jequier, G., Tombeaux de particuliers contem porains de Pepi II. Journal ofN ear Eastern Studies.

LD. LD.T.

Lepsius, C. R., Den kmiil er aus Aegypten undAethiopien. Abt. I-VI. Lepsius, C. R., Denkmiiler aus A egypten und A ethiopien; Text,

Maragioglio and Rinaldi, Piramidi Menfite

I-V. Edited by E. Naville, L Borchardt and K. Sethe. Maragioglio, V. & Rinaldi, C., L 'Architettura delle Piramidi Menfite.

MDIK

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologisch en Instituts Abteilung

Kairo. MDO G

Mitteilungen der Deutsch en Orient-Gesellschaft. Mem oires de la Mission Arch eologiqu e fran qaise au Caire. Petrie, W. M. F., Th e R oy al Tomhs of th e First Dy nasty, I and R oy al Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, [I. Porter, B. and Moss, R.L.B., Topographical Bibliography ofAncient Egy ptian Hieroglyphic Texts, R eliefs and Paintings.

MMAF Petrie , R oyal Tombs. PM PMJ PSBA R ec. Trav.

Pennsylvania University Museums Journal Proceedings of the Society ofBiblical Archaeology . R ecueil de Travaux relatifs iI la philologie et l 'archeologie

a

egyptiennes et assyriennes. RdE

R evue d'Egyptologie;

Ricke, Hughes and Wente, Beit el-Wali

Ricke, H., Hughes, G.R. and Wente, E.F., Th e Beit el-Wali T em ple of Ramesses ll.

Ricke and Sauneron, Elephantine.

Ricke, H. and Sauneron, 5., Die Tempel N ektanebos II in

Tytus, Palace of Amenhotep III.

Tytu s, R. de P., Preliminary R eport on th e R e-excavation of th e

Wb.

Palace ofA m enho tep III at Malqata. Erman, A. and Grapow, H., Wiirterbu ch der Agyptische Sprache,

ZA S

Ze itschrif t fiir .ifgyptische Sprache un d Altertu mskunde.

Elephan tine und ihre Erwei te rungen.

(5 vols.)

II. encI. H M.K. N.K. O.K.

5 T

Other Convent ions Enclosure. Headers (in char ts). Middle Kingdom. New Kingdom. Old Kingdom. Stretchers (in char ts). Temple (in charts).

iv

PREF ACE The aim of this book is to give a detailed account of the brick architecture of Ancient Egypt -'= ~

to examine the constructional techniques which were employed to overcome individual

!:":hitectural problems. The study is divided into three parts: Part One is concerned with a number _=general points, and contains chapters on brick manufacture and the early use of brick in Egypt, ...: well as an explanation of the Corpus of brick bonding systems. In Part Two an account of the surviving brick monuments of Egypt is given, with special reference to technical and structural ccnsiderations. This section is divided into chapters dealing with different types of buildings , and :::e information gathered together provides the basis of the conclusions of this book. The conclusions zre stated in Part Three , and largely consist of an examination of the constructional techniques e=';Jloyed at different periods for various purposes, such as the building of walls, floors, foundations ~5 other structures. A discussion of the kinds of brick used, the bonding and the brick sizes is also ~ :lude d.

The information contained in this study has been derived in part from published sources and from observations made on site. The sources of the published information are stated in the zc res: where facts are given without references the details were obtained by personal study in Egypt. -=-':e brick buildings of Nubia have, for the most part, been excluded from detailed examination, !:OJ are mentioned only in cases where they serve to illuminate the description of Egyptian monuments ~.- providing comparative material. In similar fashion, Coptic architecture is used only briefly to zms trate the later trends in Egyptian brickwork, some features of which are already appearing in ?~o!e m aic and Roman structures. " 5{j

For assistance in the preparation of this study I am grateful to Professor H. W. Fairman, . K. A. Kitchen, Mme. F. de Cenival and Dr. B. V. Bothmer. My thanks are also due to the = itt ee of the Egypt Exploration Society, for allowing me to use unpublished material from " ',ci; excavations, and to Aris and Phillips Ltd ., for und ertaking the publication of this work in its ~ . ese n t form.

I:\TRODUCTION Of all the sur viving monumen ts of Ancien t Egypt, the most famous are the great sto ne pyr ami ds of Giza , and the sto ne-built temples at Luxor , Abyd os, Den dera and Edfu , These grea t works, prom oted by th e powerful forces of fun erary belief or religion, were intended to last for ever, and consequently made use o f the most enduring materials with little regard for expense or labour. However, the vast majority of Ancient Egyptian building was cons tructed more rapidly and econom ically by the ext ensive use of sun -d ried bric k as the major material. A considerable am ou nt of this bric k architecture still survives, but it is only a fraction of which must have once exis ted . Entire citi es have disappeared, .eavin g only the templ e sta nd ing, a fact which has led t o a rather one-sided view of Ancient Egyp tian life . Brick build in gs in Egypt will last for th ousands of years when buried in sand , but once exposed, suffer rapidly from the effects of wind and rain. Blown sand quickly erodes away the soft mud-brick walls, and the occasional rain sto rms wash the bricks into mud. In add itio n to this natural decay, th e brick buil din gs in Egypt have suffered grea tly fro m th e activities of th e sebbakhin , who destroy the ruins for the sake of the nit rogenous earth of which they are composed. Even archaeologists, working in the late Ninetee nth o r early Twentieth century, have tended to treat the excavation of brick buildings with less care than they ap plied to the stone monument s. For example , th e enti re town whic h surroun ded the temple of Dend era was cleared away witho ut record, in order to open up the temple , and a similar clearance was made at Edfu, during restoration work on the temp le of Horus. J Few excavato rs have tho ught it worth while to record details of orick bo nd ing, and the brick sizes h ave been neglect ed by man y . Fortunately , this lack of work on brick architecture is not universal, and some excellent studies have been made on th e subject by certain archaeologists. The most important of these contributions is that of a .H. Myers, 2 who devised .! system o f recording the arrangements utilized in the various brick bonds by means of a Corpus, the essential features of which are retai ned in t he revised and ex tended Cor pu s of brick bo nds given-in thi s study. Some of th e older Egyptological publica tio ns have at tem pt ed to deal ex te nsively with th e subject of bri ck archite ct ure, an examp le bein g L 'Art l e Batir chez les Egypt/ens, by A. Cho isy , which app eared as lon g ago as 1904. Unfo rt un ately thi s boo k, wh ilst it contains some points of value, inclu des a fair amount of informati on which is inaccurate or over-simplified. The tendency :0 over-simplify and to generalize concerning brick architecture also occurs in o ther publications, so that it is possible for :hree separat e authoritie s, dra wing t he co nst ructional details of the same buil din g, (the bri ck vaults at the Ramesseum ) :0 produce th ree entirely different diagrams.' Howe ver , at th e prese nt day the positi on is mu ch improved , and many mo re exc avators are including details of brickwork, in additionto o ther-techiti"cal analyses, as a regular feature of their excavation reports. Neve rthe less, th e reporting co uld be furthe r imp roved , and ide ally I would lik e to see the foll owin g details of brick buildings recorded as a matter of course, and other aspects o f the excavation described to a similar stan dard: I. The co mpos ition of th e bricks , and whet he r bu rnt or un burnt . 2. The dimensions of the bricks. 3. The bonding, pr efer abl y descri bed by means of a Corp us of bonds. 4. The distribution of any reed-m atting or tim ber tie-bea ms in the brickwork. 5. The nature of the mortar. 6. Det ails of any plaster. 7. Whe ther stamped bricks occur. 8. Any special usages, or bricks of special form. My own study of the brick architecture of Egypt is intended to conside r in de tail the technical asp ects of brick construction, and matters which do no t relate to the structure o f the buildings are, in the majority o f cases, not included The individua l mon um ents are describ ed in Chapte rs 4 to 8, to illust rate the wid espread use of bri ck and the methods used in vario us types of buil dings. Th ese chapters contain a body of infor mati on which must for m th e basis of any work on Egyptian brickwork, comprising the facts which have been recovered from the excavation and study of the surviving monuments. Since this informatio n has, up till now, been scatte red in excavation reports and other publications, I feel that it is valuable to assemble it in o ne place so that the evidence concerning the techni ques o f Egyptian brickwork is readily available. In the later chapters, the conclusions based on this material are stated, in an exa mination of the construction of particular archit ectu ral features. These conclusions, especially those concerned with brick sizes and bonding, have value in esta blish ing the dat e to which vario us st ruct ures belon g, and it is t o be hoped th at the y will be im prove d by further work on the subject. 1.

2. 3.

Barsanti, A. , A SA E 8 (19 0 7) , 22 4-232. Mond, R. & Myers, o.u, The B ucheurn; 1, 4 7 - 9 & Ill, Pis. CXII-CX V. L,D. , I, 89 ; Baralae, E., ASA E 8 ( 19 07 ), 19 8-20 0 : Cho isy , A., L 'A r t de Battr ch ez tes Eg yp tie ns, 44 -5.

CHAPTER ONE:

BRICK MANUFA CTURE

The mat erials used in makin g br icks in Ancient Egypt were Nile mu d, cho pped straw and sand. The se wer e mixed in vary ing quantities to produ ce bricks of different characteristics. Th e co mm onest type of brick co nsists of mu d and cho pped st raw with a small ad dition of sand, but variet ies regularly occur which are made up of nothing but sand and gravelly desert soil. The whole process of brick maki ng in Pharaonic Egypt was so similar to that used to day th at a full descri ption of th e stages of production can be given. Wet Nile mud is mixed with cho pped st raw and sand, pu shed into a wood en mou ld, and smo othed by hand. Th e brickmaker th en loosens the mould fro m the brick and lifts it off t o leave the wet bri ck up on th e ground. Thi s proc ess is repeated until th e who le area is co vered with nea t rows of bricks, with only the thickness of th e frame of the mould be tween each. TI,e bricks are left to dry for abo ut thr ee days before beIng turn ed over, and by the end of a week they are firm en ough to be stacked in a heap. Th e pure Nile mud shr inks by over 30% in drying, bu t th e sand and straw in the bricks preve nt the formation of cr acks. Experiments with brickrn akin g in modern times have sho wn th at th e best mixture of th e co ns tituents is one cubic metr e of mud with one-th ird of that amount of sand , plus 20kg of stra w. I Bricks co ntaining fine sand, when well dried, can sta nd compressive st ress in th e order of 52 kg/cm 2, wher eas bricks with the same amount o f sand, but also with straw, are less strong. 2 In mo de rn Egypt , the fellahi n will occasionally make br icks entirely by hand , dispensing with th e wo oden mou ld, and it is q uite possible tha t this method was so metimes empl oyed in Pharaoni c times. That the majority of bricks were

made in wooden moulds, however, is without doubt, as this method is depicted in ancient representations, and some examples of th e mould s have been fou nd.r' The se moul ds are ide ntic al to their mo dern counterpar ts, except th at th ey have mortise and tenon jo int s at the co rners instead of nails. From one side a handle projects, by which the brickmaker mani pulates th e m ould. No moulds have yet been found whic h were intended to prod uce the specially shaped bricks used

for arches, cornices and other distinct architectural features. Of the evidence from ancient representations about brickmaking, the most valuable comes from the scenes in the 4

:om b of Rekh mire at Thebes. TIle pro cess of mixing the mud and maki ng the ro ws of bricks by th e use of woode n mou lds is clearly shown, and the inscription accompanying the scene reads:

"M aki ng bricks t o build ane w t he storeho use of th e temple of Karn ak ."

Bada wy has argued that slJt db! should mean "to lay bricks" rather than to "make bricks," since the original meaning of sa l is "to weave" or " to plait," which would agree with the Greek use of TrXwOuifxx; for the pro cess of bo nding bricks in to a wall. S However, alt ho ugh the o riginal meanin g o f sal ribl may have been "to lay bricks ," there is ample evidence to show th at it also came to mean "to make bric ks" from the New Kingdom onwar ds. This is de monstrated by the exa mp le from th e tom b of Rekh mire, quo ted above, whe re the scene clearly sho ws the man ufact ure, not th e layin g, of bricks ; it is furthe r proved by th e frequent scene in fou ndation cerem onies showing the mo ulding of th e first brick by the King. Since the titl e of this scene is invariably sal dbt , this can only mean " making bricks" in this contex t. At Edfu this fou nda t ion ritual is accompa nied by th e inscrip tion : 6

"Making bricks at the four corners of the temple." As he holds the brick-mo uld, th e King says to Horus:

.:ld I ~CJc= di~ LJ CV " I make a bric k in order to bu ild your sanct uary." 7

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

t.

Fathy, H., Go urna: A Taleo/ T'Wo Villages, 2 52. ibid., 2 87 - 8. On the use o f straw see Carninos, R., L ate Egy p tian Miscellanies, 190 . Pe trie , W. M. F., Tools and Weapo ns, PI.XLVll, 55. Davies , N. de G., The Tomb 0/ Rekhrntre at Theb es, PI. LV II I. Bada wy , A., ASAE 54 ( 195 7 ), 51ff., es pe cia lly p.6 4 . Chass ina t, E., Ed/Oil, II, 6 0. ib id., 6 1, & vo l. XlI, PI.CCCLXXII.

Since the King is actually holding the brick-mould, it cannot be said th at he is " laying bricks," as Badawy argues. He gives an example of the earlier meaning of slJt from a Middle Kingdomstela, but either translation of the word couid be read:

"Now I made this tomb in Abydos, of brick which I assembled."

8

c4cG

Another Egyptian word used in relation to brickwork is (Pip), 9 "to make (bricks)," which becomes the Copt ic 1!WW1f'. Badawy also quotes a phrase from the Edfu texts referring to the preparati on of mud for bricks:

"I mix earth with water."

10

A papyrus of the Nineteenth Dynasty 11 contains accounts of brickmaking and records the number of bricks produced by various workmen, but unfortunately does not state the length of time required to make the bricks. In modern Egypt, a team of four brickmakers will produ ce an average of 3,000 bricks per day, but the rate of manufacture in ancient times may have been slightly less, owing to the greater size and weight of many of the bricks. The same papyrus contains an othe rwise unkn own word g Jl taken in the worterbucn to mean "to burn bricks," 12 This is possible, since burnt bricks were used in Ramesside buildings in special circumstances, 13 but the damaged state of th e text makes it impossible to be sure of the meaning of the word . References to brick manufacture in other text s are similarly lacking in precise details; Papyrus Reisner I apparently records the production of 65 cubic cubits of bricks per day, 14 and contains several words for "brick-clay" and related materials. 15 A demotic text, Papyrus Sorbonne 276, 16 refers to the use of old bricks for the rebuilding of a storehouse, showing that the re-use of bricks was a common practice.

l;l.1l..=.Lt

8. 9. 10. 1 1. 12 . 13. 14 . 15. 16.

Lange , H.O. & Sc haf er, H., Grab una Denksteine d es M.R. , 20 733. -Anastasi V, 3,1. Badawy , A., ASAE 54 (1957 ) ,57. Virey, P. , Parch emin Rapp ort e de The bes, in MMAF, I, 4 81-51Q. Wb., V, 1 56 , 7. See below, pp. 44, 14 0. Simpson, W.K .. Pap yru s Reisner 1, 62 . These words discus sed by Simpson, op. cit., 7 2, 75-7. I am grateful to Mme. F. de Cenival fo r detail s of this text.

CHAPTER TWO'

THE EARLIEST USE OF BRICK IN EGYPT

It is difficult to esta blish precisely when the use of brick for building began in Egypt . The earliest buildings of any size are the First Dynasty mastabas of Saqqara and Naqada, and th e t ombs of Abydos. In these st ructures, and especially in the Saqqara mastab as, we see a highly-developed archit ecture makin g expert use of the building materials. Previous to th e First Dyn asty , h owever, very little has been discovered to illustr ate the earlier effo rt s of th e Egyptians in brick building, and the remains which have been found are not on any sizeable scale. The sophistic ated architect ure of the Archaic Period seems, like so many thi ngs at thi s point in Egyptian history , to appear suddenly , fully formed. Whil st th ere can be no doubt that influences from Mesopotamia helped t o promote thi s new outburst of buil ding in th e early dynasties , the re is also evidence to sh ow that the inhabitants of the Nile Valley during th e Naqada 1I period were no t unfamiliar with the large-scale use of brick as a building material. This evidence comes mainly from the slate palett es, ivor y labels and mud-sealin gs of the age. On th e fra gmentary Tjehenu palette in Cairo , a series of walled enclosures or towns are shown , in the pro cess of being attacked by animals representing differ ent provinces. Such butt ressed defen sive walls could only have been construc ted of brick , and must have been of sufficient height and thi ckne ss to resist attack. Another exa mple occ urs on the Narrner palette, where the King, in th e form of a bull , ha s broken int o one of these walled t owns. Th e mud -sealings fro m the Abydos First Dyna sty tombs frequ entl y sho w oval enclosures of thi s type. Some sealings 1 show a more developed enclosed to wn or camp, where the surrounding wall is laid out on a rect angular plan in the form of the hieroglyph [] hwt , which represent s a walled area with a gateway at one corner. 2 There is great similarity between the enclosures represented on the seatings and the "Funerary Palaces" of Abyd os, th e surviving exa mples of which date from the Second Dynasty . It seems likely, th erefor e, that at the time of the unifi cation of Egypt there were in existence sett lements prote cted by fortified brick walls, probably of comparable size to th e Shun et ez-Zebib at Abydos, wh ose wall is now 11m high and 5.30m thic k. If constructions of thi s size were present to ha ve been attacked by Narrner , then th ey mu st also ha ve existe d during th e latter part of the Naqada II cult ure, alth ough no remains have as yet been fou nd . The only town sit e to have yielded remain s of th e brickwork of Predyn astic time s is Naqada, where Petri e discovered a tow n of th e Naqada I - II periods. The buildings were construc ted of bricks measurin g 29 x 11.5 x 7.5cm , and " showe d carelessness about squa reness and angles.t' ' Unfortunately no specific archit ectural details are available about this Naqada to wn, but Petrie's description indi cate s that the ruin s were of considerable extent. At othe r Predyna stic settlemen t sites no definit e exam ples of the use of brick have been discovered, except for some special bricks used in th e construc tio n of kiln s for roasting grain. These bricks take the form of long th in bars of baked clay . and th eir use implies th at the Predyn astic Egyptians were aware of th e process of bakin g bric ks, alt hough th ey never employed it outside thi s contex t. Grain kilns of this period have been fo und at Abyd os and Mahasna; th ose at the latte r site employ burn t bricks up to 7 1cm in length . 4 The surviving funera ry monuments of th e Predynastic period mak e infrequ ent use of brickwork. Most tomb s with brick-lined pit s whi ch were once th ough t to belong to the Naqada II period have been assigne d, on th e revision of Petrie' s Sequen ce Datin g, to th e First Dynasty. The earliest bricked to mbs appear t o be th ose of Ceme tery T at Naqada,' dated t o S.D. 50~ 70, t ogeth er with th e Decorat ed Tom b at Hierakonp olis.f which , it has recently been sho wn, 7 belongs to the same archit ect ural type as these Naqada graves. The Decorat ed Tom b has been dat ed t o S.D. 63,8 therefore placing it very close to th e time of th e uni ficati on of Egypt by Narmer, whilst th e Cemet ery T at Naqad a wo uld seem to be of Naqada II date,9 but very likely running over int o th e early First Dyna sty. Brick is empl oyed in th ese t ombs for lining th e walls, and also in some cases for th e const ructio n of a shor t int ernal cross-wall, which divides th e pit int o two roo ms. Detail s of thi s brickwork are non-existent , except for the fact th at th e walls were appa rently abo ut 50cm thick with plaster -coa te d surfaces. There is doubt as to the na tur e of th e roo fing of th e t omb s: F.W.Green first thought that the Decor ated to mb h ad been vault ed, bu t late r revised his opinion and cat egorically sta te d th at th e roof had been

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

Petri e, W .M . F~ , R oyal Tombs, I, PI. XXV I, 58 -6 0, a nd II , ..1.XI, 1. Ga rd ine r, A. H. , Eg y p tian Gram m ar, 4 9 3 , 6 . Pet rie, W.M. F. , Na qada and Ba llas, 54. Ga rst a n g, J . , Mahasna and Beit KlIallaf, 7 . Pet rie, Naqada and B allas, 1 8 f f. Q u lb ell, 1. E. a nd Green, F.W., Hi erak onpolis, II , 2 0- 1. Kem p, B.1., J EA ., 59 (19 7 3) , 36 - 4 3. Payn e, i.c., .TE A. , 5 9 (1 97 3) , 3 1. Ke m p, 0[1. ott ., 42 .

of wood. 10 One of the to mbs at Naqada, numbered T.lS, is said to have consisted of a vaulted chamber built in a pit, 11 but, as B.l. Kemp has pointed out, 12 this statement has to be treated with caution, specially since no mention is made of vaulting in Petrie's field notebook. The only other interesting point concerning the brickwork of these tombs is the possible use of a brick arch above a doorway in T.23, alth ough the evidence for this relies on a scribbled note in the original excavation records. t 3 If an arch did exist, it would prob ably only have been a rough corbel or gabled struct ure of two or three bricks, since the span of the doo rway was only 60cm. I think it unlikely that the true arch or proper vaulting would have been used in this cemetery, when we have only a single instance of the use of true vaulting from the more developed monuments of the First Dynasty, and no example of the arch unt il the Third Dynasty. The architecture of these to mbs shows that brick was in use for funer ary monuments in the late Naqada II period, and must have been used for some time previously, since the brickwork is not unaccomplished and the builders evidently were familiar with the material. At a slightly later date, in the early First Dynasty, brick lining is common in tombs at Naqada, and occurs also at Mahasna, El-Amra, Tarkhan and elsewhere. The orlgin of Egyptian brick architecture seems to lie in the main sett lements of the later Predynastic period. This would explain how it is possible for an extensive use of brick to appear at Naqada, this being an important town, whilst no brickwork occurs in the less urbanized communities of Mahasna or Badari, where the emphasis was apparently on wattle-and-daub construction. 14 Probably further excavation at imp ortan t Predynasti c sites such as Hierakonpolis and Kopt os would shed more light on the early brick architect ure of Egypt, and its relation to the forti fied towns sho wn on the palettes and sealings. Certa inly, at the time of the unification of the country by Narmer, the art of building in brick was well understood, ready to develop under the influence of Mesopotamia to prod uce th e magnificent panelled monuments of the Saqqara archaic cemetery.

10. 11 . 12. 13. 14.

tota.,

38 . Petrie, N eqaa a and Ballas. 24. Kem p, op. ctt; 41. ibid. , 41. Garstang , J., Mahasna and B eit Khalla[, 6.

CHAPTER THREE: THE BONDING CORPUS The only attempt to standardize the description and recording of the various types of brick bonding used in Egyptian architecture was made by a. H. Myers in his publication of the Bucheum 1 and continued in his other excavation reports. As Myers himself remarked, the formation of such a Corpus makes for a great saving in time over written desc riptions of bo nds, an d it is a great pity that no-one has bo thered to utilize his syste m in lat er works. Th is Corp us, although basically so und, suffers fro m a number of inconsist encies and consequently requires some modification. The new system which I am about to describe was devised to eliminate the difficulties whilst preserving the same underlying principles as used by Myers. When a bond is described in th e old Corpus, three facts are emb odied in th e co de given to that bond. Th e first , indicated by a letter, is the type ofstructuce under examination - W for wall, C for corner, A for arch, and etc. This is followed by a number which indicates the thi ckness of the brickwork, on the principl e that 1.0; one bri cklength, 1.5; one brick-length plu s one brick-width, and so on, Finally comes a small letter, which is the type letter for th e arra ngement of brickwork und er considerati on. For example, bonds with altern ate courses of head ers and stretche rs are given the letter a, whilst th ose with layers of edger-headers are labell ed c. Minor variation s on th e same general arrangeme nt are indi cat ed by numbe rs aft er th e letters, e.g, WI.5a l. This rather co mplex description can be simplified by dispen sing with th e first two parts of th e co ding, since in most cases these are not absolutely necessary. It does not really matter to which struc ture th e bri ckwork belon gs when it is th e bonding which is bein g recor ded. Nor is it always necessary to record the thickness of many structures, especially walls, since the bonding is, in most cases, the same all through. It is only of real value to sta te the wall thic kness in this way when it is of special interest or directly affect s the bo nd being used . The result of all this is th e formati on of a new Corpus using a codi ng comprised of a letter and a number only, the general arrangement being indicated by the letter and minor variations by the number. It can be seen from the drawings th at all th e bond s includ ed und er o ne letter have the same cha racte ristic s: Typ e A den ot es a face bonding which sho ws courses of headers and st retchers (no t necessarily in alt ern at e layers) , Type B has he aders and st retchers mixed in the same co urse, Typ e C always employs edger-head ers, and so on for th e othe r types. One of th e main defects of the old Corpus was its inability to deal with bon ds which imp art a different appearance to the opposite faces of t he same wall. For exa mp le, by drawing th e secti on of bond WI. 5d, it can be shown tha t the reverse face of any wall of this ty pe would have a face bond of two courses of stretchers alternating with one course of headers , an arrangement which is given in the same Corpus 2 \\'1.5c_ Th e same con fusion appli es to bond 1I'1.5a 1 which gives an ap pear ance to th e reverse side of th e wall of WI .5c. Th is weakness of the old syste m was one of the main reasons for modifyin g it. In the new Corpu s, these com plex bonds are classified by giving th e relevant code lett er for each face of the wall, and writing th em together. Thus th e co de AC describes an arr ange ment in which one face of the wall has the cha racter istic appea rance of a class A bond, whilst the other face conforms to type C. The classification of arch es and vaults by Myers is rath er unsat isfact ory.f In my own Co rp us, the bo nd ing of these structures is recorded using small lett ers to distinguish them from the capitals used for other.brickwork. The same principles of typing are used, the letters indicating the arrangements, but the use of a.b ,c, etc. must not be taken as having any relation with the bo nds labelled A, B, c..., which do not refer to arches o r vaults. Arches consisling of several rings of brick, of different arrangements, have two letters to show the bonding of the various rings. In these cases, the first letter of the code applies to the upper rings of brickwo rk, and the subsequent lett er t o th e inner courses. 4 Througho ut this st udy bon ds are referred t o by their nu mbers in the Corpus, to avoid repeti tive length y descriptions. In some cases the thickness of the wall is state d in terms of brick-lengths immediately afte r th e code for the bo nding, e.g. A2(l .5). Th is syste m is pa rticularly useful fo r arches and vaults, where it is more imp ort ant to recor d the nu mber of courses employed. Occasionally I state th e thickn esses of struc tures by th is meth od separately from the bond ing; in these cases, for exa mple, "a wall with a thickn ess of 2.5," means a wall who se width is equal to tw o and a half brick-lengths, It sho uld be not ed that th e drawing s all sh ow th e simp lest kno wn version s of each bond, because a wall bo nded in (for example) A3 may be anything fro m two to tw enty brick-lengths across, bu t since the bo nding patt ern is unaffect ed, only th e basic bond is dr awn . Th e drawin gs of all th e bond s so far typed are given on Plates 1-20.

as

,. 1.

Mond, R. and Myers, D.H., The Bu ch eum, r. 4 7- 9, and 1lI, Pis. CXII-CXV. Mond , R. and Myers, o.n., TI le Bucheum; III, PI. CXII.

3. 4.

ib id. , PI s. CX IIl -C XIV. See Corpus drawi ngs of bo nds e x t and cd l.

CHAPTER FOUR: I.

FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE

Early Pit-Tombs.

The earliest tombs to make use of brick have been discussed above, (p.5) these being those of Cemetery T at Naqada and the Decorated Tomb of Hierakonp olis. These monuments are followed, in th e First Dynasty, by a large number of tombs at Naqada, Tarkhan, Mahasna and elsewhere, which use brickwork for the lining of the pit. In small private graves these lining-walls are usually half to one brick-length in thickness, and are commonly mud-plastered on thei r inte rior faces. The simplest tomb s of this type have a single chamber in the substructure and were originally roofed with wooden beams and planks. No brick superstructures have yet been found above lined pits of this kind, alth ough simple brick mastabas were discovered by Petrie over unlined pit-graves of the First Dynasty at Tarkhan. I The construction of th e lining of the graves differs littl e from one site to anothe r. Where the brickwork is only a half-brick in thickness, the bonding has of necessity to be XI . Examples of this type are found in grave 1006 at Tarkhan, 2 1643 and 1525 at Naga ed-Der' and 20.i.l at Tura, 4 but very many more examples occur at these and other sites. Other graves have a lining double this thickness, and altho ugh in some cases the brickwork is still composed only of stretchers, the majority show more att empt at bonding. At most cemetery-sites of this type th e bond used is AI, i.e, alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but at EI-Amra and Naga ed-Der A8 was most frequent. The alternation of three courses of stretchers with one of headers seems to have been particularly prevalent at the latter site, so much so that for thicker walls the rare bond s A5 and A7 are utilized, in contrast to the A2 or A3 adopted at all other sites. In the majority of cases the bricks were mortared roughly with mud and plastered over, but at Naga ed-Der Reisner records that no mort ar was used, and the brickwork relied solely on the mud-plaster for cohesion. s This mud-plaster is usually from one to thr ee centimetres in thickness. Furth er examples of small brick-lined tombs are found in the subsidiary graves which cluster around the large funerary monuments of Abydos, Giza and Saqqara. Few structural details of the brickwork are available for the first two sites named : it is only possible to say th at all the Abydos subsidiary graves, and those of Giza mastaba V, were lined with brick and roofed with wooden planks. Much more informati on is recor ded from th e satellite burials of the First Dynasty tombs at Saqqara, which will now be considered: The individual graves around Saqqara tomb 3503 6 arc lined with brickwork, bonded XI(O.5), and plastered internally. (Fig.I) The roofing is formed of two logs, laid longitudinally over the pit, with planks across them above. Some of the graves had one course of brick laid over the wooden roof, a feature which sometimes occurs in this type of tomb in the provincial cemeteries, examples being foun d at Naga ed-Der, El-Arnra and EI-Ahaiwa. 7 In the reign of Uadji the subsidiaries of Tomb 3504 were constructed by digging a trench and dividing it up by crosswalls to form rows of small graves. 8 This technique is also used at Abyd os and (in part) around Giza mastaba V. The bonding employed in the lining and cross-walls of Uadji's satellite graves is unfortunately not recorded, but It is known that the lining-walls were one brick-length thick and coated with mud plaster. The graves were roofed with planks and reeds, above which stood superstructures built of brick and filled with rubble. As can be seen in th e drawing (Fig.2), the sides of these small mastabas are bonded Al and the roof consists of a slightly vaulted layer of stretchers . This vault is not self-supporting, however, as it rests directly on the internal filling, a feature which also occurs in grave 2039 at Tarkhan .? Subsidiary graves around tomb 3506 10 also possessed low superstructures, but in this case they were constructed of mud. The substructures were lined with brick, bonded AI (I.O), and some had a cou rse of brick above the wooden roof. The most interesting of all the satellite burials at Saqqara arc th ose around a large tomb dated to the reign of Ka-a. (3500) 1 1 Unlike the graves discussed above, these do not have a brick lining to the pit, but they have the best-preserved brick superstructures of any graves of their type so far discovered, and these superstructures show an advance in architectural technique. The usual wooden roofing used in all other examples of subsidiary graves of the First Dynasty is here replaced by an inclined vault, built against the enclosure wall of tomb 3500. This vault, the earliest certain examp le known, corresponds to typ e dl of the Corpus. Above the vault a small mastaba was built, also of brick. The brick casing of this 1. '2. 3. 4.

S. 6. 7.

S. 9. 10. 11.

Petri e, W.M.F. , Tar knan 11, Pis. XU· XI V Petri e, W.M. F. , Tarkh an 1 and Memphis V, 8. Reisn er, G .A.,Naga ed-Der, 1, 20-1. Ju nke r, H., Pnedhof tn T urab; 16. Reisn er, op etc, 27. Eme ry. W.o. , Great Tombs o f the First Dyn asty, II, 143 -15 8. Reisn er, G. A.. To m b D evelop ment, 17. Eme ry,op. ctt., 12-3. Petri e, W.M.F., Tar khan II, PI. XV I Emery. W. o. , Great Tom bs of Ole Firs t Dynasty, III, 46-9, PIs. 4 5-9. ibid. 102 and Pis. J 16, 1'20.

d,

Fig.]

Cross-section of subsidiary grave of Tomb 3503 at Saqqara:

Fig.2

Sup erstructure ofsubsidiary grave of Tomb 3504 at Saqq ara.

Section

/

mastaha sta nds on a lo w pedestal, an d is only half a brick in thickness, th erefor e co nsisting entirely of str etc he rs. At th e top of the masta ba, which is of a vaulte d shape , the brick s rest on th e sand fillin g. (See Fig.3) Th ese im portant graves show that th e inclined vault was know n by the late First Dyna sty and was in use in the Mcm phite area to cover shor t spans. It seems proba ble tha t in Upper Egypt the vault was not introduced until mu ch late r. Th e use of br ickw ork in to mbs was extended d uring th e Fir st Dyn asty to include cross-walls in the substructure, there by dividing the pit int o a numb er of com partments. An early exam ple of th is is seen in the 'Decorated Tomb' at Hierakonpolis, 12 discussed above, which is divided into two parts by a short wall built o ut from one side of th e chamber. At a slight ly lat er date, the subs truc tu re is split int o tw o, th ree o r five co m part ments accordin g to the plan s given in Fig.4(p.12) Thes e types have been fo und at El-Amra , 1 3 Naga ed-D cr, 14 and Tu ra. 1 5 Th e cross-walls are generally found t o be th inn er than th e linin g of th e pit, and th e two seem never to be Inte rbo nded. Instead, the lin ing was co nst ruc ted first and th en th e thin

d: fed

Fig. 3

Sub sidiary Grave of Tomb 3500 at Saqqara Cross Section La ng Section

,I >

I,

'.

II:'·, LJ '

inte rna l walls were added, merel y butting up against the sides of the pit. Most ofte n all the brickwork is coated with mud -plaster which helps to conso lidate the unbonded co rners. 1 2. 1 3. 14. 1 5.

Q u ibc ll, J.E. and C rcen, V.W., Hier a tco npotisIt, 1'], L XVII Mciver. D.R. an d Mate, A.C., Et-Arn r ah and Aby dos. 1'1. IV Reis n er , G. A. Naga eaocr, I, 2 7ff. Jun ker . H. , Fried/lOt in T ural" 18- 20.

Fig.4

Cross-Walls ill Small Graves.

I 1 ...._

..

3 . . ._

...

4 ........

The thinness of the cross-walls results fro m their being built en tirely of st retc hers , alt ho ugh in some of the larger tombs at Naga ed-Der 1 6 th e walls reached a thic kness of 1.0 and wer e bonded AS. These examples are mor e advanced than the simple bric k-line d pit in that th ey have stairway entrances fro m one side, a roof of wood and bri ck , and were originally cove red by a nich ed masta ba su perstructur e.

2.

Corb e l-roofe d tombs of th e Secon d Dynasty .

Alth ou gh we still have to examine the to mbs of the First Dynast y at Abyd os and the panelled mastabas of the same perio d at other sit es. I have in cluded here a descrip tion of certain Seco nd Dyn asty to mbs since th ey are a direct development of th e early wood-roofed graves discussed in the previous sectio n. The substructur es of the cor belled tombs are still built in the same fashi on as those of th e sim ple First Dynasty graves, with three or five ro om s, the latt er being more frequent . Stairway entrances descen d into the pit from the side and are flanked by the thi n retaining walls of bric k. The wooden roofi ng of {he earlier graves is replaced by a roof for med of cor belling in brickwork to form a false vaul t. Usually a sepa rat e corbel sta nds abov e each roo m of the subs t ructure and the br ickwork is built up over the to mb into a solid mass. On evi den ce recovered fro m t omb N.15 14 at Naga ed-Der, 17 the supe rst ruc t ures over th e corbelled burial chambers are shown to have been bric k mastabas wit h simplified palace-facade pan elling, enclos ed within a bric k wall. Som e tombs of this ty pe have been fo und at EI-Amr a 18 but no diagrams of the brick cons truc tio n are available from thi s site. By far the greatest n umb er of corbelled to m bs, however, occ ur at Naga ed-Der, where the cons truc tio nal det ails we re so completely recorded that th e best pr eserved exam ples can be desc ribed individually.

N. 1584. 1 9 Three chamb ers of the pit of t his tomb are roo fed with separate corbel-vaults , the inner faces of which have th e appearance of Al bonding, but behi nd the face the bricks are all laid as heade rs. Each course of the vault proje cts approximate ly 3- 4cm beyo nd the course im mediately below, and th e roof is joined at a heigh t of 1.35 metr es. The co rners of the corbels are mad e ro unded by laying the bricks in a radial plan, and all the walls are coated with m udplaster. The stair way ent ranc e to this to mb has n anking walls of stretchers (bondin g X I(0. 5) and the doo rway int o the sub str ucture is roofed wit h woo den beams, upo n which th e co rbelling rests . A co urse of bricks o n edge is included in one of the cross-walls of th e pit with the purpose of co mp ensating for di fferen ces in th e level of the groun d. 2o

N. 1586.

Five in dividu al co rbel vaults, which merge into a mass of brickwor k above, co ver the five chambers of the substructure. The vaults, which are plaste red int ernally, have gra ined Fig. 5 Section of Vault corn ers unlike those of tomb N.1584 . Example s of gra ined Tomb N.1586 vaults occ ur also in tombs N.1 51 1. 1513 and 1626. The intern al face of the co rbel sho ws th ree layers of st retchers alternating with one of headers, but the solid mass of th e structure is co mposed, as usual, of headers only. Above th e en trance the bri cks rest on th e wooden roo fing of th e door at the base of the sta irway. There are several tombs of similar size and st ruc tur e to the two described abo ve, but in none is the brickwor k so well preserved. Some de tails of their construction are given in the tab le on page 15. Furthe r examp les of th e use of co rbel roo fing are found in the smaller to m bs of the Seco nd Dynast y at Naga ed16. 17. 18.

Re isner, op. cit., 34-5 . Exa mp les ar e Tom bs J608 , 16 2 1 & 162 4 . Reisn e r, G.A. , Naga eu o-r. l. 45. Mciver, D.R. an d Mace, A.C ., El-Amrah an d A byd os, 34 .

12

19. 20 .

Reisn e r, o p. cit., 5 2- 3 a nd PIs. 2 9· 30 . ib id., 4 1- 2 an d l'ts. 32-3.

k_

T::~~

are stai rwa y to mbs wi t h usually only a single chamber in the subst ructu re. Most of th ese graves have groined :: rJy \". 16 19 and 1 6 ~ 2 sho wing the radiating of th e bricks used to pro duce ro unded comers.i ! The co rbelling '"' :. :-egins at the th ird or fou rth course of th e walls of the pit, and qu ite ofte n th ese walls show th icken ing at this : : .:- ;:-o\ide a fi rm base fo r the brickwork abo ve. (See Fig.6) The bo nding of th e face of the vault s is rat her irregular in th ese small graves, but th e backing is invariably built o f hea ders. Base of corbel to sho w Mud plaste r is used o n all th e brickwor k. Two tombs from Cemetery thic kening of walls. N.3000 are th e best preserved exa mples of this gro up . Their co nstructional details are as follows :

_

:£.

N.3014. 2 2 The ro ofin g consists of a gra ined cor bel made up en tirely of headers, which bon d irregularl y at the angles. Th e vault spri ngs from th e thi rd course of th e subst ructure walls and co vers a span of 0.95 met res. In th e buri al chamber th e cross-walls are bonded neithe r with th e main walls nor with each ot he r, bu t great quan tit ies of mud -plaster have been spread over th e joint s. ,; - _ ~ : 3

-=-.::.:s :omb is co nst ructed with bricks measu ring 24 x 12 x 6cm. largely unrno rtar ed . but covered with plaster. The

_- 5::=of the corbel has heade rs o n the

face, whe reas th e East side alte rna tes hea ders an d st retche rs fo r five out of sever; .ourses. This has caused the West side to have a greater de gree of curv atur e th an the East, maki ng the ju nct ion . '- . t wo sides markedly off-ce nt re. (See Fig.7, below) Internally, the vault is piasteres and groined, bu t in th e thickness - tz.e crfckwo rk th e co rner bondi ng is very irregu lar. .- :?

Section of corbel, tomb 3022 at Naga ed-Der:

7 -:.= use of the corb el-vault t o cover th e substru ct ure of these tom bs represen ts an advance ove r the earlier wooden . ut sho ws J probable ignor ance o f true vaulting in Upper Egypt at this date. A disadvant age of the system is - l :3.:-ge amount of brickwork has to be cons truc ted behin d th e face of the vault as a cantilever to th e weight of , erlapped co urses. The bricks used at Naga ed-Der averaged 28 x 14 x 7cm. Co rbelling in brick seems to be ;:d to Upper Egypt in the Seco nd Dyna sty, practically all the exam ples co ming from Naga ed-Der and El-Amra. cs " IS and 669 at Qau were apparentlv also corbelled , but no de tails of the co nstruc tion of the se tom bs are =;L :~ The corbel-vault recur s later in s~all graves of the Four th and Fift h Dynasties. but with out the entrance "''' y present in the earlier ty pe. (See below, p.29)

- ~..:.. ~

~

Abydos Cemetery B and the Archaic Tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab, C -= to mbs of Cem ete ry Bat Abydos are dat ed to the ea rly First Dyn asty, and are a larger version of the brick.:: ;-it·grave discussed above in Secti on J. Unfor t unate ly , very little in formation has bee n published about th e ~ .... ~..... ork of these to mbs, alt ho ugh the linin g-walls of th e pits were o f considerable thickness. Apart fro m the fact : the walls were plaste red with mu d. th e only o ther deta ils availab le are th e sizes of the bricks in t om bs B.15 an d -e , These are given in the ta ble on page 14 . TIle roo tin g of the tom bs was made of wood , in some cases suppo rted tervals by uprigh t posts. ~_-=re is rather mor e infor matio n available abo ut the const ructio n o f the large royal to mbs or ceno taphs a t Abydos. _- -.c gives a list o f the brick sizes fo r the variou s tomb s,25 and the measuremen ts arc stated in the summary o n > P. Fur ther detai ls of the brick co nst ruction can o nly be obtained from th e pho tograp hs published by Petrie ,=_y JI Tombs of tire Earliest Dy nasties, vol umes I and II. Th e to mbs take th e form of a brick-lined subst ruct ure _ -":-:-.:! into several roo ms. the roo fing. and, in many cases. th e bur ial chamber, being made of wood . Reisner's the ory - . ertain of the tomb s were roo fed with bric k cor belling 2 6 ·has not found gene ral acceptan ce and seems unlikely. = )5 1 "ases the facts concerning the bric k const ructio n are so fe w th at they can be summa rised in a ta bulated form ~: -elo w) but the re are so me detail s fro m ce rtain of the to mbs which can be stated individually . ~

: 3.

Re isne r, o p. ci t.• 59- 6 1. iN cL, 7') , 80 and Pis. 6 4-5. in« , 77·8 und 1'1. 62.

24 . 2S. 26 .

13

Bru n ton, U., Qall 11/11.1 Bad ari, I, l 2-3. Petrie, W.M . F., R o ya l T ombs, II , I S. Reis ner, G.A. , Tomb De velo p m en t, 3 5 5.

Tomb 0/ Udimu : The bonding is ty pe Al th roughout the lining of the pit, but in the fourteenth course fro m the base the bricks arc laid on ed ge o n the South and West sides o f the to mb. to adjust the differe nces in level. All the walls were originally mud-plastered. Tom b 0/ S emerkhe t ; Th is tomb is remarkable in having the brickwork of the lo wer part of the walls bonded in C1, which is very ra re at this period. In the highe r courses the bon d becomes AI with occasionallayers o f edger-headers for levelling. Anot he r example of a ty pe C bon d in the late First Dynasty occurs in mastab a VII at Aim Roush. exc avated by Montet. 2i Tom b 0/ Ke-a: The bric kwork her e is so irregular and rou gh that no distinct bond can be iden tified. Petrie considered that the careless natu re of the brick work was d ue 10 the Iact that the defec ts would have been co ncealed by the wooden lining of the chambe r. 28 SUMMARY Site & To mb Naqeda: T.15 103 7 Tarkha n: 4' 195 4 14

Dynasty

Brick Size (em)

Bonds used

Pre-

Notes

XI

Pre-

23.5 x 11 x 5.5 23 x 11.5 :\ 7.5 25 x 12.5 :\ 7.5

AI XI XI

1006

23.5 x 11.5 x 7

Plaster 2.5cm Plaster used. Plaster 2.5c m

M I1It I1SI1I1:

11. 120

I-II

H.12R

I- II

Il l 29 El-Amra: b.S b.33 b. 137 b. J78 Hierakonpo lis: 100 ( Dec. Tomb)

I

'on edge' 'on edge'

26. 5 x 14 x 5.5 26.5 x 14 x 6.5 24x 11.5x 7.5

I I

X I ( I-O)

25.5 x 12.5 x 7.5 25.5 10 2S long

11 11

Corb el of headers.

Xl

Pr e-

?x9 x9 23:\ I L 5 x 8

Floo r paved wn h bric k.

Tnra: X I (0.5)

20.i.! QUlI: 44 3 45 5 1803 509 516

SIR 159 2 1742 A by dot: BJ 5

1- 11 I - II I- II I- II I- II I-II l- JJ I- II

}

I

Djer Mernen Udimu Adj.ib Semcrkhe t Ka-a Pcn bsen Khasckhem ui

I I

1 11 11

\ 1pted. and mud-br ick remained th e sta nda rd building material of Egypt. The bricks themselves measure 2 1 x 11.5 x 6.5cm. F(r:.9

Brick work uf m aga::im' lvall.t.

Fig.fO

TO/ll h 3504.

Wood-faced pilaster. Tomb 3504. Section :

Plan:

_; J35 t Reign of Udilllll ) 42 In the core o f the ex terior walls, the bucks are all heade rs. laid with ope n jo ints runn ing right throu gh the mass. A.; JlTIst the inne r Face of these heade rs is a lining wall of stretchers. one bri ck-length in thick ness. The out er sides of :::~ main walls have the usual niches. but the co nstruction of th ese is facilitat ed by th e use of specially small bricks -= ~ .. suring 17 x 5 x Scm. f ile pro po rtion s of the large niches differ from those fou nd in the tom bs d iscu ssed abo ve, ;. ~·,: n g 3 greater wid th across the inner recess. :;-. :: ~.

::'-. :; 4.

I .m.·r~,

u p. r ic ; 11. /oIio.. t in l,," ," (1. 2'1 ~ O.7 m. J . ~ .. A".,h" kM" u " b..... I S· 6 . 1'I,- V.V II l . m ~r~ . w. fl., ( ;".,h. ~

The mastobas 0 1 Tarkhan. There arc three palace-faca de mast aba s at Tarkh an, all approxim ate ly dat ed to the feign of Uadji. The deta ils are -':> follows : JIj IjO 58

The bond ing of the main walls see ms to be intended to alterna te laye rs of headers and stretc hers. but the re are -tany irregularit ies. Stic ks and reeds are bid bet ween the cou rses of bric kwo rk to assist bon ding. S~ Wit hin thi s su perstru cture lire dividing-walls. bonded A I, which lire not built into the main walls. The bric ks are 23 x 10 x 7cm in size. with a variation of ±. O. SCIll, whilst for the niches of the facade smalle r br icks at 15 x 7 x 7cm arc used. The recess _ ~t Sourb cf tile centre of tile East face has a wood en 1100T co mposed of five plank s of wood, the oute r one o f whic h runs under th e sides of the niche. _~'J5 0 60

This is a filled rnastuba and consequent ly has no magazines in the supe rst ructu re. Two stzcs of bricks were used . . :H' of :!4.5 x II. S x Scm for the bulk of the tom b. and another o f 17.5 x 8.5 x 6.5clTl specifically fo r the palace:.:.: ;.tde. In general plan and design this mastaba is very similar to num ber 2038, describ ed below. : ljJ8 6 1

The bricks of this tomb were umforrn th ro ughout the structure measu ring 25 x I :! x 7.5c m. The fourth recess ' re m the Sou th end o f the mastaba. on the East side, has a wood en floor as in to mb 1060. No derails o f th e bonding ~f the ma in walls are recorded. In the East corridor 01 th e lomb two subsi diary graves were found. 62 having sligh t ly vaulted superstruc tures restin g -n 3 sand filling. The " rick covering. made of stre tche rs b id alon g th e axis of the vault. was stro ng eno ugh to be selfsupporting when the sand filling ha d been removed, sh owin g ho w a true vault co uld be produced by acciden t. 6 ) T'1l. 2 1· )5.

!,':'.

l-m ,·r y. \\f. R.. err" t T o mhs (I! rh .. Finr Dyu ast.". 1,&2·" $;

; ;. ;0).

ibid., 'I s· ' and I~ .. l 6.1 "-me ry. " p. ci t., III , S· IO &. I'b. XV, XVII I

~l.

,11;d., "'5 ''' ' d 1'1•. XV. XV lI l

":.

I'c u le. W. .\ l, l'., 1"l1rl(l'IIJl I I. 4 · S.

63.

ihid., J>I. XV I

'9

Mastabo Ya f Gi: a. This large panelled mastaba, dated to the reign o f Uadji, was partially excavated by DaressyM and finished by Petrie. oS Few facts are recorded abo ut the bric kwo rk, bu t the brick size is known to be 1 1 x 10 x 6cm. Datcssy states: .. u s briq ues se nt generalement couchdes dans le sens de la longuer..." hy which he must mean that there were mostly st retchers visible o n the wall races. Detailed measurements of the facade were made by Peine . and these are discussed below in Appendix I.

Palace-Facade Tombs 0 1 Abu Roasti. Mon tet excavated a number of to mbs at this site, o f which numbers I, II, and VII were panelled mustabas. He gtvcs little detail in his report 6l> aml only in the case of tomb VII is any inform ation (Ill the brickwork given. This mastaba had niches alo ng the faces of the same type as those o f Saqqara tomb 3507. TIle style of the mast aba dates it at the curliest to Udlmu and at the latest to Ka-a. All Interesting and unusual t ulck bond is used in bo th the tomb itself and in the encl osing wall. This bond is typ e eE l of the Corp us. and uses headers and stretchers on their edges altemutiug with courses of bricks bid fla t. The laying of bricks on edge is very un usual m this period. except when used in Isolated groups 10 adjust the levels of the cour ses. In this tomb , however, the bricks arc deliberat ely and regularly laid on edge, in a style which usually occurs only in the Roman age. It may be significan t that there is only one other large monument of the First Dynasty w'hich employs regular layers of bricks on edge. this being the tomb of Semc rk het at Abydos. 67 A point worth not ing is tha t the bricks have to bc made with the thic kness equal to half the breadth to achieve the bond I' El . .....hereas the usual ratio o f breadth to thickness is 3: 2. The brick Sill.' itself is no t given in the report.

Revival of Palace-Facade ill Dynasties II and Ill. Apart from the First Dynasty tombs so far described. the re are certain mastebas o f the Second and Third dynasties which revive the use of the palace-facad e. The style persists into the Fourth Dynasty at Meydum. but th ere the niches arc of a simplified form, 0 11 The se examples from ~leyd u m arc dealt with in a later section. The othe r tombs 10 be considered here are Gila T, of the late Second or early Third Dynasty. and Saqq ara 240 5 and 3070. bo th dated to the Third Dynasty.

Giza Mauaba T l>'l TIlis is a very large tom b measuring app roximately 55 x. 28 melres. It is enclosed hy a thick wall, built of bricks whose average dimensio ns are 24 x 12 x x.Scm alt ho ugh some examples were do wn to 20 x 10 x 7cm. In the mastuba itself th e size of the bricks was 14 x 12 x R.5em. like the larger ones of the wall. TIle palace-facade used special b ricks measuring only 15 x 7 x 6.5cm. No details of the bon ding arc available. Saqqara Tomb 2405 (Th e Tom b of Hcsy] 70 The niched Facade is limited ttl the East face of ' he mastaba and enclosed by a corrid or chapel. The brick sizes are the only structural details recorded. being 2 1 x 13 x ('?)crn for the mavtaba and 14 x 7 x 7cm for the recessed panelling. As in all niched to mbs a coat 01plaste r covered the facade. in this case being zcrn thick. Saqqara Tomb 3070 7 I As in the tomb of Hcsy. the panelling is enclosed in a corrido r chapel on the EaST side o f the mastaba. Special bricks measuring l Ox 5 x 5cm are used for the niche const ruction. However, the niches in the antechamber of the South chapel are made by a differen t tech nique. This involves the use of pre-cast mud d abs fastened to the rnastabu by means of wooden plugs. 72 11le same material was utilized to make th e lintels which occur over the otrertna niches iJ of Archaic mastebas. Emery stales tha i the mud ", :IS reinforced with S!lips of linen and dried unde r pressure. h UI how Ihis pressure was applied is unkno wn. 04.

6 5. 6 6. 6 7.

nil. 69.

7U. 7 1.

6 ( I Q 0 5 ). v-rr, I'.: 10 22.5 x 12 x 8 21-2 x IO.5 x 7 20x I0.'>.:7 2I x lO.S -I lx6 KH.

iii!. 8 2. IU .

r: am lll l l~. I.. 77,~ TI ,ircl I:ifvpriall {) y ",u t y . 1'1.. 14. 1i14. C a r/d.. 1'1.IV. J C 'l ui ~,. 0 .. up, cit. S6i hid., 6S & I'I. XVIll Ihfd..56.

182. 183. 1 84. I ~ s. 186.

Ibid.. 56PM I. pun ll. 6S 0 and !'fan V. A IM)8MMA XVlIl ( Dec. 1923 , II). 11-20. Win lock's Il u m h~rinll. " 3 14 of P,U Example o ccursfn lum b 51l o f Winl o ck. Wlnl uck. BAIMA XX lI (h b. 192 8 , II) , 7.

39

which is supporte d by the dep iction of roofing-beams carved in stone over th e en trance to the tomb of Khnu rnhc tep (I at Beni Hasan, 181 Fur ther tom bs of t he Eleventh Dynasty occu r on the lo wer ground in Asasif, a recently discovered example beir.~ th e lomb of a certain lnyotef whic h lay be neat h the causeway of the tem ple o f Tuth mosis III in Deir el-Bahari .155 Details o f the brick construction of this lom b arc given in the table on page 4 2.

Qartoh. This cemetery has brick-bu ilt tombs with vaul te d ch ambe rs sunk in to the ground until the ro of is just under the surface. 189 The vert ical walls bu ilt aroun d the sides of th e ch ambers are bon ded Al or A2. an d the m ud-bricks, in !! excep t tombs 2 and I I , measure 25 x ] 5 x 12cm. In num ber 11 th ey reach 44 x 22 x 14cm , whilst the size o f bricks in th e vaulting o f lomb 2 is no t stated. 19 0 One unusual brick was found in tomb 9 with a m oul ding do wn one edge: pe rhaps it was a re-used brick from a comlce. 19 1

Fig. 2 7 Special brick from Tomb 9 at QattalL

[-~ -

Since drawings o f all the vaults are no t given in th e repo rt it is difficult in so me cases to be absolut ely sure of the:: constr uctional details. The list below states the type s of vault ing used in each to mb , an d where the photographs do not sho w sufficient detail the ent ries are marked with a query : Tom b.

Burial Cha mbers :

Arches over doorways.

Vaults.

I 3 4

bd l (2.0). d l( I. S) ,d l (6.0) d l (?) d l (O.S)?

10 11

(? ) d l or c l

2

12

(?)(2.0)

14

cI

c l ( 1.5) (1)

(?) (1) c J( 2.5) 01(2 .5) (?) (')

The to mbs 5. 6 and 8. absent from the above list, were sim ple pits devoid o f any brickwork. l 92 It can be seen tha t the incline d vault (type d l ) is common over fairly wide spans, sometimes in conjunct ion with an up pe r course of brick laid differe ntly. In th ese cases th e inclin ed first course, whic h itself was built withou t centring. would act as a centri ng for the ring o f b ricks laid over it. In all th e vaults a co at o f mud plaster covered the in terior surface of the brickwork.

Abusir, A n umbe r o f Middle Kingdom graves were built around th e mortuary templ e o f the pyramid of Neuserre. most of the m bein g stone to mbs with brick approaches. 19 3 A few (for ex ample, mR .20) h ad vault ed burial chambers. the roo fs bein g inclined vault s o f type d l , one course thick. wit h sto nes used 10 fill the gaps between th e bric ks. As an exam ple of the brick sizes used in the cemete ry, the measu remen ts 28.5 x 14 x 9cm an d 38 x 19 x 12.5cm may be quo te d fro m to mb m R. I. 194

187. 188. 189. 190 . 19 1. 192. 19 3. 194.

Ntw bt rr r , P, E. , 8 t''' ' HaJa" . I, Pl. X XII. Arn old. D., 0..1 Grab d t'$ J,.;jr.f: d ie A rchir" kr"r. Gau l hi..r , H. er aL, F o ..m l!J d t' Q oJ tt-Jh, passim. Ibid., 8. Ibfd., 27. Gau lhi er, I l , er ai , Po"III~J d e Q UlIU' Uo! Po",bly tlIll indi o.l.. 101110 fo," ,ll'l il,ftu1",,,,,,, to. Twonty. Sooond DyIl1.I ~ . " r

, n"

Su_. At thi. , il•• ""hich Ii.. no t r"l from S.f, . 1·!101lm b, 111l]o• • i U. Il.:-"O bot thei, , on'ill ' n l'imiJ. ritj' to Ih, ,i, ... u",d In .. d ier lo mh, " lho " Olo ,ite ' "iQlcm tlr, l th or . n ro< ,ioJ. ' I Q," 1< indodod in th, "", lion on bl id , , i", in 0..;:...

AIJ)'dOG, TIrc oh.."I " i,Ho I)'P< uf lum b flOm tho T "'0 ",m' to t>e unlikely, Tho "'rvil'in~ " Olml. Ihnllh, p~",mld " ",h " lI" IfUn,,, Il..! ur nOl, 01 00,1 ove r til< ., ~ [to d on the E.. t. hul th. Il"teway of [hi. h.,!>;; ," bloded wilh brie~",.,.k ., a la", .lll rc n",lIy , mployed hoa~o" or brick. on . dg' . but .t 1U,mrdin.ry hIi< k, . In v' ooL"e alL " d t o f Iypn biy t ho 10" ", « ion of tlte " . h " "uld I",. ;nd ed,d cour= 01

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Rumm , r.. O$. 1/. ....", Rum, " Co. llmI ~ • ~ or.. enclosed .,.,. .-.....int _ 4.. UOCJ .1u. "''' '10 i"• • ol. r b"" dm. ;.,. " 'OJ ,n all 11.... .",.. Of ' Oo>l ,, "' lioo, .od.n , hI h,loh'Olkil .o, . " d with p1.ntr. In the OIJ K",. J "", 1, ..11 rh, ho,k> ore 35 • 17.5 • l lkm in ,1« , ...h ~" 11.. bro, " " "Il"'S, dOlio. from Ih. M,ddJ, K ln ~d"lH. u•• b,ick> m, .. ulinl J5 x 2S ~ 15, ,,. . nd j Q. 1J ~ Io.:m.'

' "' i1,.

Ab.. R .....' 11 b tho ut>P-' TempIIlIoI fSH I'U) lhr Int...... brid_ k oI...n• ...t thio I, ,.. IDcI>o " .....0 " . _ "'ick.·o ,L af ty po AI D II ..... d !>e" iI. most of 1M A2 ad onlI> ...... 0D0 Itn-" Iop '" lototnnc~,""k " bill ~. tn. l .. "" ",," ,ion of ,his rn'. 1e '" 'M ,ul. TIl. roc. ..... p• ....rr::::., ~ 'h, Iim"~ ..v.dlI " f Ih. """" ho'b 110< Uppo' ODd- L~ r.mple. II boold< &,;1>, k In ' M I. " , of 1l", r illh ...d S.. ,II Oyn..fk:l.. >0 0" lop l>f I~' wnWoo 00. \II the VoIIoy r .."..... lht ...... of " """",, bnrm ...." f'*lld. JO,..,. '" I'm ...... ,01 """.... " n >I1ck.1n " Ibt ' "",ill, fMhl"" 10 I"" 'oof"", ~pioyfd II ~ Iflnlb WI. 1M plm1.o ~_ ohiok >lid 1100 roo( _ upl>old by """"." ,""''''''' iol !t>e b ,!" " H'"" , ",,,dIo S "" ~"'" or 11 ,oM ... oI.b..,.., -\ll ,h. doon In ,II< !""'plo ' mf'kx hwI , of"""". ""' !X,....,. brick JllDlbI. wb>hl . hUI ooly • b rief ""' ''''01 o f tbe work ""as glv, n In lho /lulleri" oj ,he Md rurolila,j ,\fm""", "j An. '" oltd no fin,l " po ri h ", yel ' ppem d. At 111,) ,un. "0 " riok rem'iO! . re ..' o,d, d on lhe , II, " f lhe mort u,,}' tempI, of So'o,tr" II, b ul n, ,,b~' 1"" . bulldillg ~""til,,'" h ou" , jUlt No' II, of ' h, ,," ..w,y o f tbe py raml" ~ r Ame", mh,t Ill. •• Th , ,. , lroc' · ur.. ".. du c n b«l ln (h' p 'er 1. ..., "' b yd o~ 10m, Int m ,tln g bti , k , on,lmetion ;. found In 11" " "' 1,1, of Sco.. on, red with whtten, ~ ntud .pl"'t.. 0f1 t ho "terlo, ' u rfoo... · ' Nn hrl, k enn, !"",,"'n, h"e he.n found " noo S Ih, "'. .. worb whiclI Amen. mh' l III on d"' ''''k b, "... . fd io ,tili ,," ...""'llon. ""d Ih",. vI ,"hor Old K i. ~~om bu lld",,, III tho ...... ' '''''1'1 .. on I'"t" 63.

'r
l lhl: ~ n, ... lIu!!,,,... occu, 01 0"1110. il!lide nf ,h. "okln"' ...11'0 p vt il ".bilil~ '''';011 ,be Pf"0 " fa """"""d to ill< ..... q....... o. Unl. _ ' " " u,1I ok ..il!> ,..,,,< ..... . I1""'l"'o1'" "-"is I '~ - ' _1iImII 4~ l ., . I ...:", ia ,,," PY" rnid lnnplo... .... r""" 4;:'S ~ :O.S ~ 1=.5

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n....

awe_

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NuurHl 11>0 SdIII T" or ~ IblNl .... _ ... ~ wolbi11M: 0,.....,.. >lI 1IUI .... ~ _ ""1 ..,. 11atIhop.... no. ..,Iiool .....n. of Ioof _ "'" ,... , ..... of 1loo umpIo:. rho ""'.."".. loelnl "",,_ d 011_ "'a of bnd.: Jl I 16 " 'Ic>n tod .\(1 1 19 I 11ULl, l>y Lm...... II >n~ p.""d. d WI 'h III ,"" .. rI......... n.' " 1 10< bric ~. of tl:a . ""k,.,,,. >I . ' " u ' l'" IOU. " .,:q:m! 45. !O . JUom. ODd ... bl lUIII< CUOI JlImpH. ..lIh tho rumc: ,n rhee KWI , ..ttl: lho . p" "'1 Kboloftd of So1 h~. , ..

5nd lat on 01 ... do0«,,' borOOftD ..-..y lou ,1h "" r.flh_ )I>nt of I brib.., fw lho IIOrir d1men>io of typ< . 1 0'0'" Ihe lnnc:, dlornb< ,. .

or

be"',

I

pl.".!. ...

oum d ""lth ""hi" >lllh!! b 'Il.m oic ''''''pie !l. nd ' wn . ",,11 """' 'O m,,,,'' cf Ro.me.." 11 " . rho mOlt ""o l h"ly of 1_

,"I,""'Y.

,. • ' '''pol, "" !m,lly ...lIh ' -'Ul101l ,,,,, t~ buill 01 ,.. ......t hri bu ' · !be srsrnpoof " - "bol, ,too tuI layouc _ _ !be lJUp/ be".. t11 ,h• ..-.11 """uld tr od to In"" " , • b l., d,I.. .. p.Cen d, tu Ih, top ofth, foood, f' om tn. dl'eT' but t ho pbtfn'm Up Otl "'lIl,h ",me b Uil~Jn~ w"' con!l ructo r!, ..-1'0" .n tr, ,,,, I.y.t t l.. tup u r n ", ,. m p. o"'c we ,,,Ill.. th. t w. or. do, lIo&with OO ll' Ih, foun~"ion, ,,,,,11 ot her 1.,lu,,,, ol lh. huilcl inll or< "'1,l,jll,J. ~'ch .. the . b",ncc of.IlYd""" I>(fo"" l1poll wlliell '0 "'n,T,uot • builllifl ~ "f",m, kind, perh'p~ ,n . ,OW 01 Ih•• h""".n\ of th. romp low.rd, t h, G,.>1 T' nlpl" ,om, f0 1ll1of,m, lIl"" jpt " .1 ch. pd , whOM: olo>" ed ';t u. u on Oft th" po d,ulrl·lik, fou ndation W\luld b. , ntir. ly ;n k«pin ~ with Egr p'i. n " I i ~i ou,

be,"

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bd 1d. ( l'i~ 39).

,, of. w.n ~.(.om thick , , nch lng ,n or.. o f 29,4 x 2G.Gm, w ith tho inlIer f,,, ,upp-omd bl' bULlr,"""" Intc"a],. " . A' S , uk",Li, th o G.. " T.n"n o, cons;ot.

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laO, ".1,." "",".L, N."" .."

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tore'> ronslrurtc4. • • ')'int in ,J,at. {rom S>i" ", l'Iolom.... ti....... be d"" •.....,.,. of !he lm::i:.I lbt nd>« "'~ It!.Iq II' , ...... of ~ , uOlIh< ..."plr 11O of • ,amp"" ,h. llIn' >idbly 10111_ 02>y ~ 10 'ho: durin, ' h< ..." h oR thtIol...-.:1:. "" " .... of ...I>;,h !' point. a _ _ II< _ r"" " ""d• • """'1 .. ",pldI. ttm .,ti. ""0.. buildlns ", ay _n h"", ...... IJI untm0 11,., 1M...... ftwlloll ... ~ for the "'IUd - .,,-.... of 1II. 10-, tItrTlU'. or .......... d '"""" ~ of _n.o.!< ..... 11 faliln of olldulltlll& ..... ......... ,,u,onoba I. II..... I ".11 or hi>f,om K.ml~ ,«on!, .h•• hr n'" ..........,• ..,U(wY) In>,..d ,h. ' emplc of ""'''". ' .. .\hlbi,. ,bo lA1t. ... "",_ _ ", ,,,. o 'l>c etuollC,m"ia ~ fo"",, in all "''''' nf j, .• od ,bc hndlS ""'1''''''"''' lle '" ,he "" t .... of 36 1 x 11 18.5 x 12 m.

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